U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–V

Global Mineral Resource Assessment

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of 

Western and Southern Asia

Prepared in cooperation with the Natural History Museum, London

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 

of Western and Southern Asia

By Lukas Zürcher, Arthur A. Bookstrom, Jane M. Hammarstrom, John C. Mars, Steve Ludington, 

Michael L. Zientek, Pamela Dunlap, and John C. Wallis, with contributions from Lawrence J. 

Drew, David M. Sutphin, Byron R. Berger, Richard J. Herrington, Mario Billa, Ilkay Kuşcu, 

Charles J. Moon, and Jeremy P. Richards

Prepared in cooperation with the Natural History Museum, London

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–V

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Global Mineral Resource Assessment

Michael L. Zientek, Jane M. Hammarstrom, and Kathleen M. Johnson, editors
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2015

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

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reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Zürcher, L., Bookstrom A.A., Hammarstrom, J.M., Mars, J.C., Ludington, S., Zientek, M.L., Dunlap, P., and Wallis, J.C., 

with contributions from Drew, L.J., Sutphin, D.M., Berger, B.R., Herrington, R.J., Billa, M., Kuşcu, I., Moon, C.J. ,and 

Richards, J.P., 2015, Porphyry copper assessment of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia: U.S. Geological 

Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–V, 232 p., and spatial data, 

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V.

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)
iii

Contents

Abstract................................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................2

Background ................................................................................................................................................2

Report Format.............................................................................................................................................6

Considerations for Users of this Assessment.......................................................................................6

Terminology ................................................................................................................................................6

Porphyry Copper Deposit Models....................................................................................................................8

Descriptive Models ...................................................................................................................................8

Grade and Tonnage Models.....................................................................................................................9

Deposit Density Models ...........................................................................................................................9

Permissive Porphyry Copper Tracts ................................................................................................................9

Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia............................9

Permian to Middle Jurassic...................................................................................................................12

Paleotethys Ocean Realm.............................................................................................................12

Neotethys Ocean Realm ...............................................................................................................12

Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous........................................................................................................13

Late Cretaceous to Middle Miocene....................................................................................................13

Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch Realm................................................................................13

Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch Realm................................................................................24

Late Eocene to Middle Miocene...........................................................................................................24

Late Miocene to Holocene.....................................................................................................................26

Neotectonic Setting of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia.............................................26

Western, Central, and Southern Turkey...............................................................................................26

Northern Turkey .......................................................................................................................................27

Eastern Turkey, Lesser Caucasus, and Northwestern Iran..............................................................27

Greater Caucasus and Northern Iran ..................................................................................................27

Eastern and Central-Eastern Iran .........................................................................................................30

Central and Southeastern Iran..............................................................................................................30

Southeastern Iran and Southwestern Pakistan .................................................................................30

Assessment Data..............................................................................................................................................30

Geologic Maps.........................................................................................................................................31

Tectonic Maps..........................................................................................................................................31

Mineral Occurrence Data ......................................................................................................................31

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects .................................................................................31

Porphyry-Related Deposit Types .................................................................................................31

Spatial Rules for Grouping Deposits and Prospects ................................................................32

Exploration................................................................................................................................................32

Afghanistan .....................................................................................................................................32

Armenia............................................................................................................................................32

Azerbaijan........................................................................................................................................33

Georgia.............................................................................................................................................33

Iran...... .............................................................................................................................................33

Pakistan ...........................................................................................................................................34
iv

Turkey.... ...........................................................................................................................................34

Other Data.................................................................................................................................................35

ASTER and HyMap Data ...............................................................................................................35

Geophysical Data ...........................................................................................................................35

Preservation Level Data................................................................................................................35

Assessment Methods.......................................................................................................................................36

Tract Delineation......................................................................................................................................36

Estimation of Numbers of Undiscovered Deposits ............................................................................37

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region...................................................................................37

Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous Tracts .............................................................................................38

Sanandaj-Sirjan Tract (142pCu9003) ...........................................................................................38

Location ..................................................................................................................................38

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................50

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects .............................................50

Qualitative Assessment .......................................................................................................50

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus Tract (142pCu9002)....................................................................52

Location ..................................................................................................................................52

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................52

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects .............................................52

Qualitative Assessment .......................................................................................................55

Lut Jurassic Tract (142pCu9000) ..................................................................................................55

Location ..................................................................................................................................55

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................55

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects .............................................55

Qualitative Assessment .......................................................................................................58

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus Tract (142pCu9001) .....................................................................58

Location ..................................................................................................................................58

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................58

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................58

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ........................................................................58

Teghout Porphyry Deposit..........................................................................................61

Kedabek Porphyry Deposit.........................................................................................61

Kavarta (Kapan) Porphyry Deposit ...........................................................................61

Other Porphyry Prospects and Possible Porphyry-Related Mineral 

Occurrences...................................................................................................62

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................62

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................62

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................62

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................62

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................62

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................63

Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene Tracts...............................................................................................63

Pontide (Asia) Tract (142pCu9004)...............................................................................................63

Location ..................................................................................................................................63

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................63

Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9004a)...............................................................66
v

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................66

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ........................................................................66

Bakircay Porphyry Deposit ........................................................................................68

Dikmen Porphyry Prospect ........................................................................................68

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................68

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................68

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................68

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................68

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................69

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................69

Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9004b) ................................................................69

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................69

Known Porphyry Deposits and Porphyry-Related Prospects........................................73

Balcili-Yüksekoba Porphyry Deposit........................................................................74

Güzelyayla Porphyry Deposit.....................................................................................74

Ulutaş Porphyry Deposit.............................................................................................74

Gümüşhane Porphyry Deposit...................................................................................74

Sisorta Porphyry-Related Prospect..........................................................................75

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................75

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................75

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................75

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................75

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................76

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................76

Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran Sub-tract (142pCu9004c)........................................................76

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................76

Known Porphyry Prospects.................................................................................................77

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................77

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................77

ASTER Alteration Data .........................................................................................................77

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................78

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................78

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................78

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................78

Anatolide-Tauride Tract (142pCu9005)........................................................................................78

Location ..................................................................................................................................78

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................78

Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9005a) ...............................................80

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................80

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ........................................................................82

Muratdere Porphyry Deposit.....................................................................................82

Sariçayiryayla Porphyry Deposit...............................................................................82

Turkmen Porphyry Prospect ......................................................................................82

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................82

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................83

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................83
vi

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................83

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................83

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................83

Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9005b)..................................................87

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................87

Known Porphyry Prospects.................................................................................................88

Balışeyh and Karacaali Porphyry Prospects ..........................................................88

Başnayayla Porphyry Prospect.................................................................................88

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................89

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................89

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................89

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................89

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................89

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................90

Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus Sub-tract (142pCu9005c)..............................90

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................90

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ........................................................................90

Çöpler Porphyry Deposit.............................................................................................91

Karakartal Porphyry Deposit......................................................................................91

Kabatas (South) Porphyry Prospect.........................................................................91

Agarak and Dastakert Porphyry Deposits ...............................................................91

Mamlis and Sin Porphyry Prospects ........................................................................91

Preservation Level ................................................................................................................92

Magnetic Anomalies ............................................................................................................92

Probabilistic Assessment....................................................................................................92

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.......................................................................92

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale..............................................92

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.........................................................93

Lut Cretaceous Tract (142pCu9006).............................................................................................93

Location ..................................................................................................................................93

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................93

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Prospects...................................................................93

Qualitative Assessment .......................................................................................................96

Border Folds Tract (142pCu9007) .................................................................................................96

Location ..................................................................................................................................96

Tectonic Setting.....................................................................................................................96

Magmatism ............................................................................................................................96

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ........................................................................99

Ispendere Porphyry Prospect....................................................................................99

Nazarusagi and Uslu Porphyry Prospects...............................................................99

Keban Porphyry-Skarn Deposit...............................................................................100

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................100

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................100

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................100

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................100

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................100
vii

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................101

Esfahan Tract (142pCu9008)........................................................................................................101

Location ................................................................................................................................101

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................101

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................104

East-Central Iran........................................................................................................104

Central Iran .................................................................................................................105

Northwestern Iran .....................................................................................................106

Western Iran...............................................................................................................106

Southeastern Iran......................................................................................................106

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................106

Kale Kafi Porphyry Deposit ......................................................................................107

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects ........................................................107

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................107

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................107

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................107

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................108

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................108

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................108

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................108

Khorasan Tract (142pCu9009).....................................................................................................110

Location ................................................................................................................................110

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................110

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................110

Known Porphyry Prospects...............................................................................................113

Tannurjeh and Uchplang-Baharieh Porphyry Prospects....................................113

Kalateh Timour Porphyry Prospect.........................................................................113

Halak Abad, Arghash, and Kalateh Now Porphyry Prospects...........................113

Chah Shirin Porphyry-Related Prospect................................................................114

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects................................114

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................115

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................115

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................115

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................115

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................115

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................115

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................116

Makran Tract (142pCu9011) ........................................................................................................116

Location ................................................................................................................................116

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism ....................................................................................116

Porphyry-Related Prospects.............................................................................................120

Qualitative Assessment .....................................................................................................120

Eocene to Miocene Tracts ...................................................................................................................120

Lut Tertiary Tract (142pCu9010)..................................................................................................120

Location ................................................................................................................................120

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................120
viii

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................121

Known Porphyry Prospects...............................................................................................122

Shadan, Maher Abad, Sar Cha Shur, and Sheik Abad Porphyry Prospect 

District ...........................................................................................................123

Cha-Shaljami Porphyry Prospect............................................................................123

Deh-Salm Porphyry Prospect..................................................................................123

Kajeh Porphyry Prospect..........................................................................................123

Other Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences ....................................................123

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................123

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................124

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................124

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................124

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................124

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................124

Sistan Tract (142pCu9012)...........................................................................................................126

Location ................................................................................................................................126

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................126

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................126

Known Porphyry Prospects...............................................................................................129

Shah-Kuh (Sistan) Porphyry Prospect ...................................................................129

Kuh-e-Lar and Kuh-e-Assagi Porphyry Prospects...............................................129

Kuh-e-Seyasteragi and Kuh-e-Janja Porphyry Prospects .................................129

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects................................129

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................130

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................130

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................130

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................131

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................131

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................131

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................131

Chagai Tract (142pCu9013)..........................................................................................................133

Location ................................................................................................................................133

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................133

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................133

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................136

Ziarate and Ganshero Porphyry Prospects...........................................................136

Dasht-e-Kain Porphyry Deposit...............................................................................136

Tanjeel Porphyry Deposit .........................................................................................137

Saindak Porphyry Deposit........................................................................................137

Ziarat Pir Sultan Porphyry Prospect.......................................................................137

Kirtaka and Sor Baroot Porphyry Prospects.........................................................137

Reko Diq Porphyry Deposit ......................................................................................137

Koh-i-Dalil Porphyry Prospect.................................................................................137

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................138

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................138

ASTER and Airborne Hyperspectral Alteration Data....................................................138
ix

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................139

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................139

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................139

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................139

Azerbaijan Tract (142pCu9014)...................................................................................................141

Location ................................................................................................................................141

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................141

Azerbaijan–Western Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9014a) ..........................................................143

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................143

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................143

Palamutoba Porphyry Prospect ..............................................................................143

Alankoy Porphyry Prospect .....................................................................................143

Halilaga Porphyry Deposit........................................................................................145

Tepeoba Porphyry Deposit.......................................................................................145

Ayazmant Porphyry Deposit.....................................................................................145

Other Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects ................................................145

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................146

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................146

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................146

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................146

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................146

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................147

Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9014b)............................................................147

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................147

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................147

Cevizlidere Porphyry Deposit...................................................................................147

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects.........................................................................151

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................152

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................152

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................152

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................152

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................152

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................153

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran Sub-tract (142pCu9014c)............................................................153

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................153

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................154

Kadjaran Porphyry Deposit......................................................................................154

Ankavan Porphyry Deposit.......................................................................................154

Sungun Porphyry Deposit.........................................................................................154

Haft Cheshmeh Porphyry Deposit...........................................................................155

Masjed Daghi Porphyry Deposit .............................................................................155

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects and Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences..................................................................................155

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................155

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................156

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................156
x

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................156

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................156

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................156

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................157

Yazd Tract (142pCu9015)..............................................................................................................157

Location ................................................................................................................................157

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................157

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................157

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................160

Dalli Porphyry Deposit ..............................................................................................160

Kahang (Gor Gor) Porphyry Deposit.......................................................................160

Qahan Porphyry Prospect........................................................................................161

Qamsar Porphyry Prospect......................................................................................161

South of Ardestan and Sharif Abad Porphyry Prospects ...................................161

Zafarghand Porphyry Prospect...............................................................................161

Zefreh Porphyry Prospect........................................................................................161

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects and Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences..................................................................................161

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................162

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................162

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................162

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................163

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................163

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................163

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................163

Kerman Tract (142pCu9016) ........................................................................................................165

Location ................................................................................................................................165

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................165

Magmatism ..........................................................................................................................165

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects ......................................................................168

Sar Cheshmeh Porphyry Deposit............................................................................168

Now Chun and Sar Kuh Porphyry Deposits...........................................................168

Seridune Porphyry Prospect....................................................................................169

Darrehzar Porphyry Deposit ....................................................................................169

Kuh Panj Porphyry Prospect....................................................................................169

Dar Alu Porphyry Deposit.........................................................................................169

Meiduk Porphyry Deposit.........................................................................................170

Sara Porphyry Prospect ...........................................................................................170

Cha Messi Porphyry-Related Deposit....................................................................170

Chah-Firuzeh Porphyry Deposit...............................................................................170

God-e-Kolvari (Gowde Kolvary) Porphyry Prospect............................................170

Ali-Abad and Darreh-Zerreshk (Taft Project) Porphyry Deposits......................171

Takht and Chahar Gonbad Porphyry Prospects ...................................................171

Dar Hamzeh Porphyry Prospect..............................................................................171

Raigan (Rigan Bam) Porphyry Deposit...................................................................171

Bagh Khoshk Porphyry Deposit...............................................................................172
xi

Iju Porphyry Deposit and Abdar Porphyry Prospect............................................172

Preservation Level ..............................................................................................................172

Magnetic Anomalies ..........................................................................................................173

ASTER Alteration Data .......................................................................................................173

Probabilistic Assessment..................................................................................................173

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection.....................................................................173

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale............................................174

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results.......................................................174

Late Miocene to Holocene Tracts.......................................................................................................174

Pliocene-Quaternary Tract (142pCu9017).................................................................................174

Tectonic Setting...................................................................................................................174

Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya Sub-tract (142pCu9017a).........................................................177

Location ................................................................................................................................177

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism ....................................................................................177

Known Porphyry Prospects...............................................................................................177

Doğanbey Porphyry Prospect..................................................................................180

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects ........................................................180

Qualitative Assessment .....................................................................................................180

Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional Sub-tract (142pCu9017b)..........................................180

Location ................................................................................................................................180

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism ....................................................................................180

Northern Turkey .........................................................................................................180

Eastern Turkey, Lesser Caucasus, and Northwestern Iran................................181

Greater Caucasus and Northern Iran.....................................................................181

Eastern Iran ................................................................................................................182

Central-Eastern Iran..................................................................................................182

Central and Southeastern Iran................................................................................182

Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects, and other Possible Porphyry-Related 

Occurrences ..........................................................................................................182

Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences in Northern Turkey ............................183

Porphyry-Related Prospects and other Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences in Eastern Turkey and Northwestern Iran........183

Porphyry-Related Prospects and Other Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences in the Greater Caucasus and Northern Iran....183

Possible Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences in Eastern and CentralEastern Iran ..................................................................................................184

Porphyry-Related Prospects and Other Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences in Central and Southeastern Iran ......................184

Qualitative Assessment .....................................................................................................184

Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman Sub-tract (142pCu9017c)......................................................184

Location ................................................................................................................................184

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism ...................................................................................184

Known Porphyry Prospects...............................................................................................185

Koh-i-Sultan Porphyry Prospect .............................................................................185

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects ........................................................185

Qualitative Assessment .....................................................................................................185
xii

Discussion........................................................................................................................................................186

Tectonic Settings and Distribution of Porphyry Copper Deposits and Prospects......................186

Postcollisional Magmatism and Porphyry Copper Mineralization................................................186

Preservation-Erosion Record and Porphyry Copper Deposits and Prospects ...........................187

Changes in Tectonic Regime and Porphyry Copper Deposits........................................................187

Concluding Remarks .............................................................................................................................187

Ore-Forming Environment, Level of Preservation and Exposure, Number of 

Porphyry Occurrences, Extent of Exploration, and Copper Endowment ..............187

Utility of Data.................................................................................................................................189

Utility of Available Models..........................................................................................................189

Summary of Probabilistic Assessment Results .........................................................................................189

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................................190

References Cited.............................................................................................................................................195

Appendix A. Principal Sources of Information Used for the Porphyry Copper Assessment, 

Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia .............................................................................228

Appendix B. Geologic Map Units Used to Delineate Permissive Tracts (With References to Source 

Maps), Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia................................................................229

Appendix C. Significant Porphyry Copper Prospects and Occurrences, Tethys Region of

 Western and Southern Asia...........................................................................................................229

Appendix D. Spatial Data...............................................................................................................................230

Appendix E. Assessment Team.....................................................................................................................230

Figures

1. Map showing the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt and extent of the assessment 

area..........................................................................................................................................3

2. Map showing major sutures, faults, and geologic and geographic features in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia (assessment area) and vicinity ............4

 3. Map showing tectono-stratigraphic terranes, accretionary prisms, and metamorphic 

belts of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia ....................................................14

 4. Paleotectonic reconstructions of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.........16

 5. Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia .........................................................................18

 6. Late Cretaceous to late Eocene permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia .........................................................................20

 7. Eocene to Miocene permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia......................................................................................22

 8. Pliocene to Holocene permissive tract for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia......................................................................................28

 9. Time-space diagram of permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia......................................................................................39

 10. Map showing the location of possible porphyry-related copper occurrences for 

permissive tract 142pCu9003, Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey...........................49

 11. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9003, Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey...................................51
xiii

 12. Map showing the location of permissive tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride Greater 

Caucasus—Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russian Federation .................................................53

 13. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride Greater Caucasus—Azerbaijan, Georgia, and 

Russian Federation.....................................................................................................................54

 14. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits, prospects, and 

occurrences for permissive tract 142pCu9000, Lut Jurassic—Iran...................................56

 15. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract142pCu9000, Lut Jurassic—Iran..........................................................................57

 16. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, and Iran ........................................................................................................................59

 17. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, and Iran ........................................................................................................................60

 18. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus— Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran .............................................64

 19. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, 

and Turkey....................................................................................................................................65

 20. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define 

tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey .....67

 21. Cumulative frequency plots showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation 

of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9004, Pontide 

(Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey.....................................................72

 22. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and 

Turkey............................................................................................................................................79

 23. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and volcanic rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey...81

 24. Cumulative frequency plots showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation 

of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9005, 

Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey ...............................................86

 25. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9006, Lut Cretaceous—Iran .........................................................................................94

 26. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9006, Lut Cretaceous—Iran....................................................................95

 27. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey...............................................................97

 28. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.........................................98

 29. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation 

of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9007, Border 

Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey .................................................................................................102

 30. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey .......................................103

 31. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey ...............................................105
xiv

 32. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan

—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey...........................................................................................................109

 33. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran...................................................................111

 34. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran.............................................112

 35. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9009, 

Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran..........................................................................................117

 36. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9011, Makran—Iran.....................................................................................................118

 37. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract142pCu9011, Makran—Iran................................................................................119

 38. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran...............................................................................................121

 39. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran.........................................................................122

 40. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9010, Lut 

Tertiary—Iran............................................................................................................................125

 41. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.................................................127

 42. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.................................128

 43. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in142pCu9012, Sistan—

Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan....................................................................................132

 44. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.....................134

 45. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan....................................135

 46. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9013, Chagai

—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.........................................................................................140

 47. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey .....142

 48. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey .............144

 49. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation 

of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9014, 

Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey ..............................................................150

 50. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran..................................................................................158

 51. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran.....................................................................................159

 52. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9015, 

Yazd—Iran...........................................................................................................................................164
xv

 53. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for 

permissive tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran.......................................................................166

 54. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran...............................................................................167

 55. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9016, Kerman

—Iran..........................................................................................................................................175

 56. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 

142pCu9017, Plio-Quaternary—Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, 

Pakistan, Russian Federation, and Turkey............................................................................176

 57. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to 

define tract 142pCu9017, Plio-Quaternary—Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran, Pakistan, Russian Federation, and Turkey ..................................................178

 58. Preservation and exposure levels of the 26 porphyry copper tracts and sub-tracts 

in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia ............................................................188

 59. Summary of probabilistic assessment results by permissive tract for the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia....................................................................................194

Tables

 1. Permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia ..............................................................................................................................10

 2. Porphyry copper deposits of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia .................40

 3. Statistical test results for grade and tonnage model selection for porphyry copper 

deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia..............................................48

 4. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus

—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran .............................................................................64

 5. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran, and Turkey ..........................................................................................................70

 6. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey .....................................................................................................84

 7. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey..102

 8. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.........109

 9. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran........117

 10. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran....................................125

 11. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and 

Pakistan......................................................................................................................................132

 12. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and 

Pakistan......................................................................................................................................140

 13. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Iran and Turkey .........................................................................................................................148

 14. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran...........................................164

 15. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran..........................................175

 16. Summary of estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits, numbers of known 

deposits, tract areas, and deposit densities for the porphyry copper assessment of 

the Tethys region of western and southern Asia ................................................................191

 17. Summary of simulations of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits and 

comparison with identified copper and gold resources in porphyry copper deposits 

within each permissive tract, Tethys region of western and southern Asia ..................192
xvi

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in) 25,400.0 micrometer (μm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

yard (yd) 0.9144 meter (m)

Area

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2

)

square mile (mi2

) 259.0 hectare (ha)

square mile (mi2

) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Mass

ounce, troy (troy oz) 31.103 gram (g)

ounce, troy (troy oz) 0.0000311 megagram (Mg)

ton, short (T) (2,000 lb) 0.9072 megagram (Mg) 

Pressure

kilobar (kb) 100,000 kilopascal (kPa)

Multiply By To obtain

Length

micrometer (μm) 0.00003937 inch (in)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd) 

Area

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square kilometer (km2

) 247.1 acre

hectare (ha) 0.003861 square mile (mi2

) 

square kilometer (km2

) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03215 ounce, troy (troy oz)

megagram (Mg) 1.102 ton, short (2,000 lb)

megagram (Mg) 0.9842 ton, long (2,240 lb)

Pressure

kilopascal (kPa) 0.00001 megagram (Mg)

Other conversions used in this report

centimeter per year (cm/yr) 2.54 inch per year (in/yr)

metric ton (t) 1 megagram (Mg)

troy ounce per short ton 34.2857 gram per metric ton (g/t)

percent (%) 10,000 part per million (ppm) or grams per 

metric ton (g/t) 

percent metal 0.01 × metal grade, 

percent × ore 

tonnage, metric 

tons

metric tons of metal

Inch/Pound to SI

SI to Inch/Pound
xvii

Acronyms and Abbreviations Used

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer

Bt billion metric tons

GIS geographic information system

g/t grams per metric ton

IOCG iron oxide-copper-gold

JORC Australian Joint Ore Reserves Committee (or the Australian Code for Reporting of 

Exploration Results, Mineral Resources, and Ore Reserves)

kt thousand metric tons

Ma millions of years before present

MMAJ Mining Metal Agency of Japan

MoS2 molybdenum disulfide

MORB mid-ocean ridge basalt

Mt million metric tons

MTA Republic of Turkey General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration

MVT Mississippi Valley type

m.y. million years

NA not applicable

OIB oceanic island basalt

REE rare-earth elements

VMS volcanogenic massive sulfide

SEDEX sedimentary exhalative

SSIB small-scale digital boundaries

t metric ton (tonne) or megagram (Mg)

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

Chemical Symbols Used

Ag silver Nd neodymium

Al aluminum Ni nickel

Ar argon Os osmium

Au gold Pb lead

Ba barium Re rhenium

Bi bismuth Rb rubidium

Co cobalt Sb antimony

Cr chromium Sm samarium

Cu copper Sn tin

F fluorine Sr strontium

Fe iron Th thorium

K potassium W tungsten

K2

O potassium oxide U uranium

Mn manganese Zn zinc

Mo molybdenum
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Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of 

Western and Southern Asia

By Lukas Zürcher1, Arthur A. Bookstrom2, Jane M. Hammarstrom3, John C. Mars3, Steve Ludington4, 

Michael L. Zientek2

, Pamela Dunlap1, and John C. Wallis2 with contributions from Lawrence J. Drew3, 

David M. Sutphin3

, Byron R. Berger5, Richard J. Herrington6, Mario Billa7, Ilkay Kuşcu8, Charles J. Moon9, and 

Jeremy P. Richards10

1

U.S. Geological Survey, Tucson, Arizona, United States.

2

U.S. Geological Survey, Spokane, Washington, United States.

3

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, United States.

4

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, United States.

5

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado, United States.

6

Natural History Museum, London, England.

7

Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières, Orléans, France.

8

University of Muğla, Muğla, Turkey.

9

Camborne School of Mines, Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.

10University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Abstract

A probabilistic mineral resource assessment of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia was carried out 

as part of a global mineral resource assessment led by the 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The purpose of the study 

was to delineate geographic areas as permissive tracts for 

the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits at a scale of 

1:1,000,000 and to provide probabilistic estimates of amounts 

of copper likely to be contained in undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits in those tracts. The team did the assessment 

using the USGS three-part form of mineral resource 

assessment, which is based on (1) mineral deposit and gradetonnage models constructed from known deposits as analogs 

for undiscovered deposits, (2) delineation of permissive tracts 

based on geoscientific information, and (3) estimation of 

numbers of undiscovered deposits.

The assessment area includes the Asian part of 

Turkey and Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, western 

Pakistan, and southwestern Afghanistan. Selected tracts 

also extend marginally into southwesternmost Russia 

and northeasternmost Iraq. This region is located in the 

central part of the larger Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic 

Belt, which extends from western Europe to eastern Asia. 

Mining in this part of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic 

Belt has occurred for thousands of years; in 2011 the region 

produced 420,000 metric tons (t) of copper (2.6 percent of 

global production), 8,300 t of molybdenum (3 percent), and 

29,600 kilograms of gold (1 percent).

The assessment team defined 26 tracts permissive for 

Late Triassic to Holocene porphyry copper-molybdenum and 

porphyry copper-gold deposits. Permissive tracts range in extent 

from 2,960 to 194,000 square kilometers (km2

) and cover a 

total area of 924,000 km2. Younger tracts overlap older tracts 

in several areas. Three permissive tracts include sub-tracts in 

order to separate tract segments on the basis of geography, data 

quality, or likelihood of occurrence of undiscovered deposits. 

About 65 percent of all known porphyry sites occur in only five 

tracts, which also host most of the identified copper resources. 

In terms of tectonic setting, 58 percent of the permissive tracts 

are related to continental arcs; 19 percent to island arcs or back 

arcs; and 24 percent to postcollisional settings. Of the known 

porphyry copper deposits, subequal fractions are spread among 

these three settings.

The spatial distribution of known porphyry deposits and 

prospects is also related to the level of erosion. Magmatic belts 

with numerous known porphyry sites exhibit subequal areas of 

coeval plutonic and volcanic units and lesser amounts of cover 

rocks. Belts with fewer known porphyry sites display either 

high or low volcanic-to-plutonic ratios and (or) greater cover, 

indicating crustal levels that are too shallow or too deep for 

exposure of porphyry deposits.

Probabilistic estimates of numbers of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits were made for 18 of the 26 tracts. 

The undiscovered porphyry copper endowment for 8 tracts is 

discussed qualitatively.

The assessment estimates that the Tethys region contains 

47 undiscovered deposits within 1 kilometer of the surface. 

Probabilistic estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits 

were combined with grade and tonnage models in a Monte 

Carlo simulation to estimate probable amounts of contained 

metal. The 47 undiscovered deposits are estimated to contain 

a mean of 180 million metric tons (Mt) of copper distributed 

among the 18 tracts for which probabilistic estimates were 

made, in addition to the 62 Mt of copper already identified 

in the 42 known porphyry deposits in the study area. Results 

of Monte Carlo simulations show that 80 percent of the 

estimated undiscovered porphyry copper resources in the 

Tethys region are located in four tracts or sub-tracts.
2 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Introduction

The Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt that extends 

from eastern Europe to western Asia marks the location of the 

former Neotethys Ocean that existed between the continents 

of Gondwana and Eurasia during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic 

eras (fig. 1; Janković, 1977; Janković and Petrascheck, 1987). 

The approximately 10,000-kilometer (km)-long Tethyan 

Eurasian Metallogenic Belt hosts porphyry, replacement, 

massive sulfide, and epithermal deposits. This study focuses 

on Late Triassic to Holocene porphyry copper mineralization 

in the central part of the belt; the Tethys region of western 

and southern Asia, extending from west to east across Turkey, 

Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, western Pakistan, and 

southwestern Afghanistan (fig. 2).

The Tethys region of western and southern Asia hosts 4 

giant11 porphyry copper deposits—Reko Diq in Pakistan, Sar 

Cheshmeh and Sungun in Iran, and Kadjaran in Armenia—as well 

as 38 other porphyry deposits with reported grades and tonnages. 

Porphyry copper systems in the region span the spectrum of 

gold-copper (Au-Cu), copper-gold (Cu-Au), copper-molybdenum 

(Cu-Mo), molybdenum-copper (Mo-Cu), and molybdenumcopper-gold (Mo-Cu-Au) types. These porphyry systems formed 

as a result of the protracted history of tectono-magmatic events 

(subduction-related arc and back-arc events, as well as events 

not related to subduction) associated with convergence of several 

microcontinents of Gondwanan affinity with the Eurasian Plate 

during the closing of the Neotethys Ocean.

Background

The assessment of undiscovered resources in porphyry 

copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia 

was done as part of a U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)-led global 

mineral resource assessment. This study complements porphyry 

copper assessments of the Tethys region of Europe (Sutphin and 

others, 2013) and the Tethys region of Afghanistan (Peters and 

others, 2011).

The assessment of undiscovered resources in porphyry 

copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern 

Asia began with a series of workshops led by a USGS team and 

international experts on the region from the Centre for Russian and 

Central EurAsian Mineral Studies (CERCAMS) of the Natural 

History Museum in London, Bureau de Recherches Géologiques 

et Minières (BRGM), the University of Muğla in Turkey, the 

Camborne School of Mines in England, and the University of 

Alberta in Canada. A preliminary assessment workshop was held 

in 2008 at the Natural History Museum in London to review the 

geology and evaluate available data. Preliminary results were 

presented at the 2009 Annual Meeting of the Geological Society 

of America (Drew and others, 2009; Sutphin, 2009). New data 

were acquired, and the results of the preliminary assessment were 

updated and revised by a USGS team in 2012, and they were 

further refined after internal USGS review in 2013.

11Greater than 2 million metric tons (Mt) of contained copper.

The assessment of undiscovered resources in porphyry 

copper deposits in the Tethys region was done using the threepart form of mineral-resource assessment, which consists of 

the following: (1) application of descriptive (Cox, 1986a, b; 

Berger and others, 2008; John and others, 2010) and gradetonnage mineral deposit models (Singer and others, 2008), (2) 

delineation of permissive tracts, and (3) estimation of numbers 

of undiscovered deposits (Singer, 1993; Singer and Menzie, 

2010). In this form of assessment, grade-tonnage mineral 

deposit models constructed from known deposits are used as 

analogs for undiscovered deposits. Researchers, guided by the 

descriptive deposit model, used geologic, geochemical, and 

geophysical features typically associated with porphyry copper 

deposits to delineate geographic areas as permissive tracts12

for the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits. For selection 

of the best grade-tonnage model for assessment, we compared 

the grades and tonnages of known deposits within a permissive 

tract with grade and tonnage models using statistical tests. Metal 

associations reported for prospects that lack reliable resource data, 

along with other geologic information, contribute to selection 

of the appropriate model for assessment. Available data are 

evaluated and estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits 

in each permissive tract are made at different confidence levels 

to express the probability that some fixed but unknown (that is, 

undiscovered) number of deposits exist within the tract (Singer, 

2007a). Knowledge about the extent of exploration influences the 

estimation of numbers of undiscovered deposits in a permissive 

tract. Accordingly, these estimates reflect both the uncertainty of 

what may be present and a measure of the geologic favorability 

of the existence of the deposit type under consideration. Estimates 

can be based on, or compared to, estimates from deposit density 

models based on well-explored control tracts from around the 

world (Singer and others, 2005; Singer, 2008; Singer and Menzie, 

2010). Results of estimates at the different confidence levels 

are combined with grade and tonnage models in a Monte Carlo 

simulation to produce a probabilistic estimate of undiscovered 

resources (Root and others, 1992).

In addition to providing probabilistic estimates of amounts 

of copper contained in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

for 18 permissive tracts and sub-tracts, this report includes 

tract by tract descriptions of the tectonic setting, associated 

magmatism and its geochemical affinity, the mineralization 

styles of representative porphyry deposits and prospects, and 

the preservation-erosion record for the 26 tracts and subtracts defined in the assessment area. The report includes a 

digital geographic information system (GIS) that includes 

the tract outlines, a database of porphyry deposits, porphyry 

and porphyry-related prospects, possible porphyry-related 

occurrences, and a table of references.

This study contributes to the understanding of the 

distribution and nature of magmatism and associated porphyry 

mineralization in the Tethys region of western and southern 

12Tracts are assigned unique identifiers based on United Nations region 

designations (142 for Asia), deposit type (pCu for porphyry copper), and a 

four digit number (for example, 9000).
Introduction 3

Figure 1. Map showing the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt (modified from Janković, 1977) and extent of the assessment area 

in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.

Assessment area

ARABIAN PLATFORM

INDIAN PLATE

TIBETAN PLATE

EURASIAN PLATE

Eastern Pontide

Arasbaran

Kerman 

Chagai

(Gondwana)

(Eurasia)

CASPIAN SEA

RED SEA

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

INDIAN OCEAN

Figure 1 (Tethyan-Eurasian Magmatic Belt)

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Flat Polar Quartic Projection.

Central meridian, 0°.

Modified from Jankoviĉ,1977

EXPLANATION

Tethyan Eurasian

Metallogenic Belt

Himalayan suture belt

Indoburman—Sunda

subduction zone

Ophiolite belt in Chagai

Iran and Anatolia

Named porphyry belt, 

generally located

Study area boundary

0 1,000 2,000 KILOMETERS

0 500 1,000 MILES

500 1,500

100° E 20° E 60° E

50° N

30° N

10° N
4 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

KU

CYPRUS

TURKEY

EGYPT

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

GREECE

ARMENIA

LEBANON

ISRAEL

RED SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

BLACK SEA

North Anatolian FaultNorth Anatolian Fault

GREATER CAUCASUSGREATER CAUCASUS

Eastern

Black Sea

Basin

EAST

ANATOLIAN

PROVINCE

Inner Tauride SutureInner Tauride Suture

RED SEA RIFT

RED SEA RIFT

Somkheto-K

Nakhchivan

Republic

Bitlis-Zagros Bitlis-Zagros 

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan SutureIzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture

East Anatolian FaultEast Anatolian Fault

Dead Sea Fault Dead Sea Fault

ANATOLIAN BLOCK

HELLENIC- CYPRIAN TRENCH

Aras FaultAras Fault

LESSER CAUCASUSLESSER CAUCASUS

A R A B I A N

P L A T F O R M

A R A B I A N

P L A T F O R M

AFRICAN PLATE

Gagra-Java Gagra-Java 

Kadjaran

Sungun

30° N

40° N

40° E 

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey 

EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

^_

EXPLANATION

Terrane suture

Thrust along suture, 

 triangles on upper plate

Transform fault, arrows 

indicate relative motion

Thrust fault, triangles on 

upper plate

Strike-slip fault, arrows 

indicate relative motion

Fault, undifferentiated

Oceanic trench, triangles on 

upper plate, dashed where 

incipient

Rift

Volcano

Porphyry deposit

Figure 2. Map showing major sutures, faults, and geologic and geographic features in the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia (assessment area) and vicinity on a digital elevation base.
Introduction 5

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Tashkent

Dushanbe

Ashgabat

Birjand

Gonabad

Ferdows

UWAIT

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

TAJIKISTAN

AZERBAIJAN

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

BAHRAIN

QATAR

ARAL

SEA

CASPIAN

SEA

PERSIAN GULF

Deshir FaultDeshir Fault

Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Chaman Strike-slip Fault SystemChaman Strike-slip Fault System

Kashmar Range

Nostratabad Fault Nostratabad Fault

Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Dalbandin Basin

J az Murian DepressionJ az Murian Depression

URUMIEH-DOKHTAR MAGMATIC BELTURUMIEH-DOKHTAR MAGMATIC BELT

Shahrud FaultShahrud Fault

Rafsanjan FaultRafsanjan Fault

Zahedan 

Batholith

Neh-Zahedan Fault SystemNeh-Zahedan Fault System

Karabakh Arc

Taknar Range

Bajgan–Durkan SliverBajgan–Durkan Sliver

Alborz MountainsAlborz Mountains

Sabzevar Range

os Sutureos Suture

Torud Range

Doruneh FaultDoruneh Fault

Great Kafir - Great Kafir -

ZAGROS FOLDED BELT

SOUTH CASPIAN

 SEA TERRANE

ALBORZ TERRANE

LUT

TERRANE

SISTAN

(Neh)

TERRANE

SISTAN

(Ratuk)

TERRANE

MAKRAN

TERRANE

FARAH 

TERRANE

KOPET DAGH TERRANE

SANANDAJ-SIRJAN TERRANE

CENTRAL IRANIAN TERRANE

TALYSH TERRANE

CHAGAI-DARIROD

TERRANE

HELMAND TERRANE

MAKRAN TRENCHMAKRAN TRENCH

ARABIAN SEA

Ras Koh Range

EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATE

INDIAN PLATE

Koh-i-Sultan

^_

Bazman 

^_

 Taftan

^_

Reko Diq

Kuh Mish 

 Range

60° E

APSHERON SILL

Chagai Hills

Sar

Cheshmeh
6 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Asia, an area that is receiving renewed attention from the 

minerals industry. It also provides an improved framework 

for establishing comparisons with other porphyry copper belts 

worldwide.

Report Format

This report begins with an introduction to models for 

porphyry copper deposits, a description of the permissive 

tract concept, and reviews of the tectono-magmatic evolution 

and the neotectonic setting of the assessment region. These 

introductory sections provide a framework for the diverse 

environments of porphyry copper formation and their presentday setting in the study area. The next sections describe 

the information used in this assessment, including the 

geologic maps, the porphyry deposit and prospect database, 

an account of the exploration history based on available 

information, the processed Advanced Spaceborne Thermal 

Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) alteration and 

regional magnetic anomaly maps, and level of preservation 

and exposure data. A section on assessment methodology 

describes the processes used for delineation of permissive 

tracts and estimation of numbers of undiscovered deposits, as 

well as application of statistical tests and use of Monte Carlo 

simulation to estimate total contained resources.

Subsequent sections of the report offer tract-by-tract 

descriptions of the tectonic setting, magmatism, characteristics 

of the porphyry deposits and prospects in the tract, exhumation 

and burial history, available geophysical and remote sensing 

data, and probabilistic assessment results. These tract 

descriptions are generally organized by geologic age, from 

oldest to youngest. The last section of the report includes a 

discussion and a summary of results.

The principal sources of information used in the 

assessment of each tract are listed in appendix A. The geologic 

map units that formed the basis for delineation of each 

permissive tract are listed in appendix B, along with references 

to the source maps. Known porphyry copper deposits and 

prospects identified in the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia are tabulated in appendix C. Permissive tract 

boundaries, point locations, and descriptions of deposits and 

prospects are included in the spatial data described in appendix 

D. Brief biographical information about the participants in this 

assessment is provided in appendix E.

Considerations for Users of this Assessment

Assessment products represent a synthesis of information 

available at the time of the assessment. Ideally, assessments 

are done on a recurring basis and at a variety of scales because 

available data change over time. This assessment is based 

on the descriptive and grade and tonnage data contained in 

published mineral-deposit models (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010; Singer and others, 2008). 

Data in the grade and tonnage models represent grades of each 

commodity of possible economic interest and tonnages based 

on the total of production, reserves, and resources at the lowest 

cutoff grade available at the time of model construction. The 

economic viability of the deposits used to construct the models 

varies widely, so care must be exercised when using the results 

of this assessment to answer questions that involve economics.

Estimates are of numbers of deposits that are likely to 

exist, not necessarily those likely to be discovered (Singer, 

2007b). These probable deposits are referred to here by the 

term “undiscovered deposits.” Undiscovered deposits include 

unidentified deposits in new exploration areas and may also 

include known prospects that may become discovered deposits 

after further exploration.

This assessment considers the probability for concealed 

deposits within 1 km of the Earth’s surface. Very high grade 

deposits may be exploited at greater depths. However, 

if discovered, the costs and logistics related to mining a 

deeply buried porphyry deposit might prohibit the deposit’s 

development into a mine given current or near-term metal 

prices and technologies.

Permissive tracts are defined by geologic units, 

irrespective of political boundaries; therefore, tracts may 

cross country boundaries and (or) include lands that already 

have been developed for other uses or have been withdrawn 

from mineral development as protected areas. The tracts are 

constructed at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and are not intended for 

use at larger scales.

Terminology

The terminology used in this study follows the definitions 

used in the 1998 USGS assessment of undiscovered deposits 

of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc in the United States (U.S. 

Geological Survey National Mineral Resource Assessment 

Team, 2000 [Circular 1178]; U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. 

Geological Survey, 1980 [Circular 831]; Bates and Jackson, 

1987 [Glossary of Geology (3rd ed.)]). This terminology is 

consistent with standard definitions and general usage by the 

resource assessment community. As such, it may not conform 

to more recently adopted definitions of terms for estimating 

mineral resources and mineral reserves, and for reporting 

exploration information to comply with legal mandates 

(Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting 

Standards, 2006). A list of definitions of selected terms is 

included below.

• Calc-alkaline, calc-alkalic; alkaline, alkalic—These terms are 

used in a general, nonrigorous manner to refer to igneous 

rocks of granitoid composition (calc-alkaline or calc-alkalic) 

and of syenitoid through dioritoid to gabbroid composition 

(alkaline or alkalic) and their volcanic equivalents (see Le 

Maitre and others, 2002, provisional field classifications, 

figs. 2.10 and 2.19). In the igneous literature, the terms 

“-alkaline” and “-alkalic” are defined and used in multiple 

and inconsistent ways (see Arculus, 2003). In this study, the 

term calc-alkalic is used synonymously for calc-alkaline, 
Introduction 7

and alkalic is used synonymously for alkaline, as well as 

for their associated deposits, which are classified as calcalkaline (or calc-alkalic) or alkaline (or alkalic) porphyry 

copper deposit subtypes.

• Cover—Younger unconsolidated sediments, or consolidated 

rocks that overlie older rocks and associated mineral 

occurrences, or tectonically displaced rocks that may overlie 

deposits.

• Deposit density model—Frequency distribution of number 

of deposits from the grade and tonnage model per unit 

of permissive control area. These models are commonly 

applied in a regression of number of deposits versus 

permissive area. These models are used to make estimates 

of number of deposits or as a guide for making estimates 

(Singer, written commun., June 7, 2007).

• Descriptive mineral deposit model—A set of data available 

in a convenient, standardized form that describes a group of 

mineral deposits having similar characteristics. Descriptive 

models are the primary source of guidance for linking 

geoscience information to deposit types in the delineation of 

permissive tracts.

• Geologic favorability—A relative measure of the likelihood 

that an undiscovered mineral deposit could occur in a 

particular permissive setting.

• Giant deposit (synonym, world-class deposit)—A mineral 

deposit whose contained metal content ranks in the upper 

10 percent of all known deposits. Accordingly, giant gold 

deposits contain at least 100 metric tons (t) of gold, giant 

silver deposits contain more than 2,400 t (77 million troy 

ounces, troy oz) of silver, and giant copper, zinc, and lead 

deposits contain at least 2, 1.7, and 1 million metric tons 

(Mt) of their respective metals (Singer, 1995).

• Grade and tonnage model—Frequency distributions of the 

grades and sizes of thoroughly explored, and (or) completely 

mined out, individual mineral deposits that are classified 

by a descriptive mineral deposit model. Grade-and-tonnage 

models occupy the position of being both a kind of deposit 

model and one of the three parts of an assessment. They 

are employed as analogs for grades and tonnages of 

undiscovered deposits of the same type in geologically 

similar settings.

• Identified resources—Resources whose location, quality, 

and quantity are known or can be estimated from specific 

geologic evidence. For this assessment, identified resources 

are the deposits that constitute the grade and tonnage 

models used (which can include measured, indicated, and 

inferred mineral resources at the lowest available cutoff 

grade). In addition, identified resources in deposits that are 

not included in the models used for the assessment may 

be considered if they are characterized well enough by 

deposit type, grade, and tonnage to meet U.S. Securities and 

Exchange Commission or CRIRSCO13 reporting guidelines.

• Mineral deposit—A mineral concentration of sufficient 

size and grade that it might, under the most favorable of 

circumstances, be considered to have potential for economic 

development.

• Mineral occurrence—(1) A concentration of a mineral that is 

considered valuable by someone somewhere, or that is of 

scientific or technical interest (Cox and Singer, 1986). (2) 

Any ore or economic mineral in any concentration found 

in bedrock or as float; especially a valuable mineral in 

concentration sufficient to suggest further exploration (Bates 

and Jackson, 1987).

• Mineral prospect—(1) An area that is a potential site of a 

mineral deposit, based on mineral exploration (Bates and 

Jackson, 1987). (2) An area that has been explored in a 

preliminary way but has not given evidence of economic 

value (Bates and Jackson, 1987). (3) An area to be searched 

by some investigative technique; for example, geophysical 

prospecting (Bates and Jackson, 1987). (4) A geologic 

or geophysical anomaly, especially one recommended 

for additional exploration (Bates and Jackson, 1987). (5) 

A mineral property whose value has not been proved by 

exploration (Bureau of Land Management, BLM, 2015).

• Mineral resource assessment—A study that estimates or 

evaluates the amount and (or) potential supply of mineral 

resources within a specific volume of the Earth’s crust.

• Mineralization—(1) Any single mineral or combination 

of minerals occurring in a mass, or deposit, of economic 

interest. The term is intended to cover all forms in which 

mineralization might occur, whether by class of deposit, 

mode of occurrence, genesis, or composition (Committee 

for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards, 

2006). (2) The process or processes by which a mineral or 

minerals are introduced into a rock, resulting in a valuable or 

potentially valuable deposit (Bates and Jackson, 1987).

• Number of undiscovered mineral deposits estimates—The 

probability, or degree of belief, that a fixed but unknown 

number of deposits like those in the grade and tonnage 

model exist in the delineated tracts (Singer and Menzie, 

2005).

• Permissive tract—The surface projection of a volume 

of rock where the geology permits the existence of a 

mineral deposit of a specified type. The probability of 

deposits of the type being studied occurring outside the 

tract is negligible (that is, less than 1 in 100,000 or 1 in 

1,000,000 [Singer and Menzie, 2010]).

13Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards 

(2006); http://www.crirsco.com/welcome.asp.
8 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

• Permissive unit—Geologic rock unit of a given age range and 

distinctive lithological character or compositional affinity 

emplaced in a particular geologic setting. The lithological 

character or compositional affinity and geologic setting 

are permissive for the occurrence of a mineral deposit 

of a specific type. The collection of units sharing these 

characteristics form the basis for defining a permissive tract.

• Plutonic—The term commonly applies to igneous bodies 

that have crystallized at relatively great depths of the Earth’s 

crust. For this assessment, the term plutonic is used in a 

more general way to designate any holocrystalline intrusive 

rock.

• Quantitative assessment of undiscovered resources—A study 

that presents a numerical estimate of the amount and quality 

of undiscovered mineral resources present within a specific 

volume of the Earth’s crust; because of the uncertainty 

inherent in assessment of an unknown resource, the results 

are presented probabilistically (Singer, written commun., 

2008).

• Reserve—That part of a mineral deposit that could be 

economically and legally extracted or produced at the time 

of reserve determination.

• Resource—A concentration of naturally occurring solid, 

liquid, or gaseous material in or on the Earth’s crust in 

such a form that economic extraction of a commodity from 

the concentration is currently or potentially feasible (U.S. 

Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 1980).

• Resource uncertainty—Uncertainty means variability or 

being unknown; in mineral resource assessments it refers 

to possible locations of undiscovered resources and to 

the amounts and qualities of these resources. Location 

uncertainty is addressed by permissive tracts and uncertainty 

of amounts and qualities is addressed by estimates of 

undiscovered deposits and grade and tonnage models 

(Schulz, written commun., 2002).

• Undiscovered mineral deposit—(1) A mineral deposit that 

may exist within a specified volume of Earth’s crust. (2) 

An incompletely explored mineral occurrence or prospect 

that could have sufficient size and grade to be classed a 

deposit. (3) A mineral deposit whose location and (or) grade, 

quality, and quantity of mineralized material are unknown or 

incompletely characterized.

• Undiscovered resources—(1) Resources in undiscovered 

mineral deposits whose existence is postulated on the basis 

of indirect geologic evidence (U.S. Geological Survey 

National Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2000). 

(2) Mineralized material whose location, grade, quality, 

and quantity are unknown or incompletely characterized. 

Undiscovered resources may include active mines if the 

resource is delineated incompletely. For example, a deposit 

that is explored only partially and reported as “open to the 

west or open at depth” could be counted as an undiscovered 

deposit. Undiscovered resources in extensions to identified 

resources are not addressed explicitly in the assessment 

process.

• Volcanic—This term commonly applies to rocks that have 

vented onto the Earth’s surface, either extruded as lava, or 

ejected explosively as proximal pyroclastic or distal ash 

materials. For this assessment, the term volcanic refers to 

both hyalocrystalline extrusive (for example, lava flow) or 

subvolcanic intrusive rocks (for example, dacite porphyry 

dike).

Porphyry Copper Deposit Models

Porphyry copper deposits typically form in subductionrelated compressional tectonic settings during active subduction 

of oceanic crust (Sillitoe, 2010; John and others, 2010). These 

deposits are commonly associated with shallowly emplaced calcalkaline plutons. The Andes Mountains of South America are a 

classic continental arc-related porphyry deposit province (Kay and 

others, 1999). Magma associated with these deposits is typically 

hydrous, oxidized, rich in sulfur, and has likely undergone 

complex evolution (Richards and others, 2011; John and 

others, 2010). Island arcs in the southwest Pacific Ocean are the 

archetypes of island-arc-related porphyry mineralization (Garwin 

and others, 2005). Igneous rocks associated with island-arc 

porphyry deposits are similar to those associated with continental 

arcs, but diorite, quartz diorite, and other more mafic rocks are 

comparatively more abundant (Kesler and others, 1975).

In recent years, evidence has accumulated for the existence 

of a family of porphyry deposits that formed in a significantly 

different tectonic setting—extensional, transtensional, or 

transpressional regimes that have evolved within relatively 

cratonized regions after active subduction has ceased. Several 

porphyry deposits in Turkey, the Lesser Caucasus, and Iran may 

represent examples of this family (Hou and others, 2011). Their 

geology and mineralization style are broadly similar to subductionrelated porphyry copper deposits; however, the magmas that 

are associated with them originated from as-yet only partially 

understood mantle-involved processes (Richards, 2009; Richards 

and Kerrich, 2007).

Descriptive Models

Descriptive models are the basis for linking geoscience 

information to deposit types and the delineation of permissive 

tracts. Descriptive deposit models identify the tectonic setting, 

geologic units, and metals associated with a mineral deposit type. 

Models used for this assessment include the descriptive porphyry 

copper models of Singer and others (2008), Cox (1986a, b), and 

John and others (2010). The recent reviews of salient features 

of porphyry deposits by Seedorff and others (2005) and Sillitoe 

(2010) were also considered.
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 9

Grade and Tonnage Models

Grade and tonnage models constructed from data for 

porphyry copper deposits from around the world are employed as 

analogs of grades and tonnages of undiscovered deposits of the 

same type in geologically similar settings. The grade and tonnage 

models of Singer and others (2008) were used in this assessment. 

In addition to the general porphyry Cu-Mo-Au model that is based 

on data from 422 deposits from around the world, the porphyry 

Cu-Au and Cu-Mo subtype models, which are based on subsets 

of the grade and tonnage data, were also used where classification 

criteria permit. The Cu-Mo subtype model includes 51 porphyry 

deposits that have Au/Mo ratios that are less than or equal to 3 or 

average molybdenum grades that are greater than 0.03 percent. 

The Cu-Au subtype model consists of 115 porphyry deposits that 

have Au/Mo ratios greater than 30 or average gold grades greater 

than 0.2 gram per metric ton (g/t) (Singer and others, 2008). For 

each tract, if sufficient grade and tonnage data were available, we 

tested the known deposits in the tract against the selected model 

using statistical tests (Student’s t-test or analysis of variance) 

to determine the appropriate model to apply for quantitative 

assessment.

Deposit Density Models

Estimates of numbers of deposits made by the assessment 

team for each permissive tract were compared with numbers 

of undiscovered deposits predicted by mineral deposit density 

models. Density models provide an independent measure 

of expected numbers of deposits and serve as a guide in the 

estimation of expected numbers of deposits at different confidence 

levels (Singer and others, 2005; Singer, 2008; Singer and Menzie, 

2010). The porphyry copper deposit density model of Singer and 

Menzie (2010) was used in this assessment.

Permissive Porphyry Copper Tracts

Subduction-related continental arc, island-arc, back-arc, 

or post-subduction magmatic events of a given age range are 

permissive settings for the occurrence of porphyry copper 

deposits. Descriptive deposit models characterize porphyry copper 

deposits as hydrothermal systems that are spatially and temporally 

associated with apical, generally porphyro-aphanitic, parts of 

felsic to intermediate stocks that were emplaced at depths that are 

typically between 1 and 5 km.

A permissive porphyry tract is the surface projection of a 

volume of rock where the geology permits the existence of a 

porphyry copper deposit. The probability of this deposit type 

occurring outside the tract is negligible. A magmatic setting is the 

fundamental geologic feature that delineates the geographic area 

occupied by permissive porphyry tract. Accordingly, volcanic and 

plutonic rocks of felsic to intermediate calc-alkaline to alkaline 

composition related to this magmatic setting are the geologic 

units that define the permissive tract. These geologic rock units 

of particular compositional affinity that are emplaced in a specific 

geologic setting of a given age range are referred to as “permissive 

units.” To ensure inclusion of shallowly buried but otherwise 

potentially accessible porphyry copper deposits, the aerial extent 

of tracts not only encompasses geologic map units, but extensions 

of these geologic map units likely are present under less than 1 km 

of cover.

An effort was made to name permissive tracts and sub-tracts 

according to usage in the literature (for example, Border Folds, 

Chagai, Konya, Makran, Pontide, and Sistan). However, where 

names are not available or known, or do not appropriately outline 

the extent of the associated tectono-magmatic event, tracts and 

sub-tracts are named to identify their location within a major 

tectonic unit (for example, Sanandaj-Sirjan), and are followed 

by a general geographic descriptor where needed (for example, 

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey). Where tracts of different 

ages are superimposed, names reflect their location within the 

major tectonic unit and are followed by a general age descriptor 

(for example, Lut Jurassic, Lut Cretaceous, Lut Tertiary). For 

large tracts that include tectonic units across the region, names 

were selected to convey the age, nature, and (or) location of the 

tectono-magmatic event (for example, Pliocene-Quaternary—

Postcollisional, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus, Cimmeride Greater 

Caucasus). Finally, where an unnamed tectono-magmatic setting 

lies generally within a province or the nature of a setting varies 

across the assessment region, the name of a province covered 

by the tract was used instead (for example, Khorasan) followed 

by a general geographic descriptor where needed (for example, 

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran).

Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the 

Tethys Region of Western and Southern 

Asia

The following synopsis of the tectonic evolution and 

associated magmatism of the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia provides the geologic framework and basis for 

delineation of the 26 permissive tracts and sub-tracts identified 

in the assessment area (table 1). These tracts delineate the Late 

Triassic to Holocene porphyry belts associated with magmatic 

events related to the opening and closing of the Neotethys Ocean. 

Middle Triassic and older magmatic events related to the opening 

and closing of the Paleotethys Ocean are not treated in this 

assessment.

The Eurasian active margin and the Arabian passive margin 

played major roles in the tectono-magmatic evolution of the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia. Beginning in the 

Permian, continental fragments sequentially rifted off Gondwana 

in the south, drifted northward across the Tethys Ocean, and 

progressively converged with Eurasia in the north during the late 

Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Although substantial advances have been 

made in the understanding of the complex tectonic framework of 

the region (Stöcklin, 1968; Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Şengör, 
10 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Tract name Coded_ID Countries Age Geologic feature assessed Tract area (km2

)

 Deposits

Prospects 

and 

occurrences

Descriptive model Grade and tonnage model

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005b Turkey Late Cretaceous–

middle Eocene

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene synand postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

36,200 None 5 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Anatolide-Tauride

—

Eastern TurkeyCaucasus sub-tract

142pCu9005c Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Iran, Turkey

Late Cretaceous–late Eocene

Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene back-arc and island-arc magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

21,700 4 10 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005a Turkey Late Cretaceous–

middle Eocene

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene arc-related magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

5,940 2 3 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9014c Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Iran

Late Eocene–early Miocene

Late Eocene to early Miocene postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

58,300 5 52 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014b Iran-Turkey Late Eocene–early 

Miocene

Late Eocene to early Miocene back-arc magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

7,750 1 1 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014a Turkey Late Eocene–early 

Miocene

Late Eocene to early Miocene postcollisional and back-arc magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

65,200 3 16 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Border Folds 142pCu9007 Iran, Iraq, Turkey Late Cretaceous–

early Paleocene 

Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

45,300 None 7 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper 

(Singer and others, 2008)

Chagai 142pCu9013 Afghanistan, Iran, 

Pakistan

Late Cretaceous–late Miocene 

Late Cretaceous to late Miocene island to continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

19,100 4 22 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus1

142pCu9002 Azerbaijan, Georgia, 

Russian Federation

Middle Jurassic Middle Jurassic back arc and island arc of 

the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

16,700 None None Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus1

142pCu9001 Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran

Middle Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous

Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous island to continental arc and back arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

17,400 3 9 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Esfahan 142pCu9008 Iran, Iraq, Turkey Late Cretaceous–late 

Eocene

Late Cretaceous to late Eocene back arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

56,900 1 13 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Kerman 142pCu9016 Iran Late Eocene–late 

Miocene

Late Eocene to late Miocene continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

32,800 12 65 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Khorasan 142pCu9009 Afghanistan, Iran Late Cretaceous–

middle Miocene

Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene island arcs of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

38,300 None 13 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

Porphyry copper, Cu-Au subtype (Singer and others, 2008)

Table 1. Permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.[Coded_ID, a unique number assigned to each permissive tract in the geographic information system (appendix D); km2, square kilometers; tract area reported to three significant figures; NA, not applicable]
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 11

Tract name Coded_ID Countries Age Geologic feature assessed

Tract 

area 

(km2

)

 Deposits

Prospects 

and 

occurrences

Descriptive model Grade and tonnage model

Lut Cretaceous 142pCu9006 Iran Late Cretaceous–Paleocene Late Cretaceous to Paleocene continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt 12,000 None 2 Porphyry copper (John and others, 2010) NA (qualitative)

Lut Jurassic 142pCu9000 Iran Middle Jurassic Middle Jurassic continental arc of the 

Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

2,960 None 1 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Lut Tertiary 142pCu9010 Iran Middle Eocene–early 

Miocene 

Middle Eocene to early Miocene island to continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

56,300 None 11 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

Porphyry copper, Cu-Au subtype (Singer and others, 2008)

Makran 142pCu9011 Iran Late Cretaceous–late 

Eocene 

Late Cretaceous to late Eocene island arcs of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

24,100 None 2 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Pliocene-Quaternary—Bazman sub-tract

142pCu9017c Afghanistan, Iran, 

Pakistan

Early Pliocene–Holocene Early Pliocene to Holocene continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt 21,300 None 2 Porphyry copper (John and others, 2010) NA (qualitative)

Pliocene-Quaternary—Konya sub-tract 142pCu9017a Turkey Late Miocene–Ho- locene Late Miocene to Holocene continental arc and back arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic 

Belt

11,800 None 1 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Pliocene-Quaternary—Postcollisional sub-tract

142pCu9017b Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran, Russian Federation, Turkey

Late Miocene–Holocene Late Miocene to Holocene postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic 

Belt

194,000 None 4 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9004c Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran

Late Cretaceous–

middle Eocene

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene island to continental arc and back arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

24,300 None 2 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b Georgia, Turkey Late Cretaceous–late 

Eocene

Late Cretaceous to late Eocene island to continental arc, back-arc, and postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

45,500 4 39 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004a Turkey Late Cretaceous–late 

Eocene

Late Cretaceous to late Eocene fore-arc, back-arc, and postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

32,700 1 4 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Sanandaj-Sirjan 142pCu9003 Iran, Iraq, Turkey Late Triassic–Early 

Cretaceous 

Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

20,200 None 1 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

NA (qualitative)

Sistan 142pCu9012 Afghanistan, Iran, 

Pakistan

Late Cretaceous–early Miocene 

Late Cretaceous to early Miocene island arcs of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

32,800 None 10 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

Yazd 142pCu9015 Iran Middle Eocene–

middle Miocene 

Middle Eocene to middle Miocene back arc and continental arc of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt

25,700 2 13 Porphyry copper (John 

and others, 2010)

General porphyry copper (Singer and others, 2008)

1The Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus (142pCu9001) and Cimmeride Greater Caucasus (142pCu9002) tracts are segments of the larger Late Triassic-Early Cretaceous Cimmerian orogenic event of Turkey, the 

Table 1.

Caucasus, Iran, and Afghanistan.

—Continued
12 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

1987; Shahabpour and Kramers, 1987; Alavi, 1994; and Golonka, 

2004, among many others), many elements of the geodynamic 

evolution of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia 

remain the subject of debate. This overview attempts to integrate 

the salient aspects of the space-time distribution of magmatism 

and associated porphyry copper mineralization that formed during 

the compressional and extensional regimes that were active in the 

Neotethys realm beginning in the Late Triassic.

Permian to Middle Jurassic

The Tethys region preserves a record of the evolution 

of the margin of the Gondwana supercontinent in Permian to 

Middle Jurassic time. Between the late Carboniferous and the 

Middle Triassic, Eurasia was separated from Gondwana by the 

Paleotethys Ocean. By the Middle Jurassic, the Paleotethys Ocean 

was closing, and rifting of microcontinents from the Gondwana 

margin led to opening of the Neotethys Ocean.

Paleotethys Ocean Realm

In the assessment region, the Eurasian margin consisted 

of the Eurasian Scythian and Turan Terranes and the Istanbul 

(Western Pontides), Eastern Pontides, Transcaucasus, Talysh, 

South Caspian Sea, Alborz, and Kopet Dagh Terranes of 

Eurasian affinity. These terranes of Eurasian affinity had 

amalgamated with Eurasia for the first time during the 

Paleozoic (Golonka, 2004). However, they separated from 

Eurasia during the late Carboniferous to Middle Triassic, 

and collided again during the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic 

Cimmerian orogeny (Stampfli and Borel, 2002). In the western 

part of the assessment region, the Cimmerian orogeny ended 

with collision of the Sakarya Terrane, and in the eastern 

part of the assessment region, it terminated with collision of 

the Gondwana-derived Aghdarband, Lut, Farah, and Herat 

Terranes. This collisional event closed the Paleotethys Ocean 

by the Middle Jurassic (Golonka, 2004). The present-day 

distribution of these tectonic terranes is shown in orange 

(Eurasian) and light brown (Eurasian affinity) in figure 3.

Neotethys Ocean Realm

Between the Permian and Middle Jurassic, opening of 

the Neotethys Ocean in the south occurred concurrently with 

consumption of the Paleotethys Ocean in the north. In the 

late Permian, microcontinents began to rift from Gondwana, 

initiating the opening of the Neotethys Ocean (Golonka, 

2004; Stampfli and Borel, 2002). These Gondwana-derived 

terranes are known as Cimmeria, and from west to east across 

the assessment region they include the (1) Anatolide-Tauride 

(composed of the Menderes, Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex, South Armenian Block, and Bitlis-Pötürge 

Terranes); (2) Sanandaj-Sirjan; (3) Central Iranian (composed 

of microcontinental fragments of the Alborz Terrane in the 

west and the Aghdarband Terrane in the east); (4) East-Central 

Iranian (composed of the Yazd, Kashmar-Kerman, Tabas, and 

Lut Terranes); and (5) Helmand Terranes. While these terranes 

were in motion, the Neotethys Ocean consisted of a northern 

branch north of the Cimmerian terranes and a southern branch 

south of the Cimmerian terranes. The present-day disposition 

of these tectonic terranes of Gondwanan affinity is shown in 

light yellow in figure 3. The Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan, SevanAkera, and Rasht sutures mark the former location of the 

Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch. The former location of the 

Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch is marked by the BitlisZagros Suture (fig. 3).

A Middle Jurassic (166 million years ago, Ma) tectonic 

plate reconstruction of the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia is illustrated in figure 4A (Golonka, 2004). Not 

represented in figure 4A is the fact that the Sakarya Terrane 

had already formed part of Eurasia by this time. The Sakarya 

and Istanbul Terranes had already amalgamated along the 

Intra-Pontide Suture of northwestern Turkey (fig. 3), which 

marks the former location of the Paleotethys Ocean. The 

Paleotethys Ocean in this region closed in the Middle to Late 

Jurassic (Okay, 1989). The Jurassic disposition of the Lut 

Terrane, which experienced a 90-degree counterclockwise 

rotation between the Eocene and middle Miocene (Westphal 

and others, 1986), is also not represented in figure 4A.

Following the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic Cimmerian 

collisional event, northward-dipping subduction zones 

developed in the Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch along 

the new Eurasian margin formed by the largely amalgamated 

Pontides, Sakarya, Transcaucasus, Talysh, Alborz, and EastCentral Iranian Terranes (Zanchi and others, 2009; Golonka, 

2004). This compressional event produced a calc-alkaline 

continental arc and also a broad extensional calc-alkaline to 

alkaline back-arc rift basin north of these terranes (Stöcklin, 

1968; Karimpour and others, 2011b). In the Caucasus 

and across northern Iran, this back-arc basin developed 

approximately at the location of the Paleotethys Ocean suture. 

Jurassic subduction-related igneous rocks are preserved in the 

eastern part of the Lut Terrane and in the Greater Caucasus 

part of the Transcaucasus Terrane (McCann and others, 2010; 

Hess and others, 1995; Lordkipanidze and others, 1989). In the 

Greater Caucasus region, back-arc and island-arc magmatism 

continued into the Early Cretaceous (fig. 4A,B; Golonka,

2004). These continental arc and intraoceanic volcano-plutonic 

events, respectively, are delimited in the Lut Jurassic and 

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus tracts in east-central Iran and 

the Greater Caucasus. The present-day location of these tracts 

is shown in red and light orange in figure 5. One porphyry 

copper prospect has been identified in the Lut Jurassic tract, 

and none are known in the Cimmeride Greater Caucasus tract.

In the Late Triassic, a north-dipping subduction zone was 

also initiated in the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch (fig. 4A). 

This subduction-related event created a continental arc (fig. 4B) 

on the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Berberian and Berberian, 1981; 

Kazmin and others, 1986; Azizi and others, 2011). The SanandajSirjan Terrane had rifted off Gondwana in the late Permian 

(Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006) and during the Late Triassic to Early 
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 13

Cretaceous was drifting northeastward across the Neotethys 

Ocean towards the Eurasian margin (Dewey and others, 1973; 

Berberian and King, 1981). This Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous 

continental arc is delimited by the Sanandaj-Sirjan tract, which is 

portrayed in blue in figure 5. Only one possible porphyry-related 

prospect has been identified in the highly exhumed SanandajSirjan tract.

Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous

Island- to continental-arc and back-arc magmatism related to 

the northward-dipping subduction zone along the Eurasian margin 

in the Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch continued into the Early 

Cretaceous (Adamia and others, 1977; Lordkipanidze and others, 

1989; Kazmin and others, 1986). Magmatism was particularly 

extensive and is well preserved in the Transcaucasus Terrane 

(Kekelia and others, 2001; Şengör and others, 1993; Şengör and 

others, 1991). This Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous island to 

calc-alkaline continental arc and calc-alkaline to alkaline backarc setting is delimited by the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract, 

which is depicted in lavender (light purple) in figure 5. Unlike the 

older Lut Jurassic, Cimmeride Greater Caucasus, and SanandajSirjan tracts, the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract contains 3 

known porphyry deposits, 8 porphyry prospects, and 1 possible 

porphyry-related occurrence.

Late Cretaceous to Middle Miocene

Increases in convergence rates between various terranes 

during the Late Cretaceous to Middle Miocene led to marked 

changes in the geodynamics of the region. As both the northern 

and southern branches of the Neotethys Ocean narrowed and 

closed, new subduction zones gave rise to island-arc, continentalarc, and postcollisional magmatism associated with generation of 

porphyry copper deposits.

Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch Realm

During the Late Cretaceous, increased convergence between 

the Cimmerian terranes and Eurasia began to narrow the Northern 

Neotethys Ocean Branch along north-dipping subduction zones 

located along the southern margin of Eurasia. These subduction 

zones produced island- to continental-arc magmatism on the 

amalgamated Pontide, Sakarya, Transcaucasus, and western 

Alborz Terranes. Figure 4C illustrates a Late CretaceousPaleocene (65 Ma) tectonic plate reconstruction of the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia (Golonka, 2004).

Arc magmatism on these amalgamated terranes was 

accompanied by extensive back-arc magmatism (Adamia 

and others, 1981; Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Okay and 

Şahintürk, 1997). Rifting in the Black Sea, Transcaucasus, and 

Talysh Terranes of the Caucasus, which had been active since the 

Jurassic, continued until the middle Eocene and culminated with 

propagation of the back arc over the arc axis. Figure 4D illustrates 

a middle Eocene (45 Ma) tectonic plate reconstruction of the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia (Golonka, 2004).

Convergence in the western and central parts of the Northern 

Neotethys Ocean Branch resulted in collision of the Central 

Anatolian Crystalline Complex with the Sakarya Terrane in the 

Late Cretaceous, and collision of the South Armenian Block 

with the Transcaucasus Terrane in the middle Eocene (Golonka, 

2004; Sosson and others, 2010b). These collisional events closed 

the Northern Neotethys Ocean along the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan 

and Sevan-Akera suture zones (fig. 3). Widespread uplift, 

metamorphism, folding, and ophiolite obduction along southvergent thrust sheets are associated with this collisional event.

Collision-arrested arc- and back-arc-related magmatism gave 

way to postcollisional magmatism. Late Cretaceous to middle-late 

Eocene postcollision-related igneous rocks are preserved on both 

sides of the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture, which separates the 

Sakarya Terrane from the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane. Figure 4E 

illustrates a late Eocene (36 Ma) tectonic plate reconstruction of 

the Tethys region of western and southern Asia (Golonka, 2004)

In the amalgamated Pontide, Sakarya, Transcaucasus, and 

Alborz Terranes, this Late Cretaceous to middle and late Eocene 

island- to continental-arc and back-arc and volcano-plutonic event 

is included in the Pontide permissive tract, which is shown in red 

in figure 6. The Pontide tract is further separated into the Pontide–

NW Turkey, Pontide–NE Turkey, and Pontide–Caucasus-Iran subtracts, because different parts of its tectonic setting are exposed 

from west to east. The Pontide–NE Turkey sub-tract contains 4 

known porphyry copper deposits and 39 porphyry prospects. In 

contrast, known porphyry deposits and prospects are few in the 

Pontide–NW Turkey (1 deposit and 4 prospects) and Pontide–

Caucasus-Iran (0 deposits and 2 prospects) sub-tracts.

In the Late Cretaceous, increased convergence in the eastern 

part of the Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch also initiated 

closure of the Sabzevar-Sistan Ocean. The Sabzevar-Sistan Ocean 

(fig.4C) was located between the East-Central Iranian Terrane 

and the Eurasian margin formed by the Kopet Dagh, Farah, and 

Helmand Terranes (Dercourt and others, 1986; Şengör and others, 

1993). Thus, this ocean connected the Northern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch with the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch. In the north, 

the Sabzevar-Sistan Ocean closed along intraoceanic northdipping subduction zones by the middle Miocene (Dercourt and 

others, 1986; Spies and others, 1984). Figure 4F illustrates an early 

Miocene (22 Ma) tectonic plate reconstruction of the Tethys region 

of western and southern Asia (Golonka, 2004). In the east, islandarc magmatism in the Sabzevar-Sistan Ocean ended between the 

Eocene and Miocene with collision of the East-Central Iranian 

terrane collage (Lut, Tabas, Kashmar-Kerman, and Yazd Terranes) 

with the Farah Terrane (Camp and Griffis, 1982; Tirrul and others, 

1983). These Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene intraoceanic 

volcano-plutonic events are delimited by the Khorasan tract 

located in northeastern Iran (blue in fig. 6), and the Sistan tract 

located in easternmost Iran (orange in fig. 7). Thirteen porphyry 

copper, porphyry-related, and possible porphyry-related prospects 

have been identified in the Khorasan tract, and 10 porphyry copper 

and possible porphyry-related prospects are known in the Sistan 

tract.
14 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

TURKEY

EGYPT

IRAQ

KUWAIT

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

AZERBAIJAN

GREECE

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

GEORGIA

ARABIAN PLATFORM

ZAGR

WESTERN

ANATOLIDE-TAURIDE

BITLIS-Z

ALBORZ

MenderesMenderes

ANTALYA

SCYTHIA

BITLIS-ZAGROS THRUST

SA

LYCIA

TALY

SAKARYA EASTERN PONTIDES

WESTERN PONTIDES (ISTANBUL)

RHODOPE

TAURIDE

STRANDJASTRANDJA

ANATOLIDE-TAURIDE

(Central Anatolian

Crystalline Complex)

TAURIDE

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan SutureIzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture

 Bitli s-Zagros S uture Bitli s-Zagros S uture

Intra-Pontide SutureIntra-Pontide Suture

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

Amman

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

Cairo

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

RED SEA

Aras FaultAras Fault

Sevan-Akera Ophiolite

Khoy

Ophiolite

Kermanshah

Ophiolite

INNER TAURIDE OCEANINNER TAURIDE OCEAN

Vedi-Zangezur

Ophiolite

INNER TAURIDE OCEANINNER TAURIDE OCEAN

R

Bitli

BITLIS-PÖTÜRGE

EASTERN

ANATOLIDE-TAURIDE

(South Armenian Block)

40° E 

40° N

30° N

Metamorphic rock

Accretionary prism

Terranes

Oceanic

Eurasian

Eurasian affinity

Cimmerian

Arabian Platform

EXPLANATION

Geology

Inter-terrane boundary

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

Figure 3. Map showing tectono-stratigraphic terranes, accretionary prisms, and metamorphic belts of the Tethys region of 

western and southern Asia. After Abdullah and Chmyriov (1977b) and Peters and others (2011) for Afghanistan, Kazmi and Rana 

(1982) for Pakistan, Stöcklin (1968) for Iran, Pollastro and others (1998) for Iraq, Kaymakci and others (2010) and Yigit (2009) for 

Turkey, and Kekelia and others (2001) for the Caucasus. Most terrane names conform to Golonka (2004).
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 15

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

TAJIKISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

LUT

GROS FOLDED BELT

FARAH

KOPET DAGH

TABAS

CHAGAI-DARIROD

ZAGROS THRUST

TRANSCAUCASUS

HELMAND

Jaz Murian

Depression

YAZD

SOUTH

CASPIAN

SEA

Band-e-Bayan Folding Zone

TURAN

SANANDAJ-SIRJAN

CENTRAL IRANIAN

YSH

ALBORZ

KASHMAR-KERMAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Tashkent

Dushanbe

Ashgabat

Taknar Range

CASPIAN

SEA

ARAL

SEA

PERSIAN GULF

Nain-Baft

Ophiolite

Neyriz

Ophiolite

Sabzevar Range

Torud RangeTorud Range

Makran Accretionary Prism Makran Accretionary Prism

asht Ophiolite

tlis-Zagros Suture

MAKRAN

SISTAN

(Ratuk)

SISTAN

(Neh)

60° E
16 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 4. Paleotectonic reconstructions (A–G) of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia (modified from Golonka, 2004). Terranes: 

Ag—Southern Kopet Dagh (Aghdarband), Al—Alborz, EP—Eastern Pontides (eastern Sakarya), Fa—Farah, He—Herat, Hm—HelmandArghandab, KD—Kopet Dagh, Ki—Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex (Kirsehir), Lut—East-Central Iranian (Lut, Tabas, KashmarKerman, Yazd), Ma—Makran, SAB—Eastern Anatolide-Tauride (South Armenian Block), Sa—Sakarya (western Sakarya), Sc—Scythia, 

SCS—South Caspian Sea, SS—Sanandaj-Sirjan, Ta—Taurus (includes Bitlis-Pötürge), Tl—Talysh, Tr—Transcaucasus, Tu—Turan, and 

WP—Western Pontides (Istanbul, Strandja). Ma, million years before present.

Fa

Sc Tu

Lut

He

WP EP

Al

Ag Tl

SCS

Tr

SAB

SS

Sa

Ki

Ta ±

EURASIAN

PLATE

ARABIAN

PLATFORM ±

? ?

?

±

KD

Fa

?

?

±

A. Middle Jurassic (166 Ma) B. Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (140 Ma)

C. Late Cretaceous-Paleocene (65 Ma) D. Middle Eocene (45 Ma)

Tu

Tu

Tu

Sc Sc

Sc

Hm

Hm Hm

Lut

Lut

Lut

He

He

He

WP

Al

Ag

Tl

SCS

WP EP

Al

Ag

Tl

SCS

WP EP

Al

Ag Tl

SCS

Tr

Tr Tr

SAB

SS

Sa

Ki

Ta

SS

Sa Ki

Ta SS

Sa Ki

Ta Fa

KD

Fa

KD

Northern Neotethys Ocean

Paleotethys Ocean

EURASIAN

PLATE

EURASIAN

PLATE

EURASIAN

PLATE

ARABIAN

PLATFORM

ARABIAN

PLATFORM ARABIAN

PLATFORM

AFRICAN

PLATE

AFRICAN

PLATE

Sabzevar Ocean

Ma

SAB

SAB

Fig. 4A, 4B, 4C, 4D

EP

Sistan Ocean

Ma

 Neotethys Ocean

Southern

Northern Neotethys Ocean

Inner Tauride Ocean

Neotethys

Ocean

Southern

Neotethys

Ocean

Southern

Neotethys

Ocean
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 17

EXPLANATION

Normal fault

Strike-slip fault

Active subduction zone

Oceanic spreading center 

 and transform faults

Thrust fault

Structural feature

Topographic high

Topographic low

Shallow marine, shelf

Environment

0 500 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 500 MILES

Slope, deep ocean

Terranes (microcontinents)

?

?

?

?

±

±

?

?

?

?

? ?

±

E. Late Eocene (36 Ma) F. Early Miocene (22 Ma)

G. Late Miocene-Early Pliocene (6 Ma)

Tu

Tu

Tu

Sc

Sc

Sc

Hm

Hm

Hm

Lut

Lut Lut

He

He

He

WP

EP

Al

Ag

Tl

WP EP

Al Ag

Tl

SCS

WP EP

Al

Ag

Tl

SCS

Tr

SS

Sa

Ki

Ta

SS

Sa

Ki Ta

SS

Sa

Ki

Ta

Fa

KD

Fa

KD

Fa

KD

Tr

Tr

EURASIAN

PLATE

EURASIAN

PLATE

EURASIAN

PLATE

ARABIAN

PLATFORM

ARABIAN

PLATFORM

ARABIAN

PLATFORM

AFRICAN

PLATE

AFRICAN

PLATE AFRICAN

PLATE

Hellenic-Cyprian Trench

Ma Ma

SAB SCS SAB

SAB

Makran Trench

Fig. 4E, 4F, 4G, explanation 

and scale

Southern

Neotethys

Ocean

Sea of

Oman

Sea of

Oman

Hellenic-Cyprian

 Trench

Figure 4.—Continued
18 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

TURKEY

EGYPT

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

AZERBAIJAN

GREECE

ARMENIA

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

BLACK SEA

RED SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

40° E 

40° N

30° N

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

EXPLANATION

Lut Jurassic (142pCu9000)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus (142pCu9001)

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus (142pCu9002)

Sanandaj-Sirjan (142pCu9003)

Late Triassic-Early Cretaceous porphyry copper tracts

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

Figure 5. Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia.
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 19

BAHRAIN

QATAR

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

TAJIKISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Tashkent

Dushanbe

Ashgabat

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

CASPIAN

SEA

PERSIAN GULF

ARAL

SEA

60° E

Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 19
20 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 6. Late Cretaceous to late Eocene permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia.

BLACK SEA

RED SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

TURKEY

EGYPT

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GREECE

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

GEORGIA

ARMENIA

AZERBAIJAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

T'Bilisi

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

Jerusalem

40° E 

40° N

30° N

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Pontide (Asia) (142pCu9004)

Anatolide-Tauride (142pCu9005)

Lut Cretaceous (142pCu9006)

Border Folds (142pCu9007)

Esfahan (142pCu9008)

Khorasan (142pCu9009)

Makran (142pCu9011)

EXPLANATION

Late Cretaceous-late Eocene tracts
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 21

CASPIAN

SEA

PERSIAN GULF

ARAL

SEA

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

BAHRAIN

QATAR

TAJIKISTAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Ashgabat

Tashkent

Dushanbe

60° E
22 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 7. Eocene to Miocene permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.

BLACK SEA

PE

RED SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

TURKEY

EGYPT IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GREECE

ARMENIA

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

GEORGIA

AZERBAIJAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

Jerusalem

T'Bilisi

40° E 

40° N

30° N

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

Lut Tertiary (142pCu9010)

Sistan (142pCu9012)

Chagai (142pCu9013)

Azerbaijan (142pCu9014)

Yazd (142pCu9015)

Kerman (142pCu9016)

EXPLANATION

Eocene-Miocene tracts
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 23

CASPIAN

SEA

ARAL

SEA

PERSIAN GULF

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

BAHRAIN

QATAR

TAJIKISTAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Ashgabat

Tashkent

Dushanbe

60° E
24 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Between the middle Eocene and early Miocene, 

continued convergence in the Sistan Ocean (fig. 4E) also 

produced island to continental arc magmatism along the 

eastern margin of the Lut Terrane (Richards and others, 2012; 

Karimpour and Stern, 2011). Arc-related magmatism ended 

in the middle Miocene with final closure of the Sistan Ocean. 

This middle Eocene to early Miocene island- to continentalarc event is delimited by the Lut Tertiary permissive tract 

(displayed in red in fig. 7). Eleven porphyry copper and 

porphyry-related prospects are known in the Lut Tertiary tract.

Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch Realm

Between the Late Cretaceous and middle Eocene, increased 

convergence between the Arabian Platform (Afro-Arabian Plate) 

and the Cimmerian terranes (western Anatolide-Tauride, Central 

Anatolian Crystalline Complex, eastern Anatolide-Tauride or 

South Armenian Block, Bitlis-Pötürge, and Sanandaj-Sirjan) 

also began to narrow the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch. At 

this time, the Cimmerian terranes were separated by intervening 

oceans (the Inner Tauride Ocean) that are preserved today 

as ophiolitic complexes that occur throughout Turkey, the 

Lesser Caucasus, and Iran (figs. 3, 4C). As a result, island- to 

continental-arc and intraoceanic back-arc magmatism was 

related to several subduction zones located offshore and along 

the southern margins of these terranes (Okay, 2008; Şengör 

and Yilmaz, 1981; Karimpour and others, 2011b; Alavi, 1994; 

Berberian and King, 1981). Non-subduction-related magmatism 

also occurred in the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex 

during and after its Late Cretaceous collision with the Sakarya 

Terrane to the north (fig. 4C).

These Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene volcanoplutonic events are represented by a (possibly southwardtransported) continental arc segment located in the northern 

part of the Western Anatolide-Tauride Terrane (fig. 3), 

syncollisional to postcollisional magmatism in the Central 

Anatolian Crystalline Complex, a Late Cretaceous-early 

Paleocene continental arc in the Bitlis-Pötürge and SanandajSirjan Terranes, and a vast Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

(fig. 4D) intraoceanic back arc to the north of the continental 

arc on the Eastern Anatolide-Tauride and Central Iranian 

Terranes (Kuşcu and others, 2010; Agard and others, 2011; 

Verdel and others, 2011). In central Iran, back-arc extension 

propagated over time to the north into the Alborz Terrane and 

to the south over the arc axis into the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane.

These Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene volcanoplutonic events are delimited, respectively, by the Border 

Folds tract (depicted in light green in fig. 6), the AnatolideTauride tract (shown in orange in fig. 6), and the Esfahan14

tract (depicted in turquoise in fig. 6). Given the contrasting 

tectonic settings, the Anatolide-Tauride tract is further 

separated into the Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey, the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey, and the Anatolide-Tauride–

Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tracts.

14Also spelled as Isfahan.

The continental arc delimited by the Border Folds tract 

contains 7 known porphyry and porphyry-related prospects; 

the transported continental arc segment delimited by the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey sub-tract contains 2 known 

porphyry copper deposits and 4 porphyry prospects; and the 

syncollisional to postcollisional magmatic belt delimited by the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract contains 5 known 

porphyry and porphyry-related prospects. In general, these 

volcano-plutonic belts are deeply exhumed. In comparison, 

the better preserved intra-arc and back arc delimited by the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract contains 

more porphyry copper occurrences (4 known porphyry deposits 

and 11 prospects), and the extension of this back arc delimited 

by the Esfahan tract in Iran contains 1 known deposit and 13 

porphyry and possible porphyry-related prospects.

During the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene, a subductionrelated continental arc was also built on the southern margin 

of the Lut Terrane (Karimpour and others, 2011b; Berberian 

and Berberian, 1981). At this time, the East-Central Iranian 

Terrane collage was separated from Eurasia by the SabzevarSistan Ocean (fig. 4C) on the north and east, and from the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane by the extensional back-arc basin 

located in the Central Iranian Terrane on the west and south 

(Golonka, 2004; Dercourt and others, 1986). Note that the Late 

Cretaceous disposition of the Lut Terrane, which experienced 

a 90-degree counterclockwise rotation between the Eocene and 

middle Miocene, is not represented in figure 4C. Igneous rocks 

associated with this continental arc are delimited by the Lut 

Cretaceous tract, shown in dark green in figure 6. The poorly 

exposed Lut Cretaceous tract contains only 1 known porphyry 

prospect and 1 possible porphyry-related occurrence.

Late Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene island-arc 

magmatism in southern Iran and western Pakistan is 

represented by the Makran Terrane. This oceanic terrane 

includes offshore island arcs that during this time were 

converging northward toward the East-Central Iranian, 

Farah, and Helmand Terranes (McCall, 1997; Shahabpour, 

2010; Berberian and Berberian, 1981). By the late Eocene, 

the Makran Terrane began to accrete with the Eurasian 

margin on the north, as well as with the converging 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane on the west (fig. 4E). This Late 

Cretaceous-late Eocene intraoceanic volcano-plutonic event 

is delimited by the Makran tract (shown in purple in fig. 6). 

Only two possible porphyry-related occurrences are known 

in this tract.

Late Eocene to Middle Miocene

Late Eocene to middle Miocene tectono-magmatic events 

are related to the closure of the Southern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch. Magmatism associated with these events includes 

postcollisional-to-back-arc, back-arc, and postcollisional 

settings. Figures 4E and 4F illustrate late Eocene (36 Ma) and 

early Miocene (22 Ma) tectonic plate reconstructions of the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia.
Tectono-Magmatic Framework of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 25

In western Turkey, the compressional regime associated 

with convergence and collision between the Anatolide-Tauride 

and Sakarya Terranes along the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture 

ended by the middle Eocene (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; 

Yilmaz, 2003b). This compressional event was followed by 

a late Eocene to middle Oligocene postcollisional magmatic 

episode (fig. 4F) that resulted from extension and tectonic 

collapse of the overthickened crust in the Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane (Chakrabarti and others, 2012; Delaloye and Bingöl, 

2000; Harris and others, 1994). This postcollisional event was 

superseded by the late Oligocene onset of subduction along 

the north-dipping Hellenic-Cyprian subduction zone in the 

Mediterranean Sea and associated magmatism (Şengör and 

Yilmaz, 1981; Meulenkamp and others, 1988; Delaloye and 

Bingöl, 2000; Bozkurt and others, 2000; Yilmaz, 2003b). 

Thus, late Eocene to middle Oligocene postcollisional 

magmatism in western Turkey is overprinted by late Oligocene 

to middle Miocene (and younger) subduction-related 

magmatism.

In eastern Turkey, the Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

continental arc and associated back-arc setting was followed 

by shallowing of the subduction slab angle between the late 

Eocene and early Miocene (fig. 4F) and by collision between 

the Arabian Platform and the now amalgamated Bitlis-Pötürge 

and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes in the middle Miocene (Yiğitbaş 

and Yilmaz, 1996; Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Kaymakci and 

others, 2010; Pearce and others, 1990). Shallowing of the 

subduction slab angle led to reduction in volume of associated 

late Eocene to early Miocene subduction-related arc and backarc magmatism. The back-arc setting is preserved but poorly 

exposed across eastern Turkey.

In the Lesser Caucasus and northwestern Iran, Late 

Cretaceous to middle Eocene arc and associated back-arc 

magmatism were followed in the late Eocene-early Oligocene 

(fig. 4F) by the onset of oblique collision between the Arabian 

Platform and the Eurasian margin (Ghasemi and Talbot, 

2006; Robertson and Mountrakis, 2006; Berberian and others, 

1982; Agard and others, 2005). Collision and closure of the 

Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch in this region occurred 

earlier than in the west and east, because of the impinging 

geometry of the Arabian Platform. Collision was superseded 

by renewed late Oligocene to middle Miocene extension, 

subsidence, and formation of deep sedimentary basins across 

much of the preexisting extensional setting that had formed 

from eastern Turkey to central Iran (Morley and others, 2009; 

Reuter and others, 2009; Shahabpour, 2005, 2007). Mantleinvolved tectono-magmatic processes, including slab break-off 

and asthenospheric upwelling, are believed to have played a 

major role in generating this extensional regime and related 

magmatism (Aghazadeh and others, 2010, 2011; Azizi and 

Moinevaziri, 2009; Dilek and others, 2010).

From Turkey to central Iran, the late Eocene to 

middle Miocene postcollisional-to-back-arc, back-arc, and 

postcollisional volcano-plutonic events are delimited by the 

Azerbaijan tract (depicted in blue-green in fig. 7). Given 

the differences in the tectonic settings from west to east, 

this tract is separated into the Azerbaijan–Western Turkey, 

Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey, and Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran 

sub-tracts, respectively. The postcollisional to back-arc 

volcano-plutonic event delimited by the Azerbaijan–Western 

Turkey sub-tract contains 3 known porphyry copper deposits 

and 16 porphyry-related prospects, the back-arc volcanoplutonic event delimited by the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey 

sub-tract has only 1 known porphyry deposit and 1 prospect, 

and the postcollisional volcano-plutonic event delimited by the 

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract contains numerous known 

porphyry occurrences, including 5 porphyry copper deposits 

and 52 porphyry and porphyry-related prospects.

Figures 4F and 4G illustrate early Miocene (22 Ma) 

and late Miocene-early Pliocene (6 Ma) tectonic plate 

reconstructions of the Tethys region of western and southern 

Asia. In central and southeastern Iran, the northwest to 

southeast oblique closure of the southern Neotethys Ocean 

and final collision between the Arabian Platform and Eurasia 

(Mohajjel and others, 2003; Berberian and others, 1982) 

along the Bitlis-Zagros Suture is marked by middle-late 

Miocene uplift that resulted in inversion of earlier basins 

across the Sanandaj-Sirjan, Central Iranian, and Alborz 

Terranes. Subduction along the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane was 

active until the middle Miocene along central segment of the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt and until the late Miocene 

along the southeastern segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar 

Magmatic Belt (Mohajjel and others, 2003; Berberian and 

others, 1982; Shafiei and others, 2009). The UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt is a prominent range that trends 

northwest-southeast along the southern margin of the Central 

Iranian Terrane from northwestern to southeastern Iran. It 

is a composite Late Cretaceous to recent igneous province 

that emerged above sea level during the north-to-south 

diachronous Oligocene-Miocene to late Miocene collision 

between the Arabian Platform and the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

Terrane. Subduction along the Makran Trench in southeastern 

Iran and western Pakistan continues today.

This middle Eocene to middle Miocene and late Eocene 

to late Miocene diachronous continental arc-building event is 

delimited by the Yazd and Kerman tracts, respectively (shown 

in blue and purple, respectively, in fig. 7). The Yazd tract 

contains 2 porphyry deposits and 13 porphyry and porphyryrelated prospects. The Kerman tract, conversely, contains 12 

porphyry deposits and 70 prospects.

In southwestern Pakistan, Late Cretaceous to late 

Miocene progressive accretion of the Makran island-arc 

system onto the southern margins of the Farah and Helmand 

Terranes on the Eurasian margin created island- to continentalarc magmatism (Perelló and others, 2008; Khan and others, 

2010). By the late Oligocene, accretion and the transition from 

island- to continental-arc magmatism was established, with 

the arc axis largely positioned over the preexisting back-arc 

environment. This Late Cretaceous to late Miocene island 

to continental arc volcano-plutonic event is delimited by the 

Chagai tract (shown in light green in fig. 7), which contains 4 

known porphyry copper deposits and 25 prospects.
26 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Late Miocene to Holocene

The distribution of latest Miocene to Holocene 

magmatism is closely linked with the neotectonic evolution 

of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. PlioceneHolocene magmatism includes compressional subductionrelated settings to extensional postcollisional settings. Two 

subduction-related and one postcollisional events are delimited 

by the Pliocene-Quaternary sub-tracts described below.

Latest Miocene to Holocene subduction-related arc 

magmatism prevails on the western (Boztuğ and others, 2004; 

Yilmaz, 1990; Pasquarè and others, 1988) and eastern (Perelló 

and others, 2008; Siddiqui and others, 2007) extremities 

of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. The last 

remnants of the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch are still 

being consumed in these two areas. Compared to other 

subduction settings around the world, the Hellenic-Cyprian and 

the Makran subduction zones in the Mediterranean Sea and 

Arabian Sea, respectively, are associated with shallow-dipping 

slabs (Hatzfeld and others, 1989; Platt and others, 1985). 

These shallow subduction angles are generating voluminous 

accretionary fore-arc prisms and continental arcs that are being 

built several hundred kilometers inland from the associated 

trenches. These two latest Miocene to Holocene volcanicdominated continental arcs are delimited by the PlioceneQuaternary–Konya and Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman porphyry 

copper sub-tracts (fig. 8). One known porphyry prospect is 

included in the Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya sub-tract of westcentral Turkey, and one porphyry prospect and one possible 

porphyry-related occurrence were identified and are included in 

the Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract of southeastern Iran 

and western Pakistan.

Compared to subduction-related magmatism, which 

typically forms distinct arcuate belts, postcollisional 

magmatism in the assessment region occurs in widespread, 

but irregularly distributed and isolated outcrops. PlioceneHolocene postcollisional magmatism is dominated by shallowly 

emplaced volcanic rocks. These exhibit diverse mafic to 

felsic compositions that cover the spectrum from tholeiitic 

to calc-alkaline and high-K calc-alkaline to alkaline, as well 

as ultra-alkaline (Keskin, 2003; Yilmaz, 1990; Dilek and 

others, 2010; Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009; Jahangiri, 2007; 

Omrani and others, 2008; Jamali and others, 2012; Berberian 

and King, 1981). Pliocene-Holocene postcollisional igneous 

rocks are most extensive in the Lesser Caucasus region, where 

collision between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian 

margin generated intense crustal shortening. Crustal shortening 

generated extensional grabens parallel to the compression 

direction, and pull-apart basins along strike-slip faults 

(Sosson others, 2010b). This latest Miocene to Holocene nonsubduction-related volcano-plutonic event is delimited by the 

Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional porphyry copper sub-tract, 

which contains 4 porphyry and porphyry-related prospects 

(shown in pink in fig. 8). Figure 4G illustrates the late Mioceneearly Pliocene (6 Ma) tectonic plate reconstruction of the Tethys 

region of western and southern Asia.

Neotectonic Setting of the Tethys 

Region of Western and Southern Asia

The neotectonic setting presented in this section is intended 

to familiarize the reader with the present-day physiography of 

the study region and to convey that several tracts are partially 

superimposed and variably preserved in complex fold-and-thrust 

belts, which are the result of more than one deformation, uplift, 

erosion, subsidence, and (or) burial event. Furthermore, latest 

Miocene to Holocene magmatism is intimately linked with the 

neotectonic evolution of the region and offers a snapshot of the 

processes that also operated to a larger or lesser extent in the past.

Western, Central, and Southern Turkey

The neotectonic framework of Turkey is outlined by 

four major structures that separate the region into distinct 

tectonic provinces. These are the dextral North Anatolian 

Fault, the sinistral East Anatolian Fault, the sinistral Dead 

Sea Fault, and the Hellenic-Cyprian Trench. The Dead Sea 

Fault, East Anatolian Fault, and Hellenic-Cyprian Trench meet 

in southeastern Turkey to form a continental triple junction 

that is bound by the Anatolian Block to the northwest, the 

East Anatolian Province to the east, and the African Plate to 

the south. The Anatolian Block is being extruded westward 

along the sinistral East Anatolian Fault and the dextral North 

Anatolian Fault in an extensional setting. The East Anatolian 

Province southeast of the East Anatolian Fault is being 

transported northward in a collision-related compressional 

setting. The African Plate in the Mediterranean Sea is being 

subducted northward along the Hellenic-Cyprian Trench (fig. 2), 

forming a compressional arc and extensional back-arc system 

across western and central Turkey. Igneous rocks associated 

with this event define the Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya sub-tract 

with only one known porphyry prospect (see above). However, 

a few acid-sulfate epithermal systems transition into porphyrystyle mineralization at depth (Stratex International PLC, 2012a).

In the Mediterranean Sea south of western and central 

Turkey, the Hellenic-Cyprian subduction system forms the 

boundary between the African and Eurasian Plates. Northward 

subduction of the remnant Neotethys Ocean at least since about 

26 Ma (Meulenkamp and others, 1988) has resulted in extension 

of about 3 centimeters per year (cm/yr) in the back-arc region, 

which is preserved in central and western Turkey. Southward 

migration of the Hellenic-Cyprian Arc by subduction rollback 

was initiated around 12 Ma (Le Pichon and Angelier, 1979; 

Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000) and continues today in response 

to the combined effects of the relative motion between the 

African and Eurasian Plates (less than or equal to, ≤, 4 cm/yr) 

and the westward escape of the Anatolian Block (≤3 cm/yr). 

Tectonic escape of the Anatolian Block was well established 

by about 6 Ma (Dilek, 2010; Bozkurt and others, 2000; Keskin, 

2003). Thus, back-arc and tectonic escape extensional events 

are superimposed in this region. Igneous rocks associated with 

these events are dominated by mafic compositions.
Neotectonic Setting of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 27

Northern Turkey

In north-central and northeastern Turkey, folded and 

thrust-faulted Paleogene successions north of the North 

Anatolian Fault are unconformably overlain by Oligocene to 

middle Miocene evaporites and continental red beds that were 

deposited in semiclosed euxinic basins (Adamia and others, 

2011). This extensional event was followed by transpression, 

which initiated the dextral North Anatolian Fault around 12 Ma. 

This transpressional regime continues to the present day and is 

expressed by an east-west trending regional-scale horst separated 

by normal fault-bounded grabens to the north and to the south 

(Yilmaz and others, 2001; Boztuğ and others, 2003). Structural 

studies show that multidirectional normal (20.5 Ma to 9.7 Ma) 

and later strike-slip faults (9.7 Ma to present) formed in part as 

a result of gravitational collapse following collision between the 

Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin in the south (Bozkurt 

and others, 2000). Intrusions and fissure eruptions locally occur 

along these extensional structures. Where they exhibit permissive 

intermediate to felsic compositions, they define the PlioceneQuaternary–Postcollisional sub-tract (see above). No porphyry 

copper prospects of latest Miocene to Holocene age are known in 

this area. However, several epithermal systems that are associated 

with intrusions of intermediate alkaline composition are reported 

to transition into porphyry-style mineralization at depth (Yigit, 

2009).

Eastern Turkey, Lesser Caucasus, and 

Northwestern Iran

The 27–10 Ma collisional event between the Arabian 

Platform and Eurasia along the Bitlis-Zagros Suture (fig.2) 

resulted in intense crustal shortening and thickening in 

this region, which formed the East Anatolian contractional 

province (Dercourt and others, 1986; McQuarrie and 

others, 2003). In eastern Turkey, the Lesser Caucasus, and 

northwestern Iran, north-northwest compression during 

the early Miocene shifted to north-northeast during the late 

Miocene (Sosson and others, 2010a; Dilek and others, 2010). 

This compressional regime prevails today and is expressed as 

an active northwest-trending and south-vergent fold-and-thrust 

belt. Associated west-northwest dextral and east-northeast 

sinistral transpressional faults parallel the North and East 

Anatolian Faults, and north-northeast-south-southwesttrending normal structures parallel the main compression 

direction (Gamkrelidze, 1986; Bozkurt and Mittweide, 

2001). These structures control large volcanic edifices, which 

form a trail that extends into the Greater Caucasus (fig. 2). 

Latest Miocene to Holocene volcanism is widespread in 

this region, and where it exhibits permissive intermediate 

to felsic composition, it defines the Pliocene-Quaternary–

Postcollisional sub-tract (see above). One known porphyry 

copper prospect has been identified in this part of the sub-tract. 

However, some geothermal systems transition into porphyrystyle mineralization at depth (Bogie and others, 2005).

Greater Caucasus and Northern Iran

In the Greater Caucasus, paleogeographic reconstructions 

indicate that the region emerged above sea level only after the 

middle Miocene (13–14 Ma). Since then, the region has grown 

into a major mountain range formed by a doubly vergent fold-andthrust belt (Saintot and others, 2006). Late Miocene (11–10 Ma) 

to middle-late Pliocene (3.4–1.8 Ma) compression and uplift were 

predominantly accommodated by west-northwest trending reverse 

faults (Mosar and others, 2010). A shift from a compressional to a 

transpressional regime over time resulted in northwest-southeast 

and thrust-parallel west-northwest oblique slip components, and 

associated north-northeast transtensional faults with left-lateral 

components along the main shortening direction (Saintot and 

others, 2006).

The compressional regime continues across northern Iran, 

where folding and thrusting in the Talysh and Alborz regions are 

a product of the far-field deformation associated with the middle 

Miocene collision between the Arabian Platform and Eurasia. 

Thrusting and folding dominate along the flanks of the Alborz 

mountain range (fig. 2). Thrusts dip north in the southern flanks, 

and south in the northern flanks of the range, creating a flower 

structure (Gansser and Huber, 1962). Deformation is accompanied 

by range-parallel steeply dipping sinistral strike-slip faults that 

are mainly located within the range interior (Mirnejad and others, 

2010a), although the sense of strike-slip offset was just the 

opposite before 5 Ma (Zanchi and others, 2006; Axen and others, 

2001). Faults with normal separation do occur and bound pullapart basins along strike-slip faults (Ritz and others, 2006). Latest 

Miocene to Holocene volcanic edifices preferentially occupy these 

structural zones, and where they exhibit permissive intermediate 

to felsic composition, they define the Pliocene-Quaternary–

Postcollisional sub-tract (see above). One deeply exhumed 

porphyry copper prospect is known in this part of the sub-tract.

In the Alborz range, as in the Greater Caucasus, 

thermochronological studies indicate rapid uplift and several 

kilometers of exhumation since 6 Ma (Axen and others, 2001). 

This age coincides with subsidence in the South Caspian Sea 

(fig. 3), where the larger fraction of the 10-km-thick sedimentary 

section there has been deposited since ~6 Ma (Guest and others, 

2007).

The Kopet Dagh Terrane of northeastern Iran (fig. 2), like the 

Alborz Terrane, displays partitioning of the overall convergence 

into reverse and strike-slip components. In the western part of 

the Kopet Dagh Terrane, current shortening is accommodated by 

south-vergent west-southwest thrusts and thrust-parallel left-lateral 

strike-slip faults. In the eastern part of the Kopet Dagh Terrane, 

south-vergent east-southeast thrusts and right-lateral strike-slip 

faults parallel the Apsheron Sill that projects from the Caspian Sea 

into this region (Hollingsworth and others, 2010).

Structural elements in the Talysh, Alborz, and Kopet Dagh 

Terranes have not only been influenced by the far-field effects of 

the Arabian Platform-Eurasia collision to the south, but by their 

interaction with the adjacent South Caspian Sea Terrane to the 

north (fig. 3). Geophysical data suggest that South Caspian Sea 

Terrane is in the early stages of subducting north and possibly 
28 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 8. Pliocene to Holocene permissive tract for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.

Konya sub-tract

TURKEY

EGYPT

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

AZERBAIJAN

GREECE

ARMENIA

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

PER

RED SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

BLACK SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 50° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 250 500 750 1,000 KILOMETERS

0 250 500 MILES

Pliocene-Quaternary

 (142pCu9017)

EXPLANATION

Pliocene-Holocene tract
Neotectonic Setting of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 29

Bazman sub-tract

IRAN

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

BAHRAIN

QATAR

KAZAKHSTAN KYRGYSTAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Kabul

Manama

Tehran

Ashgabat

TAJIKISTAN

Tashkent

Dushanbe

PERSIAN GULF

CASPIAN

SEA

ARAL

SEA
30 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

west under the Apsheron Sill and the Talysh regions, respectively 

(Golonka, 2004). Thus, the South Caspian Sea Terrane appears to 

be moving westward relative to the adjacent terranes of northern 

Iran, resulting in thrusting in the Talysh Terrane to the west, 

thrusting and left-lateral faulting in the Alborz and western Kopet 

Dagh Terranes to the south, and thrusting and right-lateral faulting 

along the on-land projection of the Apsheron Sill in the eastern 

Kopet Dagh Terrane to the east (Allen and others, 2006). Latest 

Miocene to Holocene volcanism preferentially occupies these 

structural zones, and where it shows permissive intermediate 

to felsic composition, it defines the Pliocene-Quaternary–

Postcollisional sub-tract. No porphyry copper prospects have 

positively been identified in this part of the sub-tract.

Eastern and Central-Eastern Iran

In the Sistan suture zone of eastern Iran, east-northeastdirected convergence and final collision between the 

Lut Terrane of Iran on the west and the Farah Terrane of 

Afghanistan (fig. 3) on the east occurred between the middle 

Eocene and middle Miocene (Tirrul and others, 1983). Since 

then, continued compression is being accommodated by northnorthwest- and northeast-trending en echelon dextral faults 

that are part of the greater Nehbandan Fault system (fig. 2). 

However, the major relative motions appear to be occurring 

along the Nehbandan fault proper (Allen and others, 2006).

In the Lut Terrane of central-eastern Iran, the neotectonic 

structure consists of a series of parallel north-northwest right 

lateral faults represented by the Nayband and Nehbandan 

transpressional systems (fig. 2) that bound the Lut Terrane to 

the east and west, respectively (Walker and Jackson, 2004). As 

in the Sistan suture zone, these structures are accommodating 

the ongoing east-northeast-directed horizontal shortening in the 

region, which is generally composed of dextral northeast and 

sinistral northwest faults (Wellman, 1966).

Latest Miocene to Holocene volcanic-dominated igneous 

rocks preferentially occupy structural zones in eastern and 

central Iran. Where they show permissive intermediate to felsic 

composition, they define the Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional 

sub-tract. No porphyry copper prospects have positively been 

identified in this part of the sub-tract.

Central and Southeastern Iran

The diachronous northwest-to-southeast oblique collision 

between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin occurred 

about the late Oligocene (~27 Ma) in the northwestern part, about 

the middle Miocene (~16 Ma) in the central part, and about the 

late Miocene (~7 Ma) in the southeastern part (Agard and others, 

2011) of Iran. From northwestern to southeastern Iran, collision 

along the Bitlis-Zagros Suture triggered widespread crustal 

shortening and thickening, generating uplift and a fold-and-thrust 

belt in the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian Terranes (fig. 3). 

Evidence of far-field deformation is also present to the north in 

the Talysh, Alborz, and Kopet Dagh Terranes. Since the early 

Pliocene, folding associated with the south-vergent thrusting 

of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane over the Arabian Platform has 

also propagated to the southwest across the Bitlis-Zagros Suture 

forming the present-day Zagros Folded Belt (Stöcklin, 1968; 

Alavi, 1994; Molinaro and others, 2005). To the northeast of 

the Bitlis-Zagros Suture, north-vergent thrusts and northwestsoutheast en echelon strike-slip faults occur well into the Central 

Iranian Terrane (Alavi, 1994). Deformation is most intense along 

the Bitlis-Zagros Thrust, which consists of a combination of 

thrusting followed by Pliocene-Holocene right-lateral strike-slip 

movements (fig. 2). Strike-slip displacements are estimated at 

between 50 and 70 km over the past 3–5 million years (m.y.) 

(Talebian and Jackson, 2002; Jackson and McKenzie, 1984). This 

compressional to transpressional regime continues today.

Large volcanic edifices of latest Miocene to Holocene age 

occur along the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt in this region. 

Permissive intermediate to felsic igneous rocks associated with 

this event define the Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional subtract. One known porphyry copper prospect of Latest Miocene to 

Holocene age is included in this part of the sub-tract. However, 

as many as five other porphyry and porphyry-related acid-sulfate 

systems are possibly also related to this postcollisional magmatic 

event (Biabangard and others, 2011; Shahabpour, 2007; Parsapoor 

and others, 2009).

Southeastern Iran and Southwestern Pakistan

The subduction-related Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan 

continental arc of southeastern Iran, western Pakistan, and 

southern Afghanistan initiated in the Miocene-Pliocene as a result 

of southward migration and flattening of the subducted slab, 

now located along the Makran Trench. Large early Pliocene to 

Holocene volcanic edifices associated with this volcano-plutonic 

event define the Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract. The 

Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc hosts numerous epithermal 

systems, some of which are known to be porphyry-related. This 

sub-tract includes two positively identified porphyry prospects 

(Bhutta, 2004; Perelló and others, 2008; Samani, 1998).

Assessment Data

The assessment team used digital geologic, tectonic, 

geophysical, and remote sensing maps, topical data and maps at 

various scales, published literature, mineral occurrence databases, 

technical reports on prospects, and mining company Web sites 

to compile and analyze the complex interplay between the oreforming environment, exposure level, and exploration extent 

supplied by the data. These data provided the foundation to 

select the appropriate grade-tonnage model, to delineate tracts, 

to evaluate favorability and associated uncertainty, and to make 

individual estimates of the numbers of undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits in the assessment region. These estimates in 

turn were used in the probabilistic simulation of undiscovered 

resources in the assessment region.
Assessment Data 31

Geologic Maps

Geologic maps were the primary source of information 

for delineating permissive tracts. Volcano-plutonic belts, the 

fundamental features used to delimit tracts permissive for the 

occurrence of porphyry copper deposits, were defined by creating 

derivative map layers that grouped geologic units of similar 

age and lithological character. For each tract, map units were 

categorized into (1) older basement rocks, (2) calc-alkaline and 

alkaline intrusive and extrusive units of felsic to intermediate 

composition and age range (that is, permissive units), (3) coeval 

sedimentary, volcano-sedimentary, and ultramafic and mafic 

igneous units (that is, nonpermissive units), and (4) younger cover 

rocks. This allowed for effective use of GIS tools in the evaluation 

and selection of those rock types likely or unlikely to be associated 

with a volcano-plutonic event and associated porphyry copper 

deposits.

The primary geologic base maps used for the identification 

of permissive igneous units used to define each porphyry copper 

tract included digital versions of the 1:1,000,000 geologic map 

of Iran (Huber, 1978), the 1:1,000,000 metallogenetic map of 

the Caucasus (Kekelia and others, 2001), the 1:500,000 geologic 

map of Turkey (General Directorate of Mineral Research and 

Exploration, 2000), the 1:1,000,000 geologic map of Pakistan 

(Qureshi and others, 1993), the 1:2,000,000 (Pollastro and others, 

1998) and 1:1,000,000 (Sissakian, 2000) geologic maps of Iraq, 

and the 1:850,000 geologic map of Afghanistan (Peters and others, 

2007). Numerous additional sources were used to further constrain 

ages, compositions, and other geologic features. Appendixes A and 

B list the principal sources of data and geologic map units used to 

define each permissive tract, respectively.

Tectonic Maps

Terrane boundaries were used to identify and delimit tectonic 

settings, and where applicable, the extent of tracts. Boundaries 

were digitized after Abdullah and Chmyriov (1977b) and Peters 

and others (2011) for Afghanistan, Kazmi and Rana (1982) for 

Pakistan, Stöcklin (1968) for Iran, Pollastro and others (1998) for 

Iraq, Kaymakci and others (2010) and Yigit (2009) for Turkey, and 

Kekelia and others (2001) for the Caucasus. Terrane names used 

throughout this report conform to these sources and also Golonka 

(2004). Additional sources used for tectonic features are listed in 

appendix A.

Mineral Occurrence Data

The database of porphyry copper deposits and prospects 

(appendix D) compiled for this assessment served two 

purposes—(1) porphyry deposits were used to compare reported 

geologic characteristics and resource data in the study area with 

descriptive and global grade and tonnage models for porphyry 

copper deposits, and (2) porphyry prospects were used to assist 

in the delimitation of tracts and the assessment of geologic 

favorability and uncertainty. Porphyry prospects may just be 

small manifestations of the same processes that generate porphyry 

deposits. However, they are exceptional “geochemical samples,” 

because they may provide information on the location of 

permissive units that are not represented at the regional scale of the 

geologic map used, on the composition of the related intrusions, 

on the metal associations present, on the level of exhumation or 

burial, and on the extent of exploration (see below).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

The database of porphyry copper deposits and prospects 

resulted from a data compilation effort aimed at complementing 

and augmenting the Singer and others (2008) porphyry copper 

database with mineral occurrence databases from the Geological 

Survey of Iran (2012e), Kekelia and others (2001), Rundkvist 

(2001), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), and Engın and others (2000). 

Significant other sources of relevant information on porphyry 

deposits and prospects used for this study include Bazin and 

Hübner (1969a, b), Förster (1978), Karimpour and others (2011b), 

Boztuğ and others (2003), Kuşcu and Erler (1998), Yigit (2006, 

2009, 2012), Jamali and others (2010), Al-Bassam and Hak 

(2006), Richards and others (2012), Perelló and others (2008), 

and Orris and Bliss (2002). The reader is referred to appendix A 

for these and additional sources of information on porphyry and 

porphyry-related occurrences in the assessment region.

Forty-five porphyry copper deposits and 275 porphyry and 

porphyry-related prospects were identified (see appendixD). 

An additional 47 possible porphyry-related occurrences are 

also included in the database. These possible porphyry-related 

occurrences consist mainly of skarn and epithermal systems for 

which a relation to porphyry-style mineralization has not been 

established.

Porphyry-Related Deposit Types

Porphyry-related deposit types are mineral systems that 

may be related to undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

(Arribas and others, 1995; Einaudi, 1982). These include 

intrusion-centered skarn, carbonate-replacement, and sedimenthosted deposits in increasingly peripheral locations, and 

superjacent high- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal 

deposits. Porphyry Cu±Au±Mo deposits are centered on the 

intrusions, whereas carbonate wall rocks host proximal Cu-Au 

skarns, distal Pb-Zn±Au skarns, carbonate-replacement Cu 

and (or) Zn-Pb-Ag±Au mantos and veins beyond the skarn 

front, and (or) sediment-hosted gold deposits (Sillitoe, 2010). 

Porphyry-related deposits also include porphyry systems that 

may share the same setting with porphyry copper deposits 

but exhibit more diverse igneous compositions and metal 

associations (Seedorff and others, 2005) that may not be well 

represented in available descriptive and grade-and-tonnage 

models. Recent literature, company Web sites, and technical 

reports for exploration projects were checked for descriptions 

of geology, mineralogy, deposit type, rock alteration, and 

sampling results to evaluate the likelihood that these prospects 
32 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

were associated with a porphyry copper system similar to those 

in the descriptive model. In this assessment, 51 porphyryrelated prospects are included in the database of 277 porphyry 

prospects (appendix C).

Spatial Rules for Grouping Deposits and 

Prospects

Spatial rules were used to define the sampling unit that 

represents a deposit to ensure consistency in defining deposits 

as geologic entities for mineral-resource assessment (Singer and 

Menzie, 2010). For porphyry copper deposits, two operational 

rules were applied in constructing the Singer and others (2008) 

grade and tonnage models—(1) all mineralized or altered rock 

within 4 km was combined as a single deposit, and (2) grade and 

tonnage data were compiled for these deposits based on total 

production, reserves, and resources at the lowest reported cutoff 

grade. In this assessment, these rules applied to the Reko Diq 

deposit.15

Exploration

The following sections offer a review of the history, 

environment, and extent of exploration for porphyry copper 

deposits that has occurred in the assessment region, by country, 

and based on available published literature. Knowledge about 

the extent and efficiency of exploration is relevant because it 

influences the uncertainty about where, how large, and how rich 

undiscovered mineral resources may be in a permissive tract 

(Singer and Menzie, 2010). Commonly, exploration is partial and 

its influence on the uncertainty associated with estimating numbers 

of undiscovered deposits requires evaluation in conjunction 

with other geological, geophysical, and mineral occurrence data. 

Where exploration efforts are known to have been extensive and 

thorough, uncertainty in estimating the numbers of undiscovered 

deposits is lowered. However, this may also have the effect of 

lowering estimates of the numbers of undiscovered deposits, given 

that most if not all deposits present in a specific tract may have 

already been identified. Conversely, where exploration extent is 

not known or has not occurred, estimates of undiscovered deposits 

rely on other available information to assess the uncertainty 

associated with favorability.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan is relatively underexplored geologically but 

believed to have large untapped energy and mineral resources 

15The resource reported in the list of deposits for this report (table 2) is 

the weighted average of Reko Diq H8, Reko Diq H13, Reko Diq H14, and 

Reko Diq H35, whereas the spatial database (appendix D) reports each location individually. For this reason, table 2 contains 42 deposits, whereas the 

spatial database has 45 deposits. Similarly, a total of 318 porphyry prospects, 

porphyry-related prospects, and possible porphyry-related occurrences are 

reported in appendix C, but 322 occurrences of these types are included in the 

spatial database.

(British Geological Survey, 2006b). The mining industry is largely 

at an artisanal stage of development. The major mineral resources 

include chromium, copper, gold, iron, lead and zinc, lithium, 

marble, precious and semiprecious stones (lapis lazuli), sulfur, and 

talc (Kuo, 2011a).

Before 2001, exploration for mineral resources in 

Afghanistan was conducted by geologists from the Soviet 

Union who left geologic records that indicate significant mineral 

potential. Between 2005 and 2011, scientists with the USGS and 

the Afghanistan Geological Survey collaborated to collect and 

consolidate existing information about known mineral deposits. 

This countrywide geological integration effort culminated with 

the creation of mineral resource information packages that have 

been offered for bidding to international mining companies (Peters 

and others, 2011). The Government of Afghanistan has introduced 

new mineral and hydrocarbon laws to meet international standards 

of governance, including no local ownership requirements or 

exposure to possible nationalization, and a 20-percent corporate 

tax rate that is the lowest in the region.

Afghanistan has two known world-class mineral prospects 

in the development stage—the Aynak sediment-hosted stratiform 

copper (240 Mt at 2.3 percent copper; British Geological 

Survey, 2006a) and the Hajigak iron skarn (2 billion metric tons, 

Bt, at 63–69 percent iron; Orris and Bliss, 2002; Afghanistan 

Geological Survey, 2007). However, few porphyry systems have 

been identified (Ludington and others, 2007). They include the 

Okhankoshan Cu-Au-Mo porphyry and the possible porphyryrelated Zarkashan and Ahonkashan copper-gold skarns (British 

Geological Survey, 2006b). In the southernmost part of the 

Afghanistan covered by this assessment, recent exploration for 

porphyry copper deposits has largely been limited to remote 

sensing studies (King and others, 2011; Kuo, 2011a).

Armenia

Armenia is a major producer of molybdenum. It was 

ranked seventh in the world in mine output in 2009 (Levine, 

2011a). Besides molybdenum, Armenia produces other metals, 

which include iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver (Norwest 

Mineral Sector Investment Focus, 2003; Wikipedia, 2012a). 

Armenia’s industrial-scale metal production began in the early 

19th century with the opening of the Alaverdy and Kapan copper 

mines. In the early 1950s, the country’s economy began to focus 

more on mining with the development of the Zangezur Copper 

Molybdenum Combine, which operates the world-class Kadjaran 

deposit. The Agarak Copper-Molybdenum Mine Complex was 

originally established in 1958.

Most known porphyry systems were identified through 

exploration efforts conducted during the Soviet Era. However, 

deposit-specific geologic information is sparse. Several decades 

of mine development were interrupted by the dissolution of the 

Soviet Union, coupled with the decline in commodity prices. 

Armenia’s minerals sector also faced other challenges, such as 

the closure of both the Azerbaijani and Turkish borders, which 

hindered access to world markets and government efforts to 

attract foreign investment. Since 2000, however, revisions to the 
Assessment Data 33

regulatory framework have led to the liberalization of contractual 

mechanisms and privatization of mining companies. These 

reforms have lowered inflation and increased foreign investment 

in the country (Mining Journal, 2005).

Several international mining companies are now actively 

engaged in exploration and development efforts of porphyry 

copper deposits (Mining Journal, 2011a). Development was 

expected to start in the second half of 2013 at the Teghout 

porphyry deposit (Vallex Group, 2013), and the current 

capital investment program at Agarak includes installation 

of new flotation circuits and upgrades to existing equipment 

(GeoProMining, 2012). These renewed exploration efforts are 

producing more detailed deposit-specific and regional geologic 

information, augmenting the previously identified resources at 

several porphyry and porphyry-related deposits and prospects 

(Norwest Mineral Sector Investment Focus, 2003).

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan’s most economically significant natural 

resource is oil. The country has been a significant oil producer 

for more than a century and is currently developing its offshore 

resources in the Caspian Sea. However, Azerbaijan also has 

known iron, pyrite, molybdenum, bauxite, arsenic, industrial 

mineral, and polymetallic deposits (Levine, 2011b). Large 

resources of iron are located at the Dashkesan iron skarn, 

which contains an estimated 300 Mt at 45 and 60 percent iron 

assessed according to the Soviet reserve classification system. 

The deposit also contains as much as 0.04 percent cobalt and 

vanadium (Levine and Wallace, 2010).

Exploration for porphyry copper deposits since the Soviet 

Era includes recent efforts by Anglo Asian Mining PLC (2011). 

The company has been conducting exploration in several 

areas. To assist exploration, Anglo Asian Mining PLC has been 

analyzing older geological data under a production-sharing 

agreement with the Azerbaijan government (Anglo Asian 

Mining PLC, 2011). The company has developed and is mining 

the historic Kedabek gold-copper-silver porphyry deposit, 

which from 1864 to 1917 produced 56,000 t copper and 134 t 

of gold-silver doré from 1.72 Mt of ore (Anglo Asian Mining 

PLC, 2011). The company was expected to produce 25,000 

troy ounces (troy oz) of gold in the year ending in July 2010 

(Anglo Asian Mining PLC, 2011). Significant porphyry copper 

potential also exists in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic 

located southwest of Armenia. Anglo Asian Mining PLC holds 

exploration licenses at the Ordubad, Soyutlu, and Vezhnali 

prospects (Safirova, 2013a). In addition to gold, these prospects 

contain silver and copper, but their association to porphyry-style 

mineralization has not been confirmed (Azerbaijan Ministry of 

Ecology and Natural Resources, [2006?]).

Georgia

During the Soviet Era, many minerals were mined in 

Georgia. These included arsenic, barite, bentonite, coal, copper, 

diatomite, lead, manganese, zeolites, and zinc (Wikipedia, 2013b). 

The country was a major producer of high-grade manganese ore 

from the Chiatura deposit and base metals from the Madneulli 

volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) Cu-Au-Zn-Ba deposit 

(Safirova, 2013b). Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, 

the level of mineral production in Georgia declined sharply. 

Although production in the mineral industry was reviving in 2005, 

the government has lacked the financial resources to introduce 

modern mining and processing technologies. Therefore, growth 

in the mining and metallurgical sector has lagged (Levine, 2011c). 

Exploration of porphyry deposits in Georgia has been limited. 

Only a few porphyry-related prospects have been identified (Moon 

and others, 2001).

Iran

Iran’s mineral wealth, in addition to oil and gas, includes 

chromite, lead, zinc, copper, coal, gold, tin, iron, manganese, 

ferrous oxide, and tungsten. Iran possesses large copper resources 

contained in porphyry deposits, including the world-class Sar 

Cheshmeh and Sungun mines.

Mining in Iran has taken place since about 5,000 B.C. 

Anarak, for example, was one of the earliest mining regions the 

world (Momenzadeh, 2005). Copper artifacts discovered during 

various studies and at sites of primitive smelting furnaces, still 

visible today, confirm that Iran has been mining and smelting 

copper for centuries. During the 1960s and 1970s, geologic 

surveys by the Iranian government led to the systematic recording 

of known deposits, as well as the search for new ones. As a 

result, about 250 copper occurrences and several potentially 

viable projects were recognized, including the Darreh-Zerreshk 

and Ali Abad porphyry systems (Zarasvandi and others, 2005). 

At the same time, prospecting and drilling was underway at Sar 

Cheshmeh (Bazin and Hübner, 1969b). The Sungun deposit 

was discovered in the mid-1970s when fluid inclusion analysis 

suggested the presence of mineralization similar to that found at 

other world’s large copper deposits (Etminan, 1977). In 1972, 

Sar Cheshmeh Copper Mines Joint Stock Co. of Kerman was 

established, which in 1976 was renamed as the National Iranian 

Copper Industries Company to encompass all copper mining 

operations throughout Iran. By 1977, about half the country 

had been surveyed from the air, but less than one-fifth had been 

explored on the ground (Metz, 1987).

Following the revolution in 1979 and the 1982 IranIraq War, Australian, Canadian, French, and Yugoslavian 

mining companies joined the Geological Survey of Iran in 

the exploration effort. Since 1998, the Iranian government 

has allowed foreign investment in mineral exploration joint 

ventures. For its economic development plan 2000–2005, 

the government proposed to privatize 40 mineral industry 

companies affiliated with the Ministry of Industry and Mines, 

having already divested itself of more than 90 percent of its 

mineral enterprises. In 2009, Kazakhmys, Kazakhstan’s largest 

mining and energy group and international natural resources 

company, announced that it would expand its activities in Iran 

and assist the country in projects to discover gold and copper 

deposits (PressTV, 2009).
34 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Over the past 10 years, the National Iranian Copper 

Industries Company has led extensive exploration efforts for 

porphyry copper deposits, particularly in the northwestern 

Arasbaran and southeastern Kerman regions of the country. 

Sar Cheshmeh and Meiduk in Kerman Province and Sungun 

in eastern Azerbaijan Province are the three largest porphyry 

copper mines in the country (Etminan, 2003). Several other 

porphyry deposits are in development or have begun operations, 

including Haft Cheshmeh and Masjed Daghi in the northwestern 

part and Darrehzar, Chah-Firuzeh, Taft (Darreh-Zerreshk and 

Ali-Abad), and Dar Alu in the southeastern part of the country 

(National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012). More recent 

exploration efforts have also identified porphyry copper prospects 

in the Yazd (for example, Ayati and others, 2013), central-eastern 

Lut (for example, Richards and others, 2012) eastern Sistan (for 

example, Zarcan International Resources, 2000), and northeastern 

Khorasan (Karimpour and Malekzadeh, 2006; Alaminia and 

others, 2011) regions of the country. In contrast, limited porphyryrelated exploration information available for the northern Alborz, 

western Sanandaj-Sirjan, central Iranian, and Makran regions 

of the country suggest that these regions may be comparatively 

underexplored for porphyry copper deposits.

Pakistan

Pakistan has copper, iron, limestone, and salt resources. 

Pakistan also has moderate oil and sizable gas resources, as well as 

high potential for coal (Kuo, 2011b). The Government of Pakistan 

encourages foreign investment in exploration and development of 

the mining sector. Under the government’s investment incentives, 

foreign equity of as much as 100 percent is allowed. Remittance 

of capital and profits are permitted, and expatriate facilitation 

is offered. The government, through the Geological Survey 

of Pakistan, generates basic geologic data with the purpose of 

identifying exploration projects. However, in accordance with 

the Constitution of Pakistan and the National Mineral Policy 

(Pakistan Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, 1995), 

the exploration for and development of minerals are under the 

authority of individual provinces. Each province develops its own 

mining code, which is based on the model set forth in the National 

Mineral Policy. The mineral policy is intended to provide the 

institutional and regulatory framework for ensuring an equitable 

and internationally competitive fiscal regime for the mineral sector 

(Kuo, 2011b).

The first systematic geological mapping of Pakistan at 

a scale of 1 inch to 4 miles (1:253,440) was undertaken in 

1952–56 under the Canada-Pakistan Colombo Plan project. 

In 1956–70, mapping and appraisal of geological resources in 

Pakistan continued under a cooperative program between the 

Geological Survey of Pakistan and the USGS, which resulted 

in the discovery of the copper-mineralized quartz-diorite stocks 

at Saindak in the 1970s (Everest Gold, Inc., 2012; Wikipedia, 

2013c). During this time, regional geologic and mineral deposits 

studies sponsored by the Development Corporation of Pakistan 

and the United Nations were also underway (Sillitoe, 1978). 

During 1991–93, Metallurgical Construction Corporation of 

China (MCC) constructed a metallurgical plant and initiated the 

Saindak open pit mine. The project was transferred to Saindak 

Metals Limited in early 1996 after a successful trial operation that 

produced 1,550 t of blister copper. Due to a shortage of working 

capital, the mine was placed on a care-and-maintenance basis 

until 2003, when it was recommissioned by MCC (Everest Gold, 

Inc., 2012).

In the early 1990s, BHP (subsequently BHP Billiton) 

commenced an extensive exploration effort in the Chagai region, 

which resulted in the identification of several porphyry prospects 

and the discovery of the giant copper-gold porphyry deposit 

at Reko Diq (Mincor Resources NL, 2003). Tethyan Copper 

Company, Ltd., continued exploration under an agreement with 

BHP Billiton until early 2006, when Tethyan Copper Company, 

Ltd., was taken over by Antofagasta PLC. Between 2006 and 

2011, the mineral interests of Tethyan Copper Company, Ltd., 

were managed and operated by a 50/50 joint venture between 

Antofagasta and Barrick Gold Corporation. In 2011, however, the 

Government of Balochistan rejected the application for a mining 

lease (Tethyan Copper Company, [n.d.]).

Turkey

Turkey is a country with a large and diverse mineralresource base, and a history of mining dating back thousands 

of years (Yigit, 2012). During the past two decades, Turkey has 

become an exploration frontier. Roughly 40 percent of the total 

exploration projects and expenditures within the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt have been in Turkey (Canby, 2007). Changes 

in the Turkish mining law in 1985 stimulated mineral exploration 

activities and resulted in several new discoveries. Furthermore, 

since amendment of the mining law in 2004, exploration licenses 

assigned by the Turkish Energy Ministry’s General Directorate of 

Mining have almost tripled (Yigit, 2009). Today, foreign capital 

companies established in Turkey for mining purposes are entitled 

to hold mining rights (Önder, 2006).

Exploration for porphyry copper deposits in Turkey was 

started in the early 1970s by the United Nations Development 

Program and Turkey’s General Directorate of Mineral 

Research and Exploration (MTA). Although the program 

identified several prospects, including the Bakirçay and 

Ulutaş systems (Akıncı, 2004), none of them appear economic 

at present. However, since enactment of the favorable 

changes to the mining and investment laws, exploration 

activity for base and precious metals in Turkey has grown 

considerably, generating several projects centered on porphyry 

mineralization. Two of these, the Kişladağ and Çöpler 

deposits, constitute at present the largest mining operations in 

Turkey.

Exploration efforts continue in the northeastern Pontides 

and more recently have also focused on the western and eastern 

Anatolian regions of Turkey (Mobbs, 2012). The northwestern 

Pontides, central Anatolian, and particularly the southeastern 

Border Folds regions of the country remain comparatively 

underexplored for porphyry copper deposits (Yigit, 2009; Global 

Business Reports, 2012).
Assessment Data 35

Other Data

ASTER and HyMap Data

Processed Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 

Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data were used to identify and 

characterize possible hydrothermal phyllic and argillic alteration 

zones associated with potential porphyry copper sites (Mars and 

Rowan, 2006; Mars, 2014). ASTER data coverage was available 

for parts of permissive tracts in Iran, western Pakistan, and 

southern Afghanistan. No ASTER data were available for tracts 

and extensions of tracts in Turkey and the Caucasus.

ASTER data consist of three bands in the 0.52–0.86 

micrometer (μm) wavelength region (visible and near-infrared, 

VNIR); six bands in the 1.6–2.43 μm wavelength region (shortwavelength infrared, SWIR); and five bands of emitted radiation 

in the 8.125–11.65 μm wavelength region (Thermal infrared 

radiation, TIR) with 15-, 30-, and 90-meter (m) resolution, 

respectively. Logical operator algorithms developed to perform 

multiple band ratio and threshold value calculations where 

applied to each 30-m resolution scene to map spectral reflectance 

absorption features associated with likely argillic and phyllic 

hydrothermal alteration, as shown by the diagnostic absorption 

spectra of kaolinite and alunite, which are common in argillicaltered rocks, and muscovite, which is common in phyllic-altered 

rocks (Mars and Rowan, 2006).

Processed hyperspectral imaging spectrometer (HyMap) data 

were also available for the Chagai tract segment in Afghanistan. 

The HyMap imaging spectrometer measures the reflected visible 

to shortwave infrared wavelength range of 0.43 to 2.48 μm in 128 

channels. The reflectance spectrum for each pixel in the image is 

compared against entries in a library of reference spectra, which 

can then be used to identify the occurrence of selected materials 

at the surface based on the presence and wavelength position of 

absorption features in the 0.45–2.48-μm-wavelength region. Two 

general categories of minerals are recognized—(1) iron-bearing 

minerals that have characteristic spectral absorption features that 

occur at wavelengths near the 1-μm region and (2) and other 

minerals including carbonates, phyllosilicates, and sulfates that 

have diagnostic spectral absorptions near the 2-μm region. The 

identified minerals, mineral groups, and suites of minerals are used 

to define zones of hydrothermal alteration (King and others, 2011).

In combination with available age and deposit information, 

many ASTER-derived (and over Afghanistan also HyMap 

derived) alteration locations do coincide with known porphyry 

deposits and prospects, and where they are not associated with 

other types of known deposits, they mark not only the presence 

but the location of possible hydrothermal alteration potentially 

associated with unidentified porphyry-related systems.

Geophysical Data

The assessment team used the 2-arcminute resolution 

(1 arcminute=1/60 degree) Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid 

(EMAG2) compilation of Maus and others (2009) to confirm 

the location and character of regional geologic features (for 

example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). EMAG2 

is a compilation from satellite, ship, and airborne magnetic 

measurements reduced to 4 km above the geoid. In this 

version, interpolation between tracklines in the oceans was 

improved by directional gridding and extrapolation, based 

on the oceanic crustal age model. The longest wavelengths 

(larger than 330 km) were replaced with the latest CHAMP16

satellite magnetic field model (MF6). With the exception of 

northeastern Iraq, the EMAG2 covers all of the area in the 

assessment region. For Turkey, these data were complemented 

with the gravity and magnetic anomaly maps of Ates and 

others (1999).

At the regional scale, geologic features are well-imaged 

in several parts of the Tethys region of western and southern 

Asia. In general, magnetic highs were found to reflect mafic to 

intermediate rocks in accretionary- and arc-related environments, 

whereas magnetic lows were found to reflect sedimentary basins 

or sources that are either weakly magnetic or at considerable 

depth. Otherwise, 2-arc magnetic information was deemed to have 

insufficient resolution to allow interpretation of whether shallowly 

buried (for example, less than 1 km from the surface) extensions 

of permissive units of a given age range projected beyond tract 

boundaries. One of the main difficulties in attempting this is that 

tracts delimiting volcano-plutonic events of different ages in the 

assessment region are not only superimposed in many places but 

also variably “masked” by younger geologic formations with high 

magnetic susceptibilities (for example recent basalts).

Preservation Level Data

Tectono-magmatic processes played a key role in localizing 

porphyry deposits in the region. However, the level of erosion 

currently exposed by the interaction of exhumation and burial 

processes, not just the ore-forming environment, influenced the 

observed distribution of metallogenic patterns. For that reason, 

exploration for porphyry copper deposits and documentation of 

prospects typically occurs first and is longer lived where ideal 

levels of preservation of porphyry systems are exposed. Thus, the 

level of preservation in a given tract is reflected, at least in part, 

by the number of known porphyry occurrences (that is, the sum 

of deposits and prospects) within it. Analysis of exposure levels 

and numbers of porphyry occurrences provided information useful 

for assessing aspects of the geologic favorability and associated 

uncertainties, as well as the probable exploration extent in areas 

where this information was not available. Implications of these 

results are examined further in the discussion section at the end of 

this report.

Estimation of crustal levels of preservation in each tract 

made use of the derivative maps created to group geologic 

units of similar age and lithological character, as well as the 

finalized permissive tracts. To evaluate the level of crustal 

preservation, the relative aerial extent of older basement, 

permissive (intermediate to felsic plutonic and volcanic) and 

16Challenging Minisatellite Payload.
36 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

nonpermissive (sedimentary, and mafic or ultramafic igneous) 

units of a given age range, and younger (plutonic, volcanic, 

volcano-sedimentary and sedimentary) cover units was calculated 

for each tract. We determined permissive volcanic-to-plutonic 

unit ratios expressed as percentages using the relation {volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100.

These procedures involved clipping the geologic base map 

to the tract extent, recalculating polygon areas, and querying the 

resulting data for lithological and age information. The results 

were then used to assess levels of crustal preservation across a 

delimited tract based on {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 

as appropriate (about 33 to 66), too deep (less than 33), or too 

shallow (more than 66) for hypabyssally emplaced porphyry 

copper systems. These results also allowed estimation of the extent 

of younger cover rocks and the likelihood for porphyry systems to 

be buried or exposed.

Assessment Methods

Compilation and integration of data layers for the threepart form of mineral-resource assessment was followed by 

permissive porphyry tract delineation and estimation of numbers 

of undiscovered deposits. The following sections describe (1) 

the criteria and procedures used to define and delimit geographic 

areas permissive for porphyry copper deposits (tracts) and (2) the 

process of estimation of numbers of undiscovered deposits and 

probabilistic simulation of associated metal contents.

Tract Delineation

The geology-based strategy for permissive tract delineation 

used in this assessment was done in six stages. Digital geologic 

data were processed in a GIS using ArcMap software, as follows:

1. Regional-scale maps and geologic literature were used 

to identify the fundamental units for tract delineation—

magmatic arcs or belts of igneous rocks of a given age 

range—as delimited by first-order tectonic features 

(for example, Eurasian, Cimmerian, and Afro-Arabian 

terranes and sutures marked by major ophiolite-bearing 

accretionary prisms marking the former location of 

the northern and southern Neotethys Oceans and other 

intraoceanic basins).

2. Digital geologic maps were then used to select map units 

to define preliminary tracts permissive for porphyry 

copper deposits. Map units were classified as permissive 

or nonpermissive based on lithology and further divided 

by age groups as bracketed by changes in first-order and 

second-order tectonic events. Permissive rocks include 

calc-alkaline to alkaline plutonic and volcanic rocks of 

intermediate to felsic composition. Nonpermissive rocks 

include ultramafic and mafic, volcano-sedimentary, and 

sedimentary rocks of that age group. Given their reduced 

extent, nonpermissive peraluminous intrusions could not 

be excluded effectively at the 1:1,000,000 scale used. 

Depending on their timing, most metamorphic rocks were 

also considered as nonpermissive.

3. Areas with postmineral intrusive, extrusive, sedimentary, 

and other forms of younger cover estimated to exceed 

1 km in thickness for the tectono-magmatic event 

also delimited the extent of the tract boundary. At the 

resolution of the map scale used, and given that many of 

the tracts are preserved in synmineral and postmineral 

fold-and-thrust belts where structural relations are 

complex and thicknesses may vary widely across 

individual faults, it was not possible to estimate the 

thickness of cover with certainty. Thus, a 10-km buffer 

was applied to plutonic rock polygons and a 2-km buffer 

to volcanic rock polygons. These buffers were found 

to effectively encompass permissive units and most 

associated porphyry copper deposits and prospects and 

account for uncertainties in the cartographic position of 

mapped units and known permissive rocks not shown at 

the map scale used.

4. The boundaries of tracts were further refined by the 

team examining available data on mineral deposits and 

prospects, locations of dated igneous rock samples, and 

geophysical and geochemical information. This allowed 

identification of previously unrecognized or unmapped 

permissive units and associated porphyry systems. 

Scanned and rectified page-size illustrations from the 

literature were incorporated in the GIS to check locations 

and permissive rock boundaries. Where intrusive rocks 

were reported from the literature and depicted in depositscale maps, but not shown at the scale of the available 

digital map base, 10-km buffers were drawn around 

known porphyry copper deposits and prospects.

5. An aggregation and smoothing routine was then applied 

to the resulting polygons, and the tracts were further 

edited by hand to insure that all units were contained 

within the tract. In many cases, more detailed geologic 

maps were used to resolve tract boundary issues. Tract 

boundaries were edited to honor tectonic boundaries 

but not second-order structures such as individual thrust 

faults, given that these are not represented in enough 

detail at the available map scales.

6. The team clipped resulting tract boundaries to 

shorelines to eliminate undersea areas using boundary 

files from the U.S. Department of State (2009).17

17The political boundaries used in this report are, in accord with U.S. 

Government policy, the small-scale digital international boundaries (SSIB) 

provided by the U.S. Department of State (U.S. Department of State, 2009). In 

various parts of the world, some political boundaries are in dispute. The use of 

the boundaries certified by the U.S. Department of State does not imply that 

the U.S. Geological Survey advocates or has an interest in the outcome of any 

international boundary disputes.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 37

Estimation of Numbers of Undiscovered 

Deposits

Once the tract delimitation process was completed, the 

assessment team evaluated the available data, selected the 

appropriate grade-tonnage model for the tract based on resource 

information from deposits in it, checked these for consistency with 

the grade-and tonnage model of Singer and others (2008) using 

statistical tests, and established the favorability and uncertainty 

rationale for estimation of the numbers of undiscovered deposits.

Assessors relied on their professional expertise and 

experience to appraise geologic variables such as arc size and 

longevity, tectonic environment (including evolution of stress 

and thermal regimes), dominant magmatic compositions and 

metal associations, relative magma emplacement levels, alteration 

and mineralization styles, structural controls, exposure levels 

of mineral systems, resources in known deposits, and metal 

associations in prospects. Assessors further relied on the extent 

of known exploration to arrive at an overall expected level of 

favorability and uncertainty for each tract.

On the basis of these rationales, assessors then made 

individual estimates of the numbers of undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits at different levels of certainty for each tract. 

Individual estimates were made privately, recorded, and 

then discussed to arrive at a team consensus. The number of 

undiscovered deposits and associated levels of uncertainty were 

estimated by each assessor as the least number of porphyry 

deposits that in their judgment could be present at three specified 

levels of certainty (90, 50, and 10 percent). For example, on 

the basis of all the available data, a team member might have 

estimated that there was a 90-percent chance of at least 1, a 

50-percent chance of at least 3, and a 10-percent chance of at least 

5 undiscovered deposits in a permissive tract.

Individual estimates were then converted to a mean number 

of deposits and standard deviation based on the algorithm 

developed by Singer and Menzie (2005). The algorithm can 

be described by the following general equations to calculate a 

mean number of deposits (λ) and a standard deviation (sx

) based 

on estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits predicted at 

different quantile levels18 (N90=90-percent level, N50=50-percent 

level, and so on):

λ = 0.233 N90 + 0.4 N50 + 0.225 N10 + 0.045 N05 + 0.03 N01 , and (1)

sx=0.121−0.237 N90−0.093 N50+0.183 N10+0.073 N05+0.123N01.(2)

These equations were programmed into a spreadsheet to 

allow the team to quickly evaluate estimates. The spread in the 

number of deposits associated with the 90th percentile to the 10th 

percentile or 1st percentile reflects uncertainty; large differences 

in the number suggest great uncertainty. The mean number of 

deposits for the permissive tract, or the numbers associated with 

18To use the equation in cases where three nonzero quantiles (90-50-10) are 

estimated, use the N10 values for N05 and N01; where four quantiles (90-50-10-5) 

are estimated, use the N05 value for N01.

a given probability level, reflect favorability. A useful variable for 

reporting uncertainty associated with an estimate is the coefficient 

of variation (Cv), defined as:

Cv = sx/λ. (3)

The coefficient of variation is often reported as percent 

relative variation (100×Cv). Thus, the final team estimates reflected 

both the uncertainty in what may exist and the favorability of the 

tract (Singer, 1993).

The individual estimates were discussed as a group and 

compared to the independent measure of expected numbers of 

porphyry deposits provided by a porphyry deposit density model 

(Singer and Menzie, 2010). In this manner, the team agreed on 

a consensus estimate of the numbers of undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits at different levels of certainty for each tract.

We then combined consensus estimates with the selected 

general Cu-Au-Mo or subtype Cu-Au grade and tonnage 

model in a Monte Carlo simulation using the EMINERS 

computer program (Bawiec and Spanski, 2012; Duval, 2012), 

based on the original Mark 3 computer program described by 

Root and others (1992), to provide a probabilistic estimate 

of amounts of resources that could be associated with the 

estimated undiscovered deposits at the different levels of 

certainty. Results for each permissive tract are reported 

at selected quantile levels, along with the mean expected 

amount of metal, the probability of the mean, and the 

probability of no metal. The amount of metal reported at 

each quantile indicates the least amount of metal expected 

from the ranked data of 4,999 Monte Carlo simulations. No 

economic filters were applied. Thus, results must be viewed 

with the realization that deposits, if discovered, might not 

be developed. The assessment team made estimates for 

undiscovered resources in the Tethys region in January 2012 

and revised them in June 2013.

Porphyry Copper Assessment of the 

Tethys Region

Twenty-six permissive tracts and sub-tracts considered 

permissive for the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits 

were delimited within the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia (table 1). For 18 of these, probabilistic estimates 

of numbers of undiscovered deposits were made. The team 

concluded that quantitative assessment of the other eight tracts 

was not warranted on the basis of available data and that these 

tracts would likely contribute insignificant amounts of copper 

to estimated endowment of the study area. These eight tracts 

are permissive but affected by geologic factors and deposit 

characteristics that considerably limit their favorability for the 

occurrence of porphyry copper deposits. Therefore, they are 

described in detail, but only assessed qualitatively.

Time-space relations between tracts, showing their 

distribution from Turkey in the west to Pakistan in the east, and 
38 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

from the Triassic to the Quaternary, are shown in figure 9. This 

schematic diagram encapsulates the relative location and age 

of the diverse magmatic settings of porphyry copper deposits 

underpinning the permissive tracts described in the following 

sections.

Porphyry copper deposits identified in the region are 

listed in table 2. The 42 records tabulate data by deposit 

name, tract identifier, geographic coordinates, age, tonnage, 

and copper grade, as well as by molybdenum, gold, and 

silver grades where data were available. Additional fields 

include porphyry deposit subtype where determined, 

comments, and references. Note that “deposit” is defined as a 

porphyry occurrence whose location and resource quality and 

quantity has been identified (for example, with drilling) and 

reported. If grade and tonnage have not been quantitatively 

estimated or are not available, the porphyry site is classified 

as a “prospect,” even if it has been subjected to detailed 

geologic study. The 275 known porphyry and porphyryrelated prospects and the 47 possible porphyry-related 

occurrences are tabulated in appendix C, where they are 

identified by name, country, tract, geographic coordinates, 

age, comments, and references. The results of statistical 

tests for those tracts that contain known deposits and the 

basis for selecting the grade and tonnage model used for the 

probabilistic estimate of undiscovered resources are listed in 

table 3.

Individual tract descriptions are generally organized 

by geologic age, from oldest to youngest. Each permissive 

tract description begins with a reference to the descriptive 

and the grade and tonnage models used if the tract was 

assessed quantitatively and a brief statement describing 

the fundamental geologic feature that formed the basis for 

delineation of the tract. This is followed by descriptions of 

the (1) tract location, (2) tectonic setting, (3) character and 

composition of magmatism, (4) local geology and metal 

associations of selected porphyry deposits and prospects, (5) 

exhumation and burial history of tract and porphyry systems, 

(6) magnetic signatures, (7) remote sensing data where 

available, (8) criteria for grade-tonnage model selection, (9) 

rationale used to assess favorability and uncertainty factors 

to support the estimates of undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits, and (10) probabilistic simulation results. Sections 

describing tracts assessed qualitatively generally include 

descriptions of numbers 1 through 5 and 9 above. For each 

tract, map figures show the permissive tract with known 

porphyry copper deposits and prospects within it and the 

distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks that 

formed the basis for tract delineation, along with labels for 

any features mentioned in the text.

For each tract that was assessed quantitatively, estimates 

of numbers of undiscovered deposits and results of the 

Monte Carlo simulation are presented in two tables and 

as cumulative frequency plots. The first table shows the 

consensus estimates at the different levels of certainty, the 

number of undiscovered deposits and associated statistical 

uncertainties, and the total (known plus undiscovered) 

deposit density for the tract area. The second table shows the 

estimated amounts of undiscovered copper, molybdenum, 

gold, and silver resources in metric tons, and associated 

statistics obtained by Monte Carlo simulation. The amount 

of estimated mineralized rock (in million metric tons, Mt) is 

also included at the different probability levels. Cumulative 

frequency plots illustrate the estimated resources associated 

with the cumulative probabilities of occurrence, as well as 

the mean for each commodity and for the total tonnage of 

mineralized rock.

Appendix D is an accompanying geographic 

information system (GIS) with digital data files of permissive 

tracts, porphyry deposits and prospects, and tract and deposit 

reference lists. The GIS provides additional information on 

tracts, porphyry deposits and prospects.

Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous Tracts

The four Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous permissive 

tracts are shown on figure 5. A probabilistic assessment of 

undiscovered resources was carried out for the Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus tract; the other three tracts delineated for 

this age range (the Sanandaj-Sirjan, the Cimmeride Greater 

Caucasus, and the Lut Jurassic) are described because they 

are permissive for porphyry copper mineralization, but they 

were assessed only qualitatively.

Sanandaj-Sirjan Tract (142pCu9003)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic 

Belt

Location

The Sanandaj-Sirjan tract covers an area of 19,400 km2 

(fig. 10). It delimits a partially preserved and irregularly 

exposed 1,850-km-long and as much as 70-km-wide 

northwest-southeast trending continental arc of Late 

Triassic to Early Cretaceous age. The tract is confined 

to the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (fig. 3), which underlies 

southeastern Turkey and northwestern to southeastern Iran.

In Iran, the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane is bound by the 

Bitlis-Zagros Thrust to the southwest, and by the Central 

Iranian Terrane to the northeast (fig. 3). In southern Iran, a 

sliver of the Sanandaj-Sirjan is contained within the Makran 

Terrane. In southeastern Turkey, the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane 

is juxtaposed against the Bitlis-Pötürge Terrane to the north 

and against the Bitlis-Zagros Thrust to the south (fig. 3).

In southeastern Turkey and northwestern Iran, parts of 

the younger Border Folds tract, Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern 

Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract, and Esfahan tract (see below) are 

superimposed on the Sanandaj-Sirjan tract.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 39

Oceanic basin

Oceanic basin

Tract age

Pliocene-Holocene

Middle to late

Miocene

Oligocene-Miocene

Eocene-Oligocene

Late Cretaceousto middle Eocene

Cretaceous

Jurassic-Cretaceous

Jurassic

Triassic-Jurassic

Plio-Quaternary—Konya

(142pCu9017a)

(continental arc and back arc)

Plio-Quaternary—Postcollisional

(142pCu9017b)

(postcollisional magmatic belt)

Plio-Quaternary—Bazman

(142pCu9017c)

(continental arc)

Southern Neothethys Ocean Branch closure

Kerman

(142pCu9016)

(continental arc) Yazd (142pCu9015)

(back arc and 

continental arc)

Azerbaijan—W Turkey

(142pCu9014a)

(postcollisional and back arc)

Azerbaijan—E Turkey 

(142pCu9014b)

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran

 (142pCu9014c)

(back arc) (postcollisional)

Inner Tauride Ocean closure

Anatolide-Tauride

Western Turkey

(142pCu9005a)

Anatolide-Tauride

Eastern Turkey

(142pCu9005b)

(arc) (postcollisional)

Pontide (Asia)—

 NW Turkey

(142pCu9004a)

Pontide (Asia)—

NE Turkey 

(142pCu9004b)

Pontide (Asia)—

Caucasus-Iran 

(142pCu9004c)

(fore arc and

back arc,

postcollisional)

(arc and back arc,

postcollisional)

(arc and

back arc)

Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch closure

Anatolide-Tauride

Caucasus-Iran

(142pCu9005c)

(back arc)

Border Folds 

(142pCu9007)

(continental arc)

Esfahan 

(142pCu9008)

(back arc)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 

(142pCu9001)

(arc and back arc)

Cimmeride Greater

Caucasus 

(142pCu9002)

(back arc)

Sanandaj-Sirjan

(142pCu9003)

(continental arc)

Khorasan (142pCu9009)

(island arcs)

Sabzevar-Sistan Ocean closure

Lut Tertiary

(142pCu9010)

(island to

continental arc)

Sistan

(142pCu9012)

(island arcs)

Chagai

(142pCu9013)

(island to

continental arc)

Makran

(142pCu9011)

(island arcs)

Lut Cretaceous

(142pCu9006)

(continental arc)

Lut Jurassic

(142pCu9000)

(continental arc)

EAST WEST

Central Turkey Western Turkey Eastern Turkey and Caucasus Northern Iran Central Iran Southern Iran Eastern Iran Western Pakistan

Figure 7 Fig. 8 Figure 6 Figure 5

Figure 9.

Figure 9. Time-space diagram of permissive tracts for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. The diagram demonstrates the relative location and age of the magmatic settings of porphyry copper deposits included in the tracts and sub-tracts. Tract blocks are colored to conform to colors used in figures 5 through 8, as indicated. For each tract, the figure text shows tract (or sub-tract) name, tract (or sub-tract) ID, and the nature of the magmatic event(s) included in the tract. Tract names in italics indicate qualitative, rather than quantitative, assessment. In general, the areas in white depict intervening oceanic basins. Solid boundary lines between tracts represent magmatic events that developed in relative isolation from one another (for example, arcs on independent microcontinents), whereas dashed boundary lines show magmatic events that crossed terrane boundaries (for example, back-arc and postcollisional magmatism).
40 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Table 2. Porphyry copper deposits of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References Agarak Armenia Anatolide- Tauride— Eastern Turkey- Caucasus sub-tract 142pCu9005c 38.9219 46.1882 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline to alkaline; open pit; in production. 44 125 0.56 0.0250 0.60 n.d. 700,000 80 GeoProMining (2012), Global Metals, Ltd. (2013), Gugushvili and others (2010), InfoMine, Inc. (2013a), Jamali and others (2010), Kekelia and Kekelia (2001), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Mining Journal (2005), Moritz and others (2012), Norwest Mineral Sector Investment Focus (2003), Rundkvist (2001), Singer and others (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Zvezdov and others (1993) Ali-Abad1 Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 31.6490 53.8280 NA Cu-Mo-(Ag) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; open pit; Taft project expansion to be completed in 2015. 16.7 40 0.73 0.0059 n.d. 19.00 300,000 n.d. Förster (1978), Hassanzadeh (1993), InfoMine, Inc. (2013b), Leaman and Staude (2002), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Samani (1998), Singer and others (2008), Zarasvandi and others (2005), Zarasvandi and others (2007) Ankavan Armenia Azerbaijan— Caucasus-Iran sub-tract 142pCu9014c 40.6307 44.4841 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry- skarn deposit; calc- alkaline to alkaline; past producer; open pit/underground. 33.0 115 0.57 0.0540 1.42 n.d. 660,000 163 InfoMine, Inc. (2013c), Kekelia and Kekelia (2001), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Mining Journal (2005), Rundkvist (2001), Singer and others (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012) Ayazmant Turkey Azerbaijan— Western Turkey sub-tract 142pCu9014a 39.2616 27.1130 NA Cu porphyry-related Fe-Cu-(Au) skarn deposit; calc-alkaline; in production. 20.1 5.8 0.60 n.d. n.d. n.d. 30,000 n.d. Oyman (2010), Yigit (2006), Yigit (2009) Bagh Khoshk Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.8270 55.9960 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; alkaline to calc-alkaline; exploration.

Early Oligocene

24 0.27 n.d. n.d. n.d. 65,000 n.d. Arian and others (2011), Dargahi and 

others (2010), Einali and others (2011), Haschke and others (2010), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Ranjbar and Honarmand (2004), Ranjbar and others (2005), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008)

Bakirçay Turkey Pontide 

(Asia)—NW Turkey subtract

142pCu9004a 40.9609 35.3959 NA Cu-Au-Mo 

porphyry-skarn deposit; calc-alkaline; postcollisional(?); exploration.

38.6 200 0.20 n.d. n.d. n.d. 400,000 n.d. Engın and others (2000), Kirkham and 

Dunne (2000), Singer and others (2008), Soylu (1999), Taylor (1978), Taylor (1981), Taylor and Fryer (1980), Yigit (2009)

Balcili-Yüksekoba Turkey Pontide (Asia)—NE 

Turkey subtract

142pCu9004b 41.0204 41.4450 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; exploration.

62.3 140 0.20 n.d. n.d. n.d. 300,000 n.d. Akıncı (2004), Engın and others (2000), 

Richard Herrington, written commun. (2005), Soylu (1999), Yavuz and others (1999), Yigit (2009)

[Coded_ID, a unique number assigned to each permissive tract in the geographic information system (appendix D); Ma, million years; Mt, million metric tons; t, metric ton; %, percent; g/t, grams per metric ton; n.d., no data; Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; Ag, silver. Deposits and prospects within ~4 kilometers (km) of each other are grouped. Cu-Mo subtype, deposits that have Au/Mo ratios less than 3 or average Mo grades greater than 0.03%; Cu-Au subtype, deposits that have Au/Mo ratios greater than 30 or average Au grades greater than 0.2 g/t; NA, formal subtype criteria not applicable. Contained copper and gold reported to two significant figures. Porphyry copper deposits in the European sector of Turkey (Derekoy, Ikiztepeler, Karadere, and Sukrupasa) are not listed here but are included in the accompanying spatial data]
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 41

Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References

Cevizlidere Turkey Azerbaijan—

Eastern Turkey

142pCu9014b 39.2726 39.0418 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; advanced exploration.

26.0 445 0.38 n.d. 0.11 n.d. 1,700,000 49 Engın and others (2000), InfoMine, Inc. 

(2013e), Kociumbas and Page (2009), Lıdya Madencılık (2013g), Marinov and others (2011), Mining Journal (2010), Singer and others (2008), Yigit (2009)

Chah-Firuzeh Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 30.3984 55.0158 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline to alkaline; in production; expansion to be completed in 2015; includes Kahtokarha porphyry prospect located less than 4 km from deposit.

Late Miocene

149.1 0.41 n.d. n.d. n.d. 610,000 n.d. Afzal and others (2011), Alirezaei and 

Mohammadzadeh (2009), Hezarkhani (2009), Honarmand and others (2011), Mirnejad and others (2010b), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012)

Çöpler Turkey AnatolideTauride—

Eastern TurkeyCaucasus sub-tract

142pCu9005c 39.4285 38.5024 Cu-Au Au-(Cu) porphyryskarn and epithermal 

deposit; calcic calcalkaline to alkaline; in production; open pit; second-largest mine in Turkey; includes recently-discovered Zanga Dere porphyry prospect.

44.6 80.9 0.12 n.d. 1.43 4.24 97,000 116 Bascombe and others (2012), Engın and 

others (2000), İmer and others (2013), InfoMine, Inc. (2013g), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Kuşcu (2007), Kuscu and others (2010), Marek and others (2008), Marinov and others (2011), Mining Journal (2010), Northern Miner (2009), Yigit (2006), Yigit (2009)

Dalli Iran Yazd 142pCu9015 34.2719 50.3242 Cu-Au Cu-Au porphyry 

deposit; calcic 

calc-alkaline; in development.

21 8 0.50 n.d. 0.75 n.d. 40,000 6 Ayati and others (2008), Ayati and others 

(2013), Dorsa PLC (2012a) Dorsa PLC (2013), Haroni (2005), Haroni (2008), InfoMine, Inc. (2013h), Leaman and Staude (2002), Samani (1998), Singer and others (2008)

Dar Alu Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.4167 57.1000 NA Cu-Mo-(Au) 

porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; expansion to be completed in 2015.

Late Miocene

186.1 0.36 n.d. n.d. n.d. 670,000 n.d. Bazin and Hübner (1969a), Iran Geological 

Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Pour and others (2011), Salehian and Ghaderi (2010a), Salehian and Ghaderi (2010b), Samani (1998), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2008), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012)

Table 2.—Continued
42 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References Darreh Zar Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.8838 55.9090 NA Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; open pit; expansion to be completed in 2015. 14.9 282.6 0.38 0.0040 n.d. n.d. 1,100,000 n.d. Aghazadeh and others (2012), Arian and others (2011), Derakhshani and Abdolzadeh (2009), Haschke and others (2010), InfoMine, Inc. (2013i), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Mirnejad and others (2010b), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Pour and others (2011), Ranjbar and Honarmand (2004), Ranjbar and others (2005), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008), Shahabpour (1999), Singer and others (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012) Darreh- Zerreshk1 Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 31.5620 53.8280 NA Cu-Mo-(Ag) porphyry-skarn deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; open pit; Taft project expansion to be completed in 2015. 16.1 23 0.90 0.0040 n.d. 1.00 200,000 n.d. Aghazadeh and others (2012), Förster (1978), Hassanzadeh (1993), Hosseini and others (2010), InfoMine, Inc. (2013j), Leaman and Staude (2002), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Samani (1998), Shahabpour and Kramers (1987), Singer and others (2008), Somarin and others (2005), Zarasvandi and others (2005), Zarasvandi and others (2007) Dasht-e-Kain Pakistan Chagai 142pCu9013 29.5560 64.6040 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit; calcic calc- alkaline; exploration, drilling. 31.6 350 0.30 0.0010 n.d. n.d. 1,000,000 n.d. Ahmad (1986), Ahmad (1992), Ahmad and others (1986), Breitzman and others (1983), Everest Gold, Inc. (2012), Kazmi and Qasim Jan (1997), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Perelló and others (2008), Singer and others (2008) Dastakert Armenia Anatolide- Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract 142pCu9005c 39.3914 46.0148 Cu-Mo Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline to alkaline; past 

producer; drilling pads evident in satellite imagery.

44 33 0.62 0.0470 n.d. n.d. 200,000 n.d. Förster (1978), Global Metals, Ltd. (2013), 

Kekelia and Kekelia (2001), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Mining Journal (2005), Moritz and others (2012), Rundkvist (2001), Singer and others (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Zvezdov and others (1993)

Gümüşhane Turkey Pontide (Asia)—

NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b 41.1315 41.9562 NA Acid-sulfate Au-Ag 

and Cu-Mo porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; 2013 combined Ardala-Salinbaş project resource estimate stands at 26.87 Mt at 1.26 g/t Au, 4.78 g/t Ag, including 4.66 Mt at 0.22% Cu and 18 Mt at 0.0136% Mo; advanced exploration.

52.5 80 0.50 n.d. 0.20 n.d. 400,000 20 Akçay and Gündüz (2004), Ariana 

Resources PLC (2013), Arslan and Aliyazicioglu (2001), Engın and others (2000), Grima (2008), InfoMine, Inc. (2012a), InfoMine, Inc. (2013p), KEFI Minerals (2012), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Leaman and Staude (2002), Mining Journal (2010), Moon and others (2001), Singer and others (2008), Soylu (1999), Yigit (2006), Yigit (2009)

Table 2.—Continued
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 43

Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References

Güzelyayla Turkey Pontide (Asia)—

NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b 40.6616 39.5088 NA Cu-Mo porphyryskarn deposit; calcalkaline; exploration. 59 186.2 0.30 n.d. n.d. n.d. 600,000 n.d. Akıncı (2004), Boztuğ and others (2003), Engın and others (2000), Richard Herrington, written commun. (2005), 

Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Moon and others (2001), Singer and others (2008), Soylu (1999), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Yigit (2009)

Haft Cheshmeh Iran Azerbaijan— Caucasus-Iran 

sub-tract

142pCu9014c 38.8167 46.6500 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyryskarn deposit; alkaline 

to calc-alkaline postcollisional; in development; projected to start in 2015.

Miocene 184.0 0.26 n.d. n.d. n.d. 480,000 n.d. Hassanpour and Afzal (2013), Hassanpour 

and others (2010), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Jamali and others (2010), Jamali and others (2012), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Samani (1998)

Halilaga Turkey Azerbaijan—

Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014a 39.9383 26.8537 Cu-Au Cu-Au-(Mo) 

porphyry, Au acid-sulfate, and Cu-Mo-Zn-Pb skarn deposit; calc-alkaline; prefeasibility stage.

Oligocene or younger

371.7 0.26 0.0065 0.29 n.d. 970,000 110 Engın and others (2000), InfoMine, Inc. 

(2013q), Mining Journal (2010), Pilot Gold, Inc. (2011), Pilot Gold, Inc. (2012a), Pilot Gold, Inc. (2012b), Pilot Gold, Inc. (2012c), Scott and others (2012), Yigit (2009), Yigit (2012)

Iju Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 30.5333 54.9583 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; postcollisional; in production; expansion 

to be completed in 2015; deposit listed with older upper Eocene-upper Miocene tract 142pCu9016, but more likely belongs with upper MioceneHolocene sub-tract 142pCu9017b.

9.2 73.9 0.31 n.d. n.d. n.d. 230,000 n.d. Arian and others (2011), Förster (1978), 

Honarmand and others (2011), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Mirnejad and others (2010b), Mirnejad and others (2013), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Pour and others (2011), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008), U.S. Geological Survey (2012)

Kadjaran Armenia Azerbaijan—

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9014c 39.1403 46.1369 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry 

deposit; alkaline to calc-alkaline postcollisional; open pit; in production.

27.0 1700 0.27 0.0550 0.65 2.00 4,600,000 1,100 Förster (1978), Gilmour and others (1995), 

Gugushvili and others (2010), Kekelia and Kekelia (2001), Kekelia and others (2004), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Mining Journal (2005), Mining Journal (2011a), Moritz and others (2012), Murakami and others (2010), Norwest Mineral Sector Investment Focus (2003), Rundkvist (2001), Singer and others (2008), Tarkian and Stribrny (1999), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Zvezdov and others (1993)

Table 2.—Continued
44 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References Kahang Iran Yazd 142pCu9015 32.9257 52.4653 NA Cu-Mo porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; expansion to be completed in 2015. Oligo- cene- Miocene 38.7 0.59 n.d. n.d. n.d. 230,000 n.d. Afzal and others (2010), Aghazadeh and others (2012), Dorsa PLC (2012b), Na- tional Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012) Kale Kafi Iran Esfahan 142pCu9008 33.3990 54.2380 NA Cu-Mo-(Au-W) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; exploration. 53.0 245 0.26 0.0260 0.10 n.d. 640,000 20 Ahmadian and others (2009), Bazin and Hübner (1969a), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Moghaddasi and Mohammadi (2010), Nezampour and Rassa (2005), Samani (1998), Singer and others (2008) Karakartal Turkey Anatolide-Tau- ride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus142pCu9005c 39.3102 38.6963 Cu-Au Cu-Au porphyry deposit; calcic calc- alkaline to alkaline; advanced exploration. Early Eocene 70.8 0.25 n.d. 0.32 n.d. 180,000 23 Alacer Gold (2012), InfoMine, Inc. (2013t), Kociumbas and Page (2009), Lıdya Madencılık (2013f), Mining Journal (2010), Northern Miner (2009) Kavarta Armenia Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 142pCu9001 39.2331 46.3977 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit and polymetallic veins; calcic calc-alkaline; past producer; 2009 combined porphyry and polymetallic resource estimate of 466.3 Mt at 0.09% Cu, 0.37 g/t Au, 6.5 g/t Ag, and 0.32% zinc; in development. 144.7 50 1.20 n.d. n.d. n.d. 600,000 n.d. Gugushvili and others (2010), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Moritz and others (2012), Rundkvist (2001), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Wolfe and Gossage (2009) Kedabek Azerbai- jan Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 142pCu9001 40.5867 45.8603 Cu-Au Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit; calcic calc-alkaline; new 2012 resource estimate of 48 Mt at 

0.197% Cu, 0.825 g/t Au, and 6.65 g/t Ag; open pit; in production.

JurassicCretaceous 16 0.24 n.d. 1.40 12.20 38,000 22 Anglo Asian Mining PLC (2009), Anglo Asian Mining PLC (2011), Baba-Zade and others (1990), Bortnikov and others (1993), 

CAE Mining (2012), Kekelia and Kekelia (2001), Levine (2011b), Singer and others (2008), U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2000), U.S. Geological Survey (2012)

Masjed Daghi Iran Azerbaijan—

Caucasus-Iransub-tract

142pCu9014c 38.8772 45.9386 Cu-Au Acid-sulfate Au 

and Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; postcollisional; in production; expansion to be completed in 2015.

OligoceneMiocene 204 0.34 n.d. 2.00 n.d. 690,000 400 Alirezaei and others (2008), Ebrahimi (2011), Iran Geological Survey (2010), Jamali and others (2010), Jamali and others 

(2012), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012)

Table 2.—Continued
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 45

Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References

Meiduk (Shahre Babak)

Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 30.4256 55.1740 NA Cu-Mo-(Au-Ag) 

porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; open pit; expansion to be completed in 2015; includes Lachah, Latela, NW-Meiduk, and S-Silicate vein porphyry prospects located less than 4 km from deposit.

12.5 176 0.61 0.0070 n.d. 1.80 1,100,000 n.d. Aliani and others (2009), Arian and 

others (2011), Bazin and Hübner (1969a), Bazin and Hübner (1969b), Boomeri and others (2009), Derakhshani and Mehrabi (2009), Espanhod (1992), Hassanzadeh (1993), Honarmand and others (2011), InfoMine, Inc. (2013z), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012b), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Leaman and Staude (2002), McInnes and others (2005), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Samani (1998), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008), Shahabpour (1992), Shahabpour (1999), Shahabpour (2005), Shahabpour (2007), Singer and others (2008), Taghipour and others (2008), Tangestani and Moore (2001), Tangestani and Moore (2002a), Tangestani and Moore (2002b), U.S. Geological Survey (2012)

Muratdere Turkey Anatolide-Tauride—Western 

Turkey

142pCu9005a 39.8922 29.8966 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; advanced exploration.

50 51 0.36 0.0125 0.12 2.40 180,000 6 Cliff (2007), Engın and others (2000), 

HB Corporate (2005), InfoMine, Inc. (2012b), Mining Journal (2010), Stratex International PLC (2012b), Yigit (2009)

Now Chun Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.9333 55.8500 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; expansion to be completed in 2015.

OligoceneMiocene or late Miocene(?)

527 0.26 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1,400,000 n.d. Abedi and Norouzi (2012), Arian and others (2011), Haschke and others (2010), Iran 

Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012b), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Pour and others (2011), Ranjbar and Honarmand (2004), Ranjbar and others (2005), Saein and others (2012), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008)

Raigan Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.3200 57.0500 NA Cu porphyry deposit; 

alkaline to calcalkaline; exploration.

29.7 10 0.63 n.d. n.d. n.d. 60,000 n.d. Hassanzadeh (1993), Hezarkhani (2006a), 

Hezarkhani (2006b), Hezarkhani (2006d), Karimi and Valadan Zoej (2004), Samani (1998), Shafiei and others (2009), Singer and others (2008)

Reko Diq2 Pakistan Chagai 142pCu9013 29.1153 62.0730 Cu-Au Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit; calcic 

calc-alkaline; feasibility stage; includes Reko Diq H7, Reko Diq H9, Reko Diq H10, Reko Diq H27, and Reko Diq H79 porphyry prospects

12.3 4692 0.49 n.d. 0.29 n.d. 22,300,000 1,370 Antofagasta PLC (2010), Perelló and others 

(2008), Schloderer (2003), Singer and others (2008)

Table 2.—Continued
46 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References Saindak3 Pakistan Chagai 142pCu9013 29.2506 61.6150 Cu-Au Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit; calcic calc-alkaline; open pit; in production. 22.2 440 0.41 0.0020 0.50 n.d. 1,800,000 200 Ahmad (1992), Ahmed and others (1972), Breitzman and others (1983), Kazmi and Qasim Jan (1997), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Leaman and Staude (2002), Perelló and others (2008), Richards and others (2012), Sillitoe (1978), Sillitoe and Khan (1977), Singer and others (2008), U.S. Geo- logical Survey (2012), Wikipedia (2013c) Sar Cheshmeh Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.9503 55.8721 Cu-Mo Cu-Mo-(Ag-Au) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; in production; open pit; expansion 2013–2015. 13.6 1538 0.58 0.0300 0.06 1.14 8,900,000 90 Aftabi and Atapour (2011), Aghazadeh and others (2012), Arian and others (2011), Atapour and Aftabi (2007), Bazin and Hübner (1969a, b), Boomeri and others (2010b), Ellis (1991), Espanhod (1992), Ghorashi-Zadeh (1978), Hassanzadeh (1993), InfoMine, Inc. (2013ad), Iran Geological Survey (2012a, b, e), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), McInnes and others (2005), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Ranjbar and others (2005), Samani (1998), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008), Shahabpour (1991, 1992, 1999, 2005, 2007), Shahabpour and Kramers (1987), Singer and others (2008), Tarkian and Stribrny (1999), U.S. Geological Survey (2012), Waterman and Hamilton (1975) Sar Kuh Iran Kerman 142pCu9016 29.9350 55.8170 NA Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; exploration. 15.1 16 0.46 n.d. n.d. n.d. 74,000 n.d. Arian and others (2011), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012b), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Mirnejad and others (2013), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Pour and others (2011), Ranjbar and others 

(2005), Shafiei (2010), Shafiei and others (2008), Shafiei and others (2009), Shafiei and Shahabpour (2008)

Sarıçayıryayla Turkey AnatolideTauride—

Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005a 39.9069 29.4613 NA Cu-Mo-Au porphyryskarn deposit; calcalkaline; exploration, 

drilling; includes Topukdere Cu-MoAu porphyry-skarn prospect.

50 120.3 0.17 n.d. n.d. n.d. 200,000 n.d. Engın and others (2000), Lıdya Madencılık 

(2013a), Yigit (2009)

Table 2.—Continued
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 47

Name Country Tract name Coded_ID Latitude Longitude Sub- type Comments Age (Ma) Tonnage (Mt) Cu (%) Mo (%) Au (g/t) Ag (g/t) Contained copper (t) Contained gold (t) References

Sungun Iran Azerbaijan—

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9014c 38.6948 46.7028 NA Cu-Mo-(Au-Ag) 

porphyry-skarn deposit; alkaline to calc-alkaline; postcollisional; in production; open pit; expansion 2013–2015.

Early Miocene

846 0.60 0.0240 n.d. n.d. 5,000,000 n.d. Afzal and others (2011), Aghazadeh and 

others (2012), Asghari and Hezarkhani (2010), Bazin and Hübner (1969a), Calagari (2003), Calagari (2004), Calagari and Hosseinzadeh (2006), Etminan (1977), Etminan (2003), Ghanbari (2000), Hezarkhani (1997), Hezarkhani (2006e), Hezarkhani and others (1999), Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones (1998), InfoMine, Inc. (2013ae), Iran Geological Survey (2012a), Iran Geological Survey (2012e), Jamali and others (2010), Jamali and others (2012), Kirkham and Dunne (2000), Leaman and Staude (2002), Mobin Co. (2012), National Iranian Copper Industries Co. (2012), Samani (1998), Singer and others (2008), Somarin (2004), Somarin and Moayyed (2002), Somarin and others (2005), Tahmasebi and others (2010), U.S. Geological Survey (2012)

Tanjeel (H4) Pakistan Chagai 142pCu9013 29.1122 62.1017 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calc-alkaline; advanced exploration.

23.8 214 0.60 0.0100 n.d. n.d. 1,000,000 n.d. InfoMine, Inc. (2013af), Mincor Resources 

NL (2003), Perelló and others (2008), Schloderer (2003)

Teghout Armenia Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus

142pCu9001 41.1180 44.8457 NA Cu-Mo-(Au) 

porphyry deposit; calc-alkaline; past producer; in development.

145.9 460 0.35 0.0200 n.d. n.d. 1,600,000 n.d. Gugushvili and others (2010), Kekelia and 

Kekelia (2001), Levine (2011a), Mining Journal (2005), Moritz and others (2012), Norwest Mineral Sector Investment Focus (2003), Rundkvist (2001), Singer and others (2008), Thalenhorst (2005), Thalenhorst (2007), Vallex Group (2013), Zvezdov and others (1993)

Tepeoba Turkey Azerbaijan—

Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014a 39.6300 27.1069 Cu-Mo Cu-Mo-(Au) 

porphyry-skarn deposit (W-Mo area); metaluminous to peraluminous; advanced exploration.

25.6 24.1 0.33 0.0420 n.d. n.d. 80,000 n.d. Engın and others (2000), Institute for 

Geo-Resources and Environment (2005), Murakami and others (2005), Singer and others (2008), Yigit (2009), Yigit (2012)

Ulutaş Turkey Pontide (Asia)—

NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b 40.5777 40.9047 NA Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit; calcic calcalkaline; exploration.

59 74 0.31 0.0220 n.d. n.d. 230,000 n.d. Engın and others (2000), Kirkham and 

Dunne (2000), Leaman and Staude (2002), Moon and others (2001), Singer and others (2008), Soylu (1999), Taylor (1978), Taylor and Fryer (1980), Yigit (2009)

1Combined proven and probable reserve base reported for Ali-Abad and Darreh-Zerreshk is 167 Mt of 0.43% copper at a 0.15% copper cutoff (Taft Project; National Iranian Copper Industries Co., 2012).2Reko Diq resource reported here is weighted average of Reko Diq H8, Reko Diq H13, Reko Diq H14, and Reko Diq H35. Resource at Reko Diq H15 unknown at the time of writing. Data for individual sites are 

available in the accompanying spatial data (appendix D). The global resource at the Reko Diq district stands at 5.9 billion tons at 0.41% copper and 0.22 g/t gold. Minable reserves are 2.2 billion tons at 0.53% copper and 0.3 g/t gold (Antofagasta PLC, 2010). 3Saindak resource reported above is weighted average of North, East, and South ore bodies.

4Notes: (1) Kişladağ Au-Mo porphry deposit (412 Mt at 0.78 g/t gold) not included in this assessment because copper resources are deemed improbable (see appendix C and accompanying spatial data for additional 

Table 2.

data). (2) Copper resources at Aği Daği and Kirazli are not reported but deemed probable (see appendix C and accompanying spatial data for resource data on these sites). (3) Tonnages and copper grades are reported for the Anjerd, Chah Messi, Chahar Gonbad, Gavdel, Keban, Lachah, Lalleh Zar F3, Mazraeh, Palangy, Sharif Abad, and Takht porphyry and porphyry-related systems; sites listed as prospects because contained copper in each is estimated to be less than 70,000 t (see appendix C). Copper reserve growth is deemed probable.

—Continued
48 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Table 3. Statistical test results for grade and tonnage model selection for porphyry copper deposits in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. Tract name Coded_ID

Nknown Model for t-test Global porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model (

p values) Model 

selected Basis for selection Tonnage Cu Mo Ag Au Contained Cu

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005b 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. General No known deposits; default to general model.

Anatolide-Tauride

—

Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract

142pCu9005c 4 General 0.1 0.2 0.14 0.37 0.06 0.06 General Available data fit general model.

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005a 2 General 0.3 0.09 0.98 0.001* 0.04 0.15 General Test fails for silver, but only one of the two deposits has reported silver grade. General model 

is acceptable for tonnage, copper, molybdenum, and gold.

Azerbaijan—CaucasusIran sub-tract 142pCu9014c 5 General 0.95 0.57 0.04 0.99 0.01 0.83 General Available data fit general model.

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014b 1 General 0.68 0.79 n.d. n.d. 0.79 0.76 General Available data fit general model.

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014a 3 General 0.03 0.58 0.22 n.d. 0.64 0.03 General Available data fit general model.

Border Folds 142pCu9007 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. General No known deposits; default to general model.

Chagai 142pCu9013 4 General 0.97 0.88 0.009* 0.1 0.23 0.99 General Test fails for molybdenum. However, available 

data fit general model for tonnage, copper, silver, and gold; default to general model.

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus

142pCu9001 3 General 0.16 0.73 0.56 0.03 0.1 0.23 General Both Cu-Mo and Cu-Au porphyry subtypes are 

present; available data fit the general model.

Esfahan 142pCu9008 1 General 0.99 0.27 0.45 n.d. n.d. 0.77 General Available data fit general model.

Kerman 142pCu9016 12 General 0.22 0.02 0.31 0.6 0.47 0.03 General Available data fit general model.

Khorasan 142pCu9009 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Cu-Au 

subtype

No known deposits; Cu-Au model selected based on dominant Cu-Au metal association.

Lut Tertiary 142pCu9010 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. Cu-Au 

subtype

No known deposits; Cu-Au model selected based on dominant Cu-Au metal association.

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9004c 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. General No known deposits; default to general model.

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b 4 General 0.31 0.16 0.56 n.d. n.d. 0.18 General Available data fit general model.

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004a 1 General 0.76 0.23 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.71 General Available data fit general model.

Sistan 142pCu9012 0 NA n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. General No known deposits; default to general model.

Yazd 142pCu9015 2 General 0.01 0.74 n.d. n.d. 0.05 0.04 General Available data fit general model.

[Pooled t-test results assuming equal variances; p>0.01 indicates that the deposits in the tract are not significantly different from those in the model in terms of tonnage and commodity grades at the 1-percent level; p<0.01 indicates that the deposits in the tract are significantly different from those in the model at the 1-percent level and, therefore, the tract fails the selected test (as indicated by the *) and the model is 

inappropriate for the assessment. See table 1 for data used in tests against models of Singer and others (2008). 

Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract; Mt, million metric tons; n.d., no data. Cu, copper; 

Mo, molybdenum; Ag, silver; Au, gold; NA, not applicable]
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 49

44° E 52° E

35° N

30° N

IRAN

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

TURKEY

SYRIA

KUWAIT

TURKMENISTAN

Kuwait

Tehran

Baghdad

Ashgabat

!

!

!

!

Astaneh

CASPIAN

SEA

PERSIAN

GULF

40° E 60° E

50° N

30° N

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

IRAQ

KAZAKHSTAN

TURKEY

Figure 10.

Sanandaj Sirjan

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Possible porphyry-related occurrence

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract

 142pCu9003

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

0 75 150 225 300 KILOMETERS

0 75 150 MILES

Area of map

Figure 10. Map showing the location of possible porphyry-related copper occurrences for permissive tract 142pCu9003, 

Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See appendix C for additional information and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.
50 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Tectonic Setting

The Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane rifted from the Arabian Platform 

in the late Permian, opening the Southern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch (Golonka, 2004; Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006). A Middle to 

Late Triassic extensional setting is recorded by mafic alkaline to 

tholeiitic volcanism in northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey. 

As early as the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic, this rift setting became 

large enough to develop a convergent margin, initiating an oblique 

north-dipping subduction zone under the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane 

(fig. 4A) that propagated from the southeast to the northwest over 

time (Stöcklin, 1968; Omrani and others, 2008; Agard and others, 

2011; Verdel and others, 2011). Remnants of associated Middle 

Jurassic to Early Cretaceous igneous rocks are only preserved in 

the southeastern and northwestern parts of the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

Terrane (Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Şengör and others, 1993; 

Şengör and others, 1991), suggesting that arc magmatism may not 

have been active in the central part.

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects

Permissive igneous units (appendix B) used to define the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan tract are shown in figure 11, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section.

Triassic-Early Jurassic plutonic rocks are exposed in the 

southeastern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane. Their absence 

in the central and northwestern parts of the terrane suggests that 

subduction in the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch started 

from the southeast and propagated northward (Berberian and 

Berberian, 1981; Kazmin and others, 1986). Triassic-Early 

Jurassic magmatism is represented by the (199±3 Ma Nd-Sm 

“errorchron”) Siah Kuh batholith (fig. 11), which is composed 

of subduction-related metaluminous to slightly peraluminous 

calc-alkaline, I-type leucogranodiorite, leucomonzogranite, and 

alkali granite with subordinate syenite. These units have been 

affected by argillic, sericitic, and chloritic alteration, but the age 

of these hydrothermal products remains uncertain (Arvin and 

others, 2007).

Middle-Late Jurassic intrusions in the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

Terrane consist of ~170–150 Ma tholeiitic gabbro, calc-alkaline 

I-type diorite, quartz-diorite, tonalite, granodiorite and granite 

suites, and partly peraluminous granitoids at Chah-Dozdan in 

the southern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Fazlnia and 

others, 2007) and at Boroujerd (Khalaji and others, 2007; Ahmadi 

Khalaji and others, 2009), Astaneh and Alvand (Shahbazi and 

others, 2010; Baharifar and others, 2004; Esna-Ashari and others, 

2012; Tahmasbi and others, 2009; Masoudi and others, 2002) in 

the Hamedan area of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (fig. 11).

Al-in-hornblende barometry on the Astaneh pluton points 

to emplacement depths between 5 and 8 km (Tahmasbi and 

others, 2009), consistent with relatively high exhumation levels 

and the presence of relatively deeply seated W-Cu-Sn-Au skarn 

mineralization (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012b). However, 

some intrusive phases at Astaneh exhibit porphyritic textures that 

suggest shallower levels of intrusion (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; 

Shahabpour, 1999). However, the age of mineralization that is 

spatially associated with these shallower intrusions is poorly 

constrained. It may be middle Eocene (Nezafati, 2006). Thus, the 

W-Cu-Sn-Au-bearing Astaneh skarn is only tentatively included 

in the Sanandaj-Sirjan tract as a possible porphyry-related 

occurrence (see fig. 10 and appendix C).

The Alvand plutonic suite consists of 167 Ma gabbros, 

164–162 Ma intermediate granitoids, and 154–153 Ma 

leucocratic granites. Geochemical data indicate emplacement in 

a dominantly calc-alkaline continental-arc setting (Shahbazi and 

others, 2010). As at Astaneh, minor tungsten-tin mineralization is 

related to the Alvand batholith (Salehi and others, 2009).

Late leucocratic intrusive phases at Alvand and Chah 

Dozdan exhibit comparable characteristics to the Middle Jurassic 

Shir Kuh metaluminous to peraluminous batholith (Sheibi and 

others, 2010) and associated Damak porphyry-related copper 

skarn (Mackizadeh and Taghipour, 2010) located in the Central 

Iranian Terrane north of the Nain-Baft ophiolitic complex (see 

fig. 3 and fig. 11). The Shir Kuh batholith is part of the larger 

Cimmerian orogenic event that occurred along the Eurasian 

margin. However, its relation to the Sanandaj-Sirjan continental 

arc event is uncertain.

Widespread Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous calc-alkaline 

intrusive and extrusive rocks, uplift, and deformation indicate 

that subduction under the northern Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane was 

well established by this time (Berberian and King, 1981; Boulin, 

1991). The Suffi Abad plutonic complex in the northern part 

of the tract is representative of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous 

magmatism in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Azizi and others, 

2011). At Suffi Abad (fig. 11), 149–144 Ma calc-alkaline quartz 

syenite, syenite, monzosyenite, syenogranite, and leucogranite 

intrude Triassic-Jurassic sedimentary and trachytic to rhyolitic 

volcanic rocks. Geochemical data indicate subduction-related 

affinities for the early igneous phases, and assimilation of 

preexisting I-type granitoids in the upper continental crust for the 

late leucocratic granites. Rocks in the area have been affected by 

abundant iron-rich quartz veins. However, the age and nature of 

these hydrothermal products are not well constrained.

Thus, no known porphyry copper systems are known to 

be preserved in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous part of 

the continental arc in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Jamali and 

others, 2012). Moreover, Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous 

arc magmatism is absent in middle part of the SanandajSirjan Terrane. During this time period, the central part of the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane appears to have been part of a back-arc 

or rift basin where Pb-Zn-Ba Mississippi Valley type (MVT), 

sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX), and VMS occurrences 

developed instead of porphyry-related mineralization (Ghazban 

and others, 1994; Mirnejad and others, 2011; Rajabi and others, 

2012; Förster, 1978; Meshkani and others, 2011).

Qualitative Assessment

This long-lived and mature continental-arc setting is 

permissive for the occurrence of porphyry copper deposits. 

However, factors that considerably diminish the favorability 

in this tract include synmineralization and postmineralization 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 51

Figure 11. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9003, 

Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See appendix A for principal sources of information, and appendix B for source 

map units.

IRAN

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

TURKEY

SYRIA

KUWAIT

!

!

!

!

Kuwait

Tehran

Baghdad

Ashgabat

CASPIAN

SEA

PERSIAN

GULF

Hamedan

Siah Kuh

batholith

Siah Kuh

batholith

Bitlis - Zagros SutureBitlis - Zagros Suture

RashtRasht

Chah-Dozdan

Boroujerd

Shir Kuh

Suffi Abad 

44° E 52° E

35° N

30° N

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

IRAQ

KAZAKHSTAN

TURKEY

40° E 60° E

50° N

30° N

Fault

Suture

Shir Kuh Geologic features discussed in the text

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9003

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Transform fault

0 75 150 225 300 KILOMETERS

0 75 150 MILES

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

TURKMENISTAN

Area of map
52 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

deformation events that have highly exhumed this region, 

largely exposing metamorphosed rocks and the deeper more 

evolved peraluminous plutons and associated tungsten and tin 

mineralization. No information is available on the possible 

copper resources contained in these deposits.

Permissive Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous volcanic 

and plutonic units that define the tract amount to 8 and 

7 percent, respectively, of the tract area (fig. 11). Older 

basement underlies about 13 percent, broadly coeval 

nonpermissive rocks (sedimentary, volcano-sedimentary, 

and mafic units) account for 25 percent, and widespread 

younger rocks cover about 50 percent of the tract area. The 

low percentage of permissive units and high percentage of 

younger cover imply that levels of preservation are too deep 

and that the extent of younger cover is too extensive for 

porphyry systems to be exposed. However, the otherwise 

appropriate permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratio ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=52) suggests that appropriate 

preservation of porphyry copper mineralization cannot be 

precluded, given that both permissive volcanic and plutonic 

units occur in fold limbs in this terrane.

The assessment team determined that undiscovered copper 

resources associated with these deeply exhumed metaluminous 

to slightly peraluminous tungsten-bearing granitoids are 

likely negligible. Furthermore, the low number of known 

porphyry occurrences (deposits, prospects, and possible 

porphyry-related sites), which are not only an indication of 

the geologic endowment and level of exposure but also a 

probable reflection of the limited extent of exploration, add 

considerable uncertainty. Despite the permissive continentalarc setting, the geologic favorability was considered too low 

to add significant copper resources to the overall assessment 

(less than a 10-percent chance of one undiscovered deposit). 

Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan tract was not done.

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus Tract (142pCu9002)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic Feature Assessed: Middle Jurassic back arc and 

island arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Cimmeride Greater Caucasus tract covers an area 

of 16,700 km2 across northern Georgia, southernmost Russia, 

and northern Azerbaijan (fig. 12). It delimits a 375 km-long 

and as much as 70-km-wide northwest-southeast trending 

intraoceanic volcano-plutonic belt of Middle Jurassic 

age that is continuously exposed in the Greater Caucasus 

fold-and-thrust belt along the Georgia-Russia border. An 

additional isolated approximately 95 km-long by 20 km-wide 

segment of this volcano-plutonic belt is also exposed along 

the Azerbaijan-Russia border.

The Cimmeride Greater Caucasus tract is located in the 

northern part of the Transcaucasus Terrane, which represents the 

suture zone that separates the Transcaucasus from the Scythian 

Terrane to the north (fig. 3).

Tectonic Setting

The back-arc and intraoceanic arc environment that 

formed in the Middle Jurassic between the Scythian and 

Transcaucasus Terranes (figs. 3, 4A)—the Cimmeride Greater 

Caucasus tract described here—is part of the larger Late 

Triassic to Late Jurassic Cimmerian Orogeny (Golonka, 2004). 

This orogeny produced the final closure of the Paleotethys 

Ocean, generating a new northward-dipping subduction zone 

south of the accreted continents along the Northern Neotethys 

Ocean Branch (McCann and others, 2010). In the Greater 

Caucasus, this event is represented by the back-arc rift setting 

that developed behind the subduction zone. This back-arc 

setting is also known as the Gagra-Java Zone (Saintot and 

others, 2006).

This event was followed by renewed arc magmatism along 

the southern margin of the Transcaucasus Terrane in the Late 

Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (see Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract 

below)—and in the Late Cretaceous-Eocene (see Pontide (Asia) 

tract below)—which resulted in continued back-arc extension 

throughout the Greater Caucasus region (Adamia and others, 2011; 

Kazmin and others, 1986). Structural inversion of this protracted 

extensional basin and creation of the present-day fold-and-thrust 

belt of the Greater Caucasus was initiated in the late Eocene-early 

Oligocene as a result of the onset of collision between the Arabian 

Platform in the south and the Eurasian margin in the north (Saintot 

and others, 2006).

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects

Permissive igneous units used to define the Cimmeride 

Greater Caucasus tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 13, along 

with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic features 

mentioned in this section.

Middle Jurassic back-arc and intraoceanic island-arc 

magmatism between the Transcaucasus and the Scythian Terranes 

developed on thin crust and is characterized by predominantly 

mafic tholeiitic in the east, tholeiitic to calc-alkaline in the center, 

and bimodal mafic-felsic calc-alkaline to alkaline volcanic 

successions in the west (Kazmin and others, 1986; Lordkipanidze 

and others, 1989; Hess and others, 1995). Volcanic rocks are 

locally intruded by calc-alkaline granitoids. No porphyry copper 

mineralization is known to be related to these granitoids. Instead, 

Cu-Pb-Zn VMS systems and iron and Cu-Pb-Zn skarn and vein 

occurrences of economic consequence developed in and about 

these Middle Jurassic volcanic rocks and intrusions, respectively 

(Gugushvili and others, 2010; Kekelia and others, 2001; Kekelia 

and others, 2004; Rundkvist, 2001). It is possible that some of 

the Jurassic iron and base-metal skarns could be related to coeval 

porphyry mineralization. However, this relation has not been 

established in the region.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 53

Figure 12. Map showing the location of permissive tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride Greater Caucasus—Azerbaijan, Georgia, and 

Russian Federation. See appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

!

T'Bilisi

GEORGIA

TURKEY ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

RUSSIA

CASPIAN

SEA

BLACK

SEA

40° E 46° E

44° N

42° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT

40° E 60° E

40° N

30° N

KAZAKHSTAN

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9002

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 45° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 30 60 90 120 KILOMETERS

0 30 60 MILES

Area of map
54 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 13. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride 

Greater Caucasus—Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russian Federation. See appendix A for principal sources of information and 

appendix B for source map units.

T'Bilisi

!

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

AZERBAIJAN

RUSSIA

CASPIAN

SEA

BLACK

SEA

Gagra-JavaGagra-Java

GREATER CAUCASUSGREATER CAUCASUS

Sevan-Akera Suture

LESSER CAUCASUSLESSER CAUCASUS

Scythian-Transcaucasus Suture 

40° E 46° E

44° N

42° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT

40° E 60° E

40° N

30° N

KAZAKHSTAN

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9002

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

0 30 60 90 120 KILOMETERS

0 30 60 MILES

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 45° E., latitude of origin, 35° N. Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 55

Qualitative Assessment

The back-arc and island-arc setting delimited by the 

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus tract is permissive for the occurrence 

of porphyry copper deposits, despite the fact that no porphyryrelated systems are known. The very high ratio of permissive 

Middle Jurassic units ({volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}=91) in 

this complex fold-and-thrust belt implies that any porphyry 

copper systems may largely be lithologically or tectonically 

concealed (fig. 13). The absence of known porphyry-related 

occurrences further suggests that the region may have experienced 

limited exploration for this type of deposit, adding considerable 

uncertainty. Thus, despite the permissive geology, the assessment 

team felt that favorability was too low to add significant 

undiscovered copper resources to the overall assessment (less than 

a 10-percent chance of 1 undiscovered deposit). Therefore, the 

team concluded that a quantitative assessment for the Cimmeride 

Greater Caucasus tract was not warranted.

Lut Jurassic Tract (142pCu9000)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Middle Jurassic continental arc of the 

Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Lut Jurassic tract located in eastern Iran covers an area of 

2,960 km2 (fig. 14). It delimits a poorly preserved and irregularly 

exposed 300-km-long, subduction-related magmatic arc of Middle 

Jurassic age that is preserved in the Lut Terrane (fig. 3).

The Lut Terrane is bounded by the right-lateral Nayband 

Fault on the west and by the right-lateral Nehbandan Fault on 

the east. The northern and southern limits of the Lut Terrane 

are further marked by the left-lateral Great Kafir-Doruneh Fault 

system on the north, and the Makran Terrane’s Jaz Murian 

Depression on the south (fig. 3). Parts of the younger Lut 

Cretaceous and Lut Tertiary tracts (see below) are superimposed 

on the Lut Jurassic tract.

Tectonic Setting

The Lut Terrane (fig. 3), which formed part of the larger 

Cimmerian continental collage between the closing Paleotethys 

and opening Neotethys Oceans, collided for the first time with 

the southern margin of Eurasia in the Late Triassic-Early Jurassic 

(Golonka, 2004; Kazmin, 1991; Horton and others, 2008). The 

collision resulted in closure of the Paleotethys Ocean, and is 

recorded on both sides of the suture in the Kopet Dagh and Lut 

Terranes (fig. 3) by major deformation and uplift of Triassic and 

older rocks (Stöcklin, 1968; Şengör, 1979). By the Early Jurassic, 

the Lut, Tabas, Kashmar-Kerman, and Yazd Terranes (fig. 3) had 

amalgamated to form the east-central Iranian microcontinental 

collage. During that time, the present-day eastern margin of the 

Lut Terrane is believed to have been facing south (Westphal and 

others, 1986). Much of the 90-degree counterclockwise rotation 

of Lut Terrane occurred between the Eocene and middle Miocene. 

This fact is not represented in the simplified paleotectonic 

reconstructions of fig. 4. Following collision in the north, a new 

northward-dipping subduction zone developed along this southern 

margin (fig. 4A). Middle Jurassic magmatism in the Lut block 

developed as a consequence of this subduction-related event.

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects

Permissive igneous units used to define the Lut Jurassic 

tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 15, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section. Middle Jurassic magmatism in the Lut Terrane is 

represented by the Shah-Kuh (Lut), Klateh Ahani, and SorkhKuh plutons (Karimpour and others, 2011b; Bazin and Hübner, 

1969a).

The Sorkh-Kuh pluton (figs. 14, 15 and appendix C) 

consists of 170 Ma granodiorite and 165 Ma granite phases 

intruded into slate and quartzite of the Lower Jurassic Shemshak 

Formation, which were affected by coeval synkinematic 

metamorphism. Geochemical and isotopic data from the SorkhKuh pluton indicate peraluminous-dominated compositions 

derived from significant assimilation of relatively thick upper 

cratonic crust (Karimpour and others, 2011b) in a subductionrelated setting (Arjmandzadeh and others, 2011b). The Sorkh 

Kuh porphyry Cu-Mo prospect is associated with this pluton 

(Ziaii and others, 2007; Karimpour and Stern, 2011).

The 162.9 Ma Shah-Kuh (Lut) batholith (fig. 15) is a 

northwest-southeast trending body about 50 km long and 12 km 

wide (Karimpour and others, 2011b). It was emplaced between 

168–158 Ma into metamorphic basement and the overlying 

Lower Jurassic Shemshak Formation. Contact metamorphic 

effects are most noticeable along the northern side of the 

batholith. The batholith consists of a granodioritic unit to the 

northwest and a younger syenogranitic unit to the southeast. 

The granodioritic unit displays seriate textures and contains 

locally abundant mafic enclaves, whereas the syenogranitic unit 

is medium to coarse grained but exhibits porphyritic textures 

towards its margins. Fine-grained aplitic bodies cut both units. 

The rocks are metaluminous to slightly peraluminous (I-type) 

and peraluminous (S-type). Fractional crystallization appears to 

have been the principal differentiation process in the formation 

of both units. Trace-element and isotopic compositions are 

indicative of assimilation of felsic upper crustal materials 

in an active margin setting. No copper mineralization is 

present but tin mineralization in sheeted quartz-tourmaline-

(cassiterite) veins is spatially associated with the granodioritic 

unit (Esmaeily and others, 2005; Karimpour and Stern, 2011; 

Karimpour and others, 2011b).

The Klateh Ahani batholith (fig. 15) consists of a 162.4 Ma 

biotite granodiorite, hornblende biotite granite, and biotite granite 

that intrude the Lower Jurassic Shemshak Formation. Geochemical 

and isotopic data indicate similar reduced ilmenite-series S-type 

affinities derived from significant assimilation of upper cratonic 

crust. Tin mineralization is also hosted by this pluton (Karimpour 

and others, 2011b; Karimpour and Stern, 2011).
56 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Sorkh Kuh

IRAN

58° E 60° E

34° N

30° N

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

PAKISTAN

SAUDI

ARABIA

ARABIAN SEA

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper tract

 142pCu9000

Other porphyry copper tracts

Porphyry copper prospect

0 50 100 25 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009). 75

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Area of map

Figure 14. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits, prospects, and occurrences for permissive tract 

142pCu9000, Lut Jurassic—Iran. See appendix C for prospect information and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 57

Figure 15. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract142pCu9000, Lut 

Jurassic—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

IRAN

Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Shah-Kuh

(Lut)

Klateh Ahani

Sorkh-Kuh

 Doruneh Fault Doruneh Fault

Jaz Murian DepressionJaz Murian Depression

Bitlis-Zagros Suture

ARABIAN SEA

58° E 60° E

34° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

PAKISTAN

SAUDI

ARABIA

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9000

Sorkh-Kuh Geologic feature discussed in the text

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Transform fault

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Suture

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 58° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

25 75

Area of map
58 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Qualitative Assessment

The Middle Jurassic continental-arc setting is permissive 

for porphyry copper deposits. However, insufficient information 

is available to satisfactorily characterize the geology and copper 

resources of the only porphyry copper prospect (Sorkh Kuh) 

positively identified to date in the poorly preserved, deeply 

exhumed, and extensively covered Lut Jurassic tract. This is 

supported by a permissive ({volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100) 

ratio of 3, the dominance of felsic calc-alkaline to peraluminous 

igneous compositions, deep-seated tin-bearing metal associations 

in related hydrothermal systems, and younger rocks that cover 

about 67 percent of the tract area (fig. 15). The near absence of 

porphyry prospects of this age range further adds considerable 

uncertainty. Given these factors, the assessment team felt that 

contained copper resources in the tract were likely negligible 

(less than a 10-percent chance of 1 undiscovered deposit). Thus, 

despite the permissive geology and the presence of one positively 

identified porphyry copper prospect, the geologic favorability was 

deemed too low to add significant undiscovered copper resources 

to the overall assessment. Therefore, quantitative assessment of the 

Lut Jurassic tract was not warranted.

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus Tract (142pCu9001)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous 

island to continental arc and back arc of the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract covers an area 

of 17,400 km2 across the Lesser Caucasus fold-and-thrust 

belt of southernmost Georgia, eastern Armenia, and western 

Azerbaijan (fig. 16). It delimits a 350-km-long by 70-km-wide 

northwest-trending island- to continental-arc and back-arc 

volcano-plutonic belt of Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous age 

that was built on the Transcaucasus Terrane. To the southwest, 

the tract is bounded by the Sevan-Akera and Vedi-Zangezur 

ophiolitic sutures (fig. 3), which mark the boundary between 

the Transcaucasus and the eastern Anatolide-Tauride Terrane 

(South Armenian Block) to the south. To the northeast, the 

tract is delimited by a thick section of younger cover rocks. 

Parts of the younger Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran subtract and Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran tract (see below) are 

superimposed on the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract.

Tectonic Setting

During Late Triassic-Early Jurassic times, several 

microplates were sutured to the Eurasian margin, closing the 

Paleotethys Ocean (Şengör, 1979). Following collision in the 

north, an extensive northward-dipping subduction zone developed 

to the south of these microplates (Golonka, 2004), extending from 

the Lut Terrane of Iran in the east to the Istanbul Terrane of Turkey 

in the west (fig. 4B). In the Lesser Caucasus, Jurassic-Cretaceous 

subduction along the new Eurasian margin created an island- to 

continental-arc and back-arc setting in the Transcaucasus Terrane 

(Kekelia and others, 2001; Şengör and others, 1993; Şengör and 

others, 1991). Intense magmatism occurred along this arc, which is 

also known as the Somkheto-Karabakh Arc delimited here by the 

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract (Gamkrelidze, 1986; Sosson and 

others, 2010b).

Magmatism

Permissive igneous units used to define the Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 17, along 

with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic features 

mentioned in this section.

In the Lesser Caucasus, deformation, uplift, and 

magmatism associated with this arc-building event were 

most intense in the Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous, but 

continued into the Late Cretaceous in the back-arc region, 

when an as much as 3.5-km-thick calc-alkaline island-arc 

sequence of mafic-to-felsic but dominantly andesitic flows 

were erupted in a shallow-sea environment (Adamia and 

others, 1977). These volcanic rocks were, in turn, overlain by 

an as much as 2.5-km-thick volcano-sedimentary succession 

with interlayered shoshonitic mafic volcanic rocks (Adamia 

and others, 1981). The composition of volcanic rocks changes 

from low-K calc-alkaline about the arc axis in the south to 

shoshonitic in the back-arc region in the north, consistent with 

northward subduction polarity (Kazmin and others, 1986; 

Adamia and others, 1981; Khain, 1975). Volcanic rocks are 

intruded by gabbro and plagiogranite, calc-alkaline dioritetonalite-granodiorite-granite-monzonite, and lesser monzonitesyenite plutons (Kekelia and others, 2001; Lordkipanidze and 

others, 1989). To the rear of the arc, in the northern part of 

the Transcaucasus Terrane (fig. 3), the back-arc sequence is 

formed by a 3- to 3.5-km-thick section of dominantly tholeiitic 

back-arc alkali basalts and trachytes that were deposited 

alongside salt- and gypsum-bearing lagoonal and continental 

deposits (Adamia and others, 2011).

Volcanic and plutonic units associated with this event were 

deformed by Paleocene-early Eocene folding and thrusting and 

late Miocene to present folding, thrusting, and strike-slip events 

(Sosson and others, 2010b).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous porphyry copper and 

associated iron and base-metal skarn systems in the Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus tract are exposed in erosional windows into 

overlying and tectonically juxtaposed volcanic and volcanosedimentary successions, which also host several JurassicCretaceous copper-(gold-lead-zinc) volcanogenic massive sulfide 

occurrences of economic consequence (Gugushvili and others, 

2010; Moon and others, 2001; Kekelia and others, 2001; Kekelia 

and others, 2004; Rundkvist, 2001).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 59

Figure 16. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9001, 

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and 

appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Damirli

Djanyatag

Goshgarchai Karadag

Kavarta

Kedabek

Khar-Khar

Maarif

Shikahoh

Teghout

Tsitelisopel

Veskepar

!

Baku

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

RUSSIA

CASPIAN

SEA

41° N

39° N

45° E 50° E

40° E 60° E

40° N

30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN

EGYPT

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 45° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9001

Porphyry copper deposit

Porphyry copper prospect

Area of map
60 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 17. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9001, 

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information 

and appendix B for source map units.

!

Baku

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

RUSSIA

Zangezur

Ophiolite

S o m k h e t o - K a r a b a k h

A r c

S o m k h e t o - K a r a b a k h

A r c

LESSER CAUCASUSLESSER CAUCASUS

Sevan-Akera

Ophiolite

Amassia-Stepanavan Ophiolite

45° E 50° E

41° N

39° N

CASPIAN

SEA

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN

EGYPT

40° E 60° E

40° N

30° N

Figure 17.

Cimmerides Lesser

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9001

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Geologic feature discussed in the text Sevan-Akera

Ophiolite

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 45° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 61

In the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract, VMS and 

porphyry deposits occur in a back-arc tectonic environment 

that is permissive for both. A genetic relation between 

these two deposit types is not implied here, but it has been 

proposed in several mineral districts (Kekelia and others, 

2004). Depending on the level of preservation, however, only 

the more eroded windows expose the more deeply emplaced 

porphyry systems. Furthermore, the postmineral deformational 

history tectonically juxtaposed these two shallow and deeper 

hypabyssal ore-forming environments. This is evident not only 

in the Lesser Caucasus but elsewhere in the Tethys region of 

western and southern Asia.

The Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract contains 3 

(Teghout, Kavarta (Kapan), and Kedabek) known porphyry 

copper deposits (table 2) and 9 porphyry prospects (fig. 16 and 

appendix C). Other Middle Jurassic-Early Cretaceous mineral 

occurrences with more debatable genetic association to 

porphyry-style mineralization include Kizilbulag and Gosha. 

Gugushvili and others (2010) interpret them as porphyry 

related, whereas Kekelia and others (2001) classify them as 

VMS systems. These two prospects are not included in the 

database (appendix D)

Teghout Porphyry Deposit

The Teghout Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit is located in the 

northern part of the tract. It is Armenia’s second largest Cu-Mo 

deposit after Kadjaran (Mining Journal, 2005). The Teghout 

deposit has reported resources of 460 Mt at 0.35 percent copper 

and 0.02 percent molybdenum (Singer and others, 2008), or 

450 Mt at 0.36 percent copper and 0.022 percent molybdenum 

(Mining Journal, 2005). Exploratory work has been ongoing 

since the Soviet Era. In 2008, a renewed exploration program 

was put in place to develop the deposit (Thalenhorst, 2005, 

2007). The 145.9 Ma (Moritz and others, 2012) Teghout diorite 

to granite and rhyodacite porphyry deposit consists of a large 

stockwork with hypogene chalcopyrite and molybdenite, and 

chalcocite in a supergene enrichment zone. Mineralization is 

also hosted by skarn. Gold, silver, and rhenium are reported 

byproducts (Levine, 2011a). Available information suggests 

emplacement of the Teghout Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit in an 

arc setting.

Kedabek Porphyry Deposit

The Kedabek Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit is located 

in the back-arc part of the tract, about 100 km southeast 

of the Teghout deposit (fig. 16; Singer and others, 2008). 

Mineralization occurs in quartz diorite and diorite porphyry, 

as well as diabase dikes, which are overlain by a series of 

altered volcano-sedimentary rocks. Three stages have been 

established in the mineral paragenesis (Bortnikov and others, 

1993). The products of the earliest stage consist of pyrite, 

pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite. The principal minerals of the 

second stage are pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, 

and tetrahedrite. Gold, molybdenite, and pyrite were deposited 

during the third stage. The mineralized bodies also include 

massive covellite-bornite-chalcocite-chalcopyrite in skarn at 

the contact zone of the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous intrusive 

complex (United Nations Economic and Social Commission 

for Asia and the Pacific, 2000). Mining may have occurred at 

Kedabek as early as 2,000 years ago.

The combined JORC19-compliant indicated-and-inferred 

resource base is 15.6 Mt at 0.24 percent copper, 1.4 grams per 

metric ton (g/t) gold, and 12.2 g/t silver (Anglo Asian Mining 

PLC, 2009). The updated measured and indicated reserve 

and inferred resource has grown to 48 Mt at 0.197 percent 

copper, 0.825 g/t gold, and 6.65g/t silver; CAE Mining, 2012). 

The first gold from the open-pit, heap-leach-operation mine 

was poured in May 2009. Plans are to produce in excess of 

310,000 oz gold over the initial 6-year mine life (Anglo Asian 

Mining PLC, 2011). Given the grades in the current reserve 

base, the mine is contemplated as a gold operation. However, 

additional copper resources are likely present at depth.

Kavarta (Kapan) Porphyry Deposit

The Kavarta Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit is located 

about 150 km south of Kedabek in the southern part of the 

tract (fig. 16). In 1978, the resource was estimated at 50 Mt at 

1.2 percent copper (Singer and others, 2008), or 50 Mt at 0.6 

percent copper and 0.025 percent molybdenum (Kirkham and 

Dunne, 2000). However, the Kapan-Shahumyan porphyry and 

polymetallic vein district has seen renewed exploration that 

has resulted in a significant update of the resource base. In 

2009, inferred resources at the Kapan porphyry-polymetallic 

vein deposit were estimated at 466.3 Mt and 0.09 percent 

copper, 0.37 g/t gold, 6.5 g/t silver, and 0.32 percent zinc 

(Wolfe and Gossage, 2009).

In the Kapan-Shahumyan district, highly deformed 

Middle to Upper Jurassic volcanogenic and sedimentary 

formations host the copper-molybdenum and polymetallic 

stockwork and vein deposits, respectively. The 1,000-m-thick 

volcanogenic sequence is composed of two cycles of basaltic 

andesite to rhyodacite extrusive and porphyry stocks and 

north-west to east-west dikes of andesitic, tonalitic, and dacitic 

composition that were emplaced in an extensional back-arc 

setting. Both the disseminated copper and polymetallic vein 

mineralization are centered about the porphyry intrusions 

(Wolfe and Gossage, 2009).

Upper Jurassic volcanogenic and sedimentary rocks are 

overlain by a 2,500-m-thick Jurassic-Cretaceous postmineral 

volcanic and sedimentary sequence. Both rock successions are 

preserved in a doubly plunging northwest-southeast anticline, 

with the younger Jurassic-Cretaceous strata localized on 

the northeastern and northern limbs of the structure. These 

successions are furthermore crosscut by 125-Ma north-west 

gabbroic dikes, as well as Paleogene extrusive and subvolcanic 

diabase, andesite, and dacite dikes (Wolfe and Gossage, 2009).

19Australian Joint Ore Reserves Committee (or the Australian Code for 

Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources, and Ore Reserves).
62 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Other Porphyry Prospects and Possible Porphyry-Related 

Mineral Occurrences

Most of the known Jurassic-Cretaceous porphyry copper 

prospects (Kekelia and others, 2001; Rundkvist, 2001) occur about 

the plutons that also host the known deposits. The Tsitelisopel and 

Vekespar prospects are in the vicinity of the Teghout deposit; the 

Goshgarchai, Khar Khar (133.3 Ma; Moritz and others, 2012), 

Karadag, and the possible porphyry-related Maarif prospects 

occur around the Kedabek deposit, and the Shikahoh prospect 

is located near the Kapan deposit. The Djanyatag and Damirli 

prospects, on the other hand, are about 100 km north of the Kapan 

and southeast of the Kedabek porphyry deposits, respectively. 

On the basis of the Cu-Mo metal associations reported (Mining 

Journal, 2011a; Wikipedia, 2013a), other possible porphyry-related 

mineral occurrences are located at Aramazd (Cu-Mo-Au-AgPb-Zn), Bartsravan-Brnakot (Cu-Mo-Au-Pb), Balishen (Cu-AuAg-Mo-Pb), and Hankasar (Cu-Mo-Au-Ag). However, the deposit 

type and age of these occurrences is uncertain. Therefore, they are 

not included in the database.

Preservation Level

The Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract delineates the extent 

of this arc to back-arc setting, which is well preserved along the 

southern margin of the Transcaucasus Terrane. However, it does 

not include much of the back-arc environment to the rear, because 

these rocks are buried under thick Neogene molassic deposits.

The four more eroded windows that contain most of the 

plutonic outcrops and known porphyry deposits and prospects 

in the tract appear to exhibit appropriate levels of preservation 

for porphyry copper mineralization of this age. Conversely, 

Jurassic-Cretaceous VMS systems are distributed outside these 

erosional windows in more volcanic-dominated areas of the 

tract, indicating preservation of shallower paleodepositional 

environments.

As derived from the 1:1,000,000-scale geologic map of 

the Caucasus (Kekelia and others, 2001), permissive JurassicCretaceous volcanic and plutonic units are relatively well 

exposed throughout much of Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 

tract area (34 and 5 percent, respectively), but the overall 

permissive unit {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio 

across the tract is high at 87 (fig. 17). Nonpermissive mafic, 

sedimentary, and volcano-sedimentary units occupy an 

additional 27 percent, and younger rocks cover the remaining 

33 percent of the tract area. Older basement rocks within 

the tract account for less than 1 percent. Overall, these 

data suggest that undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

may largely be concealed under permissive volcanic units, 

nonpermissive volcano-sedimentary and sedimentary units, 

and younger cover.

Magnetic Anomalies

The global aeromagnetic map Maus and others (2009) 

was used to confirm the location and character of regional 

geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane 

boundaries). On the basis of magnetic responses that are likely 

related to mafic accretionary prisms and other units associated 

with younger events, the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract 

occupies a region that does not appear to exhibit significant 

magnetic relief. However, magnetic gradients do occur about 

the Kavarta-Shikahoh, Goshgarchai, and Teghout-TsitelisopelVekespar districts (fig. 16). Magnetic contrasts are also evident 

north of the Khar-Khar and south of the Goshgarchai porphyry 

prospects, where they may image the location of regional 

structures that separate the arc from the back-arc environment. 

Beyond the tract boundary to the northeast, a broad positive 

magnetic anomaly likely reflects the long-lived Middle 

Jurassic-Paleogene mafic rock-dominated extensional back-arc 

rift environment that is buried under thick Neogene deposits.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

In the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract, resource data 

allow classification of Kedabek as Cu-Au and Teghout as 

a Cu-Mo porphyry deposit subtypes, based on the Au/Mo 

ratio and criteria for gold and molybdenum content used 

in this assessment. Available descriptions of the Kavarta 

deposit indicate contents of both molybdenum and gold. With 

the exception of the Goshgarchai prospect in the Kedabek 

district, for which relatively high gold grades are reported, 

available information on the other eight known porphyry 

prospects suggests that these may conform more to the Cu-Mo 

subcategory.

Pooled t-test results assuming equal variances show 

that the three known deposits in the tract are not significantly 

different at the 1-percent level from tonnages and grades in 

the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others 

(2008). Therefore, the general model was selected to estimate 

undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver resources 

in this tract. Compared to the median tonnage and grade in the 

general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, Teghout exhibits larger 

tonnage and higher molybdenum grade and Kavarta shows 

smaller tonnage but higher copper grade (when the smaller 

more copper-rich older resource base reported in Wolfe and 

Gossage (2009) is considered). Kedabek is also smaller than 

the median deposit in the model but has higher gold grades.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits likely present in the 

island-to-continental and back-arc setting delineated by the 

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus tract include (1) a well-exposed 

segment of a long-lived arc to back-arc system, (2) permissive 

calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatic compositions, (3) three 

known Cu-Au-Mo and Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposits with 

one containing tonnages and molybdenum grades that exceed 

those of the median deposit around the world, (4) favorable 

conditions for supergene enrichment, and (5) appropriate 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 63

preservation levels for porphyry copper systems in erosional 

windows. Unfavorable geologic factors include (1) levels of 

preservation in 70 percent of the tract area that are too shallow 

for porphyry systems or otherwise covered by younger rocks 

and (2) superimposed postmineral fold-and-thrust events that 

likely have concealed or exhumed porphyry systems.

The density of known porphyry deposits across the entire 

tract is lower compared to densities in in well-explored tracts 

of this size around the world, suggesting that undiscovered 

deposits are likely present. In addition, a relatively low level 

of uncertainty to which the number of undiscovered deposits 

can be estimated is in part supported by the comparatively 

large number (albeit unevenly distributed) of known porphyry 

occurrences (the sum of deposits and prospects), and the fact 

that the area is experiencing renewed exploration efforts that 

are being successful in incrementing the resource base (such 

as at the Kedabek and Kavarta deposits).

The assessment team concluded that the Cimmeride Lesser 

Caucasus porphyry tract was geologically favorable and that 

estimates of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

could be carried out with a moderate level of uncertainty. 

The tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract 

was completed. Table 4A shows the consensus estimates for 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Cimmeride 

Lesser Caucasus tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-probability 

levels and the associated summary statistics. The 90-percent 

probability estimates were equally divided among assessors at 

0 and 1 undiscovered deposits. At the 50-percent probability the 

numbers ranged from 1 to 3 undiscovered deposits, and at the 

10-percent probability level, the numbers increased to between 

2 and 6. On the basis of these numbers, the team reached a 

consensus estimate of 0, 2, and 3 undiscovered deposits for the 

90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively, which 

resulted in a mean of 1.85 undiscovered deposits with a standard 

deviation of 1.46 (Cv

 percent (%)=79). This result reflects the 

level of favorability and moderate uncertainty assessed for 

this tract. The estimated total (that is, known + undiscovered) 

deposit density per 100,000 km2

 obtained is comparable to 

median porphyry deposit densities in well-explored tracts of 

equivalent size elsewhere around the world (Singer and Menzie, 

2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates of copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 4B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus porphyry 

tract is 7.1 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are 

also presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 18). The 

cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities 

of occurrence-estimated resources and total mineralized 

rock, as well as the mean for each commodity and for total 

mineralized rock.

Late Cretaceous to Late Eocene Tracts

The seven Late Cretaceous to late Eocene permissive tracts 

are shown in figure 6. A probabilistic assessment of undiscovered 

resources was conducted for the Pontide, Anatolide-Tauride, 

Border Folds, Esfahan, and Khorasan tracts; the other two tracts 

delineated for this age range (the Lut Cretaceous and the Makran) 

were assessed qualitatively.

Pontide (Asia) Tract (142pCu9004)

Location

The Pontide (Asia) tract covers an area of 102,500 km2

(fig. 19). Itdelimits a 2,300-km-long and 100–200-km-wide 

subduction- to postsubduction-related volcano-plutonic belt of 

Late Cretaceous to late Eocene age that extends across northern 

Turkey, southern Georgia, eastern Armenia, western Azerbaijan, 

and northern Iran. The Pontide (Asia) tract occurs in the Istanbul, 

eastern Pontide, Sakarya, Transcaucasus, Talysh, and Alborz 

Terranes (fig. 3). These terranes and the Pontide (Asia) tract are 

bounded to the south by the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan, Sevan-Akera, 

and Rasht suture zones. To the north and northeast the Pontide 

(Asia) tract is delimited by the Black Sea and younger cover rocks 

in the Caucasus, respectively (fig. 6). The Pontide (Asia) tract is 

partially superimposed on the older Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 

tract (see fig. 16).

Tectonic Setting

The Late Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene island- to 

continental-arc event that occurred in the Northern Neotethys 

Ocean Branch associated with a north-vergent subduction zone 

on the Eurasian margin is known as the Pontide Arc (Janković, 

1977; Yılmaz and others, 1997b; Kaymakci and others, 2010). 

The Pontide (Asia) tract delimits the extent of the Pontide Arc 

in the assessment region. Across northern Turkey, the Lesser 

Caucasus, and northern Iran, it consists of a fore-arc, arc, and 

back-arc-to-postcollisional environment that developed in front 

of and on the Pontides (the amalgamated Strandja, Istanbul, and 

Sakarya Terrane collage; Okay, 1989; Richard Herrington, written 

commun., 2005), the Transcaucasus, and the Talysh and Alborz 

Terranes (figs. 3, 4C). From west to east, Pontide Arc magmatism 

is located about and north of the ophiolite-bearing Izmir-AnkaraErzincan Suture (fig. 3) in Turkey (Dilek and others, 2010), about 

and northeast of the Sevan-Akera and Vedi-Zangezur Sutures in 

the Lesser Caucasus (Rolland and others, 2009, 2010; Sosson 

and others, 2010b), and about the Rasht Suture in northwest Iran 

(Adamia and others, 2011; Salavati, 2008).

Closure of the Northern Neotethys Ocean Branch and 

accretion-collision of the Anatolide-Tauride and South Armenian 

Block (eastern Anatolide-Tauride) Terranes onto the Eurasian 

margin progressed in time and space from the Late Cretaceous 

(Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex Terrane) in central Turkey, 

to the late Paleocene-early Eocene (western Anatolide-Tauride 
64 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

Table 4. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 3 5 5 1.8 1.5 79 3 4.8 17,400 28

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 2,500,000 16,000,000 27,000,000 7,100,000 0.25 0.19

Mo 0 0 22,000 430,000 830,000 200,000 0.19 0.37

Au 0 0 36 450 790 180 0.24 0.33

Ag 0 0 130 5,400 10,000 2,400 0.19 0.46

Rock 0 0 540 3,300 5,600 1,400 0.26 0.19

Figure 18. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus— Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 65 Figure 19. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9004a, Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9004b, Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey, Georgia and Turkey; 142pCu9004c, Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Güzelyayla

Ardes

Pitkir

Avup Daği

Dikmen

Garta

Haysat Buyuk

Inanmi 

Kabatas (north)

Karabiga

Bakirtepe Katirli

Kibledag

Komurlu

Kaban

Kose Tizik

Kosehasan

MamuloSopheli

Bakirçay Merzifon 

Bakirçay

Namonastevi

Sisorta

Surmene

Sincan

Yolgecen Mezrasi

Emeksendere

Esenlidere

Kaytangelisobasi

Koyyerideresi

Balcili-Yüksekoba

(and 17 other prospects)

Gümüşhane

Uluta ş

KolatHani

Demirkapi

Tozköy

Ilicaköy

Sarikaya

Sivrikaya

!

!

!

!

!

Ankara

Nicosia

T'Bilisi

Tehran

Baku

CYPRUS

SYRIA

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

KAZAKHSTAN

GREECE

IRAQ

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

RUSSIA

CASPIAN

SEA

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

50° E 30° E

40° N35° N

50° E 30° E

40° N30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT

UKRAINE

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9004

Porphyry copper depositPorphyry copper prospect

Sub-tract 142pCu9004aSub-tract 142pCu9004bSub-tract 142pCu9004c

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

0 75 150 225 300 KILOMETERS

0 75 150 MILES

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 38° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Area of map
66 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Terrane) in western Turkey (Moix and others, 2008; Şengör and 

Yilmaz, 1981; Okay, 2008), and to the early to middle Eocene 

(eastern Anatolide-Tauride Terrane) in eastern Turkey, the Lesser 

Caucasus, and northern Iran (Sosson and others, 2010; Dilek and 

others, 2010; Golonka, 2004).

Oblique closure of the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch 

along Late Cretaceous and middle Eocene to middle-late Miocene 

continental-arc subduction zones (Neotethys I and Neotethys 

II of Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006) also occurred diachronously 

with island-arc accretion in the Late Cretaceous, followed by 

continental collision in the (1) early Miocene in northwestern 

Iran, (2) middle Miocene in central Iran (Ghasemi and Talbot, 

2006; Kazmin and others, 1986; Saintot and others, 2006), and 

(3) middle Miocene in southeastern Turkey (Yılmaz, 1993) 

and southeastern Iran (Berberian and Berberian, 1981). The 

remaining segments of the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch are 

presently being subducted under western Turkey in the west and 

southeastern Iran and Pakistan in the east (Şengör, 1987). As a 

consequence, Eocene and Miocene to recent south-vergent folding 

and thrusting that deformed the Pontide Arc (Popovic, 1975) 

were not only a result of the closing of Northern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch but also of the closing of both the Northern and Southern 

Neotethys Ocean Branches across Turkey, the Lesser Caucasus, 

and northern Iran (Mosar and others, 2010).

From west to east, variations in the tectonic setting occur 

across the Pontide (Asia) porphyry tract. The segment of the 

Pontide Arc in northwestern Turkey is dominated by fore-arc 

and superimposed back-arc rock associations; the segment of 

the Pontide Arc in northeastern Turkey and southern Georgia 

includes mainly arc and back-arc rock associations, whereas the 

segment of the Pontide Arc in the Lesser Caucasus is dominated 

by back-arc rock associations. In the Alborz of northern Iran, the 

Pontide Arc is deeply exhumed. Accordingly, the nature of Late 

Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene magmatism and associated 

porphyry mineralization also varies across these distinct tectonic 

environments. Therefore, the tract is separated here into distinct 

sub-tracts (Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey, Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey, 

and Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran). These sub-tracts are described 

below and are assessed individually.

Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9004a)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Eocene 

fore-arc, back-arc, and postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan 

Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

Across northwestern and north-central Turkey, the Pontide 

(Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract delimits a fore-arc and superimposed 

back-arc segment of the Pontide Arc. The sub-tract covers an area 

of 32,700 km2 (fig. 19). In this region, the Pontide Arc is largely 

contained within a stack of thrust sheets of Late Cretaceous-early 

Eocene age preserved along and north of the Izmir-AnkaraErzincan Suture (Rice and others, 2006). Permissive igneous units 

(appendix B) used to define Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract 

are shown in figure 20, along with locations of igneous complexes 

and other geologic features mentioned in this section.

In the Istanbul and Sakarya Terranes of northwestern Turkey 

(fig. 3), late Lower Cretaceous (Aptian-Cenomanian) shallow 

marine clastic rocks of a broad marginal back-arc rift basin 

that separated terranes of Gondwanan affinity from Eurasia are 

superseded by a thick sequence of Late Cretaceous (Robinson 

and others, 1995; Okay and Şahintürk, 1997) volcanic and 

volcano-sedimentary rocks that mark the onset of Pontide Arc 

magmatism. These rocks are represented by Upper Cretaceous 

(Santonian-Campanian) interlayered sedimentary and calc-alkaline 

andesitic to rhyolitic volcanic rocks that were deposited in a forearc environment (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981). The axis of the arc 

lies to the north and is presently submerged under the Black Sea. 

Associated Late Cretaceous intrusive rocks cut the volcanic and 

sedimentary rock succession, show geochemical signatures that 

are consistent with a subduction-related origin, and commonly 

exhibit high-temperature metamorphic aureoles (Delaloye and 

Bingöl, 2000; Tüysüz and others, 1995). Late Cretaceous units 

are overlain by late Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) to Paleocene 

pelagic limestones and early Eocene turbidites, which are in turn 

unconformably capped by a middle Eocene volcano-sedimentary 

succession that is preserved along narrow belts about the IntraPontides and the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Sutures (Keskin and 

others, 2008). The middle Eocene sequence that consists of 

shallow marine to subaerial sedimentary rocks at the base and 

subaerial volcanic units towards the top is intruded by late Eocene 

plutons. Associated lavas span the whole compositional range from 

basalts to rhyolites and display subduction-related calc-alkaline 

character except at the top of the section, where extension-related 

mildly alkaline to alkaline compositions do occur.

The Paleocene to middle Eocene depositional environment 

coupled with progressive calc-alkaline to alkaline compositional 

evolution of igneous rocks indicate southward propagation of an 

evolving back arc over the arc axis (Manetti and others, 1983, 

1988). Early Eocene uplift related to collision with the AnatolideTauride Terrane to the south resulted in termination of subductionrelated arc magmatism. Thus, the occurrence of younger late 

Eocene granitoids indicates that magmatism continued into the 

postcollisional extensional setting that followed.

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

With exception of the Late Cretaceous Derekoy and 

Ikiztepeler porphyry Cu-Mo deposits in the European part 

of Turkey (Sutphin and others, 2013) and the middle Eocene 

Bakirçay porphyry deposit in north-central Turkey, few 

porphyry copper occurrences related to the Pontide volcanoplutonic event have been identified across northwestern Turkey. 

The only economically significant copper mineralization 

identified in the region is associated with VMS deposits hosted 

by older Early Jurassic ophiolite complexes (Yigit, 2006, 2009).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 67 Figure 20. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9004a, Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9004b, Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey, Georgia and Turkey; 142pCu9004c, Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

!

!

!

!

!

Ankara

Nicosia

T'Bilisi T'Bilisi

Tehran

Baku

SYRIA

BULGARIA

GEORGIA GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

KAZAKHSTAN

GREECE

IRAQ

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

RUSSIA

CASPIAN

SEA

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture

Izmir-Ankara-Erz ni can Suture Izmir-Ankara-Erz ni can Suture

Sevan-Akera

Bitlis Zagros Suture Bitlis Zagros Suture

Eastern

Black Sea

Basin

Bitl si -Zagros Suture Bitl si -Zagros Suture

Vedi-Zangezur

Rasht

Intra-Pontide Suture

Amassia-Stepanavan

50° E 30° E

40° N35° N

50° E 30° E

40° N30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT EGYPT

UKRAINE

CYPRUS

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 38° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS0 100 200 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9004

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Sub-tract 142pCu9004aSub-tract 142pCu9004bSub-tract 142pCu9004c

Suture

Rasht

Area of map
68 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

The Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract (fig. 19) 

includes one known porphyry copper deposit (Bakirçay; table 

2) and four porphyry prospects (appendix C). One porphyry 

prospect is associated with Bakirçay in north-central Turkey, 

and the other three are located in the western part of the 

sub-tract (Dikmen, Karabiga Bakirtepe, and Katirli). Like the 

Bakirçay deposit, the Dikmen and Katirli porphyry prospects 

exhibit gold-bearing Cu-Mo metal associations, whereas the 

Karabiga Bakirtepe prospect is better characterized as a Cu-Au 

porphyry system. Another possible Cu-Mo quartz diorite 

porphyry prospect of probable early Eocene age occurs at 

Camyurt in the northern Biga Peninsula (Yigit, 2012).

Bakirçay Porphyry Deposit

The Bakirçay Cu-Au-Mo porphyry-skarn deposit was 

one of the first porphyry copper systems described in Turkey 

(Taylor, 1978, 1981). The deposit has reported resources 

of 200 Mt at 0.2 percent copper+molybdenum equivalent 

(Singer and others, 2008; Yigit, 2009). Northeast-trending 

copper-molybdenum mineralization is associated with middle 

Eocene granodiorite and dacite porphyry intrusions and 

associated Cu-Pb-Zn-Mo-W skarn emplaced into Paleozoic 

and Mesozoic marble and metaquartzite hosts (Yigit, 2009; 

Taylor, 1981). The granodiorite porphyry intrusion covers an 

area of 4.5 km by 0.6 km. A central zone of biotite, quartz, 

magnetite, K-feldspar, chalcopyrite-(bornite), and molybdenite 

is overprinted by peripheral propylitic alteration associations 

including chlorite-epidote-calcite, and lesser structurally 

controlled quartz-sericite-pyrite, suggesting that the deep 

root zone of a porphyry system is exposed there (Taylor and 

Fryer, 1980; Soylu, 1999). The age constraints available 

for porphyry emplacement and mineralization at Bakirçay 

(44.3–40.3 Ma and 38.6–37.4 Ma K-Ar dates on primary and 

secondary biotite, respectively; Taylor, 1981) suggest that this 

deposit was emplaced during or shortly after the early Eocene 

collision between the eastern Anatolide-Tauride and PontideSakarya Terranes (and certainly after the Late Cretaceous 

collision of the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex 

adjacent to the south).

Dikmen Porphyry Prospect

The Dikmen Mo-Cu-Au-bearing porphyry-skarn 

prospect was discovered by a joint venture between MTA 

and Mining Metal Agency of Japan (MMAJ) in 1988–91 

(Yigit, 2012). It is associated with quartz–feldspar porphyry, 

granodiorite and aplitic dikes of early Eocene age that 

intruded metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of Triassic 

age. At Dikmen, a 3-km long and as much as 0.5-km wide 

alteration zone occurs along a northeast structural trend. 

Quartz-sericite-pyrite and kaolinite-dickite alteration host 

stockworks and sheeted veins with molybdenite, chalcopyrite, 

and supergene copper minerals including brochantite (Yigit, 

2009). Preliminary geochemical sampling indicates highly 

anomalous gold, molybdenum, zinc, lead, and copper 

contents (Yigit, 2012).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map of Turkey 

(General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000), 

24 percent of the sub-tract area is underlain by older basement, 

of which about half consists of deeply exhumed metamorphic 

rocks. The proportions of Late Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene 

permissive (plutonic and volcanic) and nonpermissive (mafic, 

sedimentary, and volcano-sedimentary) units are 17 and 23 percent 

of the sub-tract area, respectively, whereas younger rocks and inland 

water bodies cover the remaining 35 percent of the sub-tract area 

(fig. 20). A high permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratio ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=92) across the sub-tract further suggests 

that the level of preservation of porphyry systems is in general too 

shallow for exposure, and (or) that they may also be buried under 

younger cover across large sections of the sub-tract.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; Maus 

and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location and character 

of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, 

terrane boundaries). A prominent positive magnetic anomaly 

forms a ribbon-shaped area along northern Turkey. The magnetic 

anomaly occurs on land in the Eastern Pontide Arc segment, but it 

lies almost entirely offshore across northwestern Turkey. The latter 

likely images the Pontide Arc axis that is now largely submerged 

under the Black Sea. In the European part of the Pontide Arc, the 

magnetic anomaly continues in the area of the Strandja Terrane 

(fig. 3), which hosts several porphyry copper deposits—for 

example, Derekoy and Ikiztepeler (Sutphin and others, 2013). 

Isolated but prominent magnetic highs that may be partially 

associated with the Pontide fore arc occur in the westernmost part 

of the Sakarya Terrane (Biga Peninsula) and in the central parts of 

the Istanbul and Sakarya Terranes. However, these highs may be 

an indication of older metamorphic basement, ultramafic units, or 

younger volcano-plutonic rocks. The Bakircay porphyry deposit 

occurs on the northern margin of an isolated east-west trending 

magnetic anomaly.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Available resource data for the only known deposit in the 

Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract were insufficient to allow 

classification into Cu-Mo or Cu-Au porphyry subtype category 

based on the criteria for gold and molybdenum contents that were 

used in this assessment. Notwithstanding that gold is reported 

to occur in 4 of the 5 porphyry occurrences in this sub-tract, 

the dominance of a copper-molybdenum metal association is 

apparent. Pooled t-test results assuming equal variances show that 

the tonnage and copper grade of the only known deposit in the 

sub-tract are not significantly different at the 1-percent level from 

tonnages and grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of 

Singer and others (2008). Therefore, the general model was used 

to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 69

resources in this sub-tract. In comparison to the median tonnage 

and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, Bakirçay 

exhibits comparable size but lower copper grade.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Pontide (Asia)–

NW Turkey sub-tract include (1) a fore-arc and prominent 

superimposed back-arc environment related to a large and 

long-lived island to mature continental arc segment partially 

built on thick cratonic crust, (2) permissive calc-alkaline arc 

and alkaline back-arc and postcollisional magmatic rocks, (3) 

known Cu porphyry deposits (for example, Bakirçay), and (4) 

favorable environment for development of supergene enrichment. 

Unfavorable geologic factors include (1) overall high volcanic-toplutonic ratios that suggest that levels of preservation for porphyry 

systems may not be appropriate and (2) complex fold-and-thrust 

events, where deposits can be exhumed, tectonically concealed, or 

buried under younger cover.

The density of known porphyry deposits in the Pontide 

(Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract is low compared to densities in 

well-explored tracts of this size around the world. This suggests 

that undiscovered deposits are likely present. However, the low 

number of known porphyry occurrences may not only reflect 

the limited extent of exploration that the region has experienced 

(Yigit, 2009) but also the degree of efficiency of ore-forming 

processes and (or) the level of preservation of porphyry systems.

In combination, these factors (for example, tectonic setting, 

level of exposure, extent of cover, exploration) led the assessment 

team to establish that the Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey sub-tract 

exhibited relatively low geologic favorability and that high levels 

of uncertainty in the estimation of undiscovered porphyry deposits 

were expected. Nevertheless, the tract would contribute significant 

copper resources from undiscovered deposits to the overall 

assessment. Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered 

deposits in this tract was warranted. Estimates for undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits in the Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey 

sub-tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels and the 

associated summary statistics are listed in table 5a–A.20 The team 

reached a consensus estimate of 0, 1, and 2 undiscovered deposits 

for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively, 

which resulted in a mean of 1.15 undiscovered deposits with a 

standard deviation of 1.18 (Cv%=102). This result reflects the 

limited favorability and high uncertainty assessed for this porphyry 

copper sub-tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated copper, molybdenum, gold, 

silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are summarized in 

table 5a–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources 

20Note that for tables in this report where numbers are followed by lowercase letters (for example, table 5a), numbers group tracts (for example, 

Pontide (Asia)) and letters correspond to the letter at the end of sub-tract 

designations (for example, 142pCu9014a).

in the Pontide (Asia)–NW Turkey porphyry sub-tract is 4.1 Mt. 

Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 21). The cumulative frequency 

plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated 

resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey Sub-tract (142pCu9004b)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Eocene island 

to continental arc, back-arc, and postcollisional magmatism of the 

Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

Across northeastern Turkey and southwestern Georgia, 

the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract delimits an arc- and 

back-arc-dominated segment of the Pontide Arc. The sub-tract 

covers an area of 45,500 km2 (fig. 19). Permissive igneous units 

(appendix B) used to define the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey 

sub-tract are shown in figure 20, along with locations of igneous 

complexes and other geologic features mentioned in this section. 

This segment of the Pontide Arc is preserved in thrust sheets 

containing units of Late Cretaceous to early Eocene age that 

can be restored as (1) a subduction-accretion complex and fore 

arc, (2) an arc, and (3) a back arc about and north of the IzmirAnkara-Erzincan Suture (Rice and others, 2006).

In the amalgamated Eastern Pontides and Sakarya terranes 

of northeastern Turkey (fig. 3), older and Late Jurassic to Early 

Cretaceous variably metamorphosed subduction-related plutonic, 

volcanic, and volcaniclastic units (Ustaömer and Robertson, 

2010; Yılmaz and Boztuğ, 1986) form the basement on which the 

early Late Cretaceous (Turonian) to Paleocene eastern segment 

of the Pontide Arc was built. In this region, the Pontide Arc is 

represented by a tholeiitic to alkaline island-arc environment 

preserved along the structurally imbricated Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan 

Suture (Koçyiğit and others, 1988) and an associated calc-alkaline 

continental arc (Tüysüz and others, 1995) on the Eastern PontidesSakarya Terrane to the north (Yılmaz, 1993; Yılmaz and others, 

2001). The southern margin of the arc along the Izmir-AnkaraErzincan Suture (figs. 3, 20) is composed of Late Cretaceous 

flysch and limestone intercalations representing the fore-arc 

setting, whereas the central and northern margins of the Pontide 

Arc consist of a greater than 2-km-thick submarine succession of 

Late Cretaceous to Paleocene high-K calc-alkaline mafic to felsic 

intrusive, volcanic, and volcano-sedimentary rocks deposited 

mostly in a back-arc setting (Bektaş and others, 1995; Yılmaz and 

Korkmaz, 1999; Çamur and others, 1996).

A large composite batholithic mass occupies the arc 

axis (Yılmaz-Şahin and others, 2004). It consists of Paleozoic 

intrusions cut by Late Cretaceous and Paleocene plutons that 

exhibit typical calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline granodioritic 
70 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Sub-tract name Coded_ID Countries

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey 142pCu9004a Turkey

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey 142pCu9004b Georgia and Turkey

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran 142pCu9004c Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran

Table 5. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey.

[Coded_ID, a unique number assigned to each permissive tract in the spatial data (appendix D)]

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 1 2 4 4 1.2 1.2 100 1 2.2 32,700 7

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 840,000 8,900,000 17,000,000 4,100,000 0.23 0.29

Mo 0 0 0 230,000 460,000 110,000 0.17 0.53

Au 0 0 4 260 510 100 0.22 0.48

Ag 0 0 0 2,600 5,200 1,400 0.16 0.62

Rock 0 0 200 1,900 3,500 830 0.24 0.29

Table 5a. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9004a, Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey sub-tract, Turkey.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 71

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

1 3 9 9 9 4.1 3.0 73 4 8.1 45,500 18

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 260,000 7,100,000 37,000,000 57,000,000 15,000,000 0.30 0.07

Mo 0 0 120,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 420,000 0.25 0.19

Au 0 0 160 990 1,500 390 0.29 0.16

Ag 0 0 1,200 12,000 22,000 5,100 0.24 0.26

Rock 0 64 1,600 7,400 12,000 3,100 0.32 0.07

Table 5b. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9004b, Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey sub-tract, Georgia and Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 1 1 3 3 0.85 0.80 94 0 0.85 24,300 3

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 470,000 7,000,000 13,000,000 3,300,000 0.20 0.31

Mo 0 0 0 170,000 390,000 91,000 0.15 0.59

Au 0 0 0 190 380 86 0.18 0.55

Ag 0 0 0 1,800 4,200 1,200 0.14 0.69

Rock 0 0 120 1,500 2,700 670 0.21 0.31

Table 5c. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9004c, Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, 

and Iran.
72 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 21. Cumulative frequency plots showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and 

Turkey. A, Sub-tract 142pCu9004a, Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey, Turkey. B, Sub-tract 142pCu9004b, Pontide (Asia)—NE 

Turkey, Georgia and Turkey. C, Sub-tract 142pCu9004c, Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, 

and Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 21A.

142pCu9004a_Pontides(Asia)_CumFreq.ai

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

A

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Material, in metric tons

Probability

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

EXPLANATION

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

B
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 73

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 21C

142pCu9004c_Pontides(Asia)_CumFreq.ai

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

C

Figure 21.—Continued

to granitic compositions. These plutons include shallow-seated 

porphyritic stocks, and locally are also intruded by Paleocene 

highly fractionated peraluminous leucogranites (Boztuğ and 

others, 2006; Yilmaz-Şahın, 2005).

After deformation and uplift related to the late Paleoceneearly Eocene island-arc accretion and collisional event between 

the eastern Anatolide-Tauride and the Eastern Pontides-Sakarya 

terranes, middle Eocene volcanic rocks were deposited 

unconformably on older folded and thrust-faulted volcanic units. 

In the northern part of the belt, middle Eocene volcanic rocks 

are dominated by alkaline compositions, and associated plutons 

exhibit A-type monzonite, quartz monzonite, monzodiorite, and 

quartz monzodiorite compositions consistent with emplacement 

in a postcollisional extensional regime. In the southern part of the 

belt, however, middle Eocene volcanic rocks are calc-alkaline, 

and coeval stocks retain I-type monzogranite and granodiorite 

compositions (Şen and others, 1998; Arslan and Aslan, 2006).

In contrast to Late Cretaceous-Paleocene calc-alkaline to 

high-K calc-alkaline granitoids, middle Eocene dioritic, and 

monzodioritic to syenitic stocks (including porphyry intrusions) 

exhibit high-K calc-alkaline to alkaline compositions and traceelement contents that are consistent with emplacement in an 

extensional setting (Boztuğ and others, 2004, 2006) in thickened 

crust (Arslan and Aliyazicioglu, 2001). This postcollisional 

extensional regime is believed to have been associated with the 

ongoing opening of the Eastern Black Sea Basin to the north 

(Görür, 1988; Okay and others, 1994), but it was also likely 

influenced by the intraoceanic extensional environment that had 

been active since the Late Cretaceous in the Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane to the south (Yılmaz and others, 1997a).

In contrast with northwestern Turkey, the Pontide arc 

axis in northeastern Turkey is located on land. However, as in 

northwestern Turkey, back-arc volcanism is believed to have 

propagated southwards across the arc axis over time (Yılmaz and 

others, 1997a; Okay and Şahintürk, 1997). Compared with the 

narrow late Eocene postcollisional volcanic belt preserved in the 

Western Pontide Arc segment, the middle Eocene postcollisional 

(Yılmaz Şahin and others, 2004) volcanic belt in the Eastern 

Pontide Arc segment is much wider (Keskin and others, 2008).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Porphyry-Related 

Prospects

Mineralization in the Pontide (Asia) tract includes Late 

Cretaceous Pb-Zn-Cu and copper VMS deposits (Akin, 1978; 

Moon and others, 2001; Akıncı, 1984; Karakaya and others, 2012; 

Kekelia and others, 2004) and Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and 

middle Eocene Cu-Mo porphyry, Cu-Pb-Zn skarn (Kuşcu, 2005), 

and Au-Ag epithermal systems (Akçay and Moon, 2004; Moon 

and others, 2001; Yigit, 2009; Kekelia and others, 2001; Boztuğ 

and others, 2003; Engın and others, 2000; Kirkham and Dunne, 

2000).

In the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract, VMS and 

porphyry deposits occur in a back-arc tectonic environment that is 

permissive for both (Yigit, 2009). A genetic relation between these 

two deposit types is not implied here, but it has been proposed 
74 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

(Kekelia and others, 2004). However, depending on the level of 

preservation, only the more eroded windows expose the more 

deeply emplaced porphyry systems. Furthermore, the postmineral 

deformational history tectonically juxtaposed these two shallow 

and deeper hypabyssal ore-forming environments. This is evident 

not only in northeastern Turkey but in the Lesser Caucasus (see 

Cimmeride–Lesser Caucasus tract above and Pontide (Asia)–

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract below).

The Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract contains four 

known porphyry copper deposits (table 2). These are the BalciliYüksekoba, Gümüşhane, Güzelyayla, and Ulutaş deposits. 

Available age constraints at Balcili-Yüksekoba, Güzelyayla, 

Ulutaş, and Gümüşhane suggest that all four porphyry deposits 

formed in the arc (or the superimposed back-arc) setting 

that prevailed before the early Eocene collision between the 

Pontide-Sakarya and Anatolide-Tauride terranes in this region. 

These deposits are small and low in copper grade, but BalciliYüksekoba, Gümüşhane, and Ulutaş are reported to contain 

gold (Yigit, 2006, 2009).

Thirty-nine porphyry prospects were identified and are 

included in the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract (appendix C, 

fig. 19). With the exception of the Namonastevi porphyry prospect 

that occurs in Georgia, the remaining 38 prospects are located in 

northeastern Turkey. Overall, a Cu-Mo±(Au) metal association is 

apparent in 18, and a Cu-Au association characterizes another 5. 

Four of these 5 porphyry prospects are typified by the presence 

of acid-sulfate alteration and mineralization. Despite relatively 

extensive exploration in northeastern Turkey, no sizeable porphyry 

systems have been identified to date. However, current exploration 

efforts at the acid sulfate Berta and Sisorta prospects, may result 

in the identification of economically significant porphyry copper 

mineralization (Nuinsco Resources, Ltd., 2013; Vigar and others, 

2009).

Balcili-Yüksekoba Porphyry Deposit

The early Paleocene (62.3 Ma; Soylu, 1999) BalciliYüksekoba Cu-Mo porphyry deposit has reported resources of 

140 Mt at 0.2 percent copper, or 145 Mt at 0.25 percent Cu+Mo 

equivalent (Yigit, 2009). The deposit consists of two nearby 

porphyry intrusions at Balcili and Yüksekoba, respectively (Yavuz 

and others, 1999; Akinci, 2004; Dumanlilar and others, 1999; 

Engin and others, 2000; Soylu, 1999). At the Yüksekoba Cu-Mo-

(Au) porphyry system, three synmineral granodiorite porphyry 

and a postmineral feldspar porphyry and pebble dike intrude a 

granodiorite pluton emplaced in felsic pyroclastic units. A central 

K-silicate alteration zone is surrounded by intense quartz sericite 

and weak argillic alteration mineral associations. Chalcopyrite and 

molybdenite are mostly associated with the quartz-sericite zone. A 

jarositic leached cap developed over this pyrite-rich alteration zone 

(Soylu, 1999).

At the Balcili porphyry system, a northeast-trending 

granodiorite pluton that can be correlated with the one at 

Yüksekoba is intruded by porphyritic (tonalite)-granodiorite and 

by unmineralized pebble dikes (Yigit, 2009). Mineralization is 

controlled by stockworks and breccias and K-silicate alteration. 

Balcili is believed to represent the roots of a porphyry system 

(Yigit, 2009; Soylu, 1999).

Güzelyayla Porphyry Deposit

The 59-Ma (Singer and others, 2008) or 72-Ma (Richard 

Herrington, written commun., 2005) Güzelyayla Cu-Mo porphyryskarn deposit has a resource of 186 Mt at 0.3 percent Cu+Mo 

equivalent (Yigit, 2009). The deposit is centered on late Paleocene 

premineral granodiorite and synmineral dacite porphyry intrusions 

emplaced in Jurassic volcanic and Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonate 

rocks. Jurassic-Cretaceous country rocks are unconformably 

overlain by Late Cretaceous volcanic and volcano-sedimentary 

units (Soylu, 1999). Copper-molybdenum mineralization is 

related to K-silicate and quartz-sericite, weakly developed argillic 

alteration, and calc-silicate alteration (Akıncı, 2004; Moon and 

others, 2001). The oxidation zone is shallow, reaching only a 

10–30-m depth (Yigit, 2009). However, the oxidation zone is 

followed at depth by an enriched zone (Akıncı, 2004) with copper 

grades as high as 0.8 percent (Soylu, 1999).

Ulutaş Porphyry Deposit

The Ulutaş Cu-Mo porphyry deposit has reported resources 

of 74 Mt at 0.31 percent copper and 0.022 percent molybdenum 

(Yigit, 2009), or 140 Mt at 0.27 percent copper and 0.018 percent 

molybdenum (Singer and others, 2008). The deposit is related 

to late Paleocene (59 Ma; Singer and others, 2008) tonalitic and 

quartz-monzonitic porphyry intrusions and intrusive breccias 

emplaced into pre-Jurassic amphibolite-grade basement and Early 

Cretaceous plutonic and volcano-sedimentary rocks (Taylor, 1978; 

Soylu, 1999). Hydrothermal alteration occupies a north-northeasttrending zone approximately 3 km long by 1.5 km wide. Potassic 

and propylitic alteration assemblages are masked by an extensive 

phyllic overprint (Taylor and Fryer, 1980; Akıncı, 2004). Unlike 

other porphyry deposits in the region, Ulutaş contains a fairly welldeveloped leached cap (Yigit, 2009).

Gümüşhane Porphyry Deposit

At the Gümüşhane (also known as Ardala; InfoMine, Inc., 

2012a) Cu-Mo porphyry deposit and associated Sanlinbaş acidsulfate gold-silver prospect, historic reported resources were 80 Mt 

at 0.5 percent Cu+Mo equivalent and 0.2 g/t gold (Soylu, 1999; 

Singer and others, 2008). The current JORC-compliant indicated 

and inferred resource estimate at the combined Ardala-Salinbaş 

project is 26.87 Mt at 1.26 g/t gold and 4.78 g/t silver, including 

4.66 Mt at 0.22 percent copper and 18 Mt at 0.0136 percent 

molybdenum (Ariana Resources PLC, 2013).

At Gümüşhane, a series of nested quartz-diorite to 

granodiorite intrusions of early Eocene age (52.5 Ma; Singer 

and others, 2008) are emplaced in an Upper Cretaceous volcanosedimentary sequence. Exposed parts of the porphyry deposit 

have dimensions of 600 by 700 m, and ground magnetic data 

suggest further lateral continuity beneath limestone units. The 

porphyry intrusion is multistage, consisting of premineralization 

feldspar and quartz-feldspar porphyry, synmineralization 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 75

feldspar-amphibole porphyry, and postmineralization feldspar 

porphyry intrusions. Porphyry-style mineralization is controlled 

by a north-northwest-trending fault (Yigit, 2006). Sericitic 

alteration is dominant, but K-silicate alteration characterized 

by K-feldspar, biotite, quartz, anhydrite, magnetite and pyrite is 

also observed (Akçay and Gündüz, 2004). Proximal manganese, 

lead, zinc, copper, gold, and barium carbonate replacement 

mineralization developed in places within its periphery. Sulfides 

in these carbonate replacement zones are dominated by galena, 

and lesser sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, and bismuth 

minerals (Yigit, 2009).

Sisorta Porphyry-Related Prospect

The Sisorta prospect consists of an acid-sulfate system that 

developed in a porphyry stock and dikes of Late Cretaceous to 

early Eocene age (Eurasian Minerals, Inc., 2012). The porphyry 

intrusions cut Late Cretaceous intermediate to basic volcanic 

and pyroclastic units intruded by a diorite to granodiorite pluton. 

Advanced argillic and vuggy silica alteration zones are primarily 

controlled by northeast and northwest structures, which are in 

turn cut by postmineral graben-bounding normal faults (Chesser 

Resources, Ltd., 2011b; Vigar and others, 2009).

Drilling results show that gold generally occurs from the 

surface to depths from 23 to more than 100 m, with intervals 

ranging from 0.47 g/t to more than 5 g/t gold. In addition, drill 

holes targeting the deeper parts of the system have intersected 

porphyry-style alteration and anomalous copper mineralization. 

Peripheral zinc-lead-silver veins are also present. Current 

exploration efforts are focused on the gold resource in the lithocap. 

At a 0.4 g/t gold cutoff, NI 43–101-compliant indicated reserves 

are estimated to be 3.17 Mt at 0.89 g/t gold. Inferred resources 

amount to an additional 11.38 Mt at 0.58 g/t gold (Vigar and 

others, 2009).

Preservation Level

Northeastern Turkey hosts the majority of the known 

porphyry occurrences in the Pontide (Asia) tract. As derived 

from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map of Turkey (General 

Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000) and the 

1:1,000,000-scale map of Kekelia and others (2001), the area of 

the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract (fig. 21) is divided into 

older basement rocks (23 percent), permissive Late Cretaceous to 

late Eocene plutonic (14 percent) and volcanic units (10 percent), 

broadly coeval nonpermissive mafic, sedimentary, and volcanosedimentary rocks (44 percent), and younger cover (9 percent). 

This sub-tract exhibits not only the largest exposures of permissive 

rocks and an appropriate subequal volcanic-to-plutonic proportion 

({volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 =40) but also the least 

amount of cover compared to sub-tracts of the Pontide (Asia) tract 

to the west and east.

Overall, the Pontide Arc segment delimited by the Pontide 

(Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract exhibits levels of crustal preservation 

that are appropriate for porphyry systems. It also shows an extent 

of cover that is limited. However, lithologic and (or) tectonic 

concealment of porphyry systems in this fold-and-thrust belt 

cannot be precluded. Furthermore, volcanic-to-plutonic ratios 

in northeastern Turkey increase from south to north between 

the arc axis and the back-arc environment. VMS occurrences 

appear more abundant in the volcanic-dominated and tectonically 

juxtaposed back-arc environment, indicating exposure of shallow 

paleodepositional environments that are more appropriate for 

exposure of this type of mineralization, and less so for more 

deeply emplaced porphyry copper systems.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; Maus 

and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location and character 

of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, 

terrane boundaries). A prominent positive magnetic anomaly 

forms a ribbon-shaped area along northeastern Turkey, mainly 

along the southern margin of the Eastern Pontide Terrane, which 

hosts most of the known porphyry copper occurrences in the 

Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract. A number of these porphyry 

copper occurrences are located along high gradients along the 

boundaries of magnetic anomalies. Furthermore, the four known 

porphyry deposits are located within 15 km of the Eastern PontideSakarya Terrane boundary. Unlike the Eastern Pontide Terrane to 

the north, the Sakarya Terrane is characterized by both magnetic 

highs and lows. Few porphyry occurrences have been identified 

in this southern half of the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract. 

A parallel positive magnetic ribbon-shaped area also occurs about 

the ophiolite-bearing Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Available resource data for the four known deposits in the 

Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract were insufficient to allow 

classification into Cu-Mo or Cu-Au subtype categories based on 

the criteria for gold and molybdenum content that were used in 

this assessment. Notwithstanding that gold occurs in a number 

of deposits and prospects in the sub-tract, the prevalence of a 

copper-molybdenum metal association is, however, apparent 

at these deposits, as well as at most porphyry prospects in the 

tract. In addition, it is difficult to assess how much of the gold 

occurs with associated skarn or acid-sulfate systems. Out of the 

39 prospects of this sub-tract included in the porphyry copper 

occurrence database (see references therein), gold-bearing acid 

sulfate systems are described from 4 (Berta, Celtik, Namonastevi, 

and Sisorta), and a Mo-Cu metal association is reported from 

another 4 (the Emeksendere, Esenlidere, Kaytangelisobasi, and 

Koyyerideresi cluster in central-northeastern Turkey). Pooled t-test 

results assuming equal variances show that tonnages and copper 

and molybdenum grades in the four known deposits in the tract are 

not significantly different at the 1-percent level from tonnages and 

grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and 

others (2008). Therefore, the general model was used to estimate 

undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver resources in 

this sub-tract. In comparison to the median tonnage and grade in 
76 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, deposits in this subtract are smaller and generally of lower copper grade. However, 

Gümüşhane shows higher gold grades and Ulutaş contains higher 

molybdenum grades than the median deposit in the model.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in Pontide (Asia)–NE 

Turkey sub-tract include (1) a large and long-lived island-arc to 

mature continental-arc and prominent back-arc segment partially 

built on thick cratonic basement, (2) permissive calc-alkaline 

and alkaline magmatic rocks, (3) known Cu porphyry deposits 

(for example, Balcili-Yüksekoba, Gümüşhane, Güzelyayla, and 

Ulutaş), (4) favorable environment for development of supergene 

enrichment, and (5) synmineral and postmineral uplift, erosion, 

subsidence, and burial events that resulted in appropriate exposure 

of porphyry systems in several areas. However, unfavorable 

factors include (1) below-median contained metal in known 

porphyry deposits and (2) an otherwise permissive postcollisional 

environment that does not appear to host many porphyry 

systems. A possible geologic explanation could be that this 

otherwise prominent magmatic arc may have overall developed 

under a fairly neutral stress regime, where subduction-related 

compressional stresses were compensated by back-arc- and 

postcollisional-related extensional stresses.

The density of known porphyry deposits in the Pontide 

(Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract is low when compared to densities in 

well-explored tracts of this size around the world. This suggests 

that undiscovered deposits are likely present. However, deposit 

density contrasts markedly with the very high number of identified 

porphyry occurrences, which is in part a reflection of the relatively 

high levels of exploration that the region has experienced. Given 

that the levels of exposure for porphyry systems are favorable, 

other factors (for example, a lack of efficiency in the ore-forming 

process?) could be responsible for the apparent absence of larger 

porphyry deposits.

The assessment team determined that the Pontide 

(Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract was geologically favorable and 

that estimates of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits could be carried out with a low level of uncertainty. 

The tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract was 

completed. Estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

in the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract at the 90-, 50-, 

and 10-percent probability levels and the associated summary 

statistics are listed in table 5b–A. The team reached a consensus 

estimate of 1, 3, and 9 undiscovered deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 

10-percent probability levels, respectively, which resulted in a 

mean of 4.13 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 

3.02 (Cv

%=73). These estimates reflect the team’s opinion that the 

favorable geologic factors outweighed the negative ones and that 

ongoing exploration will eventually result in the identification of 

additional copper resources in undiscovered but also incompletely 

outlined porphyry deposits and (or) prospects in this region. 

At least a couple of projects in the advanced exploration stages 

(for example, Ardala, Sisorta) will likely result in development. 

The estimated total deposit density per 100,000 km2 obtained 

is comparable to median porphyry deposit densities expected 

in well-explored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere around the 

world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated copper, molybdenum, gold, 

silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are summarized in 

table 5b-B. The mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources 

in the Pontide (Asia)–NE Turkey porphyry sub-tract is 15 Mt. 

Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 21). The cumulative frequency 

plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated 

resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran Sub-tract 

(142pCu9004c)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

island to continental arc and back arc of the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract extends across 

the Transcaucasus, Talysh, and Alborz Terranes of the Lesser 

Caucasus and northern Iran, where the sub-tract delimits a backarc-dominated segment of the Pontide Arc. The sub-tract covers 

an area of 24,300 km2 (fig. 19). In this region, late Early to Late 

Cretaceous (Aptian-Campanian) shallow marine, rift-related 

volcano-sedimentary units are overlain by Late Cretaceous 

to middle Eocene Pontide Arc and back-arc rock successions 

(Adamia and others, 1977; Kazmin and others, 1986; Khain, 1975; 

Lordkipanidze and others, 1989) near and to the northeast of the 

Sevan-Akera and Rasht Sutures (fig. 3; Sosson and others, 2010b). 

Permissive igneous units (appendix B) used to define the Pontide 

(Asia)–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract are shown in figure 20, along 

with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic features 

mentioned in this section.

The Pontide Arc is well preserved in the fold-and-thrust 

belt of the Lesser Caucasus. It is represented by a voluminous 

3–4-km-thick shallow marine to subaerial arc and back-arc 

succession of Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, 

dacites, rhyolites, and associated pyroclastics and ignimbrites 

north of the Sevan-Akera Suture (Adamia and others, 2011) 

and calc-alkaline to alkaline island-arc volcanic rocks about the 

Sevan-Akera suture zone. Late Cretaceous arc magmatism was 

followed by a 2–2.5-km-thick early and middle Eocene back-arc 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 77

shallow-marine sedimentary and calc-alkaline to shoshonitic 

basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite section on both sides of 

the Sevan-Akera suture zone (Adamia and others, 1977, 2011). 

Overall, K2O contents in volcanic rocks increase from south to 

north toward the Sevan-Akera suture zone. North of the suture, 

low K2O contents increase to the northeast into the back-arc 

rift setting, where volcanic rocks are characterized by thick 

successions of mildly alkaline to tholeiitic basalts deposited in 

a moderately deep sea (Adamia and others, 1981; Kazmin and 

others, 1986).

In the folded and thrust-faulted Talysh and Alborz Terranes 

(fig. 3) of northern Iran, a Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene backarc sequence of lavas and volcaniclastic units of basic composition 

alternate with shallow-water carbonates and sandstones (Kazmin 

and others, 1986). Late Cretaceous granodioritic to monzoniticsyenitic intrusions (Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Stöcklin, 

1974; Axen and others, 2001) are sparsely exposed along strikeslip faults, where they are deeply eroded as a result of Paleogene 

and Miocene-Pliocene uplift and exhumation events (Rezaeian, 

2008; Axen and others, 2001). Representative intrusions include 

the 98-Ma Nusha diorite to granite and the 58-Ma Akapol granite. 

Both intrusions are foliated and exhibit rapakivi texture that 

suggests emplacement in an extensional setting (Guest and others, 

2006; Axen and others, 2001).

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene Pontide Arc magmatism in 

the Lesser Caucasus and northern Iran is dominantly represented 

by voluminous back-arc successions (Shahidi and others, 2007) 

that developed on the Transcaucasus, Talysh, northern flanks of 

the Alborz, and South Caspian Sea Terranes (Vincent and others, 

2005). This extensional regime prevailed during the shift in 

magmatism from the northern Neotethys waning subduction zone 

to the southern Neotethys active subduction zone (Stöcklin, 1968; 

Dercourt and others, 1986), which produced Late Cretaceous arc 

magmatism in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (see Border Folds 

tract below) and Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene back-arc 

magmatism in the Central Iranian Terrane, shown on figure 3 (see 

Esfahan tract below).

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene magmatism along the 

northern Neotethys Ocean is unexposed or absent to the east 

across the central Alborz Terrane, which is instead represented by 

shallow marine to coastal sedimentary successions. However, Late 

Cretaceous-Paleogene magmatism reappears again further east in 

the island-arc setting of the Sabzevar Ocean of northeastern Iran 

(see Khorasan tract below).

Known Porphyry Prospects

Mineralization in the back-arc-dominated Pontide (Asia)–

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract is represented by Late Cretaceous 

base-metal VMS deposits and prospects (some of which are gold 

bearing) and Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene iron skarn, as well 

as intrusion-related gold occurrences (Kekelia and others, 2004; 

Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e). However, only two porphyry 

prospects have been positively identified in the northern part of 

the sub-tract (fig. 19). These are the Mamulo-Sopheli Mo-Cu-

(Au)- and Garta Cu-Mo-bearing systems in southern Georgia 

(Rundkvist, 2001; Kekelia and others, 2001; Zvezdov and others, 

1993; Moon and others, 2001).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:1,000,000-scale geologic maps of 

the Caucasus (Kekelia and others, 2001) and Iran (Huber, 1978), 

permissive units in the Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran subtract exhibit a very high volcanic-to-plutonic ratio ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=95). Across the sub-tract, older 

basement rocks underlie 23 percent and permissive volcanic and 

plutonic units amount, respectively, to 23 and 1 percent of the area 

(fig. 20). Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene nonpermissive and 

younger late Eocene to Holocene rocks overlie the remaining 30 

and 22 percent of the sub-tract area.

However, when examined in more detail, the relative 

proportions of permissive plutonic and volcanic rocks in the 

sub-tract vary significantly from the Caucasus to northern Iran. 

Shallowly emplaced permissive volcanic units dominate in the 

Caucasus, whereas deeply exhumed permissive plutonic units 

dominate in the Alborz Terrane of northern Iran. Thus, data 

indicate overall levels of preservation for porphyry systems of this 

age range that are too shallow in the Caucasus and too deep in 

northern Iran.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). 

In the Lesser Caucasus, a broad northwest-southeast magnetic 

anomaly occurs to the north and east of the Pontides (Asia)–

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract boundary. This magnetic anomaly likely 

reflects the long-lived Middle Jurassic-Paleogene mafic rockdominated extensional back-arc rift environment that is buried 

under thick Neogene deposits. The Mamulo-Sopheli and Garta 

porphyry prospects are located on the margin of two isolated 

positive magnetic anomalies. Across the Talysh and western 

Alborz Terranes of northern Iran, a broad magnetic low (back-arc 

basin?) contains isolated magnetic highs that may be reflecting 

permissive Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene igneous units.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars, 2014) were used to evaluate 

potential hydrothermal alteration that could be associated with 

unidentified porphyry systems in the Pontides (Asia)–CaucasusIran sub-tract. However, ASTER coverage was available only 

for a small part of the tract (12 percent) in northern Iran. In this 

area, five ASTER-derived alteration zones are associated with 

permissive Late Cretaceous volcanic units, but none are spatially 

associated with known metallic or industrial mineral occurrences. 

Moderately developed northeast-striking 2-km-long and 

0.5-km-wide ASTER-derived phyllic alteration zones with a very 

subdued argillic component occur at another two locations. The 

nature of these seven alteration zones is unknown. If hydrothermal 

in origin, they could also be related to younger mineralization. 
78 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Another broad ASTER-derived alteration zone consists of 

an argillic-dominated area that is associated with volcanosedimentary units adjacent to a granodiorite pluton. This alteration 

zone could be related to the historic copper district at Medjar, 

where the existence of younger Oligocene-Miocene porphyryrelated mineralization has been proposed (Vasigh and Zamani, 

2010). Overall, ASTER data suggest the existence of several sites 

of potential hydrothermal alteration that could be associated with 

unidentified porphyry occurrences. However, these porphyry 

systems are probably younger than Late Cretaceous to middle 

Eocene in age.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

No known deposits occur in this sub-tract. Thus, resource 

data in the Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract were not 

available to classify porphyry systems into Cu-Mo or Cu-Au 

subtype categories or to run pooled t-tests. Cu-Mo and Mo-Cu-

(Au) metal associations are, however, apparent at the Garta and 

Mamulo-Sopheli prospects, respectively. Therefore, the general 

porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008) was used 

to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver 

resources in this sub-tract.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in Pontide (Asia)–

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract include (1) a large and long-lived island 

to mature continental arc and prominent back-arc segment 

partially built on thick cratonic crust, (2) permissive calc-alkaline 

and alkaline magmatic rocks, and (3) a few possibly porphyryrelated ASTER-derived alteration zones in the Iranian part of the 

sub-tract. Unfavorable factors include (1) 0 deposits and only 2 

known porphyry prospects and (2) overall volcanic-to-plutonic 

ratios that suggest levels of preservation for porphyry systems are 

too shallow in the Caucasus, and too deep in the Alborz Terrane 

of northern Iran. The near absence of known porphyry prospects 

associated to this Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene magmatic 

event in the region suggests that only limited exploration for 

porphyry systems of this age range may have occurred and that 

the level of preservation of porphyry systems, in general, is not 

appropriate.

Overall, these factors led the assessment team to conclude 

that the Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract exhibited limited 

favorability and that moderate to high levels of uncertainty in the 

estimation of undiscovered deposits were expected. Table 5c–A

shows the estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in 

the Pontide (Asia) sub-tract of the Caucasus and northern Iran at 

the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels and the associated 

summary statistics. The team reached a consensus estimate of 0, 

1, and 1 undiscovered deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively, which resulted in a mean of 0.85 

undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 0.80 (Cv

%=94). 

This result reflects the limited favorability and moderate to high 

uncertainty assessed for this porphyry copper sub-tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 5c–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Pontide (Asia)–Caucasus-Iran porphyry 

sub-tract is 3.3 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also 

presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 21). The cumulative 

frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrenceestimated resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean 

for each commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Anatolide-Tauride Tract (142pCu9005)

Location

The Anatolide-Tauride tract covers an area of 

63,800 km2. It delimits a broad but irregularly exposed 

1,500-km-long and 30–250-km-wide diverse volcanoplutonic belt of Late Cretaceous to late Eocene age that 

extends across the composite Anatolide-Tauride Terrane of 

western, central (Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex), 

and eastern Turkey, southwestern Armenia, Azerbaijan 

(Nakhchivan), and northernmost Iran (fig. 22). To the north, 

the Anatolide-Tauride tract is delimited by the Sakarya and 

Transcaucasus Terranes along the İzmir-Ankara-Erzincan, 

Sevan-Akera and Vedi-Zangezur Sutures. To the south, it 

is limited by the Arabian Platform along the Bitlis-Zagros 

Thrust. Parts of the Anatolide-Tauride tract are superimposed 

by the younger Azerbaijan tract (see below).

Tectonic Setting

The composite Anatolide-Tauride Terrane of Turkey (Ketın, 

1966) consists of several subterranes that rifted from Gondwana 

during the Triassic (Şengör and others, 1993; Bortolotti and 

Principi, 2005). These terranes gradually reassembled during 

the Late Cretaceous-Paleogene and Oligocene-Miocene during 

collision with the Sakarya and Transcaucasus Terranes to the 

north and during collision with the Arabian Platform to the south, 

respectively (Dercourt and others, 1986; Kaymakci and others, 

2010; Moix and others, 2008).

The composite Anatolide-Tauride Terrane can be 

subdivided into two tectono-stratigraphic units (fig. 3). The 

first tectono-stratigraphic unit, the Anatolide, represents the 

metamorphic northern part of the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane, 

which is underlain by two main Precambrian-Paleozoic 

metamorphic microcontinents—the Menderes Massif 

in western Turkey and the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex in central Turkey. The Menderes Massif underwent 

greenschist- to amphibolite-grade metamorphism during the 

Paleocene-Eocene and the Miocene. The first metamorphic 

episode is related to collision-related burial associated with 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 79 Figure 22. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9005a Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9005b, Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9005c, Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Balişeyh

Başnayayla

Demirtepe

Gelemiç Karacaali

Mamlis

Merkez Basibuyuklu

Merkez Salmanfakili

Muratdere

Sarıçayıryayla

Silic

Sin

Topukdere

Turkmen

Çöpler

(and 4 other

prospects) Agarak Karakartal 

Aigedzor Aigedzor

Kabatas (south) Demirmagara Dastakert

Misdag

!

!

Ankara

T'Bilisi

SYRIA

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

IRAQ

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

BLACK SEA

40° E 30° E

40° N38° N

50° E 30° E

40° N30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT

UKRAINE

SYRIA

BLACK SEA CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 39° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Other porphyry copper tractsPorphyry copper prospect

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9005

Porphyry copper deposit

Sub-tract 142pCu9005a Sub-tract 142pCu9005b Sub-tract 142pCu9005c 

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS0 50 100 MILES

Area of map
80 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

thrust-sheet load, and the second one is related to extensionderived exhumation (Bozkurt and Mittweide, 2001). The 

Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex underwent Late 

Cretaceous greenschist- to granulite-facies metamorphism 

during collision between the Anatolide-Tauride and Sakarya 

Terranes along the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture (Golonka, 

2004), which was followed by orogenic collapse and 

extension.

The second tectono-stratigraphic unit to the south, the 

Tauride, is the relatively unmetamorphosed equivalent of 

the Anatolide unit. It consists of a stack of south-vergent 

thrust and fold sheets, each generally formed by Paleozoic to 

Eocene low-grade metamorphic, sedimentary, and ophiolitic 

rocks. Along its southern margin, the basement of the Tauride 

tectono-stratigraphic terrane is formed by the Bitlis-Pötürge 

Massif, a microcontinent consisting of Precambrian high-grade 

metamorphic rocks and Paleozoic-Mesozoic polydeformed 

sedimentary and volcanic units affected by greenschist- and 

amphibolite-facies metamorphism (Kuşcu and others, 2010; 

Okay, 2008; Richard Herrington, written commun., 2005). In 

the northern part of the Tauride Terrane, the lower parts of thrust 

sheets exhibit high pressure/low temperature metamorphism, 

whereas in the southern part the upper parts of these form large 

unmetamorphosed nappes. Thrusting events occurred in the 

late Paleocene-early Eocene following the collision with the 

Sakarya Terrane to the north, and in the middle Miocene as a 

result of the collision of the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane with the 

Arabian Platform to the south. The intervening middle Eocene 

to early Miocene time period was dominated by subsidence 

and associated extensional tectonics and associated back-arc 

magmatism (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Dilek, 2010).

Several possibly interconnected oceans existed around 

the Menderes, Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex, and 

Bitlis-Pötürge continental fragments (fig. 4D) between the 

late Campanian and Eocene (Richard Herrington, written 

commun., 2005). Closure of these oceans occurred during 

collision of the Arabian Platform along the Bitlis-Zagros 

Thrust (Gürer and Aldanmaz, 2002). These ocean basins 

are represented by shallow-marine sediments underlain 

by accretionary prisms and ophiolite mélanges associated 

with subduction zones. Their relative position is preserved 

along suture zones distributed within the Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane (fig. 3). These marine basins are regarded as the Inner 

Tauride Ocean (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981), which gradually 

closed along subduction zones producing Late Cretaceous to 

middle-late Eocene intraoceanic arc and back-arc magmatism 

(Gençalıoğlu-Kuşcu and others, 2001).

In the late Eocene-Oligocene, propagation of folding, 

thrusting, and the onset of a transpressional regime 

occurred all along the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane during 

the initial oblique collisional process between the Arabian 

Platform along the Bitlis-Zagros Suture. Paleogene and 

older formations were uplifted and eroded giving way to 

deposition of evaporitic and red clastic successions. This 

stage was followed by a north-south extensional regime, 

which led to the formation of shallow marine deposits during 

Oligocene and middle Miocene times (Adamia and others, 

2011). This extensional event was superseded by the final 

collision between the Arabian Platform and the Bitlis-Pötürge 

microcontinent (Şengör and Kidd, 1979), causing renewed 

transpression and deposition of evaporitic, lagoonal, and 

continental clastics in synorogenic pull-apart basins during the 

late Miocene and Pleistocene.

In the composite Anatolide-Tauride Terrane, the origin 

of Late Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene volcano-plutonic 

activity is related to closure of both the northern and southern 

branches of the Neotethys Ocean, as well as closure of the 

intracontinental Inner Tauride Ocean (Gökten, 1993; Görür 

and others, 1984; Dilek and others, 1999). As a consequence, 

variations in the overall tectonic setting do occur along 

this volcano-plutonic belt. In general, Late Cretaceous to 

middle Eocene (possibly transported southward) arc rocks 

are preserved in western Turkey, Late Cretaceous islandarc and Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene syncollisional to 

postcollisional rocks are exposed in the Central Anatolian 

Crystalline Complex, and Late Cretaceous to middle-late 

Eocene intraoceanic arc to back-arc rock associations occur 

in eastern Turkey and the southwestern Lesser Caucasus 

and northernmost Iran. Accordingly, the nature of Late 

Cretaceous to middle-late Eocene magmatism associated with 

these distinct tectonic environments is separated here into 

the Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey (142pCu9005a), the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey (142pCu9005b), and the 

Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus (142pCu9005c). 

These individually assessed sub-tracts are described below.

Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey Sub-tract 

(142pCu9005a)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

arc-related magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey sub-tract covers an 

area of 5,900 km2 (fig. 22). The sub-tract delimits a 250-km-long 

by 40-km-wide subduction-related to syncollisional magmatic belt 

on the northern margin of the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane south 

and along the Izmir-Ankara Suture. Permissive igneous units 

(appendix B) used to define this sub-tract are shown in figure 23, 

along with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic 

features mentioned in this section.

This magmatic belt of western Turkey consists of locally 

foliated Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene metaluminous 

calc-alkaline granodioritic intrusions with metamorphic 

aureoles (Okay and others, 2001; Okay and others, 1996). 

Plutons intrude ophiolitic complexes that tectonically overlie 

blueschist-facies rocks with Late Cretaceous metamorphic 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 81 Figure 23. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and volcanic rocks used to define tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9005a Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9005b, Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9005c, Anatolide- Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

T'Bilisi T'Bilisi

Ankara !

!

SYRIA

G

E

O

R

GIA GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

IRAQ

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan SutureIzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture

Izmir-Ankara-Erz ni can SutureIzmir-Ankara-Erz ni can Suture

 Bitl si -Zagros Suture Bitl si -Zagros Suture

Sevan-Akera

Suture

CENTRAL ANATOL AI N CRYSTALL NI E COMPLEXCENTRAL ANATOL AI N CRYSTALL NI E COMPLEX

Maden BackarcMaden Backarc

Sivas Bas ni Sivas Bas ni

He el te Arc He el te Arc

Nakhchivan

MENDERES

BITLIS-PÖTÜRGE

PONTIDES

Baskil Arc Baskil Arc

BLACK SEA

Tuzgölü Basin

40° E 30° E

40° N38° N

50° E 30° E

40° N30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

EGYPT

UKRAINE

SYRIA

BLACK SEA

CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 39° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS0 50 100 MILES

Geologic feature discussed in the text He el te Arc He el te ArcPermissive extrusive rockPermissive intrusive rockFaultSutureTerrane

Sub-tract 142pCu9005aSub-tract 142pCu9005bSub-tract 142pCu9005c

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9005

Area of map
82 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

ages (Okay, 2008). They exhibit typical subduction-related 

igneous compositions (Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000). However, 

emplacement of the middle Eocene intrusive suite occurred 

after the Paleocene-early Eocene collision between the 

Anatolide-Tauride and Sakarya Terranes (Okay and Satir, 

2006; Harris and others, 1994). Available Al-in-hornblende 

barometer data indicate deep emplacement pressures of 

approximately 3 kilobars (kb) during uplift associated with 

collision (Harris and others, 1994). However, geobarometric 

studies on metamorphic rocks and the presence of hypabyssal 

porphyry intrusions also support shallower emplacement 

depths (based on emplacement pressures around 2±1 kb; Okay 

and Satir, 2006). Consequently, this Late Cretaceous to middle 

Eocene event includes both precollisional and postcollisional 

magmatism.

The origin of Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

granitoids in western Turkey remains controversial (Yigit, 

2006). It has been explained by postcollisional rupture (slab 

break-off) of the oceanic lithosphere in the south from the 

Sakarya continental lithosphere in the north (Altunkaynak, 

2007), by derivation from an intraoceanic arc within the Inner 

Tauride Ocean to the southeast (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981), or 

by relation to the Hellenic-Cyprian subduction zone further 

south in the Mediterranean Sea (Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000). 

Alternatively, given that Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

granitoids north of the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture in the 

western Sakarya Terrane exhibit comparable petrogenetic 

characteristics (Okay and Satir, 2006), this magmatic belt may 

be an overthrusted part of the Pontide Arc (fig. 19) located to 

the north (Yilmaz, 2003b).

Late Eocene to early Miocene granitoids that intrude 

unconformable middle Eocene neritic limestones also occur in the 

area. These granitoids were emplaced in an extensional setting and 

form part of a younger tectono-magmatic event (see Azerbaijan 

tract below).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

In western Turkey, Late Cretaceous to early Eocene Cu-Mo-

(Au-W) porphyry and base-metal skarn systems (Kuşcu, 2005) 

are related to variably exhumed I-type granitoids. The AnatolideTauride–Western Turkey sub-tract contains two known porphyry 

copper deposits (table 2). These are the Muratdere porphyry and 

Sariçayiryayla porphyry-skarn Cu-Mo-Au deposits. In addition 

to these deposits, four Cu-Mo-(Au-W) porphyry and porphyryskarn prospects (Gelemic, Demirtepe, Topukdere, and Turkmen) 

are known (appendix C; fig. 22). The first three occur in the 

Muratdere-Sariçayiryayla district, where several younger porphyry 

systems are also present (see Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract 

below). The fourth one (Turkmen) is a porphyry-related skarn 

prospect that occurs in a batholith located about 80 km eastsoutheast of the Muratdere-Sariçayiryayla district.

Muratdere Porphyry Deposit

The early Eocene (50 Ma; Yigit, 2009; InfoMine, Inc., 

2012b) Muratdere Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit was originally 

identified by the MTA following a regional geochemical survey 

program in 1998–99 (Cliff, 2007). The deposit has a JORCcompliant inferred resource of 51 Mt at 0.36 percent copper, 

0.0125 percent molybdenum, 0.12 g/t gold, and 2.4 g/t silver 

(Stratex International PLC, 2012b). The porphyry deposit is 

associated with a granodiorite that intruded schist, metabasite, 

marble, and an ophiolitic mélange. It extends east-west along the 

south side of an east-southeast-trending fault that is parallel to 

the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture for a distance of about 4 km, 

and it has a width of between 500 and 1,700 m. Mineralization 

consists of narrow magnetite- and pyrite-chalcopyrite quartz 

veins associated with K-silicate alteration. The phyllic alteration 

association comprises quartz-sericite veinlets. The deposit has a 

jarositic leached cap with a supergene enrichment overprint, where 

relict pyrite and chalcopyrite are partially replaced by chalcocite 

and covellite. The higher grade copper data (greater than 0.4 

percent copper) mostly correlate with intercepts of enriched 

supergene material (Stratex International PLC, 2012b).

Sariçayiryayla Porphyry Deposit

The early Eocene (50 Ma; Yigit, 2009) Sariçayiryayla 

Cu-Mo-Au porphyry-skarn deposit and adjacent (47.8 Ma) 

Topukdere skarn prospect exhibit similar characteristics to the 

Muratdere porphyry deposit located about 35 km to the east. 

However, reported resources at Sariçayiryayla are larger at 

120.3 Mt at 0.168 percent copper (Yigit, 2009). Mineralization 

is related to a granitoid that intruded schist and carbonate 

rocks, which is in turn cut by quartz porphyry and late-stage 

aplite dikes (Okay and Satir, 2006; Yigit, 2009).

Turkmen Porphyry Prospect

Numerous small ancient workings occur at the Late 

Cretaceous (67 Ma; Yilmaz, 2003b) Turkmen porphyryrelated skarn prospect located about 80 km east-southeast 

of Muratdere (Yigit, 2009). Proximal Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu-(AuMo-W) skarn is surrounded by Au-Zn-Pb-As skarn and 

distal Pb-Zn-Ag-Au replacement mineralization. Quartz–

base-metal stockworks occupy a 2-km2

 zone about a Late 

Cretaceous to Paleocene granodiorite-tonalite porphyry stock 

that intrudes a granodioritic-granitic-monzonitic batholith. 

The batholith is emplaced into highly deformed and variably 

metamorphosed late Paleozoic to Triassic schists and 

serpentinites capped by only locally metamorphosed Triassic 

sedimentary units (Yilmaz, 2003b).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map 

of Turkey (General Directorate of Mineral Research and 

Exploration, 2000), 21 percent of the Anatolide-Tauride–

Western Turkey sub-tract area is underlain by older basement 

dominated by exhumed metamorphic units and ophiolitic 

complexes. Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene permissive units 

are only represented by plutons (fig. 23). No coeval volcanic 

rocks are preserved. This suggests that levels of preservation are 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 83

deep and only the deeper parts of porphyry systems are exposed 

if they are not buried under younger cover. Younger cover rocks 

are extensive. They overlie 67 percent of the sub-tract area.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; 

Maus and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location 

and character of regional geologic features (for example, 

arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). Porphyry copper 

occurrences in the western part of the Anatolide-Tauride–

Western Turkey sub-tract occur around local magnetic highs 

that image the Late Cretaceous-Eocene and OligoceneMiocene composite batholiths in the area. However, a more 

striking feature of the magnetic map of western Turkey is the 

prominent positive anomaly trending northwest-southeast 

along the Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene Tuzgölü Basin 

(Arikan, 1975; Görür and others, 1984). The Tuzgölü Basin 

is part of the former Inner Tauride Ocean, which in the 

region separated the western Anatolide-Tauride Terrane from 

the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex. The lower part 

of the stratigraphic section in the Tuzgölü Basin consists of 

Late Cretaceous-Paleocene ophiolites and island-arc-related 

volcaniclastic rocks that appear to project to the northwest 

into the eastern part of the Anatolide-Tauride–Western 

Turkey sub-tract that hosts the Turkmen porphyry-related 

skarn prospect (figs. 22, 23). Thus, the volcano-plutonic 

event delimited by the Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey 

sub-tract could potentially extend into the intraoceanic-arc 

setting that underlies the Tuzgölü Basin, albeit under thick 

late Eocene and younger cover. Furthermore, negative and 

residual gravity anomalies in western Turkey image the 

attenuated cratonic crust that formed during the post-Eocene 

extensional tectonic events that followed (Ates and others, 

1999).

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Insufficient resource information on the Sariçayiryayla 

and Muratdere porphyry deposits precluded classification 

according to the molybdenum and gold contents and ratios 

criteria used here. However, the Cu-Mo-(Au-W) metal 

association suggests that these deposits belong to the Cu-Mo 

porphyry subtype. Pooled t-test results assuming equal 

variances show that the two known deposits in the tract are not 

significantly different at the 1-percent level from tonnages and 

copper, molybdenum, and gold grades in the general porphyry 

Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, the 

general model was selected to estimate undiscovered copper, 

gold, molybdenum, and silver resources in the AnatolideTauride–Western Turkey sub-tract. Compared to the median 

tonnage and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, 

Sariçayiryayla and Muratdere exhibit smaller tonnages 

and lower copper grades, but Muratdere contains higher 

molybdenum grades.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey sub-tract, 

geologic factors favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) tectonically transported(?) 

continental-arc segment; (2) permissive calc-alkaline 

compositions; (3) known Cu-Mo porphyry deposits; and 

(4) favorable conditions for supergene enrichment (likely 

enhanced by postmineral extensional tectonics). Unfavorable 

factors for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits 

include (1) small arc segment (as exposed), (2) known 

porphyry deposits that exhibit smaller tonnages and copper 

grades than the median porphyry deposit around the world, 

(3) deeper levels of exposure for porphyry systems, and (4) 

extensive cover.

The somewhat lower density of known porphyry deposits 

relative to worldwide densities for tracts of this size suggest 

that undiscovered deposits are likely present. Furthermore, the 

relatively high number of known porphyry occurrences within 

this small sub-tract, which is in part a reflection of the high 

levels of exploration that the region is experiencing, support 

moderate levels of uncertainty expected in the estimation of 

numbers of undiscovered deposits.

Overall, these factors led the assessment team to conclude 

that the Anatolide-Tauride–Western Turkey Caucasus sub-tract 

exhibited limited geological favorability and that moderate 

levels of uncertainty in the estimation of undiscovered 

deposits were expected. Nevertheless, the tract would 

contribute significant copper resources from undiscovered 

deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, quantitative 

assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract was 

warranted. Table 6a–A shows the estimates of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits in the Anatolide-Tauride–Western 

Turkey sub-tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability 

levels and the associated summary statistics. The team reached 

a consensus estimate of 0, 1, and 1 undiscovered deposits for 

the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively, 

which resulted in a mean of 0.78 undiscovered deposits with 

a standard deviation of 0.60 (Cv

%=78). This result reflects the 

level of favorability and moderate uncertainty assessed for 

this tract. The estimated total deposit density per 100,000 km2

obtained is comparable to median porphyry deposit densities 

expected in well-explored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere 

around the world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 6a–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Anatolide-Tauride–NW Turkey 

porphyry sub-tract is 3 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo 

simulation are also presented as cumulative frequency 

plots (fig. 24A). The cumulative frequency plots show the 

cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources 

and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.
84 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 6. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey.

Table 6a. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9005a, Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey sub-tract, Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 1 1 2 2 0.78 0.60 78 2 2.8 5,940 47

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 460,000 6,100,000 11,000,000 3,000,000 0.20 0.31

Mo 0 0 0 140,000 330,000 79,000 0.14 0.62

Au 0 0 0 170 320 65 0.20 0.56

Ag 0 0 0 1,600 3,700 900 0.14 0.70

Rock 0 0 110 1,300 2,400 610 0.21 0.31

Sub-tract name Coded_ID Countries

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey 142pCu9005a Turkey

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey 142pCu9005b Turkey

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus 142pCu9005c Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey

[Coded_ID, a unique number assigned to each permissive tract in the spatial data (appendix D)]
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 85

Table 6b. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9005b, Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey sub-tract, Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area (km2), area of permissive tract in square kilometers; deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 0 1 1 2 0.33 0.62 190 0 0.33 36,200 1

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 0 2,200,000 5,100,000 1,300,000 0.15 0.70

Mo 0 0 0 30,000 110,000 41,000 0.09 0.84

Au 0 0 0 50 140 35 0.12 0.82

Ag 0 0 0 270 1,400 460 0.08 0.87

Rock 0 0 0 520 1,100 270 0.15 0.70

Table 6c. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9005c, Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract, Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 4 7 7 2.2 2.0 92 4 6.2 21,700 29

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 2,700,000 19,000,000 32,000,000 8,200,000 0.25 0.21

Mo 0 0 26,000 530,000 1,000,000 230,000 0.20 0.36

Au 0 0 48 550 910 220 0.25 0.33

Ag 0 0 170 5,900 12,000 2,700 0.20 0.45

Rock 0 0 590 3,900 6,800 1,700 0.27 0.21
86 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 24. Cumulative frequency plots showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. 

A, Sub-tract 142pCu9005a Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey, Turkey. B, Sub-tract 142pCu9005b, Anatolide-Tauride—

Central Turkey, Turkey. C, Sub-Tract 142pCu9005c, Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Iran, and Turkey. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 24A.

142pCu9005a_Anatolides_CumFreq.ai

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION A

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Material, in metric tons

Probability

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION B
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 87

Figure 24.—Continued

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 24C.

142pCu9005c_Anatolides_CumFreq.ai

Material, in metric tons

Probability

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION C

Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey Sub-tract 

(142pCu9005b)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

syncollisional and postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan 

Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract covers an 

area of 36,200 km2 (fig. 22). It delimits the Late Cretaceous to 

middle Eocene syncollisional to postcollisional magmatic belt in 

the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex. The Central Anatolian 

Crystalline Complex is bounded on the north by the Izmir-AnkaraErzincan suture zone, and on the west and east by fault-bounded 

sedimentary basins (Aktimur and others, 1990; Görür and others, 

1984) that mark the previous location of the Inner Tauride Ocean 

(fig. 3). Permissive igneous units (appendix B) used to define this 

sub-tract are shown in figure 23, along with locations of igneous 

complexes and other geologic features mentioned in this section.

Constraints on the ages, conditions of formation, and tectonic 

affinities of magmatism in the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex are the subject of continuing studies. However, it is 

generally accepted that precollisional island-arc gabbros and 

plagiogranites obducted onto the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex were followed by local 110–95-Ma syncollisional S-type 

granites, more extensive 85–75-Ma postcollisional I-type (or 

H-type) quartz monzogranites, tonalites, and granodiorites, and 

widespread latest Cretaceous extension-related A-type monzonites 

and syenites (İlbelylı, 2005; Boztuğ and others, 2009; Delibaş 

and Genç, 2012; Lefebre and others, 2013). A-type alkaline 

magmatism evolved in time from silica-saturated to silicaundersaturated nepheline-normative compositions (Aydin and 

others, 1998).

Older variably deformed S-type and I-type granitoids 

preferentially occur along the northern and western margins 

of the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex, and they were 

largely emplaced during metamorphism (Whitney and others, 

2003). The present-day disposition of these magmatic belts is 

believed to have resulted, at least in part, from deformation 

related to dextral transpression and rotation of the Central 

Anatolian Crystalline Complex during Late Cretaceous 

oblique collision with the Sakarya Terrane (Lefebre and 

others, 2013; Norman, 1984). Relatively undeformed latest 

Cretaceous A-type alkaline plutons are located toward the 

inner parts of Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex, where 

they intrude both metamorphic basement and overthrusted 

ophiolitic complexes (Akiman and others, 1993; Boztuğ and 

Arehart, 2007; Düzgören-Aydin and others, 2001; Boztuğ and 

others, 2003; İlbelylı and others, 2009).
88 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Geochemical data from Late Cretaceous plutonic suites 

indicate evolved radiogenic signatures for the S- and I-type 

suites and variable but generally less evolved radiogenic 

signatures for the latest Cretaceous A-type suite (Köksal and 

Göncüoğlu, 2008). These magmatic units exhibit volcanic 

arc to syncollisional affinities and volcanic arc to withinplate affinities, respectively (Lefebre and others, 2013). 

40Ar/39Ar and K–Ar hornblende and biotite cooling ages 

reflect rapid exhumation of a mid-crustal section during the 

Late Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian). Apatite fissiontrack ages further support continuing uplift during the early 

to middle Paleocene (57–62 Ma; Boztuğ and others, 2009). 

Emplacement pressures estimated from available Al-inhornblende geobarometry for S-, I-, and A-type plutonic suites 

range from 2.6 to 5.3 kb, suggesting deep emplacement depths 

(İlbelylı, 2005). However, in contrast to older plutonic suites, 

latest Cretaceous alkaline magmatism in the Central Anatolian 

Complex includes both intrusive and extrusive units that 

overall indicate preservation of shallower emplacement levels 

(Köksal and others, 2001; Kuşcu and Erler, 1998).

As represented in the 1:500,000-scale geologic map 

of Turkey (General Directorate of Mineral Research and 

Exploration, 2000), younger calc-alkaline and alkaline 

volcanic and plutonic units of Paleocene and Eocene age are 

also present, and they are distributed preferentially along the 

eastern and northern parts of the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex. These include middle Paleocene alkaline intrusions 

with volcanic-arc geochemical signatures (Richard Herrington, 

written commun., 2005). Emplacement of these middle 

Paleocene igneous units would predate the Late Paleocene 

to middle Eocene terrestrial to shallow marine extensional 

environment that followed (Boztuğ and others, 2009).

Known Porphyry Prospects

In the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex, 

mineralization associated with early Late Cretaceous S-type 

granites includes greisen-type tin and tungsten, whereas 

mineralization related to Late Cretaceous dominantly felsic 

I-type plutons consists of proximal iron-tungsten and distal 

lead-zinc skarn, as well as porphyry Mo-Cu systems. Iron 

skarn or iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) and quartz-fluoritegold veins appear to be preferentially associated with younger 

latest Cretaceous and younger(?) A-type alkalic intrusions 

(Kuşcu and Erler, 1998; Boztuğ and others, 2003; Delibaş and 

Genç, 2012).

Five Mo-Cu porphyry and porphyry-related prospects 

(Balişeyh, Karacaali, Başnayayla, Merkez Basibuyuklu, and 

Merkez Salmanfakili) were identified and are included in the 

porphyry occurrence database (fig. 22). All five prospects 

occur in a magmatic belt that is located in the northern part 

of the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex. The Balişeyh 

and Karacaali porphyry prospects are located in the western 

part of this belt. This area also hosts other possible porphyryrelated Mo-(W) vein occurrences (Karamustafa, Dagevi, and 

Karaahmetli). The Başnayayla porphyry prospect lies in the 

central part of the belt and includes the Merkez Basibuyuklu 

and Merkez Salmanfakili porphyry-related Mo-(Cu) prospects. 

An additional third area occurs in the eastern part of the belt, 

where lead-zinc skarns are reported to be spatially associated 

with granite porphyry intrusions (Engın and others, 2000).

Molybdenum resources have been mined at Balişeyh 

and Başnayayla. However, no copper is known to have been 

produced. Therefore, these small porphyry deposits are listed 

as prospects in this study.

Balışeyh and Karacaali Porphyry Prospects

At the Balışeyh Mo-(Cu) porphyry prospect (Kuşcu and 

Erler, 1998; Yigit, 2009; Delibaş and Genç, 2012), a 74-Ma 

calc-alkaline metaluminous to peraluminous granodiorite, 

quartz monzonite and hornblende-biotite granite pluton is 

encircled by propylitic, sericitic, and K-silicate alteration, 

which host quartz stockworks and east-west trending 

pegmatitic veins that contain molybdenite, magnetite, pyrite, 

covellite, wolframite, and scheelite. Mineral exploration and 

mining were conducted at the Balışeyh prospect between 

1936 and 1940 by the MTA and the Eti Mine Company. The 

total estimated reserves in 1937 were 6,600 t at a grade of 

2.2 percent MoS2 (molybdenum disulfide). Since then, the 

Balışeyh mine has been operated by several companies. 

About 11,977 t of ore with 1–1.5 percent molybdenum was 

extracted by the TurkMaadin Company in 1984 (Delibaş and 

Genç, 2012).

At the Karacaali historical mining district, the Mo-Cubearing porphyry prospect (Kuşcu and Erler, 1998; Delibaş 

and Genç, 2012) is centered on a 76–74-Ma calc-alkaline 

I-type porphyritic quartz monzonite, quartz monzonite, and 

fine-grained granite intrusions. Actinolite, epidote, and chlorite 

alteration host north-south trending quartz, quartz-carbonate, 

and quartz-tourmaline veins containing chalcopyrite, 

molybdenite, galena, sphalerite, pyrite, and magnetite, as 

well as minor covellite and bornite. Between 1999 and 2001, 

the MTA conducted 1,825 m of diamond drilling. Sampling 

indicates 1.4 percent copper, 0.4 percent molybdenum, 

0.1 percent lead, 0.2 percent zinc, and 15–60 percent iron. 

(Delibaş and Genç, 2012).

Başnayayla Porphyry Prospect

The Başnayayla Mo-Cu prospect (Kuşcu and Erler, 1998; 

Delibaş and Genç, 2012) was discovered by the MTA in 1993 

as part of an exploration program that included five diamonddrill holes. Measured and indicated reserves are 9,375 t at 

0.02 percent molybdenum. Porphyry-related mineralization 

at Başnayayla is centered on a 78- to 77-Ma calc-alkaline 

metaluminous to peraluminous biotite granite with andalusite 

and sillimanite, which is cut by quartz-feldspar-biotite and 

quartz-sericite-pyrite stockworks. Northwest-southeast quartz 

veins and stockworks contain chalcopyrite, molybdenite, 

pyrite, and magnetite, as well as lesser pyrrhotite, sphalerite 

and galena (Delibaş and Genç, 2012).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 89

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map of Turkey 

(General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000), 

14 percent of the Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract area 

is underlain by older basement dominated by deeply exhumed 

metamorphic units and ophiolitic complexes. Permissive volcanic 

and plutonic unit proportions are small (4 and 7 percent of the subtract area, respectively) and exhibit a relatively low ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100) ratio of 35 (fig. 23). Broadly coeval 

nonpermissive (ultramafic, mafic, and sedimentary) units are 

more abundant (24 percent), and younger cover rocks are fairly 

widespread (49 percent of the sub-tract area).

However, proportions of permissive units in the AnatolideTauride–Central Turkey sub-tract vary. Late Cretaceous permissive 

units are represented by plutons only, suggesting that levels of 

preservation are too deep for porphyry copper systems. This 

is supported by the known Late Cretaceous porphyry systems, 

which exhibit tungsten and Mo-Cu metal associations that are 

consistent with deep preservation levels. In contrast, younger latest 

Cretaceous to middle Eocene permissive units consist of both 

volcanic and plutonic rocks. This implies that more appropriate 

levels of preservation for porphyry systems may exist in the 

sub-tract. No porphyry copper prospects are known to be related 

to these younger alkalic igneous suites. If present, however, these 

porphyry systems are likely buried under younger cover, which is 

widespread in this sub-tract.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; Maus 

and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location and character 

of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, 

terrane boundaries). The location of the plutonic belts across the 

northern and western margins of the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex are well imaged by magnetic highs. The five Mo-Cu 

prospects in the northern part of this sub-tract appear to lie along 

the margins of magnetic anomalies. An additional magnetic high 

straddles the eastern margin of the Central Anatolian Crystalline 

Complex. This magnetic high is generally associated with 

Mesozoic ophiolitic and younger Neogene basaltic units.

Overall, positive residual gravity anomalies (Ates and 

others, 1999) in the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex 

reflect the cratonic nature of the crust, which was attenuated 

by extensional processes during the latter part of the volcanoplutonic event delimited by the Anatolide-Tauride–Central 

Turkey sub-tract.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Insufficient resource information on the porphyry 

occurrences in the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex 

precluded classification according to the molybdenum and 

gold contents and ratio criteria used here. However, available 

information indicates a Mo-(Cu) metal association in known Late 

Cretaceous porphyry prospects, consistent with their relation to 

relatively exhumed felsic I-type metaluminous to peraluminous 

intrusions. Porphyry-style mineralization related to younger latest 

Cretaceous (to middle Eocene?) extensional A-type alkaline 

magmatism has not been confirmed. However, some of the 

numerous quartz-fluorite-gold veins associated with syenitic 

intrusions in this cratonic setting could potentially represent the 

upper parts of underlying alkalic porphyry systems (Jensen and 

Barton, 2000).

Given that there was no sufficient resource data, a pooled 

t-test assuming equal variances could not be run. Thus, the general 

porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008) was 

selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this sub-tract, realizing that the Mo-(Cu) 

metal association in these small porphyry deposits is not well 

represented in the grade-and-tonnage model.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract, geologic 

factors favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry 

deposits include (1) permissive Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline 

magmatism and (2) permissive latest Cretaceous (to middle 

Eocene?) extension-related alkaline magmatism developed 

in thick and warm cratonic crust. Unfavorable factors for the 

occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits include (1) 

Late Cretaceous collisional setting with magma compositions that 

appear, in general, too felsic, (2) negligible sizes and copper grades 

in known Mo-(Cu) porphyry deposits (for example, Balişeyh), (3) 

metal associations in porphyry systems that are probably not well 

represented in the grade-and-tonnage model, (4) high exhumation 

and deeper levels of preservation, (5) lack of known younger latest 

Cretaceous to middle Eocene porphyry-related prospects, and (6) 

extensive post-middle Eocene cover.

The density of known porphyry deposits in the Pontide 

(Asia)–Central Turkey sub-tract is low compared to densities 

in well-explored tracts of this size around the world, which 

suggests that undiscovered deposits are likely present. However, 

the low numbers of known porphyry occurrences observed in 

the Central Anatolian Crystalline Complex also suggest that 

the geologic conditions for generation and exposure of Late 

Cretaceous porphyry copper systems are unfavorable and (or) that 

undiscovered deposits (particularly those that may be related to the 

younger alkalic suite) may be present but remain unidentified.

Overall, these factors led the assessment team to establish 

that the Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract exhibited 

low geological favorability and that high levels of uncertainty 

in the estimation of undiscovered deposits were expected. 

Nevertheless, it was decided that quantitative assessment of 

undiscovered deposits in this tract was warranted. Table 6b–A

shows the consensus estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits in the Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey sub-tract at 

the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels and the associated 

summary statistics. At the 90- and 50-percent probability levels, 

the likelihood of undiscovered deposits was estimated at zero. At 

the 10-percent probability level, assessors thought that there were 
90 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

grounds for the presence of one undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposit. This resulted in a mean of 0.33 undiscovered deposits 

with a standard deviation of 0.62 (Cv%=189), reflecting the limited 

favorability and high uncertainty assessed for this porphyry copper 

sub-tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 6b–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Anatolide-Tauride–Central Turkey 

porphyry sub-tract is 1.3 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo 

simulation are also presented as cumulative frequency plots 

(fig. 24B). The cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative 

probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources and total 

mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each commodity and for 

total mineralized rock.

Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus 

Sub-tract (142pCu9005c)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Eocene 

back-arc and island-arc magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus subtract covers an area of 21,700 km2 (fig. 22). It delimits a Late 

Cretaceous to late Eocene intraoceanic volcano-plutonic belt in 

the eastern Anatolide Tauride Terrane. Permissive igneous units 

(appendix B) used to define this sub-tract are shown in figure 23, 

along with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic 

features mentioned in this section.

Across eastern Turkey, the southern Lesser Caucasus, 

and northernmost Iran, Late Cretaceous to middle late Eocene 

magmatism consists of Late Cretaceous-Paleocene continental-arc 

magmatism in the Bitlis-Pötürge Terrane and latest Cretaceous 

to middle-late Eocene back-arc and intraoceanic-arc magmatism 

in the eastern Anatolide-Tauride Terrane (South Armenian 

Block). Late Cretaceous-Paleocene continental arc magmatism 

is separated here into another tract, given that it is believed to 

have developed offshore on the Bitlis-Pötürge microcontinent 

before it amalgamated with the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane (see 

Border Folds tract below). Thus, this section focuses only on the 

magmatism associated with the latest Cretaceous to middle-late 

Eocene extensional back-arc and island-arc environment of the 

Inner Tauride Ocean in the region. Back-arc and intraoceanic-arc 

rocks extend into central Iran and form part of the Esfahan tract, 

which, given differences in the tectonic evolution, is also treated 

separately in this report (see Esfahan tract below).

In eastern Turkey, Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

back-arc magmatism is represented by early calc-alkaline to late 

alkaline felsic to intermediate plutons that intruded ophiolitebearing thrust sheets derived from the Northern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch, as well as coeval Paleocene-Eocene marine successions 

deposited in an extensional back-arc setting related to the northdipping subduction zone and associated Baskil or Border Folds 

Arc along the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch. Geochronologic 

and geochemical data from major plutons in this region indicate 

a general younging of magmatism from about 83 Ma in the 

south to 69 Ma in the north and a south-to-north progression 

from arc-related I-type calc-alkaline to back-arc-related alkaline 

compositional signatures (Kuşcu and others, 2010).

Back-arc and intraoceanic magmatism is represented by 

±44-Ma volcano-plutonic units that are spatially associated with 

the northeast-striking accretionary belt that trends along the 

boundaries between the Anatolide-Tauride Terrane and the Central 

Anatolian Crystalline Complex in the west and the Transcaucasus 

Terrane in the east. These igneous rocks were emplaced during 

convergence of the Inner Tauride Ocean. They host well-known 

Au-(Cu) and Cu-Mo-Au porphyry systems. Geochemical data on 

these igneous units indicate a transitional calc-alkaline to alkaline 

setting (Kadioglu and Dilek, 2010; Gençalıoğlu-Kuşcu and others, 

2001; Boztuğ and others, 2007; Kuşcu and others, 2010).

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene rocks are superseded 

by younger middle to late Eocene andesitic rocks and 

associated shallow-water sediments, which are overthrust 

by nappes containing ophiolite and Paleocene to middle 

Eocene volcanic and flysch, as well as metamorphic basement 

(Yiğitbaş and Yılmaz, 1996). These middle-late Eocene rocks 

are part of the calc-alkaline intermediate to felsic Helete 

intraoceanic island arc (fig. 23) that was active between the 

Arabian Platform and the Bitlis-Pötürge microcontinent and 

associated alkaline to tholeiitic mafic Maden back-arc rift that 

developed to the rear in eastern Turkey (Aktaş and Robertson, 

1984; Yılmaz, 1993; Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Dercourt and 

others, 1986; Kazmin and others, 1986). This intraoceanic 

arc and back arc projects into northwestern Iran where it is 

juxtaposed against the Late Cretaceous Kermanshah and 

Late Cretaceous to Eocene Khoy (fig. 3) ophiolite-bearing 

accretionary complexes (Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009; Agard 

and others, 2011; Hassanipak and Ghazi, 2000; Azizi and 

Jahangiri, 2008). The Maden Basin closed during collision 

between the Arabian Platform and Eurasia (GençalıoğluKuşcu and others, 2001; Yilmaz, 1993).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

In the back-arc environment of the eastern Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane, mineralization includes porphyry systems associated 

with calc-alkaline to alkaline intrusions that are preserved 

in accretionary complexes (Kuşcu, 2007). Intrusion-related 

mineralization is represented by Late Cretaceous Fe-(Cu-Au) 

skarns or iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) deposits, such as at 

Divrigi, and middle Eocene porphyry deposits, such as at Çöpler 

and Agarak. Ophiolite-bearing accretionary complexes also host 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 91

volcanogenic massive sulfide and podiform chromite deposits of 

mainly Late Cretaceous age (Yigit, 2009; Engın and others, 2000).

The Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract 

(fig. 22) includes 4 known porphyry copper deposits (table 2) and 

11 porphyry prospects (appendix C). Deposits are represented 

by the 44-Ma Çöpler and Karakartal Au-(Cu) porphyry systems 

in eastern Turkey (İmer and others, 2013) and the 40–44-Ma 

Agarak and Dastakert Cu-Mo-Au porphyry systems in southern 

Armenia (Moritz and others, 2012). Six Cu-Au prospects (Bahce, 

Bayramdere, Demirmagara, Kabatas, Sabirli, and Zangadere) 

are located in the Çöpler-Karakartal porphyry district, and three 

Cu-Mo prospects (Mamlis, Silic, and Sin) occur some 60–80 km 

further south and east of the Çöpler-Karakartal district (Yigit, 

2009). A Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene age for the likely 

younger Mamlis, Silic, and Sin Cu-Mo porphyry prospects has not 

been confirmed. The remaining two Cu-Mo prospects (Aigedzor 

and Misdag) occur in the Agarak-Dastakert porphyry district in 

southern Armenia.

Çöpler Porphyry Deposit

In eastern Turkey, the 44-Ma (Marinov and others, 2011; 

İmer and others, 2013) Çöpler Au-(Cu) porphyry-skarn deposit is 

the site of the second largest mine in the country (Yigit, 2009). In 

2007, reported measured and indicated resources were 32.159 Mt 

at 1.090 g/t gold and 3.46 g/t silver, and inferred resources were 

estimated at 43.603 Mt at 1.715 g/t gold and 3.13 g/t silver (Yigit, 

2009). Copper grade was not reported. However, current proven 

and probable reserves at Çöpler include 86.4 Mt at 0.117 percent 

copper, 1.53 g/t gold, and 4.47 g/t silver. Measured and indicated 

resources are 139.9 Mt at 0.15 percent copper, 1.6 g/t gold, and 

4.74 g/t silver (Bascombe and others, 2012).

The deposit is centered on a composite diorite to monzonite 

porphyry stock emplaced into metasediments and limestonemarbles producing both stockwork- and skarn-type mineralization. 

The two dominant alteration styles are (1) quartz-manganesecarbonate-barite veinlets hosted by K-silicate alteration and (2) 

quartz-pyrite replacements in limestone (Yigit, 2006). The bulk 

of the mineralization is associated with the former alteration style. 

Mineralization related to main-stage K-silicate and quartz-pyrite 

replacement is overprinted by late-stage base-metal intermediatesulfidation epithermal mineralization (Marek and others, 2008).

Karakartal Porphyry Deposit

The Karakartal (formerly known as Kabatas) Cu-Au deposit 

is located about 10 km southeast of Çöpler. It is described as a 

porphyry copper-gold deposit with a surface projection that is 

about 350 m in diameter (Alacer Gold, 2012; Lıdya Madencılık, 

2013f). Drilling has identified copper and gold mineralization 

to a depth of 235 m (Kociumbas and Page, 2009). Reported 

resources are 70.8 Mt at 0.25 percent copper and 0.32 g/t gold 

(Mining Journal, 2010). The deposit is centered on a diorite to 

monzonite porphyry stock that intrudes hornfelsed metasediments 

and limestones. A strong K-silicate core with chalcopyrite, pyrite, 

and magnetite stockworks is bordered by quartz-sericite-pyrite 

alteration (Alacer Gold, 2012).

Kabatas (South) Porphyry Prospect

The 51-Ma (Marinov and others, 2011) Kabatas (South) 

Cu-Au-(Mo)-bearing porphyry and associated skarn prospect is 

located about 15 km southeast of Çöpler. Here, diorite, monzonite, 

and monzodiorite porphyry sills, dikes, and stocks intrude Late 

Cretaceous metacarbonates (Yigit, 2009). Biotite alteration hosts 

chalcopyrite and bornite mineralization and is overprinted by 

sericite and clay alteration (Kuşcu and others, 2013).

Agarak and Dastakert Porphyry Deposits

The Agarak and Dastakert porphyry deposits are located 

in southern Armenia. These deposits are characterized by high 

molybdenum and gold grades associated with partly alkaline 

intrusive complexes (Zvezdov and others, 1993; Gugushvili and 

others, 2010; Kirkham and Dunne, 2000).

The 44–40-Ma (Moritz and others, 2012) Agarak Cu-Mo-Au 

porphyry deposit (Kekelia and others, 2001; GeoProMining, 

2012) has a reported resource of 125 Mt at 0.56 percent 

copper, 0.025 percent molybdenum, and 0.6 g/t gold (Singer 

and others, 2008). The deposit is centered on calc-alkaline to 

alkaline porphyry intrusions of syenite-granite and granodiorite 

composition. Cu-Mo-Au-(Ag-Zn-Pb-Bi) mineralization occurs 

as bornite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, sphalerite, galena, enargite, 

tetrahedrite/tennantite, and bismuthinite (Singer and others, 2008). 

The occurrence of enargite suggests the presence of a highsulfidation environment.

The nearby 44–40-Ma (Moritz and others, 2012) Dastakert 

Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit has a reported resource of 33 Mt 

at 0.62 percent copper and 0.047 percent molybdenum (Global 

Metals, Ltd., 2013). Here, andesite, gabbro-diorite, granodiorite, 

quartz diorite, and hornfels are cut by calc-alkaline to alkaline 

synmineral diorite porphyry and late lamprophyre dikes (Singer 

and others, 2008). Cu-Mo-Au-(Ag-Zn-Pb-Bi) mineralization 

occurs as bornite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, sphalerite, galena, 

enargite, tetrahedrite/tennantite, and bismuthinite (Singer and 

others, 2008). The occurrence of enargite and chalcocite and 

covellite, respectively, suggests the presence of high-sulfidation 

and supergene environments.

Mamlis and Sin Porphyry Prospects

At the Mamlis Cu-Mo-Au-bearing porphyry prospect, highly 

altered Eocene (and Miocene?) dacitic pyroclastics and andesitic 

lavas subjected to greenschist metamorphism are intruded by 

quartz diorite and quartz monzonite porphyry intrusions (Yigit, 

2009). The mineralization consists of quartz-chalcopyrite veins 

accompanied by molybdenum and stockworks with galena and 

sphalerite. Around 1 g/t of gold is associated with mineralization. 

Numerous limonite-quartz veins, breccia zones, and gossans 

cover an area of 1 by 2 km. At the nearby Sin Cu-Mo-Au-bearing 

porphyry prospect, disseminated and stockwork copper and 

gold mineralization at the periphery of a dacite unit occupies an 

area of 300 by 1,000 m (Akinci, 2004). Mineralization could be 

middle Eocene but is more likely Oligocene-Miocene in age (see 

Azerbaijan tract below).
92 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Preservation Level

As derived from the geologic maps of Turkey (General 

Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000), the 

Lesser Caucasus (Kekelia and others, 2001), and Iran (Huber, 

1978), overall volcanic-to-plutonic ratios of permissive Late 

Cretaceous to middle Eocene units in the Anatolide-Tauride–

Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract are relatively high ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=74). However, Late Cretaceous to 

middle Eocene plutons are well exposed around the Çöpler 

deposit, to the east in easternmost Turkey (where coeval volcanic 

rocks are entirely absent), and around the Agarak deposit in 

Armenia (where the batholith is composed of older Eocene, as 

well as younger Oligocene-Miocene, plutons).

Across the entire sub-tract, proportions of basement 

(20 percent), permissive plutonic and volcanic (2 and 7 

percent, respectively; see fig. 23), nonpermissive mafic, 

volcano-sedimentary and sedimentary (16 percent), and cover 

units (50 percent) suggest that permissive unit exposures 

are reduced, levels of preservation for porphyry systems 

are shallow, and the extent of younger cover is relatively 

extensive. In general, these factors limit appropriate exposure 

of porphyry systems in much of the sub-tract.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; 

Maus and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location and 

character of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, 

faults, terrane boundaries). Across eastern Turkey and the Lesser 

Caucasus, magnetic anomalies are difficult to interpret, because 

signatures are not systematic. They appear to reflect igneous rocks 

of different compositions and ages, which are in part preserved 

in ophiolite-bearing accretionary belts. Both the Çöpler and 

Agarak porphyry districts in eastern Turkey and Armenia are 

surrounded by horseshoe-shaped magnetic highs. The gravity 

anomaly map of Turkey (Ates and others, 1999), in general, shows 

a more systematic negative anomaly across much of the eastern 

Anatolide-Tauride Terrane, which indicates increasingly thicker 

crust towards the east. Much of the crustal thickening occurred 

during the late Miocene to Holocene following collision between 

the Arabian Platform and Eurasia.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

In the Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract 

both Au-(Cu) and Cu-Mo metal associations of porphyry systems 

are found. The Au-(Cu) association such as that exhibited by the 

Çöpler deposit is related to intermediate alkaline to calc-alkaline 

intrusions characteristic of intraoceanic island-arc or back-arc 

settings. The more felsic alkaline to calc-alkaline Cu-Mo-Au metal 

association at the Agarak deposit indicates a similar setting but 

also indicates increased assimilation of continental crust or cratonderived materials. Criteria based on molybdenum and gold allow 

classification of the Çöpler and Karakartal porphyry deposits in 

the eastern segment of the tract into the Cu-Au subtype. Resource 

data are not sufficient to classify the Agarak Cu-Mo-Au deposit. 

However, pooled t-test results assuming equal variances show that 

the known deposits in this sub-tract are not significantly different 

at the 1-percent level from tonnages and copper, molybdenum, 

silver, and gold grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model 

of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, the general model was 

selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this sub-tract. In comparison to the median 

tonnage and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, 

deposits in this tract exhibit smaller tonnages. However, Çöpler 

and Karakartal show higher gold grades and Agarak shows higher 

copper, molybdenum, and gold grades than the median deposit in 

the model.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus 

sub-tract, geologic factors favorable for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry deposits include (1) island arc(s) 

emplaced in a large extensional intraoceanic basin, (2) 

permissive alkaline to calc-alkaline magmas, (3) known 

Au-(Cu) porphyry-skarn (for example Çöpler) and Cu-Mo-Au 

porphyry (for example, Agarak) deposits, and (4) appropriate 

levels of exposure along uplifted accretionary prisms. 

Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) relatively extensive cover and 

(2) tonnages in known deposits that are lower than the median 

in the global porphyry copper tonnage model.

The density of known porphyry copper deposits is lower 

than that of well-explored tracts of equivalent aerial extent 

elsewhere. This suggests that undiscovered deposits are 

likely present. The assessment team felt that the relatively 

small copper resources presently identified at the Çöpler and 

Karakartal Au-Cu deposits will likely grow as deeper parts 

of these porphyry systems are mined. A moderate level of 

exploration is also suggested by the relatively low number 

of known porphyry occurrences in this favorable geologic 

setting. These factors led the assessment team to establish 

that the Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey Caucasus sub-tract 

was favorable but that moderate to high levels of uncertainty 

in the estimation of undiscovered deposits were expected. 

The tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract 

was warranted.

Table 6c–A shows the consensus estimates for 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the AnatolideTauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract at the 90-, 

50-, and 10-percent probability levels and the associated 

summary statistics. At the 90-percent probability level, the 

likelihood of undiscovered deposits was estimated at zero. 

The estimates increased to 2 and 4 at the 50- and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively. This resulted in a mean of 

2.23 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 

2.04 (Cv

%=92). This result reflects the level of favorability 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 93

and moderate to high uncertainty assessed for this tract. The 

estimated total deposit density per 100,000 km2 obtained is 

comparable to median porphyry deposit densities expected in 

well-explored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere around the 

world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 6c–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern TurkeyCaucasus porphyry sub-tract is 8.2 Mt. Results of the Monte 

Carlo simulation are also presented as cumulative frequency plots 

(fig. 24C). The cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative 

probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources and total 

mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each commodity and for 

total mineralized rock.

Lut Cretaceous Tract (142pCu9006)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger, 

2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to Paleocene 

continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Lut Cretaceous tract covers an area of 12,000 km2

within the Lut Terrane of eastern Iran (fig. 25). It delimits a poorly 

preserved and erratically exposed north-northwest–south-southeast 

800-km-long subduction-related magmatic arc of Late CretaceousPaleocene age. The Lut Terrane is bounded by the right-lateral 

Nayband Fault on the west and by the right-lateral Nehbandan 

Fault on the east. The northern and southern limits of the Lut 

Terrane are further marked by the left-lateral Doruneh Fault on 

the north and the Jaz Murian Depression of the Makran Terrane 

on the south, respectively (fig. 3). The Lut Cretaceous tract is 

superimposed in part by the younger Lut Tertiary tract (see below).

Tectonic Setting

By the Early Jurassic, the Yazd, Kashmar-Kerman, and 

Tabas Terranes had amalgamated with the Lut Terrane to form 

the east-central Iranian microcontinental collage. During Early 

Jurassic-Early Cretaceous times, rifting along the northern and 

eastern margins of this microcontinent opened the Sabzevar and 

Sistan Oceans, respectively (Dercourt and others, 1986). This 

event was followed by Late Cretaceous resumption of northward 

convergence (fig. 4C), as well as subduction and arc magmatism 

along the southern margin of the Lut Terrane (Golonka, 2004). At 

that time, the present-day eastern margin of the Lut Terrane was 

facing south. Magmatism associated with this event defines the 

Lut Cretaceous tract described in this section.

This event was followed by middle Eocene to early 

Oligocene convergence between India, Afghanistan, and the 

East-Central Iranian Terranes with Eurasia (fig. 4E), initiating 

closure of the Sistan Ocean (Golonka, 2004) and concurrent 

±90-degree counterclockwise rotation of the east-central 

Iranian microcontinental collage (Westphal and others, 1986; 

Dercourt and others, 1986).

Magmatism and Known Porphyry Prospects

Permissive igneous units (appendix B) used to define the Lut 

Cretaceous tract are shown in figure 26, along with locations of 

igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in this 

section. Late Cretaceous plutonism in the Lut Terrane (fig. 25) is 

represented by the Gazu, Bajestan, and Bazman volcano-plutonic 

complexes and associated porphyry and possible porphyry-related 

occurrences (Karimpour and Stern, 2011; Berberian and others, 

1982; Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e).

The Gazu (75.2 Ma) and Bazman (74.2 Ma) granodiorites are 

I-type calc-alkaline plutons with evolved geochemical signatures 

that indicate formation in a continental-arc setting in felsic cratonic 

crust (Karimpour and others, 2011b). Geochemical results on the 

Bajestan (76.6 Ma) granite indicate a more peraluminous S-type 

affinity, suggesting emplacement in a collisional setting. However, 

this signature is also consistent with assimilation of large fractions 

of felsic crustal materials in a subduction-related environment. 

Related Late Cretaceous-Paleocene volcanism is represented 

by the Vaghi (61.6 Ma) and Junchi (56.7 Ma) felsic ignimbrites, 

which exhibit evolved geochemical signatures similar to those at 

Gazu and Bajestan (Karimpour and Stern, 2011).

The Gazu Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry-skarn prospect (appendix 

C) is located near the Lut-Tabas Terrane boundary (fig. 25). It 

consists of a stockwork and minor hydrothermal breccia related to 

Late Cretaceous diorite, monzodiorite, and monzonite porphyry 

intrusion emplaced into Triassic and Jurassic sedimentary rocks. 

Reported grades are 0.4–2 percent copper, 5–12 part per million 

(ppm) molybdenum, and 2.4 ppm gold (Samani, 1998). Alteration 

includes strong quartz-sericite-pyrite, calc-silicate, and propylitic 

mineral associations. High concentrations of copper and zinc 

occur along the contact zone between intrusive and country rocks. 

Extensive gossan developed over the deposit (Darbani and others, 

2005).

The Bajestan batholith is a 26- by 4-km east-west trending 

pluton that intrudes Jurassic slates and quartzites (appendix C). 

The pluton consists of pyroxene quartz microdiorite in the east 

and hornblende-biotite granodiorite-granite in the west. The 

granitic phase displays porphyritic textures about its margins. 

Hydrothermal alteration is characterized by tourmaline, but no 

significant tin, molybdenum, or copper mineralization is reported 

(Karimpour and others, 2011b). This possible porphyry-related 

occurrence is included in appendix C.

Possible porphyry-related mineralization may also 

occur in the Bazman Complex (fig. 26). This Late Cretaceous 

complex is composed of minor hornblende-biotite dioritegranodiorite and augite-hornblende gabbro that are cut by 

porphyritic hornblende-biotite granite (74.2 Ma; Karimpour 

and others, 2011b). Aplitic dikes intrude these units and are 

themselves cut by younger diabasic dikes (Berberian and 

Berberian, 1981; Berberian and others, 1982). These rocks 
94 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 25. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9006, Lut Cretaceous—

Iran. See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

Gazu

Bajestan

55° E 60° E

34° N

30° N

IRAQ IRAN

RUSSIA KAZAKHSTAN

SAUDI ARABIA

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

50° E 70° E

40° N 

20° N 

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 58.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9006

Porphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 95

Figure 26. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9006, Lut 

Cretaceous—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

Bazman 

Bajestan

Gazu

J az Murian Depression

Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Koh-i-Sultan

Taftan

Bitlis-Zagros SutureBitlis-Zagros Suture

Doruneh FaultDoruneh Fault

Vaghi

Junchi

55° E 60° E

34° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N 

20° N 

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

PAKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

IRAQ

RUSSIA KAZAKHSTAN

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 58.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9006

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Junchi Geologic feature discussed in the text

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Transform fault

Area of map
96 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

are hydrothermally altered in parts. However, the Bazman 

Complex is largely covered by Pliocene-Holocene volcanic 

rocks of the Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc, which are 

also hydrothermally altered. Therefore, the age of this 

hydrothermal alteration has not been established. A 5-km-wide 

ASTER-derived phyllic alteration zone occurs in this area 

(Mars, 2014).

Qualitative Assessment

The occurrence of porphyry copper deposits is permissive 

in this relatively long-lived and mature continental-arc setting. 

However, factors that considerably diminish the likelihood for 

the occurrence of undiscovered deposits in this tract include poor 

preservation, extensive cover (74 percent of the tract area), and 

deeper levels of preservation of porphyry systems as suggested 

by a low {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 16 and 

by the existence of peraluminous compositions (fig. 26). No 

resource estimate is available for the only positively identified 

porphyry copper prospect (Gazu). In addition, the low number 

of known porphyry-related occurrences, which are not only an 

indication of limited geologic endowment and (or) inadequate 

level of exposure but also a likely reflection of the lack of 

exploration, further add considerable uncertainty. Despite the 

permissive geology and the presence of one positively identified 

porphyry prospect, the assessment team felt that the favorability 

was too low to add significant undiscovered copper resources 

to the overall assessment (less than a 10-percent chance of 1 

undiscovered deposit). Therefore, quantitative assessment of the 

Lut Cretaceous tract was not warranted.

Border Folds Tract (142pCu9007)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to early Paleocene 

continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Border Folds tract covers an area of 45,300 km2 across 

southeastern Turkey, northeasternmost Iraq, and northwestern Iran 

(fig. 27). It delimits a variably exhumed and irregularly preserved 

1,500-km-long and 70–150-km-wide continental arc of Late 

Cretaceous-early Paleocene age. The Border Folds tract trends 

parallel to the Bitlis-Zagros Suture, which represents the former 

site of the associated subduction zone. The tract is generally 

confined to the Bitlis-Pötürge and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes. 

However, small segments of it also project into the Bitlis-Zagros 

Thrust Zone. The Border Folds tract is partially superimposed 

by the associated back-arc settings of the Late Cretaceous to 

late Eocene volcano-plutonic events delimited by the AnatolideTauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract (see above) and 

Esfahan tract (see below).

Tectonic Setting

The ophiolite-bearing Bitlis-Zagros Suture marks the 

location of not only 1 but 2 north-dipping subduction zones that 

developed in the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch (Robertson 

and others, 2006). The first subduction event (Neotethys I 

of Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006; Yılmaz, 1993) is preserved in 

ophiolite complexes and island-arc rock associations that were 

obducted over the northeastern margin of the Arabian Platform 

in the Late Cretaceous (Moghadam and others, 2009; Dewey 

and others, 1973). This accretional event is represented by the 

Kermanshah and Neyriz intraoceanic arc systems (fig. 3). The 

second subduction event (Neotethys II of Ghasemi and Talbot, 

2006) occurred along the southern margin of the SanandajSirjan Terrane (fig. 4C) and had been active since the Jurassic 

(see Sanandaj-Sirjan Tract above). It generated Late Cretaceousearly Paleocene Andean-type continental arc magmatism that 

propagated over time from the southeast to the northwest 

across northwestern Iran and southeastern Turkey (Azizi and 

Jahangiri, 2008; Shahabpour, 2005, 2007; Şengör and Yilmaz, 

1981; Şengör and others, 1993). This volcano-plutonic event 

is known as the Baskil Arc (Kuşcu and others, 2010) or Border 

Folds Arc (Yigit, 2009). Associated deformation produced 

southwest-vergent folds, an overprint of greenschist facies 

metamorphism (Azizi and Jahangiri, 2008; Mohajjel and others, 

2003; Kaymakci and others, 2010), and mafic to felsic calcalkaline and alkaline magmatism (Berberian and Berberian, 

1981; Berberian and King, 1981; Şengör and others, 1991).

Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene compression was followed 

by pronounced back-arc extension and magmatism (Alavi, 

1994; Shahabpour, 2007; Omrani and others, 2008; Agard and 

others, 2011; Verdel and others, 2011). This event deposited 

voluminous largely subaqueous late Paleocene to middle Eocene 

calc-alkaline to shoshonitic rocks (see Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern 

Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract above and Esfahan tract below) 

and widespread subaqueous to subaerial late Oligocene-early 

Miocene calc-alkaline to alkaline rocks (see Azerbaijan–Eastern 

Turkey sub-tract below). These Paleocene-Eocene and OligoceneMiocene events preceded the collision and related deformation 

between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin.

Magmatism

In the Bitlis-Pötürge and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes (fig. 3), 

middle to Late Cretaceous andesite, andesitic basalt, and basalts 

interbedded with shale, sandstone, and calcareous rocks indicate 

a period of subsidence (Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009). This 

event was followed by the compressional Late Cretaceous-early 

Paleocene Baskil or Border Folds juvenile to mature continental 

arc (the Border Folds tract described in this section). This volcanoplutonic event was associated with a north-dipping subduction 

zone located in the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch between 

the converging Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin 

(Golonka, 2004; Kazmin and others, 1986). Permissive igneous 

units used to define the Border Folds tract (appendix B) are shown 

in figure 28, along with locations of igneous complexes and other 

geologic features mentioned in this section.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 97 Figure 27. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Ispendere

Keban

Nazaruzagi

Uslu

SE Sanandaj

Cherarlu

Afsin

Nicosia

Beirut

Damascus

Baghdad

Tehran

!

!

!

!

!

JORDAN

CYPRUS

SYRIA

TURKEY

AZERBAIJAN

IRAQ IRAN

LEBANON

ISRAEL

CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

50° E 40° E

39° N33° N

50° E 30° E

40° N 30° N IRAN

EGYPT

TURKEY

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

BLACK

SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 44° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9007Other porphyry copper tractsPorphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS0 100 200 MILES

Area of map
98 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 28. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

50° E 40° E

39° N33° N

Baskil Arc nI ner Taur di e Suture nI ner Taur di e Suture

Bitl si -Zagros Suture Bitl si -Zagros Suture

Bitlis-Poturge massifs BITLIS-PÖTÜRGE

Bitlis -Zagros Suture Bitlis -Zagros Suture

 

Rash t

 

Rash t

Asnawa and

Mishav

Nicosia

Beirut

Damascus Baghdad

Tehran

!

!

!

!

!

JORDAN

SYRIA

TURKEY

IRAQ IRAN

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

50° E 30° E

40° N 30° N IRAN

EGYPT

TURKEY

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA BLACK

SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS0 100 200 MILES

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9007Permissive intrusive rockPermissive extrusive rockFaultSutureTerrane

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Geologic feature discussed in the text Baskil Arc

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 99

In southeastern Turkey, Campanian calc-alkaline to 

Maastrichtian alkaline volcanic and intrusive rocks postdate 

ophiolite obduction and unconformably overlie and intrude 

low-grade metamorphic Paleozoic and Mesozoic basement rocks 

(Oberhänsli and others, 2010). In general, Campanian calc-alkaline 

suites crop out toward the south about the Bitlis-Pötürge Terrane, 

whereas younger Maastrichtian alkaline suites occur toward the 

north in the back-arc setting of the eastern Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane (see Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus subtract). Geochemical data on these plutons indicate a transition from 

island-arc-related juvenile calc-alkaline (83–80 Ma), to mature 

continental arc-related calc-alkaline and alkaline (75–73 Ma), and 

to alkaline (71–70 Ma) arc and back arc-related compositions over 

time (Kuşcu and others, 2010). Intrusive phases include tonalite, 

granodiorite, diorite, gabbro, and quartz monzonite, which are 

intruded by younger microdiorite, porphyritic quartz microdiorite, 

aplite, syenite, and lamprophyre dikes. Late Cretaceous porphyryskarns, as well as VMS systems, are preserved in this arc back-arc 

setting (Kuşcu, 2007).

In the northwestern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane of 

Iran, Late Cretaceous volcanic and intrusive rocks also exhibit 

arc-related calc-alkaline geochemical affinities (Azizi and 

Jahangiri, 2008). Plutons are commonly surrounded by hornfels 

halos, exhibit foliation, and intrude greenschist-facies host rocks 

that are strongly folded along northwest-southeast trending axes. 

Intrusive complexes are exemplified by 100–93-Ma I-type diorites 

and granites, 80-Ma alkalic syenites, and S-type muscovitebiotite-garnet granites (Ghalamghash, Nédélec, and others, 2009; 

Ghalamghash, Bouchez, and others, 2009). Selected Al-inhornblende data indicate deep exhumation with emplacement 

depths of 10–14 km in several parts, but coeval volcanic rocks are 

preserved in fold limbs. Despite permissive igneous compositions, 

porphyry-related copper mineralization has not been positively 

identified in this region (Jamali and others, 2012).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

The Border Folds tract, with only a few known porphyry 

prospects, is the least explored porphyry belt in Turkey (Yigit, 

2009; Global Business Reports, 2012). Porphyry copper prospects 

are only known in the western part of the tract segment in 

southeastern Turkey. These include the small Keban Cu-Mo-WF-Au porphyry and associated skarn deposit and the Ispendere, 

Uslu, and Nazarusagi Cu-Au porphyry prospects (fig. 27; 

appendix C). A recent report also adds a Cu-Au porphyry-related 

prospect at Afsin (Tilavsun), which is located in the westernmost 

part of the tract (Kusçu and others, 2013).

With exception of few potential porphyry occurrences 

of unknown age (Shahabpour, 1999; Azizi and others, 2007; 

Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e), 

porphyry copper systems have not been positively identified in the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane in Iran. Two possibly porphyry-related 

occurrences of Late Cretaceous age are tentatively included in 

appendix C (SE Sanandaj and Cherarlu). The Sanandaj-Sirjan 

Terrane, instead, is known for its middle to late Mesozoic 

Pb-Zn-Ba MVT, SEDEX, and VMS (Ghazban and others, 1994; 

Mirnejad and others, 2011; Rajabi and others, 2012; Förster, 1978; 

Meshkani and others, 2011) and for its mostly Eocene orogenic 

and intrusion-related gold deposits (Niroomand and others, 2011; 

Nezafati and others, 2005; Nezafati, 2006; Moritz and others, 

2006; Richards and others, 2006).

Based on permissive igneous units derived from the geologic 

map bases of Pollastro and others (1998) and Sissakian (2000), 

as well as descriptions of the geology (Karim and others, 2008), 

the Border Folds tract projects into the Bitlis-Zagros thrust zone 

of northeastern Iraq. This area hosts Triassic-Jurassic stratabound 

Zn-Pb, Late Cretaceous ophiolite-related Mn-Fe and Cr-NiCu-Fe, and Late Cretaceous-Paleogene iron skarn occurrences 

(Al-Bassam and Hak, 2006). Of the latter, notable iron skarns 

occur at Asnawa and Mishav. At Asnawa, two northeast-southwest 

magnetite replacement bodies with subordinate pyrite, pyrrhotite, 

chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite are spatially associated with 

a diorite that intrudes Late Cretaceous-Paleogene schist and 

recrystallized limestone units (Al-Bassam, 2008). At Mishav, 

magnetite-hematite garnet-actinolite skarn replaces limestone 

and andesitic flows and tuffs. Mineralization appears to be related 

to small granodioritic intrusions (Al-Bassam and Hak, 2006). 

The origin of these iron skarns is not well constrained, and an 

association with porphyry-style mineralization is highly uncertain 

(G. Fernette, written commun., 2013).

Ispendere Porphyry Prospect

The Ispendere porphyry Cu-Au-bearing prospect is 

associated with 81-Ma I-type calc-alkaline granodiorite, diorite, 

and dacite porphyry intrusions. These juvenile arc-related 

intrusions are part of a 86–75-Ma tonalitic pluton that intruded 

a Jurassic-Cretaceous ophiolitic complex (Kuşcu, 2007). The 

east-trending hydrothermal zone consists of weak potassic, 

phyllic, argillic, and propylitic alteration. Vein and disseminated 

magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite-(bornite) mineralization is generally 

surrounded by phyllic alteration. Limited chalcocite and covellite 

are found as supergene minerals (Dumanlilar and others, 1999; 

Yigit, 2006, 2009; Kuşcu and others, 2013).

Nazarusagi and Uslu Porphyry Prospects

The Nazarusagi (Baskil) Au-Cu-bearing porphyry prospect 

is related to a 78-Ma arc-related calc-alkaline to alkaline pluton 

(Kuşcu and others, 2010; Yigit, 2009). Granodiorite, granodiorite 

porphyry, dacite porphyry, and diorite stocks are cut by granitic 

and post-ore diabase dikes. These igneous units intrude 

metamorphic and ophiolitic country rocks. The deposit exhibits 

biotite, actinolite, epidote-chlorite±(carbonate-magnetite) and 

quartz-sericite alteration. Mineralization occurs in the form of 

quartz stockworks and sheeted veins with chalcopyrite, bornite, 

molybdenite, gold, and bismuth (Kuşcu and others, 2013).

The newly discovered Uslu porphyry copper prospect 

is located about 30 km southeast of Nazarusagi (Yigit, 2009). 

Little about this prospect is mentioned in the available literature 

(Engın and others, 2000). However, the age and dominant copper 

mineralization suggest that the Nazarusagi and Uslu prospects 

may be more similar to the Ispendere Cu-Au than to the Keban 

Cu-Mo-W-F-Au porphyry systems.
100 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Keban Porphyry-Skarn Deposit

The small Keban Cu-Mo-W-F-Au-Pb-Zn porphyryskarn and vein deposit has a reported resource of 4.5 Mt at 

0.092 percent copper and 0.14 percent molybdenum (Engın 

and others, 2000). The deposit is related to a 69.9-Ma syenite 

porphyry stock that intrudes a 74-Ma calc-alkaline-alkaline 

pluton, Late Cretaceous low-grade metamorphic volcanic 

rocks, and Paleozoic-Lower Triassic phyllites and marbles 

(Kuşcu and others, 2013). Sericitic, K-silicate, and calcsilicate alteration host pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite, 

chalcopyrite, and enargite mineralization (Kines, 1969; Kuşcu 

and others, 2010; Yigit, 2009; Kalender, 2011; Kuşcu and 

others, 2013). The younger age, geochemical affinity, and 

metal association of the Keban porphyry system suggest that it 

was emplaced in an extensional back-arc setting, as proposed 

by Ӏmer and others (2013).

Preservation Level

In the highly deformed and variably exhumed region 

delimited by the Border Folds tract, adequacy of exposure 

levels of porphyry-related mineralization is difficult to assess 

based on preservation-level data alone. Other geologic factors 

(such as folding and faulting) likely played a substantial 

role in either eroding, exposing, or concealing porphyry 

mineralization.

As derived from the geologic maps of Turkey (General 

Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000), Iran 

(Huber, 1978), and Iraq (Pollastro and others, 1998), limited 

preservation of permissive volcanic and plutonic units is evident, 

with proportions that amount only to 3 and 5 percent, respectively, 

of the tract area (fig. 28). Older basement (37 percent), broadly 

coeval nonpermissive units (20 percent), younger cover (30 

percent), and inland water bodies (4 percent) occupy the remainder 

of the tract. Permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratios across the tract 

appear appropriate ({volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=42) 

for preservation of porphyry systems. However, volcanic-toplutonic ratios vary from Turkey to Iran across the northwestern, 

central, and southeastern parts of the Border Folds tract. Very 

low volcanic-to-plutonic ratios occur in the northwestern and 

southeastern parts of the tract, whereas higher volcanic-to 

plutonic ratios exist in the intervening central part of the tract in 

northwestern Iran and northeastern Iraq. This central part is also 

characterized by the occurrence of fewer metamorphic rocks.

Overall, preservation level data suggest that any 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in this otherwise 

permissive continental-arc setting are (1) completely exhumed 

in the western part of southeastern Turkey (where there is no 

tract delimited), (2) variably preserved in the northwestern 

and southeastern parts of the tract in Turkey and Iran, and (3) 

largely concealed by coeval volcanic and sedimentary and 

(or) younger cover units in the intervening central part of the 

tract in northwestern Iran and northeastern Iraq. Porphyry 

copper systems (that is, Ispendere, Nazarusagi, Uslu, Afsin, 

Keban) have only been positively identified in the better 

preserved northwestern part of the Border Folds tract in 

southeastern Turkey. The two possible porphyry occurrences 

in Iran tentatively included with the Border Folds tract (that 

is, Chararlu and SE Sanandaj) are also located in a better 

preserved southeastern part of the tract.

Magnetic Anomalies

Regional aeromagnetic maps (Ates and others, 1999; Maus 

and others, 2009) were used to confirm the location and character 

of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, 

terrane boundaries). The reduced area of the Border Folds tract 

in northeastern Iraq could not be evaluated because regional 

aeromagnetic data are not available. Across southeastern Turkey, 

regional magnetic anomalies that occupy the Bitlis-Pötürge 

Terrane appear to image its northern boundary. However, these 

anomalies reflect mostly late Miocene and younger mafic volcanic 

rocks and thus largely mask the signature of the underlying Late 

Cretaceous units that define the Border Folds tract. In northwestern 

Iran, in contrast, smaller and isolated magnetic anomalies do 

appear to image, at least in part, permissive Late Cretaceous 

plutonic units. The porphyry prospects in this tract lie along the 

margins of positive magnetic anomalies.

A relatively subdued but continuous magnetic anomaly 

projects beyond the boundary of the Border Folds tract to the 

south about 550 km into the central part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

Terrane. This anomaly reflects magnetic sources under early to 

Late Cretaceous carbonate rocks. However, these sources may be 

associated with younger Eocene plutons (see Esfahan tract below).

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Positively identified porphyry prospects in the Border 

Folds tract occur only in southeastern Turkey and exhibit 

contrasting characteristics. The calc-alkaline Ispendere and 

Nazarusagi Cu-Au porphyry prospects and the small alkaline 

Keban Cu-Mo-W-F-Au porphyry deposit are 85–75-Ma 

and 70-Ma old, respectively. These contrasting igneous 

compositions, metal associations, and ages are consistent 

with the progressive arc to back-arc evolution of this volcanoplutonic event. There are no published copper resource data on 

the arc-related Cu-Au porphyry prospects, and the small back 

arc-related Keban deposit exhibits a metal association and a 

copper resource that are not well-represented in the porphyry 

grade and tonnage models of Singer and others (2008). 

Consequently, the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model was 

selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this tract.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Border Folds 

tract include (1) a juvenile to mature Andean-type continentalarc setting, (2) permissive calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatic 

compositions, (3) known Cu-Au porphyry and Cu-Mo 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 101

porphyry-skarn occurrences in the western part of the tract, 

and (4) appropriate levels of exposure that are, however, 

only locally preserved. Unfavorable geologic factors for the 

occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the 

Border Folds tract include (1) superimposed Late Cretaceous 

and Miocene fold-and-thrust and metamorphic events, where 

deposits can be exhumed, tectonically concealed, or buried; 

and (2) the small size of the only known Cu-Mo-W porphyryskarn deposit with available resource data (Keban) in the tract.

A density of known porphyry deposits that is negligible 

contrasts with that in other porphyry belts of equivalent size 

around the world. This suggests that undiscovered deposits are 

likely present. With exception of the Keban and Nazarusagi 

districts that are experiencing renewed exploration efforts that may 

result in the identification of larger copper resources, this region—

which is otherwise geologically not only permissive but in parts 

deemed favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry 

deposits—remains underexplored (Yigit, 2009). Furthermore, 

undiscovered deposits may be concealed in large segments of 

this complexly deformed and variably preserved tract. Lack of 

exposure and exploration are reflected by the very low number of 

known porphyry occurrences.

Overall, these factors led the assessment team to establish 

that the Border Folds tract exhibited relatively low geological 

favorability and that high levels of uncertainty in the estimation 

of undiscovered deposits were expected. Nevertheless, the 

tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract 

was warranted. Table 7A shows the consensus estimates 

for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Border 

Folds tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels 

and the associated summary statistics. At the 90-percent 

probability level, all assessors estimated that the likelihood 

of undiscovered deposits was 0. At the 50-percent probability 

level, several assessors thought that there were grounds for 

the presence of 1 undiscovered deposit. At the 10-percent 

probability level, the numbers increased to 2. On the basis of 

these numbers, the team reached a consensus estimate of 0, 

1, and 2 undiscovered deposits at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively. This resulted in a mean of 

1.15 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 

1.18 (Cv

%=102), reflecting the limited favorability and high 

uncertainty assessed for this tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 7B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Border Folds porphyry tract is 4.6 Mt. 

Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 29). The cumulative frequency 

plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrenceestimated resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the 

mean for each commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Esfahan Tract (142pCu9008)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger and 

others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Eocene back 

arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Esfahan tract covers an area of 56,900 km2. It delimits 

a large Late Cretaceous to middle and late Eocene back arcrift volcano-plutonic belt. The tract mainly overlies the Central 

Iranian Terrane but partially extends to the north into the Alborz 

Terrane, to the east into the East-Central Iranian Terrane, and to the 

southwest into the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (fig. 30). This back-arc 

setting continues to the northwest into the Lesser Caucasus and 

eastern Turkey, where it overlies the eastern Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane (South Armenian Block). Here, it is delimited by the 

eastern Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract 

(fig. 22). The Esfahan tract is partially superimposed on the older 

Sanandaj-Sirjan and Border Folds tracts (figs. 5, 6), and it is in 

part overlain by the younger Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran porphyry 

sub-tract (see below).

Tectonic Setting

Several scenarios have been proposed for the origin and 

subsequent evolution of the Late Cretaceous to late Eocene 

igneous rocks that occupy much of central Iran. However, it is 

generally accepted that they are associated with the extensive 

back-arc environment that developed to the rear of the Late 

Cretaceous-Paleocene Andean-type continental arc (Berberian 

and King, 1981) that occurred along the evolving Eurasian 

active margin to the southwest (see Border Folds tract above).

Berberian and Berberian (1981) and Omrani and others 

(2008) propose that the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Border 

Folds Arc that developed across the Bitlis-Pötürge and 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes migrated onto the southern margin 

of the Central Iranian Terrane. Igneous rocks associated 

with this arc-building event are best-preserved along the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (fig. 2). This eastward arc 

migration is interpreted to have resulted from a shallowing of 

the subduction slab dip associated with a fast-to-slow change 

in convergence rate between the Arabian Platform and the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (McQuarrie and others, 2003; Azizi 

and Jahangiri, 2008; Agard and others, 2011).

Ghasemi and Talbot (2006) and Azizi and Moinevaziri 

(2009), on the other hand, propose the existence of two subduction 

zones operating in the Southern Neotethys Ocean southwest of 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane. These two subduction zones were 

independently responsible for the generation of Late Cretaceous 

island-arc magmatism between the Arabian Platform and the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Kermanshah and Neyriz complexes 

of Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009; and Babaie and others, 2001) 

and Late Cretaceous and younger continental arc magmatism on 
102 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 7. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 1 2 4 4 1.2 1.2 100 0 1.2 45,300 3

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 760,000 10,000,000 20,000,000 4,600,000 0.22 0.31

Mo 0 0 0 250,000 570,000 120,000 0.16 0.54

Au 0 0 0 270 530 120 0.20 0.51

Ag 0 0 0 2,900 6,400 1,400 0.17 0.63

Rock 0 0 190 2,100 3,900 930 0.23 0.31

Figure 29. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. k, thousand; M, 

million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 103

Figure 30. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9008, 

Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

40° E 60° E

35° N

30° N

Chah Shureh

Kale Kafi

Khuni

Maranjab

Sholugh Abad

Tallesiah

Zah

Gorgab-4

Sarajieh

Pyroozi

Chahpalang-South Anarag

Kuh-e-Gabri Kuh-e-Rig

Beirut

Damascus

Amman

Jerusalem

Baghdad

Tehran

Kuwait

Ashgabat

Nicosia

!

!

!

! !

!

!

!

!

JORDAN

SYRIA

TURKEY

IRAQ

IRAN

TURKMENISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

SAUDI ARABIA

LEBANON

ISRAEL

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

CASPIAN SEA

PERSIAN

GULF

40° E 60° E

40° N 

30° N 

IRAN

IRAQ

SAUDI ARABIA

TURKEY

PAKISTAN

RED SEA

ARABIAN SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 53° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9008

Porphyry copper deposit

Porphyry copper prospect

Area of map

the Sanandaj-Sirjan (that is, Border Folds) and Central Iranian 

Terranes (that is, Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt).

Ghazi and Hassanipak (2000) and Arfania and Shahriari 

(2009) also propose two individual subduction-related arcs. 

However, to explain the Late Cretaceous Border Folds and 

younger Urumieh-Dokhtar arc settings, one subduction zone 

along the southern margin of the Sanandaj-Sirjan and the other 

one between the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian Terranes, 

respectively, are proposed. Evidence given is that island-arc rocks 

are preserved in the ophiolitic mélanges, such as the Khoy and the 

Nain-Baft complexes (fig. 3), that mark the boundary between the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian Terranes in northwestern and 

southeastern Iran.

In either of the scenarios proposed, geologic and 

geochemical data from Late Cretaceous to late Eocene 

volcanogenic products support a widespread extensional 

back-arc rift setting that developed on the Central Iranian 

Terrane (fig. 4D) to the rear of the continental arc built on the 

Bitlis-Pötürge and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes (Alavi, 1994; 

Shahabpour, 2007; Verdel, 2009; Ghorbani, 2006).

In the middle Eocene, the rate of convergence between 

the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin increased 

again along a shallow-dipping subduction zone (McQuarrie 

and others, 2003) that produced slab-rollback (Verdel and 

others, 2011). The combined effect generated subsidence 

and subaqueous deposition of great volumes of calc-alkaline 

to shoshonitic and alkaline (Shahrbabaky, 1997) volcanosedimentary, ignimbritic, and volcanic deposits in the back-arc 

region in the Central Iranian Terrane. During the middle and 

late Eocene, the back arc propagated rapidly to the north into 
104 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

the Alborz Terrane (Stalder, 1971) and to the south across 

the arc axis into the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (fig. 3). This 

extensional process culminated with formation of cordilleran 

metamorphic core complexes in the East-Central Iranian and 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes (Verdel, 2009).

Back-arc extension across much of Iran was followed in 

the late Eocene-early Oligocene by the initiation of oblique 

collision between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin 

in northwestern Iran (Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006; Robertson 

and Mountrakis, 2006; Berberian and others, 1982; Agard and 

others, 2005; Horton and others, 2008). Associated uplift was 

superseded in turn by renewed early Oligocene to middle Miocene 

subsidence and formation of a deep sedimentary basin across 

much of the preexisting Late Cretaceous to late Eocene back arc, 

further attenuating the continental crust in the region (Morley and 

others, 2009; Reuter and others, 2009; Shahabpour, 2005, 2007). 

Renewed uplift in the middle and late Miocene occurred during 

final collision between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian 

margin in southeastern Iran (Mohajjel and others, 2003; Berberian 

and others, 1982). This changed the extensional regime to a 

compressional setting that resulted in inversion of earlier basins 

producing shortening distributed mostly across the SanandajSirjan and Alborz Terranes (fig. 3). Pliocene-Holocene right-lateral 

strike-slip displacements, principally along the Bitlis-Zagros suture 

zone where offset over the past 3–5 m.y. is estimated between 50 

and 70 km, further document the oblique nature of the continuing 

collisional process (Talebian and Jackson, 2002).

Magmatism

The Esfahan tract (fig. 30) delimits calc-alkaline to 

shoshonitic and alkaline magmatism emplaced as part of a 

widespread and largely subaqueous Late Cretaceous to late 

Eocene volcano-sedimentary dominated back-arc rift event. 

However, it appears to be not only represented by intraoceanic 

arcs but also by arcs that partially developed on the margins of 

intervening microcontinental fragments rifted from the Alborz and 

Kopet Dagh Terranes to the north. The back-arc rock association 

consists mainly of subordinate volcanic flows that are interlayered 

with successions of volcano-sedimentary rocks as much as several 

kilometers thick (Alavi, 1996). Exposures of coeval plutonic rocks 

are rare, and they are only present along uplifted structural zones. 

Permissive igneous units (appendix B) used to define the Esfahan 

tract are shown in figure 31, along with locations of igneous 

complexes and other geologic features mentioned in this section.

East-Central Iran

The Lut, Tabas, Kashmar-Kerman, and Yazd Terranes 

(fig. 3) form the east-central Iranian microcontinental collage. 

These terranes are separated from each other along rightlateral fault systems and from the Central Iranian Terrane 

along the left-lateral Great Kafir-Doruneh Fault system.

In the Tabas and Lut Terranes, Late CretaceousPaleocene uplift and erosion associated with arc magmatism 

was followed by late Paleocene to middle Eocene normal 

faulting, subsidence, and unconformable deposition of 

subaqueous and lesser subaerial calc-alkaline-dominated 

volcano-sedimentary and volcanic successions (Verdel and 

others, 2011). This extensional regime generally occurred in 

the back-arc region of the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene Border 

Folds Arc on the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (see Border Folds 

tract above). However, association of this volcanism with the 

Late Cretaceous-Paleocene arc magmatism on the Lut Terrane 

cannot be precluded (see Lut Cretaceous above). If the Lut 

Terrane is restored to its more east-west disposition before its 

±90-degree counterclockwise rotation, the Border Folds and 

Lut Cretaceous arcs may have formed part of a continuous 

subduction system.

In the Kashmar-Kerman Terrane to the west, a 52-Ma 

high-grade metamorphic gneissic and migmatitic complex is 

intruded by large late- to post-kinematic calc-alkaline dioritegranite plutons and aplitic dikes of early Eocene age (47–44 Ma; 

Ramezani and Tucker, 2003). The metamorphic complex is largely 

the product of anatexis followed by exhumation associated with 

extensional cordilleran metamorphic core complex formation 

(Verdel and others, 2007). A partially preserved and structurally 

juxtaposed Eocene succession of shallowly emplaced andesite, 

sandstone, and gypsiferous marl attest to the fact that extensional 

processes were active in the area during this time period. 

Furthermore, these rocks occur along a complex tectonic zone 

that includes post-Eocene collision-related deformation along 

right-lateral and reverse faults with horizontal block rotation and 

localized uplift (Verdel, Wernicke, Hassanzadeh, and others, 2011; 

Verdel, Wernicke, Ramezani, and others, 2007).

In the Yazd Terrane, middle and late Eocene submarine 

and subaerial basic to felsic volcano-sedimentary rocks, 

pyroclastics, and lesser lava flows were deposited under 

similar conditions to those in the Tabas and Lut Terranes. 

Early Eocene units are overlain by late Eocene volcanogenic 

successions that include greater volumes of trachybasalt to 

trachydacite, rhyolite, andesite, and dacite flows (Amidi and 

Michel, 1985). Exposed coeval plutonic rocks are scarce. 

However, in the structurally disrupted Kale-Kafi area near 

the tectonic boundary between the Yazd and Central Iranian 

Terranes, Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian metamorphic units 

and Paleocene latite, dacite, and andesite tuffs and lavas are 

intruded by monzogabbro, quartz syenite, muscovite pegmatite 

56 Ma) and biotite-hornblende granite porphyry (53 Ma) 

stocks and dikes with associated porphyry-style mineralization 

(Nezampour and Rasa, 2005). Middle Eocene volcanosedimentary and volcanic units with shoshonitic compositions 

that postdate the Kale-Kafi complex are widespread in the 

region (Ahmadian and others, 2009).

Further south along the boundary between the Yazd and 

Central Iranian Terranes, the Eocene section is exemplified by 

four volcano-sedimentary sequences that culminate with lava 

flows (Amidi and Michel, 1985). Flows in the first subaqueous 

sequence consist of alkaline mafic-intermediate lavas, the 

second subaerial and third subaqueous sequences include calcalkaline dacites and rhyolite lavas, and the fourth sequence 

is capped by alkaline lavas. Coeval intrusive rocks are not 

exposed.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 105

Nicosia

Beirut

Damascus

Amman Jerusalem

Baghdad

Tehran

Kuwait

Ashgabat

!

!

!

! !

!

!

!

!

JORDAN

SYRIA

AFGHANISTAN

TURKEY

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

IRAN

TURKMENISTAN

LEBANON

ISRAEL

CYPRUS

KUWAIT

CASPIAN SEA

PERSIAN

GULF

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic BeltUrumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt

Bitlis-Zagros Suture Bitlis-Zagros Suture

Maden

Helete

Alborz TerraneAlborz Terrane

Rafsanjan Basin 

Nain-Baft Basin 

40° E 60° E

35° N

30° N

40°E 60°E

40°N 

30°N 

20°N 

RED SEA

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

TURKEY

PAKISTAN

ARABIAN

SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 53.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 MILES

Geologic feature discussed in the text Kuh-Rig 

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9008

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Transform fault

Area of map

Figure 31. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—

Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

Central Iran

In the late Paleocene to late Eocene, central Iran 

experienced marked normal faulting, subsidence, and 

deposition of as much as 4-km-thick calc-alkaline, 

shoshonitic, and alkaline successions of mafic to felsic tuffs 

and lavas (Alavi, 1996; Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009). These 

rocks have major- and trace-element contents that indicate 

continental-arc to back-arc affinity (Chatroodi and others, 

2010; Verdel and others, 2011). The lavas are intercalated with 

shallow-water marine volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Karaj 

Formation, which unconformably overlie Paleocene and older 

units (Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006). On the southern flanks of 

the central Alborz Mountains, the Karaj Formation alternates 

with thick evaporitic deposits, indicating less subsidence and 

deposition in a coastal environment (Stöcklin, 1968).

As many as six different early to late Eocene phases of 

volcanic activity have been recognized in central Iran (Torabi, 

2009). Units consist of calc-alkaline rhyolite, tuff, and ignimbrite 

followed by mafic to felsic andesite, high-K andesite, dacite, 

rhyodacite, and rhyolite. An example of an Eocene section (Amidi 

and others, 1984; Omrani and others, 2008) includes, from bottom 

to top, (1) early Eocene alkaline trachybasaltic, trachyandesitic, 
106 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

shoshonitic, and trachytic lava flows interlayered with tufts and 

agglomerates capped by calc-alkaline rhyolitic lava flows; (2) 

middle Eocene gypsiferous marls, limestones, conglomerates 

and felsic tuffs; and (3) late Eocene calc-alkaline rhyodacitic 

ignimbrites overlain by alkaline intermediate lava flows, subaerial 

rhyolitic to rhyodacitic tuffs, and subaqueous calc-alkaline rhyolite 

and shoshonitic mafic to intermediate flows.

Northwestern Iran

The middle-late Eocene Helete island-arc and Maden backarc environments of eastern Turkey (see Anatolide-Tauride–

Eastern Turkey-Caucasus above) project into northwestern 

Iran (Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009; Agard and others, 2011), 

where they form part of the Khoy ophiolite-bearing accretionary 

complex (fig. 3). The Khoy complex includes Late Cretaceous 

oceanic crust with tholeiitic MORB (mid-ocean-ridge basalt; 

Pessagno and others, 2005) and back-arc (Azizi and Jahangiri, 

2008) signatures, and the complex is unconformably overlain 

by calc-alkaline island-arc pyroclastic units. This intraoceanicarc and back-arc setting that projects from eastern Turkey into 

northwestern Iran closed by the early Oligocene, and thus it 

contrasts with the extensional regime that prevailed into the 

Miocene further south in central Iran.

Western Iran

In western Iran, late Paleocene to middle Eocene 

extension-related back-arc magmatism propagated westwards 

onto the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane, partially overprinting the 

Late Cretaceous Border Folds Arc and associated Kermanshah 

ophiolite-bearing island-arc complex. Plutonic rocks include 

calc-alkaline granodiorites and granites (Niroomand and others, 

2011), syenogabbros, syenodiorites, and syenites (Agard and 

others, 2011; Leterrier, 1985) to more evolved high-K calcalkaline, slightly peraluminous monzogranites (Mazahri and 

others, 2011). No porphyry mineralization has been identified in 

this region. Reported mineralization of Eocene age consists instead 

of orogenic and (or) intrusion-related gold deposits (Aliyari and 

others, 2012; Moritz and others, 2006; Nezafati and others, 2005; 

Nezafati, 2006; Niroomand and others, 2011). These deposits 

were emplaced along ductile-brittle normal faults in an extensional 

regime that included cordilleran metamorphic core complex 

formation (Verdel and others, 2007).

Southeastern Iran

Similar to eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran, but in 

contrast to central Iran, southeastern Iran hosts two parallel 

belts of ophiolite complexes: the Neyriz belt along the Zagros 

Thrust that marks the suture between the Arabian Platform and 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes; and the Nain-Baft belt that marks the 

suture between the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian Terranes 

(fig. 3). The Late Cretaceous Neyriz ophiolitic complex (which 

correlates in time and character with the Kermanshah ophiolite 

complex in northwestern Iran) includes Late Cretaceous ultramafic 

rocks intruded by Paleocene-Eocene early gabbros and late 

calc-alkaline diorites and plagiogranites and associated volcanic 

and volcaniclastic rocks. Geochemical data show that these rocks 

have juvenile island-arc affinity (Babaie and others, 2001).

The Nain-Baft ophiolitic mélange (which correlates in time 

and character with the Khoy ophiolite complex in northwestern 

Iran) and associated basin to the rear consist of Late Cretaceous 

sedimentary rocks and Late Cretaceous to Paleocene 

ultramafic units, diabases, pillow lavas, andesites, dacites, and 

plagiogranites with diverse island-arc, tholeiite, oceanic island 

basalt (OIB), calc-alkaline, and within-plate geochemical 

signatures. These data are consistent with a back-arc setting 

(Arfania and Shahriari, 2009). These Late Cretaceous and 

Paleocene sedimentary and igneous rocks are unconformably 

overlain by Eocene shallow marine volcano-sedimentary 

successions, which are in turn unconformably covered by a 

younger Oligocene-Miocene sedimentary formation (Morley 

and others, 2009). Plutonic rocks emplaced in this OligoceneMiocene basin, which has been under compression since the late 

Miocene, are represented by the high-K calc-alkaline, partially 

porphyritic Kuh-e-Gabri and Kuh-e-Rig intrusions (fig. 30) 

(Shahabpour, 2005, 2007).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Porphyry copper systems have not been identified in the 

part of the Esfahan tract that lies in the highly exhumed SanandajSirjan Terrane. Late Cretaceous-Eocene mineralization is instead 

represented by relatively deep-seated orogenic and (or) intrusionrelated gold deposits that have been exposed to the surface by 

extensional structures (Moritz and others, 2006). In contrast, 

porphyry copper systems may have not been identified in the part 

of the Esfahan tract that lies in the Central Iranian Terrane, likely 

because they are concealed under shallowly emplaced volcanosedimentary and volcanic rocks. In this area, Late CretaceousEocene mineralization is represented by abundant more shallowly 

emplaced VMS and epithermal deposits (Förster, 1978; Geological 

Survey of Iran, 2012e) and also several subvolcanic possible 

Climax-type porphyry molybdenum occurrences (Geomatics 

Management, [n.d.]).

Late Cretaceous-Eocene plutonic rocks and associated 

porphyry prospects are more widely exposed in the part of the 

Esfahan tract in the Yazd Terrane, where post-Eocene tectonic 

events have variably uplifted and exhumed rocks along 

structural zones (fig. 30). Accordingly, Cu-Mo-W porphyry 

and skarn systems are preserved in this region (Samani, 1998; 

Nezampour and Razza, 2005).

The Esfahan tract includes 1 porphyry deposit (KaleKafi; table 2), 4 known porphyry and porphyry-related 

prospects (Chah Shureh, Khuni, Maranjab, and Sholugh 

Abad), 9 other possible porphyry-related occurrences located 

around the boundary between the Yazd and Central Iranian 

Terranes (the Anarag historic mining district, ChapalangSouth, Gorgab-4, Pyroozi, Sarajieh, Tallesiah, and Zah), and 

another 2 younger porphyry-related occurrences (Kuh-e-Gabri 

and Kuh-e-Rig) near the Kashmar-Kerman and Yazd Terrane 

boundary (appendix C, figs. 3, 30).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 107

Kale Kafi Porphyry Deposit

The Kale Kafi Cu-Mo-(Au-W) deposit has a reported 

resource of 245 Mt at 0.26 percent copper, 0.026 percent 

molybdenum, and 0.1 g/t gold (Singer and others, 2008). 

The deposit is centered on premineral monzogabbro, quartz 

syenite, and muscovite pegmatite (56 Ma) and synmineral 

biotite-hornblende granite porphyry (53 Ma) stocks and dikes. 

These intrude highly exhumed Proterozoic schist and marble 

and tectonically juxtaposed Cretaceous sedimentary units and 

Paleocene tuffs and lavas (Moghaddasi and Mohammadi, 2010; 

Nezampour and Razza, 2005; Ahmadian and others, 2009; 

Kirkham and Dunne, 2000). Mineralization occurs within a 

1,400- by 700-m zone of quartz stockwork with K-feldspar and 

weak biotite alteration. Early chalcopyrite and molybdenite 

in the central parts of the deposit give way to peripheral 

polymetallic fault-veins with a dominant north-south trend 

at the adjacent Khuni historic mine. In the central part of the 

deposit, the 10–15-m-thick oxidation zone is underlain by a 

supergene chalcocite enrichment zone that exhibits as much 

as 2–2.5 times the hypogene copper grade (Samani, 1998). 

At Kale Kafi, exposure of Precambrian basement, pegmatites, 

K-silicate alteration, and relatively molybdenum- and tungstenrich mineralization suggest preservation of deeper levels of a 

porphyry system that may have been emplaced on the margins 

of a microcontinent within the back-arc environment.

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects

The Yazd and Kashmar-Kerman Terranes host other 

relatively exhumed possible porphyry-related copper, 

molybdenum, and (or) tungsten-bearing vein and skarn prospects 

(Anarag, Chah Shureh, Chahpalang-South, Pyroozi). A porphyryrelated origin for the Andakhan Mo-bearing district (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 2012) located about 130 km south of Kale 

Kafi is less certain. To the west in the Central Iranian Terrane, 

Eocene volcanic and volcano-sedimentary back-arc rift rocks 

host shallower level Pb-Zn-Mo-(Cu-Ag-Au) vein prospects 

(Gorgab-4, Sarajieh, Sholugh Abad) with possible porphyry 

association (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012c, d). Other possible 

porphyry-related systems occur at Kuh-e-Gabri and Kuh-e-Rig 

in southeastern Iran. Here, plutons of reported post-Eocene age 

consist of high-K calc-alkaline to alkaline partially porphyritic 

granitoids and associated W-Mo skarns (Shahabpour, 2005, 

2007). At Kuh-e-Gabri, a granite and alkali granite intruded 

Late Cretaceous limestone and early Paleocene polygenetic 

conglomerates, producing contact metamorphism and formation 

of calcic skarn. The skarn consists of andradite- and hedenbergitedominated grandite and pyroxene, wollastonite, epidote, and 

vesuvianite (Abedpour and Tarrah, 2010).

Preservation Level

As derived from the geologic map of Iran (Huber, 1978), 

older basement and Late Cretaceous to late Eocene permissive 

units used to define the Esfahan tract (fig. 31) exhibit volcanic-toplutonic ratios that vary markedly between terranes. Tract areas 

occupied by older basement rocks contrast across the SanandajSirjan (about half of the tract), the East-Central (about one quarter 

of the tract), and the Central (about 5 percent of the tract) Iranian 

terranes. Late Cretaceous to late Eocene permissive volcanic and 

plutonic rocks exposures are small at about 10 percent of the tract 

area in the Sanandaj-Sirjan and East-Central Iranian Terranes, 

but they increase to about 20 percent in the volcanic-dominated 

Central Iranian Terrane. Conversely, nonpermissive coeval rocks 

exhibit subequal proportions of about 10–15 percent across 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan, East-Central Iranian, and Central Iranian 

Terranes. Younger cover rocks are relatively widespread, forming 

40–60 percent of the tract area across the entire Esfahan tract.

Overall, volcanic-to-plutonic ratios of permissive units 

imply that appropriate preservation levels for porphyry copper 

mineralization may only be locally present in the part of the tract 

in the highly exhumed Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane. In contrast, crustal 

preservation levels in the volcanic-dominated part of the tract in 

the Central Iranian Terrane are for the most part too shallow for 

porphyry copper mineralization. Exposure of porphyry systems in 

the part of the tract in the Central Iranian Terrane is further limited 

by the extent of younger cover. On the other hand, the variably 

tectonized part of the tract in the East-Central Iranian Terrane 

generally exposes deeper levels of preservation for porphyry 

systems that are, accordingly, richer in tungsten and molybdenum.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). 

Positive magnetic anomalies that likely are associated with 

Paleocene-Eocene extension-related magmatism are not readily 

obvious throughout the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian 

Terranes. On the contrary, the Esfahan tract appears instead to 

generally straddle negative magnetic lows that likely reflect 

Paleocene-Eocene and younger basins. In the Yazd Terrane, 

however, a discontinuous east-west positive anomaly bounds the 

northern side of the Cha Shureh-Kale Kafi-Tallesiah porphyry 

system trend (fig. 30). Its origin is uncertain, but ultramafic 

and mafic rocks associated with partially preserved ophiolitic 

complexes do occur in the area.

A relatively subdued but linear magnetic anomaly 

projects across the central part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane. 

This anomaly reflects magnetic sources under Early to Late 

Cretaceous carbonate rocks. These sources may be associated 

with the Eocene alkalic plutons that occur in the area.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars, 2014) available for 45 

percent of the part of the Esfahan tract in the Central Iranian 

Terrane were used to evaluate potential hydrothermal alteration 

that could be associated with unidentified porphyry systems 

in that part of the tract. ASTER data were not available for the 

parts of the Esfahan tract in the Yazd, Kashmar-Kerman, Tabas, 

and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes.
108 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Fifty-one ASTER-derived alteration zones were identified 

in the tract in the Central Iranian Terrane. Twelve are associated 

with Neogene and younger rocks, and two are spatially related 

to the possible porphyry-related prospects at Sholugh Abad and 

Sarajieh. Another seven coincide with volcanogenic massive 

sulfide prospects in the same part of the tract. Other ASTERderived alteration zones coincide in space with 3 gold, 3 iron, 

and 6 lead-zinc occurrences of possible Eocene age. The 

remaining 18 ASTER-derived alteration zones are not associated 

with any known mineral occurrences. Two occur in south-central 

Iran, but the rest are located in the volcanic-dominated part of 

the tract in the Central Iranian Terrane.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Kale Kafi, the only porphyry deposit known in the Esfahan 

tract, does not meet the classification criteria for a Cu-Mo subtype 

based on reported gold and molybdenum grades. The Cu-MoAu-W metal association at Kale Kafi and other porphyry-related 

prospects in this part of the tract suggests that these systems adhere 

more to the Cu-Mo descriptive and grade-tonnage porphyry models 

(Cox and others, 1986; Singer and others, 2008). However, Cu-Au 

prospects are also known. Pooled t-test results assuming equal 

variances further show that the only known deposit in the tract is 

not significantly different at the 1-percent level from tonnages and 

copper and molybdenum grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo 

model of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, the general model was 

selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and 

silver resources in this tract. Compared to the median deposit in the 

model, the Kale Kafi deposit exhibits comparable tonnage, higher 

molybdenum grade, and lower copper and gold grades.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Esfahan tract, geologic factors favorable for the 

occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits include (1) 

intraoceanic island arc(s), (2) permissive calc-alkaline to alkaline 

magmatism emplaced in large and rapidly evolving back-arc-rift 

basin, (3) likely accretion of island arcs onto microcontinental 

fragments and related more mature calc-alkaline magmatism, (4) 

associated Cu-Mo-(Au-W) porphyry deposits (for example, KaleKafi), (5) favorable environment for development of supergene 

enrichment, (6) appropriate levels of exposure preserved, however, 

only locally along structurally disrupted zones (for example, 

strike-slip faults), and (7) ASTER-derived potential hydrothermal 

alteration zones that could be associated with unidentified porphyry 

systems. Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) similar size but copper and gold (not 

molybdenum) grades in the only known deposit that are lower 

relative to the median porphyry deposit around the world and (2) 

high volcanic-to-plutonic ratios and extensive cover in the central 

Iranian segment and low volcanic-to-plutonic ratios in the SanandajSirjan segment of the tract, which indicate levels of preservation for 

porphyry copper mineralization that are not appropriate.

Overall, the low density of known porphyry deposits compared 

to that in other tracts of equivalent aerial extent elsewhere suggests 

that undiscovered deposits likely are present. However, limited 

exploration levels suggested by the low numbers of known porphyry 

occurrences in this variably preserved but otherwise favorable tract 

indicate high uncertainty expected in the estimation process.

It is worth noting that parts of the central Iranian segment 

of the tract may host shallowly buried undiscovered porphyry 

deposits. In some areas, the Eocene rock section is dominated by 

volcanic (as opposed to volcano-sedimentary) units that appear 

to be relatively thin as a result of crustal attenuation along normal 

faults. As suggested by ASTER-derived data, some of the numerous 

alteration zones (which appear otherwise centered mostly on highand low-sulfidation epithermal vein and VMS occurrences) in this 

region could conceivably be associated with underlying porphyry 

mineralization. Assuming comparable ratios of ASTER-derived 

alteration zones that coincide with known porphyry and other 

deposit-type occurrences of Eocene age, ASTER data suggest that 

perhaps two porphyry systems may remain to be identified in this 

part of the Esfahan tract. Furthermore, the tectonic environment 

represented by the Esfahan tract exhibits characteristics that are 

comparable to those of the adjacent Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern 

Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract, which contains the Çöpler Au-(Cu) and 

Agarak Cu-Mo-Au deposits.

The assessment team determined that the Esfahan tract 

was geologically favorable, but that estimates of numbers of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could be only carried out 

with high uncertainty. The tract would contribute significant copper 

resources from undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. 

Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this 

tract was completed. The consensus estimates for undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits in the Esfahan tract at the 90-, 50-, and 

10-percent probability levels and associated summary statistics 

are presented in table 8A. At the 90-percent probability level, all 

assessors felt that the likelihood of undiscovered deposits was 0. At 

the 50-percent probability level, the numbers ranged between 0 and 

3 undiscovered deposits, and at the 10-percent probability level the 

numbers increased to 8. On the basis of these numbers, the team 

reached a consensus estimate of 0, 2, and 8 undiscovered deposits 

for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively. This 

resulted in a mean of 3.95 undiscovered deposits with a standard 

deviation of 4.93 (Cv%=125), reflecting the level of favorability and 

high uncertainty assessed for this tract. The estimated total deposit 

density per 100,000 km2 obtained is comparable to the porphyry 

deposit density model of Singer and Menzie (2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, gold, 

silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are summarized 

in table 8B. The mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources 

in the Esfahan porphyry tract is 14 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo 

simulation are also presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 32). 

The cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities of 

occurrence-estimated resources and total mineralized rock, as well as 

the mean for each commodity and for total mineralized rock.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 109

Table 8. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 8 18 18 4.0 4.9 120 1 5.0 56,900 9

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 4,100,000 39,000,000 64,000,000 14,000,000 0.27 0.21

Mo 0 0 53,000 980,000 390,000 390,000 0.23 0.34

Au 0 0 78 1,100 380 380 0.25 0.32

Ag 0 0 470 12,000 21,000 4,800 0.21 0.4

Rock 0 0 910 8,000 14,000 2,900 0.28 0.21

Figure 32. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered resources 

in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; 

Tr, trillion.

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
110 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Khorasan Tract (142pCu9009)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper-gold (Cox, 1986b; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: Porphyry copper, copper-gold 

subtype (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene 

island arcs of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Khorasan tract located in northeastern Iran (fig. 33) 

delimits a 600-km-long and 150-km-wide island-arc volcanoplutonic belt of Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene age. It covers 

an area of 38,300 km2. The tract overlies the northeast extension 

of the Central Iranian Terrane that in the region separates the Lut 

Terrane along the left-lateral Great Kafir-Doruneh fault to the 

south and the Alborz and Kopet Dagh Terranes along the Shahrud 

south-vergent thrust fault system to the north, respectively (fig. 3).

Tectonic Setting

During the Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, the Lut 

and Kopet Dagh Terranes were separated by the Sabzevar 

Ocean (fig. 4C), which at that time was likely connected to 

the southeast with the Sistan Ocean (Golonka, 2004; Stöcklin, 

1968). The Sabzevar Ocean contained several small cratonic 

fragments that had rifted from the margins of the Kopet Dagh 

and Alborz Terranes during opening of this sea.

Between the Late Cretaceous and early Eocene, convergence 

was initiated along several north-dipping intraoceanic subduction 

zones (Desmons and Beccaluva, 1983; Delaloye and Desmons, 

1980) creating island-arc magmatism, which by late Eocene-early 

Oligocene time was well established (figs. 4D, E). Evolution of 

island-arc magmatism continued in the Oligocene and middle 

Miocene, and it was followed by accretion and initiation of uplift in 

the eastern Alborz and Kopet Dagh Terranes to the north, which until 

then had remained largely submerged (Dercourt and others, 1986). 

In the middle Miocene, ongoing convergence closed the Sabzevar 

Ocean, terminating island-arc magmatism and intensifying uplift and 

deformation in the Alborz and Kopet Dagh Terranes (fig. 4F). This 

far-field compressional event likely was linked to the final ArabiaEurasia continental collision that occurred along the Bitlis-Zagros 

Suture to the south (McQuarrie and others, 2003).

From the late Miocene to the present, dominantly southvergent thrusts and folds, followed by strike-slip faults developed 

in the Kopet Dagh, Alborz, and Central Iranian Terranes as a result 

of continued suturing and collision (Hollingsworth and others, 

2010). These terranes were then unconformably overlain by late 

Miocene and younger synorogenic sedimentary formations, as well 

as intruded and covered by alkaline plutonic and volcanic units.

Magmatism

The Khorasan tract of northeastern Iran delineates the Late 

Cretaceous to middle Miocene island-arc segments exposed 

along folded and thrust fault-bounded accretionary prisms that are 

separated by broad valleys. Precambrian to pre-Late Cretaceous 

metamorphic basement is preserved along several of these ranges, 

suggesting that microcontinental fragments occupied parts of this 

intraoceanic basin. Ophiolite-bearing accretionary complexes 

exhibit both MORB and island-arc geochemical signatures 

(Delaloye and Desmons, 1980; Shojaat and others, 2003) and host 

chromium and manganese, as well as younger porphyry, skarn, 

and epithermal, mineralization (Förster, 1978; Geological Survey 

of Iran, 2012e). From south to north, they occur along three main 

ranges (Taknar-Kashmar, Sabzevar, and Torud), which suggests 

the presence of as many associated island arcs (Samani, 1998; 

Berberian and Berberian, 1981). Permissive igneous units used 

to define the Khorasan tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 34, 

along with locations of igneous complexes and other geologic 

features mentioned in this section.

Precambrian to pre-Late Cretaceous metamorphic 

basement and ophiolitic complexes in the tract are overlain by 

Late Cretaceous-Eocene sedimentary, volcanic and volcanosedimentary successions, which consist of andesite to rhyolite 

lavas and tuffs intercalated with shallow-marine sedimentary units 

that are in turn intruded by shallowly emplaced mafic to felsic 

calc-alkaline and lesser alkaline plutons with juvenile and mixed 

isotopic signatures (Kazmin and others, 1986).

In the Taknar and Kashmar Ranges (fig. 2) along the southern 

part of the Khorasan tract, magmatism is exemplified by the 

east-west 50-km-long and 7-km-wide Eocene (~43 Ma) Kashmar 

batholith, which intrudes late Paleocene to broadly coeval middle 

Eocene andesite-dominated lavas and pyroclastic rocks (Soltani, 

2000). Younger Oligocene-Miocene tonalite, granodiorite, granite, 

and alkali granite intrusions are locally porphyritic, and they are 

cut by aplitic and dacitic dikes. These shallow-level oxidized 

I-type calc-alkaline phases exhibit initial Sr and Nd isotopic 

compositions that are consistent with derivation from a relatively 

juvenile source. Along fault contacts, the southern margin of this 

batholith is affected by sericite-pyrite, sphene, epidote, chlorite, 

and minor carbonate alteration (Soltani, 2000).

In the central part of the Khorasan tract between the 

Taknar and Kashmar Ranges to the south and the Sabzevar 

Range to the north (fig. 2), the middle-late Eocene Kuh Mish 

pluton (fig. 34) includes progressively younger granodiorite 

stocks and quartz monzodiorite and gabbro dikes, which 

intrude Late Cretaceous andesite and early Eocene volcanosedimentary rocks. These oxidized I-type calc-alkaline 

intrusions were emplaced at shallow levels. Compared to the 

Kashmar batholith, the Kuh Mish intrusions exhibit lower 

K2

O contents and more primitive isotopic signatures. Chlorite 

and actinolite are the main hydrothermal alteration products 

(Soltani, 2000). Eocene magmatism in this area was followed 

by Oligocene-Miocene calc-alkaline magmatism that included 

porphyritic intrusions (Spies and others, 1984).

In the Sabzevar Range along the northern part of the 

Khorasan tract, basaltic andesite to dacite and rhyolite plutons 

intrude ophiolitic complexes. These plutons were emplaced 

syntectonically during compressional shearing. U-Pb zircon and 

40Ar/39Ar geochronology constrains the age of these granitoids to 

the late Paleocene (~58 Ma). Geochemical data further indicate a 

subduction-related medium-K calc-alkaline compositional range 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 111

IRAN

TURKMENISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

!

Ashgabat

CASPIAN

SEA

Zarghan

Arghash Sorkh PeyHomeireh

Divandar

Neyshabur

Tannurjeh

Chah Musa

Halak Abad Kalateh Now

Chah Shirin

Kalateh Timour

Uchplang-Baharieh Kuh Zar Torbat-e-Heidarieh

55° E 60° E

38° N

34° N

50° E 70° E

50° N

30° N IRAN

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN

IRAQ

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 56.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9009

Porphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map

Figure 33. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—

Afghanistan and Iran. See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.
112 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 34. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9009, 

Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

Doruneh

Fault

Doruneh

Fault

Kashmar Range

Sabsevar and

Taknar areas

Sabzevar Range

CASPIAN

SEA

Kuh Mish

Taknar Range

Sharud FaultSharud Fault

Torud Range

Northern Neotethys SutureNorthern Neotethys Suture

Sangan

Sangan

IRAN

TURKMENISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

!

Ashgabat

55° E 60° E

38° N

34° N

50° E 70° E

50° N

30° N IRAN

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN

IRAQ

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 56.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9009

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 113

and crystallization from juvenile magmas derived from partial 

melting of an oceanic source (Rossetti and others, 2013).

In the Torud Range (fig. 2) in the western part of the 

Khorasan tract, middle Eocene volcano-sedimentary rocks are 

overlain by Eocene-Oligocene calc-alkaline and local alkaline 

volcanic rocks, which are interlayered with shallow marine, 

lacustrine and subaerial sedimentary successions. These 

successions are intruded by basic tholeiitic dikes and calc-alkaline 

quartz monzodioritic to granodioritic stocks with typical arc 

compositions (Samani, 1998; Shamanian and others, 2004). The 

aluminum content of hornblendes indicate shallow emplacement 

depths based on pressures between 0.5 and 1 kb (Ghorbani and 

others, 2005).

Known Porphyry Prospects

Mineralization in the Khorasan tract includes Late Cretaceous 

ophiolite-related Cr and Mg and Late Cretaceous-Eocene copper 

manto occurrences, a number of Eocene and Oligocene-Miocene 

precious and base-metal acid sulfate and adularia-sericite 

epithermal, as well as base-metal and iron skarn (IOCG), mines 

and prospects (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e). Porphyrystyle mineralization associated with several iron replacement and 

epithermal systems in the Taknar-Kashmar, Kuh Mish, and Torud 

ranges has only recently been recognized (Karimpour, 2007). In the 

Sabzevar Range, porphyry intrusions of uncertain origin and age 

are shown in the geologic map of Iran (Huber, 1978). A permissive 

porphyry copper setting has also been proposed (Geomatics 

Management, [n.d.]). However, no porphyry-style mineralization 

has positively been identified in this range.

Six Cu-Au porphyry (Argash, Halak Abad, Kalateh Now, 

Kalateh Timour, Tannurjeh, Uchplang-Baharieh), 1 Cu-Mo 

porphyry (Chah Shirin area [also known as Sar Kavir]), and 

4 possible porphyry-related prospects (Chah Mussa, Kuh Zar 

Torbat-e-Heidarieh, Neyshabur, Sorkh Pey-Homeireh) are 

included in the porphyry occurrence database compiled for 

this assessment (fig. 33; appendix C). In the Sabzevar Range, 

the Divandar and Zarghan copper prospects of uncertain origin 

are also tentatively included here as possible porphyry-related 

occurrences.

Tannurjeh and Uchplang-Baharieh Porphyry Prospects

The Tannurjeh and Uchplang-Baharieh Cu-Au-bearing 

porphyry and associated iron skarn prospects are located in the 

Taknar-Kashmar Range (Karimpour and Malekzadeh, 2006; 

Karimpour, 2006; Karimpour and Stern, 2011). At Tannurjeh, 

Eocene rhyolite, dacite, rhyodacite, and minor andesite are intruded 

by Oligocene-Miocene meta-aluminous, I-type monzonite, quartz 

monzonite, and diorite, as well as quartz diorite-granodiorite, 

porphyry stocks. Gold and minor copper mineralization occurs with 

iron oxides and hydroxides in well-developed advanced argillic 

alteration, which is characterized by kaolinite, alunite, and vuggy 

silica. Hypogene mineralization consists of pyrite and chalcopyrite 

in hydrothermal breccias and quartz veins with anomalous gold, 

copper, and molybdenum. Quartz veins contain primary fluid 

inclusions with high homogenization temperatures in the range of 

320–490 degrees Celsius (°C; Saadat and others, 2007). The acid 

sulfate environment is part of a porphyry system (Karimpour and 

Stern, 2011). At Uchplang-Baharieh about 12 km to the south of 

Tannurjeh, broad argillic alteration zones and anomalous gold and 

copper values for monzonite to quartz monzonite porphyry stocks 

also indicate the presence of a Cu-Au porphyry system (Karimpour, 

2006; Karimpour and Stern, 2011).

Kalateh Timour Porphyry Prospect

The Kalateh Timour Cu-Au-bearing porphyry prospect 

in the Taknar-Kashmar Range is located in an old goldsilver base-metal mining district. Here, several quartz diorite 

and quartz monzodiorite porphyry stocks were emplaced 

along a west-northwest structural trend and intrude lower to 

middle Eocene basalts, andesites, latites, trachytes, dacitesrhyodacites, and associated pyroclastic rocks (Alaminia 

and others, 2011). Well-developed propylitic, sericitic, and 

argillic alteration are accompanied by quartz stockwork zones 

containing as much as 3 percent sulfides that are variably 

replaced by secondary iron oxides. Preliminary geochemical 

sampling indicates that the highest gold and copper values 

occur in the porphyry intrusions (Alaminia and others, 2011).

Halak Abad, Arghash, and Kalateh Now Porphyry Prospects

The Halak Abad, Argash, and Kalateh Now Cu-Aubearing porphyry prospects occur in the Kuh Mish Range 

located between the Taknar-Kashmar Range to the south 

and the Sabzevar Range to the north. During the Eocene this 

area was characterized by extension-related calc-alkaline 

to alkaline magmatism associated with intra-arc rifting and 

caldera-forming events (Soltani, 2000).

In the Halak Abad porphyry and associated acid-sulfate 

epithermal prospect (Panahi Shahri and others, 2010), a 

monzonite porphyry stock hosts disseminated and quartzpyrite-(chalcopyrite) stockworks associated with abundant 

kaolinite-pyrophyllite and alunite alteration. Hematite and 

jarosite after sulfide are widespread. Panahi Shahri and others 

(2010) report the presence of a Cu-Au porphyry system at 

depth.

At the Arghash porphyry and associated acid-sulfate 

epithermal prospect, a late Eocene-Oligocene quartz diorite 

to monzonite porphyry stock intrudes Eocene volcanic rocks 

that are intensively altered by argillic, sericitic, and propylitic 

mineral associations (Gholami and others, 2011). The presence 

of a porphyry stock, alteration types, and copper- and goldbearing quartz stockworks are consistent with porphyrystyle mineralization (Karimi Saeed Abadi and others, 2009; 

Alirezaei and others, 2009).

In contrast to the Halak Abad and Arghash porphyry 

prospects that are associated with high-sulfidation systems, 

the Kalateh Now porphyry copper prospect is associated 

with a low-sulfidation epithermal system. At Kalateh Now, 

the kaolin-rich alteration zone occurs about subvolcanic 

monzonitic intrusions with associated porphyry-style 

mineralization (Kolahdani, 2009).
114 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Chah Shirin Porphyry-Related Prospect

The Chah Shirin Cu-Mo-bearing porphyry prospect has 

a reported 3,500 Mt with copper grades in excess of 2 percent 

(Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a; Samani, 1998). It is located 

in the Torud Range, which besides epithermal systems also 

hosts proximal Fe-Cu-Au skarn and distal base-metal carbonatereplacement mineralization. Little is known about the Chah Shirin 

prospect. However, it occurs in the vicinity of the well-described 

Gandy and Abolhassani precious and base-metal epithermal 

district (Shamanian and others, 2004). About 15 km north of the 

Gandy and Abolhassani epithermal district, placer gold is the 

product of weathering of nearby quartz sulfide veins hosted by 

andesitic volcanic rocks. The presence of tourmaline in the wall 

rocks of these veins may indicate proximity to a porphyry system 

(Chah Shirin?).

Intrusions are also present in the late Eocene Gandy and 

Abolhassani intermediate-sulfidation Au-Ag-Pb-Zn-Cu epithermal 

deposits (Shamanian and others, 2004; Ziaii and others, 2009, 

2010). These deposits are hosted by thin-bedded middle Eocene 

siltstones and sandstones, lapilli tuffs, volcanic breccias, and 

intermediate lava flows that exhibit typical arc signatures. These 

units are intruded by rhyolitic to rhyodacitic domes, hypabyssal 

monzodiorite and quartz monzonite stocks, and granitic dikes of 

Eocene or younger age.

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects

Other possible porphyry-related prospects may be present 

at (1) the Sorkh Pey-Homeireh copper district in the Kuh Mish 

Range (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a; Bazin and Hübner, 

1969a), (2) the Cha-Mussa polymetallic vein deposit in the Torud 

Range (Bastani and others, 2009; Geological Survey of Iran, 

2012a; Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; Imamjomeh and others, 2009), 

(3) the iron skarn deposits at Kuh-e-Zar-Torbat-e-Heidarieh 

(Karimpour, 1998; Abedi and Ziaii, 2004; Mazloumi and others, 

2008; Mazloumi Bajestani and Rasa, 2010) and Sangan (Ghavi 

and Karimpour, 2010; Malekzadeh Shafaroudi, Karimpour, and 

Golmohammadi, 2013; Boomeri and others, 2006; Boomeri, 

Ishiyama, and others, 2010; Karimpour and Malekzadeh, 2006) in 

the Taknar-Kashmar Range; and (4) perhaps also the Neyshabour 

Cu-U historic mining district east of the Sabzevar Range (Förster, 

1978; Karimpour and others, 2012; Geological Survey of Iran, 

2012a; Bazin and Hübner, 1969a). The relation to porphyry-style 

mineralization has not been established in these epithermal and 

iron skarn (IOCG?) mineral systems, but all contain calc-alkaline 

to alkaline porphyry intrusions and associated copper-gold 

mineralization.

At the Sorkh Pey-Homeireh copper district, a quartz 

porphyry stock is reported to intrude Late Cretaceous or younger 

andesite. Associated pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralization occurs 

in quartz veins and disseminations (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a). 

An extensive 20- by 20-km ASTER-derived phyllic and argillic 

alteration zone occurs in this area (Mars, 2014).

At the Cha Mussa Cu-(Pb-Zn) vein deposit, located only 

about 35 km to the northeast of Cha Shirin, a calc-alkaline 

subvolcanic porphyry biotite-hornblende andesite-dacite stock 

intrudes Eocene volcanic-pyroclastic sequences (Imamjomeh 

and others, 2009). Stockwork mineralization occurs in the 

western part of the area and polymetallic veins occupy the 

eastern part of the area. In the western part, disseminated and 

veinlet copper mineralization is associated with phyllic and 

propylitic alteration. Mineralization consists of hypogene 

pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite and secondary chalcocite, 

covellite, digenite, malachite, and neotocite (Imamjomeh and 

others, 2009). Drilling has identified a malachite-rich interval 

with greater than 3 percent copper at a depth of 20–80 m 

(Bastani and others, 2009; Ziiai and others, 2009; Imamjomeh 

and others, 2009).

In the Kuh-e-Zar Torbat-e-Heidarieh iron skarn deposit, 

Oligocene-Miocene porphyritic granite, granodiorite, 

syenogranite, and monzonite intrude late Eocene andesitedacite-rhyolite. Geochemical data on these intrusions show 

I-type metaluminous, medium to high-K calc-alkaline 

compositions consistent with derivation from a subduction 

zone (Abedi and Ziaii, 2004). Fault-controlled specularitequartz-gold-chlorite±chalcopyrite±pyrite±galena±barite 

mineralization occurs in veins, stockworks, and hydrothermal 

breccias (Mazloumi Bajestani and Rasa, 2010).

In the easternmost part of the Taknar-Kashmar Range, the 

Sangan iron skarn deposit contains one of the largest resources 

in Iran with 600 Mt at greater than 45 percent iron (Ghavi and 

Karimpour, 2010). The deposit lies to the south of the Doruneh 

Fault, possibly on a southward-thrust nappe. At Sangan, upper 

Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are intruded by late Eocene 

biotite-hornblende quartz monzonite to syenogranite porphyry 

stocks and dikes that introduced local copper mineralization 

(Malekzadeh Shafaroudi and others, 2013; Boomeri and 

others, 2006; Boomeri and others, 2010a).

The Neyshabur mining district (Geological Survey 

of Iran, 2012a) is described as a Cu-U vein system hosted 

by Eocene andesitic and dacitic rocks. Turquoise has been 

mined for centuries in the area (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a). 

At Neyshabur, andesite-dacite and pyroclastic rocks are 

intruded by a subvolcanic magnetite-series diorite to syenite 

porphyry intrusion. Förster (1978) further indicates the 

presence of post-early Miocene latite-andesite, rhyolitic 

ignimbrite, and granodiorite porphyry intrusions. At 

Neyshabur, strong silicification and argillization and weak 

carbonate and propylitic alteration are recognized (Karimpour 

and others, 2012). Mineralization is present in stockworks, 

disseminations, and hydrothermal breccias. Hypogene 

minerals are pyrite, magnetite, specularite, chalcopyrite, 

and bornite. Secondary minerals are turquoise, chalcocite, 

covellite, and iron oxides. Highly anomalous copper, gold, 

zinc, arsenic, molybdenum, cobalt, uranium, light rare earth, 

niobium, and thorium values occur in the broad 80-m-thick 

gossan zone (Karimpour and others, 2012).

No porphyry-style mineralization has positively been 

identified in the Sabzevar Range. However, possible porphyryrelated mineralization may occur at the Divandar and Zarghan 

copper prospects (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a), where 

porphyritic granite intrusions are reported by Huber (1978).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 115

Preservation Level

The Khorasan tract delimits the extent of island-arc segments 

preserved in accretionary prisms that are exposed along ranges. 

It does not include any segments that may be buried under 

younger cover rocks that are likely more than 1 km thick across 

large parts of the broad intervening basins. Several acid-sulfate 

systems above known porphyry prospects in the tract indicate 

shallow levels of preservation. In general, this is also shown by 

the high ratio of permissive volcanic-to-plutonic units ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100=89) in the tract. As derived from the 

1:1,000,000-scale map of Huber (1978), pre-Late Cretaceous 

basement rocks constitute about 12 percent of the tract area, about 

half of which consist of metamorphic units of Jurassic or older 

age, and Late Cretaceous to middle Miocene permissive plutonic 

and volcanic units occupy 2 and 15 percent, respectively, of the 

tract area. Broadly coeval nonpermissive mafic, sedimentary, and 

volcano-sedimentary units account for a further 21 percent of the 

tract (fig. 34), whereas younger rocks cover the large remaining 

fraction (50 percent) of the tract. Overall, preservation level data 

suggest that undiscovered porphyry copper systems are partly 

concealed under permissive volcanic units and (or) largely buried 

under younger cover rocks.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). 

In this region, positive magnetic anomalies generally coincide 

with ophiolitic belts and tectonically juxtaposed island-arc rocks. 

Porphyry and porphyry-related occurrences identified in this tract 

lie along the margins of high-intensity magnetic anomalies.

A conspicuous magnetic high projects beyond the tract 

boundary to the southwest along the north side of the Great KafirDoruneh Fault (fig. 2), which marks the boundary between the 

Central Iranian and the Yazd Terranes (fig. 3). This suggests that 

the accretionary prism exposed in the Taknar and Kashmar Ranges 

(fig. 2) continues under cover to the southwest for about 450 km 

along this tectonic boundary. Beyond the tract boundary to the 

east, this anomaly also extends well into Afghanistan. Similarly, 

other more subdued parallel anomalies project from the Sabzevar 

and Torud Ranges (fig. 2) across central Iran to the southwest. 

They eventually abut the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (fig. 2). 

These magnetic signatures are interpreted to be reflecting deeply 

buried southwestward extensions of the accretionary prisms that 

are exposed in the Sabzevar and Torud Ranges.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars, 2014) available for the 

Torud and Sabzevar Ranges in the western and northern parts 

(55 percent) of the Khorasan tract were used to evaluate 

potential hydrothermal alteration that could be associated 

with unidentified porphyry systems in this part of the tract. 

Out of the 21 ASTER-derived alteration zones identified, 2 

are underlain by Jurassic or Paleozoic rocks, 15 are associated 

with permissive Late Cretaceous-middle Miocene rocks, and 

4 are related to younger Pliocene-Holocene rocks. Of the 17 

ASTER alteration zones that occur in middle Miocene and 

older units, 11 are spatially associated with known precious 

and base-metal districts that are or may be porphyry-related 

(Neyshabur [2 zones], Sorkh Pey [4 zones], and Chah Shirin 

[5 zones]). The nature of the remaining 6 ASTER-derived 

alteration zones is not known. However, 2 are proximal to 

known barite and phosphate occurrences, and another 3 lie 

in an area dominated by Pliocene-Holocene igneous rocks. 

Hence, ASTER data in the western and northern part of the 

Khorasan tract suggest the existence of perhaps one site of 

potential hydrothermal alteration that could be associated with 

an unidentified porphyry system of Late Cretaceous to middle 

Miocene age. The most extensive ASTER-derived alteration 

zone (20- by 20-km) in the Khorasan tract occurs over the 

Sorkh Pey district.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

There were no resource data on any of the prospects in 

the Khorasan tract. Hence, a pooled t-test assuming equal 

variances could not be run. However, the oceanic island-arc 

environment and dominant Cu-Au association reported from 

most porphyry-related prospects in this region suggest that 

these adhere to the Cu-Au descriptive and grade-tonnage 

models (Cox and others, 1986; Singer and others, 2008). Thus, 

the porphyry Cu-Au model of Singer and others (2008) was 

selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this tract.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry deposits in the Khorasan tract include 

(1) two or more intraoceanic island arcs, (2) protracted 

(albeit independent from arc to arc) alkaline and calc-alkaline 

magmatism, and (3) shallow levels of preservation hosting 

epithermal acid-sulfate and associated Cu-Au porphyry 

copper mineralization. Unfavorable geologic factors for the 

occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits include (1) 

smaller than average arc size(s) largely built on thin oceanic 

crust, (2) arc segments likely buried under cover, and (3) no 

known porphyry deposits with reported resources.

Overall, the lack of known porphyry deposits compared 

to tracts of equivalent aerial extent elsewhere suggests that 

undiscovered deposits are likely present. Furthermore, the 

moderate number of porphyry-related occurrences identified 

to date appears consistent with early-stage exploration efforts 

for porphyry systems in this shallowly preserved but otherwise 

relatively favorable tract.

The assessment team established that the Khorasan tract 

was geologically favorable but that estimates of numbers 

of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could be only 
116 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

carried out with high uncertainty. The tract would contribute 

significant copper resources from undiscovered deposits to 

the overall assessment. Therefore, quantitative assessment 

of undiscovered deposits in this tract was warranted. 

Table 9A shows the consensus estimates for undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits in the Khorasan tract at the 90-, 

50-, and 10-percent probability levels and the associated 

summary statistics. At the 90-percent probability level, all 

assessors estimated that there were no undiscovered deposits. 

At the 50-percent probability level, the numbers ranged 

between 1 and 2, and at the 10-percent probability level, the 

numbers increased to between 2 and 7. On the basis of these 

numbers, the team reached a consensus estimate of 0, 2, 

and 5 undiscovered deposits at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively. This resulted in a mean of 

2.53 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 2.42 

(Cv%=96), reflecting the level of favorability and relatively 

high uncertainty assessed for this tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, 

molybdenum, gold, silver, and the total volume of 

mineralized rock are summarized in table 9B. The mean 

estimate of undiscovered copper resources in the Khorasan 

porphyry tract is 8.1 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo 

simulation are also presented as cumulative frequency plots 

(fig. 35). The cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative 

probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources and total 

mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each commodity 

and for total mineralized rock.

Makran Tract (142pCu9011)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; 

Berger and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Eocene 

island arcs of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Makran tract (fig. 36) located in southeastern Iran 

delimits an arcuate, 420-km-long and as much as 110-km-wide 

east-west subduction-related island-arc volcano-plutonic belt 

of Late Cretaceous to late Eocene age. It covers an area of 

24,100 km2. The tract lies within the Makran Terrane, which 

is one of the largest accretionary prisms on Earth. The Makran 

tract is bounded on the east by the Sistan suture zone along 

the Nostratabad Fault. On the west, it is separated from the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane along the right-lateral Minab-Zendan 

Fault system, which marks the southern end of the BitlisZagros Thrust. Its northern part is delimited by younger cover 

in the Jaz Murian Depression, which is in turn bordered on the 

north by the Lut Terrane.

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism

The evolution of magmatism in the Makran Terrane has 

progressed by northward subduction of the Arabian Platform 

under the Lut Terrane (Farhoudi and Karig, 1977) with temporal 

variations in slab dip (Shahabpour, 2010). From the Middle 

Jurassic to the early Paleocene, a steep-dip slab produced a 

continental arc in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane. This arc continues 

into the Makran Terrane where it is preserved in the BajganDurkan continental sliver that is wedged between the Jaz Murian 

Depression to the north and the Makran accretionary prim to the 

south (McCall, 1997; Shahabpour, 2010; Leturmy and Robin, 

2010; Kazmin and others, 1986).

In the Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene, continued 

subduction initiated an extensional back-arc basin north 

of the Bajgan-Durkan continental sliver in the Jaz Murian 

Depression. Back-arc magmatism is represented by Late 

Cretaceous tholeiitic ocean floor and calc-alkaline islandarc rocks. This back-arc and intraoceanic island-arc setting 

was part of the inner sea that connected with the Sistan and 

Sabzevar Oceans to the east and north around the East-Central 

Iranian Terrane. The setting is characterized by basalts and 

volcano-sedimentary successions with minor andesite and 

dacite-rhyolite dikes and associated VMS deposits (Geological 

Survey of Iran, 2012e; Förster, 1978) preserved in deformed 

ophiolite mélanges. In the Jaz Murian Depression, these rocks 

are largely covered by younger sedimentary formations.

To the south of the Bajgan-Durkan continental sliver, 

late Paleocene and Eocene subduction of a moderate-dip slab 

in the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch (fig. 4D) caused 

the active trench to progressively move seaward leading to 

the emplacement of ophiolite mélanges along the growing 

fore-arc region (Shahabpour, 2010). These fore-arc rocks 

are represented by Late Cretaceous marine sediments and 

tholeiitic ocean floor basalts and associated economic chromite 

deposits. Also present are Eocene mafic to intermediate 

plutons with island-arc signatures, which are preserved in 

imbricated south-vergent thrust sheets in the accretionary 

prism (McCall, 1997). Arc accretion continued during the late 

Eocene (fig. 4E) with uplift and unconformable deposition 

of thick synorogenic flysch successions (Berberian and 

Berberian, 1981; Berberian and King, 1981; Boulin, 1991).

The Makran accretionary prism continues to the east, 

where it underlies much of southern Pakistan and is dominated 

by sedimentary rocks (Golonka, 2004; Platt and others,1985; 

Kazmi and Rana, 1982; Farhoudi and Karig, 1977).

The Makran tract delineates the Late Cretaceous-early 

Paleocene back-arc events that developed in the Jaz Murian 

Depression behind the Bajgan-Durkan continental sliver, as 

well as the late Paleocene-late Eocene island-arc and fore-arc 

events that occurred in front of the Bajgan-Durkan continental 

sliver. Permissive igneous units used to define the Makran 

tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 37, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned 

in this section.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 117

Table 9. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran.

Figure 35. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran. k, thousand; 

M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 5 8 8 2.5 2.4 96 0 2.5 38,300 7

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 2,600,000 22,000,000 37,000,000 8,100,000 0.25 0.2

Mo 0 0 1,800 120,000 260,000 47,000 0.19 0.47

Au 0 0 230 1,600 2,500 580 0.29 0.2

Ag 0 0 360 5,600 12,000 2,600 0.19 0.4

Rock 0 0 590 4,500 7,800 1,600 0.26 0.2

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
118 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Shir Kuh

Mahallaty2

ARABIAN SEA

IRAN

57° E 60° E

28° N

26° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

ARABIAN SEA

IRAN AFGHANISTAN

SAUDI ARABIA

PAKISTAN

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 59° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9011

Porphyry copper prospect

Area of map

Figure 36. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9011, Makran—Iran. 

See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 119

Figure 37. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract142pCu9011, 

Makran—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

Bazman 

Bajgan–Durkan SliverBajgan–Durkan Sliver

Taftan

Minab-Zendan Fault

Nostratabad Fault

Bitlis-Zagros Suture

IRAN

ARABIAN SEA

Jaz Murian Depression Jaz Murian Depression

Bazman 

57° E 60° E

28° N

26° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

ARABIAN SEA

AFGHANISTAN

SAUDI ARABIA

PAKISTAN

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 59° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Transform fault

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9011

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Area of map
120 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

In the Oligocene and Miocene, subduction-related 

magmatism was replaced by extension, subsidence, and 

deposition of shallow marine sedimentary rocks. In the 

Pliocene, renewed subduction with a very shallow slab dip 

(2.3–5.7°; Platt and others, 1985) developed to the south, 

forming a continental arc that is presently being built inland 

across the southern parts of the Lut, Chagai-Darirod, and 

Helmand Terranes. This continental arc includes the Pliocene 

to Holocene Bazman, Taftan, and Koh-i-Sultan volcanic 

edifices (see Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract below). 

In the fore-arc region of this young arc, thick successions of 

synorogenic molasses continue to be deposited concurrently 

with uplift, folding, thrusting, and erosion. A 4-km-thick 

sedimentary section overlies the present-day subduction trench 

located 150 km offshore in the Arabian Sea.

Porphyry-Related Prospects

The Makran region hosts placer gold, copper-bearing 

VMS, and ophiolite-related chromium deposits. However, 

no porphyry systems have positively been identified to date 

in this otherwise permissive island-arc setting (Walther, 

1960; Samani, 1998; Förster, 1978; Shahabpour, 2010; Bazin 

and Hübner, 1969a). As in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane to 

the west, Late Cretaceous-late Eocene igneous rocks in this 

fold-and-thrust belt appear deeply exhumed. As derived from 

the geologic map of Huber (1978), permissive units amount 

to 10 percent of the tract area and are composed of plutonic 

rocks only. Broadly coeval nonpermissive units constitute 

44 percent, and younger rocks cover 41 percent of the 

tract area. Thus, relatively deep erosion coupled with thick 

intervening synorogenic and younger sedimentary cover 

may be responsible for limiting appropriate preservation 

and exposure levels for porphyry systems. Based on reports 

of copper occurrences that are spatially associated with 

subvolcanic porphyry intrusions (Geological Survey of Iran, 

2012a; Huber, 1978; Walther, 1960; Shahabpour, 1999), 

two copper-bearing prospects that may be porphyry-related 

(Mahallaty2 and Shir Kuh (Makran) are tentatively included 

in this tract (see appendix C; fig. 36).

Qualitative Assessment

The occurrence of porphyry copper deposits is permissive 

in this relatively long-lived calc-alkaline to alkaline multiple 

island-arc setting. However, factors that considerably diminish 

favorability for occurrence of porphyry copper mineralization 

include deep levels of preservation and extensive cover. 

This is supported by the very low permissive unit {volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 3, a low permissive unit 

proportion (10 percent of the tract area; fig. 37), and relatively 

high percentage of younger cover rocks (41 percent). The 

absence of identified porphyry prospects not only argues in 

favor of inappropriate preservation and (or) exposure levels 

but also limited exploration for porphyry systems in this 

region (McCall, 1997). Despite the permissive geology, the 

assessment team felt that the favorability was too low to 

add significant undiscovered copper resources to the overall 

assessment (less than a 10-percent chance of 1 undiscovered 

deposit). Therefore, quantitative assessment of the Makran 

tract was not warranted.

Eocene to Miocene Tracts

The six Eocene to Miocene permissive tracts are shown 

in figure 7. A probabilistic assessment of undiscovered 

resources was conducted for all six tracts (the Lut Tertiary, the 

Sistan, the Chagai, the Azerbaijan, the Yazd, and the Kerman 

tracts).

Lut Tertiary Tract (142pCu9010)

Descriptive model: Porphyry copper-gold (Cox, 1986b; 

Berger and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: Porphyry copper, copper-gold 

subtype (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Middle Eocene to lower Miocene 

island to continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic 

Belt

Location

The Lut Tertiary tract located in eastern Iran delimits a 

north-northeast–south-southwest 700-km-long and as much 

as 250-km-wide subduction-related magmatic arc of middle 

Eocene to early Miocene age. It covers an area of 56,300 km2

within the Lut Terrane and small parts of the easternmost 

Tabas Terrane (fig. 38). The Lut Terrane is delimited by the 

right-lateral Nayband Fault system, which marks the boundary 

with the Tabas Terrane to the west. To the east, the Lut Terrane 

is bounded by the right-lateral Nehbandan Fault system, which 

separates it from the Sistan Terrane (fig. 3). The northern and 

southern limits of the Lut Terrane occur along the left-lateral 

Doruneh Fault on the north and the Jaz Murian Depression of 

the Makran Terrane on the south, respectively.

Tectonic Setting

Middle Eocene to early Oligocene convergence between 

India, Afghanistan, and the East-Central Iranian Terranes with 

Eurasia (fig. 4E) initiated closure of the Sistan Ocean (Golonka, 

2004), as well as associated subduction and concurrent ±90-degree 

counterclockwise rotation of the East-Central Iranian Terrane 

(Dercourt and others, 1986). As a result of rotation, the present 

eastern border of the Lut Terrane represents the Lut Terrane’s 

former southern margin. Structural relations present in deformed 

accretionary units of the Sistan Terrane suggest that convergence 

occurred along a two-sided east- and west-vergent subduction 

zone between the Lut and Afghanistan Terranes (Arjmandzadeh 

and others, 2011b), or alternatively, a single initially north-vergent 

subduction zone that is now folded and faulted on itself (Golonka, 

2004). The latter scenario is supported by regional fold patterns 

observed in satellite imagery.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 121

Figure 38. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran. 

See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Kajeh

Shadan

Deh-Salm

Aghol-Kuh

Maher Abad Sheik Abad

Hamid Abad

Kal Firuzeh

Chah Shalgami

Kuh-Robat-e-Shur

Sar Chah Shur

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

Birjand !

! Gonabad

! Ferdows

55° E 60° E

33° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N 

20° N 

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

IRAQ

RUSSIA

PAKISTAN

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

AFGHANISTAN

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009)

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic projection

Central meridian, 57.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract

 142pCu9010

Porphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map

Magmatism

Deposition of widespread Paleocene-early Eocene backarc volcanism (Karimpour and others, 2011b) associated with 

the Border Folds and (or) the Lut Cretaceous arc-building 

events was followed by an evolving middle Eocene to early 

Miocene island to continental-arc setting emplaced along the 

eastern margin of the Lut Terrane. Middle Eocene to early 

Miocene subduction-related magmatism on the Lut Terrane 

(fig. 3) persisted until the collision between the East-Central 

Iranian and the Farah Terranes (fig. 4E, F) in the middle 

Miocene (Golonka, 2004). Volcanic rocks associated with 

this event are preserved to the west, whereas both volcanic 

and plutonic rocks are exposed in the arcuate thrust-bounded 

accretionary prism to the east. Permissive igneous units used 

to define the Lut Tertiary tract (appendix B) are shown in 

figure 39, along with locations of igneous complexes and other 

geologic features mentioned in this section.

The middle Eocene early stage of this volcano-plutonic event 

is represented by high-K calc-alkaline and alkaline basaltic and 

dacitic volcanic rocks and the 42-Ma Cu-(Au)-bearing syenite 

porphyry stock at Kuh-e-Robat-Shur (fig. 38). These rocks exhibit 

primitive island-arc affinities and are capped by ignimbritic 

deposits (Karimpour and others, 2011b).

The late Eocene intermediate stage is represented by 

subduction-related high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic mafic to 

intermediate volcanism and plutonism. Several intrusive stocks 

with associated porphyry Cu-Au mineralization form part of 

this event (Malekzadeh and others, 2010). These include the 

40–37-Ma Maher Abad, Shadan, Sar Chah Shur, and Sheik 

Abad porphyry and related acid-sulfate prospects about 50 km 

southwest of the town of Birjand (fig. 38) and the Najmabad 

barren monzonite porphyry stock (fig. 39) southeast of the town 

of Gonabad (Karimpour and others, 2011b; Richards and others, 

2012; Malekzadeh Shafaroudi and others, 2009b; Karimpour and 

Moradi Noghondar, 2010).
122 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 39. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9010, Lut 

Tertiary—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

Birjand !

! Gonabad

! Ferdows

Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Najmabad

Bitlis-Zagros SutureBitlis-Zagros Suture

Doruneh FaultDoruneh Fault

Klateh Ahani

55° E 60° E

34° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

IRAQ

RUSSIA

PAKISTAN

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

AFGHANISTAN

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 57.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper tract

 142pCu9010

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Geologic feature discussed 

 in the text

Najmabad

Area of map

The early Oligocene late stage consists of high-K calcalkaline volcano-plutonic activity represented by the 34–33-

Ma- Deh-Salm and Cha-Shaljami (fig. 38) Cu-Mo-Au diorite to 

quartz monzonite porphyry prospects (Karimpour and others, 

2011b), and the Kajeh (fig. 38) diorite to monzonite porphyry 

Cu-Au-Mo prospect (Karimpour and others, 2008). Geochemical 

data indicate that these magmas originated above a subduction 

zone and that assimilation of crustal materials was not significant 

(Arjmandzadeh and others, 2011b). These intrusions were 

emplaced before the onset of uplift and erosion associated with 

the collision between the East-Central Iranian and Farah Terranes, 

given that igneous or sedimentary rocks of late Oligocene to 

middle Miocene age are generally not preserved on the Lut 

Terrane (Huber, 1978; Richards and others, 2012). These rocks 

were likely deposited, but largely eroded, during the pronounced 

and combined compressional events related to the middle to late 

Miocene final collision between the Lut and Farah, and Arabian 

Platform, and Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes.

Known Porphyry Prospects

Porphyry copper and precious and base-metal epithermal 

systems are associated with middle Eocene to early Miocene 

magmatism in the Lut Terrane (Geological Survey of Iran, 

2012e; Förster, 1978; Karimpour and Stern, 2011). However, 

known porphyry copper mineralization is of middle Eocene to 

early Oligocene age. Ziaii and others (2007) propose two northnorthwest–south-southeast-trending metallogenetic zones in the 

Lut Terrane. The eastern zone is characterized by Cu-dominated 

systems, whereas the western zone is characterized by Pb-Zndominated mineralization. This metallogenic pattern has been 

interpreted to represent a proximal Cu-bearing arc over a westdipping subduction zone and a distal Pb-Zn-bearing back arc 

behind the arc. Within the Cu-dominated belt, a secular evolution 

from Cu-Au to Cu-Mo porphyry systems (Arjmandzadeh and 

others, 2011a) is supported by geochemical data that indicate 

progressive arc maturity from an island to a continental-arc 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 123

setting over time (Richards and others, 2012). No resource data 

are reported on the 10 positively identified porphyry prospects 

in the tract (appendix C; fig. 38), because exploration for 

porphyry copper deposits in the Lut Terrane is in its initial stages 

(Karimpour, 2007). Nevertheless, available information indicates 

that the late Eocene Maher Abad and Shadan porphyry prospects 

exhibit a Cu-Au metal association, whereas the early Oligocene 

Chah-Shaljami and Deh-Salm porphyry prospects display a 

Cu-Mo association.

Shadan, Maher Abad, Sar Cha Shur, and Sheik Abad Porphyry 

Prospect District

More than 15 late Eocene intrusive stocks with associated 

porphyry Cu-Au mineralization have been recognized in this 

district (Malekzadeh Shafaroudi, Karimpour, and Stern, 2009; 

Malekzadeh Shafaroudi and others, 2009; Malekzadeh and 

others, 2010; Karimpour and others, 2011b; Dorsa, 2011). At 

the Shadan (or Khopik of Karimpour and Stern, 2010) porphyry 

prospect, a (38.2 Ma, Karimpour and others, 2011b; or 37.3 Ma, 

Richards and others, 2012) diorite porphyry intrudes andesite 

and dacite units. The Shadan porphyry prospect consists of a 2- 

by 2-km partially covered phyllic alteration zone with a strong 

biotite-rich inner potassic core that is centered on a porphyry 

intrusion with unidirectional solidification textures (USTs). 

Surface gossans suggest the possibility of secondary enrichment. 

The Shadan prospect has not been systematically explored, but 

0.44 g/t gold and 0.12 percent copper is indicated in surface rock 

samples from an area of 400 by 150 m (Dorsa PLC, 2011).

At the nearby 39-Ma Maher Abad Cu-Au prospect, a 

diorite porphyry intrudes Eocene dacitic rocks (Karimpour, 

Stern and others, 2011; Richards and others, 2012). Oxidation 

occurs around quartz stockworks in a 1- by 1-km partially 

covered outcrop of phyllic alteration overprinting potassic 

alteration (Malekzadeh Shafaroudi, Karimpour, and Stern, 

2009; Malekzadeh Shafaroudi and others, 2009; Malekzadeh 

and others, 2010; Karimpour and Stern, 2010, 2011; 

Arjmandzadeh and others, 2011a). In the same area, porphyry 

prospects have also been identified at Sar Chah Shur and 

Sheik Abad. Copper mineralization at the Sar Chah Shur 

diorite to monzonite porphyry prospect is largely controlled 

by K-silicate alteration (Malekzadeh Shafaroudi and others, 

2009), whereas the nearby 39.3-Ma Sheik Abad Au-(Cu) acidsulfate epithermal prospect is believed to represent the shallow 

part of an underlying dioritic porphyry system (Malekzadeh 

Shafaroudi and others, 2009; Richards and others, 2012).

Cha-Shaljami Porphyry Prospect

The early Oligocene (33.3 Ma) Cha-Shaljami highsulfidation gold and underlying Cu-Mo-Au-bearing porphyry 

prospect is 10–15 km south of the coeval (33.7 Ma) Qaleh 

Zari polymetallic vein (Richards and others, 2012) or IOCG 

(Karimpour and others, 2005; Karimpour and Stern, 2009) 

deposit. At the Cha Shaljami prospect, quartz monzonite 

to diorite stocks and dikes that intrude Eocene (40 Ma) 

andesite and andesitic basalt exhibit alteration characterized 

by a 3- by 4-km outcrop of vuggy quartz and quartz-alunite 

associated with a porphyry system (Karimpour and Stern, 

2011; Karimpour and others, 2011b; Malekzadeh Shafaroudi 

and others, 2009). The main sulfide minerals are pyrite, 

molybdenite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and enargite 

(Arjmandzadeh and others, 2011a).

Deh-Salm Porphyry Prospect

At the early Oligocene (33.6 Ma) Deh-Salm (Mikh-Kh) 

Cu-Mo-Au-bearing prospect, porphyry stocks of intermediate 

to felsic composition intrude Eocene volcanic and sedimentary 

sequences (Karimpour and others, 2011b). Alteration zones 

include biotite, epidote-chlorite, quartz-sericite, and sericiteclay. Vein and disseminated mineralization include magnetite, 

pyrite, molybdenite, chalcopyrite, bornite, arsenopyrite, 

sphalerite, galena, covellite, digenite, and sulfosalts 

(Karimpour and others, 2011a; Ziaii and others, 2007; 

Karimpour and Stern, 2011).

Kajeh Porphyry Prospect

At the Kajeh Cu-Au-Mo-bearing porphyry prospect, an 

Oligocene-Miocene porphyry complex intrudes Cretaceous 

carbonates and Eocene volcaniclastic rocks (Karimpour and 

others, 2008). Sericitic and argillic alteration are associated 

with early diorite to monzonite phases, whereas quartzsericite is better developed around the late felsic granite 

porphyry stock located to the north. Copper, gold, lead, and 

zinc occur in anomalous concentrations around the dioritemonzonite, whereas molybdenum, silver, lead, and zinc are 

anomalous around the granite porphyry stock (Pourkhosrow 

and others, 2007).

Other Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences

The 39.9 Ma Najmabad porphyry system about 100 km 

east of Kajeh appears to be barren (Karimpour and Moradi 

Noghondar, 2010). Spatially associated Sn-W-Cu mineralization 

may be related to the nearby Jurassic Klateh Ahani S-type 

granitoid (see Lut Jurassic tract above). Similarly, a porphyryrelated origin for the Kal Firuzeh Mo-Zn-Cu skarn is uncertain 

(Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e). Kal Firuzeh is located about 

70 km southwest of Kajeh, near the Lut-Tabas Terrane boundary 

(fig. 39). The Kal Firuzeh possible porphyry-related occurrence 

is included in the database (appendix C).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:1,000,000-scale map of Huber 

(1978), basement rocks underlie 14 percent of the Lut 

Tertiary tract area, whereas middle Eocene to early Miocene 

permissive volcanic and plutonic rocks occupy 29 and 1 

percent of the tract area, respectively (fig. 39). Nonpermissive 

mafic, sedimentary, and volcano-sedimentary units constitute 

17 percent of the tract, whereas younger rocks cover the 

remaining 38 percent of the tract.
124 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Permissive units exhibit a very high {volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 97. However, these high 

volcanic-to-plutonic ratios occur principally in the larger western 

part of the Lut Tertiary tract, where Precambrian-Mesozoic 

basement is variably covered by as much as 2-km of volcanic 

and volcano-sedimentary successions. Most of the plutonic rocks 

and associated porphyry copper prospects in the Lut Tertiary 

tract are confined to a ±100-km-wide north-northwest–southsoutheast corridor along the eastern side of the Lut Terrane. This 

corridor occupies the interface between Late Cretaceous to Eocene 

ophiolitic belts to the east and late Paleocene to early Oligocene 

volcanic- and volcano-sedimentary-dominated successions to 

the west. Levels of preservation of porphyry systems along 

this corridor are appropriate to shallow, as evidenced by the 

exposure of potassic and phyllic alteration associations, as well 

as related acid-sulfate alteration above several porphyry systems. 

Levels of preservation of porphyry systems in the western part 

of the Lut Tertiary tract are generally too shallow. However, 

possible porphyry-related occurrences in this region occur 

along tectonically disrupted areas (for example, the Kal Firuzeh 

Mo-Zn-Cu occurrence about the Nayband Fault).

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). 

The eastern boundary of the Lut Tertiary tract is marked by 

strong magnetic highs that coincide with northwest-southeasttrending ophiolite-bearing accretionary belts. A more subdued 

but continuous magnetic anomaly in the western part of the Lut 

Tertiary tract trends parallel to the Nayband Fault system. It does 

not convincingly image the location of the middle Eocene to lower 

Miocene volcanic-dominated units that define the tract or younger 

mafic cover rocks. Therefore, it may be reflecting deeper sources 

of unknown origin. Porphyry prospects identified in this tract 

are located in the intervening region between these two principal 

magnetic features. They generally lie along the margins of positive 

magnetic anomalies.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Resource data on the known porphyry prospects in the Lut 

Tertiary tract were not available to allow classification into Cu-Mo 

or Cu-Au porphyry deposit subtypes or to run pooled t-tests for 

model selection. Both Cu-Au and Cu-Mo metal associations are 

reported to be present and believed to be the result of progressive 

arc maturity from an island to a continental-arc setting over time 

(Richards and others, 2012). However, the Cu-Au association 

appears to dominate in the majority of known porphyry prospects. 

Therefore, the porphyry Cu-Au model of Singer and others (2008) 

was selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this tract.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Geologic factors favorable for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry deposits in the Lut Tertiary tract 

include (1) a relatively large island to continental arc, (2) 

permissive alkaline and calc-alkaline compositions, and (3) 

shallow and intermediate levels of exposure for Cu-Au and 

Cu-Mo porphyry systems in the eastern part. Unfavorable 

factors for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits 

include (1) a relatively short-lived magmatic arc system, (2) 

unknown size of identified porphyry prospects, and (3) large 

parts of the tract that are overlain by permissive volcanic, as 

well as younger cover.

Overall, the lack of known porphyry deposits compared 

to that in other tracts of equivalent aerial extent elsewhere 

suggests that undiscovered deposits likely are present. 

However, this is not reflected by the relatively low numbers 

of known porphyry prospects in a region that is just beginning 

to see increased exploration for porphyry copper deposits 

(Karimpour, 2007; Richards and others, 2012). Vast areas in 

the western part (back arc?) of the tract that are shallowly 

to deeply covered by volcanic and sedimentary successions, 

under which undiscovered deposits may be present.

The assessment team established that the Lut Tertiary 

tract was geologically favorable and that estimates of numbers 

of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could be carried out 

with moderate levels of uncertainty. The tract would contribute 

significant copper resources from undiscovered deposits to 

the overall assessment. Therefore, quantitative assessment of 

undiscovered deposits in this tract was warranted. Table 10A

shows the consensus estimates for undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits in the Lut Tertiary tract at the 90-, 50-, and 

10-percent probability levels and the associated summary 

statistics. At the 90-percent probability level, assessors felt 

that there was no likelihood for undiscovered deposits. At the 

50-percent probability, the numbers ranged between 1 and 2, 

and at the 10-percent probability level the numbers increased 

to between 4 and 5. On the basis of these numbers, the team 

reached a consensus estimate of 0, 2, and 5 undiscovered 

deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, 

respectively, which resulted in a mean of 2.38 undiscovered 

deposits with a standard deviation of 2.03 (Cv

%=85). The 

estimate reflects the level of favorability and moderate 

uncertainty assessed for this tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 10B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Lut Tertiary porphyry tract is 7.5 Mt. 

Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 40). The cumulative frequency 

plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated 

resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 125

Table 10. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran.

Figure 40. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; 

Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 5 5 5 2.4 2.0 85 0 2.4 56,300 4

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 2,600,000 20,000,000 33,000,000 7,500,000 0.27 0.2

Mo 0 0 1,900 120,000 250,000 44,000 0.2 0.47

Au 0 0 220 1,500 2,300 540 0.29 0.2

Ag 0 0 330 5,200 10,000 2,400 0.19 0.4

Rock 0 0 580 4,200 7,200 1,500 0.28 0.2

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

Material, in metric tons

Probability
126 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Sistan Tract (142pCu9012)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to early Miocene 

island arcs of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Sistan tract is located in easternmost Iran, where 

it covers an area of 32,800 km2 (fig. 41). It delimits a Late 

Cretaceous to early Miocene island-arc volcano-plutonic belt 

within the Sistan suture zone (also known as Eastern Iranian 

Ranges). The Sistan suture zone consists of a north-south-trending 

deformed accretionary complex that separates the Lut Terrane of 

eastern Iran from the Farah Terrane in western Afghanistan. To 

the southeast, the Sistan suture zone continues into Baluchistan 

(Pakistan), where it rims the southern margin of the ChagaiDarirod Terrane.

In the south, the Sistan tract is juxtaposed against the Makran 

Terrane along the dextral Nehbandan-Nostratabad Fault system to 

the west and against the Chagai-Darirod Terrane along the dextral 

Neh-Zahedan Fault system to the east (fig. 2). In the north, the 

Sistan tract extends as far as the sinistral Great Kafir-Doruneh 

Fault system (fig. 2).

Tectonic Setting

The Sistan suture zone is divided into the Late Cretaceous 

Ratuk and Late Cretaceous-Eocene Neh (fig. 3) accretionary 

complexes (Tirrul and others, 1983). These complexes include 

island-arc rocks that were emplaced during the convergent 

tectonic setting that eventually closed the Sistan Ocean. 

They occupy the northeastern and southwestern parts of the 

suture zone, respectively. The Late Cretaceous Ratuk and 

Late Cretaceous to Eocene Neh complexes are composed of 

ophiolitic mélanges and marine sedimentary rocks, which are 

separated and unconformably overlain by thick early Eocene 

flysch sequences interbedded with subordinate calc-alkaline 

flows and volcaniclastic rocks of the Sefidabeh fore-arc basin 

(Fotoohi Rad and others, 2009; Camp and Griffis, 1982; Tirrul 

and others, 1983).

Between the middle Eocene and middle Miocene, 

convergence between the Farah Terrane in Afghanistan and Lut 

Terrane in Iran (fig. 4D, E, F) progressively closed the Sistan 

Ocean (Golonka, 2004). The polarity of subduction zones in 

the Sistan Ocean remains a subject of debate. Recent studies 

(Arjmandzadeh and others, 2011b) favor a two-sided subduction 

setting facing both the Lut and Farah Terranes. Given the coupled 

rotational and compressional history in the region, as well as 

regional structural patterns observed on satellite imagery, Golonka 

(2004) proposes that this two-sided subduction scenario may 

instead be a single initially north-vergent subduction zone that is 

now folded and faulted on itself (fig. 4G).

Magmatism

The Sistan tract delineates the Late Cretaceous to early 

Miocene island-arc rocks defined by permissive igneous units 

(appendix B) that are shown in figure 42, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned 

in this section.

Late Cretaceous-early Eocene igneous rocks that define the 

Sistan tract are characterized by subaqueous tholeiitic to calcalkaline intermediate to silicic volcanic flows and volcaniclastic 

units that are interbedded with marine sediments. Representative 

intrusions include the 42 Ma calc-alkaline north-trending Rude-Shur diorite-quartz diorite dikes (fig. 42). These dikes are as 

much as 10 m wide and traceable for distances of as much as 

2 km. No mineralization is known to be associated with these 

folded dikes (Camp and Griffis, 1982). However, this event 

exemplifies immature island-arc magmatism in the region, which 

may be similar in character to the depositional environment 

of the Late Cretaceous-early Eocene volcano-sedimentary 

formations in the Chagai Hills (see Chagai tract below) of 

Pakistan (Perelló and others, 2008).

Convergence of the Sistan Ocean produced island-arc 

magmatism that was most widespread between middle Eocene 

to early Miocene times (Berberian and King, 1981). Middle 

Eocene to early Oligocene magmatism is characterized by 

calc-alkaline andesitic and minor basaltic flows and pyroclastics 

deposited in a subaqueous environment, which are comparable 

in age and composition to island-arc magmatism in both the Lut 

(see Lut Tertiary tract above) and Chagai-Darirod (see Chagai 

tract below) Terranes (Richards and others, 2012; Karimpour 

and others, 2011b). In the Sistan suture zone, early Eocene and 

older units were affected by a late Eocene folding event.

The early Oligocene (31–34 Ma) Zahedan-Saravan 

Batholith is the most prominent expression of plutonism 

in the Sistan suture zone. It consists of a 180-km-long and 

25-km-wide batholith composed of metaluminous to weakly 

peraluminous I-type calc-alkaline granites, granodiorites, 

quartz monzonites, tonalites, minor two-mica pegmatites, and 

late cross-cutting andesitic to dacitic dikes (Camp and Griffis, 

1982) that extends from the Nehbandan Fault on the northwest 

to the Shah-Kuh (Sistan) pluton on the southeast (fig. 42). 

Field relations and compositional data suggest that these calcalkaline intrusions assimilated large amounts of sedimentary 

materials, were emplaced in a relatively passive manner, and 

crystallized at moderate depths.

The 1:1,000,000-scale geologic map of Iran (Huber, 

1978) shows that the Zahedan-Saravan Batholith is in part 

flanked on its sides by Paleozoic basement units that are 

equivalent to the ones found in the Bajgan-Durkan continental 

sliver of the Makran Terrane. If correct, this may suggest that 

part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane is also present in the Sistan 

suture zone and could also explain why plutonic units in the 

Zahedan-Saravan Batholith reach peraluminous compositions.

In the late Oligocene, a shift from calc-alkaline to alkaline 

magmatism occurred in a subaerial setting, marking a change 

in tectonic regime and an increased rate of uplift related to 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 127

Sangan

Kuh-e- Lar

Bidester

Tigh Noab

Kharestan

Chehelkureh

Kuh-e-Janja

Kuh-e-Assagie

Shah-Kuh (Sistan)

Kuh-e-Seyasteragi

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

PERSIAN

GULF

55° E 60° E 65° E

34° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N 

20° N 

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

PERSIAN GULF

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 61° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9012

Porphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map

Figure 41. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—

Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. See appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.
128 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Kuh-e-Malek Siah

Baluchistan Province

Chagai Hills

Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Taftan

Rud-e-Shur

Bajgan–Durkan SliverBajgan–Durkan Sliver

Bitlis-Zagros SutureBitlis-Zagros Suture

Doruneh FaultDoruneh Fault

Saravan Batholith

Sefidabeh fore-arc basin

Neh-Zahedan Fault IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

Nostratabad Fault Nostratabad Fault

Zahedan 

Batholith

PERSIAN 

GULF

55° E 60° E 65° E

34° N

30° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

PERSIAN GULF

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 61° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 50 100 150 200 KILOMETERS

0 50 100 MILES

Rud-e-Shur 

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Transform fault

Assessed porphyry copper tract142pCu9012

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Area of map

Figure 42. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—

Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 129

the ongoing closure of the Sistan Ocean (McCall, 1997). 

This event is represented by the Kuh-e-Lar (27.8 Ma), Kuhe-Malek Siah (27.2–28.8 Ma), and Kuh-e-Assagi (27.5 Ma) 

caldera complexes. With the exception of the K-rich Kuh-eLar complex, these dominantly mafic alkaline complexes are 

Na-rich. These volcano-plutonic complexes are preferentially 

located in extensional pull-apart basins along major strike-slip 

faults. They are believed to be derived from partial melting of 

either ocean crust or upper mantle.

In the early Miocene subaerial magmatism changed 

again from alkaline to calc-alkaline. Older moderately 

to strongly alkali, mafic to intermediate flows and minor 

volcaniclastic deposits were followed by thick successions 

of calc-alkaline basaltic to rhyodacitic flows, domes, and 

pyroclastic rocks. Intrusive complexes related to this time 

period include the Kuh-e-Seyasteragi (19.2 Ma) and Kuh-eJanja (16.5 Ma) calc-alkaline intermediate to felsic porphyry 

prospects (McCall, 1997).

These and older units were folded along north-northwesttrending axes and cut by middle Miocene and younger 

conjugate left- and right-lateral strike-slip faults. In the middle 

Miocene, arc-related magmatism in the southern part of the 

Sistan suture zone was arrested by final collision between the 

Lut and Farah Terranes (Tirrul and others, 1983).

To the south, however, subduction along the southern margin 

of the Makran Terrane was reinitiated, generating continental arc 

magmatism (see Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract below) 

on the sutured Lut, Sistan, and Chagai-Darirod Terranes beginning 

in the latest Miocene (Camp and Griffis, 1982).

Known Porphyry Prospects

Intrusion-related mineralization styles in the Sistan tract 

evolved from vein and replacement Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag and greisen 

tin systems associated with Eocene-Oligocene locally porphyritic 

calc-alkaline plutons, to base-metal veins and Cu-Mo-Au 

porphyry systems related to late Oligocene alkaline complexes, 

and to porphyry-related Cu-Au-Zn-Pb skarn systems associated 

with early Miocene calc-alkaline intrusions (Förster, 1978). In 

addition, possible porphyry-related prospects are associated with 

iron skarn (IOCG) systems in the northern part of the tract. Ten 

porphyry and possible porphyry-related prospects were identified 

in the Sistan tract (see fig. 41; appendix C). Positively identified 

porphyry prospects are of late Oligocene and early Miocene ages 

and occur at Kuh Assagi, Kuh Lar, Kuh-e-Seyasteragi, Kuh-eJanja, and Shah Kuh (Sistan).

Shah-Kuh (Sistan) Porphyry Prospect

The Oligocene calc-alkaline Shah-Kuh biotite 

granodiorite batholith is located in the southern part of the Neh 

Complex. The batholith intruded and contact-metamorphosed 

Eocene flysch units. A copper prospect is associated with a 

3- by 1-km porphyry diorite stock that was emplaced into a 

middle Eocene sandstone-shale sequence on the eastern part 

of the batholith (McCall, 1997; Eftekhar-Nezad and McCall, 

1993). Little is known about the character of mineralization 

at this site, but it is included as a prospective area in the Cu 

porphyry potential map of Geomatics Management [n.d.].

Kuh-e-Lar and Kuh-e-Assagi Porphyry Prospects

The late Oligocene Kuh-e-Lar and Kuh-e-Assagi Cu-MoAu-bearing porphyry prospects occur in the Ratuk Complex 

(Camp and Griffis, 1982; Samani, 1998). Alkaline intrusive 

phases contained within the eroded core of the 8- by 5-km 

(27.8 Ma) Kuh-e-Lar collapsed caldera include mafic to late 

monzonite, syenite, and quartz syenite stocks that are in part 

porphyritic (Karimi, 2002). These stocks are crosscut by 

numerous north-northeast fractures that control Cu-Mo-Au 

mineralization (Zarcan International Resources, 2000; Camp 

and Griffis, 1982). The 27.5 Ma Kuh-e-Assagi intrusivevolcanic complex is similar to Kuh-e-Lar (Camp and Griffis, 

1982). It consists of intermediate to felsic flows and shallow 

plutons, including a monzonite porphyry stock with breccia 

bodies that host copper, lead, zinc, and silver mineralization 

(Zarcan International Resources, 2000, 2003).

Kuh-e-Seyasteragi and Kuh-e-Janja Porphyry Prospects

The early Miocene Kuh-e-Seyasteragi and Kuh-e-Janja 

porphyry prospects also occur in the Ratuk Complex. The 

19.2-Ma Kuh-e-Seyasteragi and 16.5-Ma Kuh-e-Janja calcalkaline intermediate to felsic porphyry intrusions are small in 

outcrop, but they exhibit well-developed contact metamorphic 

halos. Cu-Au-(Zn-Pb)-bearing porphyry- and replacementstyle mineralization is centered on these shallowly emplaced 

intrusions (Camp and Griffis, 1982).

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects

Middle Eocene to early Oligocene plutonic rocks of the 

Zahedan Batholith are emplaced in strongly folded low-grade 

metamorphic ophiolite and flysch formations of the Neh 

Complex (McCall, 1997; Tirrul and others, 1983). The foliated 

concordant and sill-like Zahedan Batholith is composed of 

early biotite granite, hornblende-biotite granodiorite, and 

late diorite stocks that partially developed hornfels and 

skarn halos. Abundant north-south to north-northeast–southsouthwest andesite and porphyritic dacite dike swarms cut 

early Oligocene and older units (Sadeghian and others, 

2005). No porphyry-style mineralization is reported from 

the Zahedan Batholith. However, the presence of base-metal 

vein, high-temperature replacement and skarn deposits, as 

well as the temporal and spatial association with porphyritic 

diorite intrusions (Maanijou and others, 2012; Boomeri and 

others, 2005) suggest that these deposits may be related to 

porphyry copper mineralization at depth. Possible porphyryrelated mineralization occurs at the 33.6-Ma Chehelkureh 

Cu-Zn-Pb-(Ag-Au) vein and high-temperature replacement 

mine (resource of 14 Mt at 1.5 percent copper, 1.81 percent 

zinc, 0.88 percent lead, 22 ppm silver, and 0.14 ppm gold; 

Maanijou and others, 2012). Proven and probable reserves 

at the Chehelkureh deposit have been estimated at 5.6 Mt at 
130 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

1.27 percent copper at a 0.2 percent cutoff (National Iranian 

Copper Industries Company, 2012). This deposit is spatially 

associated with an Oligocene I-type calc-alkaline porphyritic 

quartz monzodiorite-tonalite-granodiorite pluton that intruded 

an Eocene turbiditic sequence (Camp and Griffis, 1982). Fluid 

inclusion and stable isotope studies of the Chehelkureh deposit 

show that the mineralization formed around 450 °C from 

moderately saline solutions of magmatic origin (Maanijou 

and others, 2012). These high-temperature moderately saline 

magmatic fluids are consistent with formation in a porphyry 

environment.

The Zahedan Batholith also hosts contrasting tintourmaline mineralization that is centered on the more 

peraluminous phases of the batholith (Camp and Griffis, 

1982; Tirrul and others, 1983). These peraluminous units 

are believed to have resulted from assimilation of significant 

fractions of basinal sediments despite having been emplaced 

in an island-arc environment (Berberian and Berberian, 1981).

The northern part of the Sistan tract hosts numerous 

copper occurrences, including the Sangan Fe-(Au±Cu) skarn 

deposit (see Khorasan tract above). The Sangan deposit 

contains one of the largest iron resources in Iran with 600 

Mt at greater than 45 percent iron (Ghavi and Karimpour, 

2010). The deposit lies on the eastern extension of the 

Doruneh Fault, possibly on a southward-thrust sheet of the 

Taknar-Kashmar Belt (see figs. 41 and 42). At Sangan, upper 

Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and iron replacement bodies are 

intruded by late Eocene biotite-hornblende quartz monzonite 

to syenogranite porphyry stocks and dikes (Malekzadeh 

Shafaroudi and others, 2013; Boomeri and others, 2006; 

Boomeri, Ishiyama, and others, 2010). Reported K2

O 

contents in these intrusive units are too high (8.5–13 percent; 

Karimpour and Malekzadeh, 2006) even for highly alkaline 

rocks, proposing the existence of potassic alteration instead. 

Copper and gold mineralization and spatially associated 

porphyry intrusions suggest the presence of porphyry-style 

mineralization. A similar possible porphyry-related system 

occurs at the Tigh Noab Cu-Fe bearing skarn prospect 

(Geological Survey of Iran; 2012a), about 250 km south of 

Sangan deposit. However, the age of mineralization here is not 

constrained.

In the southern part of the Sistan tract, the Kharestan 

and Bidseter Cu-Zn-Pb-Au-Ag epithermal vein prospects 

(Samani, 1998; National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 

2012; Zanganeh and others, 2010) exhibit large 5- by 2-km 

and 6- by 3-km oxidation zones of intense hematite, goethite, 

and jarosite that also include alunite, kaolinite, white mica, 

chlorite, and opaline silica (HYPERION hyperspectral 

data; Zarcan International Resources, 2003). Oxidation and 

alteration minerals may indicate the presence of porphyrystyle mineralization at depth, as suggested by Samani 

(1998). However, the age of mineralization here is not wellconstrained. As shown on the geologic map (Huber, 1978), 

rocks in the area include Paleozoic extrusive, Cretaceous 

carbonate, Paleogene clastic, Oligocene-Miocene andesitic, 

and abundant Pliocene-Holocene volcanic rocks. Thus, these 

epithermal prospects may be as young as Pliocene-Holocene 

and related to the adjacent Taftan volcanic edifice (see PlioceneQuaternary–Bazman sub-tract below) rather than the older 

middle Eocene to early Miocene magmatic event delimited by 

the Sistan tract.

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:1,000,000-scale map of Huber 

(1978), overall aerial proportions of older basement (9 percent), 

permissive plutonic and volcanic units (6 and 2 percent, 

respectively), broadly coeval nonpermissive units (41 percent), 

and younger cover rocks (41 percent) occupy the Sistan tract 

(fig. 42).

The overall permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratio across the 

Sistan tract is low at {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 = 28. 

However, this ratio is influenced by the deeply exhumed ZahedanSaravan Batholith, which occupies a large area of the Sistan tract. 

In the region of the Neh accretionary complex, strong folding 

and faulting juxtapose both deeper and shallower levels of the 

upper crust, exposing foliated granitoids with no known porphyry 

systems against relatively unmetamorphosed wallrocks that host 

vein-replacement deposits. Available information, such as at 

the Chehelkureh vein-replacement deposit, suggests that related 

porphyry-style mineralization may be present.

To the northeast in the Ratuk accretionary complex, in 

contrast, the permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratio is much higher. 

This suggests that levels of crustal preservation are shallower 

and more appropriate for porphyry copper mineralization. This 

is consistent with known alkaline to calc-alkaline porphyry 

prospects that are emplaced in relatively well-preserved caldera 

complexes. The isolated spatial distribution of these caldera 

complexes further suggests that volcano-plutonic complexes 

and associated porphyry mineralization of this age range may be 

buried under younger cover.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). In 

the Sistan suture zone, strong magnetic anomalies coincide with the 

location of several ophiolite-bearing accretionary belts. Magnetic 

anomalies across the rest of the Sistan suture zone are otherwise 

subdued. Thus, prominent batholithic masses, such as the relatively 

felsic Zahedan-Saravan, are not well-imaged at the regional scale.

With exception of the Kuh-e-Janga and Kuh-e-Seyasteragi 

porphyry prospects, other porphyry-related occurrences identified 

in this tract are located along the margins of positive magnetic 

anomalies.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars and Rowan, 2006; Mars, 

2014) were used to evaluate potential hydrothermal alteration 

that could be associated with unidentified porphyry systems in 

the Sistan tract. ASTER coverage was available only across the 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 131

central-southern part (12 percent) of the Sistan tract, where 

8 ASTER-derived argillic and phyllic alteration zones are 

spatially associated with the Zahedan Batholith, 3 with the 

Taftan volcano, and 1 with the Shah-Kuh (Sistan) pluton. 

ASTER-derived alteration zones associated with plutonic units 

are about 3 km in diameter in the Zahedan Batholith (where 

no porphyry prospects have positively been identified) and in 

the Shah-Kuh (Sistan) pluton (where a porphyry prospect is 

known). Larger, about 6 km long, more linear alteration zones 

characterize Pliocene-Holocene volcanic units with epithermal 

vein systems northwest of the Taftan volcano (Kharestan and 

Bidseter). Hence, across the central-southern part of the Sistan 

tract, ASTER-derived alteration data suggest the existence of 

several potential hydrothermal alteration zones that could be 

related to unidentified porphyry systems.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

No available resource data on prospects in the Sistan 

tract precluded evaluation of dominant metal associations in 

porphyry systems, or the running of a pooled t-test for model 

selection. Identified porphyry copper prospects include late 

Oligocene Cu-Mo-Au(±Zn-Pb-Ag)-bearing alkaline to early 

Miocene Cu-Au(±Zn-Pb)-bearing calc-alkaline systems. 

These complex base-metal associations are consistent with 

geologic and geochemical data, which indicate primitive 

island-arc magmatism that was, however, significantly 

modified by assimilation of sedimentary materials. Given 

the variability in metal associations, the general Cu-Au-Mo 

model of Singer and others (2008) was selected to estimate 

undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver 

resources in this tract.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Geologic factors favorable for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry deposits in the Sistan tract include 

(1) one or more island-arc systems, (2) permissive alkaline 

and calc-alkaline compositions, and (3) appropriate shallow 

and intermediate levels of exposure for porphyry deposits 

(particularly in the Ratuk accretionary prim). Other factors 

that may increase the likelihood of undiscovered deposits 

include the possibility that a displaced segment of the 

very productive Chagai Belt in Pakistan may be present 

in the Sistan tract and, to a lesser extent, that porphyry 

copper mineralization may be found below known vein and 

replacement deposits (particularly in the Neh accretionary 

prim). Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) relatively small and short-lived 

magmatic event(s), (2) complex deformation including partial 

anatectic magmatism in postmineral fold-and-thrust belt, 

(3) unknown resources in porphyry systems, (4) a relatively 

reduced outcrop area of permissive units (11 percent), and (5) 

younger cover (41 percent).

Overall, the density of known porphyry deposits 

(zero) compared to that in other tracts of equivalent aerial 

extent elsewhere suggests that undiscovered deposits are 

likely present. However, the possibility that the Sistan 

tract may contain a displaced segment of the productive 

Chagai Belt in Pakistan contrasts with the likelihood that 

undiscovered deposits may largely be concealed, exhumed, 

or buried across large parts of this complexly deformed 

and variably preserved region. This is suggested by the 

relatively low number of known porphyry occurrences, 

which is also consistent with the low level of exploration 

that the region has experienced (Richards and others, 2012). 

Thus, the assessment team established that the Sistan tract 

was geologically favorable but that estimates of numbers 

of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could only be 

carried out with moderate to high levels of uncertainty. The 

tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract 

was warranted. Table 11A shows the consensus estimates 

for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Sistan 

tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels and 

the associated summary statistics. Among assessors, the 

90-percent probability estimates were equally divided at 0 

and 1 undiscovered deposit. At the 50-percent probability, 

the numbers ranged from 1 to 3 undiscovered deposits, and 

at the 10-percent probability level, the numbers increased 

to between 3 and 7. On the basis of these numbers, the team 

reached a consensus estimate of 0, 2, and 5 undiscovered 

deposits at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, 

respectively. This resulted in an expected mean of 2.53 

undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 2.42 

(Cv

%=96), reflecting the level of favorability but relatively 

high uncertainty assessed for this tract.

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, 

molybdenum, gold, silver, and the total volume of 

mineralized rock are summarized in table 11B. The mean 

estimate of undiscovered copper resources in the Sistan 

porphyry tract is 9.8 Mt. Results are reported at selected 

quantile levels, along with the mean expected amount of 

metal, the probability of the mean, and the probability of 

no metal. The amount of metal reported at each quantile 

indicates the least amount of metal expected from the ranked 

data of 4,999 Monte Carlo simulations. The quantiles are 

linked to each tract simulation and are therefore not added. 

However, mean estimates can be added to obtain total 

amounts of metal and mineralized rock in undiscovered 

deposits. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are 

also presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 43). 

The cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative 

probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources and total 

mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each commodity 

and for total mineralized rock.
132 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 11. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Figure 43. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. k, thousand; 

M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 2 5 8 8 2.5 2.4 96 0 2.5 32,800 8

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 3,200,000 24,000,000 41,000,000 9,800,000 0.27 0.2

Mo 0 0 35,000 630,000 1,200,000 270,000 0.22 0.34

Au 0 0 57 650 1,000 240 0.26 0.31

Ag 0 0 270 7,700 15,000 3,200 0.22 0.42

Rock 0 0 740 4,800 8,100 2,000 0.28 0.2

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 133

Chagai Tract (142pCu9013)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Cretaceous to late Miocene 

island to continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Chagai tract covers an area of 19,100 km2 (fig. 44). It 

delimits a relatively well-preserved east-west 400-km-long by 

as much as 75-km-wide volcano-plutonic belt located in western 

Pakistan and southern Afghanistan, which is known as the Chagai 

Arc. The Late Cretaceous to late Miocene island to continental 

Chagai Arc is part of the accretionary prism that makes up the 

Chagai-Darirod Terrane, which formed as a result of northward 

subduction of the Arabian Platform under the amalgamated Farah 

and Helmand Terranes of Afghanistan (Nicholson and others, 

2010; figs. 3, 4C). The Chagai Arc continues to the east as far as 

the sinistral Chaman transform zone. This segment of the Chagai 

Arc in Afghanistan is only briefly touched on here because it 

is treated in much more detail in another assessment study (see 

Ludington and others, 2007; Peters and others, 2011; and King and 

others, 2011).

The Chagai tract is bounded to the south by the 4.5-km-thick 

folded and thrust-faulted Oligocene-Miocene Dalbandin intra-arc 

basin (fig. 2) and Pleistocene and Holocene clastics. To the south, 

however, the Dalbandin basin abuts against the Ras-Koh Range, 

which is considered to be part of the fore arc of the Chagai Arc 

(Sillitoe, 1978; Richards and others, 2012; Dykstra and Birnie, 

1979). Thus, the Ras-Koh Range is included here as part of Chagai 

tract (fig. 45). To the west, the Chagai tract terminates against the 

dextral Neh-Zahedan strike-slip fault system (Richards and others, 

2012). To the north, the Chagai tract is delimited by relatively 

thick Pliocene-Holocene sedimentary rocks deposited along the 

Pakistan-Afghanistan border. These young sedimentary formations 

conceal the nature of the contact between the Chagai Arc and the 

Farah and Helmand Terranes on the Eurasian margin (Nicholson 

and others, 2010).

Tectonic Setting

The oldest rock formation in the Chagai volcano-plutonic 

belt is the Upper Cretaceous Sinjrani Group. The Sinjrani 

Group consists of a 2.5-km-thick volcaniclastic succession 

that includes tholeiitic to calc-alkaline pillow basalts and 

lesser andesitic and rhyolitic flows, as well as abundant 

tuffs and pyroclastic rocks that are interlayered with flyschlike sedimentary units (Hunting Survey Corp., Ltd., 1960). 

These have recently been found to be locally intruded by 

isolated calc-alkaline plutons (87 Ma; Richards and others, 

2012). The Sinjrani Group is unconformably overlain by 

a 6-km-thick sequence of Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene 

shallow marine sedimentary units of the Humai, Juzzak, 

Saindak, and Amalaf Formations (Perelló and others, 2008). 

Basalt and andesite flows are interbedded in the lower parts 

of the Juzzak and Saindak Formations and the upper part of 

the Amalaf Formation. These rock formations, as well as the 

Upper Cretaceous Sinjrani Group, indicate the presence of a 

Late Cretaceous to Oligocene volcano-sedimentary-dominated 

intraoceanic arc environment (see fig. 4D, E, F; Richards and 

others, 2012). Red-bed clastic strata and subaerial volcanic 

rocks of the Oligocene-Miocene Dalbandin and Reko Diq 

Formations rest unconformably on older deformed units. 

These formations mark the onset of uplift associated with 

accretion and transition from an island-arc to a continentalarc setting (fig. 4F). Deposition of the Dalbandin and Reko 

Diq Formations was followed by a pronounced late Miocene 

depositional hiatus that coincides with the final collision 

between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin 

(Breitzman and others, 1983).

Three superimposed deformational events have been 

recognized in the Chagai Belt. They resulted from continued 

subduction of the Arabian Platform beneath the Eurasian 

margin (fig. 2). The first deformational event occurred in 

the Late Cretaceous, the second in the late Oligocene to late 

Miocene, and the third in the Pleistocene. The best-preserved 

structural feature is a large arcuate fold-and-thrust belt 

associated with the late Oligocene-late Miocene event, which 

is only weakly overprinted by the Pleistocene event. In the 

Chagai Hills, ages and dips of geologic formations in this 

south-vergent fold-and-thrust belt suggest a broad antiform. 

Folds are cut by perpendicular and thrust-parallel steeply 

dipping reverse and right-lateral strike-slip faults exhibiting 

separations of as much as 1,000 m in the western part of the 

belt (Ahmed and others, 1972) and range-parallel left-lateral 

faults in the eastern part of the belt (Perelló and others, 2008).

Late Miocene uplift and termination of Chagai Arc 

magmatism was followed by unconformable deposition 

of Pliocene-Pleistocene alluvial and volcanic units of the 

Kamerod and Koh-i-Sultan formations (Ahmed and others, 

1972). Across Pakistan and Afghanistan, these formations are 

obliquely superimposed on older rocks of the Chagai belt, 

and they form part of the continental arc that developed above 

the present-day Makran Trench (fig. 2). These rocks are in 

turn covered by Holocene unconsolidated alluvial and eolian 

deposits (Perelló and others, 2008).

Magmatism

Permissive igneous units used to define the Chagai tract 

(appendix B) are shown in figure 45, along with locations of 

igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section. Volcanic units in the sedimentary and volcanosedimentary-dominated formations of the Chagai Belt are not 

differentiated in the regional-scale maps (Qureshi and others, 

1993; Peters and others, 2007). Therefore, they are not represented 

in figure 45. These permissive volcanic units, however, are 

estimated to constitute about 25 percent of the igneous units that 

define the tract, based on a more detailed section of the Chagai 

Belt provided by Perelló and others (2008).
134 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 44. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9013, 

Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for 

accompanying spatial data.

Machi

Amalaf

Ziarate

Saindak

Kirtaka

Ganshero

Kabul Koh

Sor Baroot Buzgawanan

Ting-Dargun

Dasht-e-Kain

Darband Chah

Dasht-i-Goran

Ziarat Pir Sultan

Ziarat Malik Karkam

Pharra Koh

Sam Koh

Koh-i-Dalil

Reko Diq H8, Reko Diq H13,

Reko Diq H14, Reko Diq H35,

Tanjeel, 

and 9 prospects

Bukit Pashir

North Koh-i-Dalil

PAKISTAN

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

62° E 64° E

30° N

28° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

INDIA

KAZAKHSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

ARABIAN SEA

CASPIAN SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 63° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 20 40 60 80 KILOMETERS

0 20 40 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Porphyry copper deposit

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9013

Porphyry copper prospect

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 135

Figure 45. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9013, 

Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source 

map units.

Ras Koh Range Ras Koh Range

Chagai Hills

Koh-i-Sultan

 Chaman Fault System Chaman Fault System

Dalbandin Basin Dalbandin Basin

Taftan

volcanic edices

Taftan

Neh-Zahedan FaultNeh-Zahedan Fault

C H A G A I A R C A G A I A R C

CHAGAI BATHOLITH

PAKISTAN

IRAN

AFGHANISTAN

62° E 64° E

30° N

28° N

50° E 70° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

INDIA

KAZAKHSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

ARABIAN SEA

CASPIAN SEA

0 20 40 60 80 KILOMETERS

0 20 40 MILES

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 63° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Geologic features discussed in text

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9013

Permissive intrusive rock

Fault

Koh-i-Sultan

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map
136 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

The Chagai Arc includes several superimposed magmatic 

episodes. Intense intrusive activity in the middle to late Eocene 

(43–37 Ma; Perelló and others, 2008) produced magnetite series 

calc-alkaline quartz dioritic to granodioritic island-arc plutons, 

which formed the main Chagai Batholith (fig. 45). The middle 

to late Eocene magmatic episode culminated with emplacement 

of porphyry stocks and associated mineralization (Ziarate and 

Ganshero prospects).

In the Ras-Koh fore-arc region, approximately 75 km 

south of the Chagai Belt, post-middle Eocene syenodioritic 

plutons cut Late Cretaceous andesitic and basaltic volcanic and 

volcano-sedimentary rocks of island-arc affinity (Siddiqui and 

others, 2012). No porphyry-style mineralization is reported in 

this area, but Fe-(Cu) skarn mineralization such as at the Dilband 

deposit has been recognized (Sillitoe, 1978; Geological Survey of 

Pakistan, 2009; Hagen, 2009).

Late Oligocene-late Miocene island-arc accretion onto the 

cratonic margin in Afghanistan produced emergence accompanied 

by continental-arc magmatism. This event is characterized 

by distinct magmatic pulses and Cu-Mo±Au and Cu-Au±Mo 

porphyry copper mineralization (Perelló and others, 2008). These 

mineralizing events occurred in the Oligocene-Miocene (Saindak, 

Dasht-e-Kain, Machi, Ziarat Pir Sultan, and Tanjeel porphyry 

systems), early Miocene (Kirtaka, Sor Baroot, and Ting-Dargun 

prospects), and late Miocene (Reko Diq cluster, and Bukit Pashir, 

Darband Chah, and Pharra Koh porphyry systems). The main 

porphyry copper mineralizing event occurred in the late Miocene, 

and it coincides with the period of rapid uplift associated with the 

onset of collision between the Arabian Platform and the Indian 

Plate with Eurasia.

The geochemical characteristics of the Late CretaceousPaleocene, Eocene, and late Oligocene-late Miocene volcanic 

rocks are consistent with an evolving subduction-related island 

to continental-arc setting. Late Cretaceous-Paleocene volcanic 

units are dominated by low-K tholeiites typical of an intraoceanic 

island-arc environment (Siddiqui and others, 2010). Eocene 

units show tholeiitic to calc-alkaline compositions that indicate 

formation in a transitional island- to continental-arc setting, 

whereas late Oligocene to late Miocene units include calc-alkaline 

and lesser alkaline rocks (Siddiqui and others, 2007) characteristic 

of an Andean-type continental margin (Khan and others, 2010).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

About 40 late Eocene to late Miocene porphyry prospects 

and 4 Cu-Mo±Au and Cu-Au±Mo porphyry deposits—including 

the giant Reko Diq deposit and the Saindak mine—have been 

recognized within the Chagai tract in Pakistan (Perelló and 

others, 2008). The region also contains Late Cretaceous podiform 

chromite, manto copper, Pb-Zn-Ag-Cu VMS, Eocene iron-copper 

skarn, and Neogene epithermal gold-silver systems (Sillitoe, 

1978; Perelló and others, 2008; Siddiqui and others, 2010). Across 

the border in Afghanistan, in contrast, Cretaceous-Paleogene tin 

and rare metal pegmatites and base-metal skarns and Neogene 

carbonatite and travertine (onyx) deposits are known, but porphyry 

copper mineralization remains to be identified (Afghanistan 

Geological Survey, 2007; Abdullah and Chmyriov, 1977a; Orris 

and Bliss, 2002; Shroder, 1981; Doebrich and Wahl, 2006; 

Ludington and others, 2007; Stoeser, 2011). However, HyMapderived alteration data suggest the presence of several potentially 

porphyry-related acid-sulfate alteration zones (King and others, 

2011).

In the Chagai tract (fig. 44), the 4 porphyry copper deposits 

(Dasht-e-Khain, Reko Diq, Saindak, and Tanjeel) and 27 of the 

~40 prospects were identified and are included in the database 

(table 2 and appendix C, respectively). The ~12 unidentified 

prospects probably cluster around other prospects and deposits, 

and thus they are not recorded in the available literature. Two 

of the identified prospects are adjacent to known deposits and 

are, therefore, considered in this study to be part of the same 

mineralization center. Furthermore, the Reko Diq resource base 

reported in table 2 is the weighted average of Reko Diq H8, 

Reko Diq H13, Reko Diq H14, and Reko Diq H35. These, as 

well as Reko Diq H15, are listed as independent sites in the 

accompanying GIS.

The majority of porphyry copper deposits and prospects 

in the western part of the Chagai Belt are hosted by PaleoceneOligocene volcaniclastic rocks. Porphyry deposits and prospects 

in the eastern part of the belt, in contrast, generally occur at or 

near the contacts between the Late Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks 

and the Eocene Chagai Batholith. Deposits and selected prospects 

are described below from oldest to youngest, as determined by 

geochronologic data (Perelló and others 2008).

Ziarate and Ganshero Porphyry Prospects

The late Eocene (37–36 Ma) Ziarate and Ganshero 

Cu-Mo-(Au)-bearing porphyry prospects intrude Late 

Cretaceous Sinjrani Group andesitic rocks and the Eocene 

Chagai Batholith (Perelló and others, 2008). The Ziarate 

granodiorite to monzonite porphyry stock exhibits alteration 

dominated by a 2-km2 sericite zone and breccias controlled 

by east-west-trending faults. At Ganshero, the quartz diorite 

to granodiorite porphyry stock displays alteration dominated 

by a concentric 1-km2 sericite zone. In this porphyry prospect, 

hydrothermal breccias are absent. In both systems, supergene 

mineralization is weak (Perelló and others, 2008).

Dasht-e-Kain Porphyry Deposit

The early Oligocene (32 Ma) Dasht-e-Kain Cu-Mo-Au 

deposit is located in the eastern part of the Chagai tract. The 

deposit has reported resources of 350 Mt at 0.3 percent copper 

and 0.001 percent molybdenum (Singer and others, 2008). 

Mineralization is associated with two quartz diorite-tonalite 

porphyry stocks known as the “eastern” and “western” stocks 

(Ahmad, 1986; Ahmad and others, 1986). These intrude the Late 

Cretaceous Sinjrani Group and the Eocene Chagai Batholith 

(Ahmad, 1992). The northern parts of both stocks are covered by 

alluvium. K-silicate and quartz-sericite alteration are dominant 

in the western stock, whereas K-silicate and propylitic alteration 

are more common in the eastern stock. Mineralization is mostly 

associated with K-silicate alteration and contained within the 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 137

western and eastern porphyry stocks. However, the eastern 

porphyry stock, which largely consists of an intrusive breccia, is 

comparatively better mineralized. Supergene enrichment is only 

slightly developed (Perelló and others, 2008).

Tanjeel Porphyry Deposit

The late Oligocene Tanjeel (also known as H4 [Schloderer, 

2003]) Cu-Mo deposit is located in the Reko Diq District. The 

deposit contains reported resources of 214 Mt at 0.6 percent 

copper and 0.01 percent molybdenum (Perelló and others, 

2008). At Tanjeel, east-west-striking (23.8 Ma; Perelló and 

others, 2008) feldspar and quartz-feldspar granodiorite porphyry 

dikes and associated quartz-sericite alteration with chalcopyrite 

mineralization are cut by pebble dikes and tourmaline breccias. 

The relatively pyrite-rich Tanjeel deposit is the only porphyry 

center with significant supergene enrichment in the Chagai tract. 

Supergene mineralization consists of a 10–100-m-thick chalcocite 

blanket (Perelló and others, 2008).

Saindak Porphyry Deposit

The early Miocene Saindak Cu-Au-(Mo) deposit in the 

western part of the Chagai Tract (Ahmed and others, 1972; 

Singer and others, 2008) contains an estimated 440 Mt at 0.41 

percent copper, 0.002 percent molybdenum, and 0.5 g/t gold 

(Richards and others, 2012). The deposit is centered about three 

adjacent quartz diorite-tonalite porphyry stocks and dikes, dated 

at 22.4 Ma (Perelló and others, 2008) or 22.3 Ma (Richards and 

others, 2012). These are the North, East, and South ore bodies 

of Sillitoe and Khan (1977) and Sillitoe (1978), and they intrude 

siltstones, sandstones, and tuffs of the Eocene Saindak and 

Oligocene Amalaf formations. The 2-km2 alteration is zoned 

outward from K-silicate, sericitic, to propylitic. Chalcopyritedominated mineralization was mostly contained within the 

early K-silicate alteration (Perelló and others, 2008). Supergene 

enrichment developed only poorly (Ahmad, 1992).

Ziarat Pir Sultan Porphyry Prospect

At the early Miocene Ziarat Pir Sultan Cu-Mo-bearing 

porphyry prospect (200 Mt resource; Everest Gold, Inc., 2012) 

is located in the eastern part of the Chagai tract. Here, a 21-Ma 

(Perelló and others, 2008) quartz diorite porphyry stock intrudes 

the Late Cretaceous Sinjrani Group and the Eocene Chagai 

Batholith. A hydrothermal breccia pipe is located within the 500- 

by 250-m stock. The associated alteration zone covers an area 

of 2 km2, and the zone consists of K-silicate and sericite-chlorite 

with chalcopyrite mineralization. Supergene enrichment is minor 

(Perelló and others, 2008).

Kirtaka and Sor Baroot Porphyry Prospects

In the early to middle Miocene (18–17 Ma; Perelló 

and others, 2008) Kirtaka and Sor Baroot copper porphyry 

prospects (Everest Gold, Inc., 2012), exploration efforts have 

not constrained the dominant metal associations (Cu-Au 

or Cu-Mo). At Sor Baroot, a quartz diorite to granodiorite 

porphyry stock and late west-northwest-trending dacite dikes 

intrude volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Juzzak and 

Saindak Formations. Hydrothermal alteration covers an area of 

2 km2

 and exhibits concentric zoning from K-silicate to strong 

sericite-chlorite. Chalcopyrite mineralization is hosted by both 

alteration associations. At Kirtaka, a quartz diorite porphyry 

stock is centered about K-silicate, sericite-chlorite, and sericite 

alteration zones that occupy an area of 0.6 km2. Chalcopyrite 

mineralization occurs mainly with K-silicate alteration. 

Supergene enrichment is minor in both prospects (Perelló and 

others, 2008).

Reko Diq Porphyry Deposit

The giant Reko Diq Cu-Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit is 

located in the western part of the Chagai tract. It contains 

5.9 Bt at 0.41 percent copper and 0.22 g/t gold, with an 

economically mineable part calculated at 2.2 Bt, with 0.53 

percent copper and 0.30 g/t gold (Antofagasta PLC, 2010), or 

2.42 Bt, with 0.51 percent copper and 0.27 g/t gold (Singer 

and others, 2008). The resource reported in table 2 is the 

weighted average of Reko Diq H8, Reko Diq H13, Reko Diq 

H14, and Reko Diq H35.

The late Miocene (12 Ma; Perelló and others, 2008) 

Reko Diq complex consists of several quartz diorite to 

granodiorite and dacite porphyry stocks, dikes, and breccias 

(Schloderer, 2003). These intrude volcanic, volcaniclastic, and 

sedimentary rocks of the early Miocene Reko Diq Formation. 

Mineralization episodes introduced by these porphyry 

intrusions occurred over a timespan of as much as 3 m.y. 

(Perelló and others, 2008). Hydrothermal alteration consists of 

early K-silicate, sericite-chlorite, and late sericite. Typically, 

the earliest porphyry phase in each suite coincides with the 

main stage of copper and gold mineralization, which is largely 

associated with K-silicate alteration. As much as 0.01 percent 

molybdenum was locally introduced during late mineralizing 

stages in several of the porphyry centers. Advanced argillic 

alteration is not common. Overall, supergene enrichment is not 

well-developed because of the relatively low sulfide contents 

and high neutralization potential of K-silicate alteration 

(Perelló and others, 2008).

Koh-i-Dalil Porphyry Prospect

At the late Miocene (10 Ma; Perelló and others, 2008) 

Koh-i-Dalil porphyry copper prospect in the vicinity of the 

large Koh-i-Dalil stratovolcano, several shallowly emplaced 

intrusions are exposed in a deeply eroded valley. These 

plutons intrude rocks of the Sinjrani Group and are composed 

of quartz diorite, granodiorite, and dacite porphyry intrusions 

that are in turn cut by mineralized tonalite porphyry and 

late andesitic and dacitic dikes (Bhutta, 2004; Singer and 

others, 2008). The alteration zone consists of a 400 by 300 m 

concentric K-silicate to sericite-chlorite to sericite alteration 

zone. Chalcopyrite mineralization is controlled by K-silicate 

alteration and breccias. Supergene enrichment is minor 

(Perelló and others, 2008).
138 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Preservation Level

Rocks older than Late Cretaceous are not known in the 

Chagai-Darirod Terrane of Pakistan (Abdullah and Chmyriov, 

1977b; Kazmi and Rana, 1982). As derived from geologic map 

bases (Peters and others, 2007; Qureshi and others, 1993), areas 

underlain by coeval permissive and nonpermissive units account 

for 14 and 42 percent of the Chagai tract, and younger rocks cover 

the remaining 44 percent of the tract (fig. 45).

Permissive igneous units are represented exclusively by 

plutonic rocks in the 1:850,000 and 1:1,000,000-scale geologic 

maps of Peters and others (2007) and Qureshi and others (1993). 

However, this is only apparent because permissive volcanic units 

are known to exist. Based on a more detailed stratigraphic section 

of the Chagai belt provided by Perelló and others (2008), volcanic 

units interbedded with Late Cretaceous to late Miocene volcanosedimentary rocks constitute about 25 percent of the section. 

Nonetheless, a conspicuous absence of volcanic units that are 

coeval with the younger late Miocene intrusions has been noted 

(Perelló and others, 2008) and coincides with the pronounced 

uplift and erosional event that affected the region during that time.

Overall, the large number of exposed porphyry deposits 

and prospects in the Chagai tract suggests that concurrent and 

postmineral uplift, erosion, and burial events occurred mostly 

to the extent that favorably exposed porphyry systems of this 

age range. However, in the northeastern part of the Chagai 

tract in Afghanistan, permissive igneous units occur as smaller 

more isolated outcrops. This suggests that shallower levels of 

preservation and (or) more substantial cover may be present in this 

part of the tract, potentially limiting exposure of porphyry systems 

of this age range.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) 

was used to confirm the location and character of regional 

geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane 

boundaries). In the Afghan part of the tract, geophysical 

information was complemented with data from Sweeney and 

others (2006). Most prominent is a magnetic high that marks 

the southern boundary of the Chagai tract, which is likely 

imaging the fore-arc or intra-arc ophiolite-bearing accretionary 

prism that underlies the Dalbandin Basin. To the north in the 

Chagai Belt, magnetic highs in the western part of the tract 

give way to more subdued and isolated positive and negative 

anomalies in the eastern part of the tract. These eastern 

anomalies appear to reflect in part the location of PlioceneHolocene ultramafic to felsic alkaline igneous and sedimentary 

cover rocks. A magnetic low also occurs in the Ras Koh 

segment of the Chagai tract. Furthermore, the magnetic low 

located between the western and eastern parts of the Chagai 

tract is consistent with the absence of permissive units in this 

area. The northern boundary of the Chagai tract generally 

coincides with an abrupt change in the texture of the magnetic 

response, which becomes smoother north of the boundary 

(Sweeney and others, 2006).

As seen in the regional-scale aeromagnetic map of Maus 

and others (2009), the Reko Diq and Saindak deposits, as well 

as many porphyry prospects in the western part of the Chagai 

tract, lie at the margins of magnetic highs. Conversely, 

the Dasht-e-Khain and most other known prospects in the 

eastern part of the tract occur around magnetic lows. This 

is an interesting contrast in magnetic signatures, given that 

outcrops of the Chagai Batholith are far more widespread in 

this area.

ASTER and Airborne Hyperspectral Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars, 2014) were used to 

evaluate potential hydrothermal alteration that could be 

associated with unidentified porphyry systems in the Chagai 

tract. With the exception of the eastern part of the Ras Koh 

tract segment (7 percent of the tract), ASTER coverage was 

complete. HyMap data were also available over the part of the 

Chagai tract in Afghanistan (King and others, 2011).

Of the 10 ASTER-derived alteration zones identified 

in the part of the Chagai tract in Pakistan, 9 occur in known 

porphyry deposits and prospects (Dasht-i-Goran, Ganshero, 

Kabul Koh, Machi, Reko Diq, Saindak, Ziarat Pir Sultan, 

Ziarate, and Koh i-Dalil). The most prominent ASTERderived alteration zone occurs as an 8-km-wide phyllic 

envelope around the Reko Diq porphyry cluster (Rowan 

and others, 2006). The remaining ASTER-derived alteration 

zone occurs in Late Cretaceous Sinjrani Group volcanosedimentary rocks, about 20 km southeast and northwest of 

the Ganshero and Ziarate porphyry prospects, respectively. 

It consists of a large but discontinuous 7- by 3-km westnorthwest–south-southeast-trending phyllic and lesser 

argillic ASTER signature.

Of the 13 ASTER- and HyMap-derived alteration zones 

identified in the part of the Chagai tract in Afghanistan 

(King and others, 2011), 3 are associated with PlioceneHolocene units. The other 10 are associated with permissive 

plutons and (or) Late Cretaceous Sinjrani Group rocks. 

Six ASTER- and HyMap-derived alteration zones are 

dominated by the presence of hematite, jarosite, and goethite, 

two of which also contain muscovite. The remaining four 

include pyrophyllite in addition to kaolinite, chlorite, and 

epidote, suggesting shallower level acid-sulfate epithermal 

environments. Advanced argillic alteration is uncommon in 

the porphyry systems in the Chagai Belt (Perelló and others, 

2008), but it is abundantly present in Pliocene-Holocene 

volcanic edifices such as at Koh-i-Sultan. Thus, several 

of these alteration zones may be marking the location of 

younger Pliocene-Holocene mineralization.

Overall, ASTER- and HyMap-derived alteration data 

potentially indicate the location of 1 additional unidentified 

porphyry system in the well-explored Pakistan part of Chagai 

tract and perhaps 6 more possible porphyry systems in the 

underexplored Afghan part of the Chagai tract. However, the 

latter ASTER-derived alteration zones could be related to 

younger hydrothermal occurrences.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 139

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

In the Chagai tract, available resource data from the 

Reko Diq and Saindak deposits indicates that these classify 

as Cu-Au porphyry systems. Data on Dasht-e-Kain and 

Tanjeel are insufficient to classify these deposits based 

on the relative gold and molybdenum contents. However, 

deposit descriptions imply that molybdenum contents are 

higher than gold, suggesting that these deposits adhere 

more to the Cu-Mo subtype category. Pooled t-test results 

assuming equal variances show that the four known deposits 

in the tract are not significantly different at the 1-percent 

level from the tonnages and copper and gold grades in 

the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model. Therefore, this 

model was selected to estimate undiscovered copper, 

gold, molybdenum, and silver resources in this tract. In 

comparison to the median tonnage in the general porphyry 

Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008), the Tanjeel 

deposit exhibits comparable tonnage, whereas the Reko Diq, 

Saindak, and Dash-e-Khain deposits are larger. Furthermore, 

Reko Diq deposit contains higher copper and gold grades 

than the median deposit in model, whereas the Tanjeel 

deposit exhibits higher copper and molybdenum grades.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Chagai 

tract include (1) a relatively long-lived extensional to 

compressional island to mature Andean-type continental arc, 

(2) permissive calc-alkaline magmatism, (3) exhumation 

events that resulted in appropriate exposure of Cu-Au and 

Cu-Mo-Au and porphyry systems, (4) known tonnages and 

copper grades in deposits that exceed those of the median 

porphyry deposit around the world, and (5) as many as a 

half-dozen ASTER-derived zones of potential hydrothermal 

alteration that could be associated with unidentified 

porphyry systems. Other possible favorable factors for the 

likelihood of undiscovered porphyry deposits include the 

fact that the Afghanistan part of the tract, where no porphyry 

deposits have been positively identified, appears to exhibit 

many of the same geological features that characterize 

the very productive Pakistan part (Ludington and others, 

2007). This is supported by several possible porphyryrelated HyMap-derived alteration areas in Afghanistan 

(King and others, 2011). Unfavorable geologic factors for 

the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

in the Chagai tract include (1) the existence of only one 

ASTER alteration zone that does not identify a known 

porphyry occurrence in the part of the tract in Pakistan and 

(2) higher proportions of younger cover and less exposure 

of permissive rocks in the Afghanistan part of the tract, 

suggesting levels of exposure of porphyry systems that may 

be less favorable than those in Pakistan.

The lower density of known porphyry deposits relative 

to other tracts of equivalent aerial extent elsewhere in 

the world suggests that undiscovered deposits are likely 

present. The Chagai Hills of Pakistan are well endowed, 

adequately exposed, and have experienced a high level 

of exploration, resulting in a large number of identified 

porphyry occurrences. This level of exploration has not 

taken place in the smaller Afghan part of the tract. Thus, 

contrasting low and high levels of uncertainty in the 

estimation of undiscovered deposits would be expected in 

the Pakistan and Afghanistan parts of the tract, respectively. 

Overall, however, the favorability of the smaller Afghan part 

is believed to be comparable to that of the larger Chagai part 

in Pakistan, for which high favorability and low uncertainty 

in the estimation process is expected. Thus, the assessment 

team concluded that the Chagai tract was favorable, and 

that estimates of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits could be carried out with low levels of uncertainty. 

Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered 

deposits in this tract was completed. Table 12A shows the 

consensus estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits in the Chagai tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-pecent 

probability levels and the associated summary statistics. At 

the 90-percent probability level, all assessors estimated the 

presence of one undiscovered deposit. At the 50-percent 

probability level, numbers of undiscovered deposits ranged 

between 2 and 4, and at the 10-percent probability level, the 

numbers increased to between 4 and 6. On the basis of these 

numbers, the team reached a consensus estimate of 1, 3, 

and 6 undiscovered deposits at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively, which resulted in a mean of 

3.23 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 1.88 

(Cv

%=58). This result reflects the level of favorability and 

low uncertainty assessed for this tract. The resulting total 

deposit density per 100,000 km2 obtained is comparable 

to the median porphyry deposit density expected in wellexplored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere around the 

world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 12B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Chagai porphyry tract is 12 Mt, which 

represents about half of the resources presently known in 

this tract. In the Tethys region of western and southern Asia, 

the Chagai tract is the only one estimated to contain fewer 

undiscovered resources than those already identified. This 

result reflects the influence of the very large resource base 

contributed by the giant Reko Diq deposit. Results of the 

Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as cumulative 

frequency plots (fig. 46). The cumulative frequency plots show 

the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources 

and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.
140 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 12. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Figure 46. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered resources 

in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. k, thousand; M, million; 

B, billion; Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

1 3 6 6 6 3.2 1.9 58 4 7.2 19,100 38

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 250,000 5,600,000 29,000,000 48,000,000 12,000,000 0.27 0.07

Mo 0 0 79,000 770,000 1,500,000 340,000 0.22 0.2

Au 0 0 120 750 1,200 310 0.28 0.17

Ag 0 0 800 9,000 17,000 3,800 0.22 0.29

Rock 0 60 1,200 6,000 9,700 2,500 0.29 0.07

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 141

Azerbaijan Tract (142pCu9014)

Location

The Azerbaijan tract (fig. 47) covers an area of 131,000 km2

across Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan (including Nakhchivan), and 

northern Iran. It delimits a 2,500 km long and 50–300 km wide 

late Eocene to early Miocene extension-related back arc and 

postcollisional volcano-plutonic belt, which is well preserved in 

western Turkey and northern Iran but less so in eastern Turkey. In 

Iran, igneous units of this volcano-plutonic event are widespread 

across the western Alborz and northern Central Iranian Terranes. 

In the Lesser Caucasus and eastern Turkey, they largely occupy 

the eastern Anatolide-Tauride Terrane, and in western Turkey they 

overlie large parts of the Sakarya and western Anatolide-Tauride 

Terranes. The boundaries with the Sanandaj-Sirjan and BitlisPötürge Terranes, in general, mark the extent of the Azerbaijan 

tract to the south. This late Eocene to early Miocene tract partially 

overlies older porphyry copper tracts.

Tectonic Setting

In the Pontide, Transcaucasus, and Alborz Terranes, Late 

Cretaceous to Eocene rock successions show a transition from a 

period of subsidence during the early Late Cretaceous to a period 

of compression and arc and back-arc magmatism in the Late 

Cretaceous-Paleocene (see Pontide (Asia) tract above) to a period 

of extension and back-arc magmatism in the late Paleocene and 

Eocene (Stöcklin, 1974; Berberian and King, 1981; Boulin, 1991). 

South of the suture, Late Cretaceous-Eocene magmatism (see 

Anatolide-Tauride and Esfahan tracts above) intermittently shifted 

from calc-alkaline arc-related to calc-alkaline and shoshonitic 

back-arc-related compositions (Adamia and others, 1977; Adamia 

and others, 2011).

Over the Transcaucasus and Alborz Terranes of the Lesser 

Caucasus and northern Iran, the Paleocene-Eocene extensional 

event was interrupted by the collision between the South 

Armenian Block and the Transcaucasus Terrane (Sosson and 

others, 2010a; Sosson and others, 2010b). South of the suture, 

renewed subsidence occurred in the early Oligocene-early 

Miocene (Morley and others, 2009; Adamia and others, 2010; 

Rezaeian, 2008), which was in turn followed by uplift associated 

with the final Arabian Platform-Eurasian collision, which in this 

region occurred in the early Miocene (Stöcklin, 1968; Berberian 

and King, 1981; Ballato and others, 2011; Adamia and others, 

2011; Dilek, 2010).

The extensional regime bracketed between the EoceneOligocene and early Miocene compressional events was 

accompanied by prominent magmatism in the Lesser Caucasus 

and northern Iran. Early Oligocene and early Miocene igneous 

rock associations evolved from high-K calc-alkaline to alkaline 

compositions. This is consistent with termination of subductionrelated arc magmatism and transition to postcollisional 

magmatism in relatively warm and attenuated crust (Jahangiri, 

2007; Ballato and others, 2011; Gamkrelidze, 1986; Hou and 

others, 2011). This magmatic event is part of the Azerbaijan tract 

of the lesser Caucasus and northern Iran described in this section.

This extensional event was followed by late Miocene to 

Holocene mafic to felsic magmatism (see Pliocene-Quaternary 

tract below) with more typical within-plate geochemical signatures 

(Keskin, 2003; Kheirkhah and others, 2009). These igneous rocks 

were emplaced in the setting that followed collision between the 

Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin (Şengör and Kidd, 

1979; Guest and others, 2006, 2007).

In eastern Turkey, Late Cretaceous-Paleocene arc 

convergence along the southern branch of the Neotethys Ocean 

(see Border Folds tract above) produced late Paleocene-early 

Eocene back-arc extension (see Anatolide-Tauride tract above) 

across the eastern Anatolide-Tauride Terrane to the rear (Agard 

and others, 2011; Verdel and others, 2011). This back-arc event 

continued from the late Eocene to the early Miocene until the 

middle Miocene Arabia-Eurasia collision (fig. 4F) in this region 

(Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Hüsing and others, 2009; Dilek and 

others, 2010; Kaymakci and others, 2010). Thus, in contrast to 

postcollisional Oligocene-Miocene magmatism in northern Iran, 

available constraints indicate that Oligocene-Miocene magmatism 

in eastern Turkey occurred in the waning subduction setting 

that preceded final collision. This magmatic event is part of the 

Azerbaijan tract of eastern Turkey described in this section.

Middle-late Miocene north-directed compression in eastern 

Turkey initiated the westward tectonic escape of the Anatolian 

Block away from the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone along the 

North and East Anatolian Fault systems (Hubert-Ferrari and 

others, 2002; Chakrabarti and others, 2012). Postcollisional 

alkaline-dominated igneous rocks were emplaced during this time 

and are described below with Pliocene-Quaternary tract (Yilmaz, 

1990; Keskin, 2003).

In western Turkey (see Anatolide-Tauride tract above), the 

compressional regime associated with convergence and collision 

between the Anatolide-Tauride and Sakarya Terranes along the 

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture ended by the middle Eocene 

(Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Yilmaz, 2003b). This compressional 

event (and associated burial of the western Anatolide-Tauride 

Terrane under the weight of southward-advancing ophiolitebearing nappes) was followed by a late Eocene to middle 

Oligocene extensional episode. This episode is believed to have 

resulted from collapse of overthickened crust (Chakrabarti and 

others, 2012; Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000; Harris and others, 1994) 

in a period that post-dated collision to the north and predated the 

late Oligocene onset of subduction along the Hellenic-Cyprian 

Trench in the Mediterranean Sea to the south (fig. 4E).

The prevailing Eocene-Oligocene postcollisional extensional 

regime in western Turkey (fig. 4F) was overprinted by 

development of a back arc to the rear of the north-dipping Hellenic 

subduction zone, where the African Plate has been converging 

with the Eurasian margin since the late Oligocene, at about 26 Ma 

(Jackson and McKenzie, 1984). This subduction-related event is 

expressed by back-arc rifting, continued crustal attenuation, and 

exposure of metamorphic basement as a result of normal faultrelated cordilleran core complex formation at about 23–19 Ma 

(Erkül and Erkül, 2010; Kuşcu, 2007). Therefore, late Eocene 

to middle Miocene magmatism in western Turkey consists of 

both postcollisional and back arc-related igneous products. These 
142 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 47. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9014a, Azerbaijan—Western Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9014b, Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey, Iran and Turkey; and 142pCu9014c, Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Ankara

Nicosia

Beirut

T'Bilisi

Damascus Baghdad

Tehran

Baku

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

CYPRUS

LEBANON

SYRIA

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

TURKEY

GREECE

IRAQ

AZERBAIJAN

IRAN

RUSSIA

ARMENIA

Senj

Ankavan

AS Balcilar

Dalidagskoe

Gürcüler

Karakisla

Karapinar

Kişladağ

Loban Zardeh

Mendejin

Oltu Lisbek

Pinarbasi

Samli

Sayacik

Sheykh Darabad Shoorazgah

Sogukpinar

Tarom

Tepeoba

Tufekcikonak

Baycheh Bagh

Darvan

Cevizlidere

Hashtrud

Ayazmant

Mayislar

Alvand

Diz Jin

Aği Daği

Palamutoba

Kirazli

Sungun

Kadjaran

Haft Cheshmeh

Masjed Daghi

Paraghachay

Miveh Rud Anjerd, Mazraeh, and 36 prospects

Halilaga, 

Alankoy, and Karaayi

CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

BLACK SEA

45° E 30° E

40° N35° N

50° E 30° E

40° N30° N

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

UKRAINE

EGYPT

BLACK SEA

CASPIAN SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 39° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS0 100 200 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9014

Porphyry copper depositPorphyry copper prospect

Sub-tract 142pCu9014aSub-tract 142pCu9014bSub-tract 142pCu9014c

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 143

magmatic events are part of the Azerbaijan tract of western Turkey 

described in this section.

These events were superseded by late Miocene to Holocene 

extension-related magmatism in western Turkey (fig. 4G), which 

is attributed to the combined effects of slab steepening (Delaloye 

and Bingöl, 2000) and subduction rollback at about 12 Ma 

(Meulenkamp and others, 1988), as well as westward escape of 

the Anatolian Block described with the Pliocene-Quaternary tract, 

below (Bozkurt and others, 2000; Keskin, 2003).

Hence, from west to east, variations in the overall tectonic 

setting occur along the Azerbaijan porphyry tract. In western 

Turkey, the tract delineates postcollisional and superimposed 

back-arc settings. In eastern Turkey, the tract delimits a back-arc 

environment, whereas in the Lesser Caucasus and northern Iran the 

tract outlines a postcollisional volcano-plutonic belt. Accordingly, 

the nature of late Eocene to early Miocene magmatism associated 

with these tectonic settings is separated here into the Azerbaijan–

Western Turkey sub-tract (142pCu9014a), the Azerbaijan–Eastern 

Turkey sub-tract (142pCu9014b), and the Azerbaijan–CaucasusIran (142pCu9014c) sub-tract. These sub-tracts are described and 

are individually assessed below.

Azerbaijan–Western Turkey Sub-tract 

(142pCu9014a)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Eocene to early Miocene 

postcollisional and back-arc magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract covers an area of 

65,200 km2 (fig. 47). Permissive igneous units used to define this 

sub-tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 48, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section.

Extension-related magmatism in western Turkey is believed 

to have evolved from middle Eocene to early Oligocene crustal 

collapse, to relative uplift associated with asthenospheric 

upwelling, and to late Oligocene to early Miocene back arc 

initiation related to the onset of subduction along the Hellenic 

Trench to the south (Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Meulenkamp and 

others, 1988; Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000; Bozkurt and others, 

2000; Yilmaz, 2003b; Chakrabarti and others, 2012). Changes 

in the tectonic regime are expressed by middle Eocene to early 

Oligocene subaqueous mafic to intermediate volcanic and 

volcaniclastic rocks and epizonal granitoids. These are followed 

by widespread Oligocene to early Miocene subaerial deposits and 

hypabyssal granodioritic-granitic to monzogranitic-syenogranitic 

suites, which developed metamorphic aureoles in adjacent 

andesitic to rhyolitic hosts (Okay, 2008). These magmatic suites 

progressively change from Oligocene more juvenile calc-alkaline 

and high-K calc-alkaline volcano-plutonic to early Miocene 

more evolved mildly alkaline volcanic-dominated products 

(Altunkaynak and Genç, 2008). Delaloye and Bingöl (2000) 

postulate a general evolution in time and space for these volcanoplutonic units, consisting of north-to-south younging coupled 

with increasing K2

O contents. Oligocene-Miocene magmatism 

occurred during pronounced extension that culminated with 

formation of cordilleran metamorphic core complexes (Erkül and 

Erkül, 2010; Institute for Geo-Resources and Environment, 2005).

This late Eocene-early Miocene igneous event was followed 

by late Miocene magmatism (11–8 Ma), which is represented by 

transtensional fault-controlled strongly alkaline and isotopically 

primitive basalts, basanites, and trachybasalts (Akay, 2009). 

These rocks are associated with continued extension related to 

the combined effects of back-arc propagation (fig. 4G) and the 

westward escape of the Anatolian Block (Bozkurt and others, 

2000; Keskin, 2003).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Considerable exploration efforts are underway in western 

Turkey. Late Eocene to early Miocene mineralization is 

represented by numerous acid-sulfate and adularia-sericite 

epithermal precious metal occurrences, as well as iron, base-metal, 

W-Mo skarn, and porphyry occurrences (Yücel Öztürk and others, 

2008). Three late Eocene to early Miocene porphyry deposits 

(Tepeoba, Halilağa, and Ayazmant, see fig. 47) and 16 porphyry 

and porphyry-related prospects are associated with epithermal 

and skarn systems (Yigit, 2006, 2009, 2012). The varied metal 

associations in these porphyry systems overlap but generally 

follow the calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatic trend that evolved 

over this time period in the region. Available information on 

deposits and prospects indicate late Eocene to early Miocene calcalkalic to alkalic Au-(Cu) porphyry-related acid sulfate systems, 

early Oligocene to early Miocene calc-alkalic Cu-Mo porphyryrelated skarn systems, and late Oligocene to early Miocene 

Au-(Mo) alkalic porphyry systems (Yigit, 2012). Descriptions of 

representative older to younger porphyry deposits and prospects 

are presented below.

Palamutoba Porphyry Prospect

The Palamutoba Au-(Cu-Mo)-bearing porphyry prospect 

is of probable late Eocene age (Yigit, 2009, 2012). Here, several 

synmineral granodioritic porphyry dikes, as well as postmineral 

porphyritic dikes, intrude schists of Paleozoic age. Two alteration 

zones, each approximately 2 km long and 0.8 km wide, host 

quartz-sericite-pyrite sheeted veins and stockworks with copper, 

molybdenum, lead, and gold mineralization. The oxidation cap is 

well-developed (Yigit, 2012).

Alankoy Porphyry Prospect

The early Oligocene 28.3 Ma Alankoy acid-sulfate Au and 

Au-Cu porphyry-skarn prospect was discovered in the early 1990s 

by a MTA and MMAJ joint venture in an area of ancient surface 

and underground workings (Yigit, 2012). Epithermal mineralization, 
144 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 48. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9014a, Azerbaijan—Western Turkey, Turkey; 142pCu9014b, Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey, Iran and Turkey; and 142pCu9014c, Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

Ankara

Nicosia

Beirut

T B' ilisi T'Bilisi

Damascus Baghdad

Baku

Tehran

SYRIA

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

TURKEY

ARMENIA

GREECE

IRAQ

IRAN

RUSSIA

CYPRUS

LEBANON

Talysh-Alborz

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture 

Tarom

LESSER CAUCASUSLESSER CAUCASUS

Lesser CaucasusArasbaran

North Anatolian FaultNorth Anatolian Fault

 ANATOLIAN BLOCK

Nakhchivan

Ordubad

CASPIAN SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

BLACK SEA

Khankandi

Shaivar Dagh

Sungun 

Bitlis Zagros SutureBitlis Zagros Suture

East Ana ot l ai n Fault

45° E 30° E

40° N35° N

Hellenic-Cyprian Trench

AZERBAIJAN

50° E 30° E

40° N 30° N 

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

RUSSIA

UKRAINE

EGYPT

BLACK SEA

CASPIAN SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.Central meridian, 39° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS0 100 200 MILES

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Assessed porphyry copper  tract 142pCu9014

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Sub-tract 142pCu9014a

Sub-tract 142pCu9014bSub-tract 142pCu9014c

Suture

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Sungun

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 145

which includes a steam-heated zone with chalcedonic quartz and 

native sulfur, as well as vuggy silica, occupies a 2- by 1.7-km area 

controlled by a northeast structural trend. Alteration and goldbearing quartz-sulfide stockworks are associated with a granodioritic 

stock that intrudes Oligocene andesite lavas and pyroclastic units 

that overlie Triassic carbonate, metavolcanic, and sedimentary rocks. 

Zn-Pb-Cu-Sb-Au-Ag garnet-rich skarn zones developed at the 

contact between the intrusion and the limestone host (Yigit, 2012).

Halilağa Porphyry Deposit

The Halilağa porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) and associated 

skarn and acid-sulfate deposit was discovered in 2007 and is 

presently undergoing feasibility studies (Pilot Gold, Inc., 2011, 

2012a, b, c; Mining Journal, 2010). It has indicated resources 

of 168 Mt at 0.30 percent copper, 0.006 percent molybdenum, 

and 0.31 g/t gold and inferred resources of 199 Mt at 0.23 

percent copper, 0.007 percent molybdenum, and 0.26 g/t gold, 

using a 0.2 percent copper equivalent and a 0.2 g/t gold cutoff 

(Scott and others, 2012). Table 2 lists the weighted average of 

372 Mt at 0.26 percent copper, 0.0065 percent molybdenum, 

and 0.29 g/t gold. The alteration zone covers an area of 4 by 

2 km and is centered about quartz-feldspar porphyry stocks 

of probable Oligocene age that intrude andesitic flows and 

tuffs. Porphyry-style mineralization occurs in both K-silicate 

and overprinting quartz-sericite alteration. It consists of 

pyrite, magnetite, and chalcopyrite with minor chalcocite and 

molybdenite. Secondary copper enrichment zones contain as 

much as 2.15 percent copper and 0.93 g/t gold (Yigit, 2009). 

In addition to porphyry-style mineralization, the deposit also 

includes Au-Ag-Cu-Mo-Zn-Pb skarn and gold-bearing acidsulfate epithermal mineralization (Yigit, 2012). The skarn 

developed along the contact of the granodiorite with limestone, 

recrystallized marble, and schist. However, whether this 

spatially related skarn is genetically and temporally related to 

the main porphyry system is not known (Yigit, 2012).

Tepeoba Porphyry Deposit

The Tepeoba Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry-skarn deposit was 

discovered by the MTA in 2002 (Institute for Geo-Resources 

and Environment, 2005; Singer and others, 2008; Yigit, 2009). 

It contains a reported resource of 24.1 Mt at 0.33 percent copper 

and 0.042 percent molybdenum (Yigit, 2012). Gold grades are 

not reported, but gold is known to be present. Mineralization 

is controlled by a 200-m-wide by 800-m long elliptical breccia 

that developed above an S-type granite stock that intruded the 

margin of a larger late Oligocene (25.6 Ma; Murakami and 

others, 2005) I-type granodioritic pluton. A hornfels halo and 

skarn developed along the contact of this pluton with PermianTriassic metabasic and metasedimentary rocks. Alteration and 

mineralization consist of phlogopite-chalcopyrite with accessory 

molybdenite and surrounding quartz-sericite-tourmaline-pyrite 

with lesser sphalerite and electrum (Murakami and others, 2005). 

The Tepeoba deposit has been tilted by normal faults (Institute for 

Geo-Resources and Environment, 2005).

Ayazmant Porphyry Deposit

The small Ayazmant Fe-Cu-(Au) porphyry-related skarn 

deposit has a reported reserve of 5.75 Mt at 46 percent iron 

and 0.6 percent copper (Oyman, 2010). It occurs at the contact 

between early Triassic metapelites and metabasites and an early 

Miocene (20.1 Ma) calc-alkaline porphyry stock (Oyman, 2010; 

Yigit, 2006, 2009). The skarn is made up of early diopsidegrossularite; scapolite and magnetite(±hematite); andraditesalite-actinolite-sulfide; and late actinolite, epidote, orthoclase, 

phlogopite, and chlorite. Mineralization consists of chalcopyrite 

and subordinate molybdenite, pyrite, cubanite, bornite, 

pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, and idaite (Oyman, 2010).

Other Porphyry-Related Deposits and Prospects

The 25.8 Ma Aği Daği acid-sulfate and Au-Cu porphyry 

deposit is in development (Yigit, 2006, 2009, 2012; InfoMine, 

Inc., 2012c). At a 0.2 g/t gold cutoff grade, Yigit (2012) 

reports indicated resources of 26.6 Mt at 0.52 g/t gold and 

0.60 g/t silver (Baba Zone) and 25.4 Mt at 0.67 g/t gold and 

5.96 g/t silver (Deli Zone). The inferred resources are 9.9 Mt 

at 0.48 g/t gold and 0.50 g/t silver (Baba Zone) and 8.0 Mt at 

1.17 g/t gold and 11.18 g/t silver (Deli Zone). Appendix C lists 

a weighted average of 66.32 Mt at 0.61g/t gold and 3.59g/t 

silver. The Aği Daği deposit is associated with a 5-km-long 

and 2-km-wide northeast-trending alteration zone that occurs 

around a middle Oligocene flow-dome complex (Yigit, 2009). 

Volcanic and subvolcanic rocks including rhyolite, dacite, and 

andesite are cut by synmineral breccia bodies and porphyry, 

as well as postmineral quartz-feldspar porphyry intrusions. 

Alteration is mainly controlled by stockworks and breccia 

bodies and consists of vuggy silica, alunite, dickite, and 

kaolinite at high levels and pyrophyllite, halloysite, illite and 

sericite at depth. Mineralization includes auriferous pyrite 

and minor to trace amounts of enargite, covellite, galena, and 

molybdenite (Yigit, 2012; Keane and others, 2010).

At the 28.3 Ma Kirazlı (Aladag) acid-sulfate and Au-Cu 

porphyry deposit, located some 25 km northwest of Aği Daği, 

development is also in progress (Yigit, 2006, 2009). Yigit 

(2012) reports indicated resources of 11.8 Mt at 0.83 g/t gold 

and 13.90 g/t silver at a 0.2 g/t gold cutoff grade. Inferred 

resources are 8.6 Mt at 0.65 g/t gold and 15.93 g/t silver. 

Appendix C lists the weighted average of 27.06 Mt at 0.76 g/t 

gold and 8.92 g/t silver. At the Kirazlı deposit, a 1.2-km-long 

and 0.4-km-wide alteration zone is controlled by a north and 

east-northeast structural intersection situated along the rim of a 

caldera (Yigit, 2012). Chalcedonic quartz, vuggy silica, alunite, 

dickite, and kaolinite are hosted by stockworks and breccias 

in middle Oligocene andesitic and dacitic lavas, intrusives, 

volcaniclastic, and tuffaceous lacustrine sedimentary rocks. 

These are, in turn, cut by postmineral diabase dikes. Higher 

grade gold mineralization in the oxide zone occurs with 

secondary hematite after pyrite in flat-lying chalcedonic quartz 

seams (aquitard). In the sulfide zone, gold occurs in late arsenicpoor spheroidal pyrite. Early arsenic-rich euhedral pyrite is 
146 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

commonly gold-poor (Keane and others, 2010). The Aği Daği 

and Kirazlı porphyry deposits are included in appendix C.

The Kişladağ Au-(Mo) porphyry deposit is the largest 

mining operation in Turkey (Yigit, 2009). It contains a NI 

43–101-compliant measured and indicated resource of 412 Mt 

at 0.78 g/t gold and an additional inferred resource of 182 Mt 

at 0.5 g/t gold at a 0.3 g/t gold cutoff (Juras and others, 2010). 

At the Kişladağ deposit, two or three separate compositionally 

and texturally similar mineralized latite porphyry phases of 

early Miocene age intrude broadly coeval pyroclastic rocks, 

which are in turn cut by a late weakly mineralized to barren 

stock (Yigit, 2006, 2009, 2012). The 5- by 3-km alteration 

zone is composed by early feldspar-biotite, tourmalinesericite, and kaolinite-secondary alunite. Gold stockworkand breccia-controlled mineralization was introduced with 

quartz-tourmaline and quartz-pyrite-(molybdenum-sphaleritegalena-chalcopyrite-tetrahedrite) veins. Late vuggy silica is 

affected by intense acid leaching but is effectively barren of 

gold mineralization (Juras and others, 2010). Because it is 

the largest mine in Turkey, the Kişladağ Au-(Mo) porphyry 

deposit is included in appendix C.

Other possible porphyry-related systems of late Eocene 

to middle Miocene include the Taztepe, Tepekoy, Tongurlu, 

and Kocayayla North prospects in the Biga Peninsula (Yigit, 

2012), as well as several other Mo-bearing skarn and vein 

prospects in western Turkey (Yigit, 2009).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map 

of Turkey (General Directorate of Mineral Research and 

Exploration, 2000), older basement rocks underlie 31 percent 

Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract, whereas late Eocene to 

early Miocene permissive volcanic and plutonic units occupy 

21 and 4 percent of the sub-tract, respectively (fig. 48). Late 

Eocene to early Miocene nonpermissive mafic, sedimentary 

and volcano-sedimentary units constitute 23 percent of the subtract area, and younger rocks (and water bodies [1 percent]) 

cover the remaining 20 percent.

The comparatively high proportion of permissive units 

and low proportion of cover rocks indicate a relatively wellexposed volcano-plutonic belt. However, permissive units 

exhibit a high {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 

83, which suggests overall shallow levels of preservation of 

porphyry systems. This is supported by the dominance of 

epithermal mineralization above a number of known porphyry 

prospects in this sub-tract.

The eastern part of the Azerbaijan–Western Turkey 

sub-tract is underlain by extensive late Eocene to early 

Miocene volcanic rocks. No coeval plutonic rocks appear 

on the 1:500,000-scale geologic map of Turkey. This points 

to levels of preservation that are too shallow for porphyry 

systems, consistent with the absence of known porphyry 

systems and the presence instead of epithermal gold and 

kaolinite occurrences of this age bracket in this part of the 

sub-tract.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic maps of Ates and others (1999) 

and Maus and others (2009) were used to confirm the location and 

character of regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, 

faults, terrane boundaries). The aeromagnetic map generally shows 

subdued anomalies across the highly extended region of western 

Turkey. However, high-amplitude anomalies occur to the north 

across the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture in the Sakarya Terrane 

and image composite batholithic masses that are older but in part 

also late Eocene to early Miocene in age. Overall, late Eocene to 

early Miocene porphyry copper systems in western Turkey appear 

to be located along the margins of positive magnetic anomalies.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

According to the criteria based on Au/Mo ratios and gold and 

molybdenum contents, the Halilağa and Tepeoba deposits belong to 

the Cu-Au and the Cu-Mo porphyry deposit subtypes, respectively. 

The Kişladağ Au-Mo porphyry deposit was not considered because 

it does not contain reported copper resources. The metal association 

in this deposit is also not represented in the available grade and 

tonnage models. Existing information on porphyry prospects in the 

Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract further indicate diverse metal 

associations that span the much of the Au-(Cu) to Au-(Mo) porphyry 

metal association spectrum. However, pooled t-test results assuming 

equal variances show that the three known deposits in the tract 

are not significantly different at the 1-percent level from tonnages 

or copper, molybdenum, and gold grades in the general porphyry 

Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, this model 

was selected to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in this sub-tract. In comparison with the median 

tonnage and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, the 

Halilağa deposit contains larger tonnage and higher gold grade but 

lower copper grades. Tepeoba is smaller and exhibits lower copper 

but higher molybdenum grades. The identified resource at Ayazmant 

is small but exhibits higher copper grades than the median deposit in 

the model.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract, geologic factors 

favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits 

include (1) relatively large postcollisional to back-arc extensional 

magmatic belt built on attenuated warm crust, (2) permissive 

calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatism, (3) shallow to intermediate 

levels of exposure for porphyry-skarn systems in several areas, 

(4) favorable conditions for supergene enrichment (enhanced by 

postmineral extensional tectonics), and (5) a porphyry deposit 

with larger than median tonnages and gold (but not copper) grades 

(for example, Halilağa). Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry deposits include (1) relatively short-lived 

magmatic event(s) and (2) large areas with levels of preservation 

that may be too shallow or too deep for exposure porphyry 

systems.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 147

The relatively low density of known porphyry deposits 

compared to that in other tracts of equivalent aerial extent 

elsewhere around the world suggests that undiscovered 

deposits are likely present. However, the relatively low 

number of porphyry occurrences of this age range identified 

to date does not yet reflect the high level of exploration 

that this region, which is dominated by shallow levels of 

exposure of porphyry systems, is experiencing (Yigit, 2012). 

These contrasting factors suggest overall moderate levels 

of uncertainty expected in the estimation of numbers of 

undiscovered deposits for this sub-tract.

No copper is reported as part of the resource base at the 

Kişladağ Au-(Mo), Aği Daği, and Kirazlı Au-(Cu) porphyry 

deposits. Given the igneous composition and associated 

hydrothermal characteristics at Kisladag, the assessment team 

concluded that no significant copper resources were likely 

to occur at depth. Conversely, igneous compositions and the 

character of alteration and mineralization at the Aği Daği and 

Kirazlı acid sulfate-porphyry deposits (combined resources 

of 64 Mt at 0.64 g/t gold and 5.20g/t silver; Mining Journal, 

2011b; Keane and others, 2010) suggest that copper resources 

can be expected to occur at depth.

The assessment team considered the Azerbaijan–Western 

Turkey sub-tract to be geologically favorable and that estimates 

of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could 

be carried out with moderate levels of uncertainty. The 

tract would contribute significant copper resources from 

undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, 

quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract 

was completed. Table 13a–A shows the consensus estimates 

for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Azerbaijan–

Western Turkey sub-tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels and the associated summary statistics. The 

team estimated 1, 2, and 8 undiscovered deposits at the 90-, 

50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively, which 

resulted in a mean of 3.43 undiscovered deposits with a 

standard deviation of 2.73 (Cv

%=80). The result reflects the 

level of favorability and moderate level of uncertainty. The 

estimated total deposit density per 100,000 km2 obtained is 

comparable to the median porphyry deposit density expected 

in well-explored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere around the 

world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, 

molybdenum, gold, silver, and the total volume of 

mineralized rock are summarized in table 13a–B. The 

mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources in the 

Azerbaijan–Western Turkey sub-tract is 14 Mt. Results 

of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 49A). The cumulative 

frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities of 

occurrence-estimated resources and total mineralized 

rock, as well as the mean for each commodity and for total 

mineralized rock.

Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey Sub-tract 

(142pCu9014b)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008).

Geologic feature assessed: Late Eocene to early Miocene backarc magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract covers an area of 

7,800 km2 (fig. 47). Permissive igneous units used to define this 

sub-tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 48, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section.

In eastern Turkey, Oligocene-Miocene magmatism 

supersedes Late Cretaceous to late Eocene subduction-related 

igneous rocks of the Baskil Arc, described with the Border Folds 

tract, above, and the associated back arc, described above with the 

Anatolide-Tauride tract (Yiğitbaş and Yilmaz, 1996; Şengör and 

Yilmaz, 1981).

During the Oligocene to middle Miocene, shallowing of 

the subduction angle along the Bitlis-Zagros convergent margin 

(Pearce and others, 1990) led to reduction in volume of associated 

arc and back-arc volcanism and eventually to cessation of 

subduction. As shown on the 1:500,000 geologic map of Turkey 

(General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000), 

volcanic-dominated successions associated with this back-arc or 

intraoceanic-arc setting during the Oligocene-middle Miocene 

are preserved across central-eastern Turkey along a narrow and 

intermittently exposed east-west arcuate belt (Yılmaz, 1993; Kuşcu 

and others, 2010; Robertson and Mountrakis, 2006; Bozkurt and 

Mittweide, 2001). Thus, in contrast to the Oligocene-Miocene 

postsubduction extensional setting in northern Iran and the Lesser 

Caucasus, structural relations in the Oligocene-Miocene belt of 

eastern Turkey show that units were emplaced during a still active 

subduction-related setting (Kaymakci and others, 2010). Porphyry 

Cu-Mo deposits such as Cevizlidere (26 Ma; Marinov and others, 

2011) and likely also the Mamlis, Silic, and Sin porphyry prospects 

(for which age dates are not available) are associated with this 

Oligocene-Miocene igneous event.

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Across eastern Turkey, known porphyry mineralization 

of Oligocene-Miocene age is scarce. One porphyry deposit 

(Cevizlidere) and one porphyry prospect (Oltu-Lisbek) were 

identified and are included in the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey 

sub-tract (fig. 47, table 2, and appendix C).

Cevizlidere Porphyry Deposit

The Cevizlidere porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit has a 

NI 43–101-compliant inferred resource of 446 Mt at 0.38 

percent copper, 0.0048 percent molybdenum, and 0.11 g/t gold 
148 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 13. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran and Turkey.

Sub-tract name Coded_ID Countries

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey 142pCu9014a Turkey

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey 142pCu9014b Iran and Turkey

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran 142pCu9014c Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran

[Coded_ID, a unique number assigned to each permissive tract in the spatial data (appendix D)]

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

1 2 8 8 8 3.4 2.7 80 3 6.4 65,200 7

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 190,000 5,500,000 34,000,000 54,000,000 14,000,000 0.27 0.07

Mo 0 0 80,000 910,000 1,800,000 390,000 0.22 0.23

Au 0 0 110 870 1,400 350 0.27 0.2

Ag 0 0 800 10,000 19,000 4,600 0.22 0.31

Rock 0 50 1,200 6,700 12,000 2,800 0.29 0.07

Table 13a. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9014a, Azerbaijan—Western Turkey sub-tract, Turkey.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 149

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

0 0 1 1 2 0.33 0.62 190 1 1.3 7,750 17

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 0 0 2,500,000 5,600,000 1,500,000 0.14 0.69

Mo 0 0 0 34,000 140,000 40,000 0.09 0.83

Au 0 0 0 58 170 36 0.12 0.8

Ag 0 0 0 280 1,400 430 0.09 0.87

Rock 0 0 0 560 1,200 290 0.15 0.69

Table 13b. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9014b, Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey sub-tract, Iran and Turkey.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

1 6 15 15 15 7.1 5.0 70 5 12 58,300 21

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 560,000 16,000,000 65,000,000 97,000,000 27,000,000 0.34 0.07

Mo 0 0 310,000 1,900,000 3,100,000 760,000 0.27 0.13

Au 0 0 390 1,700 2,500 700 0.33 0.11

Ag 0 0 3,300 22,000 37,000 9,300 0.26 0.18

Rock 0 140 3,500 13,000 19,000 5,500 0.36 0.07

Table 13c. Probabilistic assessment for sub-tract 142pCu9014c, Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran.
150 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 49. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo computer simulation of 

undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Iran, and Turkey. A, Sub-tract 142pCu9014a, Azerbaijan—Western Turkey, Turkey. B, Sub-tract 142pCu9014b, 

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey, Iran and Turkey. C, Sub-tract 142pCu9014c, Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran, Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, and Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 49A.

142pCu9014a_Azerbaijan_CumFreq.ai

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

A

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Mean rock

Mean Ag

Mean Au

Mean Mo

Mean Cu

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

B
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 151

(Kociumbas and Page, 2009). The deposit is located about 40 km 

southeast of the Au-Cu Çöpler-Karakartal porphyry district (see 

Anatolide-Tauride tract above) of eastern Turkey. However, unlike 

the early Eocene Çöpler and Karakartal systems, recent Re-Os age 

dating at Cevizlidere indicates a younger late Oligocene (26 Ma) 

mineralization age (Marinov and others, 2011). Furthermore, the 

Cu-Mo metal association of the calc-alkaline Cevizlidere Cu-Mo 

porphyry deposit contrasts with the Au-(Cu) association of the 

older more alkalic Çöpler and Karakartal porphyry systems. If 

this younger age date correctly constrains porphyry mineralization 

at the Cevizlidere deposit, Oligocene-Miocene magmatism in 

eastern Turkey is not only permissive, but also favorable for the 

occurrence of porphyry copper systems.

At the Cevizlidere porphyry deposit, early synmineral 

“crowded” dacitic porphyry intrusions, to late postmineral 

diorite stock and feldspar porphyry dikes intrude Mesozoic 

limestones overlain by Paleogene andesitic flows and pyroclastic 

rocks (Kociumbas and Page, 2009; Singer and others, 2008). 

Alteration and mineralization associations include deep early 

quartz-orthoclase-biotite-magnetite-chalcopyrite, which is 

overprinted by well-developed and mineralized “green” sericitechlorite-quartz-chalcopyrite, lesser quartz-sericite-pyrite and 

argillization, and minor supergene enrichment. Gold shows a 

positive correlation with copper, and molybdenum appears to be 

independently distributed. The quality and quantity of Cu-ZnPb-Ag skarn mineralization at Cevizlidere remains to be tested.

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects

The Oltu-Lisbek Cu-Au porphyry prospect is located north of 

the Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture in the eastern Sakarya Terrane, 

about 100 km north of the Oligocene-Miocene subduction-related 

belt defined by the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract. Its setting 

and age are not well constrained. This prospect could be Eocene in 

age (Aslan and others, 2010). Thus, porphyry-style mineralization 

at Oltu-Lisbek could be Late Cretaceous-Eocene (see Pontide 

(Asia)–NE Turkey sub-tract above) or Oligocene-Miocene. If 

Oligocene-Miocene, mineralization could further be associated to 

either the subduction-related setting delimited by the Azerbaijan–

Eastern Turkey sub-tract or the postcollisional setting defined by 

the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract (see below).

The Oltu-Lisbek (also known as Erzurum-Oltu-İnanmış 

or Oltu-Erzurum) Cu-Au porphyry prospect lies along a 

northeast-trending chaotically overthrusted Late Cretaceous to 

late Paleocene ophiolitic belt that includes Jurassic-Cretaceous 

mafic volcanic rocks (Sezerer Kuru and others, 2010; Özkümüş, 

2009). The belt is bordered to the south by an Eocene marine 

clastic and volcanic succession overlain by Oligocene-Miocene 

continental evaporitic, clastic, and andesitic-basaltic units. 

Jurassic-Cretaceous mafic volcanic rocks are intruded by felsic, 

intermediate, and mafic porphyry dikes and typical porphyrystyle alteration. Alteration is represented by quartz stockworks 

and breccias within clay, limonite, pyrite, chlorite, and epidote 

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Figure 49C.

142pCu9014c_Azerbaijan_CumFreq.ai

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION

C

Figure 49.—Continued
152 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

zones (Sezerer Kuru and others, 2010). Mineralization consists of 

chalcopyrite and bornite, and anomalous gold values have been 

detected in soil and rock samples (Özkümüş, 2009).

In addition, a Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene age for 

the probably younger Mamlis, Silic, and Sin Cu-Mo porphyry 

prospects that occur in the vicinity of the Cevizlidere porphyry 

deposit has not been confirmed. These three prospects could be 

Oligocene-Miocene, and thus belong to the younger Azerbaijan–

Eastern Turkey sub-tract, rather than the older Anatolide-Tauride–

Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract (see above).

Preservation Level

As derived from the 1:500,000-scale geologic map 

of Turkey (General Directorate of Mineral Research and 

Exploration, 2000), older basement units underlie 26 percent 

of the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract, whereas late 

Eocene to early Miocene permissive volcanic rocks occupy 

18 percent of the sub-tract (fig. 48). The proportion of area 

underlain by permissive plutonic rocks is negligible. Broadly 

coeval nonpermissive mafic, sedimentary and volcanosedimentary units constitute 10 percent of the sub-tract area, 

and younger rocks cover the remaining 46 percent of the subtract area.

Overall, the {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 

nearly 100 suggests levels of preservation for porphyry systems 

that are too shallow. However, the existence of Cevizlidere implies 

that other porphyry deposits are likely present under younger 

cover rocks, which occupy almost half of the tract area.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) 

was used to confirm the location and character of regional 

geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane 

boundaries). The correlation between the aeromagnetic 

anomaly map and the narrow subduction-related belt of 

Oligocene-Miocene age that is exposed across eastern 

Turkey is unclear. Much of this region is covered by older 

and younger mafic-dominated units that mask the magnetic 

signature associated with late Eocene to early Miocene rocks. 

The Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract occurs within a 

broad negative Bouguer gravity anomaly that reflects the 

isostatically thickened continental crust of eastern Turkey and 

the Caucasus (Ates and others, 1999).

As seen on the regional-scale aeromagnetic map of 

Maus and others (2009), the Cevizlidere porphyry deposit and 

the Mamlis, Sin, and Silic prospects lie along a corridor of 

intermediate magnetic susceptibility that is located between a 

magnetic high to the north and a magnetic low to the south.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Resource data were insufficient to classify the Cevizlidere 

porphyry deposit into a Cu-Au or Cu-Mo porphyry subtype 

according to the criteria based on Au/Mo ratios and gold 

and molybdenum contents. However, available information 

support a Cu-Mo-(Au) metal association for Cevizlidere. 

Pooled t-test results assuming equal variances show that this 

deposit is not significantly different at the 1-percent level from 

tonnages and copper and gold grades in the general porphyry 

Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, 

this model was selected to estimate undiscovered copper, 

gold, molybdenum, and silver resources in the Azerbaijan–

Eastern Turkey sub-tract. Compared with the median tonnage 

and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, the 

Cevizlidere deposit contains larger tonnage, lower copper, and 

comparable gold grades.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the part of the Azerbaijan tract in eastern Turkey, 

geologic factors favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) a subduction-related back-arc 

(and (or) intraoceanic arc?) setting, (2) dominant calc-alkaline 

compositions, (3) appropriate levels of exposure of porphyryskarn systems along deformed and uplifted accretionary 

prisms, (4) one deposit (Cevizlidere) with larger tonnage but 

lower copper grade relative to the median porphyry deposit, 

and possibly (5) more porphyry prospects (including Mamlis, 

Sin, and Silic) of this age range, pending age confirmation. 

Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of undiscovered 

porphyry deposits include (1) a relatively small and waning 

magmatic event, (2) preservation levels that are in general too 

shallow for porphyry systems, and (3) large areas covered by 

younger rocks.

The low density of known porphyry deposits in this 

sub-tract relative to other tracts of equivalent size around the 

world suggests that the occurrence of undiscovered deposits is 

likely. However, the relatively low number of known porphyry 

occurrences suggests that these may be largely buried under 

coeval volcanic and younger cover and (or) that limited 

exploration for porphyry copper deposits of this age range has 

occurred in this region.

The assessment team established that the Azerbaijan–Eastern 

Turkey sub-tract exhibited low geological favorability and that 

estimates of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

could only be carried out with high uncertainty. However, the tract 

would contribute significant copper resources from undiscovered 

deposits to the overall assessment. Therefore, quantitative 

assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract was warranted. 

Table 13b–A shows the team estimates for undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits in the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract. The 

team reached a consensus estimate of 0, 0, 1 undiscovered deposits 

for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, respectively, 

which resulted in a mean of 0.33 undiscovered deposits with a 

standard deviation of 0.62 (Cv

%=189). The result reflects the level 

of favorability and high uncertainty assessed for this sub-tract. 

The estimate was influenced by levels of exposure for porphyry 

systems that were deemed too shallow and a sub-tract that is 

furthermore largely covered by younger rocks.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 153

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimated for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 13b–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

copper resources in the Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey porphyry 

sub-tract is 1.5 Mt. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are 

also presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 49B). The 

cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities of 

occurrence-estimated resources and total mineralized rock, as well 

as the mean for each commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran Sub-tract 

(142pCu9014c)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; 

Berger and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry 

copper model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Eocene to early Miocene 

postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian 

Metallogenic Belt

Magmatism

The Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract covers an area of 

58,300 km2 (fig. 47). Permissive igneous units used to define this 

sub-tract (appendix B) are shown in figure 48, along with locations 

of igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

this section.

The late Eocene to early Miocene volcano-plutonic belt of 

northern Iran and the Lesser Caucasus can be divided into eastern 

(Talysh-Alborz) and western (Lesser Caucasus-Arasbaran-Tarom) 

sectors. The eastern sector is underlain by Eocene-Oligocene 

shales, interlayered shoshonitic and alkaline mafic and felsic tuffs 

and lavas (Dilek and others, 2010), evaporites, and sedimentary 

rocks, but there are few intrusions (Jamali and others, 2010; 

Bazargani-Guilani and others, 2008; Adamia and others, 2010). 

In contrast, the western sector consists mainly of EoceneOligocene calc-alkaline and shoshonitic volcano-sedimentary and 

volcanic rocks intruded by numerous Oligocene-Miocene high-K 

calc-alkaline granodioritic, monzonitic, syenitic, and younger 

lamprophyric intrusions (Azizi and Jahangiri, 2008; Alavi, 1996; 

Aghazadeh and others, 2010, 2011; Jamali and others, 2012; 

Adamia and others, 2011; Lordkipanidze and others, 1989). U-Pb 

age dates show that the majority of high-K calc-alkaline plutons 

were emplaced about 31 Ma and that monzonitic and syenitic 

plutons were intruded between 29–27 and 26–24 Ma, respectively 

(Aghazadeh and others, 2012). In Armenia and Nakhchivan, 

the composite Eocene-Miocene Ordubad Batholith includes 

Oligocene-Miocene (32–17 Ma) gabbros, diorites, granodiorites, 

granites, monzonites, and quartz syenites (Adamia and others, 

2011; Dilek and others, 2010; Khain, 1975).

This extension-related magmatic belt projects from the 

Lesser Caucasus into northeastern Turkey. However, in this 

region it consists mainly of volcano-sedimentary-dominated 

successions. These nonpermissive units are not included in the 

sub-tract.

Oligocene-Miocene plutonic rocks of the Lesser CaucasusArasbaran-Tarom sector (fig. 48) are represented by the 

Khankandi, Shaivar Dagh and Sungun batholiths. The Oligocene 

(33.6–23.7 Ma) Khankandi Batholith intrudes a ~4-km-thick 

Eocene andesite, basaltic andesite, dacitic tuff, and trachyandesite 

back-arc succession. It consists of an early partly porphyritic calcalkaline granodioritic suite that is intruded by a volumetrically 

more extensive shoshonitic gabbroic-monzogabbroic-monzonitic 

suite and late lamprophyric and dacitic dikes. Both suites exhibit 

similar metasomatized mantle-derived radiogenic isotope ratios. 

However, a subduction-related signature is preserved in the older 

granodioritic suite (Aghazadeh and others, 2010). Results from 

Al-in-Hornblende barometry indicate very shallow subvolcanic 

emplacement depths for the early granodiorite (with emplacement 

pressures around 0.2 kb).

The Oligocene Shaivar Dagh Batholith intrudes 

Late Cretaceous and Eocene marine volcano-sedimentary 

successions with intercalated calc-alkaline and shoshonitic 

volcanic flows. As the Khankandi Batholith, the Shaivar Dagh 

Batholith is composed of an early and a late intrusive suite. 

The early suite consists of 33–31 Ma calc-alkaline gabbrodioritic, porphyritic hornblende-biotite granodioritic, and late 

peraluminous biotite-garnet granite dikes. The more voluminous 

late suite consists of 25.1–23.3-Ma nepheline-bearing 

monzodiorite and monzonite stocks and associated pegmatitic 

dikes (Aghazadeh and others, 2011). With the exception of 

evolved garnet-biotite granites, which appear to have been 

derived from assimilation of subducted sediments, older and 

younger suites of the Shaivar Dagh Batholith exhibit radiogenic 

isotope signatures that are similar to those of the Khankandi 

Batholith. Barometric estimates indicate a large range of 

emplacement depths based on emplacement pressures between 

0.4 and 2.0 kb (Moazzen and Modjarrad, 2005; Aghazadeh 

and others, 2011). These estimates suggest variable levels of 

exposure likely produced by normal faulting.

The early Miocene (19–21 Ma; Aghazadeh and others, 

2012) Sungun plutonic complex is younger than the Oligocene 

Khankandi and Shaivar Dagh batholiths. It consists of biotitehornblende monzonite to quartz monzonite and high-K calcalkaline hornblende-biotite diorite and granodiorite porphyry 

stocks. These intrude Late Cretaceous carbonate rocks, Eocene 

arenaceous-argillaceous rocks, and Oligocene dacitic breccias, 

tuffs, and trachyandesitic lavas. Porphyry stocks are in turn cut by 

four sets of trachyandesitic dikes (Hezarkhani, 2006e; Asghari and 

Hezarkhani, 2010; Calagari, 2003). Stratigraphic reconstructions 

show that the maximum depth of porphyry intrusion was about 2 

km (Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones, 1998).

In contrast to the older Khankandi and Shaivar Dagh 

batholiths, which do not host any known large porphyry-related 

systems, the Sungun plutonic suite exhibits a reverse order of 

intrusion. The alkaline monzonite/quartz-monzonite suite was 

intruded before the calc-alkaline diorite/granodiorite suite, which 

introduced the bulk of the mineralization that formed the worldclass Sungun Cu-Mo porphyry-skarn deposit.
154 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Mineralization in the eastern (Talysh-Alborz) sector of 

the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract includes MVT and 

replacement lead-zinc occurrences that are hosted by Late 

Cretaceous and older sedimentary rocks. The eastern (TalyshAlborz) sector of the sub-tract does not host major porphyry 

occurrences (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; Azizi and Moinevaziri, 

2009; Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e). Only two Mo-Cubearing porphyry-related prospects have been identified (Darvan 

and Senj). These appear as two individual localities in the 

Geological Survey of Iran (2012a, e) databases but may be the 

same (see fig. 47).

The southern segment (Tarom) of the western (Lesser 

Caucasus-Arasbaran-Tarom) sector of the Azerbaijan–CaucasusIran sub-tract has been divided into acid-sulfate alunitic, lowsulfidation kaolinitic, and base-metal vein and replacement 

metallogenic zones from north to south (Mirnejad and others, 

2011; Barzagani-Guilani and others, 2008; Förster, 1978). In 

this segment, deeper porphyry and skarn mineralization are 

associated with precious metal acid-sulfate and precious and basemetal low-sulfidation epithermal occurrences (Samani, 1998). 

Identified Cu-Mo and Cu-Au porphyry and porphyry-related 

prospects included in the database (appendix D) are Alvand, 

Diz Jin, Hashtrud, Loban Zardeh, Mendejin, Sheykh Darabad, 

Shoorazgah, and Tarom (fig. 47).

The northern segment (Lesser Caucasus-Arasbaran) of 

the western (Lesser Caucasus-Arasbaran-Tarom) sector of the 

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract hosts 5 known porphyry 

deposits (including the world-class Sungun and Kadjaran mines, 

the Haft Cheschmeh and Masjed Daghi deposits, currently in 

development, and the historic Ankavan porphyry-skarn mine), 35 

porphyry prospects, and an additional 7 possible porphyry-related 

occurrences (fig. 47, table 2, appendix C). From north to south, the 

Lesser Caucasus-Arasbaran segment has been metallogenetically 

separated into (1) calc-alkaline granodiorite to more alkaline 

monzonite-related Cu-Mo porphyry and skarn systems, (2) goldsilver acid-sulfate and base-metal low-sulfidation epithermal 

systems, and (3) monzonite to diorite-related acid-sulfate and 

associated Cu-Au porphyry systems (Jamali and others, 2010; 

Somarin and others, 2005).

The northern sector of the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran subtract contains the Ankavan porphyry deposit (Mining Journal, 

2005), located in northern Armenia, and possibly also the Oltu 

Lisbek-Inanmis prospect (see Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey sub-tract 

above) in northeastern Turkey (Özkümüş, 2009; Sezerer Kuru and 

others, 2010). The Ankavan and Oltu Lisbek-Inanmis porphyry 

systems are spatially associated with adularia-sericite (Wheatley 

and Acheson, 2011) and acid-sulfate epithermal systems (Barnett 

and others, 2011), respectively.

Kadjaran Porphyry Deposit

The world-class Kadjaran Cu-Mo-Au porphyry deposit 

is located in southern Armenia. It has reported resources of 

1,700 Mt at 0.27 percent copper, 0.055 percent molybdenum, 

0.65 g/t gold, and 2 g/t silver (Singer and others, 2008). This 

deposit is characterized by high molybdenum and gold grades 

(Zvezdov and others, 1993; Mining Journal, 2005).

At the late Oligocene Kadjaran deposit (27 Ma; Moritz 

and others, 2012), early Eocene volcanic rocks are intruded by 

a late Oligocene alkalic to calc-alkalic monzonite-granodioritegranite pluton, which is estimated to have been emplaced at a 

1.5-km depth (Murakami and others, 2010). K-silicate and sericite 

alteration are overprinted by advanced argillic alteration (Gilmour 

and others, 1995). Mineralization consists of chalcopyrite, bornite, 

and molybdenite with minor sphalerite and tetrahedrite-tennantite 

(Tarkian and Stribrny, 1999).

Ankavan Porphyry Deposit

The relatively small but molybdenum-rich Ankavan 

Cu-Mo-Au porphyry-skarn deposit is located in northern Armenia. 

It has a reported resource of 115 Mt at 0.57 percent copper, 

0.054 percent molybdenum, and 1.42 g/t gold (Mining Journal, 

2005). At this early Oligocene (33 Ma; Singer and others, 2008) 

deposit, granodiorite and syenite porphyry dikes intrude a gabbroplagiogranite pluton emplaced into limestone and schist. Sulfide 

minerals include bornite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, scheelite, 

galena sphalerite, tennantite, covellite, chalcocite, as well as 

tellurides (Singer and others, 2008; Zvezdov and others, 1993; 

Mining Journal, 2005).

Sungun Porphyry Deposit

The world-class Sungun Cu-Mo-(Au-Ag) porphyry deposit is 

located in northern Iran. It was discovered in 1977 (Etminan, 1977, 

2003). Previous resources were 740 Mt at 0.661 percent copper and 

0.024 percent molybdenum, and an inferred resource of 1,700 Mt 

(Singer and others, 2008). Recent data now estimate proven and 

probable reserves at 846 Mt at 0.6 percent copper at a 0.15 percent 

cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012).

The Sungun deposit is an early Miocene (Aghazadeh 

and others, 2012) porphyry-skarn system related to shallowly 

emplaced (±2 km) high-K calc-alkaline hornblende-biotite diorite 

and granodiorite porphyry stocks (Hezarkhani and WilliamsJones, 1998; Jamali and others, 2010). These stocks intrude Late 

Cretaceous carbonate rocks, Eocene arenaceous-argillaceous rocks, 

and Oligocene dacitic breccias, tuffs and trachyandesitic lavas. 

Four sets of largely postmineral subvolcanic dikes cut the porphyry 

stocks (Hezarkhani, 1997, 2006e; Asghari and Hezarkhani, 2010; 

Calagari, 2003). Alteration consists of a K-silicate core, deep albite, 

and overprinting quartz-sericite zones. Cu-Mo mineralization is 

contained in both the potassic and phyllic zones, with molybdenum 

introduced at an early stage (Hezarkhani and others, 1999; Calagari, 

2004; Samani, 1998). Garnet-pyroxene and later epidote, actinolite, 

and chlorite skarn and associated pyrite and magnetite-hematite with 

chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite mineralization occurs along the 

eastern and northern margin of the intrusive complex (Hezarkhani, 

1997; Calagari and Hosseinzadeh, 2006; Somarin and others, 2005). 

Supergene mineralization is restricted to a thin blanket of chalcocite, 

covellite, and minor bornite, native copper, and cuprite below the 

leached cap. Supergene processes do not appear to have raised 

overall copper grades (Calagari, 2003).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 155

Haft Cheshmeh Porphyry Deposit

The Haft Cheshmeh porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposit located 

in northern Iran is in development. Current proven and probable 

reserves are estimated at 184 Mt at 0.26 percent copper at a 0.15 

percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 

2012). The plutonic complex consists of a gabbrodioritemonzodiorite intruded by a granodiorite porphyry stock, which 

hosts an alteration zone with well-developed K-silicate, quartzsericite, and argillic hydrothermal associations. Mineralization 

occurs mainly in A-type but also D-type quartz veins (Hassanpour 

and others, 2010; Hassanpour and Afzal, 2013).

Masjed Daghi Porphyry Deposit

The Masjed Daghi acid-sulfate and porphyry Cu-Au-

(Mo) deposit is located in northern Iran. It has reported proven 

and probable reserves of 204 Mt at 0.34 percent copper at 

a 0.15 percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries 

Company, 2012). Here, Eocene andesite, trachyandesite, 

dacite, tuffs, and agglomerates are intruded by a shallow 

diorite porphyry (Alirezaei and others, 2008; Jamali and 

others, 2010). Auriferous veins cut the porphyry stock and 

are surrounded by more or less concentric alteration zones of 

kaolinite, vuggy quartz, alunite, and chlorite alteration. Basemetal mineralization occurs in brecciated quartz and quartzbarite veins with pyrite and lesser chalcopyrite, molybdenite, 

sphalerite, and galena. Gold in free form and in sulfides occurs 

in concentrations that range between 0.1 and 30 ppm (Ebrahimi, 

2011; Geological Survey of Iran, 2010). With increasing depth, 

acid-sulfate alteration gives way to deeper phyllic and potassic 

alteration with copper (1,000 to greater than 10,000 ppm), 

molybdenum (50–400 ppm), and arsenic (100–3,000 ppm) 

(Alirezaei and others, 2008).

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects and Possible PorphyryRelated Mineral Occurrences

In the eastern (Talysh-Alborz) sector of the sub-tract in 

northern Iran, the Senj Mo-(Cu-Au) porphyry prospect consists 

of a gabbro and monzogabbro to monzodiorite porphyry complex 

that intruded and contact-metamorphosed Eocene pyroclastic 

rocks. High potassium and anomalous copper, gold, and 

molybdenum contents suggest association with an alkalic pluton 

and (or) the presence of K-silicate alteration (Farahkhah and 

others, 2010).

In the western (Arasbaran) segment of the sub-tract in 

northern Iran, the 31-Ma Shaivar Dagh Batholith hosts several 

small deposits, including the Anjerd and Mazraeh porphyryrelated Cu-(Fe-Au) endo- and exo-skarns that developed at the 

contact of an intrusion with Upper Cretaceous carbonate rocks 

(Samani, 1998; Somarin and others, 2005; Jamali and others, 

2010; Aghazadeh and others, 2011). Hydrothermal alteration 

and related mineralization at the Anjerd skarn includes early 

garnet-pyroxene-wollastonite and associated magnetite and minor 

molybdenite (which is otherwise hosted by potassic alteration 

observed in the adjacent diorite-granodiorite stock) and later 

tremolite-actinolite-epidote-quartz. Associated magnetite and 

lesser hematite are more prominent in the exoskarn, whereas 

copper sulfides occur mainly within the endoskarn (Hezarkhani, 

2006c; Mollai and others, 2009). The Mazraeh skarn is also 

associated with a calc-alkaline granodiorite pluton. The skarn 

mineralogy consists of early pyroxene-garnet and late scapolite, 

actinolite-tremolite, epidote, chlorite, calcite, and quartz. 

Mineralization consists of chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite, 

hematite, bornite, covellite, and chalcocite (Somarin, 2004, 2006, 

2010; Mollai and others, 2009).

Also in the western (Arasbaran) segment of the 

sub-tract in northernmost Iran, the Oligocene-Miocene 

or younger Miveh-Rud Cu-Mo-(W) porphyry-skarn and 

epithermal Au-Ag-Sb prospect is hosted by a thick sequence 

of Paleocene sandstone, shale, siltstone, marl, and marly 

limestone that were intruded by a granodiorite to quartz 

monzonite porphyritic intrusion and trachyandesitic to dacitic 

dikes (Einali and Alirezai, 2005; Jamali and others, 2010). 

The porphyry system exhibits potassic, propylitic, sericitic, 

and argillic alteration. Early porphyry and skarn copper, 

bismuth, tungsten, and molybdenum mineralization is located 

in the southern part of the intrusive complex, whereas late 

epithermal gold, silver, and antimony mineralization occurs in 

the northern part (Jamali and others, 2010).

In the western (Lesser Caucasus) segment of the subtract in Armenia and Nakhchivan, other possible porphyryrelated prospects include Aramazd (Cu-Mo-Au-Ag-Pb-Zn), 

Bartsravan-Brnakot (Cu-Mo-Au-Pb), Balishen (Cu-Au-AgMo-Pb), and Hankasar (Cu-Mo-Au-Ag) (Mining Journal, 

2011a; Wikipedia, 2013a; Azerbaijan Ministry of Ecology and 

Natural Resources, [2006?]). However, the deposit type and 

age of these occurrences is uncertain. They are not included in 

appendix D.

Preservation Level

As derived from the geologic maps of Huber (1978) and 

Kekelia and others (2001), older basement units underlie 45 

percent the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract, whereas late 

Eocene to early Miocene permissive volcanic and plutonic rocks 

occupy 7 and 6 percent of the sub-tract, respectively (fig. 48). 

Broadly coeval nonpermissive mafic, sedimentary and volcanosedimentary units constitute only 4 percent of the sub-tract area, 

and younger rocks cover the remaining 38 percent of the sub-tract 

area.

The {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 55 suggests 

levels of crustal preservation that are appropriate for porphyry 

copper systems, particularly in the Arasbaran segment of the subtract in northern Iran and the southern Lesser Caucasus. Deeper 

and shallower levels of porphyry system preservation exist in the 

Talysh-Alborz and the Tarom parts of the sub-tract. Overall, the 

large number of exposed porphyry deposits and prospects in the 

Arasbaran segment of the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract 

suggest that concurrent and postmineral uplift, erosion, and burial 

events occurred only to the extent that favorably exposed porphyry 

systems of this age range.
156 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). 

Prominent positive anomalies coincide well with OligoceneMiocene batholiths in the western Lesser Caucasus-ArasbaranTarom sector of the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract. In this 

part of the tract, Oligocene-Miocene porphyry copper systems 

generally straddle the boundaries of magnetic highs. Another 

prominent anomaly occurs in the southernmost part of the subtract in the Central Iranian Terrane. This is an area dominated by 

Oligocene-Miocene andesite lava flows. No intrusions or porphyry 

occurrences are reported from this area. Conversely, only smaller 

and more isolated anomalies occur in the eastern (Talysh-Alborz) 

sector of the tract in northern Iran, where Mesozoic and older 

sedimentary formations are more common.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars, 2014), available for 65 

percent of the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract segment of 

northern Iran, were used to evaluate potential hydrothermal 

alteration that could be associated with unidentified porphyry 

systems.

Of the 108 ASTER-derived alteration zones, 30 occur 

in the Arasbaran segment of the tract. Here, 12 are associated 

with younger Pliocene-Holocene rocks, and 4 are spatially 

related to the Sungun, Dustbeiglu, Shirin Daragh, and Miveh 

Rud porphyry sites, respectively. Prominent phyllic alteration 

ASTER-derived alteration zones occur at Sungun and 

Dustbeiglu. Of the remaining 14 ASTER alteration zones, 

two are spatially related to iron and base-metal occurrences, 

respectively. The origin of the other 12 ASTER-derived 

alteration zones is unknown. They could be related to older, 

Oligocene-Miocene, or younger hydrothermal systems. Two 

of them exhibit well-developed ASTER-derived phyllic and 

argillic alteration zones, and two additional alteration zones are 

dominated by phyllic and argillic alteration halos, respectively. 

Thus, ASTER-derived alteration data could indicate the 

presence of perhaps four additional unidentified porphyry 

systems of late Eocene to early Miocene age in the Arasbaran 

sector of the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract.

Of the 78 ASTER-derived alteration zones distributed across 

the epithermal-dominated Tarom segment of the tract to the south, 

18 are associated with younger Pliocene-Holocene rocks, and 8 

are spatially related to known mineral occurrences (including the 

Tarom, Sheykh Darabad, Mendejin, and Baycheh Bagh porphyry 

and porphyry-related prospects). The remaining 52 ASTERderived alteration zones could be related to older, OligoceneMiocene, or younger hydrothermal systems. However, welldeveloped ASTER-derived phyllic, phyllic-argillic, and argillic 

alteration zones are few. Hence, across the Tarom segment of the 

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract, ASTER-derived alteration 

data suggest the existence of a few sites of potential hydrothermal 

alteration that could be associated with unidentified porphyryrelated systems of late Eocene to early Miocene age.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

According to the criteria based on Au/Mo ratios and gold and 

molybdenum contents, the Masjed Daghi and Kadjaran deposits 

belong to the Cu-Au and Cu-Mo porphyry deposit subtype 

categories, respectively. Resource data are not sufficient to classify 

the Ankavan, Haft Cheshmeh, or Sungun deposits. However, 

available information support a Cu-Mo-(Au) association for these 

deposits, as well as a large number of other porphyry prospects 

in the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract. Pooled t-test results 

assuming equal variances show that the five known deposits in 

the tract are not significantly different at the 1-percent level from 

tonnages and grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model 

of Singer and others (2008). Therefore, this model was selected 

to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver 

resources. In comparison with the median tonnage and grade in the 

general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, the Sungun deposit is larger 

and contains higher copper and molybdenum grades; the Kadjaran 

deposit is also larger but exhibits lower copper grade. Furthermore, 

Kadjaran and Ankavan show higher molybdenum and gold grades 

than the median deposit in the model, whereas Haft Cheshmeh and 

Masjed Daghi are smaller and also exhibit lower copper grades. 

Masjed Daghi contains more gold than the median deposit in the 

model. However, this gold appears to be mostly associated with 

the overlying acid-sulfate system.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

In the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract, geologic factors 

favorable for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry deposits 

include (1) relatively large postcollisional magmatic belt built on 

attenuated warm crust, (2) permissive calc-alkaline and alkaline 

magmatism, (3) shallow to intermediate levels of exposure 

of Cu-Au and Cu-Mo porphyry-skarn systems, (4) operating 

porphyry copper deposits with substantially larger than median 

tonnages and subequal copper but higher molybdenum and 

gold grades (for example, Kadjaran, Sungun), and (5) perhaps 

as many as 10 sites of ASTER-derived potential hydrothermal 

alteration associated with possible unidentified porphyry systems. 

Unfavorable factors for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry 

deposits include (1) possible disparate levels of exposure related to 

relatively large displacements along synmineral and postmineral 

normal faults and (2) local volcanic-dominated preservation levels 

that appear too shallow for exposure of porphyry systems (for 

example, southernmost sector of the tract).

The lower density of known porphyry deposits in the 

sub-tract compared to other tracts of equivalent size around the 

world suggests that the occurrence of undiscovered deposits is 

likely. Extensive exploration in the well-endowed and adequately 

exposed Arasbaran region of the sub-tract is further supported 

by the high number of known porphyry occurrences (Jamali and 

others, 2010).

The assessment team established that the Azerbaijan–

Caucasus-Iran sub-tract was exceptionally favorable and that 

estimates of numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 157

could be carried out with low uncertainty. Therefore, quantitative 

assessment of undiscovered deposits in this tract was completed. 

Table 13c–A shows the team estimates for undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits in the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract. The 

team reached a consensus estimate of 1, 6, and 15 undiscovered 

deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, 

respectively, which resulted in a mean of 7.13 undiscovered 

deposits with a standard deviation of 5.01 (Cv%=70). The estimate 

reflects the level of favorability and low uncertainty assessed for 

this sub-tract. The resulting total deposit density per 100,000 km2

obtained is comparable to the median porphyry deposit density 

expected in well-explored tracts of equivalent size elsewhere 

around the world (Singer and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 13c–B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

resources in the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract is 27 Mt 

of copper. Undiscovered copper resources in this sub-tract are 

estimated to amount to about 2.3 times the copper that has already 

been identified. However, these resources may be inaccessible 

or uneconomic at present. Furthermore, a substantial fraction of 

the inventory can be expected to be distributed among numerous 

already identified small prospects or known deposits with resource 

bases that are undefined or only partially defined at present.

Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as 

cumulative frequency plots (fig. 49C). The cumulative frequency 

plots show the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated 

resources and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.

Yazd Tract (142pCu9015)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry copper 

model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Middle Eocene to middle Miocene back 

arc and continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Yazd tract located in central Iran covers an area 

of 25,700 km2 (fig. 50). It delimits a continuously exposed 

550-km-long and 50–90-km-wide middle Eocene to middle 

Miocene continental arc along the central segment of the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt. To the southwest, the Yazd tract 

is bounded by the suture between the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central 

Iranian Terranes (fig. 3), which is roughly marked by a southwestvergent thrust fault system best recognized in the northern and 

central parts along the tract boundary. To the northeast, the Yazd 

tract is delimited by the Saveh-Rafsanjan Basin (fig. 51) and 

by a series of northeast-vergent en-echelon thrust faults (Alavi, 

1994). To the southeast, the Yazd tract terminates against the 

ophiolite-bearing right-lateral strike-slip Dehshir Fault, which 

separates it from the Kerman tract to the south (Moghadam and 

others, 2010). The northwestern boundary of the Yazd tract marks 

the extent of the exposed arc, which may terminate or continue to 

the northwest under thick Eocene volcano-sedimentary-dominated 

successions, coeval Oligocene-Miocene sedimentary rocks, and 

younger terrestrial deposits (Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009).

Tectonic Setting

Several scenarios have been proposed for the origin and 

subsequent evolution of the Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene 

igneous rocks that occupy much of central Iran (Berberian 

and Berberian, 1981; Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006; Arfania 

and Shahriari, 2009; Agard and others, 2011). However, it is 

generally accepted that Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene oblique 

subduction along the Bitlis-Zagros zone produced an Andean-type 

continental arc in the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (see Border Folds 

tract above) and an associated back arc (see Esfahan tract above) 

in the Central Iranian Terrane.

By middle Eocene times, the arc axis migrated from the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane onto the Central Iranian Terrane. Igneous 

rocks associated with this arc-building event are well preserved 

along the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt in this region (Kazmin 

and others, 1986).

Along the central (Yazd) segment of the UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt, arc migration caused uplift and 

emplacement of middle-late Eocene calc-alkaline arc 

rocks overprinting earlier middle Eocene calc-alkaline to 

alkaline back-arc successions (fig. 4E). This was followed 

by significant extension, subsidence, and sedimentary basin 

formation during the Oligocene-Miocene, and renewed uplift 

and subduction-related calc-alkaline to alkaline magmatism 

intruding thinned crust in the early-middle Miocene (fig. 4F). 

In central Iran, subduction-related arc magmatism terminated 

by the middle Miocene with the oblique collision between 

the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin (Agard and 

others, 2005; Allen and Armstrong, 2008). This collision 

initiated southwest- vergent folds and thrusts (fig. 4G), as well 

as oblique cross-cutting dextral strike-slip faults along the 

Bitlis-Zagros Suture (Jackson and McKenzie, 1984). In the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt, deformation and uplift were 

accompanied by late Miocene-Holocene postcollisional alkalic 

magmatism (Omrani and others, 2008).

Magmatism

Permissive igneous rocks used to define the Yazd tract 

(appendix B) are shown in figure 51, along with geologic 

features described in this section. The Yazd tract delineates 

the middle-late Eocene back-arc and arc and early-middle 

Miocene arc magmatic events mentioned above. Magmatism 

along this segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt 

can be summarized as (1) early Eocene deposition of backarc volcaniclastic sequences interlayered with tholeiitic and 

calc-alkaline ignimbritic, as well as andesitic to rhyodacitic 

units (Torabi, 2009); (2) unconformable deposition of middle 
158 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 50. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9015, 

Yazd—Iran. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

Qahan

Dalli

Kesheh

Zefreh

Rangan

Qamsar

Kahyaz

Kahrud

Kahang

Zafarghand

Shiraz Koh

Sharif Abad

Kuh Sang Mes

Chah-e Khattab

South of Ardestan

IRAN

51° E 54° E

34° N

32° N

40° E 60° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

RUSSIA

CASPIAN SEA

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 52° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9015

Porphyry copper prospect

Porphyry copper deposit

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

ARABIAN

SEA

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 159

Figure 51. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9015, 

Yazd—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic BeltUrumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt

Deshir Fault

Dalli

(North Hill, Central Hill,

and South Hill)

Natanz

Bitlis-Zagros SututreBitlis-Zagros Sututre

Saveh-Rafsanjan Basin

Odeh

IRAN

51°E 54°E

34°N

32°N

40°E 60°E

40°N 

20°N 

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

RUSSIA

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 52° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Geologic feature discussed in the text

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9015

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

Natanz

Area of map
160 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Eocene back-arc volcaniclastic sequences with interbedded 

mafic to felsic alkalic rocks of continental arc affinity (Torabi, 

2009; Sepahi and Malvandi, 2008) and middle to late Eocene 

intrusion of the Older Natanz Batholith suite of calc-alkaline 

mafic to felsic plutons (Berberian and others, 1982; Haschke 

and others, 2010); (3) early Oligocene uplift and deposition 

of continental red beds of the Lower Red Formation (Reuter 

and others, 2009); (4) Oligocene-Miocene subsidence and 

deposition of the extensive shallow marine Qom Formation 

(Reuter and others, 2009; Morley and others, 2009); (5) early 

to middle Miocene (24–21 Ma) emplacement of the Younger 

Natanz Batholith suite of calc-alkaline to alkaline gabbro, 

diorite, quartz diorite, tonalite, granodiorite, quartz monzonite, 

and lesser monzogranite and syenogranite plutons (Haschke 

and others, 2010, and references therein); (6) middle Miocene 

collision, uplift, and deposition of continental red beds of the 

Upper Red Formation (Morley and others, 2009); and (7) late 

Miocene-Holocene emplacement of postcollisional calcalkaline and alkaline rocks (Jackson and McKenzie, 1984; 

Omrani and others, 2008; Khodami and others, 2010a, b).

Geochemical data of granitoids of the middle to late 

Eocene Older Natanz Batholith and early to middle Miocene 

Younger Natanz Batholith indicate a subduction-related arc 

affinity. However, geochemical signatures of granitoids from 

the Older Natanz Batholith indicate calc-alkaline Andean-type 

arc magmas derived from thick garnet-bearing asthenosphere, 

whereas geochemical signatures of granitoids from the 

Younger Natanz Batholith indicate calc-alkaline and alkaline 

magmas emplaced in thin or attenuated continental crust 

(Haschke and others, 2010).

In general, ages and geochemical characteristics of 

intrusive rocks in the Yazd tract are hard to distinguish from 

those associated with the Paleocene to middle Eocene and late 

Eocene-early Miocene extension-related tectono-magmatic 

events in central Iran (see Esfahan and Azerbaijan tracts 

above).

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

Porphyry Cu-Mo-Au, skarn Cu-(Co-Fe), epithermal 

base and precious metal, and exhalative Mn-Fe occurrences 

characterize the mineralization styles present in the Yazd tract 

(Samani, 1998; Moghadam and others, 2010). Two porphyry 

deposits (Dalli and Kahang), 8 porphyry prospects, and 5 other 

possible porphyry-related occurrences are included in this tract 

(table 2, appendix C, fig. 50). Porphyry systems in the Yazd 

arc segment are dominated by Cu-Mo-bearing associations, 

with the exception of the Dalli Cu-Au porphyry deposit and 

the Qahan and Kesheh porphyry-related acid sulfate gold 

prospects.

Available information on the porphyry occurrences in 

the Yazd tract is sparse. However, existing age constraints 

suggest that most of these porphyry systems are associated 

with the early to middle Miocene Younger Natanz Batholith. 

Dated granitic and rhyolitic porphyry intrusions exhibit an 

age range between 21.3 and 18.6 Ma (Berberian and others, 

1982; Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Haschke and others, 

2010). In addition, available geobarometric data include 

1.5–2-kb-emplacement pressures that support appropriate 

levels of preservation of porphyry-style mineralization 

(Shahrokhi and others, 2010; Honarmand and Ahmadian, 

2008). Descriptions of porphyry deposits and selected 

prospects in the Yazd tract are presented below.

Dalli Porphyry Deposit

The Dalli Cu-Au porphyry deposit located in the northern 

part of the Yazd tract is under development. It has reported 

proven reserves of 8 Mt with 0.5 percent copper and 0.75 g/t 

gold (Ayati and others, 2013). Current probable reserves stand 

at 76 Mt of 0.35 percent copper and 0.66 g/t gold (weighted 

average of South Hill and North Hill; Dorsa, 2013).

At the Dalli porphyry deposit, several early Miocene 

(21 Ma; Ayati and others, 2013) porphyritic diorite, quartz 

diorite, tonalite, and granodiorite stocks and late andesite dikes 

intrude Oligocene red beds, roughly coeval and comagmatic 

calc-alkaline basaltic-andesitic volcanics and andesiticrhyodacitic pyroclastic rocks (Haroni, 2005, 2008; Dorsa PLC, 

2012a; Singer and others, 2008). Al-in-hornblende data indicate 

an emplacement depth ranging between 3 and 12 km, based on 

pressures of 2.6±1.7 kb for the porphyry intrusions (Ayati and 

others, 2013). The Dalli deposit consists of three mineralized 

zones that lie along a 2.5-km-long NE trend—the North Hill, 

the Central Hill, and the South Hill. The larger mineralized 

zone occurs in the South Hill, which is underlain by porphyritic 

diorite and tonalite. Chalcopyrite, sparse bornite, and gold 

included in pyrite and chalcopyrite occur in a quartz stockwork 

within a 200- by 200-m alteration zone. Alteration minerals 

include secondary biotite, rare K-feldspar, magnetite, pyrite, 

chlorite, and specularite, which are overprinted by quartzsericite-pyrite. Weak argillic alteration surrounds potassic and 

phyllic alteration. Calcic alteration with epidote-actinolite occurs 

locally. The oxidized hematite, goethite, and jarosite lithocap 

includes malachite, azurite, and cuprite. A limited chalcocite 

and covellite supergene zone developed below. Mineralization 

in the Central Hill is hosted by porphyritic tonalite only, but 

otherwise mineralization exhibits the same characteristics as that 

in the South Hill. The North Hill intrusions consist of more felsic 

porphyritic granodiorites that display phyllic and locally argillic 

alteration with better developed limonites. The alteration zone 

here covers an area of 400 by 200 m (Ayati and others, 2008). 

Geochemical data on volcanic and subvolcanic rocks from the 

Dalli porphyry Cu-Au deposit support a subduction-related arc 

setting that evolved on relatively thin (30–35 km) continental 

crust (Ayati and others, 2013).

Kahang (Gor Gor) Porphyry Deposit

The Kahang Cu-Mo porphyry deposit located in the central 

part of the Yazd tract is under development. The deposit has 

reported proven and probable reserves of 38.74 Mt at 0.59 percent 

copper at a 0.25 percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries 

Company, 2012).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 161

The Kahang porphyry deposit is centered on three 

Oligocene-Miocene quartz monzonite and diorite porphyry 

stocks that intrude Eocene dacite and andesite (Afzal and 

others, 2010). Copper and molybdenum mineralization 

is hosted by tourmaline breccias and strong K-silicate 

and quartz-sericite alteration. The alteration zone covers 

an approximate area of 2 by 5 km (10 km2). Malachite, 

Cu-Mn oxide, jarosite, hematite, and goethite overprint 

intense hypogene quartz stockwork- and brecciacontrolled mineralization. Breccias show the highest 

copper and molybdenum grades (Dorsa PLC, 2012b; Afzal 

and others, 2010).

Qahan Porphyry Prospect

The Qahan Cu-Mo-bearing porphyry prospect (National 

Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012) is located in the 

northernmost part of the Yazd tract about 50 km north of 

the Dalli Cu-Au porphyry deposit. At the Qahan prospect, 

an Eocene sequence of pyroclastic, tuff, and volcanic rocks 

is intruded by several stocks, including a dacitic quartzeye porphyry intrusion (Dorsa PLC, 2012c). Associated 

quartz-sericite-pyrite stockworks and argillic alteration is 

present within a 300 m by 1,000 m area. The leached cap has 

malachite, goethite, jarosite, and local hematite. Preliminary 

sampling in the leached cap shows anomalous copper, gold 

and molybdenum values. An acid-sulfate gold system adjacent 

to this porphyry prospect has been mined in the past (Dorsa 

PLC, 2012c).

Qamsar Porphyry Prospect

In the Sharif Abad area, the Qamsar (Kashan) Mo-(Cu)-

bearing porphyry prospect (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; 

Geological Survey of Iran, 2012d) consists of Miocene calcalkaline I-type quartz gabbro, quartz diorite, granodiorite, and 

aplitic dikes that intrude Eocene volcanic (basaltic andesite, 

andesite, trachyandesite, trachyte, dacite, and rhyolite), 

pyroclastic (felsic tuff and agglomerate), and sedimentary 

(sandstone, shale, and limestone) rocks (Sepahi and 

Malvandi, 2008).

South of Ardestan and Sharif Abad Porphyry Prospects

These two porphyry copper prospects (Bazin and Hübner, 

1969a; Förster, 1978; Shahabpour and Kramers, 1987) are 

mentioned in the literature. However, little is known about 

their geology, alteration, mineralization, and resource base.

The South of Ardestan porphyry prospect is located 

about 30 km northwest of the Kahang deposit. In the area, 

Torabi (2009) reports the occurrence of late Eocene subaerial 

trachybasalt, tephriphonolite, trachyte, and trachydacite 

arc-related rocks, and Sepahi and Malvandi (2008) mention 

Miocene gabbro to diorite intrusions. Haschke and others 

(2010) further add that Eocene arc rocks are only moderately 

mineralized and that early Miocene granite porphyry 

intrusions are essentially barren.

The Sharif Abad porphyry-related skarn is located about 

90 km southeast of the Dalli deposit. This old mining locality 

is described as a Cu-Fe-Mo-Pb-Zn-W skarn that developed 

along the contact between an Oligocene-Miocene porphyritic 

diorite and limestone (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a). 

Molybdenum, lead, zinc, and tungsten occur in the ore mineral 

assemblage (chalcopyrite, bornite, and covellite, as well as 

malachite and azurite). These copper minerals are hosted by 

two subparallel specularite-magnetite-pyrite-bearing epidoteamphibole-garnet skarn zones. The skarn deposits are about 

2 m wide and 400 m long. Before the mine was abandoned in 

1962, 200 t of 10 percent copper was exported to the Soviet 

Union (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a).

Zafarghand Porphyry Prospect

The Zafarghand Cu-Mo-bearing porphyry prospect 

(National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012) is located 

about 30 km north of the Kahang deposit. It consists of largely 

covered 1.5- by 4.5-km K-silicate-magnetite-pyrite, quartzsericite, and kaolinite stockworks that developed in dacite 

porphyry and microdiorite stocks (Dorsa PLC, 2012d). These 

stocks intrude andesite. Weak to moderate secondary goethitejarosite-hematite and alunite are present in the lithocap. 

Samples from the potassic and phyllic alteration zones contain 

as much as 1,473 ppm copper and 158 ppm molybdenum. 

A lead-zinc prospect occurs in the vicinity of the porphyry 

system (Dorsa PLC, 2012d).

Zefreh Porphyry Prospect

The Zefreh porphyry Cu-Mo-bearing prospect (National 

Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012) is located about 

24 km northwest of the Kahang deposit. The prospect consists 

of a 2- by 5-km quartz-sericite and quartz-clay alteration zone 

around a dacite porphyry stock (Dorsa PLC, 2012e). Within 

the alteration zone and across the porphyry intrusion, an area 

of 600 by 1,500 m consists of strong quartz-sericite-pyrite 

stockworks and iron oxides (gothite+jarosite+hematite). 

Samples from the leached cap contain anomalous copper and 

molybdenum (Dorsa PLC, 2012e).

Other Porphyry-Related Prospects and Possible PorphyryRelated Mineral Occurrences

Porphyry units are reported in the copper occurrence 

database of Iran at both the Kesheh gold acid-sulfate and Kahrud 

copper skarn prospects (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a). 

The Kesheh prospect lies about 80 km northwest of the Kahang 

porphyry deposit, and the Kahrud prospect is located near the 

Sharif Abad porphyry-related skarn. At Kahrud, magnetite and 

chalcopyrite occur in a pyroxene, garnet, and epidote skarn that 

developed along the contact of a porphyry intrusion (Bazin and 

Hübner, 1969a). At Kesheh, a kaolinite, alunite, and jarosite 

alteration zone is associated with Oligocene-Miocene stocks that 

intrude Eocene volcanic and pyroclastic rocks (Taghipour and 

others, 2007).
162 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

The Rangan acid-sulfate prospect consists of postOligocene diorite to monzodiorite stocks that intrude Eocene 

andesite to rhyolite flows and ignimbritic tuffs and a late 

Eocene rhyolite dome. The Mesozoic carbonate and clastic 

wallrocks exhibit the effects of thermal metamorphism and 

skarn alteration (Parsapoor and others, 2009). A quartzsericite-pyrite alteration zone surrounded by advanced 

argillic alteration with pyrophyllite, diaspore, vuggy silica, 

alunite, and barite occurs on the northwest side of the 

rhyolite dome. Quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration overprinted 

by abundant clay and jarosite-(goethite) also occurs on the 

southeast side of the rhyolite dome, and active hot springs 

have precipitated travertine along the western margin of 

the rhyolitic dome. This suggests that the Rangan acidsulfate system may be Pliocene to Holocene. A diorite to 

monzodiorite pluton crops out a few hundred meters south 

and east of the rhyolite dome. However, its relation to the 

skarn or the acid-sulfate system at Rangan is unclear.

The Shiraz Koh kaolin mine lies within a lowsulfidation alteration zone that covers an area of 1 by 5 km 

(Dorsa PLC, 2012f). On the western side of the alteration 

zone (West Shiraz Koh), intermediate tuffs and minor flows 

are intruded by a granodiorite intrusion. Hydrothermal 

alteration around the intrusion includes a central kaolinite, 

sericite, and quartz zone, which is surrounded by chalcedonic 

and brecciated quartz veins containing chalcopyrite and 

minor galena. Samples collected from the leached cap in the 

central zone exhibit values of as much as 0.2 percent copper 

and 0.25 g/t gold. Silver, lead, molybdenum, arsenic, and 

bismuth contents are also anomalous (Dorsa PLC, 2012f). An 

association of this low-sulfidation prospect with a porphyry 

system is uncertain.

Other possibly porphyry-related occurrences in the 

Yazd tract include the copper-iron skarn prospects at Chah-e 

Khattab, Kahyaz, and Kuh Sang Mes (Bazin and Hübner, 

1969a; Somarin and others, 2005; Geological Survey of Iran, 

2012a).

Preservation Level

As derived from the geologic map of Huber (1978), 

older basement rocks underlie 10 percent of the Yazd tract 

area, and middle Eocene to middle Miocene permissive 

volcanic and plutonic units occupy 18 and 3 percent, 

respectively, of the tract area (fig. 51). Broadly coeval 

nonpermissive rocks occur in 19 percent of the tract, and 

younger rocks cover the remaining 51 percent of the tract. 

The overall {volcanic/(volcanic+plutonic)}×100 ratio of 

87 further suggests that shallow levels of preservation of 

porphyry systems are dominant across the Yazd tract. This is 

supported by the presence of acid-sulfate systems associated 

with a number of the known porphyry prospects. Exposure 

of porphyry copper systems appears to be also limited by 

widespread younger cover.

However, Eocene back-arc and Oligocene-Miocene 

arc environments are superimposed in the Yazd tract. These 

two settings cannot be differentiated effectively at the 

geologic map scales available (Huber, 1978; Haghipour 

and Aghanabati, 1985; Agard and others, 2011). As roughly 

estimated, Eocene permissive units underlie about 15 

percent of the tract area and have high volcanic-to-plutonic 

rock ratios that suggest shallow levels of preservation for 

porphyry copper systems. Oligocene-Miocene permissive 

units occupy only about 5 percent of the tract area, but 

otherwise they exhibit subequal plutonic to volcanic rock 

ratios that support appropriate levels of preservation for 

porphyry copper systems.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 

2009) was used to confirm the location and character of 

regional geologic features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, 

terrane boundaries). A prominent magnetic high images 

this segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt. In 

contrast to the more diffuse magnetic signatures in the back 

arc to the northeast and southwest, this continuous and high 

intensity magnetic anomaly appears to be imaging a wellpreserved volcano-plutonic belt. Units with high magnetic 

susceptibilities such as ophiolite-bearing complexes are 

exposed in the southern part, but otherwise they are mostly 

absent. Furthermore, Pliocene-Holocene intermediate and 

mafic unit outcrops are comparatively limited across much 

of the area. Thus, the magnetic anomaly delimits the extent 

of the Yazd tract well. To the south, the tract boundary at the 

Dehshir Fault coincides with the magnetic anomaly. To the 

north, the tract boundary also corresponds with the extent the 

magnetic anomaly, suggesting that the arc may not continue 

under cover. With exception of the Dalli porphyry deposit, 

all other porphyry occurrences identified in the tract occur 

along the margins of magnetic highs.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars and Rowan, 2006; Mars, 

2014) coverage for the entire Yazd tract was used to evaluate 

potential hydrothermal alteration that could be associated 

with unidentified porphyry systems in the tract. Of the 38 

ASTER-derived alteration zones that were identified within 

the tract, 8 are spatially associated with the known Kahang, 

Zafarghand, South of Ardestan, Zefreh, Kahrud, Rangan, 

Kahyaz, and Kuh Sang Mes prospects; 4 are spatially 

associated with known copper skarn or vein occurrences; 

3 are related to lead-zinc skarn or vein systems; and 1 is in 

the Miocene-Pliocene Odeh molybdenum-rich (porphyry?) 

occurrence. No ASTER-derived alteration zone was 

identified at the more mafic Dalli porphyry deposit.

Of the remaining 22 ASTER-derived alteration zones, 

6 are associated with intrusions that otherwise have no 

reported mineral occurrences. The first exhibits a prominent 

9-km-wide ASTER-derived phyllic-argillic alteration zone; 

the second is associated with a strong 8-km phyllic zone; 

the third consists of a conspicuous 4-km-wide phyllic zone, 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 163

and the fourth shows a poorly developed and discontinuous 

6-km-wide phyllic zone. The fifth and sixth ASTER-derived 

alteration zones consist of large argillic areas. The remaining 

16 ASTER-derived zones are relatively smaller and more 

poorly developed. They may not be related to hydrothermal 

alteration. Hence, perhaps six ASTER-derived alteration 

zones may be marking the location of unknown but potential 

porphyry-related hydrothermal alteration in the Yazd Tract.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

With exception of the resource bases reported for 

the Kahang Cu-Mo and Dalli Cu-Au porphyry deposits, 

no tonnage or grade data are known for the porphyry 

prospects of the Yazd tract. The Dalli porphyry deposit 

is classified as a Cu-Au system based on the criteria for 

molybdenum and gold contents and ratios. However, the 

Cu-Mo-(Au) association appears to dominate in the tract, 

based on available data on the Qahan, Qamsar, Zafarghand, 

and Zefreh porphyry prospects. Furthermore, several 

porphyry and porphyry-related prospects in the Yazd 

tract are associated with acid-sulfate systems, suggesting 

that gold contents could be related to the overlying 

epithermal mineralization and not to the underlying 

porphyry mineralization. Pooled t-test results assuming 

equal variances show that the two known deposits in the 

tract are not significantly different at the 1-percent level 

from tonnages and copper and gold grades in the general 

porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and others (2008). 

Therefore, this model was selected to estimate undiscovered 

copper, gold, molybdenum, and silver resources in this 

tract. In comparison to the median tonnage and grade in the 

general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model, the two known deposits 

in the tract exhibit smaller tonnages but higher copper 

grades. Dalli also contains higher gold grade.

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Yazd 

tract include (1) extensional back-arc to compressional 

continental-arc setting, (2) permissive alkaline and calcalkaline compositions, (3) acid-sulfate epithermal systems 

with known association to porphyry systems, (4) appropriate 

levels of preservation of porphyry systems associated 

with Oligocene-Miocene permissive rocks, (5) favorable 

conditions for supergene enrichment in Cu-Mo porphyry 

systems, (6) a half-dozen relatively large potentially 

porphyry-related ASTER-derived alteration zones, and also 

(7) northward continuation of highly favorable Kerman 

arc segment to the south. Unfavorable geologic factors for 

the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

include (1) an arc segment built on relatively thin crust; 

(2) postmineral thrust faulting and possible concealment or 

exhumation of porphyry systems; (3) inadequate levels of 

preservation of porphyry systems, particularly those that 

may be associated with the older Eocene permissive rocks; 

(4) known porphyry deposits with smaller than median size; 

(5) small exposure (5 percent of the tract area) of the more 

prospective Oligocene-Miocene permissive rocks; and (6) 

extensive cover (50 percent of the tract area).

A density of known porphyry deposits that is lower 

than that in other tracts of equivalent extent around the 

world suggests that undiscovered deposits are likely present. 

Despite the smaller numbers and sizes of known porphyry 

deposits, this tract is deemed to be favorable because it 

is the projection of the well-endowed and geologically 

similar Kerman tract to the southeast. The level of expected 

uncertainty to which the number of undiscovered deposits 

can be estimated is lowered by the relatively large number 

of known porphyry occurrences, but otherwise it is raised by 

the limited information on exploration projects in the region.

Hence, the assessment team established that the Yazd 

tract was geologically favorable, and that estimates of 

numbers of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could 

be carried out with overall moderate levels of uncertainty. 

The tract would contribute significant copper resources 

from undiscovered deposits to the overall assessment. 

Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered deposits 

in this tract was completed. Table 14A shows the consensus 

estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in 

the Yazd tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability 

levels and the associated summary statistics. All assessors 

estimated that there was a 90-percent probability of 1 

undiscovered deposit. At the 50-percent probability, the 

numbers ranged between 2 and 3 undiscovered deposits, and 

at the 10-percent probability level, the numbers increased 

to between 5 and 8. On the basis of these numbers, the team 

reached a consensus estimate of 1, 2, and 8 undiscovered 

deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent probability levels, 

respectively, which resulted in a mean of 3.43 undiscovered 

deposits with a standard deviation of 2.73 (Cv

%=80). 

This result reflects the level of favorability and moderate 

uncertainty assessed for this tract. The resulting total deposit 

density per 100,000 km2

 obtained is comparable to the 

median porphyry deposit density expected in well-explored 

tracts of equivalent size elsewhere around the world (Singer 

and Menzie, 2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 14B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

resources in the Yazd tract is 13 Mt of copper. Results of the 

Monte Carlo simulation are also presented as cumulative 

frequency plots (fig. 52). The cumulative frequency plots show 

the cumulative probabilities of occurrence-estimated resources 

and total mineralized rock, as well as the mean for each 

commodity and for total mineralized rock.
164 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Table 14. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran.

Figure 52. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered 

resources in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; 

Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

1 2 8 8 8 3.4 2.7 80 2 5.4 25,700 21

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 0 230,000 5,500,000 32,000,000 53,000,000 13,000,000 0.29 0.06

Mo 0 0 79,000 880,000 1,600,000 360,000 0.23 0.23

Au 0 0 120 900 1,400 330 0.29 0.19

Ag 0 0 760 10,000 18,000 4,400 0.22 0.32

Rock 0 56 1,200 6,700 11,000 2,700 0.3 0.06

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 165

Kerman Tract (142pCu9016)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; 

Berger and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Grade and tonnage model: General Cu-Au-Mo porphyry 

copper model (Singer and others, 2008)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Eocene to late Miocene 

continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Kerman tract is located in south-central Iran where it 

covers an area of 32,800 km2 (fig. 53). It delimits a continuously 

exposed 650-km-long and as much as 75-km-wide late 

Eocene-late Miocene continental arc segment that occupies the 

southeastern part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt.

The southwestern boundary of the Kerman tract lies 

along the northwest-southeast Nain-Baft ophiolite belt (fig. 

3), which marks the suture between the Central Iranian and 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes (Shahabpour, 2005, 2007). 

To the northeast, the Kerman tract is delimited by dextral 

strike-slip faults that juxtapose the continental arc against the 

Saveh-Rafsanjan Basin (fig. 54). To the northwest, the tract 

terminates against the dextral Dehshir Fault (Moghadam and 

others, 2010), which separates the Kerman from the adjacent 

Yazd tract (see Yazd tract above). To the southeast, the 

Kerman tract continues in the southwestern margin of the Lut 

Terrane across the north-northeast–south-southwest dextral 

Sar Bisan-Nayband Fault system (fig. 3).

Tectonic Setting

Late Cretaceous to middle Eocene convergence between 

the Arabian Platform and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terranes along 

the Bitlis-Zagros subduction zone resulted in continental arc, 

intraoceanic arc, and back-arc magmatism (Berberian and 

Berberian, 1981; Omrani and others, 2008). The continental 

arc was built on the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane in the Late 

Cretaceous (see Border Folds tract above). The associated 

extensive back arc developed behind the continental arc in the 

Central Iranian Terrane during the Late Cretaceous and Eocene 

(see Esfahan tract above). Late Cretaceous-middle Paleocene 

island-arc rocks are preserved in ophiolitic complexes along 

the suture between the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Central Iranian 

Terranes, which gradually amalgamated during this time 

(Ghazi and Hassanipak, 2000; Moghadam and others, 2009; 

Delaloye and Desmons, 1980; Desmons and Beccaluva, 1983).

Between the middle Paleocene and the late Eocene, 

the arc axis migrated from the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane 

onto the Central Iranian Terrane (Omrani and others, 

2008), producing progressively more mature Andean-type 

continental arc magmatism. This arc is known as the Kerman 

Arc. This subduction-related arc event terminated in the 

late Miocene (fig. 4G) with oblique collision between the 

Arabian Platform and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Terrane (Agard and 

others, 2005; Allen and Armstrong, 2008; Shafiei and others, 

2009). Available data indicate that collision in southeastern 

Iran occurred 5–10 m.y. later than it did in central Iran, as 

described above with the Yazd tract (Agard and others, 2011; 

Aftabi and Atapour, 2009).

Magmatism

Permissive igneous rocks used to define the Kerman tract 

(appendix B) are shown in figure 54, along with geologic features 

described in this section. The tectono-magmatic evolution along 

the Kerman segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt is 

characterized by:

1. Early Eocene deposition of back-arc volcaniclastic 

sequences interlayered with tholeiitic to calk-alkaline 

dominantly felsic rocks of the Bahr Aseman complex 

(Shafiei and others, 2008; Aliani and others, 2009).

2. Middle to late Eocene unconformable deposition of 

back-arc volcaniclastic sequences with interbedded 

bi-modal volcanic rocks of the Razak complex, 

followed by high-K calc-alkaline Jebal Barez gabbroic 

to granitic intrusions with primitive arc signatures 

(Shafiei, 2010). The Jebal Barez plutons occur 

throughout the Kerman arc segment, but they are most 

widespread in its southern parts (Shafiei and others, 

2008).

3. Early Oligocene conformable deposition of the Hezar 

alkalic volcanic complex (Shahabpour, 2007) followed 

by uplift and deposition of Lower Red Formation red 

beds.

4. Middle Oligocene to early Miocene subsidence and 

deposition of the shallow marine Qom Formation 

(Reuter and others, 2009; Morley and others, 2009), 

which was followed by uplift, deformation, and 

deposition of Upper Red Formation red beds related 

to the collision between the Arabian Platform and the 

Central Iranian Terrane (Berberian and others, 1982; 

Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006; Agard and others, 2005; 

Allen and Armstrong, 2008).

5. Middle-late Miocene intrusion of progressively more 

felsic calc-alkaline mature arc Kuh Panj dioritic, 

quartzdioritic, and granodioritic stocks exposed mainly 

in the northwestern and central parts of the Kerman arc 

segment (Shafiei and others, 2008). Coeval middlelate Miocene volcanic rocks are not well preserved, 

suggesting concurrent uplift and magmatism (Shafiei, 

2010). Porphyry copper mineralization is mostly related 

to this magmatic episode, which occurred during the 

final stages of subduction that preceded the ~10-Ma 

collision between the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian 

margin in this region (McQuarrie and others, 2003; 

Guest and others, 2006).

6. Latest Miocene-early Pliocene emplacement of 

syncollisional to postcollisional Dehaj subvolcanic 

dacite-rhyolite domes (Shafiei and others, 2009); and 
166 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 53. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper deposits and prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9016, 

Kerman—Iran. See table 2 for deposits, appendix C for prospects, and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

54° E 57° E

32° N

28° N

IRAN

God-e-Kolvary

Lalleh Zar F3

Zamin Hosein

Iju

Guro

Kader

Janga

Serenu

Sargod

Raigan

Zavarak

Reshkan

Hararan

Dar Alu

Sin Abad

Bid Khan

Ali-Abad

Sar Mashk

Cha Messi

Dar Hamzeh

Kuh-e-Sorkh

Godar Siah1

Bahr Aseman

Chah-Firuzeh

Lalleh

Zar F4

Razi Abad-Madin

Darreh-Zerreshk

Jushin

Palangy

Koh Golab and

2 prospects

Surakh Mar2

Surakh Mar1

Bondar Hanza

Goori

Abdar1

SE-Hamdin

Darkhooni and

SW-Pishosta

Badamestan

Kohe Medvar

and Golab

Meiduk and 

15 prospects 

Chahar Gonbad

Takht and 

2 prospects

Sar Cheshmeh

Khoot

Sar Kuh

Now Chun

Darreh Zar Bagh Khoshk

Bandebagh and Bid Kheiry

Desiahan and Sar Bagh

Seridune

Kuh Panj and 

2 prospects

Sara

Hosein Abad

Abdar2

40° E 60° E

40° N

20° N

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

RUSSIA

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 56.5° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

Other porphyry copper tracts

Porphyry copper deposit

Assessed porphyry copper tract 

142pCu9016

Porphyry copper prospect

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 167 Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Shir-Kuh

Deshir FaultDeshir Fault

Kuh Panj

Stocks

Bahr Aseman Complex 

Razak Complex 

Kuh-e-Masahim Caldera

Dehaj Domes

Hezar Complex 

Saveh-Rafsanjan BasinSaveh-Rafsanjan Basin

Sar Bisan FaultSar Bisan Fault

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic BeltUrumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt

Jebal Barez Bitlis-Zagros S uture

Bitlis-Zagros S uture

IRAN

54° E 57° E

32° N

28° N

40° E 60° E

40° N 

20° N 

IRAN

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

RUSSIA

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN

SEA

Figure 54.

Kerman

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, 

U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 56.5° E.; latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 25 50 75 100 KILOMETERS

0 25 50 MILES

Jebal Barez

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9016

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault

Suture

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Transform fault

Area of map

Figure 54. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9016, 

Kerman—Iran. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.
168 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

7. Pliocene-Holocene postcollisional alkaline 

magmatism controlled by dextral strike-slip faults 

(Ghadami and others, 2008; Shahrbabaky, 1997).

Geochemical data for the weakly mineralized late Eoceneearly Oligocene Jebal Barez and strongly mineralized middle to 

late Miocene Kuh Panj plutonic suites indicate emplacement in 

thicker crust and greater assimilation of crustal materials by the 

later suite (Shafiei and others, 2009; Shafiei, 2010).

Age and geochemical contrasts between the early Eocene 

to middle Miocene and early Eocene to late Miocene back-arc 

to continental-arc setting in the central and southeastern parts 

of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt are recognizable. The 

secular evolution of oblique collision is consistent with the more 

protracted magmatism observed in the southeastern Kerman than 

in the central Yazd (see Yazd tract above) segments. Geochemical 

data further show that magmatism in the Yazd segment occurred 

in crust that was being attenuated during that time. In the Kerman 

segment, geochemical data support an opposite thin-to-thick 

crustal evolution. As a result, the otherwise continuous volcanoplutonic setting of the central and southeastern Urumieh-Dokhtar 

Magmatic Belt exhibits contrasting characteristics that are 

separated here into the Yazd (see above) and Kerman tracts, 

respectively.

Known Porphyry Deposits and Prospects

The Kerman tract contains numerous epithermal, skarn, 

and porphyry copper occurrences (Walther, 1960; Bazin and 

Hübner, 1969a, b; Geological Survey of Iran, 2012e). Twelve 

known porphyry deposits and 70 prospects were identified and 

are included in the Kerman tract (see table 2 and appendix C). 

Porphyry deposits in the Kerman tract (fig. 53) are represented 

by Cu-Mo±(Ag-Au) porphyry (that is, Sar Cheshmeh, Now 

Chun, Darreh Zar, Dar Alu, Meiduk, Chah-Firuzeh) and 

Cu-Mo(±Ag-Au) porphyry-skarns (that is, Darreh-Zerreshk). 

With exception of the early Oligocene Bagh Koshk, Bandebagh, 

Desiahan, and Raigan (associated with the Jebal Barez-Hezar 

intrusive suites) and latest Miocene Iju and Abdar porphyry 

systems (related to the Dehaj intrusive suite), all known porphyry 

occurrences are related to the well-endowed middle to late 

Miocene Kuh Panj intrusive suite. The latest Miocene Abdar 

Cu-Au-Mo prospect is one of the only Au-rich porphyry systems 

recognized to date in the Kerman tract (Shafiei and others, 2009), 

but much of the reported gold may be contained in the acid-sulfate 

lithocap. Descriptions of porphyry deposits and selected prospects 

in the Kerman tract are presented below. Middle to late Miocene 

porphyry systems related to the Kuh Panj suite are described first, 

followed by older early Oligocene and younger Miocene-Pliocene 

systems.

Sar Cheshmeh Porphyry Deposit

The middle Miocene (13.6 Ma; McInnes and others, 

2005) Sar Cheshmeh Cu-Mo-(Ag-Au) porphyry deposit 

located in the central part of the Kerman tract is the largest in 

the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (Hassanzadeh, 1993). 

Shafiei (2010) reports a mineral resource of 1,200 Mt at 0.7 

percent copper, 0.03 percent molybdenum, 0.06 g/t gold, and 

1.14g/t silver based on 1998 data. Singer and others (2008) 

report the same tonnage but higher grades of 1.2 percent 

copper, 0.03 percent molybdenum, 0.27 g/t gold, and 3.9 g/t 

silver at a cutoff of 0.25 percent copper. More recent proven 

and probable reserve estimates are 1,538 Mt at 0.58 percent 

copper at a 0.15 percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper 

Industries Company, 2012).

At Sar Cheshmeh, folded and thrust-faulted early Eocene 

volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks (Boomeri and others, 

2010b) are cut by east-northeast–west-southwest faults (Atapour 

and Aftabi, 2007). This sequence is intruded by calc-alkaline 

Oligocene-Miocene quartz diorite to quartz monzonite and a 

middle Miocene granodiorite porphyry stock (Waterman and 

Hamilton, 1975). The complex is in turn cut by a series of late 

Miocene intramineral and postmineral porphyry dikes with a 

predominant north-northwest strike. Three main porphyry phases 

are recognized—(1) synmineral hornblende porphyry dikes, (2) 

synmineral feldspar porphyry dikes, and (3) postmineral biotite 

porphyry dikes. Igneous breccias were emplaced with the early 

porphyry dike phases. The late Miocene rocks are locally covered 

by Pliocene-Holocene trachytic to dacitic ignimbrites and volcanic 

breccias.

The Sar Cheshmeh deposit has a K-silicate alteration zone 

associated with the granodiorite and porphyry dike swarm. It is 

characterized by a central K-feldspar-quartz-pyrite-chalcopyritemolybdenite association that surrounds a strongly biotitized but 

poorly mineralized core. Biotite-pyrite-chalcopyrite bearing zones 

extend beyond the intrusive complex into the andesitic wall rocks 

(Ghorashi-Zadeh, 1978; Aftabi and Atapour, 2011). Higher copper 

grades are associated with the K-silicate alteration zone, which is 

overprinted and surrounded by quartz-sericite-pyrite-chalcopyrite. 

The quartz-sericite zone extends down to 400 m and outward into 

the host rocks, where it is the strongest and corresponds roughly 

with the 0.4 percent copper grade boundary. Propylitization 

surrounds the entire complex and grades outward into unaltered 

andesite (Shahabpour and Kramers, 1987).

Significant supergene enrichment occurs under the hematiterich leached cap and is developed best in areas of higher grade 

primary mineralization. The chalcocite blanket averages 37 m 

in thickness and contains copper grades that are about twice as 

those of hypogene mineralization. Covellite occurs towards the 

bottom of the supergene blanket (Waterman and Hamilton, 1975; 

Shahabpour, 1991).

The Sar Cheshmeh porphyry system is estimated to have 

been emplaced at a paleodepth of 3.8–5.5 km (McInnes and 

others, 2005).

Now Chun and Sar Kuh Porphyry Deposits

The Now Chun and Sar Kuh porphyry deposits are 

located 3 and 6 km to the southeast of the Sar Cheshmeh 

operation, respectively.

The Now Chun Cu-Mo porphyry deposit has proven and 

probable reserve estimates of 527 Mt with 0.26 percent copper at a 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 169

0.15 percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 

2012). At the Nochon deposit, Oligocene-Miocene granodiorite, 

quartz diorite, diorite, and younger monzonite porphyry dikes 

intrude Eocene trachybasalts, andesites, dacites, rhyodacites, and 

pyroclastic rocks (Ranjbar and Honarmand, 2004; Abedi and 

Norouzi, 2012). The most intense alteration occurs in subvolcanic 

rhyodacite units, where it is controlled by northeast-southwest 

faults. It consists of K-silicate, sericite, and argillic alteration. 

Mineralization includes primary chalcopyrite, molybdenite, and 

lesser galena, sphalerite, and tetrahedrite, as well as secondary 

chalcocite, bornite, and covellite (Saein and others, 2012).

The small Sar Kuh Cu-Mo-Au deposit has reported resources 

of 16 Mt at 0.46 percent copper (Shafiei, 2010). Samples from 

this deposit average 0.003 percent molybdenum and 0.083 g/t 

gold (Shafiei and Shahabpour, 2008). Here, Eocene volcanosedimentary rocks are intruded by an east-west trending Oligocene 

granodiorite pluton, which in turn is cut by quartz diorite porphyry 

dikes recently dated at 15. 2 Ma (Mirnejad and others, 2013). 

K-feldspar-biotite and chlorite-epidote-actinolite alteration are 

overprinted by lesser sericite, and more widespread kaolinite, 

montmorillonite, illite, and pyrophyllite. Mineralization is mainly 

associated with K-silicate alteration (Mirnejad and others, 2013).

Seridune Porphyry Prospect

The Seridune Cu-Mo-(Au)-bearing porphyry copper 

prospect is located about 5 km northeast of the Sar Cheshmeh 

deposit. Samples from this prospect average 0.26 percent copper, 

0.011 percent molybdenum, and 0.024 g/t gold (Shafiei and 

Shahabpour, 2008). Here, an Eocene andesite succession was 

intruded by a calc-alkaline middle to late Miocene granodiorite 

porphyry stock and granodiorite porphyry dikes. These copperbearing intrusions were in turn cut by barren quartz monzonite 

dikes and partly overlain by Miocene-Pliocene dacite lavas 

(Barzegar, 2008). Hydrothermal alteration consists of early 

K-silicate and chlorite-epidote, transitional quartz-sericite, and 

late quartz-alunite-pyrophyllite. Chalcopyrite occurs mainly 

in quartz veins introduced during the early and transitional 

hydrothermal stages. The leached cap is well developed and is 

composed of hematite, jarosite, and goethite (Barzegar, 2007). 

Emplacement pressures of about 1 kb at the Seridune porphyry 

prospect indicate that the porphyry intrusion was emplaced about 

4 km below the paleosurface (Barzegar, 2008).

Darrehzar Porphyry Deposit

The middle Miocene (14.9 Ma; Singer and others, 2008) 

Darrehzar (also known as Kangan) Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry 

deposit is located 8 km southeast of Sar Cheshmeh. Previous 

resource estimates of 49 Mt at 0.64 percent copper and 0.004 

percent molybdenum (Shafiei and others, 2009), or 49 Mt at 

0.64 percent copper, 0.018 percent molybdenum, and 0.036 g/t 

gold (Shahabpour, 2008) have been superseded by a more recent 

proven and probable reserve base of 283 Mt at 0.38 percent 

copper with a 0.15 percent copper cutoff (National Iranian Copper 

Industries Company, 2012).

At the Darrehzar deposit, a diorite-quartz diorite-granodiorite 

porphyry stock, dikes, and associated igneous breccias intrude a 

folded and faulted Eocene succession comprised of volcaniclastic, 

andesite, trachyandesite, and sedimentary rocks (Ranjbar and 

Honarmand, 2004). The alteration zone occupies an area of 

about 1 by 2 km, and consists of pervasive phyllic and propylitic 

alteration, which largely overprint potassic alteration (Ranjbar and 

others, 2005). Argillic zones occupy small areas within the overall 

alteration zone. Chalcopyrite is the most abundant hypogene 

mineral. Copper grades average 0.3 percent but can be as much 

as 0.5 percent at deeper levels, where molybdenite is also more 

abundant. Oxidation has produced an extensive limonitic leached 

cap, with an underlying 34-m-thick supergene chalcocite blanket 

averaging about 0.8 percent copper (Mirnejad and others, 2010b; 

Derakhshani and Abdolzadeh, 2009).

Kuh Panj Porphyry Prospect

The middle to late Miocene Kuh Panj Cu-Mo-bearing 

porphyry prospect (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 

2012) is located 20 km southeast of the Sar Cheshmeh porphyry 

deposit. At the Kuh Panj prospect, a diorite-quartz diorite porphyry 

stock intrudes an andesite-dacite sequence (Shafiei and others, 

2009; Roshani and others, 2013). This sequence is covered by 

andesitic agglomerate and tuff units that are in turn cut by andesite 

dikes. Breccias and quartz stockworks occur within a 400- by 

600-m K-silicate-sericite-advanced argillic alteration zone. 

Mineralization consists of chalcopyrite and subsidiary galena 

(Roshani and others, 2013).

Dar Alu Porphyry Deposit

The Dar Alu Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit is located 

about 130 km southeast of Sar Cheshmeh. The deposit has 

reported proven and probable reserves of 186.1 Mt at 0.36 

percent copper at a 0.15 percent cutoff (National Iranian 

Copper Industries Company, 2012). Shafiei and Shahabpour 

(2008) report average contents of 0.007 percent molybdenum 

and 0.031 g/t gold in samples from this deposit. The Dar Alu 

deposit is related to a northwest-southeast-trending 0.7-km2

synmineral quartz diorite-granodiorite porphyry stock cut 

by postmineral diorite dikes. These stocks and dikes intrude 

Eocene volcano-sedimentary rocks. The emplacement of 

the intrusive complex is controlled by northwest-southeast 

strike-slip faults (Salehian and Ghaderi, 2010a). A central 

biotite-magnetite-anhydrite-K-feldspar-quartz alteration zone 

is overprinted and surrounded by a quartz-sericite zone. The 

outermost halo of alteration is characterized by a propylitic 

association of epidote, chlorite, and albite. Hypogene 

mineralization is associated with the K-silicate and quartzsericite alteration and is respectively represented by quartzmagnetite±pyrite-chalcopyrite±bornite±molybdenite and 

quartz-pyrite±chalcopyrite(±molybdenite) veins. Supergene 

enrichment is limited and occurs in the northern part of the 

deposit, where the leached cap is better developed (Salehian 

and Ghaderi, 2010a, b).
170 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Meiduk Porphyry Deposit

The middle-late Miocene (12.5 Ma; McInnes and others, 

2005) Meiduk Cu-Mo-(Au-Ag) porphyry deposit is located 

about 90 km northwest of Sar Cheshmeh in the central-northern 

part of the Kerman tract (Singer and others, 2008; Hassanzadeh, 

1993; Shafiei and others, 2009). The deposit is the largest of 

the numerous porphyry occurrences identified in this area 

(Derakhshani and Mehrabi, 2009; Tangestani and Moore, 2001, 

2002a, b). The supergene and hypogene mineralization at the 

Meiduk deposit has reported proven and probable reserves 

of 176 Mt with 0.61 percent copper at a 0.15 percent cutoff 

(National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012). Taghipour 

and others (2008) report grades of 0.007 percent molybdenum, 

82 ppb gold, and 1.8 ppm silver. Samples collected from this 

deposit also average 0.053 g/t gold (Shafiei and Shahabpour, 

2008). Hypogene mineralization is known to continue at depths 

extending 1 km below the surface (Boomeri and others, 2009).

The Meiduk district is underlain by an early Eocene complex 

formed by rhyolite lavas, breccias, felsic tuffs, and pyroclastic 

rocks. These volcano-sedimentary rocks are in turn overlain by 

an Eocene to Oligocene complex of trachybasalt, andesite and 

trachyandesite, andesite-basalt, and felsic tuffs. These two volcanic 

complexes (37.5±1.4–32.7±6.3 Ma, based on 40Ar/39Ar dating 

of albite and analcime; Hassanzadeh, 1993) are intruded by the 

~500-m-wide middle-late Miocene Meiduk granodiorite-dioritequartz diorite porphyry stock. The porphyry stock is in turn cut 

by synmineralization and postmineralization north-south-trending 

latitic porphyry dikes and Miocene-Pliocene dacitic domes (Aliani 

and others, 2009). The Meiduk porphyry system is estimated to 

have been emplaced at a paleodepth of 2–3 km (McInnes and 

others, 2005).

The Meiduk deposit is about 700 by 1,000 m in planview. The deposit is hosted by porphyry intrusions and volcanic 

wallrocks (Taghipour and others, 2008). It consists of a central 

intense biotite and K-feldspar alteration core with associated 

hypogene chalcopyrite±molybdenite, which is surrounded by a 

quartz-sericite-chalcopyrite and minor bornite and enargite zone. 

Supergene chalcocite and covellite mineralization is moderately 

developed. The overlying lithocap contains iron hydroxides, 

copper oxides, copper carbonates, copper phosphates, copper 

sulfates, and copper silicates (Taghipour and others, 2008).

The small Lachah porphyry deposit (20 Mt at 0.1–1.5 

percent copper; Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a) is located 

about 3 km northwest of Meiduk. Quartz-pyrite chalcopyrite 

veinlets in argillic alteration developed in a porphyritic diorite 

stock that is about 1.5 km in diameter (Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; 

Förster, 1978). Given its proximity to the Meiduk deposit, its 

resource base is considered here to be part of Meiduk.

Sara Porphyry Prospect

The middle-late Miocene (13.3 Ma; Hassanzadeh, 1993) 

Sara Cu-Mo-(Au)-bearing porphyry copper prospect (also known 

as Parkam; Mirnejad and others, 2010b; National Iranian Copper 

Industries Company, 2012; Honarmand and others, 2011) is located 

a few kilometers northwest of Meiduk. Shafiei and Shahabpour 

(2008) report average contents of 0.37 percent copper, 0.005 percent 

molybdenum, and 0.034 g/t gold in samples collected from this 

prospect. At the Sara prospect, a quartz diorite porphyry stock is 

overprinted by quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration and chalcopyrite 

mineralization. No substantial supergene enrichment developed 

below (Tangestani and Moore, 2001, 2002a, b).

Cha Messi Porphyry-Related Deposit

The Chah Messi porphyry-related Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Au 

polymetallic vein deposit (Honarmand and others, 2011; 

Derakhshani and Mehrabi, 2009) is located about 4 km 

southwest of Meiduk. Reserves in this vein deposit are 

estimated at 0.89 Mt with 1.65 percent copper at a 0.15 

percent cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 

2012). Grades of 1.27 percent copper, 1.01 percent lead, 

and 2.12 percent zinc, as well as variable amounts of silver 

(10–150 ppm) and gold (as much as 7 ppm) are also reported 

by Tangestani and Moore (2002b). Veins are emplaced in 

Eocene volcano-sedimentary rocks and subvolcanic intrusive 

bodies of intermediate composition. The richest mineralization 

occurs along a fault contact between Eocene volcanics and 

diorite porphyry intrusions.

Chah-Firuzeh Porphyry Deposit

The Chah-Firuzeh Cu-Mo porphyry deposit is located about 

15 km west of Meiduk. It contains a reported proven and probable 

reserves of 149.1 Mt with 0.41 percent copper at 0.15 percent 

cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012). 

The deposit is associated with a mid to late Miocene 1,500- by 

400-m diorite-granodiorite to quartz monzonite stock and quartz 

monzonite to latite porphyry dikes that intrude Eocene calcalkaline to alkaline volcanic flows, tuffs, and coeval sedimentary 

rocks. Eocene rocks unconformably overlie folded and eroded 

Late Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Hezarkhani, 

2009). The intrusive complex is cut by diorite dikes that postdate 

mineralization. Alteration consists of a concentric early K-silicate 

to propylitic zone, which is surrounded by a late quartz-sericitecarbonate-pyrite zone. Early chalcopyrite and minor bornite 

appear to have been introduced during the transition from the 

potassic to phyllic alteration event. Late chalcopyrite and rare 

molybdenite occur within the quartz-sericite zone (Alirezaei and 

Mohammadzadeh, 2009). Supergene enrichment is also present 

(Mirnejad and others, 2010b), and it is characterized by chalcocite 

and lesser digenite, chrysocolla, azurite and malachite (Afzal and 

others, 2011).

God-e-Kolvari (Gowde Kolvary) Porphyry Prospect

The God-e-Kolvari porphyry copper prospect is located 

about 25 km northwest of the Meiduk deposit. The prospect lies 

in a peneplain with well-developed copper-bearing ferricretes 

(Shahabpour, 1992). The prospect is related to a porphyritic 

diorite-granodiorite stock that intruded Eocene andesites 

(Honarmand and others, 2011). Alteration is characterized by 

K-silicate and lesser quartz-sericite. Eight holes drilled before 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 171

the early 1990s intercepted low hypogene copper concentrations 

of less than 0.1 percent. Despite the presence of ferricretes, 

a secondary enrichment blanket has not been identified 

(Shahabpour, 1992).

Ali-Abad and Darreh-Zerreshk (Taft Project) Porphyry Deposits

The early to middle Miocene (16.3–16.7 Ma) Darreh-Zerreshk 

porphyry-skarn and (15.8–16.1 Ma) Ali-Abad porphyry deposits 

are located about 180 km northwest of the Meiduk deposit in the 

northern part of the Kerman tract (Zarasvandi and others, 2007; 

Hassanzadeh, 1993). They were both identified in 1972 as a 

result of geophysical surveys and drilling by the French company 

COFIMINS. Resources were estimated at 40 Mt at 0.73 percent 

copper, 0.0059 percent molybdenum, and 19 g/t silver for the 

Ali-Abad, and 23 Mt at 0.80–0.90 percent copper, 0.0040 percent 

molybdenum, and 1 g/t silver for the Darreh-Zerreshk deposits 

(Singer and others, 2008). Current proven and probable reserves at 

the combined Darreh-Zerreshk and Ali-Abad deposits (Taft Project) 

are estimated at 167 Mt and 0.43 percent copper at a 0.15 percent 

cutoff (National Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012).

The oldest rocks exposed in the area are Paleozoic and 

Triassic sedimentary formations and the Jurassic granitic 

Shir-Kuh batholith, which contact-metamorphosed these rock 

units. These Paleozoic and Triassic formations are overlain by 

Lower Cretaceous conglomerate, sandstone, and shale, and 

unconformable Upper Cretaceous limestones at Darreh-Zerreshk 

but not at Ali-Abad. The Mesozoic rocks are partly covered by 

Eocene rhyolitic tuff, andesitic lava, and pyroclastic units. These 

are in turn intruded by Eocene-Oligocene granodiorite-granite 

and more mafic early to middle Miocene quartz monzodiorite, 

quartz diorite, and diorite porphyry stocks (Zarasvandi and others, 

2007). Miocene-Pliocene dacitic subvolcanic domes intrude the 

southwestern section of the Darreh-Zerreshk area, and they host 

travertine deposits (Zarasvandi and others, 2005).

At the Darreh-Zerreshk Cu-Mo-(Ag) porphyry-skarn 

deposit, magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite±bornite (±molybdenite) 

mineralization is associated with K-silicate alteration, and 

pyrite-chalcopyrite(±molybdenite) mineralization dominates 

in the overprinting quartz-sericite alteration zone (Zarasvandi 

and others, 2005). Lesser kaolinite and pyrophyllite are also 

present in the quartz diorite, quartz monzodiorite, tonalite, and 

granitic porphyry intrusions. A limited supergene chalcocite 

blanket developed below an oxidized lithocap. A small 

fraction of the mineralization occurs in skarns and consists of 

iron-copper-bearing exoskarn formed within the calcareous 

wall rock and of endoskarn formed within the associated 

granitoids (Hosseini and others, 2010).

At the Ali-Abad Cu-Mo-(Ag) porphyry deposit, pyritechalcopyrite(±molybdenite) are associated with breccia zones and 

quartz-sericite alteration in quartz monzodiorite, granodiorite, and 

alkali granite porphyry intrusions (Zarasvandi and others, 2005). 

Potassic alteration has not been recognized. Argillic zones in the 

intrusive and adjacent volcanic hosts overprint phyllic alteration. 

As at Darreh-Zerreshk, a small supergene chalcocite blanket 

developed below an oxidized lithocap.

Takht and Chahar Gonbad Porphyry Prospects

The Takht porphyry-skarn and Chahar Gonbad porphyryrelated skarn prospects have not been dated. The Takht Cu-Mo-

(Au)-bearing porphyry-skarn prospect is located about 55 km 

southeast of Sar Cheshmeh (Dorsa PLC, 2012g). In the 1970s, 6 

short holes were drilled at the Takht porphyry prospect. Estimated 

resources included 3 Mt at 0.6 percent copper in the oxide zone, 

and 10 Mt at 0.5 percent copper and low gold contents in the 

underlying sulfide zone. Drilling results suggest that mineralization 

is open at depth. Here, a monzonitic porphyry stock about 200 m 

in diameter caused stockwork and calc-silicate mineralization in 

porphyry, sandstone, conglomerate, and hornfelsed tuff rock units. 

The porphyry stock occurs along the margin of a granodioriticgranitic batholith, which exhibits widespread clay alteration. Weak 

to moderate quartz-sericite alteration and local K-silicate alteration 

at depth are cut by abundant quartz-magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite 

veins. In the skarn, chlorite, epidote, and tremolite have been 

recognized (Dorsa PLC, 2012g).

The nearby Chahar Gonbad Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-bearing 

porphyry-related skarn prospect (80,000 t at 1.5 percent copper 

and 20 g/t silver; U.S. Geological Survey, 2012) has been mined 

underground since the early 1960s. Here, a quartz diorite porphyry 

stock intrudes andesitic tuffs (Mehrabi and Derkhshani, 2010; 

Geological Survey of Iran, 2012a).

Dar Hamzeh Porphyry Prospect

The Dar Hamzeh (also known as Kerver(?); National Iranian 

Copper Industries Company, 2012) Cu-Mo-bearing porphyry 

prospect is located in the southern part of the Kerman tract about 

215 km southeast of the Sar Cheshmeh deposit. The porphyry 

prospect is centered on quartz monzonite, diorite, granodiorite, 

and andesite-dacite porphyry intrusions (Afzal and Rajoli, 

2010). Alteration includes K-silicate, quartz-sericite, argillic, and 

propylitic associations. Mineralization is controlled by quartzmagnetite-pyrite stockwork zones containing hypogene bornite 

and chalcopyrite. Secondary mineralization includes chalcocite, 

covellite, and malachite below a jarosite-goethite lithocap (Afzal 

and Rajoli, 2010).

Raigan (Rigan Bam) Porphyry Deposit

In contrast to most porphyry systems in the Kerman tract, 

which are middle to late Miocene in age, the Raigan deposit 

is older by 10 m.y. Other porphyry systems of probable early 

Oligocene age include the Bande Bagh and Dehsiahan porphyry 

prospects and the Bagh Khoshk porphyry deposit in the vicinity of 

Sar Cheshmeh (whole rock Rb-Sr date of 33±1 Ma; Dargahi and 

others, 2010). These small porphyry systems differ from younger 

Kuh Panj porphyry deposits and prospects in that they are centered 

about the older Jebal Barez more alkaline diorite, monzogranite, 

monzonite, syenite, and alkali granite intrusions.

The early Oligocene (29.7 Ma; Shafiei and others, 2009) 

Raigan porphyry copper deposit is located in the central part 

of the Kerman tract (Karimi and Valadan Zoej, 2004). Known 

resources are estimated at 10 Mt at 0.63 percent copper (Singer 
172 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

and others, 2008). The deposit is hosted by a 3-km2 northwestsoutheast monzonite-quartz monzonite pluton that is cut by a 

diorite-granodiorite porphyry stock (Hezarkhani, 2006a, b, d). 

The complex intruded into folded and deeply eroded Upper 

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks unconformably overlain by 

Eocene volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. Potassic, phyllic, and 

propylitic alteration are zoned concentrically about the porphyry 

stock. Well-developed quartz-sericite alteration irregularly 

overprints the earlier potassic and propylitic alteration. Potassic 

and phyllic alteration and mineralization are characterized by 

early K-feldspar-biotite-quartz veins with patchy magnetite, 

pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite, as well as by late sericitequartz veins with pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and hematite. 

Early sodic albite-amphibole and late calcic epidote-chlorite 

alteration are also present. Supergene enrichment is restricted 

to a very thin blanket with subeconomic copper grades. Fluid 

inclusion data indicate that the hydrothermal system was 

emplaced at a depth of 1.5–1.9 km (Hezarkhani, 2006a, b, d).

Bagh Khoshk Porphyry Deposit

The early Oligocene Bagh Khoshk Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit is located about 15 km southeast of Sar Cheshmeh. It 

contains reported resources of 24 Mt at 0.27 percent copper 

(Shafiei and others, 2009). The Bagh Khoshk deposit is centered 

on a metaluminous to slightly peraluminous diorite-monzonitesyenite-alkalic granite plutonic complex, which exhibits juvenile 

radiogenic signatures. The complex intruded Eocene volcanosedimentary rocks, generating albite-epidote and hornblende facies 

hornfels. Hypogene mineralization occurs within equigranular 

and younger porphyritic intrusions. Both intrusive suites and their 

host rocks are affected by K-silicate and tourmaline (±quartzchalcopyrite-pyrite-molybdenite veins), sericite (±barren quartzpyrite veins), and chlorite (±carbonate vein) alteration associations 

(Einali and others, 2011). The igneous rocks associated with this 

porphyry system are similar in composition to those associated 

with the nearby early Oligocene Dehsiahan and Bande Bagh 

porphyry prospects (Dargahi and others, 2010).

Iju Porphyry Deposit and Abdar Porphyry Prospect

The Kerman segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic 

Belt also hosts Miocene-Pliocene porphyry systems, which 

are associated with the Dehaj subvolcanic dacite-rhyolitedominated suite (Shafiei and others, 2009). The latest Miocene 

(9.3 Ma; Mirnejad and others, 2013) Iju Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit and (7.5 Ma; McInnes and others, 2005) Abdar 

Cu-Au-Mo prospect are located 20 km to the northwest and 

southeast, respectively, of the Meiduk deposit. Compared to 

most other porphyry systems in the Kerman tract, the Iju and 

Abdar prospects are younger by 3 and 5 m.y., respectively. 

These younger systems are tentatively included here in the 

Kerman tract but are more likely associated with younger 

superimposed postcollisional magmatism in the region (see 

Pliocene-Quaternary tract below).

The Iju Cu-Mo porphyry deposit contains reported proven 

and probable reserves of 73.9 Mt at 0.31 percent copper; National 

Iranian Copper Industries Company, 2012). It is underlain by 

Eocene volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. The Eocene rock sequence 

is intruded by a northwest-trending, 18- by 4-km late Miocene 

diorite-quartz diorite-tonalite porphyry stock that is in turn cut by 

porphyritic diorite and quartz-diorite dikes. Alteration consists 

of biotite and K-feldspar overprinted by more extensive quartzsericite-pyrite, and minor argillic zones (Mirnejad and others, 

2013; Honarmand and others, 2011). Hypogene chalcopyrite 

mineralization occurs mostly within potassic alteration in the 

tonalite porphyry. Supergene chalcocite mineralization also 

developed in the Iju porphyry deposit (Mirnejad and others, 

2010b).

The Abdar (Abdar1 in appendix C) Cu-Au-Mo-bearing 

prospect is located within the collapsed and partially eroded 

caldera of the Kuh-e-Masahim stratovolcano (Boomeri 

and others, 2011a). Samples from this prospect average 0.3 

percent copper, 0.013 percent molybdenum, and 0.072 g/t gold 

(Shafiei and Shahabpour, 2008). Mineralization occurs within 

a K-silicate, phyllic, and argillic alteration zone that developed 

in a diorite–quartz diorite to granodiorite-dacite porphyry 

intrusion (Shafiei, 2010; Honarmand and others, 2011) that is 

estimated to have been emplaced at a paleodepth of 2–3.2 km 

(McInnes and others, 2005).

Preservation Level

As derived from the geologic map of Huber (1978), older 

basement rocks underlie 24 percent and late Eocene to late 

Miocene permissive volcanic and plutonic units amount to 9 

and 7 percent, respectively, of the Kerman tract area (fig. 54). 

Broadly coeval nonpermissive rocks occur in 14 percent, and 

younger rocks cover the remaining 46 percent of the tract. The 

{volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 58 across the 

tract suggests that levels of preservation of porphyry copper 

systems are appropriate. However, the exposure of porphyry 

copper systems is also affected by younger cover.

In more detail, levels of preservation vary from place to 

place in the folded and thrust-faulted late Eocene back-arc to 

relatively undeformed late Miocene arc environments that are 

superimposed in the Kerman tract. These settings cannot be 

effectively differentiated at the geologic map scales used (Agard 

and others, 2011; Huber, 1978; Haghipour and Aghanabati, 

1985). However, as estimated from the larger scale map of 

Shafiei and others (2009), the late Eocene Jebal Barez igneous 

suite may underlie about 10 percent of the central part of the 

tract where variable but overall high volcanic-to-plutonic 

permissive unit ratios indicate levels of preservation that are 

too shallow for porphyry systems. Coeval Eocene volcanosedimentary and sedimentary rocks may amount to an additional 

25 percent, whereas younger Oligocene-Miocene sedimentary 

rocks of the Lower Red, Qom, and Upper Red formations 

constitute a further 5 percent of the tract area.

The middle to late Miocene Kuh Panj igneous suite 

appears to occupy only about 5 percent of the tract area. 

However, in contrast to the late Eocene Jebal Barez igneous 

suite, the Kuh Panj suite is dominated by plutonic units that 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 173

suggest more appropriate levels of preservation for porphyry 

copper systems. This is consistent with the large number of 

identified prospects of this age range. The Kuh Panj suite is 

also present in the large batholithic mass in the southern part 

of the tract. However, only a few porphyry occurrences are 

reported in this area, suggesting that the batholith there may 

be largely eroded below the level of preservation of porphyry 

systems. Overall, the large number of exposed middle to late 

Miocene porphyry deposits and prospects in the Kerman tract 

suggest that concurrent and postmineral uplift, erosion, and 

burial events were favorable for exposure of porphyry systems 

of this age range.

Magnetic Anomalies

The regional aeromagnetic map (Maus and others, 2009) was 

used to confirm the location and character of regional geologic 

features (for example, arcs, basins, faults, terrane boundaries). A 

prominent positive magnetic anomaly occurs in the central part 

of the magmatic belt delimited by the Kerman tract. This part 

hosts the Sar Cheshmeh and Meiduk porphyry deposit districts. 

However, this magnetic anomaly may be reflecting in part the 

Pliocene-Holocene intermediate and mafic units that also overlie 

the area. Another conspicuous magnetic high occurs in the 

south-central part of the magmatic belt where it closely images 

the early Eocene Bahr Aseman volcanic complex. In the southern 

part of the magmatic belt, the well-exposed batholith across the 

Sar Bisan-Nayband Fault system, in contrast, is not imaged well 

by a magnetic anomaly. The reason is unknown, but it suggests 

that the volume of the batholithic mass may be reduced and (or) 

confined to the surface. Other magnetic anomalies are associated 

with the exposed ophiolite-bearing complexes in the southern and 

northern parts of the magmatic belt. The anomaly in the northern 

part extends from the ophiolite-bearing Nain-Baft Zone to the 

east between the Meiduk and Darreh-Zerreshk/Ali-Abad districts, 

where it occupies an area largely underlain by Paleogene volcanosedimentary units and younger cover rocks. Permissive units 

could be shallowly buried in this area. In general, the Paleogene 

Saveh-Rafsanjan basin that delimits the Kerman tract to the east is 

well-imaged by a marked magnetic low.

The Dar Alu and Raigan porphyry deposits are associated 

with magnetic lows, and the Abdar prospect corresponds to a 

high-intensity magnetic high. Otherwise, all other porphyry 

deposits and prospects in the tract generally lie at the margins 

of magnetic highs.

ASTER Alteration Data

Processed ASTER data (Mars and Rowan, 2006; Mars, 

2014; Pour and Hashim, 2011; Pour and others, 2011; Khaleghi 

and Ranjbar, 2011) available for 100 percent of the Kerman tract 

were used to evaluate potential hydrothermal alteration that could 

be associated with unidentified porphyry systems. Of the 62 

ASTER-derived alteration zones identified in the Kerman tract, 

24 are centered about known porphyry prospects. Phyllic ASTER 

alteration zones 5 km in diameter or larger are evident in the Kader 

Abdar and Lalleh Zar F3 porphyry prospects, the Sar Cheshmeh 

district, and the Chahar Gonbad-Takht trend. Well-developed 

argillic alteration is present at Kader, Sar Cheshmeh, and Lalleh 

Zar F4. Smaller, as much as 3-km-wide, phyllic ASTER alteration 

zones occur in the Iju, Serenu, Sara, Meiduk, Dehsiahan, Kuh 

Panj, Bid Khan, Sin Abad, and Raigan porphyry systems. Even 

smaller and lesser developed ASTER-derived phyllic alteration 

zones are associated with Darreh-Zerreshk, Darreh Zar, God-eKolvary, Janga, Bahr Aseman, Guro, Hararan, Dar Alu, and Surak 

Mar1. No ASTER-derived alteration zones were recognized over 

the Ali-Abad, Khoot, and Hosein Abad porphyry-skarn systems.

Of the ASTER-derived alteration zones that are not 

spatially associated with known porphyry occurrences, 8 are 

centered about known copper, 3 about lead-zinc, and 2 about 

gold (epithermal or skarn?) prospects. An additional five occur 

in younger cover units. Of the remaining 20 ASTER-derived 

alteration zones, 10 are located in the batholith that occupies 

the southern part of the Kerman tract where few porphyry 

prospects have been identified. Five of these are large (more than 

5 km across) phyllic ASTER alteration zones, one of which is 

spatially associated with 1 of 2 known pyrite (barren porphyry?) 

occurrences located in this part of the tract. Argillic alteration is 

only associated with 1 of the 5 phyllic alteration locations.

Overall, of the 20 ASTER-derived alteration zones of 

unknown origin in the Kerman porphyry tract, several could 

potentially indicate the location of unreported or unidentified 

porphyry systems. Based on ASTER data, the batholith in the 

southern part of the tract appears favorable for the occurrence of 

porphyry systems despite the fact that the batholith is otherwise 

too deeply eroded. It contains only three known porphyry 

occurrences in its northern sector.

Probabilistic Assessment

Grade and Tonnage Model Selection

Of the 12 porphyry deposits in the Kerman tract, Sar 

Cheshmeh is the only deposit for which both gold and 

molybdenum grades are reported. Based on Au/Mo ratios and 

molybdenum concentrations, Sar Cheshmeh classifies as a Cu-Mo 

subtype. Available information on most the porphyry deposits 

and prospects in the Kerman Tract further suggest that the Cu-Mo 

metal association is dominant. Pooled t-test results assuming equal 

variances further show that the 12 known deposits in the tract are 

not significantly different at the 1-percent level from tonnages and 

grades in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model of Singer and 

others (2008). Therefore, the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo model 

was used to estimate undiscovered copper, gold, molybdenum, 

and silver resources in the Kerman tract. In comparison to the 

median tonnage and grade in the general porphyry Cu-Au-Mo 

model, the Darreh Zar, Now Chun, and Sar Cheshmeh deposits 

are larger, with Sar Cheshmeh also exhibiting higher copper and 

molybdenum grades. The Ali Abad, Darreh-Zerreshk, Meiduk, 

Raigan, and Sar Kuh deposits are smaller but contain higher 

copper grades, whereas the Bagh Khoshk, Chah-Firuzeh, Dar Alu, 

and Iju deposits are smaller and have lower copper grades than the 

median deposit in the model.
174 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Estimates of Undiscovered Deposits and Rationale

Favorable geologic factors for the occurrence of 

undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Kerman tract 

include (1) relatively long-lived juvenile to mature Andeantype arc built on thick crust, (2) dominant calc-alkaline and 

lesser alkaline igneous compositions, (3) appropriate levels 

of exposure of porphyry systems associated with Miocene 

permissive rocks, (4) several larger than median (including the 

world-class Sar Cheshmeh) porphyry deposits with copper and 

molybdenum grades that are comparable or higher to those in 

other porphyry deposits worldwide, (5) favorable conditions 

for supergene enrichment, and (6) as many as 20 potentially 

porphyry-related ASTER-derived alteration zones that are 

not associated with known porphyry prospects. Unfavorable 

geologic factors for the occurrence of undiscovered porphyry 

copper deposits include (1) postmineral faulting and possible 

concealment or exhumation of porphyry systems, (2) only 

partially adequate levels of exposure of porphyry systems 

associated with older Eocene-Oligocene permissive rocks, and 

(3) small exposure (5 percent of the tract area) of the more 

prospective Miocene permissive rocks.

The well-endowed Kerman tract exhibits a high density 

of known porphyry deposits relative to other tracts of 

equivalent aerial extent around the world (Singer and Menzie, 

2010). It is the only tract in the study region that is situated 

well above the expected median deposit density, suggesting 

that the likelihood of occurrence of undiscovered deposits is, 

therefore, low. Appropriate levels of exposure of porphyry 

systems and extensive exploration in the region are further 

supported by the high number of well-described porphyry 

prospects.

The assessment team established that the Kerman tract 

was exceptionally favorable and that estimates of numbers 

of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits could be carried 

out with low uncertainty. Therefore, quantitative assessment 

of undiscovered deposits in this tract was completed. The 

consensus estimates for undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits in the Kerman tract at the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels and associated summary statistics are 

shown in table 15A. At the 90-percent probability, estimates 

ranged from 2 to 4 undiscovered deposits. At the 50-percent 

probability level, the numbers increased to between 3 and 10 

undiscovered deposits, and at the 10-percent probability level, 

the numbers increased to between 6 and 30. On the basis of 

these numbers, the team reached a consensus estimate of 3, 5, 

and 10 undiscovered deposits for the 90-, 50-, and 10-percent 

probability levels, respectively, which resulted in a mean of 

5.70 undiscovered deposits with a standard deviation of 2.74 

(Cv

%=48). The estimate reflects the level of favorability and 

low uncertainty for undiscovered porphyry copper deposits 

deemed to be present in a tract that already exhibits a high 

known porphyry deposit density. However, the estimated total 

deposit density per 100,000 km2

 obtained remains within the 

50th- and 10th-percentile interval of the deposit density model 

of Singer and Menzie (2010).

Probabilistic Assessment Simulation Results

Simulation results for estimates for copper, molybdenum, 

gold, silver, and the total volume of mineralized rock are 

summarized in table 15B. The mean estimate of undiscovered 

resources in the Kerman porphyry tract is 22 Mt of copper, 

1.5 times that of the resources presently known in this wellexplored tract. However, these resources may be inaccessible 

or uneconomic at present. Furthermore, a substantial fraction 

of the inventory can be expected to be distributed among 

numerous already identified prospects or known deposits 

with resource bases that are undefined or only partially 

defined at present. Results of the Monte Carlo simulation are 

also presented as cumulative frequency plots (fig. 55). The 

cumulative frequency plots show the cumulative probabilities 

of occurrence-estimated resources and total mineralized 

rock, as well as the mean for each commodity and for total 

mineralized rock.

Late Miocene to Holocene Tracts

The late Miocene to Holocene permissive tracts are 

shown in figure 8. The tract consists of three sub-tracts, all of 

which were assessed qualitatively.

Pliocene-Quaternary Tract (142pCu9017)

Tectonic Setting

The latest Miocene to Holocene neotectonic settings in 

the assessment region were described above (see Neotectonic 

Setting of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia). 

Latest Miocene to Holocene magmatism has occurred along 

subduction-related, as well as postcollisional extensional 

regimes (fig. 56). The subduction-related Konya Arc spans 

south-central to southwestern Turkey, and the BazmanTaftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc occupies southeastern Iran, western 

Pakistan, and southern Afghanistan. These subduction-related 

settings occur on the western and eastern extremities of the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia, respectively, 

where the last remnants of the Southern Neotethys Ocean 

Branch are still closing along subduction zones. The large 

intervening region between these two subduction-related 

settings is occupied by irregularly distributed outcrops 

of igneous rocks emplaced in a postcollisional setting. 

Magmatism in this setting occurs in pull-apart basins along 

transpressional and transtensional strike-slip faults and in 

grabens that are parallel and orthogonal to the north-northeastdirected principal compressional stress component. These 

postcollisional igneous rocks reach their maximum extent and 

volume in eastern Turkey and the Lesser Caucasus. In general, 

about half of the aerial extent of these postcollisional igneous 

units consists of mafic compositions. These nonpermissive 

mafic igneous rocks were not used to define tracts. Therefore, 

they extend well beyond tract boundaries in several areas.
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 175

Table 15. Probabilistic assessment for tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran.

Figure 55. Cumulative frequency plot showing the results of Monte Carlo simulation of undiscovered resources 

in porphyry copper deposits in tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran. k, thousand; M, million; B, billion; Tr, trillion.

A. Undiscovered deposit estimates, deposit numbers, tract area, and deposit density.

[Nxx, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s, standard deviation; Cv%, coefficient of 

variance; Nknown, number of known deposits in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known 

deposits; tract area, area of permissive tract in square kilometers (km2); deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and 

Cv% are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)]

B. Results of Monte Carlo simulations of undiscovered resources.

[Cu, copper; Mo, molybdenum; Au, gold; and Ag, silver; in metric tons; Rock, in million metric tons]

Consensus undiscovered deposit estimates Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2

)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100,000 km2 N ) 90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s Cv

% Nknown Ntotal

3 5 10 10 10 5.7 2.7 48 12 18 32,800 54

Material

Probability of at least the indicated amount Probability of

0.95 0.9 0.5 0.1 0.05 Mean Mean or 

greater None

Cu 950,000 2,400,000 13,000,000 49,000,000 78,000,000 22,000,000 0.3 0.03

Mo 0 8,100 230,000 1,400,000 2,300,000 570,000 0.27 0.07

Au 0 22 300 1,300 1,900 540 0.31 0.05

Ag 0 0 2,700 17,000 28,000 7,100 0.25 0.12

Rock 230 550 2,800 10,000 16,000 4,400 0.32 0.03

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M 100M 1B 10B 100B 1Tr

Mean Cu

Mean Mo

Mean Au

Mean Ag

Mean rock

Probability

Material, in metric tons

Mean Cu 

Mean Mo 

Mean Au 

Mean Ag 

Mean rock 

Cu

Mo

Au

Ag

Rock

EXPLANATION
176 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 56. Map showing the location of known porphyry copper prospects for permissive tract 142pCu9017, PlioQuaternary—Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Pakistan, Russian Federation, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 

142pCu9017a, Plio-Quaternary—Konya, Turkey; 142pCu9017b, Plio-Quaternary—Postcollisional, Armenia, Azerbaijan, 

Georgia, Iran, Russian Federation, Turkey; and 142pCu9017c, Plio-Quaternary—Bazman, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan. See 

appendix C for prospects and appendix D for accompanying spatial data.

40° E 60° E

40° N

30° N IRAN

EGYPT

TURKEY

SAUDI ARABIA

IRAQ

RUSSIA

SYRIA

TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

ROMANIA

LEBANON

CYPRUS

ISRAEL

KUWAIT

AZERBAIJAN

JORDAN

GEORGIA

PAKISTAN

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Baku

Doha

Amman

Cairo

Manama

Kuwait

Tehran

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Ashgabat

Damascus

T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

Bucharest

Rabor

Mirkoh

Piruzkey

Doganbey

Koh-i-Sultan

Alam Kuh

RED SEA

ARAL

SEA

MEDITERRANEAN

SEA

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

BLACK SEA

30° E 50° E 70° E

50° N 

30° N 

RUSSIA

IRAN

KAZAKHSTAN

TURKEY

SAUDI

 ARABIA

ARABIAN

SEA

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 150 300 450 600 KILOMETERS

0 150 300 MILES

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Other porphyry copper tracts

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9017

Porphyry copper prospect

Sub-tract 142pCu9017a

Sub-tract 142pCu9017b

Sub-tract 142pCu9017c Area of map
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 177

Given the contrasting tectonic settings, the Pliocene-Quaternary tract is subdivided here into three sub-tracts—the Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman and the Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya 

subduction-related sub-tracts and the Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional sub-tract.

Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya Sub-tract 

(142pCu9017a)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Miocene to Holocene continental 

arc and back arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya sub-tract covers an 

area of 11,800 km2 across southwestern and south-central 

Turkey (fig. 56). It delimits a 300-km-long and as much as 

75-km-wide late Miocene to Holocene continental-arc and 

back-arc volcano-plutonic belt related to the active HellenicCyprian subduction zone. The Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya 

tract is partially superimposed on parts of the older AnatolideTauride–Central Turkey and Azerbaijan–Eastern Turkey subtracts (see above).

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism

Late Miocene to Holocene subduction-related arc and 

back-arc magmatism in southwestern and south-central 

Turkey, known as the Konya Arc, is related to the HellenicCyprian subduction system located to the south in the 

Mediterranean Sea (fig. 57). Permissive igneous units of 

intermediate to felsic composition used to define this sub-tract 

(appendix B) are shown in figure 57, along with locations of 

igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned 

in the text. The Hellenic subduction zone is characterized 

by a shallow-dipping slab, an uncommonly voluminous 

accretionary fore-arc prism, and a trench that is filled with 

thick sedimentary successions (Hatzfeld and others, 1989).

In the arc environment of south-central Turkey, the 

structural framework is expressed by east-west normal faults that 

have been active at least since 26 Ma (Meulenkamp and others, 

1988). These faults are in turn cut by a set of conjugate northwest 

and northeast normal faults with significant oblique-slip 

components. These faults are the product of north-south-directed 

compression and have resulted in the westward tectonic escape 

of the Anatolian Block. The tectonic escape of the Anatolian 

Block has been active since 6 Ma but may have commenced 

as early as 12 Ma (Boztuğ and others, 2004). Late Miocene 

to Holocene arc magmatism forms a belt of well-preserved 

volcanic edifices. These are emplaced in pull-apart basins along 

these conjugate dextral and sinistral oblique-slip faults (Toprak, 

1998). The volcanism can be divided into three periods that 

are separated by deformational and erosional events. The first 

period (11–8.5 Ma) is represented by andesitic flows and the 

second period (8.5–2.7 Ma) is characterized by thick ignimbritic 

sequences, whereas the third period (3.6 Ma to recent) is 

embodied by large andesitic-basaltic stratovolcanoes and a 

number of felsic monogenic cones (Pasquarè and others, 1988). 

These volcanic suites exhibit high-K calc-alkaline compositions 

and relatively evolved isotopic signatures that are consistent with 

a continental-arc setting (Keller and others, 1977).

Behind the arc in the back-arc region of western Turkey, 

Oligocene-early Miocene calc-alkaline magmatism was 

followed by late Miocene-Pliocene alkaline volcanism (Yilmaz, 

1990; Delaloye and Bingöl, 2000; Yilmaz, Genç, and others, 

2001). The 14–10 Ma transition from a back arc to a combined 

back-arc and tectonic-escape extensional regime is represented 

by major east-west oblique-slip normal faults. Eruption of large 

volumes of anatectic alkaline rhyolites along these structures 

started at 12.5 Ma (Lordkipanidze and others, 1989). Northsouth extension was interrupted at the end of the late Miocene 

by an uplift event but resumed in the early Pliocene with steep 

normal faults that crosscut earlier structures and produced 

east-west and northeast-trending grabens. Widespread late 

Miocene-Pliocene (9–6 Ma) rift-related isotopically primitive 

alkaline basaltic lavas were emplaced along these grabenbounding structures (Akay, 2009; Bozkurt and others, 2000). 

During the more advanced stage of rifting in the Pliocene to 

Holocene, alkalic magmatism propagated from north to south 

across western Turkey. It evolved from older trachyandesitic 

and trachytic extrusives derived from a lamprophyric parental 

magma, to tephriphonolitic dikes, and to trachytic lava domes 

derived from a basanitic parent. The geochemical signatures 

indicate that crustal contamination was more significant in 

Pliocene than in younger volcanic rocks. These data are also 

consistent with preservation of a subduction-related component 

during the transition from the calc-alkaline to the alkaline 

regime (Temel and others, 1998a, b; Şen and others, 2004). The 

gradual reduction in silica and changes in trace element contents 

with decreasing eruption age further show that an enriched 

oceanic island basalt (OIB)-like mantle component increased 

over time (Aldanmaz and others, 2000; Elitok and others, 2010).

Based on the geologic map of the General Directorate 

of Mineral Research and Exploration (2000), nonpermissive 

late Miocene-Holocene mafic units are more widespread than 

permissive intermediate to felsic units in the back-arc region 

of southwestern Turkey. In contrast, permissive intermediate 

to felsic units in the arc region of south-central Turkey delimit 

a fairly well-defined magmatic belt.

Known Porphyry Prospects

The Konya Arc of southwestern and south-central Turkey 

hosts numerous epithermal prospects, some of which are 

associated with porphyry systems (Stratex International PLC, 

2012a). However, most porphyry systems are not well exposed 

in this volcanic-dominated belt delimited by the PlioceneQuaternary–Konya sub-tract. To date, the only positively identified 

porphyry prospect is Doğanbey, which is located in the western 

part of the sub-tract (fig. 56; appendix C).
178 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Figure 57. Map showing the distribution of permissive intrusive and extrusive rocks used to define tract 142pCu9017, Plio-Quaternary—

Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Pakistan, Russian Federation, and Turkey. Sub-tracts: 142pCu9017a, Plio-Quaternary—Konya, 

Turkey; 142pCu9017b, Plio-Quaternary—Postcollisional, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Russian Federation, and Turkey; and 142pCu9017c, 

Plio-Quaternary—Bazman, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan. See appendix A for principal sources of information and appendix B for source map units.

40° E 

40° N

30° N

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^_

^_

^_

^_

^_

^_

^_ ^_ ^_

^_

^_

^_^_

^_

IRAN

TURKEY

IRAQ

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

RUSSIA

SYRIA

JORDAN

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

ROMANIA

AZERBAIJAN

KUWAIT

CYPRUS

ISRAEL

LEBANON

Bucharest

Baku

Amman

Cairo

Kuwait

Beirut

Ankara

Baghdad

Nicosia

Damascus

T'Bilisi T'Bilisi

Jerusalem

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

! !

!

!

!

TALYSH 

C

RED SEA

BLACK SEA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

PERSIA

Sabalan

North Anatolian Fault

natolian Fault

Izmir-Ankara-Erzincan SutureIzmir-Ankara-Erzincan Suture

ANATOLIAN BLOCK

Sevan-Akera

GREATER CAUCASUSGREATER CAUCASUS

Vedi-Zangezur

EAST

ANATOLIAN

PROVINCE

LESSER CAUCASUSLESSER CAUCASUS

Somkheto-Karabakh

Island Arc 

Sarıçimen

East

Anatolian

Fault

Bitlis-Zagros SuBitlis-Zagros Su

Zopkhito

Tabriz FaultTabriz Fault

Sahand

Inlice

 Saphane

Öksüt

Ararat

Argats

Kazbek

Kazbek Elbruz

Khoy

URUMURUM

Konya Continental Arc

A R A B I A N

P L A T F O

R M

A R A B I A N

P L A T F O

R M

HELLENIC - CYPRIAN TRENCH

Base from SRTM Global Digital Elevation Model, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 2006.

Political boundaries from U.S. Department of State (2009).

Asia North Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection.

Central meridian, 48° E., latitude of origin, 35° N.

0 150 300 450 600 KILOMETERS

0 150 300 MILES
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 179

60° E

^_

^_ ^_

^_

^_

TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

PAKISTAN

KAZAKHSTAN

u

Doha

Manama

Tehran

Ashgabat

!

!

!

!

SISTAN

(Ratuk)

SISTAN

FARAH

CENTRAL IRANIAN TERRANE

ALBORZ

MAKRAN 

LUT

SISTAN

(Neh)

SISTAN

CASPIAN SEA

ARABIAN SEA

ARAL

SEA

SIAN GULF

Damavand

Quchan

Khanneshin

Washaab Nehbandan Fault Nehbandan Fault

Nayband Fault Nayband Fault

Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan

Continental Arc

Northern Neotethys Suture

Alam Reg

Koh-i-Dalil

KOPET DAGH

Suture Suture

Koh-i-Sultan

Makran Trench

Taftan

Bazman

Sabzevar

Great Kafir-Doruneh Fault

MIEH-DOKHTAR MAGMATIC BELTMIEH-DOKHTAR MAGMATIC BELT

Abdar

Tigh Noab

Bidester

Kharestan

Iju

Odeh

Rangan

EURASIAN PLATEEURASIAN PLATE

30° E 50° E 70° E

50° N 

30° N 

RUSSIA

SAUDI

 ARABIA

KAZAKHSTAN

IRAN

TURKEY

ARABIAN 

SEA

Sub-tract 142pCu9017a

Sub-tract 142pCu9017b

Sub-tract 142pCu9017c

Geologic feature discussed in the text

Assessed porphyry copper tract 142pCu9017

Permissive intrusive rock

Permissive extrusive rock

Fault, undifferentiated

EXPLANATION

Porphyry copper

Recent volcano

Thrust fault, triangles on upper plate

Thrust along suture, triangles on upper plate

Strike-slip fault, arrows indicate relative movement

Terrane suture

Oceanic trench, triangles on upper plate

Washaab

Transform fault, arrows indicate relative motion

^_

Area of map
180 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Doğanbey Porphyry Prospect

The Miocene-Pliocene Doğanbey acid-sulfate and associated 

porphyry prospect is located in the epithermal Inlice district of 

southwestern Turkey (Yigit, 2009). At Doğanbey, drill holes have 

intercepted porphyry-style Cu-Au-Mo mineralization at depth. 

Other epithermal prospects in the district are also associated with 

underlying porphyry stocks (that is, Karacaören and Gölcük [Stratex 

International PLC, 2012a] and Oğlakçi [Yigit, 2009]).

The Doğanbey prospect is centered on a 1-km-diameter 

andesite porphyry dome. The 2.5- by 2.0-km kaolin, silica, hematite, 

alunite, and native-sulfur alteration zone hosts hydrothermal 

breccias, as well as numerous sulfide-bearing vuggy silica ledges. 

The northwest- to north-south-striking vuggy silica ledges range 

from 1 to 50 m in width. Lower temperature hydrothermal alteration 

minerals such as opal and chalcedony are also present (Stratex 

International PLC, 2012a).

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects

Other possible Pliocene-Holocene porphyry-related prospects 

include Öksüt (Stratex International PLC, 2010) in the northern part 

of the sub-tract and the largest acid-sulfate alunite deposit in Turkey 

at Şaphane (Mutlu and others, 2005) in the western part of the subtract (fig. 56).

Qualitative Assessment

This subduction-related setting is permissive for porphyry 

copper deposits; however, factors that greatly diminish the 

favorability include a predominantly volcanic sub-tract with 

levels of preservation that are, for the most part, too shallow 

for porphyry systems. This is consistent with the permissive 

{volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 100 derived from the 

1:500,000-scale geologic map of Turkey (General Directorate of 

Mineral Research and Exploration, 2000). Middle Miocene and 

older rocks underlie 6 percent of the sub-tract area. Permissive late 

Miocene to recent volcanic units account for 20 percent of the tract 

area, whereas widespread nonpermissive rocks occupy 74 percent 

(fig. 57). With exception of the Doğanbey acid-sulfate epithermal 

and associated Cu-Au-Mo porphyry prospect, exploration for 

porphyry copper deposits in this region is in its early stages (Yigit, 

2009). This is reflected in part by the very few identified porphyry 

occurrences of this age range. Despite the permissive geology, 

geologic favorability was deemed unlikely to add significant 

copper resources to the overall assessment (less than a 10-percent 

chance of 1 undiscovered deposit). Therefore, quantitative 

assessment of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the 

Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya sub-tract was not warranted.

Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional Sub-tract 

(142pCu9017b)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Late Miocene to Holocene 

postcollisional magmatism of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic 

Belt

Location

The Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional sub-tract 

extends across much of the Tethys region of western and 

southern Asia (fig. 56). It covers an area of 193,800 km2 in 

Turkey, the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, and Iran. The tract 

is defined by isolated and irregular but widespread outcrops of 

latest Miocene to Holocene intermediate to felsic permissive 

igneous units that are distributed throughout a 3,500-km-long 

and as much as 750-km-wide region. As a result, this tract is 

superimposed on large parts of older porphyry copper tracts.

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism

Compared to subduction-related magmatism, which 

is commonly distributed along distinct arcuate belts, 

postcollisional magmatism in the Tethys region of western 

and southern Asia is preserved in isolated and irregularly 

distributed outcrops. Igneous centers generally occur in 

pull-apart basins along transtensional and transpressional 

strike-slip faults. Pliocene to Holocene shallow volcanicdominated magmatism is most widespread in the Lesser 

Caucasus and eastern Turkey. In this region, collision between 

the Arabian Platform and the Eurasian margin has generated 

the most intense deformation (Kazmin and others, 1986). 

The postcollisional igneous suites exhibit variable chemical 

compositions, ranging from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline 

metaluminous and local peraluminous, as well as mafic to 

felsic alkaline to ultra-alkaline. Permissive igneous units of 

intermediate to felsic composition used to define this sub-tract 

(appendix B) are shown in figure 57, along with locations of 

igneous complexes and other geologic features mentioned in 

the text.

Northern Turkey

Postcollisional latest Miocene to Holocene magmatism 

in north-central and northeastern Turkey is a far-field result 

of transpression associated with north-south collision of 

the Arabian Platform and resulting westward escape of the 

Anatolian Block along the dextral west-northwest North 

Anatolian Fault system since 12 Ma (Hubert-Ferrari and others, 

2002; Chakrabarti and others, 2012). Across north-central 

and northeastern Turkey, pressure release associated with this 

tectonic escape event triggered postcollisional volcanism along 

pull-apart basins in east-west fault systems (Boztuğ and others, 

2004). This magmatic event is represented by three suites—(1) 

an older basanite-tephrite, (2) a 5–3-Ma feldspathoid-bearing 

tephrite-tephriphonolite, and (3) a younger bimodal alkaline 

basalt-rhyolite association. Magmas equilibrated at shallow 

crustal depths (less than approximately 9 to 15 km) under a 

pressure of about 3–4.5 kb. Latest magmatism is dominated 

by mildly to strongly alkaline trachyandesitic and trachytic 

compositions with geochemical signatures that retain a 

subduction component but appear otherwise largely derived 

from partial melting of asthenospheric mantle (Aydin and 

others, 2008; Keskin, 2003; Yilmaz, 1990).
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 181

Eastern Turkey, Lesser Caucasus, and Northwestern Iran

In eastern Turkey and the Lesser Caucasus, collisionrelated tectonics and extensive volcanic activity began in the 

middle-late Miocene and continued into historical times (Şengör 

and Kidd, 1979; Dilek, 2010). An east-west belt that extends 

from northwestern Iran across the Lesser Caucasus and eastern 

Turkey is formed by three distinct volcanic assemblages. The 

first assemblage consists of a middle-late Miocene-earliest 

Pliocene minor eruptive phase of basic and intermediate alkaline 

to silica-saturated felsic members. The second assemblage is 

characterized by widespread eruptions of late Miocene-early 

Pliocene andesitic to dacitic calc-alkaline lavas, domes, and late 

northeast-striking dacitic-rhyolitic dikes that are emplaced along 

northeast-trending graben-bounding structures. Calc-alkaline 

basaltic andesites and subordinate ignimbrites occur mainly in the 

northern part of the belt where they form relatively flat volcanic 

plateaus, whereas high-K calc-alkaline andesites and dacites are 

more common in the south where they consist of stratovolcanoes 

with marked relief. The third late Pliocene-Holocene volcanic 

assemblage is represented by volcanoes composed of lavas with 

transitional tholeiitic to alkaline mafic to felsic compositions that 

are mainly emplaced along north-northeast-south-southwesttrending transtensional left-lateral structures parallel to the main 

compression direction (Philip and others, 1989; Adamia and 

others, 2010; Yilmaz, 1990; Kürüm and others, 2008; Dilek and 

others, 2010; Veliev and others, 2010). This chain of volcanoes 

extends from southeastern Turkey across the Caucasus and into 

Russia (fig. 57). Notable stratovolcanoes with recent activity 

include Ararat in Turkey, Aragats in Armenia, Kasbek in Georgia, 

and Elbrus in Russia (Smithsonian Institution, 2013).

Geochemical data from middle-late Miocene-early Pliocene 

calc-alkaline to late Pliocene-Holocene alkaline igneous units 

across eastern Turkey, the Lesser Caucasus, and northwestern 

Iran indicate an increasing role of partial melting of subductionmetasomatized subcontinental mantle and a degree of magmacrust interaction that is larger in the south than in the north (Dilek 

and others, 2010; Kheirkhah and others, 2009; Kürüm and 

others, 2008; Keskin, 2003). In the southernmost part across the 

Bitlis-Zagros Suture in the Arabian Platform, volcanism consists 

dominantly of mafic lavas erupted along normal faults. Basalts 

show geochemical signatures that are consistent with deep partial 

melting of an enriched source similar to oceanic island basalt 

(OIB) (Kheirkhah and others, 2009).

In northwestern Iran, initiation of postcollisional 

magmatism in the northern part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar 

Magmatic Belt is represented by late Miocene to Pliocene 

calc-alkaline andesitic to rhyodacitic volcanoes and high K 

calc-alkaline to mildly alkaline subvolcanic domes. At the 

Sabalan (4,811 m) and Sahand (3,707 m) stratovolcanoes 

(fig. 57), these domes exhibit subduction-related geochemical 

signatures (Azizi and Moinevaziri, 2009; Jahangiri, 

2007; Omrani and others, 2008; Jamali and others, 2012; 

Smithsonian Institution, 2002b, c). This calc-alkaline to mildly 

alkaline event is followed by extensive Pliocene to Holocene 

alkaline sodic to high-potassic and ultrapotassic maficdominated rocks. These occur in calderas and pull-apart basins 

along the Tabriz dextral strike-slip fault system (Berberian 

and King, 1981; Berberian and Berberian, 1981; Ahmadzadeh 

and others, 2010). Isotopic data indicate that these alkali rocks 

were generated from enriched mantle sources (Shahrbabaky, 

1997). However, crustal contamination accompanied by 

fractional crystallization appears to have played a role in the 

petrogenesis of the relatively more felsic trachyandesitic suites 

(Dabiri and others, 2011). Widespread Pliocene-Holocene 

mafic to felsic volcanic cones continue to the northeast into the 

Talysh and western and central Alborz Terranes (fig. 3), where 

they are also spatially associated with strike-slip and oblique 

normal faults.

Greater Caucasus and Northern Iran

In the western Greater Caucasus and central Alborz regions, 

latest Miocene to recent magmatism is represented by isolated 

volcanic flows, stratovolcanoes, and hypabyssal intrusions that 

have been unroofed by rapid erosion. In the Greater Caucasus, late 

Miocene-early Pliocene subvolcanic alkaline successions exhibit 

K2O contents that increase from south to north. In the central 

most uplifted segment of the Greater Caucasus, these volcanic 

rocks are intruded by late Miocene (9.6–8.8 Ma) subvolcanic 

granites and granosyenites, which are strongly enriched in upper 

crustal elements (tin, tungsten, molybdenum, lead). These felsic 

peraluminous plutons are considered to be the product of anatectic 

upper crustal melts formed at depths of 18–20 km (Lordkipanidze 

and others, 1989). Deeply exhumed intrusions with similar 

geochemical characteristics occur in the Alborz Terrane of 

northern Iran, as exemplified by the 6.8-Ma Alam Kuh alkali 

granite (Axen and others, 2001; Berberian and Berberian, 1981). 

The limited aerial extent of these deeply exhumed peraluminous 

intrusions is not well-represented at the 1:1,000,000 scale of 

the geologic map of Huber (1978). Therefore, these otherwise 

nonpermissive peraluminous units could not be effectively 

excluded.

In the Greater Caucasus, late Miocene-early Pliocene 

magmatism is superseded by a change from a compressional to a 

transpressional regime and late Pliocene-Holocene calc-alkaline 

andesite, dacite, and rhyolite (locally alkali) sequences that 

originated from the mixing of mantle-derived melts with felsic 

upper crust (Dilek and others, 2010). Associated stratovolcanoes 

along the north-northeast volcanic chain that projects from 

eastern Turkey exhibit northward increase in silica content 

(Pearce and others, 1990). Plutonism is represented by felsic 

subalkaline 4.5–1.5-Ma granitoids (Mosar and others, 2010), 

which are believed to have resulted from partial melting of 

overthickened continental crust (Mitchell and Westaway, 1999).

In the central Alborz and Kopet Dagh regions (fig. 57) 

of northern and northeastern Iran, Miocene-Pliocene to recent 

igneous rocks are represented by the Pliocene-Holocene 

Damavand stratovolcano (Brousse and Vaziri, 1982; Dilek and 

others, 2010) and the Miocene-Pleistocene Quchan volcanic field 

(Ghasemi and others, 2010; Shabanian and others, 2012).

In the central Alborz region, the 5,670-m above sea level 

Damavand alkali olivine basalt, trachybasalt to trachyandesite, 

and trachyte stratovolcano is the highest in the Middle East 
182 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

(Smithsonian Institution, 2002a). Alkaline volcanic units at 

Damavand exhibit primitive isotopic compositions that are 

consistent with derivation from an OIB-like mantle source 

(Mirnejad and others, 2010a). No historical eruptions are known, 

but hot springs are located on the volcano’s flanks, and fumaroles 

are found at the summit crater (Berberian and King, 1981).

In the Kopet Dagh region, the Quchan volcanic field (fig. 57) 

consists of Miocene-Pliocene augite-diopside olivine basalts and 

alkaline mafic lavas followed by Pleistocene (2.5 Ma) calc-alkaline 

dacitic plugs, domes, and dikes emplaced along tensional gaps 

in northwest-southeast right-lateral faults (Ghasemi and others, 

2010; Shabanian and others, 2012). As at Damavand, Quchan 

Miocene-Pliocene volcanic rocks display primitive isotopic 

signatures that indicate mantle derivation and nonsignificant crustal 

contamination (Spies and others, 1984; Berberian and King, 1981). 

However, younger Pleistocene dacitic domes display contrasting 

arc-related geochemical signatures that suggest an origin related 

to the break off of the Sabzevar oceanic crust beneath the Kopet 

Dagh Terrane (Ghasemi and others, 2010; Shabanian and others, 

2012). Miocene-Pliocene and younger alkali basalt, tephrite, and 

trachyandesite volcanic fields also occur along the Great KafirDoruneh strike-slip fault system (fig. 2; Förster, 1978).

Eastern Iran

In easternmost Iran, middle Miocene to recent east-northeastdirected compression is expressed by north-northeast-trending 

en-echelon right-slip faults that are parallel to the Nehbandan 

Fault system (fig. 57; Tirrul and others, 1983). Relatively isolated 

outcrops of latest Miocene-Pleistocene (7.3–3.8 Ma) mafic and 

lesser intermediate volcanic rocks occur in pull-apart basins along 

these transpressional faults; more commonly, these are the better 

developed dextral sets. Mafic rocks have alkaline compositions 

that range from olivine basalt to mugearite, with hawaiite being the 

most common. These compositions, as well as primitive isotopic 

signatures, support partial melting of upper mantle peridotite or 

Cretaceous oceanic crust (Camp and Griffis, 1982).

Central-Eastern Iran

In central-eastern Iran, Neogene-Quaternary alkaline to 

ultra-alkaline mafic lavas, dikes, and vents occur mainly along the 

dextral Nayband and Nehbandan strike-slip faults (fig. 3). Along 

the Nayband Fault, 15–2-Ma volcanic suites exhibit compositions 

that evolved in time from the north to the south. Both the older 

and younger suites exhibit geochemical compositions that support 

a within-plate OIB-derived origin (Pang and others, 2012; 

Karimpour and others, 2011b). However, more significant crustal 

contamination was involved in the genesis of the older suite to the 

north (Saadat and others, 2010). Geochemical data also suggest 

that partial melting occurred at depths of about 80 km (Walker and 

others, 2009).

Central and Southeastern Iran

Diachronous middle to late Miocene south-to-north 

oblique collision along the Bitlis-Zagros Suture from central to 

southeastern Iran (fig. 57) initiated postcollisional magmatism 

along the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (Berberian and others, 

1982; Alavi, 1994). Latest Miocene-Holocene calc-alkalic and 

alkalic magmatism in the central and southeastern parts UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt appears to be largely controlled by 

tensional gaps along thrust-parallel right-lateral strike-slip faults 

(Shahrbabaky, 1997).

In the central segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic 

Belt, late Miocene-Pliocene to Holocene volcanic rocks consist of 

tholeiitic to calc-alkaline basalts, basaltic andesites, and andesites 

exhibiting relatively evolved radiogenic signatures (Omrani and 

others, 2008). These signatures support derivation from a depleted 

mantle source and assimilation of marine sediments. Dacitic domes 

with contrasting medium- to high-K calc-alkaline compositions 

intrude these units. Geochemical data from these dacitic domes 

indicate preservation of a subduction-related signature, derivation 

from an enriched lithospheric mantle source, and assimilation of 

heterogeneous lower crustal materials (Omrani and others, 2008).

In the southeastern segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar 

Magmatic Belt, late Miocene-Pliocene volcanic rocks are 

represented by two suites. The older suite is dominated by 

tholeiitic to calc-alkaline compositions, whereas the younger suite 

consists of calc-alkaline andesite, dacite, and rhyodacitic flows 

and domes (Ghadami and others, 2008; Shahrbabaky, 1997). The 

younger Miocene-Pliocene intrusions show typical subductionrelated geochemical signatures, which also support derivation 

from a garnet-bearing mantle source (Omrani and others, 2008). 

Pliocene postcollisional mafic and lesser felsic calc-alkaline and 

alkaline volcanic rocks are exemplified by ~6-Ma-trachyandesitic 

and ~3-Ma-dacitic stratovolcanoes emplaced along local faultcontrolled extensional zones. Isotopic data from these Pliocene 

units indicate more primitive island-arc affinities than the 

Miocene-Pliocene dacitic domes. However, these geochemical 

data otherwise support similar derivation from the suprasubduction mantle wedge (Shahrbabaky, 1997; Shafiei and others, 

2008, 2009). Holocene volcanic units are represented by maficdominated alkaline flows with more distinct asthenospheric mantle 

signatures (Agard and others, 2011).

From the central to the southeastern segment of the UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt, geochemical data indicate that MiocenePliocene dacitic domes were emplaced during the transition from 

a subduction-related to a postcollisional setting, with preservation 

of a strong subduction-related signature in both regions, and the 

presence of much thicker crust in southeastern segment of the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (Khodami and others, 2010b; 

Sherafat and others, 2010).

Known Porphyry Deposits or Prospects, and other 

Possible Porphyry-Related Occurrences

The volcanic-dominated Pliocene-Quaternary–Postcollisional 

sub-tract hosts numerous epithermal and several active geothermal 

systems. Under some of these, porphyry-style alteration has 

been recognized. Known porphyry complexes associated with 

this late Miocene to recent postcollisional setting exhibit varied 

igneous compositions and, where mineralized, equally diverse 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 183

Au-Cu to Mo-(Cu) metal associations. About a dozen porphyry 

and possible porphyry-related occurrences were identified during 

this study. With exception of one (Iju), these prospects display 

resource quantities or qualities that appear of limited economic 

interest at present. They are exemplified by the Mirkoh epithermal 

and Cu-Mo porphyry prospect in northwestern Iran (Maghsoudi 

and others, 2009), the Rabor Cu-Au porphyry prospect in the 

southern Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (Geological Survey 

of Iran, 2012d; Shahabpour, 2007; Biabangard and others, 2011), 

and the Alam Kuh Mo-(Cu) porphyry occurrence in northern 

Iran (Axen and others, 2001; Berberian and Berberian, 1981). 

Additional porphyry prospects associated with syncollisional to 

postcollisional magmatism occur also at the Abdar Cu-Au-Mo 

prospect and Iju Cu-Mo porphyry deposit in the southern 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (see Kerman tract above).

Other possible porphyry-related systems of latest 

Miocene to recent age occur at Quchan in northeastern Iran 

(Ghasemi and others, 2010; Shabanian and others, 2012), 

at Tyrnyauz and Zopkhito in Georgia (Kekelia and others, 

2008), in the Sarıçimen-Khoy area of easternmost Turkey 

and northwesternmost Iran (Çolakoğlu and Arehart, 2010; 

Khalatbari-Jafari and others, 2004), and at Odeh Mo-(Cu) in 

the central Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt.

Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences in Northern Turkey 

No porphyry copper mineralization of latest Miocene 

to recent age is reported from this alkaline igneous province. 

However, several epithermal systems that are associated with 

intrusions of intermediate alkaline composition are reported to 

transition into porphyry-style mineralization at depth (Yigit, 2009).

Porphyry-Related Prospects and other Possible PorphyryRelated Mineral Occurrences in Eastern Turkey and 

Northwestern Iran

On the western flanks of the Sabalan stratovolcano in 

northwestern Iran, the Mirkoh porphyry Cu-Au-bearing prospect 

(fig. 56; appendix C) is associated with Miocene-Pliocene calcalkaline to mildly alkaline dacitic dome intrusions (Maghsoudi 

and others, 2009). Copper and gold mineralization occurs in quartz 

veins within propylitic, argillic, and sericitic alteration zones. 

Concentric metal zonation changes from proximal Cu-(Mo) to 

Au-Ag to distal antimony, lead, zinc, barium, and manganese. 

Mineralization developed best along faults and fault intersections. 

A prominent ASTER-derived alteration zone coincides with the 

location of this porphyry prospect (Mars, 2014).

An active geothermal field is also under development on the 

northwestern flanks of the Sabalan stratovolcano. This geothermal 

field is associated with a porphyry system at depth (Bogie and 

others, 2005). Results from drilling indicate that hydrothermally 

altered Pliocene trachyandesite, Eocene andesite, and Paleozoic 

meta-arenite are intruded by a Miocene monzonite pluton and 

Pliocene-Holocene diorite porphyry dikes. Alteration appears 

to be associated with both intrusive events and is represented 

by quartz-pyrite veins with K-feldspar and sericite envelopes at 

depth, and illite-clay envelopes at shallow levels. Copper or gold 

grades associated with this porphyry system are not reported. 

About 140 km to the southwest of the Sabalan volcano (fig. 57), 

similar porphyry settings may be associated with several of the 

numerous dacitic domes around the Sahand volcano (Geomatics 

Management, [n.d.]).

Postcollisional magmatism has also been identified in 

the Khoy area of easternmost Turkey and northwesternmost 

Iran (fig. 57). In northwesternmost Iran, 11.5–10.5-Ma 

hydrothermally altered monzodioritic-monzonitic porphyry 

dikes intrude the Khoy ophiolite complex and overlying 

Paleogene volcano-sedimentary rocks (Khalatbari-Jafari 

and others, 2004). These subvolcanic dikes exhibit weak 

contact metamorphic halos and are preferentially emplaced 

along northwest-southeast structures. These structures are 

approximately parallel to the paleosubduction zone along the 

Bitlis-Zagros Suture. Several late Miocene subvolcanic plutons 

also occur across the border in easternmost Turkey (Çolakoğlu 

and Arehart, 2010). They are exemplified by the 12-Ma 

Sarıçimen hornblende-biotite-(pyroxene) quartz monzodiorite 

porphyry stock, which also intrudes the Khoy ophiolitic 

complex. Trace element data in samples from this intrusion 

show anomalous copper (as much as 230 ppm), zinc (as much 

as 225 ppm), and lead (as much as 134 ppm). This calc-alkaline 

pluton exhibits geochemical characteristics that indicate mantle 

derivation followed by crustal contamination and fractionation 

in a subduction-related setting (Çolakoğlu and Arehart, 2010). 

The age of these intrusions indicates emplacement after the final 

closure of the Southern Neotethys Ocean Branch.

Porphyry-Related Prospects and Other Possible PorphyryRelated Mineral Occurrences in the Greater Caucasus and 

Northern Iran

No porphyry copper prospects of latest Miocene to Holocene 

age are known in the Greater Caucasus and across northern Iran. 

However, molybdenum, tungsten, and associated antimony, 

mercury, gold, and silver hydrothermal systems are related to 

latest Miocene to Pleistocene felsic metaluminous to peraluminous 

porphyry intrusions. These include the Tyrnyauz W-Mo skarn 

and Zopkhito Sb-Mo-Au vein deposits in the Greater Caucasus 

(Kekelia and others, 2008; Gugushvili and others, 2010) and the 

possible porphyry-related Alam Kuh molybdenum occurrence 

(fig. 56; appendix C) in the western Alborz Mountains (Axen and 

others, 2001; Berberian and Berberian, 1981). The 6.8-Ma Alam 

Kuh leucocratic alkali granite is a relatively exhumed (5–7 km) 

pluton hosted by Paleozoic rocks. The pluton is cut by aplitic and 

east-west two-mica porphyritic dikes with K-feldspar-quartzfluorite and sericite-chlorite veins and abundant radial acicular 

tourmaline.

In northeastern Iran, the Pleistocene dacitic plugs around 

Quchan (Ghasemi and others, 2010; Shabanian and others, 2012) 

may also be related to a porphyry system at depth. Förster (1978) 

and Huber (1978) report granodiorite porphyry units in the area 

(fig. 57). In addition, this area is considered favorable for copper 

and molybdenum based on the mineral potential maps (Geomatics 

Management, [n.d.]).
184 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Possible Porphyry-Related Mineral Occurrences in Eastern and 

Central-Eastern Iran

In the Sistan Zone of Iran, Huber (1978) shows a number 

of Quaternary porphyry granites in the Tigh Noab area 

(fig. 57). If confirmed, porphyry-style mineralization could 

potentially be associated with these intrusions. In the Lut and 

Kashmar-Kerman (as well as in the southern Sanandaj-Sirjan) 

Terranes, clusters of felsic porphyritic subvolcanic intrusions 

attributed with Neogene and Quaternary ages are also shown 

in the geologic map of Iran (Huber, 1978). Again, the nature of 

these felsic Neogene and younger units is unknown, but they 

could conceivably be permissive for porphyry mineralization.

Porphyry-Related Prospects and Other Possible PorphyryRelated Mineral Occurrences in Central and Southeastern Iran

The central and southeastern segments of the UrumiehDokhtar Magmatic Belt also host Miocene-Pliocene porphyry 

systems that are associated with dacitic domes. In the 

southeastern segment of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt, 

the latest Miocene ages of the Iju (9.2 Ma) Cu-Mo porphyry 

deposit and Abdar (7.5 Ma) Cu-Au-Mo porphyry prospect 

contrast with the middle Miocene ages of most other porphyry 

systems in the late Eocene to late Miocene Kerman tract (fig. 

57). The younger Iju and Abdar porphyry systems are more 

closely associated with the late Miocene-early Pliocene Dehaj 

subvolcanic dacitic syncollisional to postcollisional suite than 

the older middle-late Miocene subduction-related Kuh Panj 

suite (Shafiei and others, 2009). Another porphyry copper 

prospect occurs at Rabor (fig. 56; appendix C), where as much 

as 4 m-wide, north-south trending calc-alkaline quartz-diorite 

and dacite porphyry dikes of Pliocene age intrude Eocene 

pyroclastic and Miocene sedimentary hosts (Biabangard and 

others, 2011; Shahabpour, 2007). In the central segment of the 

Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (fig. 57), possible porphyryrelated mineralization occurs at the Miocene-Pliocene Odeh 

molybdenum-rich prospect (Geological Survey of Iran, 2012d) 

and the Miocene or younger Rangan acid-sulfate Au-Cu 

prospect, described above with the Yazd tract (Parsapoor and 

others, 2009).

Qualitative Assessment

Although porphyry copper deposits may have formed in this 

postcollisional setting, factors that greatly diminish favorability 

for porphyry copper mineralization include a volcanic-dominated 

sub-tract with levels of preservation that are for the most part too 

shallow for porphyry systems (fig. 57). This is reflected by the 

very high permissive {volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}×100 ratio of 

97. With exception of the Iju porphyry deposit located in the wellknown Kerman porphyry belt, exploration for porphyry copper 

deposits of this age range appears to have been limited elsewhere 

in this sub-tract. These two factors are in part reflected by the 

very few porphyry occurrences identified to date in this otherwise 

very large sub-tract. Despite the permissive geology, geologic 

favorability was deemed too low to add significant copper 

resources to the overall assessment (less than a 10-percent chance 

of 1 undiscovered deposit). Therefore, quantitative assessment 

of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the PlioceneQuaternary–Postcollisional sub-tract was not warranted.

Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman Sub-tract 

(142pCu9017c)

Descriptive model: General porphyry copper (Cox, 1986a; Berger 

and others, 2008; John and others, 2010)

Geologic feature assessed: Early Pliocene to Holocene 

continental arc of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt

Location

The Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract covers 

an area of 21,300 km2 that extends from southern Iran 

across southern Pakistan and into Afghanistan. It delimits a 

600-km-long and as much as 100-km-wide latest Miocene 

to Holocene continental arc related to the active Makran 

subduction zone (fig. 56). Not considered in this study is the 

extension of this arc to the north and northeast across eastern 

Afghanistan, where a broad rift is also present (Krumsiek, 

1980). The Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman continental arc is 

partially superimposed on parts of the older Lut Cretaceous, 

Sistan, Chagai, and Kerman tracts (see above).

Tectonic Setting and Magmatism 

Early Pliocene to Holocene subduction-related arc 

magmatism in southern Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan is 

related to the Makran subduction zone located in the Arabian 

Sea. Permissive igneous units of intermediate to felsic 

composition used to define this sub-tract (appendix B) are 

shown in figure 57, along with locations of igneous complexes 

and other geologic features mentioned in the text. Similar 

to the Hellenic-Cyprian subduction zone that produced the 

Konya Arc in Turkey (see Pliocene-Quaternary–Konya subtract above), the Makran subduction zone is characterized 

by a shallow-dipping slab, an uncommonly voluminous 

accretionary fore-arc prism, and a trench that is filled with 

thick sedimentary successions (Platt and others, 1985).

Late Miocene uplift and associated Chagai Arc (see 

Chagai tract above) magmatism (Breitzman and others, 

1983) were followed by Pliocene-Pleistocene alluvial 

and volcanic rock units of the Kamerod and Koh-i-Sultan 

formations (Ahmed and others, 1972), which were deposited 

unconformably on variably deformed older rocks. These 

rocks are in turn covered by Holocene unconsolidated alluvial 

and eolian units (Perelló and others, 2008). The Kamerod 

and Koh-i-Sultan formations are part of the Bazman-TaftanKoh-i-Sultan continental arc (fig. 57), which was initiated 

in the Miocene-Pliocene as a result of southward migration 

and flattening of the subducted slab along the Makran Trench 

(Shahabpour, 2010; Richards and others, 2012). Shallow 

subduction between 2.3 to 5.7 degrees is supported by fault 
Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region 185

plane solutions and epicentral depths (Platt and others, 1985; 

Gealy, 1988). As a consequence, the continental arc is being 

constructed some 500 km north of the subduction zone, across 

several terranes, including the Lut, Sistan, and Chagai-Darirod 

Terranes (fig. 3).

This east-northeast trending continental arc is represented 

by volcanic rocks of the about 8-Ma to recent Bazman and 

Taftan (Jafarian, 2011; Biabangard and Moradian, 2008) in 

Iran, and about 6-Ma to recent Koh-i-Sultan (Nicholson and 

others, 2010) calc-alkaline andesitic to dacitic stratovolcanoes 

in Pakistan (fig. 57). In addition to composite stratovolcanoes, 

the arc includes a number of lava domes, isolated vents, and 

volcanic plugs. The trend of Pliocene to Holocene edifices 

continues along strike into eastern Afghanistan, where more 

alkalic compositions occur (Peters and others, 2011). This 

continental-arc setting has been experiencing uplift and 

exhumation since about 4 Ma (Siddiqui and others, 2007).

Development of an incipient but extensive continental rift 

basin is evident north of the Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc. The 

cratonic Helmand Terrane of southern Afghanistan is presently 

undergoing southwestward translation and internal dilation in 

response to continued northward thrusting of the Indian Plate 

(Krumsiek, 1980). Pliocene-Holocene magmatism in this region 

is controlled by extensional faults. It is dominated by strongly 

alkaline volcanoes, exemplified by the Pleistocene U-Th-REE 

carbonatite deposit at Khanneshin (fig. 57), as well as widespread 

telethermal aragonite-onyx occurrences (Orris and Bliss, 2002; 

Peters and others, 2011; King and others, 2011). The latter are 

also likely associated with alkalic magmatism (Abdullah and 

Chmyriov, 1977a). To the south in the fore-arc region that makes 

up the Makran Terrane (fig. 57), thick successions of synorogenic 

flysch deposits are being deposited concurrently with uplift, 

folding, thrusting, and erosion along narrow basins that separate 

accretionary ridges. A 4-km-thick sedimentary section overlies the 

present-day Makran Trench (fig. 57), located 150 km offshore in 

the Arabian Sea (Berberian and King, 1981).

Known Porphyry Prospects

The Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman sub-tract delimits the 

Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc of southeastern Iran and 

western Pakistan. The Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc host 

numerous epithermal systems, some of which are porphyryrelated. However, documentation of porphyry mineralization 

remains scanty in this volcanic-dominated belt (fig. 56).

Koh-i-Sultan Porphyry Prospect

In the Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc segment of 

southern Pakistan, acid-sulfate epithermal systems around the 

Koh-i-Sultan stratovolcano include Koh-i-Sultan (6–4 Ma), 

Koh-i-Dalil Vent (2.0±0.8 Ma), Washaab (possibly also known 

as Missy; Bhutta, 2004), and Alam Reg (Perelló and others, 

2008). At Koh-i-Sultan, extensive zones of advanced argillic 

alteration contain gypsum, native sulfur, barite, and silica 

stockworks. A drilling program completed in 2008 confirmed 

the presence of porphyry copper-gold mineralization hosted in 

a K-silicate altered intrusive at depth (128 m at 0.14 percent 

copper and 0.19 ppm gold; Lake Resources N.L., 2012; 

InfoMine, Inc., 2012j).

Other Possible Porphyry-Related Prospects

In the Bazman-Taftan-Koh-i-Sultan Arc segment of 

southeastern Iran, the foot of the Bazman stratovolcano hosts the 

low-sulfidation gold and silver system near Piruzkey (Geological 

Survey of Iran, 2012a, e; Bazin and Hübner, 1969a; Boomeri 

and others, 2011b). Here, crustiform, banded, and brecciated 

quartz-adularia northeast-trending (25–35°) veins, as much as 

1 km long and 0.5–2 m wide, occur in basaltic and andesitic 

flows and pyroclastic units. The veins have sericite and clay 

alteration envelopes. Mineralization consists of chalcopyrite, 

covellite, silver-rich covellite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, 

and an unknown Ag-rich phase. Gold (less than 1 micron to 

as much as 2–3 microns) occurs in late hydrothermal breccias 

(Boomeri and others, 2011b). A possible association with a 

porphyry system at depth has not been established but has been 

proposed (Shahabpour, 1999). Three additional ASTER-derived 

alteration zones that could potentially be related to porphyry-style 

mineralization occur about 50 km west of the Piruzkey prospect 

(Mars, 2014).

Northwest of the Taftan stratovolcano, the Kharestan and 

Bidseter Cu-Zn-Pb-Au-Ag epithermal vein prospects occur 

within large 2- by 5-km and 3- by 6-km alteration zones of 

intense hematite, goethite, and jarosite that may be related 

to porphyry mineralization (Samani, 1998; National Iranian 

Copper Industries Company, 2012; Zanganeh and others, 

2010). HYPERION hyperspectral data indicates the presence 

of alunite, kaolinite, white mica, chlorite, and opaline silica 

(Zarcan International Resources, 2003). These prospects are 

listed in this study as part of the Late Cretaceous to early 

Miocene Sistan porphyry tract. However, their age is not 

well constrained. They may be as young as Quaternary and 

associated with the Taftan stratovolcano, which exhibits active 

sulfur-rich fumaroles at its summit. Thus, these prospects are 

also discussed in this section.

Qualitative Assessment

The occurrence of porphyry copper deposits is permissive 

in this subduction-related setting. However, factors that 

greatly diminish the favorability for occurrence of porphyry 

copper mineralization include a volcanic-dominated tract 

with levels of preservation that are too shallow for porphyry 

systems ({volcanic/[volcanic+plutonic]}=99), and perhaps 

also a fledgling arc-building event that has been only active 

for the past 8 m.y. This may be reflected in part by the very 

few identified porphyry occurrences of this age range. Despite 

the permissive geology, geologic favorability was deemed 

unlikely to add significant copper resources to the overall 

assessment (less than a 10-percent chance of 1 undiscovered 

deposit). Therefore, quantitative assessment of undiscovered 

porphyry copper deposits in the Pliocene-Quaternary–Bazman 

sub-tract was not warranted.
186 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Discussion

Compilation of geodynamic, geochemical, geochronologic, 

and ore-deposit data provided an opportunity to review the 

continental margin, intraoceanic, and postcollisional tectonic 

settings in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. 

Assessment of favorabilities and associated uncertainties in the 

estimation of undiscovered porphyry copper deposits not only 

relied on available knowledge of the intrinsic environment of 

porphyry copper formation but also on the interrelation among the 

geologic endowment, levels of preservation and exposure, and the 

extent of exploration. Much of the magmatism can be explained in 

terms of fundamental plate-tectonic principles. However, mantleinvolved post-subduction processes also played an important role, 

and uplift, erosion, subsidence, and burial of porphyry copper 

deposits contributed to the observed metallogenic patterns. The 

following sections summarize several of the salient findings.

Tectonic Settings and Distribution of Porphyry 

Copper Deposits and Prospects

Of the 367 porphyry, porphyry-related, and possible 

porphyry-related copper deposits and prospects identified in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia:

1. Sixty-five percent of all porphyry sites occur in only 5 

belts.

2. Fifty-eight percent are associated with relatively mature 

compressional calc-alkaline continental-arc settings 

(6 percent also exhibit more evolved metaluminous to 

peraluminous affinities).

3. Nineteen percent are related to juvenile compressional 

to extensional island-arc and more diverse intermediate 

to felsic calc-alkaline to alkaline back-arc environments.

4. Twenty-four percent are linked to the even more varied 

compressional anatectic syncollisional and extensional 

calc-alkaline to strongly alkaline postcollisional tectonic 

regimes.

Furthermore, of the 42 known porphyry copper deposits 

in the assessment region, roughly comparable fractions are 

distributed among these tectonic settings. However, the most 

important porphyry copper deposits occur in continental arc (Reko 

Diq and Sar Cheshmeh) and postcollisional settings (Sungun and 

Kadjaran).

Postcollisional Magmatism and Porphyry 

Copper Mineralization

Based on the known record of collisional events and the 

present-day distribution of nonsubduction-related igneous rocks, 

postcollisional magmatism occurred at several times during the 

tectonic evolution of the Tethys region of western and southern 

Asia. However, postcollisional magmatism can be effectively 

distinguished from available data only in the better preserved 

and understood Oligocene and younger magmatic belts. In the 

comparatively lesser preserved and understood older magmatic 

belts, it is challenging to recognize and differentiate postcollisional 

from other magmatic events, particularly those that occurred in 

extensional back-arc settings (for example, parts of Pontide and 

Anatolide-Tauride tracts).

Given that important porphyry copper mineralization has 

been recognized in this tectonic environment (Richards, 2009; 

Richards and Kerrich, 2007), more detailed documentation on 

the timing of collisional events and associated postcollisional 

magmatism through time is warranted. Several observations 

regarding the nature of postcollisional (or postsubduction) 

magmatism in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia 

include:

1. Pliocene-Holocene postcollisional magmatism—

Postcollisional igneous rocks are irregularly distributed 

but are most widespread and transgress tectonic 

boundaries in the more protracted collisional setting 

of the Lesser Caucasus region. Magmatic activity 

is commonly controlled by normal fault-bounded 

grabens or pull-apart basins along transtensional or 

transpressional strike-slip structures. Magmatism 

consists of intermediate to felsic but also subequal 

to dominant volumes of (nonpermissive) mafic calcalkaline to alkaline units. Permissive intermediate to 

felsic rocks are overwhelmingly represented by volcanic 

units. These shallow levels of preservation are consistent 

with regional or local subsidence and burial under an 

extensional regime. Plutonic units are exposed only in 

more deeply exhumed regions that are currently under 

compression (that is, Greater Caucasus and Urumieh 

-Dokhtar). Postcollisional porphyry systems (that is, 

Mirkoh, Rabor, Iju and Abdar) are associated with 

well-preserved volcanic edifices. They underlie shallow 

acid-sulfate, as well as adularia-sericite epithermal and 

active geothermal systems.

2. Older postcollisional magmatism—Unlike known 

Pliocene-Holocene porphyry systems, OligoceneMiocene postcollisional porphyry systems in the 

region delimited by the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran 

sub-tract include large known deposits (that is, 

Sungun, Kadjaran). These may be only exposed at 

present because of an adequate balance in the extent 

of synmineral and postmineral subsidence and uplift 

events in this region. A postcollisional setting for 

some of the Late Cretaceous-middle Eocene porphyry 

systems is difficult to discern because of insufficient 

geologic constraints on these older magmatic belts (arcs 

migrated and back arcs propagated, and some back arcs 

evolved into postsubduction environments where they 

were interrupted by a collisional event). Furthermore, 

subsequent compressional and extensional deformation 

structurally juxtaposed different tectonic environments. 
Discussion 187

Thus, distinction between back-arc and postcollisional 

environments is problematic. Constraining the timing 

of a collisional event also presents challenges. In the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia, insufficient 

field evidence has generated confusion between:

 i. The onset versus termination of a collisional event, 

and

ii. The “soft” (island arc-continent accretion) versus 

“hard” (continent-continent) collision. 

The first process is less consequential for mantleinvolved postcollisional processes.

Preservation-Erosion Record and Porphyry 

Copper Deposits and Prospects

Results from this study indicate that there is a general 

correspondence between the number of known porphyry 

occurrences and the level of crustal preservation (estimated 

from relative permissive volcanic-to-plutonic ratios) and 

exposure (the extent of younger cover rocks) in each tract. 

Magmatic belts with numerous porphyry occurrences exhibit 

comparable areas of coeval plutonic and volcanic rocks and 

lesser cover. Magmatic belts with fewer porphyries display 

high or low volcanic-to-plutonic ratios and (or) greater cover. 

This suggests that levels of preservation and exposure are 

variables that make an important contribution to the observed 

distribution of porphyry copper systems.

At the regional scales analyzed in this study, the 

correlation is remarkable because uplift, erosional, subsidence, 

and burial processes commonly happen at time and space 

scales an order of magnitude smaller, and what is observed 

today is the sum product of several partially juxtaposed 

exhumation and burial events. These relations across the 26 

tracts identified in the Tethys region of western and southern 

Asia are shown in figure 58.

The central part of figure 58 shows that tracts or sub-tracts 

with the highest number of known porphyry copper occurrences 

(Kerman, Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran, Pontide–NE Turkey, and 

Chagai) are also tracts that are underlain by subequal areas 

of coeval permissive volcanic and plutonic rocks ({volcanic/

[volcanic+plutonic]} proportions between 33 and 67), and lesser 

cover. This reflects appropriate levels of preservation (the coeval 

volcanic/plutonic interface where hypabyssal intrusions commonly 

occur) and exposure (where larger fractions of permissive rock 

relative to younger cover occur) of porphyry systems.

The left part of figure 58 includes tracts where fewer known 

porphyry systems occur. In these tracts, the proportion of coeval 

permissive volcanic-to-plutonic rocks is high, as is the fraction of 

younger cover. This reflects shallow levels of preservation (where 

volcanic rocks are more common than coeval plutonic rocks) and 

inadequate exposure (where smaller fractions of permissive rock 

to younger cover occur) of porphyry systems.

The right part of figure 58 also consists of tracts where fewer 

porphyry systems are known to occur. Here, the proportion of 

coeval permissive volcanic-to-plutonic rocks is variable but in 

general low, and the fraction of younger cover is high. This reflects 

deep levels of preservation (where volcanic rocks are less common 

than coeval plutonic rocks) and lack of exposure (where smaller 

fractions of permissive rock to younger cover occur) of porphyry 

systems. Deep levels of preservation are also indicated by the high 

proportions of metamorphic rocks in these more exhumed tracts. 

As derived from available geologic map bases, the proportion of 

metamorphic rocks is 35 percent in the Sanandaj-Sirjan tract, 25 

percent in the Border Folds tract, and 23 percent in the AnatolideTauride–Western Turkey sub-tract. These metamorphic rocks 

are not only associated with older events but also with younger 

deformation and uplift events that occurred during or after the 

volcano-plutonic event delimited by the tract. This is particularly 

evident in the Sanandaj-Sirjan and western Anatolide-Tauride 

Terranes.

Changes in Tectonic Regime and Porphyry 

Copper Deposits

The highest rates of uplift, erosion, and removal of volcanic 

rocks that are coeval with porphyry intrusions coincide with 

pronounced tectonic changes. This is particularly evident in the 

Chagai and Kerman tracts and Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran subtract. These tracts also host most of the known porphyry copper 

resources in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. 

The formation of world-class porphyry deposits in the magmatic 

belts delimited by these tracts suggests that these deposits were 

emplaced during a time that closely preceded or followed the final 

and “hard” continent-continent collision between the Arabian 

Platform and the Eurasian margin. Collision occurred in the early 

Miocene in the Arasbaran part of the Azerbaijan tract and the late 

Miocene in the Kerman tract. The southward migration or rollback 

and flattening of the subducted slab along the Makran Trench 

occurred in the Miocene-Pliocene in the Chagai tract.

Concluding Remarks

Ore-Forming Environment, Level of Preservation 

and Exposure, Number of Porphyry Occurrences, 

Extent of Exploration, and Copper Endowment

Results from this study indicate that the largest known 

porphyry copper deposits in the assessment region occur in 

subduction-related compressional arcs and postsubduction 

or postcollisional extensional magmatic belts that at present 

exhibit appropriate preservation and exposure levels. Available 

geochronologic age constraints indicate that emplacement of 

these porphyry systems closely corresponds with episodes 

of pronounced tectonic change (that is, collision, greatest 

extension). Preservation and exposure level analysis showed 

that uplift, erosion, subsidence, and burial processes made 

an important contribution to the observed distribution of 
188 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Pliocene-Quaternary—Postcollisional (142pCu9017b)

Pliocene-Quaternary—Bazman (142pCu9017c)

Pliocene-Quaternary—Konya (142pCu9017a)

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey (142pCu9014b)

Lut Tertiary (142pCu9010)

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9004c)

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey (142pCu9004a)

Cimmeride Greater Caucasus (142pCu9002)

Khorasan (142pCu9009)

Yazd (142pCu9015)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus (142pCu9001)

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey (142pCu9014a)

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus (142pCu9005c)

Esfahan (142pCu9008)

Kerman (142pCu9016)

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9014c)

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey (142pCu9004b)

Chagai (142pCu9013)

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey (142pCu9005a)

Lut Jurassic (142pCu9000)

Makran (142pCu9011)

Lut Cretaceous (142pCu9006)

Sistan (142pCu9012)

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey (142pCu9005b)

Border Folds (142pCu9007)

Sanandaj-Sirjan (142pCu9003)

Number of porphyry copper occurrences

Tract area, in percent

90807060504030

0

908070605040302010

100

20100

Permissive tract

EXPLANATION

Older metamorphic  rocks 

Porphyry prospectsPorphyry deposits

Volcanic to plutonic  ratio [volc/(volc+plut) x 100]

Cover Younger metamorphic  rocks Permissive volcanic  rocks Permissive plutonic  rocks 

Shallow

preservation level

Intermediate

preservation level

Shallow preservation 

level and cover

Deep preservation 

level and cover

Figure 58.

Figure 58. Preservation and exposure levels of the 26 porphyry copper tracts and sub-tracts in the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. The proportion (percentage) of tract area of older metamorphic basement rocks (dark blue), coeval permissive plutonic and volcanic units (red and green), younger metamorphic rocks (light blue), and cover rocks (yellow) is shown along the left axis. The calculated volcanic-to-plutonic ratios are shown by the blue ovals. The number of known porphyry copper deposits (black) and prospects (gray) is displayed by the stacked bars (plotted versus right axis). The level of erosion currently exposed by the interaction of exhumation and burial processes, not just the ore-forming environment, influenced the observed number of porphyry occurrences. Magmatic belts with numerous known porphyry sites exhibit subequal areas of coeval plutonic and volcanic units and lesser cover rocks. Belts with fewer known porphyry sites display either high or low volcanic-to-plutonic ratios and (or) greater cover, pointing to crustal levels that are too shallow or too deep for exposure of porphyry mineralization.
Summary of Probabilistic Assessment Results 189

porphyry copper systems in the assessment region. The tracts 

with appropriate degrees of preservation and exposure levels 

and numerous porphyry occurrences contain the largest 

deposits and also have experienced the most exploration.

In summary, the assessment team recognized that there is 

a general correlation between the relative endowment of the 

porphyry setting, the level of preservation and exposure, the 

number of porphyry deposits and prospects, and the extent of 

exploration in a permissive tract.

Utility of Data

Available tectonic (including ophiolite-bearing 

accretionary belts), lithologic, and geochemical data were 

sufficient to establish the setting, nature, and extent of exposed 

magmatic belts and associated porphyry mineralization 

in time and space at the regional scale. Compilation of 

existing and new data on porphyry, porphyry-related, and 

possible porphyry-related porphyry copper occurrences 

in the assessment region provided an expanded and better 

documented database of geologic relations at the local scale. 

This compilation effort augmented the number of porphyry 

deposits and associated resource information known in the 

assessment region by 40 percent. It also doubled the number 

of known porphyry prospects. Deposits and prospects served 

as effective geochemical probes, because they provided 

information on the locations, the geochemical signatures 

of porphyry intrusions, the abundance and aerial extent 

of hydrothermal alteration minerals, the dominant metal 

associations, and the levels of preservation and exposure 

of individual mineral systems. Integration of these data 

with regional-scale geologic information allowed definition 

and delimitation of tracts permissive for porphyry copper 

mineralization and comparison of characteristics and resources 

in porphyry copper deposits in the assessment region with 

descriptive and grade-tonnage models constructed from data 

around the world.

The extent of exploration in the assessment region could 

not be derived satisfactorily from information in the available 

literature. However, the assessment team recognized that 

there is broad correlation between the level of preservation 

and exposure of a tract, the number of porphyry occurrences 

contained within it, and the extent of exploration.

The regional-scale magnetic anomaly map base served 

to confirm the location and extent of magmatic belts, basins, 

and other regional-scale structural features. Largely because of 

masking by younger units with high magnetic susceptibilities, 

these data were deemed to have insufficient resolution to 

allow interpretation of whether shallowly buried (for example, 

less than 1 km from the surface) extensions of permissive 

units of a given age range projected beyond permissive tract 

boundaries. Thus, these data could not be relied on to adjust 

these boundaries.

Processed ASTER-derived alteration data were used to 

identify the location and aerial extent of possible hydrothermal 

phyllic and argillic alteration zones that could be associated 

with potential porphyry copper mineralization. In more 

thoroughly explored tracts with numerous known porphyry 

copper occurrences, these data confirmed the location of many 

but not all known porphyry occurrences, as well as alteration 

associated with other types of mineral occurrences. In lessexplored tracts with few known porphyry copper occurrences, 

and after filtering out ASTER-derived alteration zones 

associated with other known types of mineral occurrences, 

ASTER-derived alteration data were considered along with 

other information to deduce potential unidentified porphyryrelated occurrences. Given that ASTER data were not 

available for large parts of several tracts, these data were only 

of partial use during the estimation process.

Utility of Available Models

Existing descriptive models appropriately incorporated 

the characteristics of both subduction- and nonsubductionrelated porphyry deposits (John and others, 2010), porphyryrelated deposits (Sillitoe, 2010), and igneous compositions and 

associated metal concentrations (Seedorff and others, 2005). 

Resources and metal associations of several deposits in the 

assessment region were not well represented in the grade and 

tonnage model of Singer and others (2008). This is because 

tonnage and grade estimates reported for many porphyry 

copper deposits in the assessment region and the model only 

partially reflect the contained metal resources. Current efforts 

are underway to update the grade and tonnage model with 

new and revised resource data obtained during the global 

assessment effort. Similarly, the available Singer and Menzie 

(2005) regression algorithm used to derive expected numbers 

of deposits relied on data that are almost 10 years old. The 

grade and tonnage model (as well as the density model of 

Singer and Menzie, 2010) needs to be updated. However, the 

Singer and Menzie (2005) relation was used to allow more 

meaningful comparisons with previous assessments that relied 

on it. The code of the probabilistic Monte Carlo simulation 

software (EMINERS) is also being updated.

Summary of Probabilistic Assessment 

Results

The assessment team estimated that there are 47 

undiscovered deposits in the region that are within 1 km of 

the surface. Based on the mean estimates from Monte Carlo 

simulations, undiscovered deposits may contain at least 

180 Mt of copper distributed among the 18 tracts for which 

probabilistic estimates were conducted. These undiscovered 

copper resources are 2.8 times the 62 Mt of copper already 

identified in the known 42 porphyry deposits in the assessment 

area. The eight permissive tracts for which probabilistic 

estimates were not done are unlikely to contribute significant 

resources to the copper endowment of the study area.
190 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

The estimated numbers of undiscovered deposits at 

selected quantile levels for each tract, the resulting mean 

undiscovered deposits with associated uncertainty reported 

as standard deviation and coefficient of variation, the 

numbers of known and total numbers of porphyry deposits, 

the tract area, and the deposit density calculated from the 

sum of known and undiscovered deposits per 100,000 km2, 

are summarized in table 16. The estimated total deposit 

densities are comparable to median porphyry deposit 

densities expected in well-explored tracts of equivalent size 

elsewhere around the world (Singer and Menzie, 2010) in 

10 of the 18 tracts and sub-tracts for which probabilistic 

estimates were conducted. These include the Cimmeride–

Lesser Caucasus, Pontide–NE Turkey, Anatolide-Tauride–

Western Turkey, Anatolide-Tauride–Eastern TurkeyCaucasus, Esfahan, Chagai, Azerbaijan–Western Turkey, 

Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran, Yazd, and Kerman. The other 

eight tracts have lower estimated deposit densities because 

of their limited favorability, insufficient available grade and 

tonnage data for known porphyry copper deposits, and (or) 

deposit characteristics that differ from those in the available 

descriptive and grade-tonnage models.

For each tract, table 17 shows the identified resources in 

known porphyry deposits, the mean and median21 estimates 

of contained copper and gold and the mean estimates 

of molybdenum, silver, and total mineralized rock in 

undiscovered resources. Identified resources are based on 

total production, if any, published data for measured and 

indicated reserves, and inferred resources at the lowest cutoff 

grade reported. Identified resources may include substantial 

amounts of metal that already have been produced. Note 

that byproduct metals in deposits with reliable tonnages and 

copper grades frequently are not reported (table 3). Table 17 

shows that about half of the undiscovered copper resources 

are estimated to be contained in only 5 of the 26 tracts and 

sub-tracts. Two-thirds of the undiscovered copper resources 

are estimated to be contained in only 7 of the 26 tracts and 

sub-tracts.

Identified resources are compared with mean and 

with median estimates of undiscovered copper and gold 

resources by tract in figures 59A and B, respectively. With 

the exception of the Chagai tract, which includes the 

exceptionally large copper resource contributed by the giant 

Reko Diq deposit, the mean estimated undiscovered copper 

resources in all the other tracts exceed the identified copper 

resources. The largest undiscovered copper and molybdenum 

resources are estimated to be contained in the Kerman tract 

and the Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract. Compared to the 

identified resources, however, these tracts contribute lower 

proportions of undiscovered copper resources than the other 

tracts (fig. 59A). This is because in these two relatively wellexplored tracts, most porphyry copper deposits are estimated 

21Amount of metal at the 0.5 quantile or 50-percent chance of occurrence of 

that amount of metal or more based on simulation for the estimated numbers 

of undiscovered deposits.

to have already been identified. With exception of the 

relatively well-explored Azerbaijan–Caucasus-Iran sub-tract 

and Chagai tract, the largest undiscovered gold resources 

are estimated to be contained in the Kerman Cu-Mo-Au 

porphyry tract and the Lut Tertiary and Khorasan Cu-Au 

porphyry tracts (fig. 59B).

The probabilistic assessment of the metal resources 

associated with undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in 

the Tethys region of western and central Asia indicates that 

significant amounts of additional resources may be present. 

However, these undiscovered copper resources, if present, 

may be inaccessible or uneconomic. Results should be 

interpreted with caution pending application of economic 

filters to evaluate what part of the estimated undiscovered 

resources might be economic under various conditions, such 

as metal prices and capital development costs.

The 260 Mt of copper resources identified in known 

porphyry deposits in the well-explored Western United States 

is substantially larger than the 62 Mt of copper resources 

known at present in the less explored Tethys region of 

western and southern Asia. However, the estimated 180 

Mt of copper in 47 undiscovered porphyry deposits in the 

Tethys region of western and southern Asia is considerably 

more than the 46 Mt of copper estimated in 14 undiscovered 

porphyry deposits in the Tethys region of Europe to the west 

(Sutphin and others, 2013) and the 28.5 Mt of copper in the 9 

undiscovered porphyry deposits estimated in the Tethys region 

of Afghanistan to the east (Ludington and others, 2007). It (the 

estimated 180 Mt of copper in the Tethys region of western 

and southern Asia) is comparable to the 200 Mt of copper 

estimated in undiscovered porphyry deposits in the worldclass province of the Western United States (U.S. Geological 

Survey National Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2000) 

and to the 144 Mt of copper in 39 undiscovered deposits in 

Mexico (Hammarstrom and others, 2010) but substantially less 

than the 750 Mt of copper in the 145 undiscovered porphyry 

deposits of the Andes (Cunningham and others, 2008).

Acknowledgments

The authors thank members of the USGS Assessment 

Oversight Committee—Dave John, Rob Robinson, Barney 

Berger, Kate Johnson, Jeff Doebrich, and technical reviewers 

Jeff Doebrich, Don Singer, Greg Fernette, and Pam Cossette 

for their helpful insight, comments, and suggestions. We also 

thank our international colleagues Richard Herrington, Mario 

Billa, Ilkay Kuşcu, Charles Moon, and Jeremy Richards and 

their institutions for their contributions, as well as USGS 

Mineral Resources Program Coordinators Jeff Doebrich and 

Larry Meinert for their support.
Acknowledgments 191

Table 16. Summary of estimates of numbers of undiscovered deposits, numbers of known deposits, tract areas, and deposit densities for the porphyry copper assessment of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.[NXX, estimated number of deposits associated with the xxth percentile; Nund, expected number of undiscovered deposits; s,standard deviation; C %, coefficient of variance; v Nknown, number of known deposits 

in the tract that are included in the grade and tonnage model; Ntotal, total of expected number of deposits plus known deposits; tract area (km2), area of permissive tract in square kilometers, rounded to three 

significant figures; deposit density reported as the total number of deposits per 100,000 km2. Nund, s, and C % are calculated using a regression equation (Singer and Menzie, 2005)] v

Tract name Coded_ID

Consensus estimates of numbers of 

undiscovered deposits Summary statistics Tract area 

(km2)

Deposit density 

(Ntotal/100k km2) N90 N50 N10 N05 N01 Nund s C %v Nknown Ntotal

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005b 0 0 1 1 2 0.33 0.62 190 0 0.33 36,200 1

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus sub-tract

142pCu9005c 0 2 4 7 7 2.2 2.0 92 4 6.2 21,700 29

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005a 0 1 1 2 3 0.78 0.60 78 2 2.8 5,940 47

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9014c 1 6 15 15 15 7.1 5.0 70 5 12 58,300 21

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014b 0 0 1 1 2 0.33 0.62 190 1 1.3 7,750 17

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014a 1 2 8 8 8 3.4 2.7 80 3 6.4 65,200 10

Border Folds 142pCu9007 0 1 2 4 4 1.2 1.2 100 0 1.2 45,300 3

Chagai 142pCu9013 1 3 6 6 6 3.2 1.9 58 4 7.2 19,100 38

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus 142pCu9001 0 2 3 5 5 1.9 1.5 79 3 4.9 17,400 28

Esfahan 142pCu9008 0 2 8 18 18 4.0 4.9 120 1 5.0 56,900 9

Kerman 142pCu9016 3 5 10 10 10 5.7 2.7 48 12 18 32,800 54

Khorasan 142pCu9009 0 2 5 8 8 2.5 2.4 96 0 2.5 38,300 7

Lut Tertiary 142pCu9010 0 2 5 5 5 2.4 2.0 85 0 2.4 56,300 4

Pontide (Asia)—CaucasusIran sub-tract 142pCu9004c 0 1 1 3 3 0.85 0.80 94 0 0.85 24,300 3

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b 1 3 9 9 9 4.1 3.0 73 4 8.1 45,500 18

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004a 0 1 2 4 4 1.2 1.2 100 1 2.2 32,700 7

Sistan 142pCu9012 0 2 5 8 8 2.5 2.4 96 0 2.5 32,800 8

Yazd 142pCu9015 1 2 8 8 8 3.4 2.7 80 2 5.4 25,700 21
192 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia Table 17. Summary of simulations of undiscovered resources in porphyry copper deposits and comparison with identified copper and gold resources in porphyry copper deposits within each permissive tract, Tethys region of western and southern Asia. Tract name Coded_ID Model Identified copper resources (t) Mean estimate of undiscovered copper resources (t) Ratio of mean estimate to identified copper resources Median estimate of undiscovered copper resources (t) Identified gold resources (t) Mean estimate of undiscovered gold resources (t) Ratio of mean estimate to identified gold resources Median estimate of undiscovered gold resources (t) Mean estimate of undiscovered molybdenum resources (t) Mean estimate of undiscovered silver resources (t) Mean estimate of rock (Mt) Anatolide-Tauride— Central Turkey sub-tract 142pCu9005b General porphyry copper

0 1,300,000 NA 0 0 35 NA 0 41,000 460 270

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern TurkeyCaucasus sub-tract

142pCu9005c General 

porphyry copper

1,177,000 8,200,000 7 2,700,000 219 220 1 48 230,000 2,700 1,700

Anatolide-Tauride

—

Western Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9005a General 

porphyry copper

380,000 3,000,000 8 460,000 6 65 11 0 79,000 900 610

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract 142pCu9014c General porphyry 

copper

11,430,000 27,000,000 2 16,000,000 1,663 700 0 390 760,000 9,300 5,500

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9014b General 

porphyry copper

1,700,000 1,500,000 1 0 49 36 1 0 40,000 430 290

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey sub-tract 142pCu9014a General porphyry 

copper

1,080,000 14,000,000 13 5,500,000 110 350 3 110 390,000 4,600 2,800

Border Folds 142pCu9007 General 

porphyry copper

0 4,600,000 NA 760,000 0 120 NA 0 120,000 1,400 930

Chagai 142pCu9013 General 

porphyry copper

26,100,000 12,000,000 0 5,600,000 1,570 310 0 120 340,000 3,800 2,500

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus

142pCu9001 General 

porphyry copper

2,238,000 7,100,000 3 2,500,000 22 180 8 36 200,000 2,400 1,400

Esfahan 142pCu9008 General 

porphyry copper

640,000 14,000,000 22 4,100,000 20 380 19 78 390,000 4,800 2,900

Kerman 142pCu9016 General 

porphyry copper

14,710,000 22,000,000 1 13,000,000 90 540 6 300 570,000 7,100 4,400

Khorasan 142pCu9009 Cu-Au 

subtype

0 8,100,000 NA 2,600,000 0 580 NA 230 47,000 2,600 1,600

Lut Tertiary 142pCu9010 Cu-Au 

subtype

0 7,500,000 NA 2,600,000 0 540 NA 0 44,000 2,400 1,500

Makran 142pCu9011 NA 0 NA NA NA 0 NA NA NA NA NA NA

[Model, grade and tonnage model used for simulations: General porphyry copper or Cu-Au subtype models of Singer and others (2008). t, metric tons; Mt, million metric tons; NA, not applicable (for totals, only the means are additive). Totals rounded to two significant figures]
Acknowledgments 193

Tract name Coded_ID Model

Identified 

copper 

resources 

(t)

Mean estimate 

of undiscovered 

copper resources 

(t)

Ratio of mean 

estimate to 

identified copper 

resources

Median estimate 

of undiscovered 

copper resources 

(t)

Identified 

gold 

resources 

(t)

Mean estimate 

of undiscovered 

gold resources 

(t)

Ratio of mean 

estimate to 

identified gold 

resources

Median 

estimate of 

undiscovered 

gold resources 

(t)

Mean estimate 

of undiscovered 

molybdenum 

resources (t)

Mean 

estimate of 

undiscovered 

silver 

resources (t)

Mean 

estimate 

of rock 

(Mt)

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran sub-tract

142pCu9004c General 

porphyry copper

0 3,300,000 NA 470,000 0 86 NA 0 91,000 1,200 670

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey sub-tract

142pCu9004b General 

porphyry copper

1,530,000 15,000,000 10 7,100,000 20 390 20 160 420,000 5,100 3,100

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey subtract

142pCu9004a General 

porphyry copper

400,000 4,100,000 10 840,000 0 100 NA 4 110,000 1,400 830

Sistan 142pCu9012 General 

porphyry copper

0 9,800,000 NA 3,200,000 0 240 NA 57 270,000 3,200 2,000

Yazd 142pCu9015 General 

porphyry copper

270,000 13,000,000 48 5,500,000 6 330 55 120 360,000 4,400 2,700

Total 62,000,000 180,000,000 NA NA 3,800 5,200 NA NA 4,500,000 58,000 36,000

Table 17.—Continued
194 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey (142pCu9014b)

Lut Tertiary (142pCu9010)

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9004c)

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey (142pCu9004a)

Khorasan (142pCu9009)

Yazd (142pCu9015)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus (142pCu9001)

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey (142pCu9014a)

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus (142pCu9005c)

Esfahan (142pCu9008)

Kerman (142pCu9016)

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9014c)

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey (142pCu9004b)

Chagai (142pCu9013)

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey (142pCu9005a)

Sistan (142pCu9012)

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey (142pCu9005b)

Border Folds (142pCu9007)

Permissive tract

Copper, in million metric tons

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

EXPLANATION

Identified copper resources

Mean estimate of undiscovered 

 copper resources

Median estimate of undiscovered 

 copper resources

Figure 59A

A

Azerbaijan—Western Turkey (142pCu9014a)

Lut Tertiary (142pCu9010)

Pontide (Asia)—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9004c)

Pontide (Asia)—NW Turkey (142pCu9004a)

Khorasan (142pCu9009)

Yazd (142pCu9015)

Azerbaijan—Eastern Turkey (142pCu9014b)

Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus (142pCu9001)

Anatolide-Tauride—Eastern Turkey-Caucasus (142pCu9005c)

Esfahan (142pCu9008)

Kerman (142pCu9016)

Azerbaijan—Caucasus-Iran (142pCu9014c)

Pontide (Asia)—NE Turkey (142pCu9004b)

Chagai (142pCu9013)

Anatolide-Tauride—Western Turkey (142pCu9005a)

Sistan (142pCu9012)

Anatolide-Tauride—Central Turkey (142pCu9005b)

Border Folds (142pCu9007)

Permissive tract

Gold, in metric tons

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

EXPLANATION

Identified gold resources

Mean estimate of undiscovered 

 gold resources

Median estimate of undiscovered 

 gold resources

B

Figure 59. Summary 

of probabilistic 

assessment results by 

permissive tract for 

the Tethys region of 

western and southern 

Asia. A, copper. B, gold. 

See table 17 for details.
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Appendixes A–D
228 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Appendix A. Principal Sources of Information Used for the Porphyry Copper 

Assessment, Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

[Tables in this appendix are available online only as .xlsx tables at http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V]

Table A1. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9000, Lut Jurassic—Iran.

Table A2. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran.

Table A3. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride Greater Caucasus—Armenia, Georgia, 

and Russian Federation.

Table A4. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9003, Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

Table A5. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, 

Iran, and Turkey.

Table A6. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, 

and Turkey.

Table A7. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9006, Lut Cretaceous—Iran.

Table A8. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

Table A9. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, Turkey.

Table A10. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9009, Khorasan—Afghanistan and Iran.

Table A11. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran.

Table A12. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9011, Makran—Iran.

Table A13. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Table A14. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Table A15. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and 

Turkey.

Table A16. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran.

Table A17. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran.

Table A18. Principal sources of information used for delineation of tract 142pCu9017, Pliocene-Quaternary—Afghanistan, Armenia, 

Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Pakistan, Russian Federation, and Turkey.
Appendix C. Significant Porphyry Copper Prospects and Occurrences, Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia 229

Appendix B. Geologic Map Units Used to Delineate Permissive Tracts (With 

References to Source Maps), Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

[Tables in this appendix are available online only as .xlsx tables at http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V]

Table B1. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9000, Lut Jurassic—Iran.

Table B2. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9001, Cimmeride Lesser Caucasus—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Iran.

Table B3. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9002, Cimmeride Greater Caucasus—Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russian Federation.

Table B4. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9003, Sanandaj-Sirjan—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

Table B5. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9004, Pontide (Asia)—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Turkey.

Table B6. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9005, Anatolide-Tauride—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey.

Table B7. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9006, Lut Cretaceous—Iran.

Table B8. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9007, Border Folds—Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.

Table B9. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, Turkey.

Table B10. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9008, Esfahan—Iran, Iraq, Turkey.

Table B11. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9010, Lut Tertiary—Iran.

Table B12. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9011, Makran—Iran.

Table B13. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9012, Sistan—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Table B14. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9013, Chagai—Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan.

Table B15. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9014, Azerbaijan—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey.

Table B16. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9015, Yazd—Iran.

Table B17. Permissive units for tract 142pCu9016, Kerman—Iran.

Table B18. Permissive units for tract 142pCu901a, Pliocene-Quaternary—Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, Pakistan, 

Russian Federation, and Turkey.

Appendix C. Significant Porphyry Copper Prospects and Occurrences, Tethys 

Region of Western and Southern Asia

[Tables in this appendix are available online only as .xlsx tables at http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V]

Table C1. Significant porphyry copper prospects and occurrences of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia.
230 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

Appendix D. Spatial Data

By Pamela Dunlap22

Spatial and descriptive data were developed for use in Esri’s ArcGIS software package (version 10), a geographic information 

system (GIS). An Esri file geodatabase (Tethys_porphyry_copper.gdb) contains two feature classes for permissive tracts (Tethys_

pCu_tracts) and deposits and prospects (Tethys_pCu_deposits_prospects) and two tables of references (Deposit_Refs, Tract_refs). 

An Esri map document (Tethys_porphyryCu.mxd) and an Esri file geodatabase of political boundaries for countries in the study area 

(Tethys_basemap.gdb) are also provided for viewing the data. The spatial data are stored in geographic coordinates (WGS 1984). The 

spatial data and associated files may be downloaded from the USGS Web site (http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V) as the compressed

archive file sir20105090v_gis.zip.

The feature class Tethys_pCu_tracts contains vector data (polygon) for 26 permissive tracts. Attributes include tract identifiers, 

tract name, a brief description of the basis for tract delineation, and assessment results. Attributes are defined in the metadata, which are 

both embedded in the feature class and provided in an Adobe Acrobat Portable Document Format file (Tethys_pCu_tracts_metadata.

pdf).

The feature class Tethys_pCu_deposits_prospects contains vector data (point) for 365 sites with porphyry copper or porphyryrelated mineralization. Attributes include the assigned tract, site and alternate site names, site and development status, location 

coordinates, country and state or province (derived from U.S. Department of State, 2009, and Hijmans, 2011, respectively), age, grades 

and tonnages, commodities, mineralogy, associated rocks, and abbreviated source references. Attributes are defined in the metadata 

which are both embedded in the feature class and provided in an Adobe Acrobat Portable Document Format file (Tethys_pCu_

deposits_prospects_metadata.pdf).

The geodatabase table Deposit_Refs provides full reference citations and Web sites (if available) for the abbreviated source 

references listed for each site in the feature class Tethys_pCu_deposits_prospects. The geodatabase table Tract_refs provides 

full reference citations and Web sites (if available) for the abbreviated source references listed for each tract in the feature class 

Tethys_pCu_tracts.

The file geodatabase Tethys_basemap.gdb contains the feature class Tethys_political_boundaries for vector data (polygons) for 

political boundaries in the study area. The data were extracted from a GIS of country boundaries and shorelines maintained by the U.S. 

Department of State (2009).

References Cited

Hijmans, R., 2011, Global administrative areas—GADM database, version 2.0: Global Administrative Areas database, accessed 

January 23, 2013, at http://www.gadm.org.

U.S. Department of State, 2009, Small-scale digital international land boundaries (SSIB)—Lines, edition 10, and polygons, beta edition 

1, in Boundaries and sovereignty encyclopedia (B.A.S.E.): U.S. Department of State, Office of the Geographer and Global Issues.

Appendix E. Assessment Team

Lukas Zürcher is a research geologist with the USGS in Tucson, Arizona. He received a B.S. degree in Geological 

Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines (1985) and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Geosciences from the University of 

Arizona in (1994 and 2002, respectively). He worked as an exploration and consulting geologist for the mining industry in 

Mexico, Cote d’Ivoire, Bolivia, Argentina, and the United States (1985–2010), as a postdoctoral fellow in the Department 

of Lunar and Planetary Sciences (2002–05), and as Manager of the Lowell Program in Economic Geology (2002–11) at the 

University of Arizona before joining the USGS in 2011. He has 26 years of combined industry and academic experience 

in geologic, alteration, and mineralization mapping, structural geology, igneous and hydrothermal geochemistry, statistical 

methods, mineral economics, and GIS-based favorability mapping. His research has included local- to regional-scale geologic, 

geochemical, and metallogenic studies of porphyry, skarn, impact-generated, and IOCG hydrothermal systems, as well as 

comparative analyses of favorability mapping methods. With the USGS, he has contributed to the porphyry copper resource 

22U.S. Geological Survey, Tucson, Arizona, United States.
Appendix E. Assessment Team 231

assessments of Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. Zürcher was a 

member of the assessment team for this study, and he is the lead author of this report.

Arthur A. Bookstrom is a research geologist with the USGS in Spokane, Washington. He received a B.A. degree in 

geology from Dartmouth College (1961), an M.S. in geology from the University of Colorado (1964), and a Ph.D. in geology 

from Stanford University (1975). He worked as a mine geologist at the Climax molybdenum mine in Colorado, El Romeral 

magnetite mine in Chile, and the Rochester silver mine in Nevada. He has done site-specific exploration in Colorado, Nevada, 

and Montana, as well as regional exploration for molybdenum in Colorado and for gold in Nevada, Montana, and Saudi Arabia. 

Bookstrom’s work with the USGS has included regional geologic studies, metallogenic studies, mineral-environmental studies, 

and mineral-resource assessments. He was a member of the assessment team for this study.

Jane M. Hammarstrom is a research geologist with the USGS in Reston, Virginia. She received a B.S. in geology from 

George Washington University in 1972 and an M.S. in geology from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 

1981. She is co-chief of the USGS Global Mineral Resource Assessment project and the task leader for the porphyry copper 

assessment. She has more than 30 years of research experience in igneous petrology, mineralogy, geochemistry, economic 

geology, and mineral resource assessment. Hammarstrom is a member of the assessment team, and she conducted the 

probabilistic simulations for this study.

John (Lyle) C. Mars is a research geologist with the USGS in Reston, Virginia. He is an expert in remote sensing. He 

developed algorithms for processing ASTER data to map hydrothermal alteration as an assessment tool, analyzed the ASTER 

data for the study area, and participated in assessment meetings. Mars was a member of the assessment team for this study.

Steve Ludington is a research geologist with the USGS in Menlo Park, California. He received a B.A. in geology from 

Stanford University (1967) and a Ph.D. in geology from the University of Colorado (1974). He worked as an exploration 

geologist in Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona before joining the USGS in 1974. His work with the USGS has included 

regional geologic studies, metallogenic and geochemical studies, wilderness studies, and mineral-resource assessments. 

Ludington has done mineral-resource assessment work in the United States, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Mongolia, Afghanistan, and 

Mexico and was a coordinator for the 1998 USGS National Mineral Resource Assessment. He was a member of the assessment 

team for this study.

Michael L. Zientek is a research geologist with the USGS in Spokane, Washington. He is co-chief of the USGS Global 

Mineral Resource Assessment Project. He obtained a B.S. degree in geology from the University of the Texas in 1976 and 

a Ph.D. at Stanford University (1984). Zientek worked in industry before joining the USGS. He participated in the project 

workshops and provided reviews of drafts of the preliminary assessment of the Tethys region of western and southern Asia. He 

was a member of the assessment team for this study.

Pamela Dunlap is a geologist with the USGS in Tucson, Arizona. She received a B.A. in geology from the University of 

Rochester (1975) and an M.S. in geology from the College of Mines and Earth Resources at the University of Idaho (1977). She 

worked as an exploration geologist in Nevada, Montana, Idaho, and Washington and as a research geologist for various State 

geological surveys before joining the USGS in 1992. She completed mineral-resource assessments of phosphate in southeastern 

Idaho and oil shale in central Montana, in addition to countywide mine and mineral occurrence databases for Silver Bow and 

Madison Counties, Montana. Pamela has prepared numerous geologic map and mineral-resource assessment products in a 

geographic information system (GIS) while with the USGS. Dunlap built the GIS for deposits and prospects for this study, and 

she compiled the reference lists for the report and the GIS.

John C. Wallis is an illustrator/graphics and geographic information systems specialist with the USGS in Spokane, 

Washington. He received a B.S. in Geology (1997) and a BS in Biology (1998) from Eastern Washington University. Wallis 

provided GIS assistance and compiled illustrations for this report.

Lawrence J. Drew is a senior mineral economist, expert on mineral-resource assessment, and author of several studies 

(assessments) on the structural setting of porphyry copper and associated deposits of central Europe. He earned a Ph.D. at Penn 

State and has 40 years of experience with the USGS in Reston, Virginia. Drew led the preliminary assessment workshop in 

London.

David M. Sutphin is a geologist at the USGS in Reston, Virginia. He joined the USGS in 1981 after earning his B.S. 

in geology and attending graduate school at Arizona State University. He has been involved in several quantitative mineralresource assessments, including the Roswell and Mimbres Bureau of Land Management (BLM) areas in New Mexico, sand 

and gravel resources of parts of New Hampshire, Global Mineral Resources Assessment Project assessments of Europe 

and South America, and assessments of various mineral commodities in Afghanistan. He contributed a draft report based 

on the preliminary assessment workshop in London. Sutphin coauthored (Sutphin and others, 2013) another report in this 

series—Porphyry Copper Assessment of Europe, Exclusive of the Fennoscandian Shield (U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2010–5090–K).

Byron R. Berger was a research geologist with the USGS in Denver, Colorado. He had broad expertise on porphyry 

copper deposits, mineral-resource assessment, and porphyry- and porphyry-related mineral deposits. Berger participated in the 

London preliminary assessment workshop and prepared a draft report on the Caucasus region. He was senior author (Berger 
232 Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia

and others, 2008) of Preliminary Model of Porphyry Copper Deposits (U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–1321) 

and (Berger and others, 2014) Porphyry Copper Assessment of Western Central Asia (U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2010–5090–N). He passed away December 10, 2013.

Richard J. Herrington is a Merit Researcher and head of mineral deposit research in the Department of Mineralogy at the 

Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom. He provided data and expertise on the geology and mineral deposits of the 

Tethys region, and participated in the London workshop and follow-up discussions of preliminary assessment results.

Mario Billa is an economic geologist with the Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières, Orléans, Cedex 2, France. 

He participated in the London preliminary assessment workshop.

Ilkay Kuşcu is a professor in the Department of Geology at the University of Muǧla, Turkey. Kuşcu has published widely 

on the mineral deposits of Turkey and participated in the London workshop. Kuşcu is senior author of at least five reports cited 

in this text (and coauthor of several more).

Charles J. Moon is a teaching fellow at the Camborne School of Mines, Cornwall, United Kingdom, and an independent 

consulting geologist for the mining industry. His research interests include the geology and mineral deposits of Turkey and 

Georgia. Moon authored one and coauthored four reports cited in this paper. He participated in the London preliminary 

assessment workshop.

Jeremy P. Richards is a professor in the Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at the University of Alberta, 

Canada. His research interests include regional controls on porphyry copper mineralization in Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey. 

Richards has authored or coauthored 11 reports cited in this paper. He participated in the London preliminary workshop.
Menlo Park Publishing Service Center, California

Manuscript approved for publication November 20, 2014

Edited by Larry Slack and James W. Hendley II

Layout and design by Cory Hurd
2 Report Title

Zürcher and others—Porphyry Copper Assessment of the Tethys Region of Western and Southern Asia—Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5090–V

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105090V