ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide
This guide is designed to prepare you to achieve mission 

objectives while deployed to culturally complex environments. 

The fundamental information it provides will help you understand 

the cultural dimension of your assigned location and gain skills 

necessary for success.

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture 

General,” the foundational 

knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any 

global environment with a 

focus on the Arab Gulf States.

NOTE: While the term Persian Gulf is common in the US, this 

guide uses the name 

preferred in the region, the 

Arabian Gulf.

Part 2: Presents “Culture 

Specific” Iraq, focusing on 

unique cultural features of 

Iraqi society. It applies 

culture-general concepts to 

help increase your 

knowledge of your assigned deployment location and is

designed to complement other pre-deployment training.

For further information, visit the Air Force Culture and Language 

Center (AFCLC) website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc

or contact the AFCLC Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Iraq
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and 

values. 

Members of a culture also

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story 

– represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value—freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the 

premium Americans place on personal honesty and leadership 

integrity (Photo: US and Royal Oman Air Force personnel 

following a training flight).

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for nearly 

half a century, today the US military is operating in what we 

classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE
focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our 

culture and encourages 

us to perpetuate that 

culture into the future.

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories—what the 

Air Force refers to as 

“cultural domains”—in 

order to better 

understand the primary 

values and characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a US 

military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Muslim pilgrims 

visit Ka’aba, Islam’s holiest site, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques.

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Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see the 

world and understand our place in it. Your worldview functions 

as a lens through which you see and understand the world. It 

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helps you to interpret your experiences and the values and 

behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong 

behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless. 

Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true— regardless of whether there is evidence to support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped

shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in 

our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are difficult, 

though not impossible, to change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of 

their activities. We will use the 

iceberg model for classifying culture

to illustrate two levels of meaning, as 

depicted. Beliefs and values, 

portrayed by the deeper and greater level of the submerged 

iceberg, are seldom visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and symbols (top level). It is 

important to recognize, though, that the parts of culture that are 

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not visible (under the waterline) are informing and shaping what 

is being made visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It

often involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve 

mission success (Photo: 

US and Kuwait Navy 

personnel).

As you travel through the 

Arab Gulf States, you will encounter cultural patterns of meaning 

that are common across the region. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame those 

commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that are not verifiable or which occurred prior 

to written language.

The Arab Gulf States comprise 7 countries that border the 

Arabian Gulf: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the 

United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman. Scientists believe that 

the southern Gulf region was once home to early humans who 

established permanent settlements as many as 125,000 years 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

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ago. In the region’s north, the favorable soil and climate 

conditions of Mesopotamia (present day Syria and Iraq) allowed 

people to settle, farm the land, create irrigation systems, build 

structures, and establish towns 

beginning around 6200 BC

(Photo: Mask from an ancient 

Mesopotamian civilization).

A unique culture emerged 

between 3000 and 2500 BC at 

Dilmun in present-day Bahrain 

and Saudi Arabia. As a regional 

hub, Dilmun played an important 

role in trade between the Arabian 

Peninsula and the Indus River 

valley (located in present-day 

Pakistan and India) as well as along longer routes to East Africa, 

Southeast Asia, and China. While the Arab Gulf was an

important trading hub for centuries, the region never saw the 

birth of its own empire nor were its inhabitants ever united under 

a single local power. Instead, each of the region’s port cities was 

autonomous, with its own local economy and social 

organization. The cities’ dispersed power prevented their 

unification and also made the region a target for incursions from 

beyond the Gulf.

The first external force to exert power and influence over the 

region was the Achaemenid Empire (pictured) which controlled 

parts of the Gulf starting 

in 550 BC from its center 

in Pasargadae (Iran). It 

was followed by the 

Parthian (140 BC) and 

Sassanian (226 AD) 

Empires centered in Iran 

and the Umayyad 

Caliphate (661 AD) centered in Syria and Turkey. The period 

marked by the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (570 AD) in 

present-day Saudi Arabia and the subsequent emergence and 

establishment of Islam as the region’s predominant religion was 

a defining era in the Gulf’s history. 

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In the 16th century, Portugal established control over Bahrain 

and parts of the southern Gulf, a move that ushered in an era of 

European struggle for supremacy in the region. In the late 16th

century, the Safavid Dynasty of Iran allied with England to expel 

Portugal. At the same time, Iraq came under control of the 

Ottoman Empire (centered in present-day Istanbul) whose rule 

lasted until World War I, when the British assumed control.

England became active in the southern Gulf in the late 18th

century then solidified its dominance in the 19th century through 

agreements with local rulers in present-day Kuwait, Bahrain, 

Qatar, Oman, and the UAE. Unlike in Africa and Asia, the British

never established formal 

colonies in the region and 

left local ruling families

largely in place.

The discovery of oil in the 

1930s had a profound 

impact on the Gulf States’ 

economies and politics. 

While English and US

companies initially owned and managed the Gulf oil industry, 

local rulers confirmed their control of the industry following their 

countries’ full independence (Saudi Arabia, 1932; Oman, 1951, 

Kuwait, 1961; then Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE in 1971). Of note, 

Iraq like Saudi Arabia achieved independence in 1932, but was 

occupied by Britain during World War II. Following the 

monarchy’s overthrow in 1958, Iraq became a republic (Photo: 

Kuwaiti troops commemorate the First Gulf War in 2011).

Under the leadership of royal dynasties since independence, 6 

of the Gulf States have remained stable. By contrast, Iraq has 

been enmeshed in several conflicts that have contributed to 

regional instability. Under the autocratic rule of Saddam 

Hussein, Iraq engaged in the bloody Iran-Iraq War from 1980-

1986, then invaded and annexed neighboring Kuwait 4 years 

later, inciting the First Gulf War. Since its 2003 invasion of Iraq 

and subsequent collapse of the Hussein regime, the US has 

engaged in security cooperation activities in Iraq. In reaction to 

the 2011 Arab Spring, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Kuwait 

have suppressed protests and calls for reform.

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2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

The Arab Gulf’s position at a crossroads for international trade 

has greatly influenced its ethnic makeup, politics, and social 

structures. The diversity of people passing through and residing 

in the region as part of its trade-based economy persists today—

foreign non-citizen workers make up sizable portions of the 

populations in each 

of the Gulf States 

with the exception 

of Iraq (Photo: An

Iraqi voter in 2005).

Today, the Gulf 

States minus Iraq

are governed by 

monarchy, though 

several have 

introduced political 

and institutional reforms since independence. While Kuwait, 

Bahrain, and Qatar have each adopted a constitution, the Saudi 

Arabian government considers the Qur’an, the primary religious 

text of Islam, its constitution. In 1996, Oman established the 

Basic Law of the State, which introduced a new system of 

government that includes a 2-chamber legislature that meets at 

the request of the sultan (ruler). The 2005 Iraqi constitution

established an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary 

republic led by an elected Prime Minister, President, and 

legislature. Unlike the region’s other monarchies, the UAE’s 

government is comprised of the hereditary leaders of each of its

7 emirates. 

While the legal systems of the Gulf States have incorporated 

many aspects of English, French, and Egyptian law, Sharia

(Islamic) law continues to play a central role, particularly in 

criminal and family matters. In recent years, the Gulf States have 

undertaken efforts to create formalized legal systems that 

combine Sharia and civil systems.

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Despite some political tensions, relations among most of the Gulf 

States are largely amicable. Their good relations are primarily a 

result of their participation in the Gulf Cooperation Council 

(GCC)—a political, economic, and military alliance uniting Saudi 

Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Since the 

organization’s inception in 1981, member states have 

undertaken efforts to integrate their economies, militaries, and 

other social and political 

structures (Photo: US 

Secretary of State Kerry 

and GCC leaders in Saudi 

Arabia in 2014).

Iraq’s role in fomenting 

regional instability has 

affected its relations with

the other Gulf States. 

While the UAE, Qatar, and Oman have strong trade and 

diplomatic relations with Iraq, Saudi Arabia and its close ally 

Bahrain frequently clash with Iraq. Disagreements center on 

Iran’s role in the region fueled by ideological differences between 

Saudi Arabia and Bahrain’s Sunni Islam leadership and Iran’s 

Shiite Islam leadership. While Iraq and Kuwait have taken steps 

to repair their relationship, tensions continue to linger from Iraq’s 

1990 invasion of Kuwait. 

Due to their significant sizes, populations, and resources, Iraq 

and Iran compete for influence in the Gulf. Saudi Arabia with its 

large oil reserves is also a powerful regional player even though

its military forces are significantly smaller than those of either 

Iraq or Iran. 

Most of the Gulf States rely on the US to augment their military 

capabilities. With some 35,000 US troops stationed at several 

military installations throughout the region, the US has entered 

into agreements to sell or transfer arms and defense services to 

most of the States. The US remains in Iraq to train, support, and 

advise Iraqi security forces. Bahrain is the site of the longestserving permanent US military presence in the Gulf, while 

Kuwait, the UAE, and Qatar also host large numbers of US 

military personnel.

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While Gulf States citizens are predominantly Arabs, the region 

is also home to several ethnic minorities—Persians in the UAE 

and Kuwait; Palestinians in Qatar; and Baloch and Persians in 

Oman. In Iraq, strong tensions exist between the country’s 2

primary ethnic groups, the Arabs and the Kurds. In each of the 

States, except Iraq, significant portions of the population are 

foreign non-citizens—about 25% in Saudi Arabia, 50 in Bahrain 

and Oman, 65 in Kuwait, 85 in the UAE, and 90 in Qatar.

Of note, the Gulf’s tribal networks were historically a 

fundamental element of social relations. While the region’s 

governments have attempted to supplant tribal allegiances with 

national identity in recent decades, the tribe continues to play an 

important role in social life in most States.

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society.

Early regional inhabitants worshipped various gods and objects, 

such as the sun, moon, animals, and tribal heroes. Between 500 

BC and the 5th century, Zoroastrianism, one of the world’s first 

monotheistic religions, gained followers in the region. Although 

Christianity arrived in the Arab Gulf in the 1st century, most of 

the region’s Christians fled or 

converted following the 

arrival of Islam. 

In 610 AD, a merchant from 

Mecca (in present-day Saudi 

Arabia), Muhammad ibn 

Abdullah, began preaching 

the worship of 1 God, Allah, 

marking the founding of 

Islam. Through conquest 

and proselytization Muhammad and his followers had united the 

entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam by the time of his death in 

632 AD (Painting: A 1307 depiction of Muhammad receiving his 

first revelation from the angel Gabriel). 

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Without a chosen successor to Muhammad, his death ushered 

in an era of infighting that eventually split Islam into 2 sects,

Shias and Sunnis. This divide persists and occasionally causes 

conflict in the region today. Sunni Muslims began moving 

beyond Arabia shortly after Muhammad’s death, making their 

way to Iraq in 638.

Since its introduction, Islam has been a defining factor in 

shaping the region’s cultures, societies, and political systems. 

Today, Islam is the official religion of each of the Gulf States. 

Further, the majority of the region’s non-citizen residents are 

also Muslim. While the Arab Gulf is also home to some religious 

minorities—primarily Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, Baha’is—

these non-Muslims are 

largely non-citizen foreign 

residents.

The Gulf States 

governments exhibit 

varying levels of religious 

freedom. For example, 

Saudi Arabian law does 

not recognize or protect religious freedom. While conversion 

from Islam is punishable by death, Saudi courts rarely inflict this 

sentence and instead issue lengthy prison sentences and 

lashings as punishment. Although the Iraqi constitution 

guarantees religious freedom, the government has been unable 

to stop recent acts of violence against Shia Muslims, Christians, 

and others (Photo: The Prophet Muhammad’s burial site at AlMasjid an-Nabawi in Saudi Arabia).

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive kin”).

A fundamental element of Gulf society, family may refer to a 

person’s household and extended family, clan (a group of 

families), or tribe. Family, clan, and tribal connections typically 

play an important role in an individual’s life—they may determine 

a person’s social status, potential marriage partners, business 

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opportunities, and inheritance rights. While residence patterns 

differ slightly among the States, multiple generations typically 

reside together in 1 

household (Photo: Iraqi 

mother with her children).

Historically, marriage was 

an arranged union

intended to bring both 

families social and 

economic advantages. 

Although arranged 

marriages are still 

common across the region, many regional residents now choose 

their own spouse, particularly in urban areas. Married couples 

typically live with the man’s family. While divorce was 

traditionally uncommon in the Gulf States, divorce rates have 

increased in some of the Gulf States yet remained steady in 

others. Of note, polygyny, the practice of a man having multiple 

wives, is legal in the Gulf States. 

The urbanization of Gulf society has changed family life in recent 

years. As both men and women take advantage of the enhanced 

educational and employment opportunities available primarily in 

urban areas, family structures have become much more diverse.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that 

refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Arab Gulf States’ cultures and religions (primarily Islam) 

traditionally privilege the male’s role as leader and provider. For 

example, Sharia law grants men privileges in inheritance and 

other family matters. While most of the region’s inhabitants 

continue to adhere to traditional gender roles—men as 

breadwinners and guardians and women as mothers and 

companions—recent influences from external and internal 

sources have introduced some changes.

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Women, like most men, were largely uneducated for much of the 

Gulf’s history. In recent decades, literacy rates for women have 

increased significantly across the Gulf. Further, women now 

make up more than 50% of the university student population in 

all States, although they often face challenges to getting their 

education. For example, women are often encouraged to pursue 

traditional “female” disciplines such as education and 

healthcare. In Kuwait, they are required to score higher than 

men on entrance exams for traditionally male-dominated fields 

such as engineering.

Because the Gulf States’ legal systems permit gender-based 

discrimination, women are far less likely to participate in politics 

than men. Some progress has occurred: Saudi Arabia became 

the last Arab Gulf State to 

extend the right to vote to

women in 2015. Although 

women may serve in 

prominent diplomatic and 

judicial posts, the number 

of women serving in 

elected political office 

across the region remains 

very low (Photo: US 

Department of Commerce officials with students from Sultan 

Qaboos University in Oman and the University of Bahrain). 

Historically, Gulf women rarely worked outside the home, a 

tradition that has changed over the past decades. For example, 

female participation in the workforce has increased 3-fold in 

Qatar and nearly 4 times in the UAE since 2003. Despite steps 

towards gender equality, women still face barriers to their full 

participation in society. For example, it remains traditional for

male guardians to accompany women to events outside of the 

home, while many workplaces and schools continue to practice 

gender segregation. 

Homosexuality is illegal in all of the Gulf States except Iraq, 

where it was decriminalized in 2003. Most Gulf residents 

consider homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender issues 

inappropriate topics of conversation. 

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6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and non-verbally. 

Arabic is the official language of each of the Arab Gulf States. 

Most residents regularly use 2 Arabic varieties—Modern 

Standard Arabic (MSA), derived from the classical Arabic of the 

Qur’an and used in school, the media, and in official government 

proceedings, and Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji Arabic, a widely spoken 

dialect. The residents of some States speak additional 

languages and dialects. For example, Iraq names Kurdish as its 

2nd official language, and most Iraqis speak a unique dialect of 

Arabic called Mesopotamian Arabic. Some residents of Oman 

speak other Arabic 

dialects.

The Arab Gulf 

nations are also 

home to millions of 

non-citizens who 

speak their own 

native languages.

These include Farsi 

(spoken in Iran); 

Malayalam, Tamil, 

Hindi, Balochi, Bengali, Pashto, and Urdu (spoken in South 

Asia); African languages such as Somali and Swahili; and Asian 

languages such as Thai, Tagalog, and Korean. English is also 

widely spoken in business and by the expatriate communities of 

the Gulf (Photo: Computer keyboard with Arabic script).

Generally, Gulf residents demonstrate respect, generosity, and 

hospitality in their communication practices. Residents tend to 

share information about themselves and expect Westerners to 

do the same: they may ask personal questions about salary, 

marital status (particularly of unmarried people of a certain age), 

and family. Regional residents commonly use gestures when 

they speak, particularly if they are passionate about the topic of 

conversation.

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7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

Prior to the 20th century, formal education in most Arab Gulf 

States was limited to madrasas, religious schools that taught 

memorization of Qur’anic verses and the fundamentals of 

Islamic beliefs and practice, primarily to males. Following the 

20th-century discovery of oil, educational opportunities 

expanded greatly. Bahrain became the first Gulf State to 

establish a public educational system in 1932. In the mid-1950s, 

governments began to establish departments of education and 

allocate funds for schools and other resources. An exception 

was Oman, where educational offerings until 1970 consisted 

solely of 3 primary schools reserved for 900 boys hand-selected 

by the Omani sultan (Photo: Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia Boys school,

the first public 

school in Bahrain).

Today, most of the 

Gulf States invest 

heavily in 

education, often at 

rates higher than 

many other 

developed nations. 

Consequently,

adult literacy is over 90% in all States except Iraq where it is a 

low 80%. Further, the past several decades have witnessed a 

significant growth in the number of higher education institutions 

across the region. 

Due to years of conflict, Iraq continues to have inadequate 

education facilities and a shortage of teachers and resources. 

Because many students are displaced, their education is often 

incomplete. 

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8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. By contrast, in the 

Arab Gulf States, establishing and maintaining relationships with 

others often takes precedence over meeting deadlines, 

punctuality, or accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner.

As in other Islamic societies, men and women in the Arab Gulf 

region often interact differently than Americans are used to. For 

example, in many parts of the 

Gulf unrelated women and 

men seldom interact, and 

when they do, it is only in group 

settings.

Concepts of personal space 

also differ from those in the 

US. For example, Gulf State

residents of the same sex 

commonly sit and stand closer

to each other than Westerners 

do. They may also touch more 

often during conversations 

than Westerners (Photo: 

Former US President George 

W. Bush and King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia holding hands, a 

sign of close friendship among men).

Residents of the Arab Gulf States also tend to manage time 

differently. While residents typically agree in advance on 

scheduled start times, meetings frequently begin late. Further,

Gulf residents may prefer to deliberate for an extended period 

before making final decisions.

The Arab Gulf States use both the Islamic and Western 

calendars. Because Friday is considered a holy day in Islam, 

most Arab Gulf States observe a Sunday-Thursday workweek, 

except for Oman, which observes a Saturday-Wednesday 

workweek.

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9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Arab Gulf’s forms of artistic expression,

including its art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect 

the region’s Arabic and Islamic influences. Gulf artists 

historically favored geometric designs and patterns to depict 

plants, flowers, and animals on buildings, jewelry, and 

household items. 

Due to historic trade relationships and intermingling of cultures, 

music and dance in the Arab Gulf States reflect Persian, Indian, 

and east African influences. Popular throughout the region, 

Khaleeji music combines local Bedouin (Arab seminomadic 

group) music with styles from Africa, India, and Iran.

For some regional residents, dance forms are an integral part of 

Islamic worship. Others

perform dances only in 

same-sex settings. Many 

of the region’s dances are 

done in line, circle, 

square, or semicircle 

formations with 

participants moving in 

tandem. Dances in the 

Arab Gulf are generally 

grouped by type, including warfare, work-related, “foreign,” 

women’s, weddings, healing, and Sufi religious dances (Photo: 

Iraqi National Folk Dance Troupe performs a traditional dance).

Regional residents practice a variety of arts and crafts including 

weaving (typically using camel or goat hair) and calligraphy—the 

art of handwriting in which artists transform letters and words 

into intricate designs. While soccer is the most widely followed 

sport in the region, wealthier residents also enjoy falconry, horse 

racing, and camel racing. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

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and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

While cuisine varies across the region, residents throughout the 

Arab Gulf use many common staple ingredients and spices such 

as mutton, lamb, and fish prepared with cardamom, turmeric, 

saffron, and dried limes. Fruits, yogurt, various salads, and rice

are common accompaniments to meals. The most popular drink, 

tea is served sweetened and prepared either with or without 

milk. Observant Muslims in the Arab Gulf consume neither pork 

nor alcohol.

Health in most of the Arab Gulf countries has improved 

significantly in recent decades as evidenced by decreased infant 

and maternal mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most 

residents in all States except Iraq have access to quality 

healthcare that is largely subsidized by governments (Photo: 

Machbūs, a spiced meat 

dish enjoyed throughout 

the Gulf). 

Years of conflict and the 

Saddam regime’s 

defunding of public 

healthcare by 90% 

created significant 

problems in the Iraqi 

healthcare system. In 

2009, with funding from the World Health Organization, the Iraqi 

Ministry of Health introduced a plan to reform and decentralize 

the country’s healthcare system. Additionally, international 

humanitarian organizations have expanded their efforts in Iraq 

to provide healthcare to both the local population as well as 

those fleeing conflict areas.

The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges, 

particularly rapidly growing healthcare expenditures associated 

with a large, aging population and lifestyle changes that have 

negative health implications. For example, fewer residents 

adhere to the region’s traditional diet and instead have increased 

their consumption of pre-packaged and fast foods. 

Simultaneously, rapid urbanization, the increased use of 

GENERAL

CULTURE
mechanized transportation, and a lack of dedicated green 

spaces for physical activities have led to an increasingly 

sedentary lifestyle for many residents. As a result, obesity rates 

have increased and noncommunicable diseases (such as 

diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and chronic 

respiratory disease) now 

cause more than 60% of 

all deaths in all of the Arab 

Gulf States, except Iraq 

(Photo: King Saud Medical 

Complex, Riyadh, Saudi 

Arabia).

Communicable diseases 

remain a concern in Iraq, 

where contaminated water 

supplies, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygienic practices 

contribute to the spread of typhoid, cholera, and tuberculosis.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.

Besides fishing and agriculture, the Gulf States’ economies have 

been enmeshed with local and international trade since ancient 

times. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Arab Gulf’s port 

cities were integral elements of the trade routes connecting 

India, Europe, and East Africa.

In the late 19th century, the region began exporting dates and 

pearls to new markets in Europe and North America. After global 

demand for pearls grew significantly around the turn of the 20th

century, pearl diving became a major contributor to the 

economies of the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain before the 

industry collapsed in the 1930s. The region then entered a 

period of socioeconomic hardship until the discovery of oil.

The growth of the oil industry in in the 1950s-60s significantly 

changed the region. Within a few decades the States had 

transformed from some of the world’s poorest countries to some 

of the wealthiest. This wealth has facilitated investment in 

infrastructure, enhanced the quality of life, and encouraged rapid 

urbanization throughout the region with the exception of Iraq.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Prior to 1980, Iraq had one of the most advanced economies of 

all Arab Gulf States. Years of conflict, however, have had a 

profound effect on Iraq’s economy. In late 2015, Iraq 

implemented an economic reform 

proposal intended to cut excess 

government spending and 

crackdown on corruption (Photo: 

The Abraj Al Bait Towers complex 

in Mecca, Saudi Arabia).

Oil remains an important part of the 

region’s economies today—in Iraq, 

Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, oil 

exports make up over 90% of 

government revenues. Over the 

past several decades, the Gulf 

States collectively have taken steps 

to reduce their economic dependence on oil through 

diversification efforts. For example, Bahrain has worked to 

develop its banking sector; Kuwait produces cement and ships 

and specializes in food-processing; Qatar is expanding its 

agricultural sector; and the UAE is investing in tourism, airport

and aviation services, and facilities management services. 

Despite these efforts, the region remains dependent on oil: all of 

the region’s economies were adversely affected by the decline 

in oil prices and a reduced demand for oil during the 2008 global 

financial crisis. The States are currently exploring ways to adapt 

to the decline in oil prices that began in 2015.

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology.

Most of the Arab Gulf States have invested heavily into 

extensive road networks. The governments of Oman and Saudi 

Arabia, for example, have put significant sums of funding 

towards building large freeways and roads that extend to remote 

areas. Despite years of conflict, Iraq’s 24,000 miles of roads 

remain in relatively good condition. In 2015, 6 of the region’s 

governments allocated $200 billion for the construction of a 

GENERAL

CULTURE
regional rail network which will link Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the 

UAE, Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar when completed in 2018.

Information technology is spreading rapidly throughout the Arab 

Gulf. Between 2000 and 2014, Internet usage grew from 

between 2 and 23 users per 100 people to between 63 and 91 

users. The exception is Iraq where just 11 out of every 100 

people are Internet users. Cell phones are extremely popular—

the States report between 95 and 218 mobile phone 

subscriptions per 

100 people

(Photo: Freeway 

in Dubai, UAE). 

As the destination 

of 11% of all GCC

exports, the 

European Union 

(EU) is the 

region’s largest 

trading partner. Of note, the EU and the GCC States (with the 

exception of Iraq) are pursuing a free trade agreement. The Gulf 

States also maintain important trade relationships with several 

Asian nations. For example, China depends on the Arab Gulf for 

35% of its oil imports, India for 45%, and South Korea and Japan 

for 70%.

The Arab Gulf faces challenges in meeting its growing energy 

needs. As a result of the region’s rapid urbanization and 

population growth, the Gulf States are shifting from being energy 

suppliers to major energy consumers. Energy consumption grew

by about 8% annually since 1972 (compared to 2% globally). 

While the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia have less than 

1% of the world’s population, these countries now use more than 

5% of the world’s oil. Iraq has had difficulty meeting its own

power needs, relying on imported electricity and petroleum 

products. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize 

Arab Gulf society at large, we will focus on specific features of 

society in Iraq.

GENERAL

CULTURE
FAMILY &

KINSHIP

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

Family

The protection and honor of

one’s family is priority #1. An

Iraqi will always view his

behavior as directly affecting

his family’s honor. He will

protect and defend the honor

of his relatives and tribe, and

will take any measure

necessary to safeguard his immediate family. The Iraqi family

structure is patriarchal, meaning males are considered as head

of the family. Most Iraqi families have several children, and it is

not uncommon to find a family with 5 to 10 children. In-laws,

cousins, aunts, and uncles typically live together in the same

neighborhood. In Iraq, this family structure means they are not

“extended family,” they are just family.

Group Identity versus

Individualism

Instead of asserting their

separateness and privacy as

independent individuals, Iraqis tend

to interact as members of a group—

family, clan, village, neighborhood,

tribe, etc. Within this culture, the

group takes precedence over the

individual. This collectivism

originated in the desert where Arabs

lived in small communal settings,

and individuals could not survive on

their own. Socially, the group one belonged to was much more

important than individual identity. Even today, group interests

guide individual behavior, and Iraqis display a high need for
FAMILY &

KINSHIP

social approval. The group often determines a person’s

identity, status, and prospects for success in life. As a result,

Iraqis generally are subjected to many more family and

community pressures than are Americans. Loyalty to the group

is highly valued, and responsibility is generally considered to

fall upon the entire group rather than on any particular

individual. Because of the primacy of the group, obligations of

group members to one another are wide, varied, and powerful.

“His Other House” –

The Second Wife

If a man takes a second wife, he

will prefer to lodge her in a different

house. So, when told he is at “his

other house,” that usually means

that he is at his second wife’s

house. A Muslim man now needs a

court order for permission to have

more than one wife, and he must

treat each wife equally in all ways (for example, material

support and physical affection). Four wives is the maximum

permitted by Islamic law, but it is rare today for a man to have

more than two due to the wealth and support required. An

increasing number of Iraqis live in urban areas, which are more

conducive to the concept of smaller families combined with less

family and clan support.

Role of Children

The hierarchical structure of the

family requires children to obey their

elders and meet their expectations.

Children remain respectful of elders

throughout their lives. Families take

care of elders regardless of

difficulties arising with age, disease,

or other challenges. To an Iraqi,

nursing homes are unthinkable.

Sons are especially desirable

because they perpetuate paternal family tradition and are the 

predominant economic providers.
FAMILY &

KINSHIP

FAMILY &KINSHIP

What do you do if an Iraqi says he can’t work (or do

what you want) due to a family obligation, such as

visiting a relative in the hospital?

• Understand that responsibilities to extended family take

precedence above all else. This is contrary to the US

“Mission First” attitude. Accept what you cannot change

and build rapport by demonstrating thoughtfulness and

consideration.

Also, sons are taught to be protectors of their

sisters and to help the father with his duties

inside and outside the house. Daughters are

taught to defer to their brothers and help their

mother with household chores. Families also

teach their children to highly value blood ties

and bonds of loyalty. During adolescence, the

sexes are traditionally separated.

Tribal Sheiks

The title “Sheik” refers to a tribal leader or to a man who

performs a religious function. A large segment of Iraqi society

identifies itself with one tribe or another. Traditionally, a sheik

was a landlord who provided livelihood and protection to the

people of his tribe in return for their labor and loyalty. The

importance of the tribal sheik varies in response to the relative

strength of the central government. The weakening of central

government following the fall of Saddam Hussein strengthened

the influence of sheiks. Today, the influence, power, and

popularity of tribal sheiks are varied.

• Tribal Values: Revered tribal values throughout Iraq

include courage, gallantry, mastery of arms, and

manliness. The tribe continues to provide its members

with an important sense of identity and security.

Talking about Family

[See Language and Communication Section]
FAMILY &

KINSHIP

Marriage

As a general rule, Muslim

women do not marry nonMuslim men and Iraqi women,

both Muslim and Christian,

seldom marry foreign men.

Foreign male visitors to Iraq

should pursue their romantic

interests elsewhere. A

marriage or engagement is an

event that signals the joining

of two families or the

cementing of relationships within one. Marriage among cousins

is common, even encouraged to reinforce family and tribal ties.

The marriage process is more a social contract than a religious

ceremony. The groom will ask the prospective bride’s father for

her hand in marriage, in the presence of all males from both

families, while the women wait in another room. This event

serves as the formal contract, although the prospective union

will have already been discussed privately. The father will most

likely have asked his daughter if she wants to marry the

prospective husband. Seldom will a young woman be forced

into marriage, although it does still happen occasionally. The

religious ceremony typically lasts only minutes, and registration

of the marriage with the court is mandatory. The wedding party

following the ceremony is often large, with many guests, and

the family hosts provide the best food and entertainment they

can afford. [Also see firing rifles in celebration, Political and

Social Relations Section]

Divorce

Divorce is emotionally difficult in Iraq, as it is in any society.

Under Islamic rules, a man may initiate a divorce by verbally

executing a statement to divorce his wife. Today in Iraq, a

woman may file for a divorce through her family and the local

court system. The family of a divorced woman retains a strong

connection to her throughout her entire life. Custody of young

children is usually granted to the father, as is typical in Islamic

societies.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

2. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

Iraq’s population is primarily Muslim (60% Shi’a, 15% Sunni

Arab, and 20% Sunni Kurd). While a minority of Iraqis profess

other beliefs, Islam has the greatest influence on Iraqi culture.

The Basics of Islam

Islam means “submission to the will

of God” and the acceptance of His

wisdom. Muslim is the term for a

follower of Islam.

Islam is a Monotheistic Religion,

which means its adherents worship

one God. “God” and its Arabic

translation “Allah” are often used

interchangeably by both Muslim

and Christian Arabs. God is all

powerful and nothing shares

divinity with Him. He controls all events - past, present, and

future. The Arabic saying, “Inshallah” means everything occurs

according to God’s Will, particularly future events.

Muslims believe in angels, the devil and the afterlife. They

believe two angels accompany every human and record their

deeds for Judgment Day. They believe the devil (Iblis) is a

spirit known as a Genie (or Jinn), not a fallen angel. In the

afterlife, the righteous are rewarded in Paradise and those who

do not accept God’s Will and guidance will be punished in Hell.

Abraham: Muslims trace their lineage back to Abraham, known

as Ibrahim in Islam. However, unlike Christians and Jews

(who trace their line back to Abraham and his wife Sarah,

through their son Isaac), Muslims descend from Abraham and

the Egyptian bondswoman, Hagar through their son Ismail.

According to Muslim tradition, Abraham’s wife Sarah feared

Ismail would overshadow her son Isaac, so Abraham took

Hagar and Ismail to Mecca, where he left them to fend for

themselves. Abraham later returned and built the Ka’aba with

Ismail as the first shrine to the one true God. It was here that

Abraham was to sacrifice his son, Ismail, as a test of faith,
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

before God permitted him to sacrifice a ram instead (in contrast

to Biblical tradition, where Isaac was to be sacrificed).

Muhammad: In Islam, Muhammad is God’s final prophet, and

is known as the “Seal of the Prophets” because his message

completes the “revelations” attributed to earlier prophets.

Muhammad has no divinity and is not worshipped.

The Qur’an (Holy Book): Muslims uphold the Qur’an as the

eternal, direct word of God,

as revealed to Muhammad

through the Archangel

Gabriel (Jibril) over a 23-year

period, between the years

610 and 632 AD. These

revelations and teachings

were recorded in Arabic as

the basis of Islam, thus “true”

Qur’ans, as well as all

prayers, are in Arabic.

Arabic Qur’ans should not be handled by non-Muslims.

Shari’a: Shari’a is Islamic law. Its core is the Qur’an,

supplemented with reports about the sayings and practices of

the Prophet Muhammad (Hadith). It sets rules and guidance

for all aspects of life (prayer, economics, behavior, etc.).

Diet: Muslims are socially prohibited from consuming pork and

alcohol. This prohibition is known as “Haram” or forbidden.

[For more on Diet, see Sustenance & Health Section]

Prayer: Muslims pray five times daily.

The practice of multiple daily prayers was

adapted from earlier Arab tribal religions.

Shi’a practice permits combining prayers

into three daily prayer times.

Prayer times: Prayers are spaced fairly

evenly throughout the day, so one is

constantly reminded of God. The call to

prayer is heard at pre-dawn, noon, late

afternoon, sunset, and evening.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Your Behavior When Others Are Praying

• Remember to be courteous

o Never walk in front of people while they are praying

o Never speak to or interrupt people while they pray

Muslims wash their hands, elbows, face, ears, feet, and wet

their hair to cleanse their bodies prior to prayer (ablution).

Friday Prayer (Jummah): Muslims gather at mosques for

Friday’s communal prayer. These prayers are led by an imam.

Holy cities: The Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the

site of the Hajj. Medina, Saudi Arabia is revered as the burial

site of Muhammad. Jerusalem is also holy, as Muslims believe

Muhammad made his nighttime ride to heaven from Jerusalem.

Jerusalem is also the site of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.

OtherIslamic Concepts

Birth Rite of Passage:

Many important rites of

passage in Iraqi society

are derived from Islam.

When a baby is born, the

father whispers the call to

prayer and command to

worship in the baby’s ear.

Sugar, or a piece of date,

is then placed in the

baby’s mouth so that the

first thing the baby tastes is sweet. The baby’s head is shaved

on the seventh day to symbolize service to Allah. The family

weighs the hair and donates an equal amount of gold or silver

to charity. Boys are also circumcised within a week of birth. On

the seventh day, a name is given to the child. A feast is held to

give thanks and food is given to the poor.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Death Rite of Passage: Before a Muslim dies, the call to

prayer is whispered in the person’s ear, just as it was at birth.

Immediately after death, the body is washed and rubbed with

perfumes and spices. It is then wrapped in white cloth and

buried without a casket, facing the Ka’aba in Mecca. The family

of the deceased will receive condolences for three days, again

on the fortieth day and on the one-year anniversary of a death.

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of death, like

birth, is determined by Allah. Thus old age, illness, or accident

are not considered the real causes of death. While people

grieve the loss of family members or friends, they do not view

death itself as a negative event, as Muslims believe that a

person who lived a good life goes on to live in Heaven.

Jihad: Jihad is a fundamental element within Islam. It is not a

Pillar of Islam. Traditionally, it applies to an inner striving

(Greater Jihad) to elevate the principled, more civilized and

moral elements of one’s self and the pursuit of God’s Will, to

lead a virtuous life. The concept of external struggle (Lesser

Jihad) is a struggle in defense of Islam. During the Soviet

invasion of Afghanistan (1979-1989), many Islamic leaders

called for a Jihad against the atheist Soviets, prompting an

influx of Mujaheddin (warriors) from other countries. Do not

confuse the concept of Jihad with the radicalized violence

mislabeled as Jihad by religious extremists.

Don’t Ask About Religious Affiliation Unless

Necessary

Religious affiliation is often a sensitive issue in Iraq

Try not to ask an Iraqi about his religious preference

unless absolutely necessary. For example, it may be

necessary information to complete an official document
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic

principles of the

Islamic faith that all

Muslims accept and

follow; these are

commonly known as

“The Five Pillars of

Islam.”

Shahada (Faith)

Salat (Prayer)

Zakat (Charity)

Sawm (Fasting)

Hajj (Pilgrimage)

Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God and

Muhammad is His Messenger” (La ilaha illa illah waMuhammad rasul Allah). This statement expresses the total

commitment to the message of God.

Prayer (Salat): Pray five times a day. During each of the five

daily prayers, the worshipper faces toward the Ka’aba in Mecca

as he/she prays. The direction of prayer is called the Qibla.

Alms (Zakat): This is an obligatory tithe used to provide relief

for the poor and other charitable donations.

Fasting (Sawm): Abstaining from food, drink, and intercourse

from sunrise to sunset during holy month of Ramadan (30

days). It is a time for inner reflection, self-control, and reading

the Qur’an. The object of Ramadan is to subdue life’s passions

and draw one’s self nearer to God by purifying one’s body

through denial of life’s pleasures. Because the Islamic

calendar is based on the appearance of the moon, Ramadan

occurs at a different date each year on the Western calendar.

When Ramadan falls during the summer, keeping Ramadan

requires great focus and endurance because people will not

drink anything for up to 18 hours, despite the heat. It is common

for Muslims to break their fast at sunset with a light meal

followed by sunset prayer and then dinner.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): The Hajj is the annual

pilgrimage to Mecca, which every adult Muslim, who is

physically and financially able, is expected to perform at least

once in his or her lifetime. The Hajj involves a series of religious

rites that take place annually over several days at the Grand 

Mosque in Mecca, and surrounding areas. The focus of the 

pilgrimage is the Ka’aba

(“the cube” in Arabic), the

Sacred House located inside the

Grand Mosque in Mecca, in

which the sacred black stone is

embedded. The Ka'aba is

covered with a kiswah, a black

silk cloth which is embroidered in

gold with verses from the Qur'an. Muslim tradition teaches that

the black stone was given to Abraham by the Archangel Gabriel

and thus is a symbol of God’s covenant with Ismail and, by

extension, the Muslim community. The Hajj is a highly

spiritual experience during which one nurtures the kinship with

fellow Muslims.

How should you behave during Ramadan?

• During Ramadan, it is respectful to avoid eating,

drinking, smoking, and chewing gum in public or in the

presence of Muslims during fasting hours.

• Care should be taken to avoid offering food,

beverages, or tobacco products to Muslims or to

anyone in public during fasting hours.

• Be aware that work may slow down during Ramadan,

and you can expect shorter work hours. Westerners

who work in Islamic countries often plan to get less

done during this period.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Ethnoreligious Groups

SunniKurd 

SunniArab/ Sunni Kurd

SunniArab 

Shi’a Arab / SunniArab

Shi’a Arab

Turkomen

Yezidi

Ethnic and religious groups

by percent of population

Shi’a and

Sunni in Iraq

The Sunni-Shi’a division of

Islam began as a succession

dispute shortly after the death

of the prophet Muhammad in 632 AD. Muhammad died without

a male heir and without naming a successor. After

Muhammad’s death, prominent Muslims assembled and chose

Abu Bakr as Muhammad’s successor, and gave him the title of

khalif (caliph), which means “successor” to the Prophet

Muhammad, and thus leader of the Islamic community or

Ummah. Some Muslims believed the successor should have

been Ali, the Prophet’s cousin, who had married the Prophet’s

daughter, Fatima. This belief became the starting point for the

doctrine of the Shi’a, or “supporters of Ali.” In 656 AD Ali

became the fourth Caliph, but Muslims were still divided over

how the Caliph should be chosen. The Shi’a reject the first

three caliphs and believe in following a bloodline succession,

descending from Ali and Fatima, and the Sunni believe the

community of believers should elect the successor.

The Sunni-Shi’a division has largely been a political and

socioeconomic struggle over the allocation and distribution of

wealth and political power. Shi’a and Sunni Muslims in Iraq

have learned throughout their history to co-exist, and many

tribes contain both Shi’a and Sunni members.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Shi’a Muslims: There are approximately 13 million Shi’a in

Iraq (60 percent of the population). Shi’a believe the proper

successor of the Prophet Muhammad was Ali, Muhammad’s

son-in-law, and that the first three Caliphs (Abu Baker, Omar,

and Uthman) were not legitimate. The word “Shi’a” means

partisan or faction of Ali, and is short for “Shi’at Ali”. Ali was

elected the fourth caliph, but was later overthrown and

assassinated. Following a nearly 30 year dispute, in 661 AD

the governor of Syria, named himself Caliph and made the

caliphate hereditary in his own family, the Umayyads. The

Shi’a rejected this as unjustly taking the caliphate from Ali and

his sons. Shi’a attempts to challenge the Umayyad leaders

resulted in the death of Ali’s son, Husayn, at the Battle of

Karbala in Iraq in 680. Shi’a now refer to the Caliph as the

Imam, or spiritual leader, and he is the head of the global Shi’a

community. No person alive today is recognized as the Imam.

You may distinguish a Shi’a area from a Sunni area due to the

Shi’a depiction of human images in their art, particularly Ali,

Husayn, and the 12th Imam. Sunni generally avoid depicting

human images out of concern this may lead to idolatry.

Two important Shi'a communities are the Imami (Twelvers) and

the Ismailis (Seveners).

Imami or “Twelvers”: In the 8th century, succession

became confused when the Imam, Jafar, first named his

eldest son, Ismail, his successor, then changed his mind and

named a younger son, Musa. Ismail died before his father

and thus never had an opportunity to assert his claim. When

Jafar died in 765, the imamate transferred to Musa. Those

Shi’a who followed Musa are known to Western scholars as

the Imami or “Twelver” Shi’as. The name “Twelver” derives

Shi’a History with Persia (Iran)

• Strong historical relationship between Iraq and Iran

• Safavid Empire in Persia, known today as Iran,

emerged in the 16th century as the first Shi’a empire,

strengthening Shi’a power and regional presence

• Safavid Empire included most of present-day Iraq
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

How to visit a Mosque

• To enter a mosque, you should be invited.

• Always remove your shoes before entering.

• If you are a female, cover your head with a scarf and

wear a long sleeve shirt or blouse. Some mosques

may provide scarves for women.

o Women worship separately, and often worship at

home so that they may care for their children. They

are also excused from prayers during menstruation.

from the disappearance of the 12th Imam, Muhammad al

Muntazar (the Hidden Imam), in about 874 AD. He was a

child, and after his disappearance he became known as a

messianic figure, the Mahdi or the “Guided One,” who never

died but remains to this day hidden from view. The

“Twelver” Shi’a believe his return will usher in a golden era.

The “Twelvers” are the dominant Shi’a group in Iran.

Ismailis or “Seveners”: The division Shi’a community that

refused to acknowledge Musa's legitimacy and insisted on

Ismail's son's right to rule as Imam.

Ashura Ceremony: The death of Ali’s son, Husayn, is

commemorated annually in the Ashura ceremony, and is

seen as a symbol of the persecution and oppression

experienced by the Shi’a community. Male participants beat

their chests and chant. Some use swords to lacerate their

heads to symbolize the beheading of Husayn, or use chains

to beat their backs to evoke the suffering of Husayn.

Sunni Muslims: The Arabic word Sunnah means “path” or

“example,” and refers to the example of the Prophet

Muhammad as found in the Hadith, a collection of reports about

the Prophet’s life, and to the Qur’an, the written word of God

as revealed through His final Prophet, Muhammad. Sunnis are

literally those “who follow the example of the prophet.” Sunnis

believe the caliph is fully human and should be an elected ruler.

Sunni Islam is often wrongly referred to as Orthodox, or

mainstream, Islam. Sunni are a minority in Iraq, but make up

the majority of the world’s 1.2 billion Muslims
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

Islamic Holy Days

The Islamic Calendar: A year in the Islamic Calendar is 11

days shorter than in the Western Calendar. As a result, Islamic

holidays fall eleven days earlier on the Western calendar than

the previous year. [See Time and Space section]

Lailat ul-Qadr: The Night of Power commemorates

Muhammad receiving the first verses of the Qur’an. This is

observed during Ramadan.

Eid-al-Adha: The Festival of Sacrifice commemorates

Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael, as proof of

his loyalty to God. It is celebrated the same day the Hajj ends.

Eid-al-Fitr: The 3-day Festival of Fast-Breaking celebrates the

end of Ramadan.

 Distinguishing Sunni & Shi’a by How They Pray

Shi’ites begin by standing up

straight with their arms and

hands straight down against

their sides.

Sunnis begin by standing up

straight while placing their

hands on their abdomen.
RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY

How can Non-Muslim Americans relate to Muslim Iraqis?

• Muslims believe that they, Christians, and Jews all

worship the same God.

• Muslims view Islam as a completion of God’s previous

revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets.

Comparisons

Jesus: One of the main differences between Islam and

Christianity is the view of Jesus (Isa). In Islam, Jesus is held

as a prophet, but one who was merely a man; not the son of

God and not divine. Muslims do not accept the concept of the

Trinity because only God is divine and has no family or equal.

Sin: Muslims do not believe in Original Sin. Adam and Eve’s

disobedience was forgiven and the resultant guilt was not

passed down to mankind. God’s prophets were free of sin:

Noah did not drink, Lot did not commit incest, and David did not

commit adultery. There is no Baptism in Islam.

Judaism: Muslims do not believe God has a “chosen people.”

Allah has no favorites and anyone can become one of His

people through living a virtuous life and believing in God. Islam

also does not accept YHWH (or Jehovah) as a name for God.

Scriptures: Muslims regard Christians and Jews as “People of

the Book.” In fact, the Qur’an contains teachings and stories

similar to those found in the Torah (Old Testament) and

Muslims recognize many characters from the Torah and

Gospels as prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus).

Muslims believe that Christians and Jews ultimately worship

the same one God they do, but that Christians and Jews altered

God’s word over time; thus God revealed His final revelations to

Muhammad, through Archangel Gabriel in order to affirm earlier

scriptures and to correct these alterations, particularly the

divinity of Jesus Christ.
SEX & 

GENDER

3. SEX AND GENDER

Women in Iraq

Historically, Iraqi women have

enjoyed relatively more rights

than most of their counterparts in

the Arab world. The Iraqi

constitution and laws guarantee

equal rights to vote, attend

school, run for office and own

property. Women have played

an active role in the economic, political and social development

of Iraq. There are women lawyers, judges, educators, writers,

artists, poets, politicians, business leaders, soldiers, drivers,

and farmers in Iraq. There are various opinions toward veiling.

Some women are completely covered, some wear scarves,

and others leave their heads uncovered. Different economic,

social, religious and educational factors go into a woman’s

decision to veil or not.

A Woman’s Honor = Family Honor

The concept of family honor is inherently connected to women

and their chastity. Women in Iraqi culture are highly sheltered

and viewed as the bearers of culture and family values.

Although customary strictness for women varies according to

religious beliefs, many Iraqi women have a great deal of social

power through their family role. This aspect of Iraqi culture

cannot be evaluated or judged by Western standards. One

useful interpretation of the role of women is summarized as

follows: Women are strictly protected not only to maintain the

family honor, but also because of the belief that men and

women left to their own devices are unable or unwilling to

control their physical urges. (This is not a uniquely Iraqi belief:

The notion of the chaperone is based on the same belief.) For

this reason, protection of women is a central tenet of Islamic

society, and both men and women believe it to be necessary.

Americans may view this attitude as restrictive for Iraqi women;

however, Iraqi women are likely to view this as evidence that

they are loved and valued. Iraqi women may view Western

feminine freedom as evidence of neglect or immorality.
SEX & 

GENDER

Proper Interaction with Iraqi Women

Interaction between sexes is usually acceptable only in

universities and in the workplace.

• Dating, for the most part, is considered taboo in Iraq.

Normally a couple should not be seen alone in public

unless legally engaged or married.

• Making a pass or staring at a female in Iraq could

bring serious consequences for all parties involved

since a female in Iraq is considered the honor of all

male family members.

• Sex between unmarried people is forbidden in Islam

and punishable by law. Females involved also have

to contend with the family wrath, which in some

instances could result in death.

Segregating Women and Children

In a situation requiring segregation of people, do not place

males and females into the same group if they are not related.

Nor should you speak directly to women or physically touch

them or children. Only another female should physically search

Iraqi women. When searching Iraqi families, it is considered

respectful to address the man of the house. Politely ask that

he have the women and children removed to a separate room.

If a woman opens the door, ask to speak to the man of the

house. Respecting these

important customs will ease

the situation.

Women in Mosques

[See Religion and

SpiritualitySection]

Talking about Females

[See Language and Communication Section]
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

4. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

Population

Over 32.5 

million 

Map of Iraqi Provinces

(2014 est.)

Flag of Iraq

Red, green, white,

black with Arabic script:

“God is great”

Government

Parliamentary democracy

Executive Branch:

Chief of State: President

Head of government: Prime Minister

Cabinet: 36 Council of Ministers appointed by the Prime 

Minister and approved by Council of Representatives 

Legislative Branch:

Council of Representatives: Consists of 375 members

Judicial Branch:

The judicial branch is comprised of the Higher Judicial Council,

Federal Supreme Court, Federal Court of Cassation, Public

Prosecution Department, Judiciary Oversight Commission and

other federal courts.
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

ETHNIC GROUPS

Iraqi Arabs

Arabs constitute approximately

75-80% of the population in

Iraq. “Arab,” a name originally

given to the inhabitants of the

Arabian Peninsula, is now

largely a cultural/linguistic term

that includes various national,

regional, and religious groups.

Iraqi Arabs speak Arabic, and the majority follow either Shi’a or

Sunni Islam. No single set of racial or physical characteristics

defines Iraqi Arabs. Iraqi Arabs share most of the values and

practices of other Arabs. While their lives are heavily influenced

by religion, they are also influenced by the same secular

pressures and benefits that affect the other oil-producing Arab

countries. Most Iraqi Arabs were traditionally farmers, but today

they are just as likely to be city-dwellers. Bedouin nomads, with

their extensive knowledge of the desert, have been lured away

from their traditional nomadic life by government policy and by

the opportunity of more lucrative employment. There are very

few Bedouins left in the country.

Kurds

Kurds make up approximately 15-20%

of Iraq’s population. A non-Arabic,

non-Turkic people, the Kurds are

ethnically related to Persians, but do

not view themselves as such and

have their own distinct culture and

language. Kurdish belongs to the

western Iranian branch of the IndoEuropean languages. The majority of

Kurds are Sunni Muslims. “Kurd”

historically was a generic term used to

denote nomads, non-Arabs in

particular. In Kurdish, the name “Kurd” means “warrior” or

“ferocious fighter.” Historically nomadic herders, Kurds are now

mostly settled. Ranging across northern Iraq, the Kurds are
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

part of the larger Kurdish population, numbering between 15

and 20 million, and inhabit a sizable region from eastern Turkey

to the Zagros Mountains in Iran.

Turkomen

The Turkomen (numbering approximately 500,000) inhabit

northeast Iraq, along the border between the Kurdish and Arab

regions. Many Turkomen live in the city of Irbil. Most Turkomen

are Sunni Muslims and speak a Turkish dialect. They are

linguistically members of the Turkic-Altaic language group.

They are ethnically and culturally connected to the larger Turkic

population living in Turkey and throughout Central Asia. For the

most part, they have integrated into the general Iraqi population.

Assyrians and Chaldeans

The Assyrians and Chaldeans (numbering approximately

200,000) are descendants of ancient Mesopotamian peoples.

They live mainly in northeastern Iraq where they tend to be

professionals and businessmen or independent farmers. They

speak variations of the Aramaic language as well as Arabic.

Religiously, Assyrians follow the Nestorian Church, a Christian

denomination. The Chaldeans are associated with Roman

Catholicism. However, the two groups are often categorized as

one community due to similar ethnic backgrounds and origin.

African Iraqis

The Arab world had a

robust slave trade,

beginning sometime

around the 9th century,

that included slaves from

Africa, Turkey, and even

Europe. There are an

estimated 300,000 Iraqis

of African descent, many

of whose ancestors were

brought to Iraq as slaves

and are sometimes

referred by the derogatory term “Abd”, or slave by other Iraqis.

African Iraqis maintain some historical traditions within their

microculture, such as a healing ceremony that includes
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

elaborate costumes, dancing and songs that use a mixture of

Swahili and Arabic words. African Iraqis tend to be poorer than

average and there are currently no black Iraqis in the

Parliament.

SOCIAL RELATIONS

Role of Tribes in Social and Political Relations

Tribes are bound together by shared ancestry, geography, and

a strict social code that demands allegiance between members.

75% of Iraq’s population are a member of a tribe. The role of

tribes and tribal leaders is stronger in rural areas than in major

cities, and the Shi’ite dominated south is particularly influenced

by tribal factors. Tribal sheiks have emerged as intermediaries

between Coalition forces and the Iraqi people.

Civil Law and Religious Law

Iraq’s constitution established a court system to provide the

foundation for an independent judiciary. It established a

supreme court, a court of appeals, and a central criminal court.

The provisions of Iraqi law are sometimes at odds with religious

law (Sharia). For example, according to Islamic law, it is a

criminal offense punishable by death if one converts from Islam

to a different religion. According to civil law, however, no

penalty exists for conversion to a different religion. Further,
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

Article 1 of Penal Code No. 111, established in 1969, allows

only civil law to impose criminal penalties. While the main

tenets of religious law are inviolable as stated in the Constitution,

criminal or civil law now occupies a position of independence

from religious law.

Status

Status and reputation are a large part of the Iraqi social,

business, and military cultures. Respect is expressed by

standing when someone of status enters the room. Both men

and women generally stand when an elderly person, new guest,

or high ranking official enters or leaves the room. In addition,

men always stand when a woman enters the room.

Keeping Up Appearances

Iraqis are fiercely protective of their public image and rely

heavily on status and reputation. It is so important to most

Iraqis to keep up appearances that they resent anyone who

threatens their image. While Americans commonly consider

criticism to be “constructive,” Iraqis consider it to be destructive

and humiliating. Being forced to answer “I don’t know,”

particularly in public, is viewed as a threat to one’s image. [See

Language and Communication Section].

Firing Rifles in Celebration

Iraqis often celebrate a

wide variety of events

and occasions by firing

their rifles in the air.

Notable examples

include a funeral,

wedding, birth, or the

arrival of a family

member after a long

absence. This is not an

act of aggression or

hostility.
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

How do you give gifts in Iraq?

• Make sure it’s wrapped.

• Respectfully present it with your right hand, as the left

hand is usually considered unclean due to its use for

personal hygiene.

o Also accept gifts with your right hand.

• Ensure it will not be offensive to Muslims.

o Items to avoid include wine, other alcohol, or

anything morally offensive or offensive to the

recipient’s religious beliefs.

• Give small gifts more frequently than you would in the

US.

o Suggested gifts: Flowers, candles, fruits,

chocolates, nuts.

• Gifts are often not opened in front of the gift giver.

Iraqi Gift Giving

Iraqis fondly give and receive presents. Be prepared to give

gifts, as there is a good chance you will receive them. When

an Iraqi gives you a gift, he generally expects one in return,

although he will never actually say this. The gift need not be

expensive. The recipient may or may not open the gift in front

of you. If you are invited to an Iraqi’s home, it is courteous to

bring a small gift.

Friendships/Displayof

Affection

Iraqis highly value

friendship. A close

friendship between you

and an Iraqi may start

and develop quickly. It is

customary and expected

that good friends visit

each other often and
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

engage in long conversations. Once the friendship forms, it is

considered very impolite to directly refuse that person’s request.

This is seen as a sign that you wish to end the relationship. Iraqi

friends of the same sex are considerably more affectionate with

one another than are American friends. It is not uncommon for

two Iraqi men who are close friends to hold hands, walk arm in

arm, kiss cheeks, or put their arm around the other’s shoulder.

This is not a sign of homosexuality in Iraq.

Smoking in Iraq

• If you wish to smoke in the presence of Iraqis, be

prepared to offer a cigarette to everyone in the group.

o It is considered impolite not todo so.

• Conversely, it is not considered appropriate to ask an

Iraqi not to smoke.

More on Smoking: The majority of Arab adults smoke. Both

men and women consider smoking a normal part of adult

behavior, although women are rarely seen smoking in public.

Dogs

Dogs are considered unclean animals relative to

hygiene practices of the Islamic faith. Washing is

required for Muslims following contact with dogs

• Dogs are usually not kept as pets, but are sometimes

used as guard dogs and kept on a chain in the family

courtyard or for herding sheep.

• If you are involved in searching someone’s house,

do not bring a dog inside. It is also unacceptable and

insulting to bring a dog to the place a Muslim prays.
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS

Iraqi Naming

Complete Name: A complete Iraqi name has a minimum of

three components and sometimes four, five, or more. First,

in both the Western and Iraqi naming systems, parents give

the newborn child a “given name” which appears first in the

order of names. In the West, that name might be “John” or

“Mary” and in Iraq, that might be “Muhammad” or “Alia.”

• Middle Name: In the West, we have the concept of a

“middle name.” A male may bear the first and middle names

“John Paul” and female may be named “Mary Elizabeth.”

The concept of the “middle name” does not exist in Iraq.

Instead, every child takes his father’s first name as his own

second name.

• Examples: For example, let us say the child’s first name is

Muhammad. His father’s first name is Husayn. The child’s

first and second names will be, respectively, Muhammad

Husayn. If Muhammad has a sister, Alia, her first two

names will be Alia Husayn. This rule applies to males and

females alike.

o Muhammad given name

o Husayn given name of father

o Ali given name of paternal grandfather

o Abdallah given name of paternal great- grandfather

o Al-Dlaymi family or tribal name

 Certain surnames (last names) reveal the area or tribe from

which a person’s family originated: for example, al-Najafi, alSamawi, and al-Zubaydi are all surnames that are

associated with tribal regions.

• Prefixes and Suffixes: Any component of the name could

contain two segments – a prefix plus a stem or a stem plus

a suffix. Common prefixes and suffixes include:

o Abd = Servant Of

o Ibn/bin = Son Of

o Bint = Daughter Of

o Abu = Father Of

o Umm = Mother Of

 Example 3-part name: Muhammad bin Husayn Al-Dlaymi

Women’s Surnames (Last Names)- Women do not acquire

their husband’s surnames upon marriage; they retain their own.
ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

Currency

New Iraqi Dinars

Exchange Rates (June 2009)

New Iraqi Dinars per US dollar: 1,158.60

National Economic Overview

Twenty-five years ago, Iraq was widely regarded as the most

developed country in the Middle East. Iraq ranked toward the

top on virtually every indicator of human well-being. The World

Bank classified Iraq as an upper-middle-income country. Since

then, Iraq has been the only Middle Eastern country whose

living standards have declined. Years of political repression,

wars, embargo, and instability seriously undermined well-being.

Iraq’s economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has

traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings.

Although looting, insurgent attacks, and sabotage have

undermined economy rebuilding efforts, economic activity is

beginning to pick up in areas secured by the US military and

Iraqi forces. Oil exports are around levels seen before

Operation Iraqi Freedom, and total government revenues

benefited from high oil prices.

Despite political uncertainty, Iraq is making some progress in

building the institutions needed to implement economic policy

and has negotiated a debt reduction agreement with the Paris

Club. Iraq received pledges for $13.5 billion in foreign aid for

2004-07 from outside of the US, and more than $33 billion in

total pledges. The International Compact with Iraq was

established in May 2007 to integrate Iraq into the regional and

global economy.

The Iraqi government is seeking to pass laws to strengthen its

economy. This includes a hydrocarbon law to establish a

modern legal framework to allow Iraq to develop its resources

and a revenue sharing law to equitably divide oil revenues

within the nation. Reducing corruption and implementing

structural reforms, such as bank restructuring and developing

the private sector, will be key to Iraq’s long-term economic

success.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

5. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES
ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

Agriculture

Agriculture remains a longstanding traditional occupation for

the people of Iraq. Historically, strong trading networks existed

within and between nomadic tribes who earned a living by

trading agricultural products such as rice and vegetables, as

well as breeding and trading livestock. They often visited towns

to trade, and many settled in agricultural village communities

divided into large extended families. Shi’a areas dominated

agriculture for decades, and many non-governmental

organizations are working closely to try to revive agriculture in

the Shi’a southern marsh areas devastated by Saddam

Hussein.

Hawala Transfer Network

Hawala is an ancient, informal system of money transfer that

existed long before Western banking arrived. Hawala brokers

take a client’s money and then contact a counterpart in the

area where the client wants money delivered. The counterpart

then pays out the sum (minus a small commission percentage.)

In chaotic economies, Hawala, which is based on trust rather

than laws and infrastructure, can actually stand in for a mature

financial system. This system is reliable and less expensive

than formal bank transfers, but is virtually untraceable by

government officials.

Bargaining and Negotiating

Bargaining and negotiating

are not only commonplace,

but expected in Iraqi culture. 

This holds true with 

negotiations at all levels and

interests of society, as well as

bargaining for goods.

• Bargaining for Goods: Generally, there are no fixed

prices in the Middle East. Vendors inflate prices, and

the purchaser is expected to bargain to get a more

reasonable price. The Iraqi word for bargaining

literally means “interaction.” Think of bargaining as

social interaction and a game, rather than as a way

of taking advantage of the other party.
ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

How to Negotiate Effectively

• Plan: Know what you want (your position), but identify and

prioritize the reasons you want it (your interests).

• Also estimate their positions and interests.

Building Relationships is Key

During the initial negotiations, build a relationship;

don’t work the task at hand (unless the situation is

dire) Relationship-building can focus on discussions

about the overall family, sports, geography, history,

etc.

The purpose of relationship building is to develop

trust. This trust will be vital in shaping the

agreement and resolving issues during execution.

• When you eventually open discussions, get them to speak

first. If they present a position (a want), ask them why they

think that is the answer. From their answer, you’ll discover

their interests. If one of your interests overlaps one of theirs,

you have common ground to develop a mutually satisfactory

solution.

• Unless the situation is dire, don’t make demands. Present

your ideas and options for their comment. For example,

don’t say “I think we need to do X”; rather “What do you think

of the idea X?” Bottom Line: make your ideas – theirs.

• Follow-on discussion should outline the advantages and

disadvantages for each option.

• When it comes time to select an option to implement, make

sure it meets both parties’ interest – and seriously consider any

option that improves the reputation of your counterpart.
Expect less detail in the agreement than you might want. Riskadverse cultures tend to manage risk by creating general (not

highly detailed) documents. However, with an excellent

relationship built on mutual trust, the inevitable issues that arise

during execution will be easier to resolve. Preservation of a

reputation is of primary importance.

Contemplation Time: Don’t be alarmed if an 

Iraqi breaks eye contact during negotiations

and becomes silent. This contemplation time

is a traditional c of Iraqi negotiations.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
TIME &

SPACE

6. TIME AND SPACE

Iraqi Concept of Time

In Iraq, time is measured differently than it is in Western

countries. Iraqi life has a more leisurely pace, and relationships

are considered more

important than schedules. For

example, people spend time in

social chatter before and after

discussing business. This is

vital, so avoid appearing to

be in a rush. Americans may

perceive this as a lack of 

concern for time. For example,

Iraqis may not arrive on time

for business meetings, or they may engage in discussions

without appearing to pay attention to time.

Iraqi Calendars

Iraqis have two calendars:

The Solar Calendar

The solar calendar is used for daily business. It

corresponds to the calendar used in the US that begins in

January and ends in December.

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar is used for determining the proper day

to celebrate religious holidays and festivals. The first year of

the Islamic calendar coincides with AD 622, the year

Muhammad settled in Medina (The Hijra) [See Religion and

Spirituality Section]. The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar

and contains twelve months, each beginning and ending in

accordance with the position of the moon. The approximate

time between full moons, signaling the length of a month, is

29.53 days. Thus, the Islamic calendar is only 354.36 days; it

is 11 days shorter than the Western solar calendar. As a

result, from one year to the next, Islamic holidays fall eleven

days earlier on the Western calendar than the previous year.

For example, the first day of Islamic New Year 1431 was

December 18, 2009.
TIME &

SPACE

GENERAL BUSINESS HOURS

Government offices: 0800 – 1500

Shopping centers: 0800 or 0900 – sunset

Small shops: 0900 or 1000 – sunset

Grocery shops: 0700 or 0800 – sunset

Business Hours

The Iraqi work week begins on Saturday and ends on

Thursday. The “weekend” is Friday, when government offices,

semi-official establishments and private companies are closed.

Thursdays are usually half-day workdays for government and

semi-official agencies. The business hours above are provided

as a general reference. You will find business hours often vary

significantly, and it is not uncommon to take a lengthy break for

the midday meal. Devout Muslims observe prayer times and

may close their shops accordingly.

Iraqi Concept of Personal Space

Iraqis of the same sex typically interact together with less

personal space between them than do Westerners. Iraqis

prefer to close distances and touch often. To stand back from

someone indicates a desire not to interact with the person and

may be perceived as offensive.

Proximity as a Sign of Sentiment

Iraqis often use proximity (physical nearness) to convey

sentiment. For example, they will place individuals close to

them who share alliances, friendships, and bonds. Be mindful

of who you place close to you at meetings, meals, and events,

as this proximity signals alliances much more than in US culture.

In tribal culture, the public display tells everyone, particularly

members of the same tribe, that you are a friend and

confidant.
TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

7. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

Manufacturing

Prior to Operation Iraqi

Freedom, manufacturing

expansion in Iraq was

impacted by restrictions on

privatization and by UN

sanctions. Since 2003,

however, growth of

businesses slowed due to

security concerns. Industry

and manufacturing have generally been based on industries

associated with oil such as refining, chemicals, and fertilizers.

Cement is an exception, being the only major non-oil industry.

Iraq’s state-owned industrial sector provides a range of

technological consulting services that support areas such as

hardware and software development, engineering, refinery,

power plant operations, and construction of chemical and

petrochemical projects.

Environmental Issues

Environmental issues include inadequate supplies of potable

water, air and water pollution, soil degradation/erosion, and

desertification. Government water control projects have

drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah

by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers. A once

sizable population of Shi’a Marsh Arabs, who inhabited these

areas for thousands of years, has been displaced, abandoning

their traditional lifestyle in favour of conventional agriculture,

urban living, camps in other areas of Iraq, or Iranian refugee

camps. However, efforts are underway to attempt to revive the

marsh areas and encourage displaced persons to return.

Computer Use

Most middle class families have a computer, and internet cafes

have sprung up throughout the country. Email and chats are

widely used. However, lack of electricity has hampered

computer usage. A large percentage of software used in Iraq is

pirated software.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

8. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

Languages Spoken in Iraq

Official Languages: Arabic

and Kurdish (in Kurdish

regions)

Other Languages Spoken:

Turkoman (a Turkish

dialect), Assyrian (NeoAramaic), Armenian

Introductions and Handshakes

The highest status person is expected to introduce everyone in

his group, regardless of rank or social status. The introductions

serve to establish rapport.

How to Shake Hands in Iraq

• Always follow up your greeting with a hand-shake

• After shaking hands put your right hand on your heart

to express sincerity.

• Expect a light grip - Iraqis generally don’t consider a

strong handshake as complimentary.

• Shake hands with everyone in the group, regardless of

rank/status.

• If you are concerned with cleanliness or communicable

disease, carry hand sanitizer; however, do not sanitize

your hands in the Iraqis’ view.

• Men should not initiate handshakes with Iraqi women,

but may accept her hand in a brief clasp if offered

o Sometimes women will offer you their hand covered

by their shawl. Just shake the covered hand as

normal.

• Female Airmen will generally need to offer their hands

to Iraqi men.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

How to Address People Correctly

• Use titles/rank with first name only

o To address Dr. Abdullah al Asadi, use “Dr. Abdullah”

o To address a civilian named Adel al-Zubaydi, use

“Mr. Adel”

Address People Correctly

Most Arabs are proud of their status

and expect a certain degree of

formality when addressed. Use titles,

such as military rank or

distinguished civilian occupations

such as professor or engineer, when

addressing Iraqis. It is socially

inappropriate to use a title with the

last name only. For example, if you

were talking to Major Muhammad al

Nahar, you should address him as

“Major Muhammad”, not “Major al

Nahar” or “Major Nahar”. When

introducing yourself, use your rank

and first name; for example, “Major Mark” rather than “Major

Smith.”

Eye Contact

In Iraq, breaking eye contact is just an acceptable behavior and

does not imply rudeness, ill will, or concealment of the truth. In

fact, in Iraq, a person will often avoid eye contact during

conversation to express respect, especially to an elder.

Eloquence, Flattery, and Compliments

In Iraq, how you say something is considered to be as

important as what you have to say. What Americans may view

as “flowery language” is greatly admired as a sign of education

and refinement in Iraq.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Never Force an Iraqi to Admit He Doesn’t Know

Something

• Never force an Iraqi to answer “I don’t know” and admit

to not knowing something, particularly in public.

o Iraqis will likely not admit to not knowing; instead they

might hedge the question and look for clues from you

as to what the answer might be, or simply guess.

Sincerity, Repetition, and Politeness

Iraqis indicate sincerity by the use of repetition, and by

exclamations such as, “walla!” If you never repeat yourself,

you may be seen as insincere. If an Iraqi asks you, “walla?” he

is challenging your sincerity. He is not intending to offend you

by asking this; he is expecting you to repeat yourself to

demonstrate your sincerity. As respect and reputation are very

important in Arabic society, use “thank you” (Shukran) and

“please” (Min Fadlak) more often than you would in America.

How to Show You’re Sincere and Serious

• Repeat information often; this emphasizes sincerity

and seriousness.

o Don’t be afraid to repeat yourself a third or even

fourth time.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Giving Compliments in Iraq

• Compliments, the more elaborate the better, are

essential and expected.

• Compliment the person you meet according to his

public status and his formal position and rank or

title.

o Most officials and religious leaders are

customarily addressed with a string of specific

honorific adjectives and titles that reflect

position and status.

• It is better to over-compliment someone with an

elaborate address than be seen as rude, brusque

and insensitive to local nuances of rank and

status.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

How to Offer Criticism Appropriately

• Address the person about the issue in private, to

avoid public humiliation.

o If this is not possible, address the issue

indirectly.

• Shower positive feedback before you begin to

suggest any improvements.

• Frame your suggestions as a friendly chat,

stressing that you are there to mentor and offer

suggestions rather than dictate blame or impose

your will.

• Use language such as “as you know” to show

confidence in your Iraqi counterpart (even if he

may not know).

• Say “We find it useful to ...” rather than “you

didn’t.”

o This places no blame on him, but stresses the

most important points.

• If someone has an idea that you don’t approve

of, you might say, “This is an interesting idea,

and in fact we tried to implement it in the past,

but it didn’t work.”

• Referring to a “past” example does not imply

your personal criticism of the issue, but

expresses indirectly the opinion that it would not

work out.

Criticism

Constructive criticism is a normal and healthy part of American

social and business relations but it does not share this status in

Iraqi society. While your American counterparts may respond

positively to constructive criticism, Iraqis will probably find it

very insulting, especially so in public.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Talking about Family

Iraqis place great value on family background, honor, and

protecting female relatives. Talking appropriately about family

can build rapport.

Talking about Family

• A male should simply ask “How is your family?”

o It is inappropriate for a male to ask an Iraqi

man about female family members. For

example, don’t ask: “How is your wife?”, “How

is your sister?” (or daughter, mother, etc).

• Only a female can freely ask Iraqi men about the

females in the Iraqi family.

• Avoid discussing early disadvantages/poverty.

o Since Iraqis place great value on family

background, rather than admiring success they

may wonder why anyone would admit to

humble origins if it need not be known.

• Avoid family subjects that Iraqis may find

offensive, such as:

o Elderly relatives in a nursing home.

o Relatives, especially female relatives, who

have disgraced the family per Iraqi standards.

• If you’re from a prominent family, letting people

know can be advantageous.

Guests and Arab Hospitality

An old proverb says, “A guest is God’s gift,” and hospitality is

taken very seriously. A guest is always treated as a very

distinguished person, no matter what his actual social position.

When a guest is expected, there will be a lavish table setting, a

variety of dishes, constant attention, sweets, and fruit. Even in

poorer homes, a tremendous effort is made for guests.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

How to Politely Decline an Invitation

• First thank the host enthusiastically for the invitation

and his gracious hospitality.

• A valid excuse is that an appointment with – or

orders from – your superior forces you to decline.

• End the exchange by expressing hope to accept the

invitation another time, when you’ll be certain to

enjoy his hospitality.

Arab Gift Obligation – Be Careful What You Admire

The Arab code of hospitality dictates that if a guest admires a

particular item during his visit, the host should offer it to his

guest. The same code also requires the guest to decline the

offer. It is appropriate to suggest that the host keep the item so

you can enjoy it in future visits. To avoid this awkward situation,

admire the whole setting of the house, such as its décor or

style, instead of a particular item.

Accepting Hospitality

Due to the importance of hospitality in the Arab culture, Airmen

should accept invitations whenever possible. Refusing to do so

without a valid excuse could be seen as a rejection of that

person’s hospitality or fitness as a host. Furthermore, such

invitations are great opportunities to build rapport. However,

some Iraqis you will deal with may be struggling financially, so

be mindful of this if you are invited to dine with them and

politely decline the invitation.

DoorwayEtiquette

The person with the highest status is expected to go first, with

others following in order of status. However, it’s considered

arrogant, even for a very high-status person, to go in without

showing proper modesty by encouraging others to go first. If

the wrong person accepts the honor, it’s interpreted as crude
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

and offensive. Elders are usually given the highest status, and

guests are typically accorded status as well. To avoid being

perceived as rude, refuse once or twice before going in. If other

Americans are present, depend on your knowledge of rank and

enter accordingly.

Etiquette of Sitting

• It’s important to sit upright with good posture, as

slouching, draping the legs over the arm of a chair,

or otherwise sitting carelessly communicates a lack

of respect.

• Crossing one’s legs is considered rude.

• It is considered very rude to show the bottom of

your shoes.

o For this reason, do not put your feet on a table in

the presence of Iraqis or let the soles of your

shoes be seen by others present.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

How To Signal Friendship and Alliances in Iraq

• Iraqis use physical nearness to signal bonds.

o Stand or sit closely to the individuals

 Place individuals closest to you that you

wish to emphasize the strongest alliance.

o Touch frequently.

o Walk arm-in-arm or hand-in-hand (w/same sex).

Doing Business in Iraq

Importance of Hospitality and Socializing

Hospitality is a central part of Iraqi interactions, and it is

typical to socialize before getting down to business. Business

is only conducted between those who have established

personal social relations and mutual trust. At a first meeting,

you may be asked many personal questions. During this time,

your host is taking measure of you, just as you will be trying

to read what kind of man he is. Taking time to establish this

social relationship with counterparts will pay off.

Don’t Forget Prayer Time

Muslims take time during the working day for prayers. Take

this into consideration when making business appointments

and remember that noon and afternoon prayers will often

interrupt the American business day.

Avoid Direct Refusals

Remember that a direct refusal is a sign one wishes to end

the relationship. It is unlikely your Iraqi counterpart will

directly refuse your request, so you must be attune to

suggestions he is indirectly saying ‘No.’ Although Muslims will

always say Insha’allah as they believe nothing will be

accomplished without God’s will, you must examine the

context of non-verbal signs and the emphasis of the

response. If the person is forthright and direct, with perhaps

one Insha’allah, it is much more likely he intends to comply

with your request versus responding with numerous

Insha’allahs and non-verbal cues to suggest a “No.”
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Useful Translations

English Arabic

Hello Marhaba

Greetings Salaam Alaykum

Thank you Shukran

You’re Welcome Affwan

Good morning Sabah El Khair

Good evening Masa El Khair

As God Wills Inshaallah

How are you? Kaif halek? or Shloneck?

Goodbye Ma'assalama

Please Min Fadlak

Yes Na'am

No La

What? Matha? or Shinoo?

Who? Meen? or Meeno?

Where? Wayne?

Why? Leiysh?

How much? (cost) Beysh? or Cham?

How many? Kam?

Excuse me Alma’derah!

I don't know Ma’adree or Ma’aruf

Do you speak English? Teh-tchi inglizi?
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Common Gestures

Recognize the hand gestures below that are commonly used

by Iraqis but try to avoid using them as much as possible.

Come Here

To gesture “come here,”

extend the right hand

outward, palm upward,

and open and close it.

Go away

To gesture “go away,”

extend the right hand

outward, palm

downward, and move as

if brushing something

away.

Quiet Down

To gesture to someone

to “quiet down,” extend

the right hand outward,

palm downward, moving

it up and down slowly.

Calm Down

To gesture to someone

to calm down, extend

the right hand outward,

touching thumb and

fingertips together and

moving the hand up and

down.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Never

To gesture “never,” hold

the right forefinger up

and move it from left to

right quickly several

times.

Just a Moment

To gesture “just a moment, please,” or

“let me finish,” place the hand palm

up, with all fingertips touching thumb.

What? Why?

To gesture “What?” or

“Why?” keep your right

hand out, palm

downward, then

quickly twist the hand

to be palm upward.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Gestures to Avoid

The “A-OK”

Forming a circle with the index finger and the thumb of one

hand (The “A-OK”) gesture may be misinterpreted as an

obscene gesture by some Iraqis. Today, some Iraqi

youngsters use this gesture in the American context, but it is

against the will of their parents, who view it in terms of its

longstanding, offensive meaning. Avoid this gesture.

The “Thumbs Up”

The thumbs-up gesture traditionally is an offensive Iraqi insult,

equivalent to using the middle finger in the Western world.

Some more media savvy Iraqis may understand the Western

meaning of an upturned thumb as "all is OK", and intend the

gesture to mean just that. Following the first Gulf War, many

Middle Easterners adopted this hand movement as a symbol

of cooperation toward freedom. Other Iraqis may use the

gesture in its traditional sense.

Don’t Point at Anyone with Your Finger – Use Your

Whole Right Hand

Pointing to anyone with a finger is considered an obscene

gesture. Use your whole right hand instead.
LANGUAGE &

COMMUNICATION

Significance of Head on Ground

Muslims only touch their heads to the ground when praying.

Serious blunders can arise if USAF members are unaware of

the significance of the head in Muslim cultures. Forcing an

Iraqi's head to touch the ground is extraordinarily humiliating

for him and will likely make that Iraqi your enemy. Keep this in

mind if you must search Iraqis and avoid placing their head on

the ground.

Use of the Left Hand

Using the left hand may be considered an insult bringing shame

to an Iraqi, as the left hand is used primarily for “hygienic” uses

in the bathroom. Use your right hand for all public functions

such as shaking hands, eating, drinking, and passing

something to another person. However, you may see Iraqis

using the left hand to wrap around his right hand while you

are shaking his hand; this is a very warm hand shake. Your best

bet is to watch how Iraqis use their left hand and do what they

do, rather than pretending you don’t have a left hand.

Photographing Iraqis

• Obtain prior permission before taking photos

o Photography is considered offensive unless you have

permission from parties involved

• Refrain from photographing females

o [See Sex and Gender Section for further info regarding

interacting with Iraqi females]

Cursing

Many Iraqis know the meaning of English curse words.

In Arab cultures, curses and obscenities are considered

extremely offensive – even more so than in the US. Do

not swear or use obscenities in the presence of Iraqis.

Language Learning Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.
HISTORY &

MYTH

9. HISTORY AND MYTH

Brief History of Iraq

Modern Iraq lies in the region often referred to as the “cradle of

civilization”, since it produced humanity’s first known agriculture

and written language. Iraqi occupies much of the same territory

as the ancient region of Mesopotamia (Greek for “between the

rivers”). Mesopotamia gave rise to a succession of influential

civilizations, including the Sumerians (who established the

area's first cities around 3000 BC), the Babylonians, and the

Assyrians. Iraqis are proud of this rich history.

The Greeks and Persians controlled the area at various times

from the sixth century BC until the seventh century AD, when

Muslim Arabs established Baghdad as the center of an Islamic

empire (the Abbasid Dynasty) that stretched from Europe to

India. The empire gradually fell into decline, allowing Mongol

invaders to conquer Baghdad in 1258. By the sixteenth

century, Baghdad had become part of the Turkish Ottoman

Empire, which ruled the region until its defeat in World War I.

Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I.

In 1921, the British created a constitutional monarchy in Iraq

and placed Faisal ibn Husein (Faisal I), the former King of Syria

and a Sunni, at the head of the new government. In stages

over the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a

kingdom in 1932. It was proclaimed a "republic" in 1958, but in

actuality a series of strongmen ruled the country until 2003.

The last was Saddam Husayn.

Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly 8-

year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait but

was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf

War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation,

the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all

weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and allow

UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance 

with UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years led to the

US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the

Saddam Husayn regime.
HISTORY & 

MYTH

The Coalition Provisional Authority, which temporarily

administered Iraq after the invasion, transferred full

governmental authority in June of 2004 to the Iraqi Interim

Government, which governed under the Transitional

Administrative Law for Iraq (TAL). Under the TAL, elections for

a 275-member Transitional National Assembly (TNA) were held

in Iraq in January 2005. Following these elections, the Iraqi

Transitional Government (ITG) assumed office. The TNA was

charged with drafting Iraq's permanent constitution, which was

approved in an October 2005 constitutional referendum. An

election under the constitution for a 275-member Council of

Representatives (CoR) was held in December 2005. The CoR

approval of most of the cabinet ministers in May 2006 marked

the transition from the ITG to Iraq's first constitutional

government in nearly a half-century.

Geographic

Location

Bordering

Countries

Turkey

Syria

Jordan

Iran

Kuwait

Saudi Arabia

Area: 168,754

sq miles

(slightly larger

than Texas)

Terrain:

• Mountainous north (Kurdish)

• Desert

• Southern marshlands
HISTORY & 

MYTH

Four Primary Geographic Regions:

1. Desert Region in West and Southwest

Located west and southwest of the Euphrates River, this area

is part of the Syrian Desert, which covers sections of Syria,

Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The region consists of a wide, stony

plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches. Riverbeds run

from the border to the Euphrates; they are watercourses that

are dry most of the year, except for the rainy winter season

when they carry torrential floods.

2. Uplands Region between the upper Tigris and Euphrates

Rivers

Located between the Tigris north of Samarra and the

Euphrates north of Hit, this area is known as Al Jazirah (the

island). It is part of a larger area that extends westward into

Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey. Water in the area

flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult

than it is in the lower plain. Much of this zone may be classified

as desert.

3. Highlands Region in North and Northeast

The great oil fields near Mosul and Kirkuk are located in this

region, and the northeast is the homeland of most Iraqi Kurds.

The northeastern highlands begin just south of a line drawn

from Mosul to Kirkuk and extend to the borders with Turkey

and Iran. High ground, separated by broad, rolling plains, gives

way to mountains ranging from 1,000 to nearly 4,000 meters

near the Iranian and Turkish borders.

4. Alluvial Plains Region through which the Tigris and

Euphrates flow

The deposit area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (alluvial

plains) begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Arabian

Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of

the plain in many places, and the whole area is a delta

interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation

canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by flooded rivers, also

characterize southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000

square kilometers) just above where the two rivers meet and

extending east of the Tigris is marshland, known as Hawr al
HISTORY & 

MYTH

Hammar. These marshlands are the result of centuries of

flooding and inadequate drainage. Much of it is permanent

marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter, while other areas

become marshland only in years of great flood.

Major Cities

Baghdad

The capital of Iraq, Baghdad was founded by the Abbasids in

762 B.C.E. The city straddles the banks of the Tigris River,

and 11 bridges connect the two sides. With 5.6 million

inhabitants, it is the largest city in Iraq today and the center of

industry, commerce, and culture.

Basrah

Basrah is Iraq’s third-largest city, with a population of 1.3

million. It is also Iraq’s main port. The city’s rich history dates

back to the Abbasids. Basrah’s main exports are grains, dates,

and petroleum.

Irbil

One of the world’s longest continuously-inhabited cities, Irbil’s

roots date back over 8,000 years. Close to Turkey and Iran, it

represents the center of the Kurdish independent movement.

Commerce, agriculture, and administrative work are of main

interest in Irbil.

Karbala

The holy city of Karbala is the site of the tomb of the Martyr

Husayn Ibn Ali, who was killed there in 680 AD. After Mecca,

Karbala is the place most visited by Shi’a pilgrims and has

developed into a major center of Islamic religion in Iraq. [See

Religion and Spirituality Section for more on the death of

Husayn and the division between Shi’a and Sunni]

Kirkuk

Kirkuk’s ancient history dates back over 5,000 years. Kurds

and Turkmen primarily make up its population. Kirkuk has

been the center of the petroleum industry since the 1930s,
HISTORY & 

MYTH

HISTORY & 

MYTH

producing one million barrels of oil daily. It is a major

industrial and agricultural center.

Mosul

With its 1.7 million inhabitants, Mosul is Iraq’s second-largest

city. The city’s history dates back to Mesopotamian times

(4000–5000 B.C.E.) and to Assyrian rule in 800 B.C.E. Its

primarily Kurdish population lives together with the largest

Christian community in Iraq, the Chaldeans.

Najaf

Najaf is approximately 160 km south of Baghdad and is the

capital of Najaf Governorate. It is one of the holiest cities of

Shi’a Islam and the center of Shi’a political power in Iraq. The

city is renowned as the site of the tomb of Imam Ali, the

Prophet Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, whom the Shi’a

consider to be the righteous caliph and first imam. The city is

now a great center of pilgrimage throughout the Shi'a Islamic

world.

The Evil Eye

Every culture has its own superstitions. One

popular belief in Iraq is that calling attention

on a child’s fine features is believed to alert

the evil eye that will then harm the child.

Complimenting Children’s

Attractiveness

You should not admire or

compliment children unless you

qualify that admiration with the

expression “ma sha’ Allah ”

(May God protect him).
SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

Diet

Arab food takes its origins from

nomadic food, which is easily

transported, herded and stored. For

example, lamb, goat, and beef, along

with various grains and nuts are

popular. Popular dishes include kubba

(cracked wheat mixed with minced

meat, nuts, spices, parsley and onion);

dolma (vine leaves or other vegetables

stuffed with rice, meat and spices);

kebab, skewered chunks of meat

grilled over a flame; tikka (shishkebab); quozi (small lamb stuffed with rice, minced meat and

spices and served on rice); and masgou (fish from the Tigris

cooked on the river bank). Fruit is typically served after meals.

Most meals are served with flat bread called samoon, and two

varieties of rice are generally eaten: amber rice in northern

Iraq, and a variety called neggaza in the south.

When preparing meats, Iraqis waste very little. They use

almost every part of the animal, including the kidneys, liver,

brain, feet, eyes, and ears. For example, pacha is made from

sheep’s head, stomach, feet, and various other parts slowly

cooked together in a broth. Mutton, lamb, goat, beef, or poultry

are the preferred meats in Iraq. Turshi, a side dish, is made

with different types of pickled vegetables.

Various types of desserts, pastries, and candies are popular in

Iraqi homes for snacks or for guests. Popular desserts include

shirini (pumpkin pudding), rice pudding, Turkish Delight (lokum,

a confection of starch and sugar, usually flavored with

rosewater or lemon), and baklava (a pastry made by layering

honey, pistachios or walnuts, and rose water between thin

sheets of phyllo dough.) Fresh fruit is also commonly served

as dessert.

Lunch as Main Meal

Lunch is the main meal in Iraq, as opposed to the American

main meal in the evening.
SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Restricted Foods/Drinks for Muslims

• Haram – of Islamic religious restrictions, Muslims do

not eat pork and most do not consume alcohol.

• Halal – According to Islam, the slaughtering of

animals must be performed to certain standards,

known as halal, covering cleanliness, the training of

the slaughterman, the avoidance of suffering, and by

repeating certain words while the animal is

dispatched.

• Sunni Islam typically allows the consumption of all

forms of seafood, but Shi’a practice largely prohibits

the consumption of bottom feeders without fins or

scales, such as lobsters, crabs, oysters, clams, and

catfish. (Shrimp is often permitted). Shi’a do not

consume rabbit.

Sharing Your Food

If you are on break and eating a snack or a meal and there are

Iraqi children or men very nearby, it would be a kind gesture to

offer some of your food to them. If you offer food only once,

they will probably politely decline. You will likely need to offer a

second or third time before they accept.

Eating and Drinking During Holy Month of Ramadan:

[See Religion and Spirituality Section]

Understanding Iraqi Hygiene

Personal hygiene is extremely important to Iraqi Arabs for both

spiritual and practical reasons. Because meals are frequently

eaten by hand, it is typical to wash the hands before and after

eating. Formal washing of the face, hands, and forearms, and

general cleanliness of the body and clothing is required before

daily prayers or fasting. It is also recommended following

contact with other substances considered unclean, including

dogs.
SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

The Iraqi Dining Experience

Offering dinner invitations is a way for Iraqis to demonstrate

their hospitality as well as their interest in you. As it is a social

event, you should not be surprised if conversation lasts for

several hours before dinner is finally served. Accept all the food

that is offered you, even if you cannot finish everything on your

plate. In fact, leaving food on your plate shows how well your

host has provided for you and serves as a compliment to him.

Wash Your Hands – before and after eating.

Receiving Food – Rather than passing the food container and

allowing a guest to

serve himself, an Iraqi

might offer you a piece

of the food using his

right hand. Accept it

with your right hand.

The Right Hand –

remember: the left

hand is only used for

“hygienic” purposes

and is considered unclean. Always use your right hand for

social activities.

Coffee, Tea, and Soft Drinks – Many Iraqi hosts do not serve

water or other beverages until dinner is over. Some Iraqis

believe that eating and drinking at the same time is unhealthy.

At home, Iraqis may make their own soft drinks from orange

blossoms, rose petals, and fruits such as oranges, apricots,

lemons, and pomegranates. Coffee and tea are typically drunk

before and after a meal, not during the meal. Iraqi coffee is

prepared by heating and cooling it nine times before it is served

and drunk. This technique, it is believed, removes any

impurities. Tea is poured into small glasses and served

sweetened, without milk. To signal that you do not want

another cup, put your right hand, palm down, over the top of

the cup. You should not plan on departing until shortly after the

second or third round of tea. When leaving the table, it is polite

to say “sufra dayma.” This means, “May your table always be

thus.”

Bring a Gift – [See Political and Social Relations Section].
SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Life Expectancy

Average: 69.62 years

Male: 68.32 years

Health Issues

Female: 70.99 years (2008 est.)

Infant Mortality Rate - 47.04 deaths/1,000 live births.

Cultural Influences on Health

Iraqi adherence to Islamic dietary laws is an area where Iraqi

cultural beliefs contribute to better health. The immediate

impact of not consuming pork or alcohol is generally low heart

and lung disease. Conversely, the cultural propensity to smoke

is obviously detrimental. Another cultural influence on health is

that birth control is virtually non-existent, as limiting births or

interfering with conception in any way is against the laws of

Islam. Life is considered a gift from God.

Health Precautions

Protect yourself with insect repellent. Several insect-borne

diseases are common in the region, including the following:

Leishmaniasis (“Baghdad Boil”)

Humans are infected by sandfly bites. There are four main

types of the disease:

• With cutaneous forms, skin ulcers usually form on

exposed areas, such as the face, arms and legs. These

usually heal within a few months, leaving scars.

• Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis produces disseminated

and chronic skin lesions resembling those of lepromatous

leprosy. It is difficult to treat.

• In mucocutaneous forms, the lesions can partially or totally

destroy the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth and

throat cavities and surrounding tissues.

• Visceral leishmaniasis, also known as kala azar, is

characterized by high fever, substantial weight loss,

swelling of the spleen and liver, and anemia. If left

untreated, the disease can have a fatality rate as high as

100% within two years.
SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis is infection with filarial worms. These

parasites are transmitted to humans through bites from infected

mosquitos and develop into adult worms in the lymphatic

vessels, causing severe damage and swelling (lymphoedema).

Elephantiasis – painful, disfiguring swelling of the legs and

genitals – is a classic sign of late-stage disease.

Dengue Fever

Dengue is transmitted through mosquitoes infected with this

virus. Symptoms appear 3-14 days after the infective bite and

range from a mild fever, to incapacitating high fever, with severe

headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pain, and

rash. There are no specific antiviral medicines for dengue. It is

important to maintain hydration. Dengue hemorrhagic fever

(fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, bleeding) is a potentially lethal

complication, affecting mainly children. Early clinical diagnosis

and careful clinical management by experienced physicians and

nurses increase patients’ survival rates.

Onchocerciasis

Onchocerciasis is caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca

volvulus and is transmitted through the bites of infected

blackflies which carry immature larval forms of the parasite

from person to person. In the human body, the larvae form

nodules in the subcutaneous tissue, where they mature to adult

worms. After mating, the female adult worm can release up to

1000 microfilariae a day. These move through the body, and

when they die they cause a variety of conditions, including

blindness, skin rashes, lesions, intense itching and skin depigmentation. A drug is available that kills the microfilariae,

alleviating symptoms and reducing transmission.

Medical Facilities

Apart from US military installations, basic modern medical care

and medicines are not widely available in Iraq. The recent

conflict has left some medical facilities non-operational and

medical stocks and supplies severely depleted. The facilities in

operation generally do not meet US standards, and the majority

lack medicines, equipment and supplies.
LEARNING & 

KNOWLEDGE

11. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

Oral Tradition and Learning

Oral tradition, or storytelling, has historically been a common

method of learning in Iraq, as with most Muslim countries. Oral

methods of transmission and learning co-existed with the use

of the written word from the beginnings of Islam. The Qur’an

(Holy Book) was taught and transmitted orally. The traditions

and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad were passed on

verbally. Oral communication was also one of the most

effective methods of passing on the history and memory of

individuals, families and dynasties. As in many Muslim cultures,

oral tradition continues to play an important role in the

preservation and acquisition of knowledge from generation to

generation. Oral traditions typically preserved local history,

genealogies, and the social history of their groups and rulers.

Formal Education

Iraq’s educational system was once the pride of the Middle

East. Schools were primarily secular and one of the country’s

major assets was its well-educated populace and high literacy

rate for women. However, over the past 20 years, economic

sanctions, wars, and misdirected funds have deeply affected

the system. In the 10 years that followed the first Gulf War

(1991), spending on schools dropped 90%. Following the

change of regime in Iraq in April 2003, a comprehensive reform

of the country’s education system was implemented. Today,

education is provided free of charge. Primary education is

compulsory in Iraq, beginning at age six and lasting for six

years. Secondary education begins at 12 years of age and

lasts for up to six years, divided into two cycles of three years

each. There are 43 technical institutes and colleges, two

postgraduate commissions, and 20 universities.

Literacy

Total population (age 15 and over) that can read and write:

74.1%

Male: 84.1%

Female: 64.2% (2000 est.)
AESTHETICS & 

RECREATION

 Iraqi Men’s Clothing 

Generally speaking, Arabs

in Iraq wear two types of

clothing. Western clothing

men includes trousers, a

shirt, jacket, and/or coat.

The young especially favor

this style. Educated people

or those holding government

positions also dress in Western attire. Traditional Iraqi clothing

is more likely to be seen on farmers, those with strong

connections to tribal groups, religious people and the elderly.

The number of people wearing traditional clothing has increased 

in recent years, as people associate themselves more closely

with their tribe.

Headdresses (Kuffiyeh or Ghutra)

Farmers and tribal people often wear a cloth headdress

falling to the shoulders and held in place by a twisted black

headband (Egal). The cloth is plain white or checkered black

or red. Some traditional men wrap their head with this piece

of cloth to form a loose turban.

Turbans

Men associated with a mosque may wear a skullcap (Kufi or

Taqiyah). Religious scholars wear turbans of various kinds

depending on their sect, status and role. In general, Shi’a

scholars wear a rounded turban of either white or black.

Those performing services in the shrines of saints, like those

in Najaf and Karbala, wear a tall, red, cylindrical turban.

Sunni scholars wear a white cylindrical turban.

Dishdasha

Many Iraqis wear the traditional long, loose robe

(dishdasha) at home because it’s more comfortable than

trousers, especially in the summer. Shi’a and Sunni

theologians wear a similar robe that opens in the front and

is tied in a knot or with a belt.

12. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION
AESTHETICS & 

RECREATION

Iraqi Women’s Clothing

Veil (Niqab)

Iraqi Women usually

do not veil their faces

except in the most

rural areas or

conservative families.

Veiling, in large part,

is a matter of local

custom and not a

religious requirement.

In fact, the Qur’an says nothing specific about veiling; however,

it does urge women to dress modestly. In Iraq, women are

expected to dress conservatively and would not consider

wearing mini-skirts, sleeveless

blouses, or low-cut sweaters in

public.

Cloaks (Abaya) and Head

Scarves (Hijab)

Women who wear traditional

clothing may also wear a black

cloak (abaya), or may cover their

heads with a scarf (hijab).

Concept of Image and Dress

The way a person dresses

indicates his or her wealth

and social standing. There

may be surprise when a

well-to-do foreigner wears

faded jeans and a tattered

T-shirt, with a question as

to why the person would

dress poorly when he or

she could afford better.
AESTHETICS & 

RECREATION

Appropriate Attire for You

• It is generally appropriate for Westerners to wear typical

Western clothing in Iraq, but several precautions should

be taken to avoid offense.

• Shorts should not be worn by either sex.

• Women should always wear clothing that is at or below

the elbow and at or below the knee.

• Hats are appropriate outdoors, but as a courtesy you

should remove your hat when you go inside

someone’s house.

• Tattoos are traditionally used for medical reasons, and

it is not considered appropriate to display them to the

public.

Leisure Activities - Organized sports

Football (“Soccer”)

Football, or what is commonly

referred to as soccer in the US, is

extremely popular throughout Iraq.

During the Iran- Iraq war years of the

1980–1988, soccer provided an outlet

for Iraqis. In recent years, soccer has

put Iraq in the limelight. The national

football team made it to the Asian Cup

finals in 2006, a first for them in over

20 years. In 2007, Iraq won the Asian

Cup title.

OtherInternational Sports

Iraq teams participate in several other international sports

including weightlifting, wrestling, boxing, shooting,

taekwondo and table tennis.

Other Leisure Activities

Men often spend time together playing backgammon,

chess, dominoes, or smoking shisha or hookah (water pipes

with flavored tobacco) in cafés and coffee shops. Watching

nightly television programming is a common family pastime.
ThisFieldGuideisbroughttoyoubytheUSAirForceCultureand

LanguageCenter(AFCLC).TheAFCLCispartofacommunityof

DepartmentofDefenseCultureandLanguageCentersthat

endeavortoprovideSoldiers,Sailors,AirmenandMarineswith

Culture-GeneralandCulture-Speciåcinformation.TheseCenters

include:TheUSArmyTrainingandDoctrineCommand(TRADOC),

USNavyCenterforLanguage,RegionalExpertiseandCulture

(CLREC),andtheUSMarineCorpsCenterforAdvanced

OperationalCultureLearning(CAOCL).

Anelectronicversionofthisguideisavailableat:

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc/EST/ESTmaps.html

FormoreinformationonAirForcesCentralvisit:

http://www.afcent.af.mil/

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc/EST

http://culture.af.mil

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