MALI

Lagos

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Mali

Bamako

Timbuktu

Djenne

Gao

Mopti
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental information it contains will 

help you understand the decisive cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and gain necessary skills to achieve mission 

success. 

The guide consists of 

two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the 

foundational knowledge 

you need to operate

effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” Mali, focusing on unique 

cultural features of Malian

society and is designed to 

complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or

contact AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Mali
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, 

all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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L
presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed 

for several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Malian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The area currently comprising the country of Mali was once 

part of 3 successive ancient African empires – Ghana, Mali, 

and Songhai – that ruled the West African savanna lands 

between the 8th and 16th centuries. Commonly known as the 

"Great Three," these kin-based societies thrived on transSaharan trade (primarily gold, salt, and slaves) with the 

Mediterranean and Middle Eastern centers of civilization. The 

cities of Timbuktu (Tombouctou) and Jenne (Djenné) were 

established as predominant trans-Saharan commerce centers.

Islamic influence penetrated the region as early as the 9th

century, with many Malians converting to Islam. Consequently, 

Timbuktu established a reputation as an international center for 

Islamic studies. 

Colonial Era

The latter of the three 

early kingdoms, the 

Songhai Empire, was 

destroyed during a 

Moroccan invasion in 

1591, thereby marking 

the end of its transSaharan commercial 

dominance. With its

decline in strategic 

importance, Mali was divided into smaller kingdoms for the next 

3 centuries until the arrival of French forces and the late 19thcentury European colonization of the African Continent. While 

slavery in Mali predates the arrival of Europeans, large-scale 

slavery was institutionalized with the African slave trade during 

the French conquest (1879-98). The French primarily recruited

African soldiers, many of whom became officers in the French 

army and fought for the duration of French rule in Mali.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
The French appointed a civilian governor of the Malian territory, 

which they called French Sudan (not the existing Sudan). With

most of the area succumbing to firm French control by the early 

20th century, French Sudan was administered as part of the 

Federation of French West Africa and supplied labor to French 

colonies along the West African coast. In 1958 the colony was

renamed the Sudanese Republic, whereby it obtained 

complete internal autonomy as a member of France’s political 

entity in Africa, the French Community. In fact, all French-ruled 

territories in sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of Guinea, 

joined the French Community and were thereby granted the 

option of eventually achieving complete independence. 

Independence

In early 1959, the Sudanese Republic and Senegal formed the 

Federation of Mali as part of the French Community and in 

1960 following Senegal’s withdrawal; the Sudanese Republic 

became the independent nation of Mali with Modibo Keïta as

president. Keïta established a single-party state and withdrew 

from the French Community to adopt a socialist orientation 

having close ties to the Soviet bloc. Keita implemented 

extensive nationalization of economic resources, although 

following economic decline, Mali was forced to return to a 

French-backed currency (known as the Franc Zone) in 1967.

One-Party Rule

In 1968, a group of junior army 

officers, led by Lieutenant Moussa

Traoré, overthrew the Keïta regime in 

a bloodless coup and established a 

military-led government with Traoré as 

president. Under the provisions of a 

new constitution approved in 1974, a 

second single-party (Democratic 

Union of the Malian People) state was 

established in 1978 with Traoré 

reelected in 1979 and 1985.

Multiparty Democracy

In response to the growing demands for multiparty democracy

sweeping the African Continent, cohesive opposition 

movements began to emerge in 1990. The increasingly 

turbulent political situation was complicated by progressive 

HISTORY &

MYTH
economic decline and ethnic violence in the north between 

nomadic Tuareg tribesmen (desert herdsmen related to the 

North African Berbers – see Political & Social Relations) and 

other indigenous groups. 

In March 1991, Malian activists engaged in forceful 

demonstrations against the Traoré regime that ultimately led to

its military overthrow. The coup leadership soon formed a 

civilian-led transitional government and a constitution 

(approved in a national referendum in January 1992) that 

created a multiparty democracy and officially a third republic.

Serving as a beacon for African democracy, Mali held national 

elections in early 1992, with Alpha Oumar Konaré elected to 

the presidency as a member of the Alliance for Democracy in 

Mali (ADEMA) political party. The Konaré administration

suffered political tension further intensified by flawed 

presidential and legislative elections 

in1997. Konaré was reelected, along with 

an ADEMA majority in parliament despite

strong public opposition.

Sustained Democracy

Konaré stepped down after his second 

term, with former Lieutenant Colonel

Amadou Toumani Touré (pictured left)

reemerging as an independent-party 

candidate in the 2002 election. Having 

retained popularity for his role in leading 

the overthrow of Traoré’s military 

dictatorship in 1991, Touré won the 

Presidency in a runoff against his ADEMA 

opposition. The 2002 election served as a

political milestone, marking Mali’s first 

successful transition between democratic 

regimes. Touré was reelected in 2007 to a 

second 5-year term but later dismantled in 

March 2012 during a coup’ état staged by

disgruntled soldiers protesting his handling 

of an insurgency in northern Mali. Touré 

resigned from the Presidency on 8 April and went into exile in 

Senegal 11 days later. Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta (pictured above

right) was elected to the Presidency in July 2013.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Legend of Timbuktu

In ancient times, African oral traditions were used to 

preserve history and wisdom across generations and 

ethnic boundaries (See Learning & Knowledge). 

One popular myth is the legendary city of Timbuktu, 

recognized universally as a mythical city of wealth. In 

actuality, the city exists in the African country of Mali, 

where it was founded by nomads in the 12th century 

and became a major trading depot. 

There are a variety of accounts explaining how 

Timbuktu achieved fame. According to one version, the 

legend developed during the 14th century when the 

Kingdom of Mali’s Muslim Emperor Mansa Musa made 

his renowned pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia via 

Cairo, Egypt, where he distributed fine gifts of gold. 

Muslim merchants were impressed by the amount of 

gold (which he claimed was from Timbuktu) and 

enchanted by the notion of exploiting its gold.

Thereafter established as the famous “city of gold,” 

Timbuktu grew in importance during the 15th century as 

a major commerce hub, although in reality it produced 

no gold. The already famed Emperor Musa returned 

from his pilgrimage to Mecca with master craftsmen, 

who constructed libraries that established Timbuktu a 

prominent center of Islamic learning and trans-Atlantic 

trade.

The “city of gold” legend continued to thrive as Muslim 

and European explorers sought to adventure to the 

mythical city, with most of them meeting with misfortune 

against hostile Tuareg nomads (see Political & Social 

Relations). Notably, the few explorers who were able to 

complete their journey reported that the city was hardly 

impressive, particularly after its 16th-century decline.

In 1988 Timbuktu was designated a United Nations 

Heritage Site, with efforts established to preserve its 

historic mosques (see Religion & Spirituality).

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

• Republic of Mali

Capital

• Bamako

Political Borders

• Algeria: 849mi

• Niger: 510mi

• Burkina Faso: 621mi

• Cote d’Ivoire: 331mi

• Guinea: 533mi

• Senegal: 260mi

• Mauritania: 1390mi

Features

• Landlocked country located in West Africa, covering about 

475,000 sq miles, and about twice the size of Texas (7th

largest country in Africa). 

• Bamako is the country’s largest city and a major trade center

situated along the Niger River – the country’s most valuable 

natural resource.

• The highest point is Mount Hombori Tondo (3789 feet), 

located to the east near the Burkina Faso border, with the 

Senegal River to the west, the lowest point at 75 feet.

• Terrain mostly flat with rugged hills in northeast – 70% of the 

country is non-arable desert to semi-desert.

• Divided into three natural zones: the Southern-cultivated 

Sudanese (grasslands region), the Central-semiarid 

Sahelian (the Sahel is a semiarid region extending across 

the width of north-central Africa dividing the Sudanese and 

the Sahara Desert); and the Northern-arid Saharan.

• Has a subtropical-to-arid climate: hot and dry February to 

June (above 125F); rainy, humid, and mild June to 

November (average 110F); cool and dry November to 

February (average 85F).

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Flag

It consists of 3 equal 

vertical bands of 

green, yellow, and red

– which represent the 

popular pan-African 

colors of Ethiopia. 

Because Ethiopia is 

Africa’s oldest 

independent country, 

other African countries have adopted the 3 colors upon their 

independence.

Political Power

Mali is a multi-party Republic containing 3 branches of 

government – executive, legislative, and judicial – with a legal 

system anchored in its French colonial structure. With a

longstanding single-party rule ending in 1991, a transitional

government was formed to oversee the drafting of a new 

constitution and the transition to a democratic government in 

1992 (see History & Myth). The constitution provides for a 

multi-party democracy, with a prohibition against forming 

parties based solely on ethnicity, religion, region, or gender.

Regional Dynamics

The French divided Mali into 8 administrative regions (Gao, 

Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Ségou, Sikasso, and 

Tombouctou) and the capital 

district of Bamako, with each

province ruled by an appointed 

governor. Each region is 

partitioned into five-to-nine 

districts (cercles) administered by 

commandants (prefets) and 

further divided into communes

followed by villages or quarters.

Executive Branch

Chief-of-State: The President serves as both chief-of-state and 

commander-in-chief of the armed forces; elected by popular 

vote for a 5-year term and eligible for a second term – currently

Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta (elected July 2013). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Prime Minister: Functions as head-of-government and 

appointed by the President – currently Modibo Keita (since 

January 2015).

Cabinet: Council of Ministers (29 to include the Prime Minister) 

appointed by the Prime Minister and chaired by the President. 

Legislative Branch

National Assembly: A single-chamber legislative arm, with 

representation apportioned based on population size. It 

consists of 160 members, 147 elected from single-seat 

constituencies and 13 elected by Malians living abroad. Term 

of office is 5 years.

Judicial Branch 

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary with the 

Ministry of Justice (Executive Branch) appointing judges and 

supervising both law enforcement and the judiciary. The 

Supreme Court has both judicial and administrative powers. 

Under the constitution, there is a separate constitutional court 

and a high court of justice having the power to judge senior 

government officials in cases of treason.

Defense

Headed by the Ministry of Defense and Veterans, Mali’s 

defense force consists of an army, air force, and navy; along 

with a paramilitary 

Gendarmerie and 

Republican Guard.

Overall, the military is 

marginally resourced, 

and generally has 

maintained a low 

profile since the 1992 

democratic transition. 

The army includes 

over 7,000 active 

personnel, the air 

force about 400 and 

the navy 50 (2005 estimate). Air forces collectively include less 

than 50 combat, transport, and training aircraft and a few 

helicopters.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US

The US and Mali base their strong relationship on shared goals 

of extinguishing poverty and strengthening democracy.

Similarly, Mali is a leading regional partner in US efforts to 

combat terrorism. Notably, US Defense Department security 

assistance and training programs have enhanced Mali’s 

contributions to international peacekeeping and 

counterterrorism efforts. Similarly, Mali is home to a 

peacekeeper training school which hosts students from 

throughout Africa.

Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism Initiative (TSCTI)

The Trans-Sahara region historically has served as a sanctuary 

for illicit trade and more recently for terrorist activities. 

Capitalizing on the successful 2003 Pan Sahel Initiative to 

neutralize terrorist safe 

havens in Africa, the 

TSCTI officially began

with Exercise Flintlock 

2005, with US Special 

Operations Forces 

training counterparts in 7 

Saharan countries on 

regional security and 

stability practices. The 

TSCTI’s primary goal is 

to deny terrorists the ability to move freely throughout the 

sparsely populated Saharan region.

Similarly, TSCTI aims to facilitate cooperation among the PanSahel countries – Mauritania, Mali, Chad, and Niger – as well 

as Nigeria and Senegal and its Maghreb partners – Morocco, 

Algeria, and Tunisia – in combating terrorism. 

Security Issues

Opposition Groups: Previously known as the Salafist Group 

for Preaching and Combat (GSPC), the Aal-Qaida in the 

Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) is a terrorist group allied with AlQaida. Notorious for kidnapping Western tourists and holding 

them hostage in Mali’s barren Sahel region, AQIM initially 

organized an attempt to overthrow the Algerian government

and establish a Muslim state. A highly publicized event 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
occurred in 2003 when the former GSPC transported 15 

European tourist-hostages into northern Mali – one died while

the other 14 were released to Malian authorities. Consequently, 

the continued presence of AQIM in Mali’s isolated northern

desert region poses a threat to Western travelers.

Ethnic Tensions: For decades, Tuareg (a nomadic tribe

descended from Berbers in present-day North Africa) rebels

occupying Mali’s northern Kidal region have staged an armed 

resistance against the central 

government aimed at achieving their 

regional autonomy. Known as the 

National Movement for the Liberation of 

Azawad (MNLA), these rebel forces 

ousted President Touré in March 2012,

gaining control of the North’s 3 major 

cities – Kidal, Gao, and Timbuktu (see 

History and Myth). Instability mounted as

the MNLA resisted efforts by Islamist 

groups such as Ansar Dine to strictly 

enforce Sharia (Islamic) law. French and 

African Union forces intervened on behalf of the Malian 

government. Despite the Malian government and Tuareg rebels

co-signing a peace agreement in June 2013, the fighting has 

continued.

Historically, these pastoral nomads have maintained their 

autonomy and remained isolated. Consequently, the strained 

relationship emerged because their dissimilar cultural traditions 

led to Tuareg marginalization within state institutions. Similarly, 

while most Malians are dark-skinned, the Tuareg (known as the 

“blue men of the Sahara” because of their customary indigocolored robes and turbans) have lighter skin features. Of note, 

former Libyan leader Muammar Qaddafi was known to have 

patronage networks with Tuareg tribal leaders, along with other 

rebel groups in neighboring African countries. After he gained 

power in 1969, Qaddafi used Libya’s oil revenues to promote 

himself as heroic defender of the repressed and prospective 

leader of a unified Africa.

Crime: While violent crime is rare in Mali, petty theft is common 

in urban areas and on the Bamako-Dakar railroad, where 

travelers are advised to be especially vigilant a night.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
50%

17%

12%

6%

10% 5%

Ethnic Groups

Mandé

Peul

Voltaic

Songhai

Tuareg & 

Moor

Other 

Ethnicity

Mali’s population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan 

ethnic groups, most of which share cultural commonalities, 

although each retains its own respective ethnic language (See 

Language & Communication). Collectively, the Bambara 

(36.5%), Soninké (8.8%), 

and Malinké (6.6%)

tribes comprise the 

Mandé language group.

Constituting about half of 

Mali’s population, the 

Mandé have dominated

Mali’s political institution 

since French colonialism 

(see History & Myth).

Other significant groups 

are the Peul (also known 

as Fulani) (17%), Voltaic 

(12%), Songhai (6%), 

Tuareg & Moor (Maur –

of Berber descent) (10%), and other (5%) to include the Dogon, 

Diola, Bozo, and Oulé. Mali has enjoyed a long history of

peaceful inter-ethnic coexistence, with the exception of the 

Tuareg (see Ethnic Tensions above).

With only about 13.5 million inhabitants, Mali has one of the 

sparsest populations in West Africa (averages 112 people per 

square mile), although 

unevenly distributed due 

to geographic variations.

Traditionally an agrarian 

society, more than 75% of 

the population continues 

to subsist from 

agriculture. The bulk of 

the population (about 

90%) is concentrated to

the south and east along 

the Niger and Senegal River basins, with nomadic Tuareg and 

Moorish herdsmen populating the northern Sahara Desert 

region. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Historically, each ethnic group 

has been associated with a 

specific occupation favorable to 

its geographic location. The 

Mandé were cultivators; the 

Fulani, Maur, and Tuareg were 

herders; and the Bozo 

subsisted as fishermen. In 

recent years, this linkage has 

shifted as ethnic groups seek 

diverse, non-traditional sources 

of income, most notably by migrating from rural to urban areas.

(see Family & Kinship).

Dogon Country

Having a population of only about half-a-million, 

the Dogon tribe occupies the Bandiagara 

Escarpment, a sandstone cliff fortress located in 

the Mopti region of Mali near the Burkina Faso 

border. Referred to as Dogon Country, the territory 

remained isolated for centuries (both physically

and culturally) until the 20th century brought 

tourism and exposure to the outside world. Having 

maintained a uniquely indigenous culture, Dogon 

tribesmen perform rituals in the context of their 

animistic religious practices (see Religion & 

Spirituality) and are renowned for their mythical 

masked dancers (a popular tourist event). The cult 

of masks (awa) plays a major role in Dogon 

tradition, with masked male dancers representing 

various mythical creatures, both human and 

animal. During the prominent Dama rite-ofpassage ceremony, dancers wear the renowned 

Kanaga Mask and are believed to create a bridge 

into the supernatural world for deceased tribal 

members. Without the Dama dance, the deceased 

are unable to cross over into the ancestral realm.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Malians value interpersonal relations and are generally very 

friendly and approachable. They admire small talk, whether 

with close friends or new acquaintances, and to a Malian, it is 

imperative to get to know his colleagues personally prior to 

conducting business with them (see Time & Space).

Status

Prior to colonization, Malian 

society was stratified into 3

hereditary-based social 

classes to include nobles,

professional craftsmen, and 

slaves (most people married 

within their social class). 

Following independence, 

Malian national identity

initially became a by-product 

of its pre-colonial class structure, whereby the educated elite 

defined the needs of the generally illiterate population. 

However with Western influence, social boundaries have 

become blurred in contemporary society, particularly in urban 

areas where the general populace has redefined traditional 

professions (see Family & Kinship and Sex & Gender). Today, 

access to premium resources such as land and water has 

become a significant indicator of status.

Favoritism

Favoritism in the workplace is customary in West Africa, with 

people from the same ethnic background or close friends 

generally promoting each other over outsiders. This practice 

may be problematic when performance becomes an issue.

Sense-of-Humor

Good humor is foundational to Malian social relations and 

traditionally grounded in what is commonly referred to as 

“joking cousin” relationships. When interactions occur across 

ethnic boundaries, it is usual practice to include light-hearted 

“teasing” or mocking of particular ethnic groups. While this 

approach may appear offensive to an outsider, to a Malian it is 

a subtle way of defusing ethnic tensions, particularly when 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
approaching a sensitive subject, and helps to seal long-term

social relationships known as “cousinages.”

Social Etiquette

Visiting: In most kin-based societies, visiting is fundamental to

maintaining social harmony within the family unit and the 

community at large. Malians visit each other regularly and 

oftentimes unannounced, particularly in rural areas where 

telephones are not widely available. Evening visits are known 

to continue for several hours. Similarly, houseguests are known 

to remain for

several weeks 

and will bring gifts 

of kola nuts (a 

traditional symbol 

of respect) and 

food from their 

home region. 

Invited guests:

When invited to a 

Malian’s home, 

guests commonly 

remove their shoes before entering, with the host offering them

water and the most comfortable seat. Hosts usually serve 

refreshments, a generosity a guest is obligated to graciously 

accept as to decline could be offensive. Although many 

Malians live in poverty, they are charitable people whose 

hospitality is a genuine gesture.

In rural areas, guests bring their hosts inexpensive gifts such 

as tea, sugar, or kola nuts. Hosts appreciate compliments on 

their home, although they modestly acknowledge praises in an 

effort not to appear arrogant. Should a visitor arrive while the 

family is eating, he will likely be invited to share the food, 

although unexpected guests may politely decline the meal. 

There is a traditional tea-drinking ceremony that is common 

among men (see Sustenance & Health). 

Greetings: Socially, greetings express genuine respect for the 

other person (see Language & Communication and Time & 

Space). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Mali is predominantly a Muslim nation (90%) with the remaining 

10% consisting of indigenous religions (9%) and Christianity 

(1%). Malian religious groups are not specifically classified by 

region, although Christian communities tend to congregate in 

urban areas and generally to the south, while traditional 

indigenous religions exist primarily in rural areas.

Mali’s constitution provides for freedom of religion and defines

the country as a secular state that liberally allows religious 

practices as long as they do not pose a threat to social stability. 

Consequently, missionary groups, both Muslim and nonMuslim, are allowed to operate without government 

interference. 

Similarly, adherents of a variety of faiths are known to coexist 

within the same kin group, with followers of different religions 

participating in inter-religious activities – particularly weddings, 

baptisms, and funerals. Among more fundamental Muslims, 

religious blending is prohibitive.

Islamic Faith

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th

century when God’s final 

Prophet, Muhammad, 

was born in Mecca in the 

current country of Saudi

Arabia. Muslims believe 

that while Muhammad 

was meditating in the 

desert, the Archangel 

Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing the Qur’an, 

or the “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday life. (The Qur’an 

represents a core belief that helps shape Muslims’ lifelong 

values and is comparable to Holy Bible for Christians and the 

Torah for Jews). 

Meaning of Islam

Islam means “submission to the will of God” and acceptance of 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
His wisdom. It is more than a religion to its adherents – it is a 

way of life. 

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into two divisions: Sunni and Shi’a. Malian

Muslims are predominantly Sunni and distinguished by their 

belief that the leader (Caliph) of the Muslim community

(Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, the Shi’a believe the 

Muslim leader should be a direct descendant of the Prophet 

Muhammad.

Sufi Tradition: Characterized by mysticism and ritualistic 

prayer, the Sufi tradition of Islam is common in West Africa. 

Many Sufis belong to religious brotherhoods (tariga) whose 

members adhere to teachings from their spiritual leaders. 

Adhering to Sunni tradition, Sufis are not fundamentalists.

Five Pillars of Islam

There are five basic principles of Islam that all Muslims accept 

and follow. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray five 

times a day facing toward 

the Ka’aba (pictured) in 

Mecca. The Ka’aba is 

considered the center of the 

Muslim world and a unifying 

focal point for Islamic 

worship.

• Charity (Zakat): Involves an obligatory tithe or donation to 

the poor.

• Fasting (Sawm): Involves abstaining from food, drink, and 

sexual relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy 

month of Ramadan (30 days).

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Every adult Muslim who is 

physically and financially able is expected to perform at least 

one in a lifetime. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel the other two major world religions, 

Judaism and Christianity. In fact, Muslims consider Christians 

and Jews “people of the Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, 

because they share their monotheistic belief in one God. 

Abraham: All three faiths trace their lineage back to Abraham, 

known as Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace 

their line back to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; 

while Muslims believe that they descend from Abraham and his 

Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son 

Ismail.

Scriptures: Much of 

the content of the 

Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories 

found in the Christian 

Bible’s Old and New 

Testaments, and

Muslims view Islam 

as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Christians distorted God’s word and 

that Muhammad received the true revelation of God. 

Jesus: The three religions differ significantly regarding the role 

of Jesus. While Christians consider Him the divine Messiah 

who fulfills the Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for the 

Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as having been a 

prophet, but do not acknowledge the Christian view of His 

divinity. They do not believe in the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of death, like 

birth, is determined by Allah. Thus old age, illness, or accident 

are not considered the real causes of death. While people 

grieve the loss of family members or friends, they do not view 

death itself as a negative event, as Muslims believe that a 

person who lived a good life goes on to live in Heaven.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Concept of Jihad

The concept of Jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s will to lead a virtuous life. It should not be 

confused with the publicized violence often associated with

Jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism, 

considering it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long time for inner reflection, self-control, 

and focus on God. During this time, Muslims who are physically 

able are required to fast 

from dawn to sunset. 

Many Muslims believe 

that denying their hunger 

tempers them to learn 

self-control, appreciate 

the difficulties of the 

poor, and gain spiritual 

renewal – by fasting, one

learns to appreciate the 

good in life. It is common 

for Muslims to break 

their fast at sunset with a light meal of dates followed by prayer 

and then dinner. 

Ramadan occurs during the 9th month of the Islamic calendar

(see Time & Space) and observes 3 Islamic holy days.

• Lailat ul-Qadr: Known as “The Night of Power,” it 

commemorates Muhammad receiving the first verses of the 

Qur’an. 

• Eid-al-Adha (Tabaski): It is the “Festival of Sacrifice” and

commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, 

Ishmael (Isaac according to the Christian faith), as proof of 

his loyalty to God. It is celebrated the same day the Hajj 

ends. 

• Eid-al-Fitr (Korité): It is a 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” 

celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Islam in Mali

Islam was introduced to Mali during the 11th century as part of 

the trans-Saharan trade industry (see History & Myth). While 

most Malian Muslims are loyal to basic Islamic principles, 

traditionally, their adherence has been moderate and adapted 

to local conditions. Unlike the more conservative

fundamentalists, Muslims in Mali, particularly women, enjoy 

many social freedoms. For example, women participate in a 

variety of professional and public activities and generally do not 

veil. 

Muslims of the more puritanical sects believe it is imperative for 

women to live in seclusion and wear a full body covering when 

in public to protect their honor and purity. Conversely, Muslim 

women in Mali do not conform to this traditional practice.

Similarly, while fundamentalist Muslims typically prohibit 

alcohol consumption, Malians are known to drink socially.

Dawa Fundamentalists

Dawa is an Islamic fundamentalist group that seeks to preserve 

traditional Islamic customs. Located primarily in the capital city 

of Bamako and the Kidal and Mopti regions, Dawa adherents 

typically are found 

among the Bellah

(former slaves of Tuareg 

nobles) and also among 

unemployed youth. For 

the most part, this group 

pursues its aim by

peaceful means.

Great Mosque

The Great Mosque 

(pictured) located in the 

ancient city of Djenné is the world’s largest mud-brick building 

and considered the greatest Sudano-Sahelian (common to the 

Sahel and Sudanese geographic regions of West Africa) 

architectural design.

Indigenous Religions

Many Malian tribes, such as the Dogon, among others (see 

Political & Social Relations), blend their indigenous African 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
religious beliefs with fundamental Muslim or Christian customs, 

resulting in what is commonly referred to as “Africanized” 

practices. Prior to the influx of Islam into Mali, most inhabitants 

practiced animism, a belief that spiritual forces inhabit natural 

objects such as trees and rivers and influence human 

existence. Animism is rarely based on sacred doctrine but 

mostly on oral traditions passed through several generations. 

Malian animists believe natural objects such as trees and 

animals are sacred and must be respected – a conviction that 

closely connects them to the natural environment. 

Consequently, their reverence towards nature drives their 

methods for adapting to their surroundings. For example, some 

animists suggest that nature spirits use their divine sense of 

the cosmos to guide their agricultural lifestyle and thereby 

enhance crop growth. Similarly, most traditional African 

religions also promote the notion of a supreme being who is 

creator of the universe.

Embodied in this faith 

is the conviction that 

ancestor spirits have 

great power and 

influence on the daily 

lives of family 

members, who seek 

mediation with the spirit 

world through ordained 

ministers empowered 

with mystical insight. 

Other ethnic groups look to the village chief as the secular 

religious head of the community, who earns favor from the spirit 

world by virtue of his honorable position. 

Christianity 

Despite Mali’s support for religious tolerance, only a small 

Christian population exits (predominantly in the smaller Bozo 

and Dogon tribes), primarily as a result of French influence 

during the 19th-century colonial period. Malian Christians are 

mostly Roman Catholic, with Protestantism increasing as a 

result of recent missionary influence. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Family Organization

The family remains the singularly most important institution in 

Mali, with the extended family unit generally comprised of two 

or more nuclear families to include parents and offspring plus 

their families, grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Mali is a kinbased society, which implies that group wellbeing takes 

precedence over individual achievement, with decision-making 

reached through group consensus.

Rural family units are known to 

be large, consisting of 10 or 

more persons, and considered

a benefit in agrarian societies.

They are the foundation for 

providing a dependable work 

force and building cohesive 

communities. Conversely, in 

urban areas families tend to be 

smaller and physically segregated from extended family – a 

lifestyle that generally reflects the urban environment’s wage 

labor, educational opportunities, and entrepreneurship.

Despite geographical separation, kinship ties remain strong, 

with extended families contributing substantially to its members’ 

financial wellbeing regardless of location. Traditionally, the 

Malian family unit functions as an informal welfare system that

ensures all its members are sustained to include cousinages or 

close inter-ethnic relationships (see Political & Social 

Relations). It is common for a Malian to offer food and shelter

equally to blood kin or to a “cousin.”

Male Authority

Mali is a patrilineal and 

patrilocal society, which means

authority and inheritance occur

through the male bloodline and 

the extended family resides 

near or with the elder male 

head-of-household. However, 

for the Tuareg (see Political & 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Social Relations) inheritance and social status are determined 

through the matrilineal (mother’s) lineage, with men rather than 

women veiling their faces (see Religion & Spirituality). In 

Muslim societies, the elderly (both male and female) generally 

enjoy great respect. Similarly, it is common for two or more 

lineages to share a common ancestor, collectively forming a 

clan. Clans within a village exist as clusters of single-family 

households sharing a compound (described below). 

Motherhood Reverence

Motherhood is revered in Malian society, where a woman’s 

status is determined by the number of children she bears,

especially sons (see Sex & Gender). Symbolizing peace and 

harmony, Malian mothers, particularly the elders, are consulted 

regarding communal decisions. 

Among the Mandé (Mali’s largest 

ethnic group – see Political & 

Social Relations), the relationship

between mother and child is 

highly affectionate, with siblings

sharing a special bond

throughout their lifetime. 

Dating 

Courtship is uncommon in Muslim societies, particularly in rural 

areas where arranged marriages remain customary – a couple 

typically accepts parental judgment in coordinating their union. 

Conversely, in urban areas Western-style dating and choosing 

one’s spouse are more popular practices, particularly among 

the youth. 

Marriage

As in most collective cultures, marriage 

in rural Mali traditionally has served as a 

social contract to ensure the 

continuation of family heritage. It

represents the alliance of two families, 

with individual choice of spouse limited. 

Similarly, arranged marriages typically 

occur at a young age, and consequently, 

Mali has one of the highest underage

marriage rates in the world – a situation

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
considered problematic because of the health risks it poses for 

physically immature females (see Sex & Gender). With most 

rural marriages occurring by age 16, it is common for rural 

women to have their first child by the time they are 19. Some 

girls have married and given birth by age 15. 

Conversely, urban marriages generally occur between two 

consenting adults who have reached a more mature age. While 

the couple chooses to marry, they normally seek parental 

permission to maintain extended-family unity.

While traditional Islamic custom remains influential on Mali’s 

marriage institution, Malian women enjoy some additional 

freedoms within the marriage arrangement. For example, 

Malian women have more leverage for dissolving marriages 

than in most other Muslim societies.

Marriage Types: Mali consists of three marriage types to 

include traditional (based on ethnic customs), civil (legal), and 

religious (predominantly Islamic doctrine). Particularly in urban 

areas, Malians may combine marriage types to exploit an 

advantage. By doing so, a couple will secure its civil rights to 

acquire social benefits, while 

retaining the privileges of its 

family heritage, and 

obligations of its religious 

beliefs. 

Bridewealth: Unlike a 

dowry, in which the woman 

would bring material value to 

the marriage, a bride price is 

compensation from the 

prospective groom to the bride’s family for loss of her and her 

forthcoming children’s labor. Because it is reimbursable in a

divorce, bridewealth tends to discourage dissolution.

Polygyny: It is customary in some Muslim societies to practice 

polygyny, whereby a man may have up to four wives, with

Islamic law requiring him to equally provide for them all. This 

tradition is anchored in the notion that historically, men had a 

higher mortality rate than women, many of whom remained 

unwed or were widowed. Consequently, polygyny became a 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
necessary means of providing for women and producing large 

families (work force). Similarly, having multiple wives reflects 

class, as only the wealthy can afford large households. 

Rivalries between wives and children of different mothers are 

common.

Once a common practice, polygyny is less popular primarily 

due to the cost of sustaining multiple households and because 

many contemporary urban women refute the status of 

secondary spouse. However in rural areas, women tend to 

appreciate the mutual support from multiple wives.

Divorce

In Islamic societies, grounds for divorce are based primarily on 

adultery, mutual incompatibility, and the husband’s failure to 

meet the wife’s basic needs. Traditionally, the man retains most 

of the property and the children.

Housing

Extended family members usually live close to one another, 

often within a shared compound. In rural areas, the compound 

is surrounded by a wall and consists of mud-brick houses for 

each nuclear family and additional cooking and storage huts. 

In polygyneous households, the husband may share a house 

with all his wives, with each wife and the husband having their

own rooms, or each wife may have her own house, all within 

the same compound. With this latter arrangement, the husband 

usually resides with each 

wife on a rotating basis or, if 

affordable, he may receive 

them in his own residence.

House designs vary by 

region. In the South they 

tend to be square-shaped, 

while in the North they are

round. Most rural homes 

have thatched roofs, 

although the wealthy generally have corrugated tin roofs. Each 

home contains a central living room and two - three bedrooms. 

In urban areas, a compound may consist of several apartments 

surrounding a central courtyard holding a communal well. An 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
apartment normally is built with concrete and a corrugated tin 

roof. Access to electricity is rare, with slums becoming more 

common among urban perimeters.

Rites-of-Passage

Rites-of-passage are ceremonies recognizing life’s transitions 

and are known to differ by ethic group.

Birth: Newborns in Malian society 

represent the family’s future and are 

traditionally the primary interest in a 

marriage. Following a birth, the mother 

usually carries the child on her back 

during her daily activities. 

Naming Ceremony: Due to Mali’s 

high infant mortality rate (see 

Sustenance & Health), parents usually 

do not name a child until confident it

will survive. Because most given 

names are of Islamic origin, the naming ceremony also serves 

to welcome the child into the Islamic family. In urban areas, the 

naming convention may be combined with a simple 

circumcision usually performed on the 8th day after birth.

Adulthood: Traditionally, male and female passage from 

childhood to adulthood has been 

marked by initiation, which typically 

involves marriage and the symbolic

passing of knowledge from the old to 

the new generations. 

Among some indigenous animist

groups (see Religion & Spirituality), 

boys are circumcised between the ages 

of 5 and 12 and thereafter wear pants 

instead of shorts to demonstrate their 

transition into adulthood. Likewise, 

female circumcision is a common 

method for recognizing womanhood, 

although this practice is known to be medically risky and is less 

popular in urban areas (see Sex & Gender). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Death: Deceased ancestors are revered among all Malian 

religious groups. Muslims customarily bury their dead within 24 

hours (Christians within 48 hours), with the deceased body 

untouched until a blessing has been offered and the family has 

mourned. Thereafter, the body is washed, wrapped in cloth, 

and carried through the village in a celebratory procession to 

honor the deceased. The body is buried after the first day, with 

festivities continuing at the family's house. 

Similarly, the size of a funeral usually is determined by the

deceased person’s status. For example, if the deceased was 

the village elder, there would be a week-long celebration, with 

distant family members attending to pay final respects.

Crossing of the Cattle

A unique rite-of-passage popular among Fulani 

nomads occupying Mali’s south-central Mopti region is 

the annual “crossing of the cattle” ceremony. Basically 

held in honor of cattle, which are the foundation for 

Fulani subsistence, it also serves to recognize a Fulani 

boy’s transition into manhood. 

Each year when the Niger River reaches flood stage, a 

select group of boys guide their herds to remote 

grazing lands, where they tend them for a year or until 

the river recedes and the resident pasturelands dry. 

Upon their return, usually in December, the young men 

prepare for marriage and are officially initiated into 

manhood.

Their initiation, known as Deegal, occurs during the 

boys return and involves Niger River cattle crossings at 

several waypoints, most notably at Diafarabé village 

(where the ceremony originated with the village’s 

founding in 1818). The festival climaxes with the 

unmarried couples participating in the festive 

Promenade des Jeunes (Parade of the Youth) through 

the community. As part of the celebration, the 

townspeople typically decorate their houses by painting 

the doors with white clay and the floors with dark clay.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Sexual Relations 

Largely as a result of Western influence, sexual perspectives

are changing in many African societies including Mali. In this 

traditionally male-dominated culture, sexual relations primarily 

have served to produce offspring, although gradually as gender 

roles have altered, so has the perspective regarding romance 

in a marital relationship (see Family & Kinship). Similarly, 

urbanization and education have stimulated a rise in 

monogamous marriage patterns, particularly among youth and 

the elite who view status as professional achievement rather 

than family size.

Gender Roles

In traditional Malian families, labor generally is divided by 

gender, with both men and women having a significant role in 

sustaining the family unit. In addition to their household 

responsibilities, many women assist in agricultural activities

and help earn significant

portions of the family 

income. Elderly women 

who have retired from 

manual labor typically 

manage the household 

duties performed by the 

younger women and 

become active in farm 

produce sales.

In general, women are 

less represented than men 

in professional occupations, although urban women have more 

opportunities to gain an education and advance professionally, 

particularly in government. 

Children

Young children are assigned duties, with girls typically caring

for younger siblings and performing household chores, while 

boys work as farm laborers and tend livestock. Traditionally, 

only males received and education as females were 

considered to be mentally inferior (see Learning & Knowledge).

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Female Freedom

Compared to the more conservative Islamic cultures, most 

Malian women enjoy a degree of freedom, where they are 

permitted to influence family decisions and openly conduct

business in the marketplace. (see Religion & Spirituality). As

they age, women gain greater respect and authority, both at 

home and within the community. 

Gender Issues

While Mali’s constitution prohibits sexual discrimination, in 

practice, Mali remains a male-dominated culture, where a

variety of social prejudices work to undermine enforcement of 

gender equality. 

Childhood marriages: While many 

African countries have enacted 

laws to limit marriage to a minimum 

age of 16-to-18 (depending on 

jurisdiction), traditional customs

allowing children to marry at a 

premature age remain widespread

(see Family & Kinship).

In many African tribal systems, 

particularly in Muslim societies, a 

man pays bridewealth (see Family 

& Kinship) to the girl's family in order to marry her, oftentimes 

before the girl reaches puberty. Many of these forced 

marriages involve polygynous relationships and are povertyrelated, with parents needing the bridewealth to help support

the extended family. Unfortunately, these practices commonly 

lead to serious medical and social issues, most notably

complicated pregnancies and sexually-transmitted diseases

such as HIV/AIDS. Despite the gravity of this situation, many 

African governments tend to ignore the implications.

Female circumcision: Female genital mutilation (FGM) is 

widespread primarily in rural Malian society (with the exception 

of the Tuareg tribe), affecting about 95% of the total female 

population. Regarded as a rite-of-passage initiation into 

adulthood, FGM is considered necessary for rendering a young 

woman an attractive candidate for marriage – which for many 

women, is their only means of securing a viable future. 

SEX &

GENDER
Unfortunately, traditional FGM practitioners generally lack 

medical training, sometimes resulting in severe complications

or death. 

Domestic Violence: Men are not legally prohibited from 

physically striking or sexually abusing their wives as long as the 

contact does not cause permanent injury. While abuses occur, 

they often go unreported likely because of the wife’s financial 

and social dependence on her husband. 

Other Issues: Other concerns include trafficking of persons, 

notably women and children, and prostitution which is legal in 

Mali and predominant in urban areas.

Polygyny: (see Family & Kinship).

Inheritance Laws

Among many African cultures including Malian, inheritance 

traditionally has been a privilege reserved for men. While 

Malian women have a legal right to inheritance, they usually

receive little or nothing – a reflection of their forced economic 

dependence, particularly in polygynous households. Property 

and wealth are usually passed to the sons. Under Islamic law, 

wives receive a stipulated portion of the inheritance, with male 

and female offspring sharing 50%. 

Family Law

In August 2009 President Touré vetoed 

a proposed law that would grant women 

greater rights, a decision he claimed was 

made to protect national unity. Touré’s 

administration had been bombarded by 

protests from conservative Islamic 

leaders from the moment parliament 

adopted the proposal. A clause in the 

proposal that promoted notable Muslim 

controversy was to establish marriage as 

a secular institution.

Under the new law, women would no 

longer be required to submit to their 

husbands, thereby establishing marriage partners as co-equal

and granting them greater inheritance rights. The proposal was 

returned to parliament for further review.

SEX &

GENDER
Official Language

French is the official language used in government, 

corporations, mass media, and formal education; however, the 

indigenous Bambara (also known as Bamana) is the national 

language among a majority (80%) of Malians and is the native 

tongue of Mali’s largest ethnic group (see Political & Social 

Relations). Bambara actually achieved its national reach during 

19th and 20th-century French colonization, where it was the 

language-of-choice for the French army and Christian 

missionaries. 

Mali is classified as a multilingual nation whose residents 

speak multiple languages. It is noteworthy that French is 

spoken as an alternative to English, not in parallel, and 

therefore, most Malians 

do not speak or even 

comprehend the English 

language.

Native Languages

There are 32 spoken 

languages in Mali, most 

of which belong to the 

Niger-Congo language 

family (Africa’s largest 

indigenous language 

group). Traditionally, ethnic groups occupying territories along 

the Niger River established remote villages having little if any 

external contact. Consequently, a variety of customs and 

dialects (speech variations) emerged as these groups adapted 

to their diverse lifestyles. For example, the traditionally agrarian 

Dogon tribe alone embodies nearly 50 different dialects (see 

Political & Social Relations).

Arabic

Since the 9th or 10th century, Berber traders from the North 

introduced their Arabic language and alphabet, along with their 

Islamic faith (see History & Myth), to Mali’s indigenous cultures. 

Arabic eventually was used to record Mali’s first written history, 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
which traditionally had been passed orally through the 

generations. Similarly, since Arabic is the language of the 

Qur’an (holy book of Islam), it continues to be used in Islamic 

worship practices (see Religion & Spirituality) and among some 

inhabitants along the Mauritanian border.

Communication Style

Malians generally are outgoing and friendly people who enjoy 

engaging in conversation, both with acquaintances and 

strangers. Infinitely patient, they avoid confrontation and 

display of emotion, especially anger. They commonly express 

themselves using a variety of both verbal and non-verbal 

gestures, using a calm yet somewhat direct manner. 

For example, when making a suggestion or asking someone 

for assistance, they commonly use the French phrase, "Il faut" 

which translates as "(it) should be..." While this comment could 

be interpreted as demanding, to a Malian it simply serves as a 

request. Conversely, they also have an indirect manner known 

as “musalaha,” which refers to avoiding a straightforward 

response when unsure of the other person’s intent, particularly 

a stranger’s.

Greetings

Malians value greetings and neglecting or rushing the 

welcoming process is considered disrespectful. While a simple

“hello” is usually adequate in Western cultures, throughout 

Africa and Mali in particular, the greeting process is more 

elaborate and lengthy. 

When meeting, Malians

commonly shake hands

gently while touching 

their right elbow with the 

left-hand fingertips as a 

gesture of respect. An 

alternative method is to 

touch their right hand on 

their forehead or over 

their heart following the

handshake. While customary in some Muslim cultures, kissing 

on the cheeks is not part of the Malian salutation.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
However, like most Muslim cultures, members of the opposite 

sex do not normally shake hands and typically remain 

publically segregated. In more contemporary urban areas, it is 

more common for a woman to extend her hand to a male 

counterpart, particularly in professional settings. Rule of thumb 

for a male Airman in this situation: respond in kind with reserve 

and modesty.

It is proper protocol for the elderly or a person of status, such 

as a village chief, to initiate the handshake. In response it is 

proper to slightly bow the head as a sign of respect. In some 

locations, particularly in the south, women commonly bend 

their knees when greeting an elderly person. Additionally, when

joining a group, the person typically approaches and shakes

hands with each member, beginning with the most senior. 

Greeting Etiquette

• The handshake is the most common form of 

greeting.

• It is proper for the elderly or person of status to 

initiate the handshake.

• Greetings should include inquiries about the health 

and wellbeing of the person and his family.

• In formal situations, using an academic or 

professional title is expected.

• Malians normally use their first names only among 

family and close friends. 

• They usually greet new acquaintances by using title 

and surname.

• It is proper to wait for an invitation from your hostnation counterparts before using only their first 

name.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Titles

While friends normally converse on a first-name basis, new 

acquaintances exchange greetings using title and surname 

(last or family name). It is noteworthy that traditionally, a 

Malian’s family name represents his social status and ethnicity 

(see Political & Social Relations). Depending on their situation, 

some Malians may appear cautious when using their family 

names, particularly when meeting outsiders.

When introducing yourself as an Airman to a host-nation 

counterpart for the first time, it is appropriate to use rank along 

with first and last name, for example, Major Shawn Smith. 

Thereafter, use rank and last name. Similarly, when 

establishing a social relationship with the local people, it is best 

to wait until invited before using only their first name. 

Gestures

• In Islamic societies, the left hand is reserved for 

hygienic purposes and considered unsanitary 

(although with Western influence, this restriction 

has declined in importance in urban areas).

o It is best to use the right hand in social settings.

o It is customary, however, for family members or 

close friends to shake with their left hands when 

separating for an extended period.

• Pointing with the index finger is perceived as 

impolite – it is proper to point with the entire hand.

• As a gesture of respect, it is customary not to 

establish direct eye contact with an elder or person 

of status.

o Direct eye contact is appropriate among 

members of the same status or age and friends. 

• Belching during a meal indicates the person has 

finished eating and is considered a compliment to 

the host.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Discussion Topics

After the initial greeting, Malians will often inquire about each 

other’s health, job, or family; thereby spending a few minutes in 

"small talk.” Asking about family members indicates sincerity 

and is an important part of the greeting process. For a 

newcomer, it is considered proper to show interest in your 

counterpart’s background. Malians are proud of their heritage

and honored to share their history, which they are known to 

convey using oral traditions, riddles, and proverbs (see 

Aesthetics & Recreation).

It is best to avoid discussing potentially sensitive topics such as

politics, religion, status, and sex-related themes. While some 

Malians are open to discussing some of these topics, it is 

difficult to gauge in advance 

their views about them.

Criticism and Humiliation 

The concept of constructive 

criticism is not viewed 

positively in Malian culture. 

It is therefore best to avoid 

giving public criticism – if 

you need to approach an 

issue critically, it is best to do so privately. Individual criticism in 

the presence of a person’s peers could result in a loss of face –

a serious insult to a Malian. 

Friendship

It is important for Airmen to understand that forging 

relationships is a complex and refined process, and it may 

require several visits to gain mutual understanding and trust

(see Political & Social Relations and Time & Space). Malians 

value friendships and honor guests with warm hospitality. 

However, it is important to be mindful that in Muslim cultures,

men and women do not normally socialize together. 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English French Bambara

Do you speak 

English?

Parlez-vous anglais? I bi angèlèkan men 

wa? 

Hello Bonjour I ni cè

Good morning Bonjour I ni sogoma

Good afternoon Bon après-midi I ni tile / I ni wula

Good night Bonsoir Ka dugu n’yumanjè

Welcome Bienvenu Ao dansey

Yes / No Oui / Non Awoah / Aee

OK OK A njè na

What is your 

name?

Comment vous 

apelez-vous?

I togo?

My name is__ Je m’appelle __ N’togo __

How are you? Comment vas tu? I bè tiokodi

How is your 

family?

Comment va la 

famille?

Somogo bè di?

I’m fine Je vais bien Ne ka kéné

Good-bye Au revoir Kan ben

Please / Thank 

you

S’il vous plait /Merci --- / Ini tie

I don’t know Je ne sais pas N’tah don

Yesterday Hier Kunu

Today Aujourd’hui Bee

Tomorrow Demain Sini

Next week La semaine prochaine Dogo kunwèrè

Later Plus tard Kofeh

Excuse me Excusez-moi Haké to

I don’t 

understand

Je ne comprends pas N m’a faamu

Where is the 

toilet?

Ou sont les toilettes? Nyegan be min wa?

Why? Pourquoi? Mun ka ma?

When? Quand? Uma ju mè

Maybe Peut-ètre A ma don

What time is it? Quelle heure est-il? Leer jumen be yèn?

How much? C’est combine? Joli?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy: Age 15 and over who can read and write

• Total population: 46.4% 

• Male: 53.5% 

• Female: 39.6% (2003 estimate)

Historical Development

Islamic schools date back to the 10th century, where centers of 

learning in the cities of Gao, Timbuktu, and Djenné attracted 

students from throughout West Africa. Beginning in the 19thcentury colonial period, the French government in Mali 

established schools for the sons of Muslim leaders, where they 

learned the French language and culture and were groomed for 

colonial employment following graduation.

In the years following the 1960 independence, the new 

government spent about 20% of its budget on education, 

bringing a notable upsurge in enrollments. However, the early 

21st century saw a significant decline in school attendance, 

with only 62% of all children (mostly males) in primary school. 

While school attendance 

is compulsory for ages 7 

to 16, primary school 

enrollment remains low 

mainly because of 

overhead costs, even 

though attendance is 

free. In rural areas many 

children remain at home 

to help support the 

family, with a majority of students dropping out of school by 

age 12. 

With the average Malian woman birthing up to 7 children (see 

Sustenance & Health); girls in particular are needed at home to 

assist with sibling care. There also exists a shortage of both 

schools and qualified teachers in rural areas. Of note, nongovernmental foreign aid organizations have instituted 

programs to promote literacy throughout the country. 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education System

The system provides for 6 years of primary education 

beginning at age 7, followed by 6 years of secondary 

education, generally divided into two 3-year cycles. Private 

schools, particularly Roman Catholic, have become more 

attractive for students from 

the more elite families. 

Higher Education

Mali in 1996 incorporated 

various higher learning 

institutes into the University 

of Bamako, which now has 

over 60,000 students. 

Instruction is predominantly 

in French. Advanced institutions similar to 2-year community 

colleges in the US are available to a small percentage of 

students who have the financial and political influence to gain

admission. Optionally, some Malians study abroad, particularly 

in France, to acquire their advanced degrees.

Oral History

(See History & Myth)

Malian folk legends traditionally were the first media 

used to reinforce moral values and perpetuate 

traditions and continue to thrive, particularly in rural 

areas. A unique occupation popular in West Africa

(primarily Mali and Senegal) is that of the griot (jali in 

the Mandé language), which was established during 

the pre-colonial Mali Empire (14th century) to entertain 

the royal household (see History & Myth). Known as 

born musicians and existing on the same social status 

as craftsmen, griots recite history through songs, 

stories, dances, or poems for their community or 

clansmen. Similarly, the town griot records memorable 

events and is therefore responsible for preserving and 

teaching history. Typically, there is no official salary for 

the griot, although the townspeople usually account for 

his financial needs.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of Time and Space

Malians have a relaxed view of

time compared to Westerners, 

whereby they have little regard 

for time management and 

punctuality. Conversely, they are 

more concerned about human 

interactions and relationshipbuilding and are known to be 

infinitely patient and tolerant.

Flexibility: Similarly, Malians are 

very flexible when unforeseen 

circumstances such as lack of 

transportation or family illness 

arise that would cause a delay or 

extended absence. This attitude does not mean they are not 

committed to their occupations – it just signifies that in Malian 

society, most personal issues take precedence over all other 

commitments. 

Personal Space & Eye Contact: When speaking with a casual 

acquaintance, Malians typically maintain a closer personal 

space than you may be accustomed to and tend to avoid direct 

eye contact (see Language & Communication). Similarly, it is 

common for people of the 

same sex to touch while 

conversing.

Space between Friends:

Typically, friends of the 

same sex are considerably 

more affectionate with one 

another and have closer 

spatial relations. It is 

normal for them to hold 

hands or have their arms around each other while walking. 

These gestures signal friendship and to back away would likely 

cause offense. (However, publically holding the opposite sex 

with intimacy is not proper behavior). They value friendship, 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
and close friends have great influence on situational outcomes, 

more-so than in American culture. 

Taking Photos: Malians generally value their privacy and 

expect outsiders to respect that privilege. It is therefore wise to 

ask permission to photograph local citizens. 

Don’t Forget Prayer Time: Muslims take time during the 

workday for prayers, so it is important that you plan your

business appointments accordingly. Since Friday is the Muslim 

day of worship, Malians normally worship at the local Mosque 

in the afternoon.

Conducting Business

As mentioned earlier, Malians have a relaxed view of time, with 

few events following a schedule. You can anticipate for 

appointments to start late, although meetings with government 

and military are usually prompt. It is imperative that you adjust 

Negotiations

• It is best not to expect immediate decisions, as 

reaching agreement usually requires follow-on 

discussions and negotiating for mutual benefits.

• Disagreements should be handled in a calm, 

diplomatic manner and should never involve 

raised voices and anger. 

• It is helpful to find ways to compromise, even if it 

results in delays, and seek “win-win” outcomes. 

• It is good to remember that Malians are 

extremely patient and tend to consider time on 

their side.

• If the negotiation involves cost for an item, you 

may have to bargain (a common practice in 

shopping markets), so it is advisable to initially 

name a lower price than you are willing to pay.

SPACE

TIME &
to the local lifestyle, approaching the situation with good humor 

and flexibility.

Initial meetings often involve long greetings and lengthy small

talk to establish 

relationships. You can 

anticipate being offered 

refreshments and 

asked questions about 

yourself and your 

family. You will likewise 

be expected to inquire 

about the other person

(see Language & 

Communication).

Patience is necessary 

to building effective cross-cultural relations. Reaching 

consensus or agreement generally takes longer than 

Americans are accustomed to, and it may require several 

meetings to accomplish what you would generally handle via a 

routine phone call. 

Malian Work Week

As in Western 

cultures, the Malian

work week begins 

on Monday and 

ends on Friday.

Business hours vary 

in the summer and 

during the holy 

month of Ramadan.

(Photo a courtesy of 

Pro Quest 2010).

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar is used to determine the proper day to 

celebrate religious holidays and festivals. It is a lunar calendar 

and contains 12 months, although it is 11 days shorter than the 

Western or Gregorian calendar. As a result, from one year to 

the next, Islamic holidays fall 11days earlier on the Western 

calendar than the previous year. 

SPACE

TIME &
Attire

While attire varies by ethnic 

group, both traditional and 

Western-style clothing are

fashionable. The Bambara 

people are known for their 

distinctively colorful mud cloth 

(bogolan), a traditional art form 

consisting of symbolic designs 

on cotton cloth shaped from a 

natural clay and mineral dye 

mixture. 

Men generally wear Westernstyle trousers and a shirt, 

although the traditional boubou

(long and flowing embroidered 

robe) is worn over the pants and shirt during special occasions. 

Men also commonly wear embroidered hats.

Rural women normally 

wear the more traditional

long wraparound skirts

(pagne) similar to the 

male boubou, along with 

blouses and a head 

wrap. The skirts are 

made of printed cloth 

with various patterns 

designed to suit the 

latest fashions. Urban 

women, like men, more commonly wear Western styles. Of 

note, shorts typically are considered inappropriate adult 

clothing in Mali, as well as most Muslim societies, for both men 

and women.

Recreation

Soccer: As in many African nations, Mali’s most popular sport 

is soccer, which they call football, with Mali sponsoring a 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
national football team, the Les Aigles (The Eagles). In 2002 

Mali hosted the all-Africa soccer tournament, although the 

Malian team has yet to qualify for world cup finals. Its most 

renowned player is Salif Keita (same name as Mali’s famed 

afro-pop singer – songwriter).

Other Pastimes: Basketball is also popular, with Mali 

competing at the national level, and the women’s team the only 

African team participating in the 2008 Beijing Olympics. 

Similarly, a traditional board game similar to chess (known by a 

variety of names such as mancala, wori, and bau) is another 

popular activity for all ages. 

In urban areas, movie houses are popular, where the latest 

international releases are shown with French subtitles. 

Additionally, Mali has its own small-scale film-making industry. 

In rural communities leisure time is a premium where most 

people are preoccupied with subsistence activities.

The Arts

In Mali and throughout Africa, art of a variety of forms 

traditionally served a greater purpose – usually ceremonial to 

impart spiritual power. For example, exquisitely carved wooden

masks have been used for centuries during Dogon rite-ofpassage ceremonies (see Political & Social Relations);

whereby masked dancers assume spiritual identities and 

ensure departed 

members safely

pass into the spirit 

world.

An architectural 

marvel, the city of 

Djenné exemplifies 

the traditional 

elements of Malian 

structural design, 

where sun-dried 

bricks covered in a

mud-based plaster became more than a standard – it 

represents a perfected art form (see Religion & Spirituality).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Similarly, the nomadic 

Tuaregs are renowned 

leather craftsmen who 

produce saddle bags 

from goat skins used to 

transport their personal 

belongings as they 

traverse the Sahara 

environment in camel 

caravans. 

Additionally, Bamako 

goldsmiths have sustained their simple handcrafting techniques 

since ancient times. Inspired by mythology, Mali’s intricatelydesigned gold jewelry is a popular item among tourists.

Music

Malian music is presented in a variety of forms, from traditional 

village ceremonial dances to African pop tunes common in bigcity nightclubs. Many of Mali’s traditional lyrics are composed 

by village griots (see Learning & Knowledge), who combine 

mythical tales with music to entertain and educate the local 

people. Griots use the 21-string kora to compose their stories, 

accompanied by a wooden 

percussion instrument similar 

to a xylophone known as a

balaphon. The kora is also 

played at festive ceremonies 

such as weddings and childnaming events. Another

popular instrument is the 

djembe drum (pictured), 

made with goatskin stretched 

over wood. 

Mali has promoted a number of internationally-famed 

musicians to include afro-pop singer-songwriter Salif Keita, 

legendary blues guitarist and singer Ali Farka Touré, and best

female musician Oumou Sangare.

Known as the “Golden Voice of Africa,” Salif Keita is the most 

famous contemporary singer and a direct descendent of 

Sundiata Keita, who founded the 13th-century Mali Empire. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Salif was rejected by family and 

community because he was born albino. 

His music is a combination of traditional 

West African, European, and American 

styles.

Similar to the “talking blues” genre of 

Mississippi’s John Lee Hooker, Ali Farka 

Touré’s blues music was inspired by 

African-American performers whose 

themes were anchored in their African 

roots. Historically, American blues 

originated in West Africa and was 

brought to America by slaves in the 19th

century, where it was popularized in African-American 

communities primarily in the Deep South.

Of note, Ali Farka Touré’s son, Boureima “Vieux” Farka 

Touré, (whose genres are rock, reggae, and soul) has become 

one of the most celebrated contemporary African guitarists. 

Vieux Touré’s live concert album released in June 2010 has 

made him a legend at a time when the Western world is 

beginning to recognize modern West African performers. 

Known as the “Songbird of Wassoulou,” which is a testament to 

her ancestry, Oumou Sangare sings to promote women’s 

rights, with her themes steeped in her own childhood. 

Literature

Much of Mali’s pre-colonial history was preserved originally in 

oral tradition passed through the generations and first recorded 

in Arabic, the traditional language of Islam and the Qur’an (see 

Language & Communication and Learning & Knowledge). 

With colonization came the introduction of the French

language, with Mali folklore scholars, such as Moussa B. 

Travélé, publishing their works in French. Travélé is known for 

Proverbes et contes Bambara (Bambara Proverbs and Tales). 

One of Mali’s best known poets, Amadou Hampate Ba, is 

popular for his first collection of folk tales in 1955. Likewise, Fily 

Dabo Sissoko was one of Mali’s first poets with his La Passion 

de Djimé (Djimé’s Passion). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
In most rural areas, it remains a popular pastime to recite 

ancient poems and ballads. Malian author Baba Wagué

Diakité, who grew up listening to these tales, moved to the US 

in 1985 where he has published children’s books, such as The 

Magic Gourd (2003), whose fairytales personify moral lessons.

Traditional Celebrations

Local communities traditionally celebrate agricultural activities, 

particularly planting and harvesting. 

Festival of the Desert: Every January since 1991 the Saharan 

Tuareg tribe holds a 3-day traditional music festival known as 

Festival in the Desert, staged as a small oasis town, Essakane, 

about 50 miles northwest of Timbuktu. Besides a time for 

celebration, the festival also functions as a family reunion for 

kinsmen residing in remote parts of the Sahara Desert and as 

an ethnic cultural renewal. 

Festival on the Niger: The Festival on the Niger is a Malian 

cultural event held each February in the city of Segou and 

includes participants from all indigenous ethnic groups. The 

gathering is designed to promote Mali’s cultural development.

Public Holidays

• New Year’s Day (January 1)

• Armed Forces Day (January 20)

• Ramadan (Islamic)*

• Democracy Day (March 26)

• Easter Monday (Christian)*

• Mouloud (Birthday of the Prophet – Islamic)*

• Labor Day (May 1)

• Africa Day (May 25)

• Independence Day (September 22)

• Korité (End of Ramadan – Islamic)*

• Christmas Day (December 25 – Christian)

*Dates vary based on Muslim Lunar calendar or 

Christian Gregorian calendar.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Etiquette

Traditionally, rural Malian families eat from communal bowls, 

with the male head-of-household determining the seating 

arrangement. For example, men and boys usually share a

bowl, while small children and women share another. Adult 

men and women seldom eat from the same bowl, while 

persons of age and status are assigned positions of honor. It is 

customary for participants to dine from the portion of the bowl 

directly in front of them. 

Diet

Staple foods in Mali are 

predominantly starches 

such as rice and a 

variety of grains (millet, 

corn, sorghum, and root 

vegetables) mashed into 

porridge. Milk, dates, 

and wheat are popular in 

the north. A typical meal 

consists of a starch with 

vegetable or meat, and 

a spicy sauce made from peanuts, okra, hot chilies, or baobab 

leaves (native African plant). Common meats include chicken, 

lamb, and fish and popular vegetables and fruits are tomatoes, 

onions, eggplant, bananas, mangos, watermelon, and lemons. 

Malians typically consume the same types of food at each 

meal, with grains popular in rural communities and rice in urban 

areas (Photo a courtesy of Pro Quest 2010).

Malian Cuisine: Malian cuisine still retains notable French 

influence (see History & Myth), with French baguettes (bread 

loaves) and classic salad vinaigrette popular in urban areas. 

While popular dishes and preparation techniques vary by 

ethnic group, some of the more common entrees include: 

• Riz (plain rice)

• Larho (millet porridge with ground peanuts)

• To (millet porridge with sauce)

• Nsaamé or Riz au gras (rice dish with meat & vegetables)

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
• Poulet kedjennou (chicken with vegetables)

• Poulet yassa (chicken with onions)

• Diabadji (meat with onion sauce)

• Fakoye (lamb in herb sauce)

• Naboulou (meat with baobab leaves in peanut sauce)

• Tigé tigé or Sauce d’ arachide (meat in peanut sauce)

• Tcheke (fish with plantains, which are hybrid bananas)

• Aloko (fried plantains)

• Ragout d’igname (yam stew)

• Goyo (Eggplant)

• Meni-meniyong (Malian dessert made from sesame seeds, 

honey, and unsalted butter)

Beverages: Popular drinks include soft drinks, fruit juice, and 

tea, along with indigenous jinjinbere (drink made from water, 

sugar, lemon, and ginger) and dabileni (combination of water, 

sugar, and a sour leaf known as sorrel). Coffee is not so 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Tea Ceremony

The brewing and serving of tea in Mali involves a 

large degree of pomp and ceremony, particularly in 

the north among Tuareg nomads, and is considered a 

dignified way to welcome a newcomer or socialize 

with close friends. It is common for tea-drinking 

associations, known as grins, to meet and savor the 

three-course event. 

Traditionally, three glasses of very sweet tea follow 

the evening meal, with the same teabag used to brew 

all three servings. The freshly brewed first glass is 

said to be “strong as death,” the second “mild as life,” 

and the third “sweet as love.”

Malians serve tea by suspending the tea pot high 

above the cups (the size of shot glasses), allowing the 

hot tea to flow through the air and form a froth when it 

reaches the cup. This action also serves to cool the 

tea for drinking.
popular and is mostly instant. 

While Islam prohibits alcohol 

consumption, homemade 

millet beer is popular.

Health Issues

As with many developing 

countries, Mali suffers from 

extreme poverty, widespread 

disease, and a poor health 

care system. While malaria is 

the most common cause of 

death in Mali, other parasitic 

infections and childhood 

diseases such as measles and malnutrition are rampant 

throughout the country. Of note, only 2% of the adult population 

is infected with the HIV/AIDS virus, which is among the lowest 

rates throughout Sub-Saharan Africa (although on the incline).

Infectious Diseases: Because of poor sanitation and an 

insufficient potable water supply, infectious and parasitic 

diseases are common. These include meningitis, cholera, 

tuberculosis, hepatitis, typhoid fever and malaria.

Malaria is widespread in central and southern Mali, as well as 

the drier Sahel during the rainy season (see Political & Social 

Relations). It contributes significantly to mortality among 

children under age 5 and pregnant women and further 

contributes to high incidences of periodic illness and adult 

absenteeism especially during the rainy season.

Mali has one of the world’s highest fertility (average woman 

births 7 offspring) and infant mortality rates (in rural areas, one 

of every five children dies prior to age 5 – only about 40% of 

births are attended by skilled medical personnel). The average 

adult life expectancy rate is 47 for men and 48 for women, with 

almost half of the population less than age 15.

Inadequate Facilities: Concentrated primarily in urban areas, 

medical facilities are understaffed and void of modern 

equipment and treatment. Therefore, a majority of the 

population does not have access to proper healthcare.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medical Practices: Many rural people rely on

traditional methods, with local practitioners using a variety of 

plants and herbs to treat patients. Most families also have their 

own secret remedies. While in some cases traditional medicine 

proves effective with fewer side effects than modern drugs, 

traditional practices do not adequately treat the more serious 

conditions.

However, some traditional practices are recognized as 

universally beneficial and have stimulated an emerging 

research effort, referred to as ethnopharmacopeia, to promote

large-scale production of reliable medications. Based on sound 

medical knowledge, these medicines are an inexpensive 

alternative already available to a majority of Malians. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

Tradition of the Kola Nut

Since ancient times, the kola nut has had social 

significance throughout West Africa. Renowned as a 

“quick fix” energy booster, some people describe it as 

the “poor man’s friend” for its high caffeine content. In 

fact, the first Coca-Cola recipe contained the kola nut 

thus coining the “cola” label.

Among local tribesmen and even in professional 

settings, chewing the kola nut is a popular social 

pastime. Because of its stark bitter taste, the kola nut 

typically is not swallowed when chewed.

Among some ethnic groups, it is customary for the 

prospective husband to deliver a few kola nuts to his 

future in-laws, whose acceptance indicates marriage 

approval. Similarly, exchanging kola nuts between 

rivals signifies a peace accord, with the nut halved 

between the two parties to signify goodwill.

Traditionally, West Africans have used the kola nut as 

a household remedy for digestive disorders, nausea, 

and diarrhea. Its high caffeine content is believed to 

suppress anxiety, migraine headaches, and hunger.
Economic Overview

Mali is among the world’s 10 poorest countries, with about 

65% of its population living in poverty. Its gross domestic 

product (GDP) is divided among three sectors (2008 est.): 

agriculture (46%), services (33%), and industry (21%). 

With 70% of Mali’s land non-arable desert or semi-desert, 

economic activity is largely limited to processing farm 

commodities concentrated along the Niger River. About 80% 

of the labor force (small-scale family enterprises) is engaged 

in subsistence farming and fishing and another 10% are 

nomadic. Dependent on foreign aid from a variety of 

multilateral organizations, Mali historically has been 

constrained by pricing 

fluctuations for its 

primary exports, gold 

and cotton, and by 

high transportation 

costs due to Mali’s 

landlocked position.

Fortunately, the future 

appears encouraging, 

as Mali’s government 

has successfully

implemented a recommended International Monetary Fund

(IMF) structural adjustment program that is promoting 

economic growth, diversity, and foreign investment. 

Consequently, promoting private sector development is 

essential to sustaining substantial economic performance.

Similarly, the GDP growth has remained strong, supported by 

plentiful rainfall and stable gold exports, although the country 

remains highly vulnerable to inclement climatic conditions

such as drought and flooding (see Technology & Material). 

Agriculture

Mali is Africa’s second largest cotton producer, devoting 

considerable arable land to this crop. Malians also produce

rice, grains (corn, millet, and sorghum), peanuts, sugarcane, 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
and vegetables and herding livestock (cattle, goats, and 

sheep) for export throughout the region. 

Lacking modern equipment and techniques, farming methods 

are largely primitive, using a slash-and-burn technique that 

has existed for generations. Farmers depend on livestock and 

basic hand tools to 

cultivate the land.

Malians also engage in 

forestry activities, with 

fuel wood the primary 

energy source for most 

residences. Similarly, 

the country’s rivers 

produce as much as 

100,000 tons of fish 

annually, 20% of which is exported, with the city of Mopti the 

country’s center for the fishing industry. 

Natural Resources

Mali's natural resources (currently mined) include gold (Mali is 

Africa’s third largest gold producer after South African and 

Ghana), phosphate, kaolin (white clay used to make 

porcelain), salt and limestone. Unexploited deposits of oil, 

bauxite, iron ore, manganese, lithium, and uranium are known 

or believed to exist.

Services

Mali’s services sector includes 

employment in government, 

healthcare, education, retail sales, 

banking, and tourism. 

Banking and Finance: Primarily 

government-owned, Mali’s banking 

industry is controlled by a central 

bank, the Central Bank of the 

West African States or Banque 

Centrale des États de l'Afrique de 

l'Ouest (BCEAO) in French, based 

in Dakar, Senegal. Mali’s banking system consists of seven 

commercial banks, one agricultural bank, and one housing 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
bank with financial services heavily concentrated in urban 

areas. As part of the IMF economic stimulus program, 

privatization efforts are ongoing and expected to enhance

financial services (Photo a courtesy of Pro Quest 2010). 

Currency: Mali’s unit of 

currency is the CFA Franc

(commonly referred to as 

franc), which includes two 

currencies used in Africa 

(the West African CFA 

franc and the Central 

African CFA franc) that 

are guaranteed by the 

French treasury and also united with the Euro currency at a 

fixed rate. Mali’s franc has a USD exchange rate of 0.0021 or 

1 US dollar equals about 454 francs. The franc is divided 

further into 100 centimes. Mali’s currency is issued by the 

Bank of West African States, with the capital city, Bamako, 

offering ATMs for 24/7 service. VISA cards are accepted in

urban areas, with Diners Club and Master Cards to a lesser 

extent. 

Tourism: Historically of little 

economic significance, Mali’s 

tourist industry is beginning to 

show promise as its once 

isolated cultural heritage gains 

international recognition (see 

“Dogon Country” in Political & 

Social Relations). Of note, Mali’s 

hosting of the 2002 Africa Cup of 

Nations tournament helped it 

gain recognition. However, Mali’s 

tourism is hampered by an 

underdeveloped transportation 

system and shortage of services 

facilities (see Technology & Material).

Industry

The Malian economy is hardly industrialized despite 

modernization efforts since 1960 independence. Small-scale 

manufacturing activities include food processing, textiles, 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
cigarettes, and metalworking among others. Gold mining 

accounts for about 80% of the natural resource excavation 

activity, conducted by two private South African investor –

Anglo-American and Randgold. 

Geography & Climate (see Political & Social Relations).

Salt & Camel Caravans

Since ancient times, camel caravans belonging to the 

indigenous Tuareg and Moor nomads have traversed 

Mali’s rugged northernmost Sahara Desert to transport 

mined salt slabs. Within the Taoudenni salt mines, 

situated some 400 miles north of Timbuktu, Bella 

tribesmen (formerly slaves to Tureg nomads) carve 

salt blocks from the ancient lake bed, where they form 

100-pound slabs. 

With each camel carrying 4 salt slabs, and a single 

caravan consisting of several hundred camels, the salt 

is transported to Timbuktu (a 2-week journey), with the 

teams travelling at night when the desert temperatures 

drop by about 40 degrees. The camels are unloaded 

during the daytime and allowed to rest for the next 

night’s journey. 

The Tuareg or Moor caravan leader must be intimately 

familiar with the terrain and enabled to “read the 

sands” as keenly as a trucker would read a map. He 

must know precisely how to navigate to each oasis, as 

a slight mistake could be fatal for the entire team.

Upon arrival at Timbuktu, the salt slabs are then 

transported by boat via the Niger River to Mopti (a 

trans-shipment hub), where the slabs are cut into 

smaller sections and stored in warehouses for 

distribution throughout West Africa. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Technology

Accounting for 21% of the gross domestic product (GDP), 

Mali’s industrial base employs only about 10% of the total 

population. The manufacturing subsector (concentrated in 

Bamako) is relatively insignificant; consisting primarily of food 

processing, construction materials, and basic consumer goods

(see Economics & Resources). Similarly, future development 

prospects are hampered by energy shortages, smuggling, and 

competition from neighbors with better developed economies.

The one bright spot is the mining industry that provides for 

close to 20% of Mali’s GDP.

Energy Sources

Mali’s energy resources are primitive and unreliable, with

energy shortages hampering economic development. While 

fuel wood and charcoal provide about 90% of the country’s 

energy requirements, hydropower generates most of Mali’s 

electricity. However, during dry periods power outages are 

regular occurrences. 

Transportation

Mali’s transportation infrastructure is inadequate, with 

deficiencies contributing to marginalized economic growth and 

development. However, there have been recent improvements, 

most notably in 

preparation for Mali’s 

hosting of the African 

Nations Cup football 

tournament in 2002.

Waterways: From 

August to December, 

the Niger River is

usually navigable by 

larger ships, with 

canoes and small 

craft in use yearround. A covered

watercraft, known as a pinasse, is a common mode of public 

transportation (Photo a courtesy of Pro Quest 2010). 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Roadways: Travel by 

roadway is difficult, 

since the only paved 

road connects the 

regional capitals and 

Bamako to the Côte 

d’Ivoire coast at 

Abidjan, with most other 

roads unpaved and 

passable only in the dry 

season. While buses 

link major cities, outlying areas are usually only accessible by 

pickup trucks or passenger vans. People otherwise walk, ride 

bikes or mopeds.

In general, road conditions outside of urban areas are 

hazardous, especially at night. Isolation, poor road conditions, 

and banditry have rendered overland travel to the north of Mali 

especially dangerous. Similarly, many of Mali’s northern 

thoroughfares are little more than long, isolated desert tracks.

There are planned road construction projects to further connect 

Bamako to Dakar, Senegal and Kankan, Guinea, as well as a 

trans-Saharan road linking Mali with Algeria.

Railroads: Mali has only one railroad which connects its capital 

city, Bamako, and its major port, Koulikoro, to Dakar, Senegal. 

It also serves as the major trade link for landlocked Mali. Poorly 

maintained and unreliable, Mali’s rail system is mostly 

inoperable during the rainy season (June-November). 

Civil Aviation and Airports: Mali has 8 airports having paved 

runways, with Bamako (the major air hub) providing 

intercontinental and European flights. Mali formerly had a 

national airline (Air Mali), although discontinued in 2003. Air 

France and Royal Air Maroc are now the major carriers, among 

others.

Telecommunications

Telephone: Telephone connections are generally reliable in 

urban areas, although not extensive, with cellular service

popular. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Radio & Television: 

Television broadcasts

(primarily in French)

are available in most 

regions, although rural 

access is limited. 

Radio is the main 

source of news and 

transmitted in local 

languages. 

Postal Service: Mail is 

only delivered to postal and government offices and not to 

homes. Rural people usually send parcels via travelers to a 

particular location.

Print Media: With multi-party democracy in 1992 (see History 

& Myth) came a significant increase in print media to include a 

variety of private newspapers and journals published in French, 

Arabic, and various local languages. Mali’s constitution 

guarantees freedom of 

speech and press, with a 

broad range of viewpoints 

permitted to include 

government criticism. 

Internet: Since private 

computers are largely 

unaffordable, access is 

most widely available 

through urban internet 

cafés.

Environmental Issues

Mali’s major environmental concerns include desertification, 

deforestation, soil erosion, drought, and shortages of potable 

water.

Natural Hazards

A dry dusty wind blows from the Sahara Desert to the Atlantic 

Ocean during the dry season, while the Niger River is known to 

flood during the rainy season.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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