Open-File Report 2010–1236

Prepared in cooperation with Trout Unlimited and the U.S. Forest Service

The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on

the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover. Westslope cutthroat trout (top) and Bonneville cutthroat trout (bottom). Photo courtesy of Kirk Dahle and Mike Ebinger.
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the 

Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 

By A.L. Haak, J.E. Williams, D. Isaak, A. Todd, C.C. Muhlfeld, J.L. Kershner, R.E. Gresswell, S.W. Hostetler, and 

H.M. Neville 

Prepared in cooperation with Trout Unlimited and the U.S. Forest Service 

Open-File Report 2010–1236

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Marcia K. McNutt, Director 

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 2010 

For product and ordering information: 

World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod 

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its natural and living resources, natural hazards, and the environment: 

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Suggested citation: 

Haak, A.L., Williams, J.E., Isaak, D., Todd, A., Muhlfeld, C., Kershner, J.L., Gresswell, R., Hostetler, S., and Neville, 

H.M., 2010, The potential influence of changing climate on the persistence of salmonids of the inland west: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 2010–1236, 74 p.

Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply 

endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual 

copyright owners to reproduce any copyrighted material contained within this report. 
iii

Contents 

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Study Area ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Methods ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Climate Change Analysis........................................................................................................................................... 5

Summer Temperature ............................................................................................................................................ 5

Winter Flooding ...................................................................................................................................................... 7

Wildfire ..................................................................................................................................................................10

Drought .................................................................................................................................................................13

Analysis.....................................................................................................................................................................16

Results ..........................................................................................................................................................................17

Montana Arctic Grayling ............................................................................................................................................17

Apache Trout ............................................................................................................................................................21

Gila Trout ..................................................................................................................................................................25

Bonneville Cutthroat Trout ........................................................................................................................................29

Colorado River Cutthroat Trout .................................................................................................................................34

Greenback Cutthroat Trout .......................................................................................................................................40

Lahontan Cutthroat Trout ..........................................................................................................................................44

Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout .......................................................................................................................................48

Westslope Cutthroat Trout ........................................................................................................................................52

Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout ......................................................................................................................................58

Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................................63

Geographic Patterns of Climate Change Risk ...........................................................................................................64

Climate Change Risk and Small Populations ............................................................................................................65

Importance of Peripheral Populations .......................................................................................................................66

Limitations of a Broad-Scale Assessment .................................................................................................................67

References ...................................................................................................................................................................68

Figures 

1. Geographic scope of project and ranges of native trout and grayling evaluated in the broad-scale assessment .. 4

2. Average temperatures for July, 1970–2000 .......................................................................................................... 6

3. Average cumulative precipitation from November 1 to March 30, 1970–2000 ...................................................... 8

4. Results of winter flooding analysis ........................................................................................................................ 9

5. Distribution of the topographic zone of 1,680–2,690 meters defined by Westerling and others (2006) as 

experiencing the greatest increase in area burned ..........................................................................................11

6. Results of LANDFIRE wildfire analysis ................................................................................................................12

7. Projection of Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) by climate division for the period 2035–2060 by Hoerling 

and Eischeid (2007) .........................................................................................................................................13

8. Results of modified drought risk forecast for year 2060 .......................................................................................15

9. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Montana Arctic grayling in their current range. .........................................18

10. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Montana Arctic grayling in their current range. .............19

11. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Apache trout in their current range. .........................................................22

12. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Apache trout in their current range ...............................23
iv

13. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Gila trout in their current range. ...............................................................26

14. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Gila trout in their current range .....................................27

15. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Bonneville cutthroat trout in their current range .......................................30

16. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Bonneville cutthroat trout in their current range ............31

17. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Colorado River cutthroat trout in their current range ................................35

18. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Colorado River cutthroat trout in their current range ....36

19. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Greenback cutthroat trout in their current range ......................................41

20. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Greenback cutthroat trout in their current range ...........42

21. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Lahontan cutthroat trout in their current range .............45

22. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Lahontan cutthroat trout in their current range .........................................46

23. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Rio Grande cutthroat trout in their current range .....................................49

24. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Rio Grande cutthroat trout in their current range ..........50

25. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Westslope cutthroat trout in their current range .......................................55

26. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Westslope cutthroat trout in their current range ............56

27. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Yellowstone cutthroat trout in their current range ....................................59

28. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Yellowstone cutthroat trout in their current range .........60

Tables 

1. Temperature thresholds used to characterize suitability by taxon ......................................................................... 7

2. Criteria for determining population persistence ...................................................................................................16

3. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature to 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Montana Arctic grayling .......................................................20

4. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Montana Arctic grayling ..........................21

5. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought and increased summer temperature to 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Apache trout ........................................................................24

6. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Apache trout ...........................................25

7. Ratings from increased risk for winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Gila trout ..............................................................................28

8. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Gila trout.................................................29

9. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature to 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout .....................................................32

10. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout ........................33

11. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature to 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout .............................................37

12. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout ................39

13. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Greenback cutthroat trout. ...................................................43

14. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Greenback cutthroat trout.......................44

15. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Lahontan cutthroat trout ......................................................47

16. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Lahontan cutthroat trout ..........................48

17. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Rio Grande cutthroat trout. ..................................................51

18. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Rio Grande cutthroat trout .....................52

19. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Westslope cutthroat trout ....................................................53

20. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Westslope cutthroat trout........................58
v

21. Ratings for increased risk from winter flooding, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperature for 

subwatersheds and conservation populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout ..................................................61

22. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout .....................63
vi

Conversion Factors 

Multiply By To obtain

Length

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

kilometer (km) 0.5400 mile, nautical (nmi) 

meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd) 

Area

hectare (ha) 2.471 acre

square kilometer (km2) 247.1 acre

hectare (ha) 0.003861 square mile (mi2) 

square kilometer (km2) 0.3861 square mile (mi2)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows: 

°F=(1.8×°C)+32 

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows: 

°C=(°F-32)/1.8 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the 

Persistence of Inland Native Salmonids 

By A.L. Haak,1 J.E. Williams,2 D. Isaak,3 A. Todd,4 C.C. Muhlfeld,5 J.L. Kershner,6,7 R.E. Gresswell,6 S.W. 

Hostetler,8 and H.M. Neville1

Introduction 

The Earth‘s climate warmed steadily during the 20th century, and mean annual air temperatures 

are estimated to have increased by 0.6°C (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007). 

Although many cycles of warming and cooling have occurred in the past, the most recent warming 

period is unique in its rate and magnitude of change (Siegenthaler and others, 2005) and in its 

association with anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change, 2007). The climate in the western United States warmed in concert with the global trend but at 

an accelerated rate (+0.8°C during the 20th century; Saunders and others, 2008). The region could also 

prove especially sensitive to future changes because the relatively small human population is growing 

rapidly, as are demands on limited water supplies. 

Regional hydrological patterns are dominated by seasonal snow accumulation at upper 

elevations. Most of the region is relatively dry, and both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems are strongly 

constrained by water availability (Barnett and others, 2008; Brown and others, 2008). Stream 

environments are dynamic and climatically extreme, and salmonid fishes are the dominant elements of 

the native biodiversity (McPhail and Lindsey, 1986; Waples and others, 2008). Salmonids have broad 

economic and ecologic importance, but a century of intensive water resource development, nonnative 

fish stocking, and land use has significantly reduced many populations and several taxa are now 

protected under the Endangered Species Act (Thurow and others, 1997; Trotter, 2008). Because 

salmonids require relatively pristine, cold water environments and are often isolated in headwater 

habitats, members of this group may be especially vulnerable to the effects of a warming climate 

(Keleher and Rahel, 1996; Rieman and others, 2007; Williams and others, 2009). 

Warming during the 20th century drove a series of environmental trends that have profound 

implications for many aspects of salmonid habitat, including disturbance regimes such as wildfire, and 

unfavorable changes to thermal and hydrologic properties of aquatic systems. Warmer air temperatures 

have been associated with decreased winter snow accumulations, have accelerated snowmelt, and have 

 

1

 Trout Unlimited, 910 West Main Street, Suite 342, Boise, Idaho 83702, USA 

2

 Trout Unlimited, 329 Crater Lake Avenue, Medford, Oregon 97504, USA 

3

 U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Boise Aquatic Sciences Laboratory, 322 E. Front Street, Suite 401, 

Boise, Idaho 83702 USA 

4

 U.S. Geological Survey, Crustal Imaging and Characterization Team, Denver, Colorado 80225 

5

 U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, Glacier Field Office, Glacier National Park, West 

Glacier, Montana 59936, USA 

6

 U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, 2327 University Way, Suite 2, Bozeman, Montana 

59715 

7 Primary point of contact

8

 U.S. Geological Survey, Department of Geosciences, Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon 97331
2 Introduction

advanced the timing of peak runoff by several days to weeks across most of western North America 

(Stewart and others, 2005; Barnett and others, 2008). Less snow and earlier runoff decrease aquifer 

recharge, make less water available for groundwater inputs to streams, and are contributing to 

widespread decreases in summer low flows (Stewart and others, 2005; Rood and others, 2008; Luce and 

Holden 2009). Interannual variability in stream flow is increasing, as is the persistence of multi-year 

extreme conditions (McCabe and others, 2004; Pagano and Garen 2005). In many areas of western 

North America, flood risks have increased in association with warmer temperatures during the 20th 

century (Hamlet and Lettenmaier, 2005). Streams where midwinter temperatures are near freezing have 

proven especially sensitive to increased flooding because of associated transitional hydrological patterns 

(mixtures of rainfall and snowmelt) and propensity for occasional rain-on-snow events to rapidly melt 

winter snowpack and generate large floods (Hamlet and Lettenmaier, 2005). 

Stream temperatures in many areas are increasing (Peterson and Kitchell, 2001; Morrison and 

others, 2002; Bartholow, 2005; Kaushal and others, 2010), due to both air temperature increases and 

reduced summer flows that make streams more sensitive to warmer air temperatures (Isaak and others, 

2010). In recent decades, wildfires have become more common across much of the western United 

States during periods of more frequent droughts (Westerling and others, 2006; Hoerling and Eischeid, 

2007), and local stream temperature can increase in postfire environments (Gresswell, 1999; Dunham 

and others, 2007). Fire-related temperature increase within streams is commonly a transient 

phenomenon, lasting only until riparian vegetation has recovered (Gresswell, 1999); however, ongoing 

climate change could preclude recovery to higher stature, prefire vegetation types in some areas 

(McKenzie and others, 2004; van Mantgem and Stephenson, 2007), resulting in a loss of critical riparian 

shading. Additionally, when wildfires occur in steep mountain topographies, the vegetation that 

stabilizes soils on hillslopes is often killed and landslides become more prevalent (Gresswell, 1999). 

Landslides into stream channels form debris flows composed of sediment slurries and dead trees that 

can scour channels to bedrock and further exacerbate stream heating, delay recovery of riparian areas, or 

extirpate fish populations (Gresswell, 1999; May and Gresswell, 2003; Dunham and others, 2007). 

Changes in stream environments will shift habitat distributions, sometimes unpredictably, in 

both time and space for many salmonid fishes. Water temperature fundamentally influences aquatic 

ecosystem health because distribution, reproduction, fitness, and survival of ectothermic organisms are 

inextricably linked to the thermal regime of the environment. Historically, research has focused on 

defining lethal thermal limits of salmonids (Eaton and others, 1995; Selong and others, 2001; Todd and 

others, 2008); however, water temperature is known to be important in biological processes at a variety 

of spatial scales and levels of biological organization (Rahel and Olden, 2008; McCullough and others, 

2009). For instance, trout are affected directly by water temperature through feeding, metabolism, and 

growth rates, and indirectly by factors such as prey availability and species interactions (Wehrly and 

others, 2007; Rahel and Olden, 2008). Where cold water temperatures currently limit habitat suitability 

and distributions of some species (for example, at the highest and most northerly distributional extents; 

Nakano and others, 1996; Coleman and Fausch, 2007), a warming climate may gradually increase the 

quality and extent of suitable habitat. Over time, previously constrained populations are expected to 

expand into these new habitats and increase in number. Some evidence suggests this may already be 

happening in Alaska, where streams in recently deglaciated areas are being colonized by emigrants from 

nearby salmon and char populations (Milner and others, 2000). 

Unfortunately, many of the sensitive salmonid species that are often the focus of western 

managers are unlikely to benefit from future water temperature increases. Warmer stream temperatures 

will facilitate invasion by nonnative species that are broadly established in downstream areas into 

upstream areas where they will compete with native species (Rieman and others, 2006; Rahel and 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 3

Olden, 2008; Fausch and others, 2009). In other cases, warmer stream temperatures will render 

thermally suitable habitats unsuitable in downstream areas and effect net losses of habitat because 

upstream distributions are often constrained by streams that are too small or steep (Hari and others, 

2006; Isaak and others, 2010). Both scenarios are realistic for fish species like bull trout (Salvelinus 

confluentus) (Rieman and others, 2006; Rieman and others, 2007), the various subspecies of cutthroat 

trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii) (Williams and others, 2009), Gila trout (Oncorhynchus gilae gilae) 

(Kennedy and others, 2008), and Apache trout (Oncorhynchus gilae apache) (Rinne and Minckley, 

1985; Carmichael and others, 1993). As native species are increasingly confined to smaller and more 

isolated habitats by a gradually warming climate, the effects of wildfires (whether related to lethal 

changes in water quality during a fire, channel debris flows, or chronic postfire warming) could have 

greater proportional effects on remaining habitats (for example, Brown and others, 2001; Rieman and 

others, 2007). If these changes were accompanied by additional hydrologic alterations associated with 

changes to the magnitude, frequency, duration, timing, and rate of change of discharge patterns (Jager 

and others, 1999; Henderson and others, 2000), populations may begin to lose some of their historic 

resilience and become ever more susceptible to local extirpations. 

As dramatic and extensive as climatic and environmental trends are for salmonid habitats, global 

climate models (GCMs) project that many of these trends will continue and even accelerate until at least 

the middle of the 21st century (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007). Current projections 

suggest mean annual air temperatures will increase by an additional 1–3°C, and early indications are 

that climate trajectory is at the higher end of this range (Pittock, 2006; Raupach and others, 2007). 

Although predicted changes vary considerably, even the most conservative estimates suggest a warming 

rate that will be twice that observed during the 20th century. Projections for the midcentury are most 

certainly due to the effects of greenhouse gases already emitted or predicted in the short term, 

uncertainties of the effects of longer-term greenhouse gas emissions, short-term climate cycles, and 

process errors associated with climate models (Cox and Stephenson, 2007). Projections of changes in 

total precipitation are less certain than those for air temperatures, but most GCMs project relatively 

small changes in the Northwest, with the exception of slightly drier summer periods (Mote and others, 

2008; Karl and others, 2009). In the Southwest, however, significant decreases (such as 15–30 percent) 

are projected during most periods of the year, and this area is one of the few for which 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) precipitation projections have a high level of 

certainty (Hoerling and Eischeid, 2007; Karl and others, 2009). Clearly, managers of native salmonids 

in the western United States should consider adjusting management strategies to accommodate a 

warmer and possibly drier future (Williams and others, 2009). Tools are needed to forecast where 

important changes may occur and how conservation efforts should be prioritized. In this Open-File 

Report, we document our initial efforts in this regard for 10 species and subspecies of inland trout and 

Montana Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) across the western United States. 

Study Area 

Our study examined the influence of changing climate on the persistence of native trout and 

grayling within 11 western States (fig. 1). The study area ranged from the crests of the Cascades and 

Sierra Nevada eastward through the Rocky Mountains, Great Basin, and Southwest Deserts within the 

western United States. The focal taxa were westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi),

Yellowstone cutthroat trout (O. clarkii bouvieri), Lahontan cutthroat trout (O. clarkii henshawi), 

Bonneville cutthroat trout (O. clarkii utah), Colorado River cutthroat trout (O. clarkii pleuriticus), 

greenback cutthroat trout (O. clarkii stomias), Rio Grande cutthroat trout (O. clarkii virginalis), Apache

trout (O. gilae apache), Gila trout (O. gilae gilae), and Montana Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus). 
4 Study Area

We defined the spatial extent for historic and current distributions based on the most recent range-wide 

assessments for Bonneville cutthroat trout (May and Albeke, 2005), Colorado River cutthroat trout 

(Hirsch and others, 2006), westslope cutthroat trout (Shepard and others, 2003), Rio Grande cutthroat 

trout (Alves and others, 2007), and Yellowstone cutthroat trout (May and others, 2007). When a rangewide assessment was not available, we relied on information obtained from published recovery plans or 

on the opinion of local experts, including the following unpublished data: Apache trout, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service and Arizona Game and Fish Department (2007); greenback cutthroat trout, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service (1998); Lahontan cutthroat trout, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (5-Year Status 

Review 2009); Gila trout, New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (2009); and Montana Arctic grayling, Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks (C.M. Kaya, 1992) 

(historic extent) and Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks (2008) (current extent). 

Figure 1. Geographic scope of project and ranges of native trout and grayling evaluated in the broad-scale 

assessment. Areas in green represent the historic distribution of the selected subspecies, while areas in red 

represent more detailed analyses in selected areas based on the availability of data. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 5

Methods 

Our assessment of the effects of climate change on the persistence of western native trout is 

based on a coarse filter evaluation of four environmental factors potentially driven by climate change 

and a detailed assessment of current habitat fragmentation across the historic ranges of 10 species and 

subspecies of trout and the Montana Arctic grayling. We used a 3°C increase in air temperature, which 

is consistent with higher end GCM projections for the western United States by 2050 (Climate Impacts 

Group, 2004), to determine the risk to trout populations from each of these four factors: (1) increased 

summer temperature, (2) increased winter flooding, (3) increased wildfire risk, and (4) protracted 

drought. The results were summarized for each factor by subwatershed (HUC 6, 6th field of the 

hydrologic unit code) across the extent of the historic distribution for each taxon. We then analyzed the 

likelihood of population persistence (under current conditions) based on information drawn from the 

literature on relationships between persistence and fish abundance, habitat connectivity and patch size 

for each taxon. The results of this analysis were combined with the results of the coarse filter evaluation 

to provide a spatially explicit characterization of extirpation risk to native trout populations. 

Climate Change Analysis 

The coarse filter evaluation of our four environmental factors driven by climate change was 

conducted in a geographic information system (GIS) environment. Analytical processes used a spatially 

distributed model across the eleven western States. The final risk scores were aggregated by 

subwatershed to determine an area-weighted average score for each subwatershed within the historic 

and current ranges of each taxon. More details are provided by Williams and others (2009). 

Summer Temperature 

Coldwater fish are highly sensitive to water temperature. The paucity of organized water 

temperature databases at a regional scale and the strong correlation between air and water temperature 

make air temperature a reasonable surrogate for analyzing thermal changes in aquatic environments 

across the study area. Our analysis applies the methods of Rahel and others (1996), who used changes 

in mean July air temperature, often the hottest month of the year in the Rocky Mountains, to model 

habitat loss due to global warming for a coldwater guild of brown, rainbow, brook, and cutthroat trout in 

the Rocky Mountains. 

We used data on the national average air temperature for July from 1970 to 2000 (800-m spatial 

resolution) published by Daly and others (2008) to establish a baseline from which to model climate 

change (fig. 2). The average July temperature was used to characterize the thermal limits for each 

species or subspecies based on the relationship between the historical distribution and air temperature, 

assuming that this relationship would reflect species-specific adaptations and preferences. By using 

historic rather than current distributions to define thermal limits, we hoped to minimize anthropogenic 

effects on species distribution and emphasize fish responses to natural environmental conditions. 

Stream length (kilometers [km]) of historic habitat was calculated for 1°C temperature intervals for each 

taxon and displayed graphically to define three thermal classes for each taxon: suitable, marginal, and 

unsuitable. Most taxa exhibited a normal distribution in 85–90 percent of the historically occupied 

habitat associated with temperatures less than one standard deviation above the mean. Obvious 

breakpoints on the graph that bracketed the first standard deviation above the mean defined the 

thresholds for marginal and unsuitable thermal classes (table 1). An effort was made to maintain similar 

percentages between species of historic habitat in each class. Of the historic habitat, 85–90 percent was 

classified as thermally suitable and typically less than 5 percent was considered thermally unsuitable. 
6 Methods

The remaining habitat was classified as thermally marginal and included those places where local 

conditions (for example, riparian shading, channel depth, and flow) could make the difference between 

suitable and unsuitable conditions. This category applied to about 10–15 percent of the historic 

distribution for each taxon. Temperature thresholds were used to characterize habitat suitability by 

taxon (table 1). 

Figure 2. Average temperatures for July, 1970–2000 (Daly and others (2008). Temperature measurements within 

native trout ranges (blue lines) show the variation in thermal conditions between the southwestern and northern 

portion of the study area. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 7

Table 1. Temperature thresholds used to characterize habitat suitability by taxon. 

Taxon Total temperature range 

(°C)

Suitable temperature

range (°C)

Marginal temperature 

range (°C)

Unsuitable 

temperature range 

(°C)

Westslope cutthroat 5.9–24.2 ≤19.0 19.1–22.0 >22

Yellowstone cutthroat 6.0–23.3 ≤21.0 21.1–23.0 >23

Bonneville cutthroat 9.4–26.2 ≤22.0 22.1–24.0 >24

Colorado River 

cutthroat 5.3–24.7 ≤19.0 19.1–22.0 >22

Greenback cutthroat 3.5–24.4 ≤19.0 19.1–22.0 >22

Rio Grande cutthroat 5.8–23.3 ≤19.0 19.1–22.0 >22

Lahontan cutthroat 9.7–24.8 ≤22.0 22.1–24.0 >24

Apache 10.4–24.2 ≤21.0 21.1–23.0 >23

Gila 12.5–27.5 <22.0 22.1–24.0 >24

Arctic grayling 13.0–20.5 <19.0 19.0–20.5 >20.5

Our assessment of global warming influence applied a 3°C temperature increase to the 1970–

2000 mean July air temperatures. The area-weighted average temperature under the global warming 

scenario was calculated for each subwatershed within the historic range of each species and subspecies 

analyzed. Using the species-specific  ̳suitable,‘  ̳marginal,‘ and  ̳unsuitable‘ temperature breakpoints 

previously defined, we scored each subwatershed on the level of risk to the local populations from 

increased summer air temperatures: 1—suitable, low risk; 2—marginal, moderate risk; or 3—

unsuitable, high risk. 

Winter Flooding 

Our intent in this analysis was to identify those subwatersheds with an increased risk of 

uncharacteristic winter flooding as a direct result of warmer winter temperatures associated with climate 

change. We used the approach of Hamlet and Lettenmaier (2005) to analyze winter flood events for the 

western United States. Midwinter air temperature was used to classify watersheds with three types of 

winter precipitation regimes: rain dominant, snow dominant, and transient (between rain and snow). 

Winter flooding in a rain dominant watershed is a function of individual storm events and the size and 

characteristics of the catchment (such as antecedent moisture and vegetation cover). Winter flood 

events in these watersheds will not change because of rising temperatures without a corresponding 

increase in precipitation. Snow dominant watersheds do not typically flood in midwinter, but annual 

flood events occur as spring runoff. However, low- to mid-elevation snow dominant watersheds that lie 

near the freezing line may experience a change in runoff timing and characteristics associated with 

warmer winter air temperatures (McCabe and Dettinger, 2002). Transient watersheds, where both rain 

and snow precipitate in the winter months, are currently the primary location of significant winter 

flooding events for much of the western United States (Hamlet and Lettenmaier, 2005). The magnitude 

of these flood events depends on the intensity and duration of the rainstorm and the antecedent 

snowpack. 
8 Methods

Because our focus was on the risk of winter flood events altering channels and because we are 

not attempting to analyze changes in storm intensities, we initially relied on cumulative winter 

precipitation to identify low-risk areas. We assumed that watersheds receiving lower winter 

precipitation were less susceptible to large flood events than watersheds with more winter precipitation. 

To make this distinction, we used the average monthly precipitation data from Daly and others (2008) 

for 1970 to 2000 for the snow accumulation period of November–March (fig. 3). Total precipitation 

amounts were calculated for this five-month period and then reclassified into 10 groups using the 

 ̳natural breaks‘ methodology (Jenks, 1967). Data are grouped so that variance is minimized within 

groups and maximized between groups with this approach. If precipitation totals for the driest 

classification were <11.2 centimeters (cm), they were considered to be at low risk for winter flooding. 

Figure 3. Average cumulative precipitation from November 1 to March 30, 1970–2000 (Daly and others, 2008). 

The dark brown areas (0.5–4.3 in) were considered a low risk for winter flooding due to limited winter 

precipitation. Native trout ranges (blue lines) show the variability in thermal conditions between the southwest 

and northern portion of the study area. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 9

Areas receiving >11.2 cm of winter precipitation were classified by watershed type according to 

average late winter temperatures. Specifically, we used the data from Daly and others (2008) for 

monthly average temperatures from 1970 to 2000 for the January–March timeframe. We used these late 

winter temperatures (January–March) rather than midwinter (December–February) because 

temperatures are generally warmer and the probability of a rain-on-snow event is greater at a time when 

snowpack is greatest in the mountainous regions. The mean temperature for the 3-month period was 

calculated for each watershed, and then each watershed was classified. Watersheds with a mean winter 

temperature less than -1°C were classified as snow dominant, and those with a mean temperature greater 

than +1°C were classified as rain dominant. Areas with mean winter temperatures between -1°C and 

+1°C were classified as transient. Increased risk of winter flooding from global warming was based on 

Figure 4. Results of winter flooding analysis. Areas in tan receive very little winter precipitation and are 

considered a low risk. The middle elevations show the highest risk because of increases in rain-on-snow 

events. Native trout ranges (blue lines) show the variability in thermal conditions between the southwest and 

northern portion of the study area. 
10 Methods

changes in winter precipitation type. Risk of change in winter precipitation regime was estimated by 

adding a 3°C to the current winter mean temperature of each watershed and then reclassifying. The 

greatest risk was assigned to watersheds that changed from snow dominant to transient or rain dominant 

systems (fig. 4). Watersheds that changed from transient to rain dominant were classified as a moderate 

risk because the risk of flooding would likely be higher in the near term while snow accumulation 

remains high and the frequency of warm midwinter storm events is increasing. These watersheds are 

predicted to eventually become rain dominant. Once a watershed has transitioned to rain dominant, 

winter flood risk may actually decline because the probability of an antecedent snowpack and associated 

high runoff potential diminishes. The cold, high-elevation mountains that are likely to remain snow 

dominant and the valley bottoms that are currently rain dominant were both classified as low risk. We 

recognize that downstream portions of watersheds may experience greater winter flows because of 

upstream events, but the complexity of dams and reservoir management makes it difficult to analyze 

downstream flood effects accurately. 

Wildfire 

Our analysis of wildfire risk does not incorporate temperature increase because wildfire ignition 

is not directly related to a temperature threshold in the way that temperature affects the occurrence of 

fish or form of precipitation (rain or snow). Rather, we assume that wildfire is a function of climate, 

fuels, and ignition and that changing climatic conditions for the western United States will continue to 

increase the likelihood of wildfires in the presence of fuels and an ignition source. 

In order to define the spatial characteristics of wildfire risk, we assumed that fire frequency and 

duration (that is, total area burned) in forested regions were closely associated with timing of snowmelt 

(Westerling and others, 2006). Areas where snowmelt occurs early generally have more fires and a 

longer fire season because the forest‘s period of desiccation is longer. Westerling and others (2006) 

reported that the topographic zone of 1,680–2,690 meters (m) recently had been prone to earlier 

snowmelt and more and larger wildfires (fig. 5). In each watershed, we classified landscapes above and 

below this zone as having low risk for wildfire, and areas within this zone (pink area on fig. 5) were 

subject to further analysis. Because these relationships were derived specifically for the Rocky 

Mountain region (Westerling and others, 2006), we did not include coastal areas in our analysis. 

We used this topographic fire zone to define our wildfire risk assessment area. To further 

classify risk within the focal elevation zone, we relied on the Anderson Fire Behavior Fuel Model 

(Anderson, 1982) as updated by the LANDFIRE program (http://www.landfire.gov/NationalProduct 

Descriptions1.php). This spatial data set identifies 13 different fuel types based on satellite imagery 

collected between 1999 and 2003 with a spatial resolution of 30 m. Using the description of fire 

behavior associated with each fuel type, grassland and mesic shrublands were classified as low risk 

(score of 1) and all other fuel types were classified as high risk (score of 3). Nonfuel categories such as 

urban areas, agricultural lands, and barren ground were classified and given a score of zero (no fire 

risk). We then used a 5-km2 moving window to calculate an average score for fire risk based on the 

fuels within a particular grid cell and the risk associated with adjacent grid cells (fig. 6). 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 11

Figure 5. Distribution of the topographic zone of 1,680 – 2,690 meters (shaded in pink) defined by Westerling and 

others (2006) as experiencing the greatest increase in area burned. Native trout ranges (blue lines) show the 

variability in thermal conditions between the southwest and northern portions of the study area. 
12 Methods

Figure 6. Results of LANDFIRE wildfire analysis. Red shading indicates areas with high risk for wildfire. Native 

trout ranges (blue lines) show the variability in thermal conditions between the southwest and northern portion 

of the study area. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 13

Drought 

Our analysis of increased drought risk related to climate change is based on Hoerling and 

Eischeid (2007). Using the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) to model drought risk across the 

western United States for the period 2035–2060, Hoerling and Eischeid (2007) predicted that heatrelated moisture loss will overwhelm potential increases in precipitation related to global warming, and 

as a result, an unprecedented, nearly perpetual state of drought will occur across much of the region (fig. 

7). In order to downscale these data (reported by climate division, 60,000–12,000,000 hectares [ha]), 

mean annual precipitation (1970–2000) and elevation were used to identify local conditions that could 

mitigate the effects of regional drought due to heat-related moisture loss. 

Figure 7. Projection of Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) by climate division for the period 2035–2060 by 

Hoerling and Eischeid (2007). Native trout ranges (blue lines) show the variability in thermal conditions 

between the southwest and northern portion of the study area. 
14 Methods

The PDSI is reported by climate divisions developed by the National Climatic Data Center 

(NCDC) to represent areas of similar climate, but the divisions include political boundaries. In order to 

minimize the artificial effects of political boundaries, we modified the climate divisions to conform to 

subbasin (4th field Hydrologic Unit Code) delineations. In situations where a subbasin was split by a 

climate division, we assigned the entire subbasin to the division covering the largest portion of the 

subbasin. The five levels of drought severity in the Hoerling and Eischeid (2007) forecast were 

reclassified into five risk categories as follows: 

-1—developing drought—low risk, 

-2—moderate drought—moderate risk, 

-3—severe drought—moderate risk, 

-4—extreme drought—high risk, and 

-5—extreme drought—high risk. 

Because the PDSI was originally developed for use in Midwestern States where topography is 

uniform, it does not capture the regional microclimates associated with mountainous terrain in the 

western United States. Therefore, we used the 1,680–2,690 m topographic zone (Westerling and others, 

2006) to modify initial predictions. We assumed that elevations above 2,690 m were less prone to

prolonged drought because the snowpack extends into the spring and provides greater base streamflow 

during the dry summer months. In order to extend the timeframe from current conditions (Westerling 

and others, 2006) to the year 2060, we applied a 3°C temperature increase to the upper limits of the 

current snowmelt zone (2,690 m; assuming a normal lapse rate of 6.5°C/1,000 m). Areas between 2,690 

m and 3,190 m elevation were classified as moderate risk to future drought, and areas above 3,190 m 

were considered low risk. Elevations below 2,690 m were assigned a drought severity level according 

to the PDSI forecast. 

In addition to the mitigating effect of snowpack retention in high elevations, we also 

incorporated mean annual precipitation as a local factor that might alleviate regional drought conditions. 

Our objective was to identify anomalies within the climate divisions where the effects of heat-related 

moisture loss on streamflows are reduced because precipitation greatly exceeds that of the surrounding 

region. The mean annual precipitation for 1970–2000 (Daly and others, 2008) was used for this portion 

of the analysis. The mean precipitation for the interior western United States was 41 cm; one standard 

deviation was 64 cm and the second standard deviation was 89 cm. We reclassified mean annual 

precipitation into the following three drought risk categories: 

>3 standard deviations (>89 cm)—low risk; 

1–2 standard deviations (64–89 cm)—moderate risk; and 

<64 cm—no mitigating effects. 

After classifying each of the three variables (PDSI, elevation, and precipitation) into risk 

categories, drought risk was determined using the lowest risk from each of the three variables. For 

example, a PDSI of high risk for a low elevation that receives 102 cm of rain would receive a low risk 

score because of the mitigating effects of the wet climate. Because the PDSI was considered to 

represent the worst-case scenario, no area received a higher risk than the PDSI score regardless of 

precipitation or elevation (fig. 8). 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 15

Figure 8. Results of modified drought risk forecast for year 2060. This forecast uses the Hoerling and Eischeid 

(2007) PDSI 2060 forecast as the foundation, but includes data on elevation and precipitation. Native trout 

ranges (blue lines) show the variability in thermal conditions between the southwest and northern portion of the 

study area. 
16 Methods

Analysis 

Our analysis of population vulnerability combines the results of the climate change evaluation 

with a population-specific assessment of persistence for each taxon. Analysis for cutthroat trout 

subspecies (with the exception of greenback cutthroat trout) was based on conservation populations as 

defined in the range-wide status assessments (May and others, 2007). A conservation population 

represents a subset of the current distribution of an individual taxon that has high conservation value and 

therefore represents a priority for recovery efforts. In general, a conservation population represents a 

group of genetically pure individuals or a unique life-history form. We used population-specific data on 

distribution and abundance when available in a published recovery plan, or we relied on local expert 

knowledge from the State agencies. All populations of greenback cutthroat trout, Montana Arctic 

grayling, Gila trout, and Apache trout were considered conservation populations. Population 

persistence was assessed separately for small streams (Hilderbrand and Kershner, 2000) and for larger 

rivers or coupled stream networks (Dunham and Rieman, 1999). In general, persistence criteria 

examine whether sufficient habitat is available to support an effective population size of at least 500 

spawning adults, which is usually equivalent to a census population of at least 1,000 adults. All 

populations with a habitat patch size >5,000 ha and an extent of at least 13.9 km of stream habitat were 

considered persistent (see Williams and others, 2009). Populations occupying a habitat patch <5,000 ha 

or an extent of <13.9 km of stream habitat were considered persistent if they satisfied the following 

combinations of stream habitat availability and population density: 9.3–13.9 km stream habitat with 

high density (>93 fish/km); 13.9–27.8 km habitat with moderate density (>31 fish/km); or >27.8 km of 

habitat at any density. Populations with <9.3 km of stream habitat were classified as ―at risk‖ regardless 

of fish density. Table 2 summarizes our persistence criteria. All populations not meeting these criteria 

were classified as not persistent. 

Table 2. Criteria for determining population persistence. [ha, hectare; km, kilometer. Population density: moderate, 

>31 fish/km; high, >93 fish/km] 

Patch size (ha) Stream habitat (km) Population density

≥5,000 ≥13.9 any

<5,000 ≥27.8 any

<5,000 13.9–27.8 moderate-high

any 9.3–13.9 high

Subsequent to the initial persistence classification, climate change risk was assessed using the 

coarse filter assessment to determine population vulnerability. For populations that extended into 

multiple subwatersheds, we estimated a length-weighted average score for each of the four risk factors 

and assigned it to the entire population. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 17

Results 

Climate change risk factors were summarized for each species and subspecies. Our broad-scale 

analysis of climate change risk factors is largely determined by the integration of a changing climate 

with varying landscape conditions such as elevation and aspect. Existing watershed, riparian, and 

stream conditions are often important at local scales in determining risk from climate change. 

Montana Arctic Grayling 

Historically occupied habitat for the Montana Arctic grayling is divided between 62 

subwatersheds in the Missouri-Marias River Basin and 130 subwatersheds in the Missouri Headwaters 

Basin. Nineteen of the remaining 20 conservation populations are located in the Missouri Headwaters 

Basin. 

The risk from winter flooding is generally low throughout the entire historic range of the 

Montana Arctic grayling (fig. 9), and 19 of 20 conservation populations are classified at low risk for 

winter flooding (table 3). Wildfire is a greater concern in the Missouri Headwaters Basin, and 13 of 19 

conservation populations in that basin were classified as high risk. The remaining six conservation 

populations were considered at low risk for wildfire (fig. 9). Risk for drought is high throughout the 

Missouri-Marias, and the single conservation population in that basin is rated at high risk of drought. 

Drought risk was rated as moderate through most of the Missouri Headwaters. A total of 13 of 19 

populations in that basin are at moderate risk for drought, and the remaining six at low risk (fig. 10). 
18 Results

Figure 9. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Montana Arctic grayling in their current range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 19

Figure 10. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Montana Arctic grayling in their current range. 
20 Results

Table 3. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Montana Arctic grayling. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Missouri Headwaters 0 0 37 24 8 5 0 31 6 3 5 29 37

Missouri-Marias 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

TOTAL 0 1 37 24 8 6 1 31 6 3 6 29 38

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Missouri Headwaters 2 3 125 75 19 36 0 107 23 30 22 78 130

Missouri-Marias 0 0 62 2 1 59 60 2 0 47 11 4 62

TOTAL 2 3 187 77 20 95 60 109 23 77 33 82 192

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Missouri Headwaters 0 0 19 13 6 0 0 13 6 0 2 17 19

Missouri-Marias 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

TOTAL 0 1 19 13 6 1 1 13 6 0 3 17 20
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 21

Unlike many remaining enclaves of native trout that are located at higher elevations and are 

somewhat buffered from increasing summer temperature, the historic range of Montana Arctic grayling 

includes many larger, lower elevation river systems that are vulnerable to thermal risks. Nonetheless, 

remaining conservation populations are primarily upstream of the highest risk areas in the Missouri 

Headwaters. Moreover, summer temperature is a moderate risk for 3 of 20 conservation populations and 

a low risk for the remaining 17. 

Our persistence analysis indicated that only 2 of 20 conservation populations of Montana Arctic 

grayling met persistence criteria (table 4). Of 14 populations that rated high for at least one climate risk 

factor, only one met persistence criteria. The lone conservation population in the Missouri-Marias 

Basin was at high risk for drought and failed to meet persistence criteria. 

Table 4. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Montana Arctic grayling. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Missouri Headwaters Persistent 1 1 2

Not persistent 12 5 17

Missouri-Marias Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 1 0 1

TOTAL 14 6 20

Apache Trout 

Most remaining populations of Apache trout occupy high-elevation streams in the Little 

Colorado River, upper Gila River, and Salt River systems. Only 20 of 62 subwatersheds within the 

historic range are currently occupied. In general, our analysis showed that these high-elevation streams 

have the greatest risk of winter flooding, low to moderate risk of drought and wildfire, and the lowest 

risk of increased summer temperature (figs. 11, 12). Streams on the north-facing slopes of Mt. Baldy 

tended to have a lower risk for drought and wildfire, but those on the more southerly exposures rated at 

a higher risk for these factors. Fifty-seven percent of populations (21 of 37) were rated at high risk for 

winter flooding (table 5). All but one of 37 conservation populations occurred in subwatersheds rated as 

having a high or moderate risk for winter flooding. 
22 Results

 

Figure 11. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Apache trout in their current range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 23

.....

Figure 12. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Apache trout in their current range. 
24 Results

Table 5. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures to subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Apache trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total 

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Little 

Colorado 2 1 1 0 1 3 1 2 1 0 0 4 4

Upper Gila 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Salt 7 8 0 6 4 5 0 10 5 0 1 14 15

TOTAL 9 10 1 7 5 8 1 13 6 0 1 19 20

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total 

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Little 

Colorado 5 0 0 0 0 5 0 4 1 0 0 5 5

Upper Gila 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Salt 15 18 24 37 10 10 23 25 9 21 5 31 57

TOTAL 20 18 24 37 10 15 23 29 10 21 5 36 62

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total 

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Little 

Colorado 4 1 1 0 1 5 1 4 1 0 0 6 6

Upper Gila 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

Salt 17 13 0 10 9 11 0 20 10 0 1 29 30

TOTAL 21 15 1 11 10 16 1 25 11 0 1 36 37
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 25

Eleven conservation populations (30 percent) were rated at high risk for wildfire. Most of these 

populations were located along the south flanks of Mt. Baldy in streams draining the Salt River system. 

At low- to mid-elevations of the historic range, where few conservation populations currently exist, 

risks increase from wildfire, drought, and summer temperature. Increasing summer temperature was a 

significant risk only at the lowest elevations within the historic range. Risks tend to decrease with 

increasing elevation for all factors except winter flooding, where risks are highest near the peak of Mt. 

Baldy. Although risks varied substantially with elevation and aspect, all areas were classified as high 

risk for at least one of the four factors. Nonetheless, higher elevation populations draining streams on 

the north and northwest face of Mt. Baldy appear to be at lowest relative risk. 

Because of small population size and limited habitat, 25 of the 37 conservation populations of 

Apache trout (68 percent) failed to meet persistence criteria (table 6). Of the 33 populations that were 

ranked at high risk for one or more climate change risk factors, 11 (33 percent) met persistence criteria. 

All of these populations meeting persistence criteria were located in the Salt River Basin. 

Table 6. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Apache trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Little Colorado Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 5 1 6

Salt Persistent 11 1 12

Not persistent 16 2 18

Upper Gila Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 1 0 1

TOTAL 33 4 37

Gila Trout 

Historic habitat of Gila trout occurs in two disjunct patches: one area of the upper Gila River, 

primarily in New Mexico, and a second area primarily in the Verde River drainage and lower Gila River 

system in Arizona. Nearly all remaining conservation populations are located in the tributaries of the 

upper Gila River in New Mexico. In the upper Gila River, wildfire, drought, and increasing summer 

temperatures are high to moderate risk factors (figs. 13, 14). Drought is a substantial risk factor: seven 

populations are rated at high risk, six at moderate risk, and none at low risk. Increasing summer 

temperature is a high risk for one population, a moderate risk for another eight, and a low risk for four. 

Of the subwatersheds containing conservation populations, 9 (77 percent) are at high risk from wildfire 

(table 7). Increasing summer temperature is rated a high risk for 1 of 13 conservation populations and 

moderate risk for another 9. All 13 conservation populations are rated at low risk for winter flooding. 

In the Arizona portion of the historic range in the Verde and lower Gila Rivers, drought and increasing 

summer temperature are high risk factors throughout most historic habitat area and a moderate risk in 

nearly all of the remaining area. Ten of 13 populations were classified at high risk for at least one 

factor. 
26 Results

Figure 13. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Gila trout in their current range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 27

Figure 14. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Gila trout in their current range. 
28 Results

Table 7. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Gila trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Upper Gila 0 0 11 8 1 2 7 4 0 1 7 3 11

Rio Grande–

Mimbres 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

TOTAL 0 0 12 9 1 2 7 5 0 1 8 3 12

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Upper Gila 0 9 88 75 15 7 45 52 0 15 42 40 97

Salt 1 15 46 28 25 9 41 21 0 30 20 12 62

Lower Gila 0 0 10 0 2 8 0 10 0 10 0 0 10

TOTAL 1 24 144 103 42 24 86 83 0 55 62 52 169

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Upper Gila 0 0 12 9 1 2 7 5 0 1 7 4 12

Rio Grande–

Mimbres 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1

TOTAL 0 0 13 10 1 2 7 6 0 1 8 4 13
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 29

Like Apache trout, most populations of Gila trout are relatively small, occupy limited segments 

of streams, and fail to meet persistence criteria (table 8). Of 12 conservation populations in the upper 

Gila River drainage, 3 meet persistence criteria but 2 of these are rated as high risk from climate change, 

including primarily drought and wildfire. Of the 10 conservation populations that did not meet 

persistence criteria, 8 also were rated at high risk from climate change. 

Table 8. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Gila trout.

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Upper Gila Persistent 2 1 3

Not persistent 7 2 9

Rio Grande–Mimbres Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 1 0 1

TOTAL 10 3 13

Bonneville Cutthroat Trout 

Bonneville cutthroat trout are native to waters of the pluvial Lake Bonneville system, which 

consists of the Bear River Basin of Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming; the Northern Bonneville group in 

northern Utah; the Southern Bonneville group to the south; and the West Desert, which extends 

primarily along the Nevada-Utah border region. More than 90 percent of the currently occupied habitat 

occurs in the wetter, northeastern portions of the range in the Bear River and Northern Bonneville River 

basins. Bonneville cutthroat also have been introduced into the Lower Colorado–Lake Mead Basin, 

which consists primarily of the upper Virgin River area in southwestern Utah. 

In most areas of the Bear River Basin, especially those streams around Bear Lake and streams 

draining the Uinta Mountains, risk is low for winter flooding and increased summer temperature (figs. 

15, 16). Drought risk and wildfire risk, however, is high for most of this area. For example, 24 of 37 

conservation populations (65 percent) in the Bear River drainage rate as having a high risk for wildfire, 

but 32 populations (86 percent) are rated as having a low risk for increasing summer temperature (table 

9). One notable area of the Bear River Basin, the high-elevation streams draining into the Bear River 

from the Uinta Mountains, rate as having a low risk for all four climate change factors analyzed. 
30 Results

Figure 15. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Bonneville cutthroat trout in their current range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 31

Figure 16. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Bonneville cutthroat trout in their current range. 
32 Results

Table 9. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures to subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Bear 15 8 62 61 11 13 44 28 13 2 7 76 85

Northern Bonneville 55 18 23 60 17 19 43 36 17 6 21 69 96

Southern Bonneville 3 12 6 6 7 8 17 4 0 3 6 12 21

West Desert 2 4 5 1 4 6 11 0 0 5 5 1 11

TOTAL 75 42 96 128 39 46 115 68 30 16 39 158 213

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Bear 61 15 93 90 24 55 109 44 16 27 27 115 169

Northern Bonneville 79 42 34 82 27 46 87 50 18 31 35 89 155

Southern Bonneville 51 92 49 58 68 66 160 30 2 48 35 109 192

West Desert 1 17 19 7 5 32 42 2 0 32 11 1 44

TOTAL 199 166 195 237 124 199 398 126 36 138 108 314 560

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Bear 7 4 26 24 6 7 17 10 10 0 5 32 37

Northern Bonneville 44 17 12 47 15 11 24 30 19 4 19 50 73

Southern Bonneville 4 14 7 6 11 8 21 4 0 3 6 16 25

West Desert 7 11 11 1 12 16 29 0 0 14 11 4 29

TOTAL 62 46 56 78 44 42 91 44 29 21 41 102 164
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 33

In the Northern Bonneville River Basin winter flooding, wildfire, and drought are high risk 

factors in the majority of occupied subwatersheds. The risk of winter flooding is high in 55 of 96 (57 

percent) currently occupied subwatersheds. Drought risk is high or moderate in 79 of 96 currently 

occupied subwatersheds in this basin (82 percent) and 54 of 73 conservation populations (74 percent). 

The elevation zone between 1,680 m and 2,690 m, which covers a large part of the basin, has 

experienced drying and increased wildfire activity since the 1980s (Westerling and others, 2006) and, 

therefore, 47 of 73 conservation populations in the Northern Bonneville River Basin (64 percent) are 

rated as having a high risk for wildfire. Most areas were rated as having a high risk for at least two of 

four factors. Of conservation populations in this basin, increased summer temperature is typically a low 

risk factor, and 50 of 73 populations (68 percent) rated a low risk. 

Climate change risk is generally higher in the more southern and western basins, where habitat 

occurs at lower elevations. The Southern Bonneville River Basin is highly variable in terms of wildfire 

and winter flooding, but rates a high risk for drought. Of the 25 conservation populations in this basin, 

21 have a high risk for drought. Most conservation populations are at moderate risk from winter 

flooding and wildfire. Increasing summer temperature is a lower risk factor, and 16 of 25 populations 

(64 percent) are classified a low risk for this factor. 

Small isolated populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout located in the more xeric West Desert 

basins along the Nevada-Utah border are at a higher risk for drought and increased summer temperature. 

All 29 conservation populations in the West Desert rated a high risk for drought, and 14 of these 

populations also were a high risk for increasing summer temperature. Introduced populations in the 

Lower Colorado–Lake Mead Basin also have a high risk for drought and increased summer temperature. 

For the persistence analysis, 141 of 164 conservation populations were ranked at a high risk for 

at least one climate change factor. Of these 141 ranked at high risk, 56 (40 percent) met persistence 

criteria (including the majority of populations in the Bear River Basin), and 85 (60 percent) did not 

(table 10). About half the populations in the Northern Bonneville Basin met persistence criteria. On 

the other side of the continuum, only 4 of 21 populations (19 percent) in the Southern Bonneville Basin 

met persistence criteria. Similarly, only 2 of 29 (7 percent) populations in the West Desert Basin met 

persistence criteria. All of these West Desert populations also ranked at a high risk for at least one 

climate change risk factor. The populations exhibit a very high vulnerability in this basin, especially 

those from the more xeric western portions. 

Table 10. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Bear River Persistent 19 4 23

Not persistent 10 4 14

Northern Bonneville Persistent 31 4 35

Not persistent 31 7 38

Southern Bonneville Persistent 4 0 4

Not persistent 17 4 21

West Desert Persistent 2 0 2

Not persistent 27 0 27

TOTAL 141 23 164
34 Results

Colorado River Cutthroat Trout 

Colorado River cutthroat trout are native to the Upper Colorado drainages upstream of Lee‘s 

Ferry, Arizona, including the Upper Green, Lower Green, Yampa, Upper Colorado, Lower Colorado, 

Dolores, Gunnison, and San Juan basins. Most remaining populations (204 of 285 conservation 

populations) are located in headwater streams of the Upper Green, Yampa, and Upper Colorado basins, 

with relatively few, fragmented populations scattered in headwater streams in the rest of the range. 

Many of the conservation populations in the core areas of the Upper Green, Yampa, and Upper 

Colorado basins are in areas of relatively low climate change risk. Moreover, populations in these areas 

have a generally low risk for winter flooding and increased summer temperature, and low to moderate 

risk for wildfire (figs. 17, 18). Drought is likely to be the greatest climate change risk factor for these 

populations, and 58 of 285 conservation populations (20 percent) in these three basins ranked as having 

a high risk. Most populations, however, were rated as having a low to moderate drought risk (table 11). 

Many of these populations are located in streams draining high-elevation mountains such as the 

Wyoming Range, Park Range, and Uinta Mountains that are more resistant to changes in winter 

precipitation regimes and wildfires than are streams in lower elevation areas. Lower elevation portions 

of these basins are more susceptible to increased summer temperature, drought, and wildfire, but a few 

Colorado River cutthroat trout still occur in low-elevation streams. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 35

Figure 17. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Colorado River cutthroat trout in their current range. 
36 Results

Figure 18. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Colorado River cutthroat trout in their current 

range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 37

Table 11. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures to subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Dolores 0 2 2 0 0 4 0 3 1 0 0 4 4

Gunnison 3 6 8 0 4 13 4 11 2 0 7 10 17

Lower 

Colorado 1 5 3 1 1 7 3 5 1 1 2 6 9

Lower 

Green 2 3 27 10 7 15 16 11 5 2 7 23 32

San Juan 1 1 8 0 1 9 0 4 6 0 0 10 10

Upper 

Colorado 6 5 42 4 8 41 13 18 22 5 4 44 53

Upper Green 0 0 46 8 18 20 18 22 6 1 6 39 46

Yampa 1 2 39 10 11 21 9 21 12 1 17 24 42

TOTAL 14 24 175 33 50 130 63 95 55 10 43 160 213

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Dolores 65 33 38 47 30 59 76 41 19 41 45 50 136

Gunnison 23 42 106 16 38 117 74 67 30 31 43 97 171

Lower 

Colorado 3 16 21 8 13 19 27 11 2 9 18 13 40

Lower 

Green 14 25 123 60 49 53 105 38 19 43 41 78 162

San Juan 91 54 73 62 49 107 100 56 62 62 54 102 218

Upper 

Colorado 41 36 168 24 58 163 98 86 61 27 47 171 245

Upper Green 0 0 218 58 68 92 166 37 15 29 75 114 218

Yampa 32 10 115 53 51 53 90 39 28 26 78 53 157

TOTAL 269 216 862 328 356 663 736 375 236 268 401 678 1,347
38 Results

Table 11. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures to subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout.—Continued 

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Dolores 0 2 2 0 0 4 0 3 1 0 0 4 4

Gunnison 5 8 12 0 5 20 5 17 3 0 11 14 25

Lower 

Colorado 1 6 7 1 0 13 2 8 4 1 1 12 14

Lower 

Green 1 2 23 6 4 16 9 12 5 2 4 20 26

San Juan 1 1 10 0 2 10 0 5 7 0 0 12 12

Upper 

Colorado 5 6 64 3 10 62 14 24 37 5 4 66 75

Upper Green 0 0 76 15 29 32 20 45 11 0 5 71 76

Yampa 1 2 50 11 10 32 8 21 24 1 16 36 53

TOTAL 14 27 244 36 60 189 58 135 92 9 41 235 285
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 39

Although there are relatively few populations remaining in the Lower Colorado, Lower Green, 

Gunnison, Dolores, and San Juan basins, populations in these basins also tend to be located at higher 

elevations that are less susceptible to climate change impacts. Drought and winter flooding are the 

highest rated risk factors analyzed for conservation populations in these basins, particularly for 

populations in the Gunnison Basin. Wildfire and increasing summer temperature are typically a low 

risk for remaining conservation populations in the five basins. Much of the historically occupied 

habitats for Colorado River cutthroat trout have higher risks for all factors analyzed than currently 

occupied habitats, which should be considered if populations are reintroduced or reconnected in the 

future. 

Most populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout did not meet persistence criteria because of 

their small population size and (or) the small amount of available habitat. Of the 74 conservation 

populations found to have a high risk for one or more climate change factors, 55 (74 percent) did not 

meet persistence criteria (table 12). None of the populations with high climate change risk in the 

Gunnison, Dolores, San Juan, or Lower Colorado basins met persistence criteria. Overall, populations 

in the Upper Green scored higher regarding persistence than in other basins with 26 of 76 (34 percent) 

meeting persistence criteria. 

Table 12. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Colorado River cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Upper Green Persistent 8 18 26

Not persistent 21 29 50

Lower Green Persistent 4 5 9

Not persistent 5 12 17

Yampa Persistent 2 9 11

Not persistent 10 32 42

Upper Colorado Persistent 5 3 8

Not persistent 9 58 67

Gunnison Persistent 0 1 1

Not persistent 7 17 24

Dolores Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 0 4 4

San Juan Persistent 0 1 1

Not persistent 1 10 11

Lower Colorado Persistent 0 2 2

Not persistent 2 10 12

TOTAL 74 211 285
40 Results

Greenback Cutthroat Trout 

Greenback cutthroat trout occur in two drainages: the South Platte Basin and the Upper Arkansas 

Basin in Colorado. Like many native trout in the western United States, greenback cutthroat trout have 

been eliminated from much of the former habitat at middle and lower elevations, and most of the 

remaining populations occur in higher-elevation streams and lakes. Only 34 conservation populations 

remain: 21 in the South Platte Basin, and 13 in the Upper Arkansas Basin. 

In the South Platte Basin, nearly all populations are located in high-elevation zones where 

climate change risks are low (figs. 19, 20). Most populations in this basin score low for three of four 

risk factors: increasing summer temperature, wildfire, and winter flooding. Increasing drought is the 

primary factor of concern in this basin, and 1 conservation population is rated as having a high risk, 9 as 

having a moderate risk, and 11 as having a low risk (table 13). Drought is a relatively high risk factor 

when examined throughout the historic range of this subspecies, with 65 percent of the historically 

occupied subwatersheds in the South Platte rated with a high risk. Increasing summer temperature and 

wildfire are also a higher risk within historic habitat in the South Platte Basin as compared to occupied 

habitat.
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 41

Figure 19. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Greenback cutthroat trout in their current range. 
42 Results

Figure 20. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Greenback cutthroat trout in their current range.
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 43

Table 13. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Greenback cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

South Platte 0 1 17 0 1 17 1 8 9 0 0 18 18

Upper 

Arkansas 0 1 10 0 0 11 3 3 5 3 0 8 11

TOTAL 0 2 27 0 1 28 4 11 14 3 0 26 30

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

South Platte 25 54 202 71 36 174 184 67 30 105 58 118 281

Upper 

Arkansas 6 28 140 30 35 109 97 51 26 40 55 79 174

TOTAL 31 82 342 101 71 283 281 118 56 145 113 197 455

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

South Platte 0 1 20 0 1 20 1 9 11 0 0 21 21

Upper 

Arkansas 0 1 12 0 0 13 4 3 6 4 0 9 13

TOTAL 0 2 32 0 1 33 5 12 17 4 0 30 34
44 Results

In the Upper Arkansas Basin, remaining conservation populations are located in low-risk zones 

for winter flooding and wildfire. According to our analysis, however, drought and increasing summer 

temperatures do pose risks. Four conservation populations are rated at a high risk for drought and 

increasing summer temperature, but most populations are rated at a low to moderate risk for these 

factors in the Upper Arkansas Basin. No conservation populations were rated at a high risk for winter 

flooding or wildfire in this basin. 

Results of the persistence analysis suggested that 14 of 34 conservation populations (41 percent) 

met persistence criteria (table 14). Only one of the five populations that were ranked at high climate 

change risk met persistence criteria. 

Table 14. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Greenback cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

South Platte Persistent 1 10 11

Not persistent 0 10 10

Upper Arkansas Persistent 0 3 3

Not persistent 4 6 10

TOTAL 5 29 34

Lahontan Cutthroat Trout 

Lahontan cutthroat trout historically occurred throughout the Lahontan Basin, including the 

Humboldt River system in the Eastern Lahontan Basin; the Oregon closed basins and Quinn River 

drainage in the Northern Lahontan Basin; and the Truckee, Carson, and Walker watersheds in the 

Western Lahontan Basin. A total of 62 conservation populations occur within the historic range, 

including 29 in the Eastern Lahontan Basin. Lahontan cutthroat trout also have been introduced outside 

their historic range, and there are 11 conservation populations in the Sacramento, San Joaquin, Central 

Nevada Desert, and Great Salt Lake basins. 

Drought and increasing summer temperature are the primary climate change risk factors likely to 

negatively affect persistence of Lahontan cutthroat trout (fig. 21). Drought risk is high or moderate for 

all conservation populations except for those inhabiting streams in the high-elevation Sierra Mountains 

in California. Drought risk is high throughout most of the Humboldt River drainage in the Eastern 

Lahontan Basin. Existing vegetation types and trends toward earlier commencement of summer 

conditions in many areas contribute to increasing wildfire risk. Increased winter flooding is a high risk 

factor affecting populations in the high-elevation Sierra Mountains as well as the eastern portions of the 

Humboldt River drainage (fig. 22). Of the 73 Lahontan Basin conservation populations, 33 (45 percent) 

are classified at a high risk for increased winter flooding (table 15). Although the risk of increasing 

summer temperature is relatively high throughout much of the historic range, the currently occupied 

habitat is mostly located in low-risk subwatersheds. Nearly all subwatersheds within the historic range 

are rated at a high risk for at least one of the four climate change factors. Conservation populations in 

the eastern portions of the Humboldt River drainage may be especially vulnerable because many are 

classified at a high risk for drought, wildfire, and winter flooding. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 45

Figure 21. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Lahontan cutthroat trout in their current range. 
46 Results

Figure 22. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Lahontan cutthroat trout in their current range.
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 47

Table 15. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Lahontan cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Eastern 

Lahontan 26 12 4 26 6 10 29 13 0 2 13 27 42

Northern 

Lahontan 2 8 3 0 3 10 0 13 0 2 9 2 13

Western 

Lahontan 6 4 2 3 6 3 0 5 7 2 0 10 12

Out of basin 1 1 4 4 0 2 3 1 2 2 1 3 6

TOTAL 35 25 13 33 15 25 32 32 9 8 23 42 73

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Eastern 

Lahontan 101 95 51 93 46 108 199 48 0 51 121 75 247

Northern 

Lahontan 3 36 36 1 5 64 0 70 0 32 33 5 70

Western 

Lahontan 45 46 64 40 39 76 0 120 35 25 40 90 155

TOTAL 149 172 151 134 90 248 199 238 35 108 194 170 472

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Eastern 

Lahontan 19 10 6 20 5 10 23 12 0 3 6 26 35

Northern 

Lahontan 4 7 1 0 4 8 0 12 0 0 8 4 12

Western 

Lahontan 7 7 1 3 10 2 0 5 10 1 0 14 15

Out of basin 3 1 7 9 0 2 4 1 6 2 2 7 11

TOTAL 33 25 15 32 19 22 27 30 16 6 16 51 73
48 Results

Most conservation populations of Lahontan cutthroat trout failed to meet persistence criteria. Of 

the 55 populations that were ranked at a high risk for one or more climate change risk factors, only 9 (16 

percent) met persistence criteria (table 16). The Eastern Lahontan Basin contains the majority of the 

conservation populations, but only 6 of 35 conservation populations in that basin (17 percent) met 

persistence criteria, indicating that most populations occupied a relatively small habitat area and (or) 

had very small population sizes. In the Northern Lahontan Basin, only 3 of 12 populations met 

persistence criteria. Likewise, only 3 of 15 populations in the Western Lahontan Basin met persistence 

criteria. None of the introduced populations outside of the Lahontan system met persistence criteria. 

Table 16. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Lahontan cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Eastern Lahontan Persistent 6 0 6

Not persistent 25 4 29

Northern Lahontan Persistent 1 2 3

Not persistent 3 6 9

Western Lahontan Persistent 2 1 3

Not persistent 7 5 12

Out of basin Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 11 0 11

TOTAL 55 18 73

Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout 

Historically, Rio Grande cutthroat trout occurred in the Rio Grande headwaters in Colorado; the 

Rio Grande, upper Canadian, and upper Pecos Rivers in New Mexico; and a few small streams in the 

Rio Grande drainage of Texas. This area currently provides habitat for 121 conservation populations. 

Our analysis follows the range-wide status assessment of Alves and others (2007), which does not 

include the small portions of the range in Texas where the subspecies has been extirpated (Garrett and 

Matlock, 1991). 

Unlike other native southwestern trout, there are areas within the currently occupied range of the 

Rio Grande cutthroat trout where risks are scored as low or low to moderate for all four risk factors 

(figs. 23, 24). Of 40 conservation populations in the Rio Grande headwaters of Colorado, nearly all 

rank at a low risk for winter flooding, wildfire, and increasing summer temperature (table 17). Of these, 

11 also rank at a low risk for drought, and the remaining 29 rank at a moderate risk for this factor. Only 

one conservation population in the Rio Grande Headwaters Basin occurred in a high risk area (one 

population scored high for winter flooding). Numerous conservation populations in the higher 

elevations of the Lower Rio Grande Basin also consistently rank as low risk. Many of these lower risk 

populations are located along the western spines of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and Taos 

Mountains. Throughout the currently occupied range, increasing drought poses the most prominent risk 

of any of the four climate change factors with 19 conservation populations (16 percent) ranked at a high 

risk, 61 populations (50 percent) ranked at a moderate risk, and 41 populations (34 percent) ranked at a 

low risk for negative effects of drought. In general, increasing summer temperature, winter flooding, 

and wildfire were consistently ranked as a low risk for most conservation populations. Although 

climate change risk factors scored relatively low for Rio Grande cutthroat trout, risks tended to increase 

in severity at lower elevations and in more central and southern portions of the range where drought 

and, to a somewhat lesser extent, wildfire and increasing summer temperature pose problems. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 49

Figure 23. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Rio Grande cutthroat trout in their current range. 
50 Results

Figure 24. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Rio Grande cutthroat trout in their current range.
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 51

Table 17. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Rio Grande cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Rio Grande 

Headwaters 2 4 28 2 0 32 3 24 7 0 3 31 34

Lower Rio 

Grande 5 21 13 2 9 28 10 20 9 4 11 24 39

Upper 

Canadian 3 5 1 1 3 5 4 5 0 0 3 6 9

Upper Pecos 1 3 0 1 0 3 1 0 3 0 1 3 4

TOTAL 11 35 42 6 12 68 18 49 19 4 18 64 86

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Rio Grande 

Headwaters 2 4 192 12 16 170 63 64 71 0 49 149 198

Lower Rio 

Grande 29 48 60 54 31 52 86 37 14 42 56 39 137

Caballo 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 2

Upper 

Canadian 11 14 19 13 9 22 31 13 0 10 17 17 44

Upper Pecos 5 5 29 26 5 8 21 15 3 15 16 8 39

TOTAL 47 71 302 107 61 252 201 131 88 68 139 213 420

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Rio Grande 

Headwaters 1 3 36 0 0 40 0 29 11 0 0 40 40

Lower Rio 

Grande 7 27 24 2 11 45 12 25 21 4 14 40 58

Upper 

Canadian 4 7 1 2 3 7 5 7 0 0 4 8 12

Upper Pecos 2 9 0 2 0 9 2 0 9 0 2 9 11

TOTAL 14 46 61 6 14 101 19 61 41 4 20 97 121
52 Results

Most conservation populations of Rio Grande cutthroat trout did not meet persistence criteria 

because of the small population size and fragmented habitat. Of the 30 conservation populations that 

were rated at a high risk for one or more climate change factors, only 5 (17 percent) met persistence 

criteria, and 25 (83 percent) did not (table 18). Populations in the Upper Canadian Basin appeared 

particularly vulnerable because most rated high for climate risk and failed to meet persistence criteria. 

All but one population in the Upper Pecos Basin also failed to meet persistence criteria but, overall, 

most of these populations rated at a low or moderate climate change risk. 

Table 18. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Rio Grande cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Rio Grande Headwaters Persistent 1 9 10

Not persistent 0 30 30

Lower Rio Grande Persistent 3 10 13

Not persistent 15 30 45

Upper Canadian Persistent 1 1 2

Not persistent 8 2 10

Upper Pecos Persistent 0 1 1

Not persistent 2 8 10

TOTAL 30 91 121

Westslope Cutthroat Trout 

The westslope cutthroat trout has a broader range and occupies more watersheds than any of the 

other taxa examined. A total of 563 conservation populations are spread among 1,503 currently 

occupied subwatersheds (table 19). Most conservation populations occur in the expansive Clark Fork, 

Madison, and Upper Missouri Basins, but many large interconnected populations also occur in the 

Coeur D‘Alene, Clearwater, and Salmon Basins. Disjunct population groups are located in the Upper 

Columbia Basin in Washington and the John Day Basin in Oregon. 

In most basins, currently occupied habitat is at a low risk for increasing summer temperatures 

and moderate risk for drought, but risk of winter flooding and wildfire are more variable across basins 

(figs. 25, 26). Remaining conservation populations generally reflect these rankings. Throughout the 

entire occupied range, only 3 percent of subwatersheds were rated at a high risk for increasing summer 

temperature, and 2 percent were rated at a high risk for drought. For wildfire, 20 percent of occupied 

subwatersheds were rated at a high risk, and 23 percent rated at a high risk for winter flooding. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 53

Table 19. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Westslope cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Clark Fork 149 136 235 66 117 337 0 306 214 1 185 334 520

Clearwater 88 76 42 14 42 150 0 35 171 15 92 99 206

Coeur D‘Alene 66 31 0 0 2 95 0 20 77 6 71 20 97

John Day 7 17 4 0 5 23 0 28 0 3 24 1 28

Kootenai 18 8 2 0 2 26 0 16 12 0 8 20 28

Madison 0 2 117 85 30 4 0 115 4 0 15 104 119

Marias 0 0 13 1 6 6 2 5 6 0 1 12 13

Middle Missouri 0 2 7 5 1 3 5 4 0 0 3 6 9

Salmon 8 80 314 116 188 98 0 286 116 18 88 296 402

Saskatchewan 0 0 16 0 0 16 1 2 13 0 0 16 16

Upper Columbia 5 11 7 2 4 17 0 3 20 0 2 21 23

Upper Missouri 0 1 39 9 14 17 27 13 0 0 14 26 40

Musselshell 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 0 2 0 2

TOTAL 341 365 797 298 411 794 36 834 633 43 505 955 1,503

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Clark Fork 267 207 290 65 132 567 0 493 271 16 336 412 764

Clearwater 90 83 48 14 42 165 0 47 174 23 99 99 221

Coeur D‘Alene 74 35 0 0 2 107 0 24 85 7 80 22 109

John Day 7 21 8 0 5 31 0 36 0 7 28 1 36

Kootenai 77 50 17 0 6 138 0 88 56 0 44 100 144

Madison 2 10 387 197 119 83 0 376 23 7 132 260 399

Marias 0 0 93 1 8 84 72 13 8 28 36 29 93

Middle Missouri 1 6 70 6 5 66 70 7 0 18 45 14 77

Salmon 12 2 332 123 199 111 0 312 121 19 100 314 433

Saskatchewan 0 89 17 0 0 17 2 2 13 0 0 17 17

Upper Columbia 19 35 7 1 4 56 0 3 58 10 12 39 61

Upper Missouri 2 14 284 15 48 237 273 27 0 65 162 73 300

Musselshell 0 2 2 0 0 4 3 1 0 1 3 0 4

TOTAL 551 554 1,555 422 570 1,666 420 1,429 809 201 1,077 1,380 2,658
54 Results

Table 19. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Westslope cutthroat trout.—Continued 

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total populations

Management basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Clark Fork 79 80 72 13 38 180 0 148 83 1 105 125 231

Clearwater 2 2 0 0 1 3 0 1 3 0 3 1 4

Coeur D‘Alene 4 2 0 0 0 6 0 0 6 0 4 2 6

John Day 2 13 1 0 1 15 0 16 0 0 16 0 16

Kootenai 21 10 4 0 4 31 0 18 17 0 8 27 35

Madison 0 2 145 104 39 4 0 143 4 0 17 130 147

Marias 0 0 16 1 8 7 2 6 8 0 1 15 16

Middle Missouri 0 3 6 4 1 4 5 4 0 0 4 5 9

Salmon 2 7 6 0 7 8 0 12 3 2 6 7 15

Saskatchewan 0 0 8 0 0 8 0 2 6 0 0 8 8

Upper Columbia 2 11 4 1 4 12 0 1 16 0 1 16 17

Upper Missouri 0 1 56 19 17 21 35 22 0 0 16 41 57

Musselshell 0 1 1 0 0 2 1 1 0 2 0 2

TOTAL 112 132 319 142 120 301 43 374 146 3 183 377 563
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 55

Figure 25. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Westslope cutthroat trout in their current range. 
56 Results

Figure 26. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Westslope cutthroat trout in their current range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 57

In the Clark Fork Basin, summer temperature risk is low for 54 percent of the currently occupied 

subwatersheds, moderate for 44 percent, and high for about 2 percent. No subwatersheds in the Clark 

Fork Basin are at a high risk for drought, but 65 percent are at a moderate risk, and 35 percent at a low 

risk. Wildfire is a somewhat higher risk in the Clark Fork Basin; about 6 percent of subwatersheds are 

classified at a high risk, 16 percent at a moderate risk, and 78 percent at a low risk. Winter flooding is 

the highest risk factor in the basin, and about 34 percent of subwatersheds rated at a high risk, 35 

percent at a moderate risk, and 31 percent at a low risk. 

The Clearwater and Salmon Basins also have most of the currently occupied subwatersheds 

ranked at a low to moderate risk for increasing summer temperature and drought. Wildfire risk was 

somewhat higher, especially in the Salmon Basin, and 29 percent of subwatersheds ranked at a high 

risk, 47 percent at a moderate risk, and 24 percent at a low risk. Wildfire risk was rated as high in 7 

percent of the subwatersheds of the Clearwater Basin. Risk from winter flooding also was higher, with 

43 percent of subwatersheds in the Clearwater Basin at a high risk, 37 percent at a moderate risk, and 20 

percent at a low risk. In the Salmon Basin, winter flooding risk is relatively low. Risk is high for 2 

percent of the currently occupied subwatersheds, with a moderate risk for 20 percent and a low risk for 

78 percent. 

The Upper Missouri Basin is notable for having a relatively large percentage of currently 

occupied subwatersheds with a high risk for drought (61 percent) and wildfire (33 percent). Drought is 

a high risk factor throughout the Marias, Middle Missouri, and Musselshell river basins. Of the 27 

occupied subwatersheds in these three basins, 8 (37 percent) are at a high risk for drought. A few 

conservation populations remain in the Missouri River drainages, and wildfire and drought are 

significant risk factors in these basins. 

In the disjunct John Day Basin in Oregon, most conservation populations are rated at a moderate 

risk for winter flooding, drought, and increasing summer temperature, and at a low risk for wildfire. In 

Washington, most of the disjunct conservation populations in the Upper Columbia Basin are rated at a 

low risk for increasing summer temperature, drought, and wildfire, but at a moderate risk for winter 

flooding. 

Overall, when compared to the other trout taxa examined, more conservation populations of 

westslope cutthroat trout met persistence criteria. Of 563 conservation populations, 216 (38 percent) 

met persistence criteria and 347 (62 percent) did not (table 20). Range-wide, 84 of 296 conservation 

populations that were rated at a high risk for one or more climate change factors (28 percent) met 

persistence criteria. These relatively high numbers, however, were not distributed evenly among 

occupied basins. Conservation populations in the Marias, Upper Missouri, and Musselshell Basins 

scored relatively poorly on persistence criteria. Only 4 of 16 populations (25 percent) in the Marias 

Basin, 4 of 57 (7 percent) in the Upper Missouri Basin, and none in the Musselshell Basin met 

persistence criteria, and it appears that fragmented habitat and small population sizes are more common 

in these basins. A majority of populations in the expansive Clark Fork Basin met persistence criteria. 

All populations in the well-connected stream networks of the Clearwater Basin met persistence criteria.
58 Results

Table 20. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Westslope cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Clark Fork Persistent 49 79 128

Not persistent 44 59 103

Clearwater Persistent 2 2 4

Not persistent 0 0 0

Coeur D‘Alene Persistent 3 1 4

Not persistent 1 1 2

John Day Persistent 2 5 7

Not persistent 0 9 9

Kootenai Persistent 5 8 13

Not persistent 16 6 22

Madison Persistent 15 9 24

Not persistent 89 34 123

Marias Persistent 0 4 4

Not persistent 3 9 12

Middle Missouri Persistent 4 1 5

Not persistent 4 0 4

Salmon Persistent 0 9 9

Not persistent 4 2 6

Saskatchewan Persistent 0 5 5

Not persistent 0 3 3

Upper Columbia Persistent 2 7 9

Not persistent 1 7 8

Upper Missouri Persistent 2 2 4

Not persistent 49 4 53

Musselshell Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 1 1 2

Total 296 267 563

Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout 

Yellowstone cutthroat trout occur in the Yellowstone, Upper Snake, and Bighorn Basins. One 

conservation population also occurs in the Powder–Tongue Basin. In contrast to many native trout in 

the western United States, Yellowstone cutthroat trout still occupy a significant portion of their historic 

range, including many larger, interconnected streams and large lake systems. Of 1,024 historically 

occupied subwatersheds, Yellowstone cutthroat trout still occur in just over 50 percent of their historic 

subwatersheds, a much higher percentage than many native western trout. Our analysis includes the 

Snake River finespotted form but focuses on stream populations rather than lakes. 

For most remaining conservation populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout, drought is the 

highest risk factor, followed by wildfire and winter flooding. Increasing summer temperature is a low 

risk for most populations (figs. 27, 28). Drought is a high risk factor for 45 percent of conservation 

populations in the Bighorn Basin, 35 percent of populations in the Yellowstone River Basin, 20 percent 

of populations in the Upper Snake River Basin, and 41 percent of populations in the Lower Snake River 

Basin (table 21). Wildfire is a high risk factor for 15 percent of conservation populations in the Bighorn 

Basin, 12 percent of populations in the Yellowstone Basin, 27 percent of populations in the Upper 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 59

Figure 27. Risk of wildfire and winter flooding for Yellowstone cutthroat trout in their current range. 
60 Results

 

Figure 28. Risk of summer temperature increases and drought for Yellowstone cutthroat trout in their current 

range. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 61

Table 21. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout. 

Currently occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Yellowstone 3 17 134 23 46 85 58 60 36 2 10 142 154

Upper Snake 0 5 142 67 38 42 44 49 54 0 2 145 147

Lower 

Snake 33 20 98 71 27 53 103 24 24 14 48 89 151

Bighorn 3 4 90 18 23 56 49 30 18 3 11 83 97

Powder–

Tongue 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

TOTAL 112 132 319 142 120 301 43 374 146 3 183 377 563

Historically occupied subwatersheds

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Yellowstone 6 40 195 24 51 166 135 68 38 31 43 167 241

Upper Snake 0 5 140 66 39 40 44 50 51 0 2 143 145

Lower 

Snake 101 60 166 127 45 155 256 42 29 94 94 139 327

Bighorn 14 14 269 43 67 187 220 55 22 106 48 143 297

Powder–

Tongue 2 5 7 2 2 10 11 3 0 5 4 5 14

TOTAL 123 124 777 262 204 558 666 218 140 236 191 597 1,024
62 Results

Table 21. Ratings for increased risk from winter floods, wildfire, drought, and increased summer temperatures for subwatersheds and conservation 

populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout.—Continued 

Conservation populations

Flood risk Fire risk Drought risk Temperature risk Total

populations

Management 

basin High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low High Mod Low

Yellowstone 1 12 38 6 16 29 18 22 11 0 3 48 51

Upper Snake 0 1 100 27 29 45 20 34 47 0 1 100 101

Lower 

Snake 18 14 54 50 18 18 35 17 34 6 25 55 86

Bighorn 4 6 57 10 8 49 30 18 19 2 8 57 67

Powder–

Tongue 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

TOTAL 23 33 250 93 72 141 103 92 111 8 37 261 306
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 63

Snake Basin, and 58 percent of populations in the Lower Snake Basin. Winter flooding is a high risk 

factor for 6 percent of conservation populations in the Bighorn Basin, 2 percent of populations in the 

Yellowstone Basin, and 21 percent of populations in the Lower Snake Basin. No populations in the 

Upper Snake Basin rated at a high risk for winter flooding. Increased summer temperature is rated as a 

high risk for only 3 percent of conservation populations in the Bighorn Basin, none in the Yellowstone 

Basin, none in the Upper Snake Basin, and 7 percent of populations in the Lower Snake Basin. 

Compared to many subspecies of cutthroat trout, there are a relatively large number of 

populations that are ranked at a low risk. Many of the conservation populations in high-elevation 

streams around Yellowstone Lake and the headwaters of the Upper Snake River and the Wind River 

systems are consistently rated at a low risk for all four climate change factors examined. 

A larger number of Yellowstone cutthroat trout conservation populations also met persistence 

criteria, but a larger proportion did not. Of 306 conservation populations, 109 (36 percent) met 

persistence criteria, and 197 (64 percent) did not (table 22). Similarly, 60 of 164 populations (37 

percent) that were rated at a high risk for one or more climate change factors met persistence criteria, 

and 104 (63 percent) did not. The highest persistence ratings were in the Yellowstone Basin (the 

headwaters of which lie in Yellowstone National Park), where 53 percent of populations met persistence 

criteria. 

Table 22. Comparison of climate change risk and persistence in populations of Yellowstone cutthroat trout. 

Climate change risk

Management basin High Mod–Low Total

Yellowstone Persistent 8 19 27

Not persistent 13 11 24

Bighorn Persistent 9 11 20

Not persistent 23 24 47

Powder–Tongue Persistent 0 0 0

Not persistent 0 1 1

Upper Snake Persistent 18 11 29

Not persistent 16 56 72

Lower Snake Persistent 25 8 33

Not persistent 52 1 53

TOTAL 164 142 306

Discussion 

Native trout and Arctic grayling have received widespread attention as taxa that are increasingly 

threatened by factors such as poor land use practices, water withdrawals, overharvest, and the 

introduction of nonnative species (Gresswell, 1988; Young, 1995; Behnke, 2002). These factors have 

contributed to the significant declines in distribution and abundance, loss of key life history 

characteristics, and, in some cases, the eventual extinction of individual taxa (Gresswell and others, 

1994; Behnke, 2002). Added to these stressors is the emerging threat of climate change, which in many

cases may accelerate or amplify existing threats and create additional stressors. As climate changes, 

managers will need to understand how the predicted changes may influence the conservation 

requirements of these species, how current stressors will change with a changing climate, and what new 

threats might emerge as a result. Developing new conservation strategies that incorporate this 

information will be the key to maintaining and restoring these subspecies. 

Our analysis used a limited set of variables that have been shown to either directly or indirectly 

influence the quality and quantity of salmonid habitat. Although other variables related to water quality 

or watershed degradation may provide additional insights, we believe the variables used in this 
64 Discussion

assessment were valuable because of their broad applicability, accessibility, and relevance to salmonid 

life histories. In addition, the variety of responses across the landscape provides insights into the 

potential drivers of salmonid persistence in the face of climate change. These geographic patterns may 

help us to develop adaptation strategies that can be modified to address differences among taxa. 

Geographic Patterns of Climate Change Risk 

All of the species and subspecies that were examined in this study have a high risk in some 

portion of their range for one or more of the factors analyzed. Drought is the most pervasive threat with 

40 percent or more of the historic range for seven taxa at a high risk. Bonneville cutthroat trout are the 

most vulnerable to drought (>70 percent of the historic range at a high risk). Westslope cutthroat trout 

are the least likely to be affected by drought, and only 16 percent of its historically occupied 

subwatersheds is at a high risk. However, much of the area at a high risk lies in the Missouri River 

Basin where the distribution of westslope cutthroat trout has already contracted significantly and 85 

percent of the remaining populations do not meet persistence criteria. 

Overall, increasing summer temperature is relatively unlikely to affect the current distributions 

of the taxa examined. In fact, there appeared to be a significant difference in temperature risk between 

historic and current distributions that appears to be related to the disproportionate loss of warmer lowerelevation habitats as compared to streams at higher elevations. Only the historic habitats for Gila trout 

and Montana Arctic grayling had a high risk of increased summer temperature that exceeded 40 percent 

of the area. Given the potential synergistic effects of decreasing summer flows and rising summer 

temperatures, thermal conditions may be a higher risk than our analysis of independent factors indicates. 

Latitude, elevation, and geographic diversity influence the vulnerability of a species or 

subspecies to climate change risk. Westslope cutthroat trout are at the northern extent of salmonids 

analyzed and have the greatest geographic distribution, incorporating a diversity of habitats and climatic 

regimes. They also have the lowest overall predicted risk from climate change. Nonetheless, 55 percent 

of the historic range of the westslope cutthroat trout is at a high risk from one or more of the factors 

analyzed. The cooler and wetter climate associated with the core range of the subspecies reduces the 

risk of drought and elevated temperature in central Idaho and northwestern Montana and, because of the 

relatively low elevation in the region, winter flooding is the most widespread of the risk factors 

analyzed. 

The overall risk to Rio Grande cutthroat trout is similar to that of westslope cutthroat trout, and 

56 percent of its historic habitat is at a high risk from one or more factors; however, the patterns of risk 

are very different. Rio Grande cutthroat trout are at the southern extent of the range of the cutthroat 

trout species, but the high-elevation areas where the subspecies occurs reduces the negative effects of 

the southern latitude and protects many of the remaining populations from the threat of wildfire, winter 

floods, and rising temperatures. However, the effects of persistent drought predicted for the region 

extends to all but the highest elevations, and reduced precipitation may exacerbate the risk of wildfire 

and water temperature at moderate and low elevations. 

Apache trout and Gila trout are at the greatest risk of extinction—97 percent and 94 percent of 

the historic ranges, respectively, have a high risk of being influenced by climate change. These fishes 

are found in the southwestern United States at moderate elevations. Because the current ranges of both 

taxa are limited, risk generally varies with elevation. At higher elevations, risk of winter flooding is 

high; increased temperature and drought are high risk factors for populations at lower elevations. 

Drainages with a large proportion of south-facing slopes are especially vulnerable to increased 

desiccation. Wildfire is also influenced by elevation, and high-risk areas are usually associated with 

moderate elevations. 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 65

Climate Change Risk and Small Populations 

A large number of populations within the taxa examined did not meet persistence criteria, 

particularly in the central and southern extent of the study. Current management and restoration 

strategies have often focused on the occupied habitat on Federal lands or within conservation easements 

on private lands. Many of the target populations are small (<500 individuals) and located at higher 

elevations above barriers to upstream movement; therefore, there is limited opportunity for large-scale 

movements within habitat patches or for dispersal among patches. Where conditions are limiting, 

populations may have little opportunity for long-term persistence (Kruse and others, 2001; Harig and 

Fausch, 2002; Guy and others, 2008). For example, Gila trout currently occupy mid-elevation habitat 

that is projected to become unsuitable during the summer if there is a projected 2°C increase in summer 

water temperatures. This temperature shift could likely result in a loss of 70 percent of the suitable 

stream habitat in July (Kennedy and others, 2008). Coupled with an increased threat of drought and 

potential wildfires, small populations could face increased stochastic risk of extinction over the coming 

decades (Rinne, 1996; Gresswell, 1999; Kruse and others, 2001). For example, small conservation 

populations of Bonneville cutthroat trout were extirpated during the 2002 Sanford fire in southern Utah 

(J.L. Kershner, personal observation). These populations were located in small headwater streams with 

no connection to other tributaries. 

The synergistic effects of existing stressors with increasing disturbances from climate change 

provide additional cause for concern for remaining isolated populations. Brown and others (2001), for 

example, reported how livestock grazing and fire suppression activities had combined to increase 

extinction risk for populations of Gila trout. Six populations of Gila trout have been eliminated in 

recent decades by a combination of wildfire and subsequent debris flows as rains dump ash and 

sediment into stream systems (Brown and others, 2001). 

Projected temperature changes may also shift the zone of overlap for a number of species and 

may further exacerbate native and nonnative species interactions (Henderson and others, 2000). For 

example, native cutthroat trout in the interior West may be relegated to the highest elevation areas in the 

summer months to find suitable temperatures, and nonnative brown trout may occupy lower elevation 

habitats because of their tolerance to higher temperatures. An exception in this case may be Bonneville 

cutthroat trout that appear to occupy similar habitats to brown trout in larger rivers during warmer 

summertime periods (Colyer and others, 2005; McHugh and Budy, 2005). Where nonnative brook trout 

occupy similar habitats to cutthroat trout, similar shifts may occur. Brook trout appear to tolerate higher 

temperatures for longer time periods, suggesting a higher tolerance of warmer summer temperatures 

(DeStaso and Rahel, 1994). 

Loss of life history expression in small populations may be the most critical factor affecting the 

persistence of many populations of native trout and Arctic grayling (Gresswell, 1999; Rieman and 

Dunham, 2000). Many of these populations have little chance to migrate to more favorable conditions 

for growth and reproduction in downstream habitats. Coupled with the higher risk of small population 

size and limited habitat, the loss of a fluvial or fluvial-adfluvial life history limits the reproduction 

potential of these populations as well as their ability to colonize new habitats in other areas (Rieman and 

others, 2003). Populations that have the ability to expand and fully express life-history attributes 

appear to be at a lower risk of threats associated with climate change (Gresswell, 1999). Populations 

that tend to be more secure from the potential effects of climate change tend to be located farther north 

within the Yellowstone and Westslope cutthroat trout subspecies, but exceptions exist in other 

subspecies where larger stream networks provide greater connectivity (Neville and others, 2006). 
66 Discussion

In summary, small streams and associated small populations tend to be more vulnerable to 

environmental effects associated with climate change (Heino and others, 2009). The relationship 

between air temperature and water temperatures may be more strongly linked, and threats from wildfire 

and drought are more significant in these systems (Isaak and others, 2010). Small streams are more 

susceptible to low flows, and key refugia are limited during the potential rain-on-snow floods that could 

increase in some areas because of climate change (Guy and others, 2008). Furthermore, small streams 

in higher elevations may have limited potential for restoration given these conditions. Battin and others 

(2007) speculate that higher restoration benefits for salmon populations may occur in lower-elevation 

watersheds where stronger populations could help mitigate population losses at higher elevations. This 

type of strategy underscores the need for an expanded portfolio of conservation actions if conservation 

for native trout is to be successful. 

Importance of Peripheral Populations 

Peripheral populations, generally defined as those populations located at the geographic edge of 

a species or subspecies range, may have a relatively high conservation value (Scudder, 1989), but risk of 

extirpation may be higher for headwater populations than those located near the distributional core 

(Fagan, 2002; Fagan and others, 2002). Although the value of peripheral populations to the long-term 

survival of western trout has received little management attention, a recent evaluation of the status of 

peripheral and core populations in western cutthroat trout subspecies suggested that populations located 

at the geographic edges have declined at a much greater rate than those populations located more 

towards the center of distribution (Haak and others, in press). In Bonneville cutthroat trout, for example, 

Haak and others (in press) found that although core populations had declined by 62 percent since 

historic times, peripheral populations had declined by 91 percent. Many remaining peripheral 

populations are in small, isolated habitats with correspondingly small population sizes that render them 

particularly vulnerable to future habitat disturbances or invasions of nonnative species (Kruse and 

others, 2001; Fagan, 2002; Fagan and others, 2002). 

In general, peripheral populations are considered to have increased conservation value because 

of their adaptation to  ̳marginal‘ habitats, their unique evolutionary history, smaller population sizes, 

and isolation (Scudder, 1989). These factors combine to facilitate increased genetic drift and selection 

pressures that result in genetic characteristics not likely to be found in larger, more stable populations 

(Lesica and Allendorf, 1995; Nielsen and others, 2001). Peripheral populations, therefore, maximize 

within-species diversity and provide the means for future adaptation to a rapidly changing environment 

(Scudder, 1989; Lesica and Allendorf, 1995; Hampe and Petit, 2005). Populations located on the 

peripheral edges of range shifts could be particularly beneficial for adaptation to higher stream 

temperatures. Native brook trout populations in the southern Appalachian Mountains, for instance, have 

a higher temperature tolerance than do brook trout populations further north near the core distribution 

(Flebbe and others, 2006). 

The potential values and risks for peripheral populations during climate change can be illustrated 

with Bonneville cutthroat trout. The quality and quantity of stream habitat varies greatly among the four 

distinct geographic areas within the historic range of Bonneville cutthroat trout. In the West Desert 

portion of the historic range, stream systems are smaller and warmer during summer and more 

susceptible to disturbances such as drought or flood than are streams in the more mesic and denser 

stream drainages that characterize the Bear River, Northern Bonneville, and Southern Bonneville 

regions. Remaining populations in the West Desert along the Utah-Nevada border persist in isolated 

streams where environments are especially harsh, but these conditions are likely to become more 

common in the other three geographic regions in the future. Actions taken in the near-term to conserve 
The Potential Influence of Changing Climate on the Persistence of Salmonids of the Inland West 67

peripheral populations may provide a substantial evolutionary advantage during periods of rapid 

environmental change that are likely to characterize the future of western trout (Haak and others, in 

press). 

Limitations of a Broad-Scale Assessment 

When interpreting our results, it is important to remember the inherent limitations of any broadscale assessment. We confined our climate analysis to a 3°C rise in air temperature, though there are 

other models that predict a range of outcomes. We believe 3°C represents a midpoint in the predictions 

that might occur, and we will be using a broader suite of climate models in a subsequent finer-scale 

analysis. Broad-scale studies tend to mask local conditions that could exacerbate or mitigate the 

regional effects of climate change, particularly evident with regard to our analysis of temperature and 

drought risks. The data from the Daly and others (2008) analysis assumes a spatially uniform warming 

trend though there are obvious local and regional differences due to elevation, topography, and local 

factors. The PDSI data we used as the foundation of our drought analysis was very coarse and, although 

we tried to refine it spatially with supplemental fine-scale data on elevation and precipitation, our results 

are most appropriate when interpreted at a broad scale. For example, the presence of coldwater springs 

could mitigate both temperature and drought, and water diversions, loss of riparian cover, and degraded 

wetlands may exacerbate these risks. Furthermore, our temperature analysis, by necessity, relied on air 

temperature rather than water temperature. Although air temperature does affect water temperature, it is 

not a linear relationship and our assessment of thermal risk may vary from site-specific empirical data. 

The results of our flood and fire analyses should also be interpreted from a broad-scale 

perspective, with some additional caveats. First, our analysis did not include networked flow regimes 

among multiple subwatersheds, and the downstream effect of upstream winter flooding is not 

represented. We also did not account for any changes in precipitation quantity. In some areas of the 

Northwest where climate models project an increase in precipitation, we may understate the risk. 

Similarly, in the Southwest, where projections are for decreased precipitation, we may be exaggerating 

the risk of flooding. Our analysis of fire does not account for changes in condition class due to 

management actions, nor does it incorporate low-elevation sagebrush grasslands that now burn at a high 

frequency because of cheatgrass invasions, which are expected to increase as a result of climate change. 

Additionally, we assume that the occurrence of fire has negative consequences for all populations, but 

evidence suggests that, in most cases, lasting negative consequences to stream fishes caused by wildfire 

are generally restricted to small, isolated headwater drainages (Rinne, 1996; Dunham and others, 2007). 

Climate change stressors commonly are synergistic with existing ecosystem stressors. That is, 

the existing integrity of stream channels, riparian habitats, and floodplains may moderate or exacerbate 

negative effects of climate. If habitats are degraded by existing stressors, negative consequences of 

climate change may be underestimated by our analysis. On the other hand, more intact watersheds 

where riparian areas are properly functioning and rivers have access to natural floodplains will be more 

resilient to disturbances associated with climate change. 

In spite of these limitations, our results do provide a valuable overview of regional effects and 

risks to coldwater fish as a result of climate change. The broad-scale perspective can help guide 

managers and interested stakeholders in developing a strategic conservation framework that will 

increase resilience in native trout populations and improve resistance to the environmental changes 

brought on by a warming planet. 
68 References

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