BOTSWANA

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Botswana

Francistown

Kasane

Ghanzi

Mahalapye

Tshabong

KALAHARI

DESERT

Gaborone
This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The 

fundamental information 

it contains will help you 

understand the decisive

cultural dimension of 

your assigned location

and gain necessary 

skills to achieve mission 

success. 

The guide consists of 

two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces “Culture General,”

the foundational knowledge you need 

to operate effectively in any global

environment. 

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” 

Botswana, focusing on unique cultural 

features of Botswana’s society and is 

designed to complement other predeployment training. It applies culturegeneral concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your assigned 

location.

For additional information, visit the Air 

Force Culture and Language Center (AFCLC) website at 

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact AFCLC’s Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

ECFG Botswana
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all 

societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian 

societies generally produce

their own food for limited 

consumption using very 

basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized 

nations have more 

sophisticated market economies, producing foodstuffs for 

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universal consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and 

tradition, although they represent these concepts through a 

variety of unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world 

religions share the belief in one God, their worship practices 

vary with their traditional historical development. Similarly, in 

many kin-based cultures where familial bonds are foundational 

to social identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview– how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record,

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

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CULTURE 
and ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles. 

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing 

most of what was 

traditional and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form 

of bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on 

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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CULTURE 
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo a courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness,

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CULTURE 
death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of single parents and even child- or other 

relative-led families has increased with the predominance of 

HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults 

or peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have viewed 

human linkage as a core 

element to survival. This closeness is best represented in a 

traditional African village where strong kinship connections are 

evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations among

family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong 

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational 

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Botswana’s society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The history of Botswana is a story of assimilation and 

resistance. Although this history is often overshadowed by 

events in neighboring countries such as South Africa and 

Zimbabwe, a close study reveals how Botswana has largely 

avoided a turbulent post-colonial period and instead enjoyed a 

stable political system and steady economic development.

Note: In this Field Guide, citizens of the Republic of Botswana 

are called Batswana, a Bantu word meaning “the Tswana 

people.” Although this term originally referred only to members 

of the Tswana tribes (see Political and Social Relations), it now 

refers to citizens of all ethnicities, including for example, white 

Europeans and the Sarwa.

Early Botswana History

The earliest inhabitants of 

present-day Botswana were 

the Khoe and the San, two 

distinct ethnic groups which 

share many linguistic and 

physical characteristics and 

are often referred to collectively as the Khoe-San. Artifacts 

discovered in the Tsodilo hills in northwestern Botswana (see 

“The Louvre of the Desert”) indicate that the Khoe-San settled 

permanently in the region at least 19,000 years ago. 

Archaeologists classify the Khoe-San as a Late Stone Age 

culture, meaning that they subsisted as foraging hunters and 

gatherers and made tools from stone, wood, and bone. About 

3,000 years ago, the Khoe began to herd sheep and cattle on

lush grasslands exposed by the retreat of the Okavango Delta 

and Makgadikgadi Lakes, giving rise to a division between 

Khoe herders and San foragers.

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

HISTORY &

MYTH
Bantu Migrations

The first great change to the population of southern Africa

came with the arrival of Bantu-speaking farmers with Iron Age 

technology, who are thought to have migrated to the area from 

north of the equator in two great waves. The first wave 

originated in western Africa and reached the upper Zambezi 

River on the northern border of Botswana by 300 BC, while the 

second wave originated in eastern Africa and reached the 

lower Zambezi River on the coast of Mozambique by 20 BC.

Khoe pottery began showing Iron Age influences as early as 

200 BC, and the earliest fully Iron Age site in Botswana, a 

smelting furnace near the eastern city of Palapye, dates to 190 

AD. This discovery is consistent with the general consensus 

that the bulk of Bantu migration to what is now Botswana

occurred during the first few centuries of the Common Era, also 

known as AD.

Although Bantu migrants had superior technology and 

eventually a much larger population, it would take centuries for 

The Louvre of the Desert

Tsodilo, a group of quartzite rock formations located 

among sand dunes and dry lake beds near the 

Namibian border, is the most famous archaeological 

site in Botswana. Its many caves scattered among 

four small mountains are believed to have attracted 

transitory human occupants up to 100,000 years ago. 

The 4,500 cave paintings found there have earned 

Tsodilo its reputation as the “Louvre of the Desert.”

The paintings feature animals, humans, and

geometric shapes, often with distinctive proportions. 

Although the origin of the paintings is not clear, it is 

generally believed that they were created by a people 

similar to the Khoe-San, beginning over 2,000 years 

ago and continuing through the mid-19th century. The 

paintings often depict historical milestones, such as 

the introduction of cattle, the migration of Bantu 

farmers, and the use of horses for transportation.

HISTORY &

MYTH
their language and culture to displace those of the Khoe-San. 

This long period of co-existence, along with abundant evidence 

of intermarriage, suggests that the two cultures lived side-byside in relative peace. Today, some Batswana of ostensibly 

Bantu origin have distinctly Khoe-San physical characteristics 

not found in Bantu groups outside of southern Africa.

Origin of the Tswana Tribes

Over many centuries, Bantu migrants spread across southern 

Africa and formed a variety of distinct, closely related ethnic 

and linguistic groups. Between 1200 and 1400, the SothoTswana group, which comprises the Kgalagadi, Sotho, and 

Tswana ethnic groups, rose to prominence in the Transvaal, a 

region to the immediate southeast of present-day Botswana. 

In the early 1500s, the Tswana began moving from the 

Transvaal into present-day southeastern Botswana. From 

there, smaller groups of Tswana spread out and settled new 

lands, often forming their own tribes and assimilating or 

conquering indigenous populations. In this way, the greater 

Tswana ethnic group diffused into a number of smaller tribes 

with similar but distinct sets of characteristics.

Difaqane

Beginning in the mid-18th 

century, southern Africa 

saw a rapid increase in 

warfare and migration. 

Originally based in what is 

now eastern South Africa,

the Zulu were motivated by 

drought and social unrest to wage a series of expansionary

wars in the beginning of the 19th century, forcing many tribes in 

the affected areas to move. This period of migrations, known 

among the Batswana as the difaqane, or scattering, lasted 

roughly from 1815 to 1840.

During the difaqane, the Batswana suffered mainly at the 

hands of the Kololo and Ndebele tribes, who raided large 

portions of the Transvaal on their way to present-day 

Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania. Another aspect of

the difaqane, and significant in the history of southern Africa as

a whole, was the expanding European presence in the region. 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Settlers from the west, slavers from the east, and ivory traders 

from all corners joined a mad scramble to claim increasingly 

scarce arable land, capture slaves, and control key trade 

routes. Although mainly beyond Botswana’s borders, these 

activities had profound effects on Tswana political structures.

The Rise of the Tswana States

The difaqane showed that divided Tswana tribes were highly 

vulnerable to attack, so in the 1840s the Kwena, Ngwaketse,

and Ngwato tribes formed a loose alliance of states under King 

Sekgoma I of the Ngwato. Each state was organized into 

wards, which were ruled by dikgosi, or chiefs, who paid tribute 

to the king. Despite this political alliance, the states continued 

to compete fiercely to collect and trade products from the 

countryside such as ivory, ostrich feathers, and root rubber. 

The Kwena initially dominated the trade routes linking the 

Tswana states with European traders in the Cape Colony

(located in present-day South Africa), but the Ngwato 

eventually overtook them in the 1870s under the rule of Khama 

III, the son and successor of Sekgoma I.

European Traders

The first Europeans to arrive in present-day Botswana were 

explorers and traders who came seeking their share of the 

ivory trade in the mid-19th century. The influx of traders 

gradually shifted the Tswana states away from bartering and 

towards a cash economy. Meanwhile, the Tswana sought to 

limit the expansion of European traders in order to protect their 

lucrative control over trade routes with the Cape Colony.

Christian Missionaries

The same roads which allowed the 

Tswana states to trade with the Cape 

Colony also allowed the first Christian 

missionaries to reach the Tswana states.

David Livingstone (pictured) of the London 

Missionary Society (LMS) was one of the 

first, establishing a station in 1845 at 

Kolobeng which he used as a base for 

both missionary activities and desert 

expeditions, including 10 years of trekking 

across the Kalahari. Livingstone’s first 

convert was Sechele, the Kwena chief, who was baptized in 

HISTORY &

MYTH
1848. Over the next few years, other Tswana chiefs also 

converted, occasionally resulting in political turmoil. The most 

notable example is Khama III, who became a Christian after 

meeting German Lutheran missionaries in 1858. Khama III’s

conversion angered his father Sekgoma I, the reigning Ngwato 

chief and Tswana king, eventually leading to a power struggle 

between father and son. Khama III prevailed and exiled his 

father in 1875, and then worked with the LMS to promote 

Christianity in the Tswana states, an undertaking which helped 

Khama III expand and consolidate his own power.

Christian missionaries also had an impact on Tswana social 

life. Although Christian missionaries founded schools, nursed 

the sick and wounded, taught homemaking skills, and 

introduced agricultural technology, they often did so partially 

because of political agreements which gave them the exclusive 

right to evangelize a certain ward. Furthermore, Christian 

missionaries largely disrespected local traditions and sought to 

replace them with “civilized” European customs, often by 

displacing Tswana chiefs who defended traditional practices.

The Tswana chiefs who cooperated with Christian missionaries 

were often partially motivated by a desire to preserve their

authority and social rank (see Religion and Spirituality).

However, the greatest political legacy of the Christian 

missionaries would be their role in helping to secure

Protectorate status for the Tswana states. 

The Protectorate of Bechuanaland

In the 19th century, the British were primarily

concerned with preserving their interests in 

the Cape Colony, a vital trading outpost and 

waypoint for journeys to India. Because the 

Tswana states did not present any threat to 

these interests, they were largely ignored. 

However, matters changed in the 1850s with

the formation of independent Boer republics 

east of the Tswana states and the German annexation of South 

West Africa (present-day Namibia) in 1884. The Boers are the 

descendants of Dutch-speaking settlers in the South African 

Cape frontier. Fearing that the Germans in South West Africa 

would ally with the Boers in the Transvaal and block British 

HISTORY &

MYTH
access to trade routes, the British incorporated the Tswana 

states into the Protectorate of Bechuanaland in 1885.

The British South Africa Company

Britain hoped to administer the protectorate using as few 

resources as possible. However, just one year after its 

establishment, Boers in the Transvaal discovered gold near 

present-day Johannesburg, greatly expanding both Boer power 

and British concerns. In response, Britain hoped to transfer the 

protectorate to the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and 

its leader Cecil Rhodes. A prominent Cape Colony 

businessman, Rhodes wanted to link the Cape Colony with

Rhodesia (a BSAC colony in present-day Zimbabwe which was 

a former unrecognized southern African state) by building a 

railway through Bechuanaland. In addition, Rhodes secretly 

sought to protect his interest in the newly-discovered gold 

mines from the Boers by using Bechuanaland to stage an 

attack and bring the Transvaal under British rule.

The Tswana Chiefs Visit London

The Tswana chiefs did not trust Rhodes, with 3 of them –

Khama III of the Ngwato, Bathoen of the Ngwaketse, and

Sebele of the Kwena – travelling to London in 1895 to ask the 

British not to cede Bechuanaland to 

the BSAC (Photo: Monument to the 3 

chiefs in Gaborone). 

To protect the Tswana’s interest, 

Britain agreed not to cede the entire 

Protectorate to Rhodes. In return, the 

chiefs agreed to pay administrative 

taxes to help defray British costs to administer Bechuanaland

and to cede a small strip of land in eastern Bechuanaland for 

the railroad.

The Jameson Raid

Eventually, Rhodes gained control of eastern Bechuanaland 

and soon afterwards arranged a raid on the Boer republics. Led 

by British statesman Leander Starr Jameson, the raid was 

intended to spark an uprising among British expatriates and 

lead to the overthrow of the Boer government. However, the 

uprising never materialized, and Jameson’s forces were quickly 

routed. The raid was deeply embarrassing for the British 

HISTORY &

MYTH
government, which swiftly stripped the BSAC of its territory in 

Bechuanaland. The Jameson Raid effectively ended hopes for

large-scale European settlement, resulting in the independent 

character of modern Botswana.

The Unwanted Protectorate

After the failure of the Jameson Raid, Britain invested as little 

as possible in the protectorate while still exerting control over 

the Tswana chiefs. Although the chiefs were nominally free to 

govern their own wards, they were not allowed to levy taxes,

dispense justice, or prosecute wars without heavy regulation. In 

addition, the British collected their own taxes in order to defray 

administrative costs, beginning with the hut tax of 1899 and 

continuing with the native tax of 1919. 

Many Batswana did not have cash to pay these taxes, forcing 

them to undertake wage labor or migrate to South Africa. This 

marginalization of the Batswana was formalized in 1919 and 

1920, when the British government established separate 

governing councils for natives and Europeans. By the early 

1920s, Bechuanaland had been reduced to a way station 

between South Africa and Rhodesia.

Seretse Khama

After Khama III’s death in 1923, his son, Sekgoma II, ruled the 

Ngwato for just 2 years before dying in 1925. Sekgoma II’s son,

Seretse Khama, was only 4 years old at the time, so a relative,

Tshekedi Khama, took power as a caretaker king. Tshekedi

Khama ruled quite progressively for the next 23 years,

promoting improvements to the education system and 

organizing voluntary community service 

groups.

Meanwhile, Seretse Khama (Photo: 

monument to Seretse Khama) studied 

abroad, first in South Africa and later in 

Britain, where he married a white woman 

named Ruth Williams in 1949. The 

Ngwato elders strongly objected to this 

marriage, but ultimately relented after a 

series of kgotla, or tribal councils. However, the apartheid

regime in neighboring South Africa condemned Seretse 

Khama’s marriage to a white woman and convinced Britain to 

HISTORY &

MYTH
declare him unfit to rule. Additionally, both Seretse and 

Tshekedi Khama were banished from the protectorate in 1950

and were not allowed to return to Bechuanaland until they 

renounced all claims to the chieftainship for themselves and 

their heirs in 1956.

Nationalism and Independence

After the scandal over Seretse Khama’s interracial marriage, it 

appeared that Bechuanaland would never become a part of 

South Africa and that it had to be prepared for independence. 

Between 1955 and 1966, as Britain finally increased 

development assistance to Botswana, several political parties 

began to take shape, with each favoring a different path to 

independence. The first was the Bechuanaland People’s Party 

(BPP), founded in 1960, which called for immediate 

independence, nationalization of some lands, abolition of 

chieftaincies, and removal of 

Europeans from the civil service.

Becoming active again in local 

politics, Seretse Khama was 

concerned about the growing 

popularity of what he considered 

the BPP’s extreme nationalist 

agenda. In 1962, he helped found the Botswana Democratic 

Party (BDP) (Photo: Flag of the BDP), which called for a more

gradual transition to independence. The BDP’s agenda won the 

support of both the colonial administration and a broad crosssection of Batswana, from urban elites to the rural poor.

Following construction of Gaborone, the new capital city,

Bechuanaland became self-governing and held elections in 

March 1965. The BDP won 28 of 31 seats, and Seretse Khama 

became the first prime minister. The stability and popularity of 

the BDP government allowed for the adoption of a constitution 

establishing the Republic of Botswana on September 30, 1966,

with Seretse Khama as the first president.

The Republic of Botswana

At the time of independence, Botswana was one of the poorest 

countries in the world and largely dependent upon British aid. 

However, the discovery of diamonds near the northeastern 

town of Orapa in 1967 allowed for swift and radical change 

HISTORY &

MYTH
(see Economics and Resources). By 1969, Botswana had 

renegotiated its membership in the South African Customs 

Union allowing it to keep a larger share of the profits from its 

mineral exports. Due to its rapid economic growth, by 1971 

Botswana no longer needed British aid.

Although the economy of independent Botswana got off to a 

good start, foreign relations were complicated by a civil war in 

Rhodesia and the brutal apartheid regime in South Africa. 

Botswana accepted refugees from these countries but refused 

to harbor resistance movements. Intended to protect essential 

trading ties, this policy was not always successful: in the early 

1980s, Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) accused Botswana of 

harboring armed rebels, leading to a border skirmish in 1983; in 

1985 and 1986, the South African military raided offices in 

Gaborone allegedly belonging to the African National Congress 

(ANC), a group working to end apartheid. However, the heated 

geopolitics of southern Africa began to cool at the end of the 

1980s as South Africa moved in earnest towards majority rule,

granting independence to Namibia in 

1990 and holding its first free 

elections in 1994.

Unlike its occasionally turbulent 

foreign relations, Botswana’s internal 

politics have been stable: the country 

has had four Presidents, all members 

of the BDP. Seretse Khama served 

from independence until his death in July 1980, after which 

Ketumile Masire, his Vice President, assumed the Presidency. 

Masire served until his retirement in 1998, after which Festus 

Mogae, his Vice President, took office. Mogae served a 

considerably shorter term due to the introduction of term limits,

stepping down in 2008. His Vice President, Seretse Khama Ian 

Khama, is the current President and the son of Seretse Khama.

The BDP has also controlled the legislature by comfortable 

margins since independence. However, President Khama’s 

growing reputation for authoritarianism (see Political and Social 

Relations) along with the heavy toll taken on Botswana’s 

economy by the global economic downturn (see Economics 

and Resources) may weaken the BDP’s hold on political power 

in future elections.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

Republic of Botswana

Lefatshe la Botswana

Political Borders

Namibia: 845 mi

South Africa: 1,143 mi

Zambia: 0 mi (single point)

Zimbabwe: 505 mi

Capital

Gaborone

Demographics

Botswana has a population of just over 2 million which is 

growing about 1.7% per year. About 34% of the population is 

under age 14, and 61% of the population lives in urban areas. 

Botswana has the world’s second highest HIV/AIDS prevalence 

rate next to Swaziland (also in southern Africa), with 1 in 4 

Batswana infected (see Sustenance and Health). With a land 

mass slightly smaller than Texas but less than 1/12 of the 

population, Botswana is one of the least densely-populated 

countries in Africa.

Flag

The flag is light blue with a 

black stripe outlined in white

extending horizontally 

across the center. The light 

blue color represents rain

(pula), a common theme in 

Botswana symbolism which 

also appears in its coat-of-arms and currency. The black and 

white stripes represent racial harmony.

Geography

Botswana is a land-locked country located in central southern 

Africa. It borders Namibia to the west, South Africa to the south

and east, Zambia to the north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. 

The capital, Gaborone, lies in the extreme Southeast among 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
the rolling hills which cover the eastern part of the country. The 

rest of Botswana, about 80% of its total area, is covered by the 

Kalahari Desert (also known as the Kgalagadi Desert), which 

hosts vegetation ranging from dense woodlands in the North to 

sparse shrubs and small trees in the Southwest. About 40% of 

Botswana’s land area enjoys protected status as part of a 

natural park, wildlife preserve, or wildlife management area.

Climate

Botswana has a semi-arid, sub-tropical climate with temperate 

winters and hot summers. In Gaborone, average winter 

temperatures range from 49°F to 72°F, and average summer 

temperatures range from 67°F to 84°F. The summer wet 

season extends from October through April, during which 

Gaborone averages 2.5 inches of rain per month. The winter 

dry season lasts from May through August.

Natural Hazards

Partially due to its low rainfall, surface water is extremely 

scarce in Botswana. Although reservoirs generally meet the 

water needs of major cities, those living in the countryside or 

on cattle ranches in the Kalahari generally rely upon wells. 

Unfortunately, installing these wells erodes the land and 

accelerates the already rapid process of desertification.

Government

A parliamentary republic divided into 10 districts and 6 town 

councils, Botswana has 7 political parties, with the Botswana 

Democratic Party (BDP) dominating national politics since 

Botswana’s independence in 1966. Botswana has a dual legal 

system in which the customary law of tribal communities exists 

alongside, but is subordinate to, common 

law created through a legal court system 

(see Sex and Gender). 

Executive Branch

The President, currently Seretse Khama 

Ian Khama (pictured) since 2008, is 

chief-of-state, head-of-government, and 

commander-in-chief of the armed forces. 

The President also appoints the Vice 

President, currently Mokgweetsi Masisi 

since 2014. The President is 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
constitutionally limited to two 5-year terms and is elected 

indirectly, meaning that the leader of the party with a majority in 

the National Assembly becomes president.

Legislative Branch

Botswana has a 2-chamber Parliament composed of a House 

of Chiefs and a National Assembly.

House of Chiefs: The House of Chiefs is mainly an advisory 

chamber composed of 15 members.

• 8 are chiefs of the primary Tswana tribes and serve as 

permanent, non-voting members.

• 4 are elected sub-chiefs who serve a 5-year term.

• 3 are selected by the other 12 and serve a 5-year term.

National Assembly: The National Assembly (pictured) is 

composed of 63 members who serve 5-year terms.

• 57 are elected by popular vote.

• 4 are appointed by the majority 

party.

• 2, the President and the Attorney 

General, serve as non-voting 

members.

Judicial Branch

The judicial branch is composed of a High Court, a Court of 

Appeals, and 10 Magistrates’ Courts (one in each district).

Political Climate

Botswana is recognized throughout Africa for its stable

democracy. Although the BDP has enjoyed uninterrupted 

control of the Presidency and the National Assembly since 

independence (see History and Myth), there is no evidence that 

the BDP has used any illegal tactics to win elections. Rather,

the BDP owes its long tenure to broad support among rural 

Batswana and an electoral system that averts Botswana’s 

historically fractured opposition.

However, the global economic decline has taken a heavy toll 

on Botswana’s economy (see Economics and Resources), and 

President Khama has been criticized for his allegedly

authoritarian policies, such as supporting restrictions on 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
journalism and creating the Directorate of Intelligence and 

Security, which operates with little legislative oversight. These 

problems could endanger the BDP if a major opposition party 

such as the Botswana National Front (BNF), which had strong 

showings in the 1994 and 2004 elections, could rally a unified 

opposition.

Defense

Botswana had no military until 11 years after independence,

when continuous incursions from Rhodesian soldiers prompted 

the creation of the Botswana Defence Force (BDF). From a

core of 132 personnel drawn from the paramilitary Police 

Mobile Unit, the BDF has developed into a highly professional 

and well-respected force of 9,200 active-duty members divided 

into an army and an air force. Although Botswana is landlocked 

and does not have a navy, the 

army does use airboats to patrol 

the rivers and lakes of northern 

Botswana.

For most of its early years, the 

BDF struggled to prevent regional 

turmoil from spilling over into 

Botswana. However, with the end 

of apartheid in South Africa, the conclusion of the Angolan Civil 

War, and the resolution of border disputes with Namibia; the 

BDF has shifted its focus to intercepting poachers in northern 

Botswana and stemming the tide of economic immigrants from 

Zimbabwe (see “Illegal Immigration” below). The BDF also has 

joined several international peacekeeping missions since the 

early 1990s, deploying forces to Somalia, Mozambique,

Lesotho, and Sudan.

Army: The army, which is composed of 8,700 active-duty 

personnel, has traditionally been a purely light infantry force. 

Although the army is trying to expand its mechanized 

capabilities, these efforts have been complicated by a lack of 

properly trained personnel. Soldiers are stationed throughout 

the country at bases in Francistown, Gaborone, Ghanzi, Maun,

Mmabatho, Selebi-Phikwi, and Tshabong.

Air Force: Comprising 500 active-duty personnel, the air force 

primarily provides air support to the army and police. Although 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
it was historically a relatively small component of the BDF, the 

air force has expanded its equipment and capabilities

considerably since 1996, when it 

acquired 10 Canadair CF-5As,

its first fighter jets. The next year

the air force acquired 3 C-130

Hercules transports, greatly 

improving its airlift capabilities. 

Although small anti-poaching 

and transport squadrons are 

located at unofficial bases near 

Gaborone and Francistown,

most of the air force is based about 22 miles outside of 

Molepolole at Mapharangwene Air Base, which was completed 

in 1997 with help from South Africa, France, Italy, and the UK.

Training: Since the 1980s, the BDF has been sending officers 

to military schools in the US, UK, Canada, and India. The BDF 

has particularly close ties with the US military, which provides 

significant International Military Education and Training (IMET) 

funds, and the British military, which sends the British Military 

and Advisory Training Team (BMATT) to train BDF personnel.

Military Culture: Employment with the BDF brings social 

prestige, so it is generally able to attract capable applicants. 

Similarly, high salaries discourage corruption among members,

further reinforcing the BDF’s image as a competent and faithful 

guardian of the public interest. However, there is a deep divide 

within the BDF between officers and the enlisted corps.

Officers often distrust 

enlisted personnel and feel 

that they must be carefully

supervised. Officers, who are 

required to have a bachelor’s 

degree, believe that they 

have a more strategic view 

of the military and the world 

than the less educated 

enlisted personnel, who are only required to have a high school 

diploma. This belief is perpetuated by the denial of education 

benefits to NCOs, a policy intended to prevent NCOs from 

demanding higher rank and pay.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Crime: Crime is a serious security concern in Botswana,

although it is mostly limited to crimes of opportunity such as 

home invasion, car robbery, and theft. Cell phone theft at knife 

point is particularly common, so foreign nationals should avoid 

using a cell phone while walking in public places. Similarly,

foreign nationals should avoid Gaborone Dam and Kgale Hill in 

Gaborone at night due to a number of incidents in recent years. 

Finally, foreign nationals should be vigilant during frequent 

electric power outages, which can compromise security 

systems, doors, and gates.

Illegal Immigration: Turmoil in Zimbabwe has inspired a mass

exodus of refugees, and by some estimates there are now 

200,000 Zimbabweans residing illegally in Botswana. This

issue has been a source of tension between the governments 

of Botswana and Zimbabwe, and in 2003 Botswana even 

threatened to build a border fence and detention center 

although later declined to do so.

Diplomatic Relations

The primary goal of Botswana’s 

diplomatic relations is to promote

further integration among the member 

states of the Southern African 

Development Community (SADC)

(Photo: SADC headquarters in 

Gaborone). SADC is an 

intergovernmental organization of 15 member countries which 

seeks to establish political and economic stability in southern 

Africa by promoting good government and peaceful conflict 

resolution. Botswana seeks similar goals at the continental and 

international levels through its membership in the African Union 

(AU) and the United Nations (UN).

Despite this emphasis on regional cooperation, Botswana has 

had several disputes with neighboring countries in recent 

years. The most prominent has been with Zimbabwe, primarily 

concerning refugees and the controversial reelection of 

Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe in 2008. Botswana has 

also clashed with Namibia about water rights in the Okavango 

Delta and ownership of a small island in the Chobe River.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
US-Botswana Relations: Botswana enjoys strong bilateral 

relations with the US, which regards Botswana as an African 

success story and a shining example of sound economic and 

political development. The Peace Corps returned to Botswana 

in 2003 after a 5-year recess in order to focus on the HIV/AIDS 

pandemic, with Botswana 1 of 15 “focus countries” in the 

President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)

program. Instituted by President George W. Bush, this program 

has provided Botswana with $480 

million of technical assistance. In 

addition, the US and Botswana 

jointly finance and run the 

Gaborone-based International Law 

Enforcement Academy (ILEA),

which trains police from across 

sub-Saharan Africa.

Ethnic Relations

The ethnic landscape of modern Botswana is complex,

contradictory, and, most of all, opaque: the only ethnic census 

in Botswana’s history was taken in 1936, and the last racial 

census was taken in 1964. This lack of data makes sense in 

the context of ethnic assimilation policies intended to promote a 

singular national identity. However, the same lack of data also 

obscures the degree to which these policies have favored the 

culture and language of the Tswana minority at the expense of 

the non-Tswana majority.

Although 60-90% of Batswana belong to one of Botswana’s 38 

non-Tswana tribes, only the 8 Tswana tribes enjoy official 

recognition, permanent membership in the House of Chiefs,

groups rights to land ownership, and protection of their tribal 

language in the media and education (see Learning and 

Knowledge). Since independence, the minority Tswana have 

been politically dominant.

Despite this potentially problematic situation, Botswana has 

experienced remarkably little ethnic discord. Partly due to the 

economic success and political stability of independent 

Botswana, most Batswana see themselves first as citizens of 

Botswana, and second as members of a tribe. Even Batswana 

who publicly campaign for equitable tribal policy often preface 

their criticisms with praise for the broader success of 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Botswana’s government. In addition, President Khama has 

indicated a desire to move Botswana towards a legal and 

cultural framework that celebrates diversity as it promotes 

unity.

Note: In the Setswana language, the prefix ba- means “people 

of” and se- means “language of,” so it is common, for example,

to see the Ngwato people referred to as the Bangwato, or the 

Kwena language referred to as Sekwena.

Tswana: The Tswana are one of three 

major branches of the Sotho-Tswana

group of Bantu-speaking tribes in 

southern Africa. The main Tswana 

merafe, or tribes, are the Tawana,

Ngwato, Kwena, Ngwaketse, Kgatla,

Tlokwa, Malete, and Rolong. The 

historically most powerful are the Ngwato, based in Serowe; 

the Kwena, based in Molepolole; and the Ngwaketse, based in 

Kanye. Although the Ngwato are concentrated in Central 

District and the Tawana are concentrated in Northwest District,

most of the remaining Tswana live in the south near Gaborone. 

However, each Tswana tribe traditionally controls its own 

district, a practice which dates back to the “tribal territories”

assigned by Britain in 1933. Based on an earlier loose alliance 

in the aftermath of the difaqane (see History and Myth) these

Tswana states gained political prominence primarily because of 

their control over trading routes with the Cape Colony.

Other Bantu-speaking Tribes: Although the Tswana have 

been the politically dominant ethnicity in Botswana since the 

mid-19th century, many Batswana are members of other

Sotho-Tswana tribes who speak other Bantu languages. Some 

of these tribes, such as the Kgalagadi of the Kalahari Desert,

are so deeply assimilated into Tswana culture that they

consider themselves as Tswana. Other tribes, such as the 

Kalanga, concentrated near Francistown, have sought to retain 

their own tribal identity even as they integrate into Botswana’s

national identity. Other numerically significant Bantu-speaking 

tribes include the Birwa, Herero, Mbanderu, Mbukushu, Subiya,

Talaote, Tswapong, and Yeyi.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Sarwa: The Sarwa, as Khoe-San people 

are known in modern Botswana, are 

hunter-gatherers largely concentrated in 

southwest Botswana. Sarwa also are 

sometimes referred to with the outdated 

and pejorative term “Bushmen.” Although 

the Sarwa speak as many as 10 distinct 

languages, the Tswana use the collective 

term “Sesarwa” for all languages spoken 

by the Sarwa. The presence of the Sarwa

in Botswana predates that of Bantuspeaking tribes by thousands of years, and the two groups did 

not begin to intermingle until around 2,000 years ago (see 

History and Myth). As a result, members of the two groups still 

have markedly distinct physical appearances, with the Sarwa

generally having copper-colored skin, almond-shaped eyes,

high cheekbones, and tufted, tightly curled hair. The Sarwa

have been marginalized throughout history, as exemplified by 

the forced eviction in the early 1980s of 5,000 Sarwa from their 

ancestral lands in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. 

Expatriates: The original expatriate population of Botswana 

consisted of about 3,000 Afrikaners and Englishmen who 

settled in Botswana during the colonial era. In recent years,

increasing numbers of foreign nationals have settled in 

Botswana, attracted by rapid economic development. These 

foreign nationals come from Europe, North America, South 

Asia, and other parts of Africa, especially Ghana and Zambia.

Social Relations

In traditional Tswana society, life is centered on the community,

where the chief symbolizes unity. Tswana believe that the 

actions of one individual can affect the well-being of an entire 

community (see Religion and Spirituality), and therefore people 

are expected to support family members without jobs, help 

nurture all children within the extended family (see Family and 

Kinship), and provide shelter for traveling relatives. People are 

also expected to practice ipelegeng, or self-help within a group 

(literally “carry yourselves”): by achieving personal educational 

or economic goals, an individual benefits the entire group. In 

general, the more an individual helps the community, the 

greater that individual’s status.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Personal Relationships: Because families often reside in 

different households or are split between a town and a cattle 

post (see Family and Kinship), visits to relatives are highly 

valued and conducted frequently, even without advance notice.

Age and Gender: Traditionally social, political, and economic 

roles were delegated based on age and gender (see Sex and 

Gender). In contemporary society, there is no longer any formal 

division of labor by age, gender, or class, although deference is 

generally shown to males and elders, who are addressed by 

the respectful titles of Rra (“father”) and Mma (“mother”).

Status Indicators

Ethnicity: In the pre-colonial Tswana states, members of a 

chief’s kin group enjoyed higher social status than nonmembers, a bias that continues to the present day through the 

inferior social and economic position of non-Tswana groups 

such as the Sarwa. Even political leaders have publicly referred 

to the Sarwa as primitive Stone Age people, implying that they 

are less than human.

Wealth: Botswana’s reliance on diamond exports, coupled with 

an unskilled workforce unable to support new industries, has 

resulted in the second highest level of income inequality in the 

world (see Economics and Resources). In local terms, 60% of 

Botswana’s cattle, a traditional measure of wealth, are owned

by just 10% of the population.

Gift Giving and Visiting

Gifts are an inherent part of regular visits between 

urban and rural relatives. Urban family members may 

bring staple foods and household goods to their 

relatives at a cattle station, while rural family members 

may bring seasonal, home-grown food and crops to 

their relatives in the city. Before accepting a gift 

(usually with both hands), Batswana may press the 

hands together in front of the chest. Batswana present 

gifts either with both hands, or with the just the right 

hand with the left hand supporting the elbow. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Botswana is officially a secular state, with religious freedom 

guaranteed in the constitution. However, Christianity is everpresent in Botswana, with business 

meetings, government conferences, and 

official speeches often beginning with 

collective prayer.

Accurate statistics on religious affiliation 

are difficult to obtain due to the fluid 

nature of religious identity in Botswana. 

Many Batswana practice both a 

traditional religion and belong to a 

Christian church, or are members of an 

African Independent Church (AIC) and a

major Christian denomination. Depending on the survey,

between 50% and 83% of Batswana claim affiliation with a 

Christian church, while between 4% and 50% acknowledge

practicing traditional religions. Estimates of the prevalence of 

traditional religion in Botswana vary widely, partly because 

many Batswana practice traditional religion alongside another 

religion. Across all surveys, slightly over 1% of the population 

acknowledges affiliation with Islam, and a few thousand 

individuals report practicing Hinduism or the Baha’i Faith (a 

monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century

Persia). Regardless of affiliation, their ideas about religion and 

spirituality infuse daily life for most people, shaping their 

relationships, self-perception, and worldview.

Traditional Religion

Historical: Before missionaries arrived in 1812, Tswana 

religious beliefs centered on Modimo, a creator god who was 

good, merciful, all-encompassing, and unknowable. If angered 

by human misdeeds, Modimo had the power to cause natural 

disasters, and because he was very remote, Modimo was 

rarely worshipped directly. Instead, the Tswana relied upon 

badimo, or subordinate ancestral spirits, to serve as 

intermediaries. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Ritual Sacrifice

When members of the Tlokwa (a Tswana tribe) fall ill, a 

traditional healer often recommends dithota, a ritual 

sacrifice to the ancestors to restore harmony and 

health. To perform dithota, the sick person brews 

beer, prepares food, and kills a sheep or cow, allowing 

the blood to flow from the head of the animal. He then 

leaves the beer and the animal’s blood, stomach 

contents, and dung at an ancestor’s grave; declaring 

his good intentions and asking the ancestor to make 

him better. A healer then mixes samples of all the 

items with traditional medicines and smears the 

resulting concoction on the body of the sick person. 

Once the mix has dried and been removed, community 

members share any remaining food and beer.

Inhabitants of pre-colonial Botswana believed that the fate of 

both individuals and the community as a whole depended upon 

how individuals lived: when one member erred, the entire 

community would suffer. They also believed that ancestors 

governed the whole of society and that the living elders and 

chiefs were responsible for ensuring harmony in the social 

order by performing sacrifices and rituals, one of the most 

important of which was rainmaking. Within the Tswana states,

healers and chiefs enjoyed mutually supportive authority to 

rule, control the natural order, and conduct rites-of-passage.

Modern: The religious beliefs underpinning modern traditional 

religion trace their roots to pre-colonial times. The central

tenets of modern traditional religion are that the soul survives 

the body’s death; kinship, concern, and meddling by ancestors 

continue after death; ancestors can be petitioned to bring rain,

cure illness, and provide for a good harvest; ancestors are a 

channel of communication to God; and God is the greatest and 

most ancient of all ancestors.

Although most other religions practiced in Botswana denounce 

ancestor veneration, many of their members practice it 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
privately, and it is an integral part of many African Independent 

Church services (see “African Independent Churches” below).

For many Batswana, ancestral spirits remain prominent

members of the community who care about the well-being of 

their descendants and wish to know about everyday life. As 

long as they are remembered and respected, the spirits act 

benevolently, but when people act wrongly, the ancestors may 

punish them. The term sepoko (plural dipoko) refers to a spirit 

who troubles the living. In Gaborone, it is sometimes said that 

dipoko can manifest themselves in the bodies of animals 

particularly owls, cats, and dogs.

Witchcraft: Among the Tswana, boloi, or witchcraft, involves 

the manipulation of special herbs and other materials by a 

moloi, or witch (who can be either male or female) either for 

personal gain (to succeed in school, to make a business 

prosper, or to promote a career) or to harm someone.

Batswana often blame bad fortune or illness on witchcraft,

prompting them to seek diagnosis and treatment from a healer 

or prophet (see “African Independent Churches” below). 

Attempting to stop rain is considered the most extreme form of 

witchcraft because it is thought to threaten society as a whole. 

The media occasionally report ritual murders, ostensibly 

committed to harvest body parts needed for witchcraft rituals.

The Introduction of Christianity

Although Christianity spread 

slowly after its arrival in the early 

19th century, almost every major 

village had been exposed to its 

influence by the end of the century 

through the work of resident 

missionaries (see History and 

Myth). Tswana chiefs generally 

welcomed Christian missionaries 

and used the new religious 

activities to advance their own political goals. Fearing the 

potentially divisive effects of religious pluralism, chiefs tended 

to allow only one missionary organization, usually the London 

Missionary Society (LMS), to work within their wards. As a 

result of these policies, the LMS effectively became the official 

church of the Tswana states.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
However, many Tswana resisted evangelization by continuing 

to practice traditional religions or by combining those religions 

with Christianity to form new denominations. This resistance 

greatly displeased the colonial government, the LMS, and 

Christian Tswana chiefs, many of whom banned both traditional 

African religions and African-initiated Christian denominations. 

Despite these efforts, full religious freedom was restored 

following independence in 1966.

Christianity Today

While the majority of 

Batswana identify as 

“Christian,” this term is 

used in many different 

ways. For most Batswana,

Christianity is a mix of 

mainline Christian theology

(see below) and precolonial beliefs and practices concerning Modimo and ancestor

veneration. Christian identity is often a mark of status and 

matter of pride, and many Batswana carry Bibles or wear 

uniforms and pins to signify their church membership.

Mainline Churches: Mainline churches are those that were 

established by European and North American missionaries 

(see History and Myth). Many today have strong links with 

South Africa, and one of the largest is the United 

Congregational Church of Southern Africa (formerly the LMS). 

In addition, the Catholic Church remains very active, as do

smaller numbers of Methodist, Quaker, Lutheran, Mennonite,

Mormon, Seventh Day Adventist, and Dutch Reformed 

churches. Since the mid-1990s, mainline churches have been 

losing significant numbers to African Independent Churches,

the fastest growing form of Christianity in Botswana.

African Independent Churches: Most African Independent 

Churches (AICs) were started by southern Africans who left

mainline churches in the early 20th century in a concerted 

effort to “de-colonialize” Christianity. AIC founders sought to 

integrate Christian teachings with healing, ancestor veneration,

and other traditional practices prohibited by missionaries. 

Instead of depicting God as the “white father” in heaven, these 

churches worship God as Modimo.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Fearing AIC members would provide added support to the 

Bechuanaland People’s Party (BPP), its nationalist political 

agenda, and anti-apartheid stance (see History and Myth); the 

colonial government began persecuting them in the 1930s. 

Even after independence, fear of extremism and sensitive 

relations with South Africa motivated continued surveillance of 

the AICs.

In modern AIC churches, prophets and traditional healers use

divination to guide members through everyday difficulties, and 

many maintain traditional diagelo, or healing clinics, for 

HIV/AIDS patients (see Sustenance and Health). Prominent 

examples of AIC churches are the Spiritual Healing Church and 

the Zion Christian Church. Smaller AICs abound, especially in 

rural areas. Many more Batswana belong to AICs than to 

mainline churches.

Charismatic Churches: Charismatic churches encompass 

evangelical, Pentecostal, and the so-called “churches of the 

spirit.” Relative latecomers to Botswana, they have sprung up 

primarily in urban areas and grown rapidly in the last 10 years,

now representing between 20-25% of Christians. These 

churches stress being born again,

evangelism, and healing through 

the laying-on of hands and prayer. 

Consistent with such churches 

throughout sub-Saharan Africa,

they preach the gospel of wealth,

emphasizing material rewards for 

the faithful.

Religious Response to HIV/AIDS

As a result of the HIV/AIDS crisis (see Sustenance and Health),

there has been rapid expansion of Western medicine into rural 

areas. However, many Batswana turn to religion in search of 

alternatives or supplements to Western treatment. Prophets, for 

example, perform ancestral cleansing ceremonies and 

communicate with badimo in order to heal what Western 

medicine cannot. Growing numbers of roadside stands 

advertise traditional medicines, and funeral practices have 

become more elaborate in an attempt to appease the ancestral 

spirits who might be responsible for the illness – resulting in 

“impoverishment by funeral” for some working-class families.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

The HIV/AIDS epidemic (see Sustenance and Health) is 

gradually eroding the values at the heart of Botswana’s kinship 

systems: reciprocity, respect for elders, and aid for the 

vulnerable. The disintegration of extended families – and the 

social safety net that they provide – is forcing many families 

deeper into poverty. The traditional foster system, in which 

aunts and uncles act as substitute caregivers for needy 

children, is threatened both by the growing number of orphans 

and by the fact that uncles and aunts are also falling ill, forcing 

grandparents to take responsibility for several generations of 

family members.

Family and Residence

The most traditional settlements in 

Botswana are large villages in which 

each extended family occupies a 

compound composed of a lolwapa,

or open courtyard, surrounded by 

rondavels, or round, thatched-roof 

houses made from mud and cow 

manure. The clay walls which 

enclose the lolwapa and connect the rondavels are often 

molded, decorated, or painted. Since these villages are usually

far away from mashimo (village farmlands) and meraka (cattle 

posts), men often live in temporary shelters for long periods of 

time while tending to crops and livestock.

Today, family and living arrangements in Botswana are in 

transition. Although some families still conform to the traditional 

pattern of seasonal migration between ancestral villages and

remote cattle posts, many Batswana have settled permanently 

in cities, intensifying the economic and social gaps between 

rural and urban Batswana.

Authority within the Family

In the traditional Tswana kinship system, elder males wielded 

authority in their role as family and lineage heads, and society 

was divided broadly into “generations” of men and women who 

underwent initiation together (see “Initiation Rituals” below).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
In contemporary society, this patrilineal system is changing as 

household composition shifts in response to the HIV/AIDS 

epidemic and economic development (see Economics and 

Resources). Of note, approximately 47% of households in 

Botswana are now headed by women who, in urban areas,

have assumed a greater role in family decision-making as they 

increasingly enter the labor market. Women in rural areas now 

head the majority of households with the help of extensive kin 

networks (see Sex and Gender).

Dating

Traditionally, young Batswana adults met potential romantic 

partners through church and school, a system which has 

scarcely changed in rural areas. However, Batswana youth in 

urban areas have become much more social and now meet 

potential romantic partners in a variety of contexts, including 

night clubs and movie theaters. Dating and informal 

relationships are more common, even among young teenagers.

Marriage

Traditional: In traditional Tswana 

society, teen marriages were common,

cohabitation was rare, and childbearing

out-of-wedlock was a punishable 

offense. The groom’s family paid a 

bride price (bogadi or lobola) in order 

to compensate the bride’s family for the 

loss of her labor. Newly married 

couples settled with or near the 

groom’s parents, who exercised significant control over the new

couple: the groom’s parents were entitled to distribute their 

son’s earnings at will, and the daughter-in-law was subordinate 

to the mother-in-law. Wealthy men occasionally had more than 

one wife (a practice known as polygyny), although the moral 

admonitions of Christian missionaries led many Tswana chiefs 

to abolish polygyny (see History and Myth).

Modern: Marriage rates have been declining for decades. Only 

about 40% of Batswana have been married, and only half of 

those are currently married. Despite these low percentages,

marriage remains a highly regarded institution and the only

means for some women to secure an inheritance for their 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
children and earn respect in the community. Some women 

choose not to marry in order to secure custody of their children,

while others fear the risk of contracting HIV from an unfaithful 

husband. Since illegitimate children have no legal relationship 

to the father or his family, these children are largely the 

responsibility of the mother and her extended family. Therefore, 

many children do not receive an inheritance.

Of note, Botswana has the highest extramarital fertility rate in 

sub-Saharan Africa. While the rate has declined in recent 

years, the social value of fertility remains very high, and 

Batswana of both sexes commonly expect to have children with 

multiple partners (see “Children” below).

Weddings

Despite low marriage rates, weddings remain significant 

celebratory events performed under both common and 

customary law (see Political and Social Relations) and usually 

include two or more days of eating, drinking, dancing, and 

speechmaking.

Children

Women give birth with the help of 

both Western-style healthcare 

facilities and traditional midwives 

and healers. Following birth, the 

mother and child both observe 

botsetsi, a period of confinement

which lasts up to 3 months. 

During botsetsi, mother and child stay in near constant 

physical contact while one of the grandmothers cares for the 

mother and provides her with the best food available. This 

custom is intended to strengthen bonds between mother and 

child and to promote intergenerational bonding.

Orphans: Almost 20% of all children in Botswana are orphans,

the majority due to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Most orphans are 

cared for by their mother’s extended family in large households 

dependent on a few wage earners. This arrangement places 

severe stress on the household and often forces orphans to 

drop out of school to undertake wage labor. When family safety 

nets no longer function efficiently, neither communities nor the 

national government can provide adequate assistance.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Initiation Rituals

In traditional Tswana society, boys and girls were initiated into 

society at puberty through elaborate rituals known as bogwera 

for boys and bojale for girls. Bojale, for example, tried to foster

seriti, a sense of dignity, among young women with symbolic 

ceremonies and community-wide feasting and dancing.

The popularity of initiation rituals has declined in recent years 

due to a sense that they no longer serve a relevant purpose: 

young Batswana generally prefer sesha, or modern times, and 

formal sex education has removed much of the mystery from 

bodily functions and sexuality. However, one Tswana tribe, the 

Kgatla, has revived initiation ceremonies in recent years due to 

concerns about social problems among the youth population.

Death and Funerals

During funerals, friends and relatives reflect upon the 

circumstances of their loved one’s death and reassess their 

relationships with each other. In particular, deaths of young 

people due to HIV/AIDS have the potential to cause family 

crises. For example, if parents suspect that their deceased 

son’s wife caused his death by behaving promiscuously, the 

resulting emotions may rupture already fragile family ties.

Hot Blood and Widowhood

Batswana believe that husbands and wives become 

“of one blood” once they have had children together. 

The death of one spouse is said to make the blood of 

the other “hot.” Hot blood is believed to be both 

dangerous and contagious, and anyone who has sex 

with a widow or widower during the year of mourning 

following his or her spouse’s death will become 

infected with hot blood and contract boswagadi, an 

ostensibly fatal disease. In order to warn others of 

their hot blood, mourning widows in Gaborone wear 

black dresses, shawls, and headscarves – a custom 

which many women lament because it isolates them 

socially and physically. Similarly, widowers wear black 

hats and pin pieces of black cloth to their shirts.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Although Botswana has traditionally been a patriarchal (maledominated) society, the government has adopted important 

gender equality legislation in recent years. However, despite 

better access to education and wage labor, women are still 

more likely than men to be unemployed or underpaid. In 

addition, women still face barriers to entering national politics.

Gender Roles and Work

Across tribes in Botswana, the traditional division of labor in 

rural areas required men to hunt while women farmed, built 

houses, and performed domestic duties. Although Tswana 

women were generally prevented from participating in political 

affairs, Sarwa women were actively involved.

In the much more urbanized 

society of modern Botswana,

women comprise about 40% 

of all workers in the cash 

economy, although they 

generally are confined to roles 

in the informal market such as

small-scale entrepreneurship,

domestic servitude, or sometimes prostitution.

Nevertheless, women are well-represented in the education 

sector, where they make up 43% of the workforce. Men hold 

over 2/3 of professional jobs, dominating positions in upperlevel management and government. Botswana’s constitution 

guarantees universal suffrage, and women compete for political 

office. Although a few women have been appointed to 

prominent ministerial positions, men still dominate the House of 

Chiefs, the National Assembly, and kgotla, or tribal councils.

Gender Roles within the Family

Having become increasingly common in Botswana (see Family 

and Kinship), female-headed households face several unique 

challenges resulting from broader disadvantages. Because 

women are generally more likely to be unemployed or 

underpaid, female-headed households earn between 2.5 and 8 

5. SEX AND GENDER
times less than male-headed households. Furthermore, women 

face a social expectation that they will continue to perform 

domestic duties and provide for relatives in need even if they 

are the primary breadwinner. Despite these challenges,

research has shown that female-headed households generally 

have a more equitable distribution of resources and 

responsibilities. 

Gender and the Law

Although Botswana’s constitution bans

discrimination based on sex, this ban

does not apply to family matters such as 

marriage, divorce, and inheritance due 

to Botswana’s dual legal system in 

which customary law exists alongside 

common law (see Political and Social 

Relations). Although recent legislation 

has bolstered the legal standing of 

women under common law, especially with regard to 

inheritance and custody rights, many family and property 

disputes still are decided according to customary law, which 

heavily favors men.

Customary law defines women as legal minors, which means 

that women must have spousal consent to buy and sell 

property or to enter into contracts. In addition, customary law 

requires that mothers relinquish custody of their children to 

paternal relatives upon divorce or death of the husband. 

Furthermore, it prohibits women from inheriting spousal 

property, which instead passes 

to the eldest son. These 

restrictions on the legal 

standing of women are 

significant because most 

Batswana still marry under 

customary law.

Despite the enduring popularity 

of customary law, inheritance 

patterns in Botswana seem to be growing more equitable in 

practice. Rather than simply leaving all assets to the eldest 

son, most parents now divide them equally between all 

SEX &

GENDER
children, and even occasionally favor daughters who have 

helped to generate income for the family. In addition, daughters 

who maintain parental assets and care for their parents in old 

age now have recourse to duty-beneficiary claims which were 

once limited to sons.

Gender-Based Violence

Violence against women is 

common in Botswana and 

occurs most often in the 

home: the United Nations 

estimates that 60% of women 

have experienced domestic 

violence at least once in their 

lives. Although gender-based 

violence has been a crime 

since 2008, most perpetrators 

are never prosecuted or convicted. The ineffectiveness of this 

law may be due to attitudes shaped by customary law, under 

which men have the right to “chastise” their wives.

Sex and Procreation

Most Batswana consider sexual relations a normal part of life,

and procreation remains a 

cultural priority across all tribes. 

For men, a large part of 

masculinity is tied to fathering 

children, especially with several 

different women (see Family and 

Kinship). For women, adulthood 

is increasingly tied to childbirth 

rather than marriage. The 

perception of infertility can lower 

an individual’s social status, and 

women who are thought to be infertile are often marginalized.

Homosexuality

Many Batswana disapprove of homosexuality, and the popular 

press frequently portrays homosexuality as Western, “unAfrican,” and animal-like. However, a small gay movement is 

currently leading the push to decriminalize same-sex 

relationships in Botswana.

SEX &

GENDERSEX &

GENDER
Languages

Although the government of 

Botswana actively promotes the 

Setswana language, Botswana is a 

linguistically diverse country with at 

least 28 different languages. Half of 

them belong to the Bantu branch of 

the Niger-Congo language family,

which is commonly spoken 

throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Another 12 of Botswana’s 

languages belong to the Khoe-San language family, a group 

which includes all of the native, non-Bantu languages spoken 

in southern Africa. 

The remaining 2 languages, Afrikaans and English, were

introduced to southern Africa by Europeans during the colonial 

era. Nearly all languages spoken in Botswana are also spoken 

in neighboring countries, a reflection of extensive cultural 

diffusion and assimilation resulting from constant movement of 

people throughout the region (see History and Myth).

Setswana: Slightly less than 75% of the population speaks 

Setswana, a member of the Bantu branch and the national 

language of Botswana. Although it is primarily associated with 

the Tswana tribes, members of many other tribes also speak 

Setswana. In addition, Setswana is an official language in 

South Africa, home to 3.4 million Setswana speakers – over 

twice the number in Botswana. Setswana owes its prominence 

to the historical power of the Tswana tribes (see History and 

Myth and Political and Social Relations), which have dominated 

the politics of independent Botswana. 

Tswana politicians have promoted Setswana as a tool for 

national unity by broadcasting state-run media exclusively in 

Setswana (and English) and requiring students to study 

Setswana (see Learning and Knowledge). Similarly, its use is 

explicitly encouraged to communicate the country’s sociocultural values. Setswana also benefits from its popularity as a 

common language among ethnic groups with different native 

languages.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Kalanga: About 9% of the population speaks Kalanga, a Bantu 

language primarily associated with the Kalanga tribe. While 

over 80% of Kalanga-speakers live in Zimbabwe, those living in 

Botswana are concentrated near the Zimbabwean border in 

Northeast and Central districts. Although the Kalanga tribe has 

been ruled by other groups for the last 600 years, many of 

these rulers have ultimately intermarried with members of the 

Kalanga tribe and assimilated its customs, which has help to 

preserve the Kalanga language.

Other Bantu Languages:

Although there are 12 additional Bantu languages spoken in 

Botswana, none of them is used by more than 2.5% of the 

population. Bantu languages as a whole are characterized by 

the use of common prefixes to differentiate between noun 

classes. One example is the word “Bantu” itself: since mudenotes singular human nouns, and ba- denotes plural human 

nouns, the word muntu, or person, becomes bantu, or people. 

However, all of the Bantu languages have their own unique 

linguistic features. For example, the Kgalagadi and Yeyi 

languages have incorporated, on a smaller scale, the 

pronunciation elements present in Khoe-San languages (see 

textbox below), suggesting long and peaceful coexistence 

between these groups.

Khoe-San: Mainly spoken by the 

Sarwa, Khoe-San languages form a 

broad and largely artificial category 

which includes much cultural, 

ethnic, and linguistic diversity. 

Among the 2.4% of the population 

which speaks a Khoe-San 

language, the most popular

languages are Naro (25%), Shua (15%), Ju|’hoan (13%), and 

!Xóõ (10%) (the accent marks indicate tongue clicks – see 

“Clicking Sounds in Ju|’hoan” below).

Naro and Shua were traditionally spoken by Khoe herders and 

farmers in the Kalahari Desert, while Ju|’hoan and !Xóõ were 

traditionally spoken by nomadic hunter-gatherers. Although 

Setswana is displacing Khoe-San languages, the Nama 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Clicking Sounds in Ju|’hoan

Khoe-San is the world’s only language family which 

uses tongue clicks to form some consonants. These 

tongue clicks are an effective means of transmitting 

sounds over long distances, particularly in flat areas, 

and as far as 2 miles away. The following characters 

are used to denote various clicking sounds in the 

Ju|’hoan language:

• | denotes a sucking sound made by clicking the 

tongue just behind the front teeth.

• || denotes a clucking sound similar to the type 

used to urge on a horse.

• ! denotes a popping sound made by pulling the 

tongue down sharply from the roof of the 

mouth.

• ( denotes a popping sound made by lightly 

pulling the tongue away from the spot just 

above the back of the front teeth.

language of the Khoe-San family is alive and well in Namibia,

where it is spoken by about 200,000 people.

English: Although English is the official language used for 

business, government, and education, only about 0.25% of the 

population speaks English in the home. It is taught as a 

required subject beginning in primary school (see Learning and 

Knowledge), and knowledge of both English and Setswana is 

effectively a prerequisite for many jobs. About 40% of 

Batswana can read and write English.

Communication Style

Batswana generally communicate in an indirect, nonconfrontational style which includes only a few gestures and 

facial expressions. Speaking quietly is common, and extended 

silences are not seen as awkward or problematic. Batswana 

generally believe worthwhile relationships take time to cultivate 

and can be slow in fostering new acquaintances. They typically 

ignore conflict, and if a person feels wronged, he simply avoids 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
the offender. Similarly, they make decisions carefully,

deliberating until a consensus is reached.

Greetings

Greetings are very important in 

Botswana, and it is considered 

extremely rude to walk by an 

acquaintance without greeting him. 

The most common form of greeting is 

the handshake, which in Botswana 

involves light contact with palms and 

fingertips. When shaking hands with 

an elder or superior, it is respectful to 

grasp the right elbow with the left 

hand and to bow the head slightly.

Younger people should always wait 

for the elder or superior to initiate a greeting or handshake. 

Batswana often hold hands for the duration of their first 

conversation with a new acquaintance. Although greetings 

between Batswana and foreign nationals will almost certainly 

follow this approach, greetings among Batswana themselves

vary by ethnic group.

The standard formal Setswana greeting is Dumêla, Rra/Mma,

O tsogile jang? (“Greetings, sir/madam, how did you wake?”),

and the response is Ke tsogile sentle (“I awoke well”). Less 

formal greetings are common among children, friends, and 

intimates, for whom the standard greeting is O kae? (“How are 

you?”), and the standard response is Ke teng (“I am here,”

which means “Fine” in this context).

Titles

When addressing elders, superiors, or new acquaintances,

Batswana use formal modes of address such as Rra (“sir”),

Mma (“madam”), and Mr. or Mrs. followed by the last name. If 

applicable, titles such as Director or Captain are also used. 

When an individual requests or a relationship is well 

established, Batswana are comfortable with less formality. 

Conversational Topics

Safe: Batswana usually limit discussions to uncontroversial,

general interest topics such as the weather when speaking with 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
a person they do not know well. In general, foreign nationals 

should try to confine their conversations to these sorts of 

topics. Highly educated Batswana may be able to discuss a 

broader range of topics, such as their educational background

and countries to which they have travelled. 

Handle with Care: Although foreign nationals are often 

encouraged to discuss their hometown and family, it is not 

always appropriate to ask Batswana the same questions in 

return. For example, many less educated Batswana remain

unmarried, and asking about their marital status can lead to an 

awkward situation – it is generally safer to ask whether they 

have children. 

When Batswana do talk about their hometown or family, they 

generally give vague responses such as “up the road.” Such 

responses are entirely acceptable, and foreign nationals should 

not probe further.

Taboo: Since tribal relations can be a sensitive subject in 

Botswana, foreign nationals should avoid asking Batswana 

about their tribal affiliations. Similarly, personal relationships or 

sexual orientation are topics which are usually appropriate only

in personal and private relationships.

Gestures

Batswana rotate the wrist with 

fingers outstretched or pointing 

down to indicate “no thanks,” or 

that there is no more of something. 

Batswana extend the right arm and 

wave the right hand to hail a 

vehicle while hitchhiking.

Just as in America, it is extremely rude to show someone the 

middle finger, and it is rude to wave the index finger. It is 

impolite to pass between people having a conversation –

Batswana will duck below the level of the conversation and say 

Intshwarele (“Excuse me”) if an alternate path is not available.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for 

language training resources. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Setswana

Note: The character ê is pronounced like e in the English word there.

Do you speak English? A o bua Sekgoa?

Hello/Good day Dumêla

Good day, ladies and gentlemen Dumêlang borra le bomma

How are you? (to an individual) O tsogile jang?

How are you? (to a group) Le tsogile jang?

I am well Ke tsogile sentle

What is your name? Leina la gago ke mang?

My name is ___ Leina lame ke ___

Where are you from? O tswa kae?

I am from ___ Ke tswa kwa ___

Yes (Sir/Madam) Ee (Rra/Mma)

No (Sir/Madam) Nnyaa (Rra/Mma)

No problem Go gona mathata

Goodbye Go siame

Goodbye/Go well (when staying) Tsamaya sentle

Goodbye/Stay well (when leaving) Sala sentle

Please Tswêê-tswêê

Thank you Ke itumetse

Sorry/Forgive me Intshwarele

Yesterday Maabane

Today Gompieno

Tomorrow Kamoso

Who? Mang?

What/Which? Eng?

When? Leng?

Where? Kae?

Why? Reng?

How? Jang?

How much is it? Ke bokae?

What do you want? O batla eng?

Help me Nthuse

Please say again Bua gape

I do not understand Ga ke tlhaloganye

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 81.2%

• Male: 80.4%

• Female: 81.8% (2003 estimate)

Traditional Education

Although traditional education systems in Botswana varied by 

tribe and region, for the most part they were intended to 

integrate young adults into society. These systems were also 

designed to teach children the intellectual, moral, and practical 

skills needed to thrive in their physical and social environment. 

Family elders were primarily responsible for teaching children, 

focusing on both theoretical and practical lessons in areas such 

as domestic work, kinship duties, politics, and survival skills. 

Similarly, elders used parables to illustrate moral principles and 

riddles to provide intellectual challenges.

Initiation Schools: After reaching puberty, young adults 

traditionally attended initiation schools, where they studied for 3 

months under an instructor selected by elders. All initiation 

schools were intended to foster unity within the tribe, and the 

instruction they provided differed sharply for boys and girls. 

The male curriculum included intensive physical training and 

artistic instruction alongside lessons about familial, political,

and religious obligations. Less is known about the female 

curriculum, as it was off-limits to outsiders, but it generally 

involved intricate and symbolic rituals of song, dance, and 

movement which instructed young women about parenting 

skills and social expectations (see Family and Kinship).

Introduction of Formal Education

Western-style formal education was first 

introduced during the mid-19th century 

with the arrival of Robert Moffat (pictured) 

and other missionaries from the London 

Missionary Society (LMS) (see History and 

Myth), who saw themselves as leading 

Batswana from the “darkness” of their precontact life into the “light” of civilization and 

the gospel. Initially, the education provided 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
in mission schools was strictly religious, giving only 

rudimentary instruction in reading and arithmetic. Gradually,

however, missionaries broadened the curriculum of mission 

schools to cultivate educated Africans who could spread 

Christianity among their peers. The British government also 

provided limited funding to mission schools on the condition 

that they produce docile and literate Africans who could work in 

the colonial administration.

Instructors openly disparaged indigenous customs and values 

and emphasized that Europe was the true seat of civilization. 

Similarly, racism and inequality were an integral part of mission 

schools which were rigidly tiered in favor of the dominant 

Tswana tribes over other ethnic groups. This strategy ultimately 

backfired on the British, as the well-educated Tswana elite 

eventually recognized the injustice of colonial politics and 

demanded political reform. By the 1930s, the British had begun 

to reform the education system at the insistence of both 

missionaries and Batswana and further expanded access to 

education from 1945 to 1965, although improvements were

largely confined to basic education.

Education after Independence

Botswana was one of the 

poorest and least developed 

countries in the world when it 

gained its independence in 

1966. There were only two 

secondary schools in the 

entire country, and most 

Batswana could not afford to 

send their children abroad 

for further education. Botswana’s leaders knew that economic 

growth required an educated workforce, but there simply was 

not enough money in the budget to expand schooling. 

However, this situation changed dramatically with the discovery 

of diamonds in 1967, which boosted tax revenues enough to 

fund massive government investment programs in 

infrastructure, health, and education.

Education in Modern Botswana

Modern Batswana view education very similarly to the early 

LMS missionaries: education can lead from the darkness of 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Educational Goals: Kagisano and Botho

Botswana’s 1977 National Commission on Education 

report stated that one of education’s most important 

goals was the achievement of kagisano, or social 

harmony. To reach this goal, education should strive 

to develop the national principles of democracy, 

development, self-reliance, and unity. The report’s 

update in 1997, Vision 2016: Towards Prosperity for 

All, added the concept of botho as a further 

educational goal. The word botho is used to describe 

a courteous, disciplined, well-mannered, and wellrounded person who actively strives to realize his or 

her potential both as an individual and as a part of his 

or her community.

ignorance into the light of knowledge. For many Batswana,

education provides relief from agricultural wage labor and entry 

into the global knowledge economy.

The Botswana government provides universal access to 10 

years of basic education, which includes 7 years of primary 

school and 3 years of junior secondary school. Admittance into 

the subsequent 2 years of senior secondary school is not 

guaranteed, however, and is actually very difficult to achieve. 

There are only about 23 public senior secondary schools in 

Botswana, which presently have room for only about 52% of 

Botswana’s junior secondary school graduates.

During the economic boom of the 1980s, the government 

abolished school fees at all levels. However, budgetary 

pressures forced the government to reinstate secondary school 

fees in 2006. These fees, plus the cost of required uniforms, 

make education unaffordable for some families.

Tertiary education in Botswana is provided mainly by the 

University of Botswana and the Francistown College of 

Technical and Vocational Education. A new university which 

will be called the Botswana International University of Science 

and Technology is currently under construction in the eastern 

city of Palapye.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Multilingual Education

For the Botswana government, access to basic education is a 

fundamental human right, and the role of education is to 

develop a society that promotes unity while respecting diverse 

cultures and languages. In practice, however, the government’s 

policies promote a singular Tswana linguistic and cultural 

identity to the detriment of other traditions and languages.

In education, this favoritism has resulted in a “transitional 

bilingual” school system, in which the language of instruction 

for the first 2 to 4 years of primary school is Setswana, after 

which Setswana becomes a secondary subject and English 

becomes the language of instruction. This system is very 

difficult for the 25% of Botswana’s population whose first 

language is neither Setswana nor English (see Language and 

Communication). Although the government has recently

identified 6 minority languages for potential use as languages 

of instruction, debate still surrounds both the usefulness of 

such a program and the costs of developing standardized 

writing systems, curricula,

and teaching materials.

Literacy Programs

Between 1981 and 2003,

Botswana’s literacy rate 

increased from 34% to 

81%, a remarkable jump 

due not only to improved 

primary and secondary 

education but also to 

government-funded adult literacy programs in Setswana and 

English. Some literacy classes incorporate Christian rituals in 

order to enhance the learning process, while the members of 

other classes wear uniforms to signify their group membership.

HIV/AIDS Education

Since 1986 Botswana has responded to the spread of 

HIV/AIDS by implementing a plan which includes both formal 

and informal education. Information about contraception and 

HIV/AIDS is now part of the curriculum in junior secondary 

school, and the government has also created a broader “ABC” 

public education campaign, which advises Batswana to

“Abstain, Be faithful, and use Condoms.”

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

In both business and social contexts, Batswana tend to be 

reserved with people they do not know. However, they are 

generally willing to build a relationship with individuals who 

display respect, humility, and an interest in Botswana culture.

Personal Space

The amount of personal space that 

Batswana expect varies by ethnicity,

region, and familiarity. When speaking 

with new acquaintances, Batswana 

usually maintain about the same distance

as Americans, although they stand closer 

to family and close friends, maintaining 

roughly an arm’s length of personal

space.

Touching: Conversational touching,

particularly in public, is rare in Botswana. Although women may 

touch one another during conversation, men will generally 

avoid touching either gender. However, close friends will 

frequently touch one another when conversing.

Eye Contact: For Batswana, direct eye contact demonstrates 

trustworthiness, particularly within professional contexts. 

However, Batswana may not establish direct eye contact at the 

very beginning of a conversation nor sustain it once initiated.

Time and Work

The work week in Botswana

extends from Monday through 

Friday with office hours from 

7:30am-4:30pm. Most office 

employees do not work on 

weekends or public holidays 

unless they have to meet an 

urgent deadline and will expect 

overtime pay. Grocery stores such as Pick n Pay are often 

open from 9:00am-9:00pm on weekdays and 8:00am-6:00pm 

on weekends and public holidays.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Punctuality and Deadlines: Although foreign nationals should 

strive to be punctual, Batswana may not place as strong an 

emphasis on deadlines and punctuality as Americans. Although 

Batswana generally expect deadlines to be met, there is some 

degree of flexibility in practice, especially when initially 

determining deadlines.

Absenteeism: Batswana occasionally miss work for as long as 

one week to attend a funeral for a relative, friend, colleague, or 

acquaintance. This practice is both common and appropriate in 

Botswana.

Negotiations: Batswana prefer to build relationships prior to 

conducting business so that the needs of both sides are well 

understood and mutually beneficial outcomes are easier to 

achieve. This approach can make negotiation a timeconsuming process. Consequently, foreign nationals are 

advised to demonstrate patience, humility, and an interest in 

Botswana culture in order to foster relationships.

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 2: Public Holiday

• March – April: Good Friday

• Saturday after Good Friday: Public Holiday

• March – April: Easter Monday

• May 1: Labor Day

• May 13: Ascension Day

• July 1: Sir Seretse Khama Day

• 3rd Monday in July: President’s Day

• Tuesday after President’s Day: Public Holiday

• September 30: Botswana Day

• October 1: Public Holiday

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

• December 27: Public Holiday

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The clothing, games, music, and artwork of Botswana 

demonstrate how people integrate new customs while still 

retaining and celebrating traditional styles.

Dress

Nearly all Batswana dress in conservative Western clothing,

although the level of formality varies by location (rural vs. 

urban) and occasion (formal vs. casual). 

Since untidy clothing suggests that the 

wearer is poor or of low social status,

Batswana generally keep their clothes 

neat at all times.

Men: Men generally wear a suit and tie 

to work. In off-hours, or in more casual 

workplaces, they wear a shirt or t-shirt 

with trousers or jeans. Respectable men 

do not usually wear shorts outside of 

safari camps in the bush; therefore, male 

foreign nationals should plan to wear long pants in villages and 

cities.

Women: Women generally wear a blouse with a dress, kneelength skirt, culottes, or trousers to work. This type of outfit is 

also common and appropriate for off-hours. Female foreign 

nationals should avoid wearing revealing clothing because it 

implies that the wearer is sexually promiscuous or otherwise 

lacks honorable character.

Pre-Colonial Dress: Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, the 

tribes of Botswana made clothing from animal skins or furs. 

Men wore a basic outfit consisting of a tshega, or loin cloth,

and a kaross, or cloak, usually worn with a cap, sandals,

strings of beads, and armbands made of grass or copper wire.

Women wore a similar outfit consisting of a khiba, or apron,

and a mosese, or skirt, worn under a kaross. Both men and 

women wore a variety of anklets, bangles, beads, and 

bracelets intended to indicate social status and ward off 

afflictions such as jealousy, sickness, and harm. In addition,

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Batswana covered themselves with reddish grease made of 

animal fat and mineral pigments to protect their skin from the 

harsh sunshine and winds of the Kalahari.

With the arrival of British missionaries in the mid-19th century 

(see History and Myth), Batswana began to mix traditional 

garments with simple Western styles. Over time, Western attire 

eventually became more widespread and eventually darkpatterned cloth replaced animal hides. This mingling of styles 

resulted in mateitshe whereby traditional styles are worn on 

special occasions in modern Batswana.

Sports and Games

Soccer: While soccer is the most 

popular sport in Botswana, the national 

team, nicknamed “the Zebras,” has not 

performed well in international 

competitions primarily due to 

Botswana’s small population and the 

need for players to work day jobs. 

Nonetheless, the Zebras remain

popular with fans: tickets are usually 

sold out a week before games, where fans clad in the national 

colors beat drums and blow horns in support of their team.

Board Games: Tracing its roots to ancient Egypt, the board 

game morabaraba (known throughout other African societies 

as wari, aware, ayo, and mancala) consists of 2 players trying

to eliminate their opponent’s pebbles on a “board” of 48 holes 

dug into the ground. In mohele, another ancient African board 

game, 2 players try to capture each other’s “cows” (pebbles or 

beans) by trapping them at the intersection points on a board 

consisting of 3 concentric squares overlain with a “+” sign.

Animals: Hunting is very popular at remote cattle posts, where 

hunters use slingshots to kill birds and rabbits. Some Batswana 

also enjoy dog fighting, horse racing, and donkey riding.

Music

Folk Music: The traditional music of Botswana is characterized 

by a repetitive, call-and-response format in which a soloist 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
sings a stanza and a chorus responds. This sort of music 

typically relies upon rhythmic hand-clapping or traditional 

stringed instruments to accompany singers. The most common 

instruments are the segankuru or segaba (one-stringed fiddle)

and the setinkane (thumb piano). Batswana have traditional 

songs for nearly every occasion, from going to war to coaxing 

an infant to sleep. While traditional music declined in response 

to post-independence integration policies (see History and 

Myth), it has reemerged since the 1980s as popular artists like 

Olebile “Maxy” Sedumedi have brought renewed attention to 

traditional music, often by mixing it with modern styles.

Popular Music: Many of today’s music styles in Botswana are 

imported from South Africa, Europe, and the US. The most 

popular is gumba-gumba (“party-party”), which mixes 

traditional Tswana and Zulu music with American-style jazz.

Another popular style is kwaito, which blends African styles 

from the 1920s and 1950s 

with hip-hop and jazz in 

order evoke the urban 

South African townships in 

which it was born. The 

most famous kwaito artist

in Botswana is Odirile 

“Vee” Sento, who has

popularized the blending of

kwaito with kwasa-kwasa,

an African version of the 

rumba which originated in Zaire in the 1980s and is 

distinguished by intricate guitar solos and accelerating tempos.

Botswana is also home to a thriving hip-hop scene, popularized 

by groups like the Wizards and the television show Strictly Hip 

Hop, which is hosted by Botswana hip-hop artists Slim and 

Draztik.

Dance

There are a wide variety of dances associated with Botswana’s 

different tribes and regions. The Kweneng district is known for 

phatisi, a dance which involves vigorous foot stomping, while

Ghanzi and Kgalagadi districts perform a highly athletic routine, 

tsutsube, in which dancers act out events such as men going 

on a hunt. Among the Ngwaketse a processional dance,

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
setapa, is used to celebrate weddings and the harvest season, 

while Kalanga women are known for hosanna, a rain dance to 

please Mwali (God). The Mbukushu perform diboki to 

celebrate a girl’s reaching puberty, diware to pray for healing,

and thiwinji to give thanks for harvest. Batswana have found a 

number of creative ways to unify these diverse traditions. 

Borankana, for example, is a dance popular throughout 

Botswana which is derived from many different regional and 

tribal dances.

Theater

The oldest and most important public theater in Botswana is a 

450-seat cultural center in Gaborone known as Maitisong, a 

Setswana word which refers to a place where people gather in 

the evening to converse, socialize, and play games. Every 

spring, Maitisong hosts the Maitisong Festival, which brings 

performances showcasing genres as diverse as opera and 

Afro-Pop to the people of Gaborone.

Beauty Pageants

For a country with a small population, Botswana has enjoyed 

an impressive degree of success in international beauty 

pageants. The most notable example is Mpule Kwelagobe, who 

was crowned Miss Universe in 1999. Even on a small scale, 

beauty pageants are a favored form of weekend entertainment 

and typically spotlight young females of various ages. 

Performers and HIV/AIDS

Many Botswana performers participate in campaigns to 

educate the public about HIV/AIDS. These performers range 

from Mogwana, a traditional dance 

group, and Socca Moruakgomo, a 

popular jazz musician, to Johnny 

Kobedi, a wisecracking street 

performer, and Malebogo Marumoagae

(pictured), the Miss Botswana winner of 

2006. 

Literature

Some of the earliest published works in 

Botswana belonged to a genre of

European travel literature which 

romanticized the life of a swashbuckling European explorer. In 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
the 20th century, Sol Plaatje, a Setswana-speaking South 

African, translated several Shakespearean plays into 

Setswana, while also translating collections of Tswana folklore 

into English. Bessie Head, a South African immigrant who 

settled in Serowe, explored the difficulties of life in post-colonial 

Africa through a series of internationally acclaimed novels. 

More recently, Unity Dow, a judge 

best known for upholding the 

Sarwa’s right to inhabit the Central 

Kalahari Game Reserve (see 

Political and Social Relations),

gained recognition for her novels 

which explore HIV/AIDS, child 

protection, and violence against 

women.

Alexander McCall Smith (pictured, 

courtesy of Wikimedia), a Scottish 

lawyer born in Zimbabwe, authored

The No. 1 Ladies’ Detective 

Agency, an acclaimed series of 12 

novels which chronicle the adventures of Mma Precious 

Ramotswe, a detective based in Gaborone. This literary work 

was produced into a TV series on Showtime.

Arts and Crafts

Basketry: Batswana produce many different 

shapes and sizes of baskets which

accommodate a variety of potential uses,

including grain storage, beer filtration, and 

the display of market goods. Most baskets 

are produced from the fibrous fronds of the 

mokola, or “vegetable ivory” palm tree,

which are cut, boiled, and stored in water 

until they are wrapped around a strong core 

of palm fiber. Batswana then create patterns

on the baskets with brown dyes derived 

from roots and tree bark. 

Pottery: For almost 2,000 years, Batswana 

have molded clay pots primarily for storing 

food and water in the home. The simplicity 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
of Botswana pottery belies the complex process of preparing 

the clay, molding it symmetrically, baking it at the right 

temperature for the correct amount of time, polishing it with a 

smooth stone, and then decorating the finished item with ochre 

and graphite. The market for clay pottery has been severely 

diminished by the introduction of mass-produced plastic and

metal vessels, which are both cheaper and more durable.

Beadwork: Batswana have been making beads out of ostrich 

eggshells for more than 10,000 years. These beads are hewn 

with a hammer from small, angular ostrich shell fragments and 

then drilled through the middle and strung onto a long sinew or 

string. Over many years of wear, these strings of beads 

develop a distinct gloss due to the constant friction of rubbing 

against one another.

Special Occasions

Festivals: Botswana festivals are known to be popular 

attractions for tourists and locals alike who gather with family 

and friends to enjoy a variety of entertainment. These festivals 

also serve to revive the country’s traditional culture and unify 

the various ethnic groups. Tourists generally enjoy the 

opportunity to observe traditional 

dancing and musical events which 

characterize indigenous customs 

of southern Africa. In recent years, 

many of Botswana's traditional 

village festivities have expanded 

into larger, more modern events. 

Many of the larger festivals occur 

in the Gaborone area.

Feasts: Feasts are an essential 

part of social events, particularly 

weddings and funerals. Men 

typically cook meat in large iron 

pots while women prepare side 

dishes such as porridge, rice, pumpkin, squash, coleslaw, or 

beet salad (photo a courtesy of Wikimedia). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Customs

While dining customs vary by region, it is common throughout 

Botswana for families to share mealtimes. Prior to serving

meals, the wife or a child traditionally brings a basin of warm 

water and a towel for diners to wash their hands. The wife or a 

child then serves plates of stew and vegetables, first to the 

family head and any visitors (see Family and Kinship). Family 

members then wait for visitors to take the first bite before 

beginning their meals. Visitors signal their satisfaction at the 

end of a meal by leaving a small amount of food on the plate 

and using the Setswana phrase “Ke 

itumetse” (“I am pleased”) to thank the 

host family.

Typical Meals: Breakfast in Botswana 

is usually limited to thin sorghum 

porridge, sometimes accompanied by 

milk or tea. Lunch is more substantial,

generally consisting of a stew of meat,

beans, cabbage, spinach, or wild 

greens along with thick sorghum 

porridge. Dinner is usually limited to buttered bread and tea. 

There is also a customary twice daily tea break which occurs in 

the morning and afternoon. This tradition is a legacy from 

British influence (see History and Myth). 

Meat: Although beef is the most preferred meat, most families 

can neither eat nor preserve surplus meat from a slaughtered 

cow before at least some of it spoils. Consequently, goat is 

more common for everyday meals. Batswana use every part of 

slaughtered animals including the head, skin, and hooves, and 

many prefer bone-in cuts so that they can chew on the bone.

Although domesticated livestock is the most common source of 

meat, wild game and birds are an important part of the diet for

many rural Batswana. They generally do not eat baboons,

hyenas, fish, or most snakes, and most also avoid pork, which 

many Batswana consider unclean.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
The most popular meat dish is seswaa, which is made by 

boiling beef with salt until it is soft and shredded. Another 

popular dish is serobe, made by boiling the intestines and 

hooves of a goat, sheep, or cow, and then mincing the 

intestines and serving them with porridge. Batswana also make 

a type of jerky called segwapa.

Grains and Wild Plants: The staple food for most Batswana is 

porridge, either bogobe, made from sorghum or millet, or 

phaleshe, made from corn. Batswana also eat a wide variety of 

wild plants, including more than 100 distinct beans, fruits,

greens, nuts, and tubers. These foods are often made into 

popular snacks, such as ground watermelon seeds or 

preserved wild greens.

Beverages

The most popular drink in Botswana is sorghum beer, both

bojalwa (home-brewed) and chibuku (commercial). Although 

bojalwa is considered a poor man’s drink, the elite do consume

it on special occasions. Some Batswana also drink khadi, an 

alcoholic drink which tastes like apple cider and is made from 

honey, cream of tartar, and indigenous grewia berries. Khadi is 

sometimes infused with toxic substances such as battery acid 

or pool chemicals in order to increase its potency. The most 

popular non-alcoholic drink in Botswana is mashi (milk), which 

is generally made into madila (sour milk) so that it does not 

spoil as quickly. At weddings and funerals, Batswana also 

enjoy gemere, a non-alcoholic drink made from ginger, cream 

of tartar, and sugar.

Phane

Dried caterpillars, known as phane in Setswana, are a 

snack and seasonal delicacy sold in the markets of 

Botswana. Phane are harvested by hand from the 

leaves of the mophane trees which grow in northern 

Botswana. They are then gutted, dried, salted and sold 

by street vendors. Phane are known to have been a 

favorite of former Botswana President Sir Seretse 

Khama (see History and Myth).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Botswana’s prudent management of government revenue and 

natural resources (see Economics and Resources) has

enabled healthcare access to keep pace with a growing 

population. However, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has taken a 

heavy toll and continues to devastate the country despite 

massive public health campaigns.

Traditional Practices: Many Batswana seek medical help from 

traditional healers rather than Western-style doctors (see 

Religion and Spirituality). In particular, rural Batswana 

appreciate the cultural understanding and social influence of 

traditional healers and their medicines, which are made from 

wild herbs, roots, bark, and leaves. These home remedies are 

popular because they are both affordable and readily available.

Modern Healthcare System: Botswana spends about 10% of 

its GDP on the public health system, which focuses largely on 

primary and preventive care. Botswana 

currently has about 222 clinics, 330 health 

posts, and 740 mobile stops. Unlike many 

African countries, 90% of Batswana live

within 10 miles of a healthcare facility.

HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS was first identified in Botswana 

in 1985. By 2002, the infection had 

reached epidemic levels and was

declared a national emergency. Botswana 

conducts numerous prevention and outreach programs (see 

Learning and Knowledge) and was the first country in Africa to 

distribute lifesaving anti-retroviral treatments free of charge. 

Although these measures have boosted treatment levels to 

near 90% and slashed mother-to-child transmission to just 1%,

the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Botswana remains persistently

high at 24.8% (2009 estimate), the second highest rate in the 

world next to Swaziland (also located in southern Africa). 

Causes: HIV began to spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa 

in the mid-1980s during a period when the region also had the 

world’s highest urbanization rate. The trade and migration 

which accompanied this urbanization accelerated the spread of 

the virus by bringing people from diverse regions into close 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
contact. In addition, since HIV infection manifests itself slowly,

many infected people unknowingly infected others within these 

increasingly dense population centers.

In Botswana, cultural and economic factors continue to amplify 

the effects of these broader demographic trends. Despite 

Botswana’s impressive economic success in recent years,

significant income inequality remains (see Economics and 

Resources). Widespread poverty leads to malnourishment,

which directly contributes to the spread of HIV by limiting the 

effectiveness of anti-retroviral medications and weakening the 

immune system. Poverty also leads some young women to 

seek relationships with wealthy older men in order to secure an 

income. Largely powerless, these women are 

often unable to insist on safe sex, monogamy,

or an end to the relationship.

Furthermore, since Botswana culture ties 

gender identity to fertility (see Sex and 

Gender), there is a social expectation that 

men will have unprotected sex with as many 

partners as possible. Finally, the social stigma 

associated with HIV/AIDS prevents many individuals from 

getting tested for the virus. 

Consequences: The HIV/AIDS epidemic has had devastating 

economic and social consequences. First, the virus has 

widened the gap between rich and poor in Botswana because 

poor households are more vulnerable to economic losses 

associated with treatment, lost income, and funeral expenses.

Second, HIV/AIDS has created a nation of mourners: nearly 1 

in 3 Batswana have lost a friend or relative to HIV/AIDS. Third,

the virus has disrupted traditional kinship systems and gender 

roles (see Family and Kinship and Sex and Gender), greatly 

weakening the social support system upon which Batswana 

have traditionally depended in times of hardship and tragedy.

Life Expectancy: Before the HIV/AIDS crisis began in the 

1980s, Botswana’s life expectancy hovered in the mid-60s. By 

2001, HIV/AIDS had slashed this life expectancy to 49. By 

2009, life expectancy had recovered to 53, largely due to free 

anti-retroviral medications provided by the government.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Economic Overview

Between 1966 and 2009, Botswana had the third-highest 

average per-capita gross domestic product (GDP) growth in the 

world, trailing only China and Oman. Botswana owes this 

stellar growth to sound economic management and massive 

diamond reserves. Although diamond-fueled economic growth

has transformed Botswana into a middle-income country, it has 

also engendered a dangerous overdependence on diamond 

revenues and created extreme income inequality. 

Discovery of Diamonds

Although Botswana has commercially significant deposits of 

copper, nickel, and soda ash, diamonds are by far the most 

important natural resource. The first diamonds were discovered 

at Orapa in 1967, just 1 year after independence (see History 

and Myth). Although they were discovered by De Beers, a 

South African mining company, the Botswana government was 

able to negotiate very favorable terms which have resulted in 

70% of diamond profits returning to 

the government. Today, the diamond 

industry is entirely controlled by 

Debswana Diamond Company, a 50-

50 joint venture between the 

Botswana government and De 

Beers.

Diversification

Diamonds now account for about 80% of export earnings, 50% 

of government revenue, and 30% of total economic output. 

This level of dependence ties the national budget to a single 

commodity which fluctuates in price and will eventually be 

depleted: by one projection, Botswana’s diamond reserves will 

be completely exhausted by 2030.

In addition, despite the size of the diamond industry, it employs 

less than 3% of the labor force. Consequently, the Botswana 

government is currently trying to expand and diversify the 

economy both by controlling more of the diamond supply chain 

and by bolstering other industries such as manufacturing,

tourism, and financial services.

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Diamond Processing: Historically, Botswana shipped most of 

its raw diamonds to major cutting and polishing centers in New 

York, Belgium, China, and India. However, since this 

arrangement deprives Botswana of job growth and export 

earnings, the government is now trying to nurture a domestic

processing industry by providing financial incentives to 

Botswana’s cutting and polishing firms.

Manufacturing: Accounting for 4% of economic output, the 

manufacturing sector employs 10% of the workforce. Botswana

primarily manufactures building materials, household products,

textiles, vehicles, and beverages. The government is trying to 

attract new manufacturing firms by offering duty-free equipment 

and raw material imports, deductions of 200% for training 

costs, and a tax holiday of 5-10 years following incorporation.

Tourism: With exotic wildlife and safari destinations such as 

Chobe National Park and the Okavango Delta, Botswana is a 

popular attraction for up-market tourism, although it only 

accounts for 12% GDP. 

Financial Services: Enjoying free capital flows and a welleducated labor force, financial services currently account for 

13.3% of economic output and employ 7.4% of the workforce. 

In addition, the fast-growing Botswana Stock Exchange has 

averaged a 24% aggregate return over the last decade. There 

are 10 commercial banks in Botswana, the largest of which are 

Barclay’s Bank, the First National Bank of Botswana, Stanbic 

Bank Botswana, and Standard Chartered Bank. Access to 

financial services is limited for many Batswana because 

banking service fees are prohibitively high and over half of the 

population lives in areas void of a bank branch.

Currency

The currency of Botswana is the 

Botswana pula (P), which is 

subdivided into 100 thebe (t). The 

pula is issued in 5 banknote 

denominations (P10, 20, 50, 200,

500) and 7 coin denominations (5t,

10, 25, 50, P1, 2, 5). Although the

exchange rate fluctuates, recently 

$1 has been valued at about P7.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Since it replaced the South African rand in 1976, the pula has 

been a stable currency by African standards, with average 

annual inflation of around 10% through 2009.

Foreign Trade

In 2010, Botswana’s imports exceeded its exports by $552 

million, largely due to Botswana’s lack of arable land and weak 

manufacturing sector. These two factors require Botswana to 

import manufactured goods and food primarily from South 

Africa, the closest industrial economy, to minimize 

transportation costs.

Most of Botswana’s exports, which include minerals, livestock,

and textiles, are sold to the European Union, with a significant 

amount also going to South Africa and Zimbabwe. Although the 

US eased trade barriers and extended credit for Botswana and 

other countries in sub-Saharan Africa through the African 

Growth and Opportunity Act of 2000, few entrepreneurs in 

Botswana have taken advantage of the program.

Foreign Aid

As Botswana became a middle-income country, foreign aid fell 

from $145 million in 1990 to $30 million in 2000. However,

foreign aid has increased in recent years partly due to an influx 

of funds for the fight against HIV/AIDS, including $480 million 

from the US (see Political and Social Relations).

Agriculture and Land Policy

Once the mainstay of Botswana’s 

economy, agriculture now

accounts for only 2.3% of GDP

and about 3 in 10 Batswana still 

rely on agriculture for their 

livelihood. Major products include 

livestock, sorghum, maize, millet,

cowpeas, and beans. Derived 

from a blend of traditional and colonial customs, Botswana’s 

land policy distinguishes three different land-use rights.

Tribal Land: All Batswana over 18 are entitled to a plot of tribal 

land, which accounts for 71% of total land area. Although tribal 

land can be inherited, it cannot be bought or sold, nor can it be 

repossessed as long as the owner uses it. Although tribal land 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
was once administered by tribal chiefs, a law passed shortly 

after independence transferred their authority to 12 

autonomous “Land Boards.”

State Land: State land, which accounts for 25% of total land 

area, is owned by the government but can be leased for terms 

of either 50 years for commercial use or 99 years for residential 

use. Most cities are classified as state land, with up to 95% of 

some cities belonging to the government.

Freehold Land: Freehold land, which accounts for 4% of total 

land area, can be bought, sold, and inherited freely, although 

sales to foreign nationals are subject to certain restrictions.

Standards of Wealth

Traditionally, cattle have been 

the dominant standard of 

wealth in Botswana because 

they provide many traditional 

necessities: nutrition in the 

form of milk or meat, furniture 

or clothing in the form of 

leather, locomotion in pulling 

plows, and financial liquidity as 

an asset or part of a bride price 

(see Family and Kinship). Although cash has become an 

acceptable substitute for cattle in most contexts due to 

industrialization and urbanization, cattle are still seen as the 

true measure of wealth.

Economic Impact of HIV/AIDS

Although the HIV/AIDS epidemic is clearly a public health crisis

(see Sustenance and Health), it also threatens Botswana’s 

long-term economic growth. Since HIV/AIDS is frequently fatal,

Botswana’s extremely high prevalence rate will inevitably 

reduce the supply of available labor. Similarly, because 

infected individuals experience long-term side effects requiring

carefully controlled treatment, they generally have high work 

absentee rates, making them less productive on average.

These labor market effects are compounded by the fact that 

the government must cut investment for the future in order to 

treat today’s infected individuals – a move which significantly

limits long-term growth prospects.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

While Botswana has a reliable transportation and 

communications infrastructure, rural areas continue to lag 

behind urban in technological advancement.

Transportation

All settlements with a population over 100 are connected to the 

national transportation grid, which the government consistently 

maintains. Although migration has dispersed friends and 

relatives across the country (see 

Family and Kinship), Batswana 

often travel long distances to visit 

one another via private buses and 

pay-per-destination hitchhiking.

Roadways: Botswana’s large 

network of well-maintained roads

includes 3,000 miles of paved roads 

and 12,000 miles of gravel roads or sandy tracks and carries

90% of freight and passenger traffic. The Trans-Kalahari 

Highway links Gaborone with Namibia’s capital, Windhoek, and 

a network of roads in eastern Botswana provides access to 

South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

At independence, Botswana had fewer than 8 miles of 

roadways. In the 1970s, the Botswana government undertook 

an ambitious modernization project which included expanding 

the national road system in order to link major population 

centers. This new road network facilitated migration from 

villages to cities and allowed Batswana to establish large cattle 

posts in previously uninhabited areas.

Vehicles: Botswana ranks high among African countries for 

both vehicle ownership and traffic fatalities. Drunk driving is 

relatively common in Botswana, especially towards the end of 

the month when people receive their paychecks.

Railways: Government-owned Botswana Railways manages 

the country’s 398-mile rail network, which includes a main line 

linking Botswana with South Africa and Zimbabwe and branch 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
lines used to export soda ash and import raw materials for the 

textile industry. Botswana Railways’ passenger service was 

eliminated in 2009 due to poor management, competition from

roadways, and South African control over freight traffic routes.

Consequently, freight traffic has 

declined in recent years.

Airways: Botswana has 78 

airports and airstrips, 9 of which 

have paved runways. Air 

Botswana, the national carrier, 

operates a fleet of 8 airliners out 

of Gaborone, with domestic links 

to Francistown, Kasane, and Maun and regional links to 

Harare, Johannesburg, and Lusaka (Photo a courtesy of 

Wikimedia). Despite its small size, Air Botswana is known for 

its reliability and efficiency. Botswana is also home to charter 

companies which use small planes to ferry tourists from the 

northern hubs of Maun and Kasane to the many tourist camps 

in the Okavango and Chobe regions.

Energy

Botswana is a member of the Southern African Power Pool 

(SAPP), a common electricity market and infrastructure shared 

by 7 nations. Although this membership provides Botswana 

with one of the most reliable electricity systems in Africa, it also 

makes Botswana partially liable for disruptions in the power 

supply of South Africa, which dominates SAPP. Botswana 

imports over 60% of its power from SAPP and domestically 

produces the remainder at the coal-fired Morupule plant.

While electricity is reliable in Botswana, high prices have 

prompted some businesses to relocate to other countries in 

southern Africa. In addition, nearly all settlements with over 

1,000 people have access to electricity, although many rural 

Batswana cannot afford to use it for much more than lighting. 

Instead, many of them continue to rely upon wood fuel, a key 

contributor to deforestation (see Political and Social Relations).

Media

Botswana’s press is free but closely monitored. The 

government, which dominates popular broadcast media, is 

often accused of restricting opposition views. In addition, the 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
National Assembly recently passed the Media Practitioners Act, 

which mandates the registration of all media workers.

Radio and Television: Botswana has 5 radio stations, 2 of 

which are government-owned: Radio Botswana 1 (RB1) 

broadcasts current affairs programs in English and Setswana, 

while Radio Botswana 2 (RB2) mainly broadcasts popular 

music. The 3 privately-owned radio stations play popular music 

or talk segments aimed at the youth market.

Botswana has 2 broadcast television stations: the governmentowned Botswana Television (BTV), which reaches about half of 

Botswana, while the privately-owned Gaborone Broadcasting 

Corporation (GBC) only serves the area around Gaborone. In 

addition to these channels, many Batswana receive broadcast 

signals or satellite service from South Africa.

Print Media: Botswana’s small but thriving newspaper industry 

is primarily based in cities and towns. Although the government 

distributes a free daily known as the Daily News, the most 

widely read papers are the privately-owned Mmegi and 

Botswana Guardian. Other newspapers include the Monitor, 

The Botswana Gazette, The Midweek Sun, the Sunday 

Standard, The Voice, The Mirror, and Mokgosi.

Telecommunications

Botswana has an expanding, world-class telecommunications 

infrastructure supervised by an open and fair regulatory 

system. As part of regional development efforts, Botswana is 

currently expanding the fiber-optic network which links major 

population centers.

Telephones: Botswana’s telephone 

network links all but the remotest villages, 

although landline use has fallen in recent 

years as mobile use steadily increased. 

There was an average of 77 mobile 

subscribers per 100 persons in 2008.

Internet: Although Botswana has one of 

the highest bandwidths per capita in Africa, only about 5% of 

Batswana use the internet. It is primarily confined to cities, with

connectivity in remote areas often limited to “bushmail,” a 

radio-based e-mail service with extremely low bandwidth.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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