Pinniped and Cetacean Oil Spill Response 

Guidelines

Michael H. Ziccardi, Sarah M. Wilkin, Teresa K. Rowles, and Shawn 

Johnson

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-52

December 2015

Pinniped and Cetacean

Oil Spill Response Guidelines

Michael Ziccardi, Technical Editor

Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis

Contributing Authors

Sarah Wilkin and Teresa Rowles

NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service/Office of Protected Services/Marine Mammal and Sea Turtle Conservation 

Division/Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program

Shawn Johnson

The Marine Mammal Center

NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-OPR-52

December 2015

U.S. Department of Commerce

Penny S. Pritzker, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Kathryn D. Sullivan, Administrator

National Marine Fisheries Service

Eileen Sobeck, Assistant Administrator for Fisheries
ii

Recommended citation:

Ziccardi, M.H., S.M.Wilkin, T.K. Rowles, and S. Johnson. 2015. Pinniped and Cetacean Oil Spill 

Response Guidelines. U.S. Dept. of Commer., NOAA. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFSOPR-52, 138 p.

Copies of this report may be obtained from:

NOAA Fisheries Office of Protected Resources

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

1315 East-West Highway rm. 13606

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Or online at:

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/publications/techmemos.htm
iii

Acknowledgements

Development and publication of the Pinniped and Cetacean Oil Spill Response Guidelines was made 

possible with the financial support from NOAA Fisheries, National Marine Mammal Health and 

Stranding Response Program and the combined effort of many different interested and willing 

parties and organizations. The bulk of these procedures are based on protocols developed by 

participant organizations within California’s Oiled Wildlife Care Network (OWCN) from years of 

marine mammal rehabilitation and oil spill response experience. These Guidelines could not have 

been written without the previous contribution to the field of marine mammal oil spill response by 

Pamela Yochem (Hubbs-SeaWorld Research Institute, San Diego, CA) and Marty Haulena 

(Vancouver Aquarium, Vancouver, British Columbia). Additions and modifications to this 

document should be made regularly as advances in oil spill response techniques are made. Any 

suggestions for additional material or comments on methods included in this document are 

welcome. 

Many individuals and organizations helped make this publication possible through the generous 

contributions of their time and effort and we offer our sincere thanks to everyone involved.

Notice

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) does not approve, recommend or endorse any 

proprietary product or material mentioned in this publication. No reference shall be made to NMFS, 

or to this publication furnished by NMFS, in any advertising or sales promotion which would 

indicate or imply that NMFS approves, recommends or endorses any proprietary product or 

proprietary material herein or which has as its purpose any intent to cause directly or indirectly the 

advertised product to be used or purchased because of NMFS publication. 
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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................iii

Notice........................................................................................................................................................iii

Acronyms Used in Guidelines...........................................................................................................................ix

Chapter 1 – Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

Background......................................................................................................................................................... 1

Purpose of Guidelines ................................................................................................................................................. 1

Intended Uses of Guidelines ..................................................................................................................................... 2

Impacts of Oil on Marine Mammals............................................................................................................3

Overview of Petroleum Compounds ..................................................................................................................... 3

Overview of Detection Methods for Oiling of Marine Mammals ............................................................... 3

Documented Oil Exposure in Marine Mammals............................................................................................... 4

Overview of Effects of Oil on Marine Mammals ............................................................................................... 4

Documented Effects of Oil on Pinnipeds ............................................................................................................. 5

Documented Effects of Oil on Cetaceans ............................................................................................................. 6

Legal and Structural Framework................................................................................................................7

Laws Governing Oil Spill Response ....................................................................................................................... 7

National Oil Spill Planning Structure.................................................................................................................... 7

Laws Governing Marine Mammal Protection.................................................................................................... 9

Wildlife Trustee Authority ........................................................................................................................................ 9

Chapter 2 – Readiness........................................................................................................................11

Stranding Networks ...................................................................................................................................... 11

National and Regional Structure...........................................................................................................................11

Network Member Organizations ..........................................................................................................................12

Facility Requirements.................................................................................................................................. 14

General Considerations ............................................................................................................................................14

Housing Requirements and Considerations ....................................................................................................15

Equipment and Supplies ............................................................................................................................. 16

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 17

Categories of Personnel............................................................................................................................................17

Training...........................................................................................................................................................................18

Personal Protective Equipment............................................................................................................................21

Hazardous Substances ..............................................................................................................................................21

Chapter 3 - Response .........................................................................................................................22

Incident Reporting and Resource Activation....................................................................................... 22

Incident Command System......................................................................................................................... 23

Wildlife Branch............................................................................................................................................... 24

Pinniped and Cetacean Operations......................................................................................................... 26

Pinniped and Cetacean Command Staff.............................................................................................................27

Tiered Wildlife Response Planning .....................................................................................................................29

Formal Transitioning Between Tiers..................................................................................................................32

Overview of Data Management................................................................................................................. 33
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Chapter 4 – Hazing Group.................................................................................................................35

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 35

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 35

Safety.................................................................................................................................................................. 36

Documentation............................................................................................................................................... 37

Hazing Procedures ........................................................................................................................................ 37

Decision-Making..........................................................................................................................................................37

Hazing Plan....................................................................................................................................................................37

Hazing Techniques .....................................................................................................................................................37

Chapter 5 – Recovery Group: Recovery Strike Team..............................................................41

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 41

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 42

Safety.................................................................................................................................................................. 44

Documentation............................................................................................................................................... 45

Recovery Procedures ................................................................................................................................... 45

Recovery Teams ..........................................................................................................................................................46

Equipment......................................................................................................................................................................46

Communications..........................................................................................................................................................47

Geographic Margins of Collection for Marine Mammals and Area of Responsibility .....................47

Reporting from Other Response Assets.............................................................................................................48

Live Mammal Team Procedures ...........................................................................................................................49

Transport Procedures.................................................................................................................................. 55

Chapter 6 – Recovery Group: Reconnaissance Strike Team ................................................57

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 57

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 57

Safety.................................................................................................................................................................. 59

Documentation............................................................................................................................................... 60

Wildlife Hotline............................................................................................................................................................60

Surveillance Teams ....................................................................................................................................................61

Behavior Teams...........................................................................................................................................................61

Chapter 7 – Care & Processing Group: Processing Strike Team .........................................63

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 63

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 64

Safety.................................................................................................................................................................. 65

Documentation............................................................................................................................................... 66

Processing Procedures ................................................................................................................................ 67

Defining Oiling Status of Stranded Marine Mammals ..................................................................................67

Decision-Making..........................................................................................................................................................68

Processing Procedures .............................................................................................................................................69

Necropsy.........................................................................................................................................................................72

Chapter 8 - Care & Processing Group: Care Strike Team.......................................................76

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 76

Personnel.......................................................................................................................................................... 77

Safety.................................................................................................................................................................. 79

Documentation............................................................................................................................................... 80

General Care Issues....................................................................................................................................... 80
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Chapter 9 – Care Strike Team: Intake Area...............................................................................81

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 81

Intake Procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 81

Physical Examination................................................................................................................................................81

Routine Blood Sampling...........................................................................................................................................83

Standard Blood Tests ................................................................................................................................................83

Special Biomedical Sampling Protocols.............................................................................................................84

Chapter 10 – Care Strike Team: Pre-Wash Care Area............................................................85

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 85

Pre-Wash Care Procedures ........................................................................................................................ 85

Fluid Therapy ...............................................................................................................................................................86

Nutritive Therapy .......................................................................................................................................................86

Temperature Therapy...............................................................................................................................................86

Ongoing Monitoring...................................................................................................................................................87

Pre-Wash Evaluations and Criteria .....................................................................................................................87

Chapter 11 – Care Strike Team: Cleaning Area.........................................................................88

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 88

Cleaning Procedures..................................................................................................................................... 88

General ............................................................................................................................................................................88

Fur Seals..........................................................................................................................................................................89

Other Pinnipeds (Harbor Seals, Elephant Seals, Sea Lions)......................................................................90

Cetaceans........................................................................................................................................................................90

Common Problems .....................................................................................................................................................91

Chapter 12 – Care Strike Team: Post-Wash Care Area...........................................................92

Introduction and Goals ................................................................................................................................ 92

Post-Wash Procedures................................................................................................................................. 92

General ............................................................................................................................................................................92

Release.............................................................................................................................................................................93

Post-release monitoring...........................................................................................................................................94

References .............................................................................................................................................95

Internet Resources .......................................................................................................................... 100

Appendices ..........................................................................................................................................A-1

Appendix 1-A: Search Effort Log..............................................................................................................A-2

Search Effort Log...........................................................................................................................................A-2

Appendix 1-B: NOAA’s Level A Data Form (Front)............................................................................A-3

Appendix 1-B: NOAA’s Level A Data Form (Back) .............................................................................A-4

Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Front)....................................................................A-5

Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Subsample Form (Front).............................................A-6

Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Back) .....................................................................A-7

Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Directions)..........................................................A-8

Appendix 1-D: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log – Live Animals (Front) ................................A-16

Appendix 1-D: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log – Live Animals (Back)..................................A-17

Appendix 1-E: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log - Dead Animals (Front)................................A-18

Appendix 1-E: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log - Dead Animals (Back).................................A-19

Appendix 1-F: NOAA’s Photograph Log..............................................................................................A-20
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Appendix 1-G: Oiled Marine Mammal Evidence Log .....................................................................A-21

Appendix 1-H: Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form ......................................................................A-22

Appendix 1-I: Oiled Marine Mammal Progress Form ...................................................................A-23

Appendix 1-J: Oiled Marine Mammal Necropsy Form (EXAMPLE) – Can be used if 

processing facility doesn’t have pre-existing form or system for necropsies .....................A-24

Appendix 2: Oiled Marine Mammal Photography Protocol........................................................A-25

Supplies...................................................................................................................................................................... A-25

Procedure.................................................................................................................................................................. A-25

Appendix 3: Oiled Marine Mammal Oil Sampling Protocol ........................................................A-26

Supplies...................................................................................................................................................................... A-26

Procedure.................................................................................................................................................................. A-26

Appendix 4: Oiled Marine Mammal Tissue Sampling Protocol.................................................A-27

Supplies...................................................................................................................................................................... A-27

Comments on Tissue Collection for PAH Analysis ................................................................................... A-27

Appendix 5: Oiled Marine Mammal Analytical Laboratories.....................................................A-28

Appendix 6: Example Oiled Wildlife Best Management Practices (BMPs) – from Deepwater 

Horizon/MC-252 oil spill......................................................................................................................... A-29

Appendix 7: Northwest Region Euthanasia Protocol....................................................................A-30

Appendix 8: Draft Supply List for Oiled Marine Mammal Response .......................................A-31
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Acronyms Used in Guidelines

AC Area Committee

ACP Area Contingency Plan

ADD Acoustic Deterrent Device

AHD Acoustic Harassment Device

APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CoC Chain of Custody

CPG Care and Processing Group

CWA Clean Water Act

DWBD Deputy Wildlife Branch Director

DWH Macondo/Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

EPA U. S. Environmental Protection Agency

ESA Endangered Species Act

ESF Emergency Support Function

ESI Environmental Sensitivity Index

ESA Endangered Species Act

EVOS Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FOSC Federal On-Scene Coordinator

GC/FID Gas Chromatography/Flame Ionization Detector

GC/MS Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy

GIS Geographic Information System

GPS Global Positioning System

HAZCOM Hazard Communication

HAZWOPER Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response

HPLC High Performance Liquid Chromatography

IAP Incident Action Plan

ICP Incident Command Post

ICS Incident Command System

ISB In-situ Burning

JIC Joint Information Center

MMHSRP Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program

MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act

MMSN Marine Mammal Stranding Network

NCP National Contingency Plan

NIMS National Incident Management System

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA-OLE NOAA Fisheries Office of Law Enforcement

NOAA-GC NOAA Fisheries Office of General Counsel

NOS National Ocean Service

NPS National Park Service

NRC National Response Center
PINNIPED AND CETACEA N OIL SPILL RESPONSE GUIDELINES

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NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment

NRF National Response Framework

NRS National Response System

NRT National Response Team

OPA90 Oil Pollution Act of 1990

ORR-ARD Response and Restoration, Assessment and Restoration Division

ORR-ERD Response and Restoration, Emergency Response Division

OSC On-Scene Coordinator

OSLTF Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund

PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon

PIO Public Information Officer

PFD Personal Flotation Device

PRP Potential Responsible Party

QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control

RCP Regional Contingency Plan

RP Responsible Party

RSC Regional Stranding Coordinator

RPIC Responsible Party Incident Commander

RRT Regional Response Team

SARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

SCAT Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Team

SPCC Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plan

SSC Scientific Support Coordinator

SSO Site Safety Officer

SSP Site Safety Plan

STL Strike Team Leader

SOSC State On-scene Coordinator

TPH Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons

UC Unified Command

USCG U. S. Coast Guard

USFWS U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

WBD Wildlife Branch Director

WHO World Health Organization
PINNIPED AND CETACEA N OIL SPILL RESPONSE GUIDELINES

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Chapter 1 – Introduction

Background

Purpose of Guidelines

When oil spills occur in the marine environment, many species of wildlife in that ecosystem may be 

either directly or indirectly impacted. The impacts of spilled oil on birds have long been known 

(Jessup and Leighton, 1996; Leighton, 1993), with effects ranging from slight fouling requiring no 

treatment to acute mortality from hypothermia to acute/chronic toxicity from ingested petroleum.

To help mitigate these impacts, significant investments have been made to develop protocols for the 

capture and care of avian species (Massey, 2006; Mazet et al., 2002; Tseng, 1999). While potentially 

less prevalent than birds during oil spills, marine mammals are also at risk from these incidents in 

coastal and offshore waters. Thus, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), Office of Protected Resources (OPR), Marine Mammal 

Health and Stranding Response Program (MMHSRP) has developed guidelines to direct and inform 

response activities for pinnipeds and cetaceans – guidelines that align themselves with response 

actions being taken for other wildlife species at risk. The first comprehensive set of Marine 

Mammal Oil Spill Response Guidelines (Guidelines) was created in 2006 (Johnson and Ziccardi, 

2006) and brought together the experience and research to that point. The Macondo 252/Deepwater 

Horizon Spill (DWH) in 2010 was the first significant oil spill to utilize these Guidelines as the 

blueprint for how to organize the response to oiled marine mammals; the present document revises 

the original Guidelines to represent the lessons learned from that response, as well as information 

gleaned from other more recent responses and drills.

These Guidelines provide a foundation for coordination and communication between local, state 

and federal oil spill response agencies and the marine mammal conservation, research and welfare 

communities (including marine mammal stranding networks and research scientists). These 

Guidelines have been developed in consultation with NOAA’s National Ocean Service, Office of 

Response and Restoration, Emergency Response Division (ORR-ERD), Assessment and 

Restoration Division (ORR-ARD), NOAA’s Office of General Counsel (NOAA-GC), and NOAA 

Fisheries, Office of Law Enforcement (OLE) so that marine mammal response activities can meet 

the needs and mandates of each of these groups during a spill response. 

More specifically, these Guidelines provide key information to, and standardize activities of, marine 

mammal responders to build and maintain oiled wildlife readiness at a national level, including:

• Outlining organizational and reporting structures/instructions so that wildlife professionals can 

effectively integrate and contribute to the oil spill response framework;

• Establishing standardized data collection techniques to support effective response activities (as 

well as subsequent natural resource damage assessment);

• Defining chain-of-custody protocols for animal collection, necropsy and sampling to help ensure 

integrity of samples and results, as well as their admissibility in any legal proceedings; 

• Instituting training requirements for the protection of human and animal health during oil spill 

response; and

• Promoting the best achievable care for oiled marine mammals, including necessary readiness 

activities (e.g., training, equipment).
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These Guidelines focus primarily on directed planning and response activities (e.g., rescue, sampling,

and care in rehabilitation) for cetaceans and pinnipeds (excluding walrus, which is not a NOAA trust 

species). They are intended to be integrated as necessary with the activities of other participants in 

the Operations Section/Wildlife Branch under the Unified Command in an Incident Command

during oil spill planning and response, including guidelines developed by NOAA Fisheries for sea 

turtles as well as those detailed by the Department of the Interior - US Fish and Wildlife Service 

(USFWS) for other marine mammal species (e.g., sea otters, polar bears, manatee and walrus). These 

Guidelines are also designed to work within the larger spill response structure and complement the

significant emphasis that has historically been focused on migratory waterfowl and other bird 

species. Lastly, these Guidelines have been developed to integrate with other wildlife trustee

responsibilities during oil spills, such as Endangered Species Act Section 7 consultation and Oil 

Pollution Act Natural Resource Damage Assessment, to reduce potential conflicts, enhance 

response effectiveness, and maximize data procurement.

Intended Uses of Guidelines

Oil spills responses, as a whole, differ widely depending upon many factors, including but not 

limited to, the size of the spill, type of product spilled, time of year, and location. Similarly, 

responses where marine mammals are at risk will vary greatly depending upon these factors, but the 

wildlife response will also rely on ecological aspects, such as species/taxa at risk, 

health/reproductive status of at-risk animals, and presence of areas where animals congregate (e.g., 

rookeries, haul-out areas), and not solely the volume of oil released. Spill responders (both general 

and marine mammal personnel) and pre-spill planners should recognize that the variability in degree 

of effort and complexity in marine mammal response can be significant when considering different 

scenarios – type of species impacted, overall numbers of animals exposed, and the number that are 

identified as candidates for rehabilitation will significantly change the marine mammal response.

These Guidelines are provided by NOAA’s MMHSRP for use by authorized marine mammal 

stranding network organizations (including rehabilitators), other natural resource management 

agencies, On-Scene Coordinators, and Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) as a guide to:

• Understand the complexities of oiled marine mammal response;

• Act as, or help in the development of, appropriate marine mammal sections of PRP Response 

Plans, Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) and/or Regional Contingency Plans (RCPs);

• Improve communication and documentation coordination between oil spill response planners 

and NOAA Fisheries;

• Design appropriate oil spill readiness activities (e.g., training programs and equipment caches), 

including the evaluation of marine mammal rehabilitation organization, center and regional 

capabilities;

• Streamline decision-making following the establishment of an incident command; and

• Collect relevant data and evidence for assessment of the impact of the spill on marine mammals.

These Guidelines highlight general procedures specific to oil spill response and focus on critical 

structural elements for national pinniped and cetacean response. For more information on general 

marine mammal rescue and rehabilitation, the reader should consult references such as Marine 

Mammals Ashore (Geraci et al., 2005) and the CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine (Dierauf and 

Gulland, 2001). Additionally, these Guidelines are designed to be paired with more specific Regional 

Annexes to address significant issues that may exist but are more appropriate to address at regional 

or state levels.
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These Guidelines are a “living document” and are not intended for independent use as a 

training manual. They have been developed to serve as guidance for acquiring the best achievable 

recovery and care during an oil spill response and, as such, we plan to periodically review and update

them as new information becomes available. 

Impacts of Oil on Marine Mammals

Overview of Petroleum Compounds

Petroleum compounds are extremely complex mixtures, and a wide variety of effects have been 

noted in exposed organisms. Crude oils can contain thousands of different organic and inorganic 

compounds (Scholz et al., 1999) and can vary widely depending on the geographic areas, depths and 

methods used to extract them (Neff, 1990a). Once extracted, crude oils can be highly manipulated or 

distilled in order to be reformulated into different end products (Barber et al., 1996), presenting 

challenges in understanding the associated toxicity and determining the source of releases. Aromatics 

compounds (containing one or more rings of six carbons each connected by alternating carboncarbon double bonds) are largely considered the most harmful compounds in oil (Neff, 1979), with 

smaller single ring aromatics, such as benzene, strongly associated with carcinogenicity, 

organopathies and even death at high exposure levels in vertebrates (ATSDR, 1995a). These singlering compounds are also readily available to biological systems due to their relatively high water 

solubility; however, due to extreme volatility, they are often not found in large concentrations except 

immediately following a spill. Conversely, compounds containing two or more aromatic rings (also 

called polycyclic or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs) can cause carcinogenicity, 

reproductive failure and immunotoxicity in laboratory settings (ATSDR, 1995b) and are less volatile; 

they are often at comparatively low concentrations in oil products and are fairly insoluble in water

but are of concern due to the potential injury to natural resources.

Overview of Detection Methods for Oiling of Marine Mammals

Determination of the degree of oil exposure in marine mammals can be a very difficult task to 

achieve, even if the animal is in hand after being collected during a spill event. In the field, the extent 

of external oiling can be difficult to assess in pinnipeds because of their dark pelts with a natural 

sleek sheen (Mazet et al., 1997) and, over a relatively short period of time, previously oiled pinnipeds 

can appear non-oiled due to molting and/or natural cleansing (Lowry et al., 1994). Cetacean skin 

can slough due to a rapid epidermal cell turnover rate (Hicks et al., 1985). Similarly, marine 

mammals may be internally exposed to oil without substantial indications from an external visual 

assessment and, should biological samples be taken, concentrations may fall below minimum 

detection limits using available analytical tools. Therefore, care should be taken when sampling 

marine mammals in order to accurately detect existing exposure, as well as report marine mammals 

as “oiled” or “unoiled” during oil spill events.

Several different laboratory methods can be used to determine oil exposure, with the choice of 

method being a function of sample type, the reason that analysis is needed (see below), and the 

timeline in which results are required (timelines for the various methods vary greatly). Duplicate 

samples are frequently warranted in order to perform several different types of analyses. In general, 

the preferred methods of analysis are as follows:

• For determining whether an external oil sample collected is from a particular source (e.g., oil 

“fingerprinting”), the sample should be tested with chemical methods (e.g., gas chromatography 

coupled with mass spectroscopy or flame ion detection).
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• For determining internal oil exposure in marine mammals, less intensive methods (e.g., total 

paraffinic/petroleum hydrocarbons) of testing biological samples can be used.

• For establishing overall health of animals from potential oil exposure in order to make clinical 

decisions (but not needing exact oil identification), indirect methods (e.g., mixed function 

oxidase levels) may be useful.

Documented Oil Exposure in Marine Mammals

At present, there are few data available on PAH levels in marine mammals inhabiting North 

American coastal waters taken both during, as well as, outside of known oil spill situations. Studies 

have measured PAH levels in seals and whales from Eastern Canada (Hellou et al., 1990; Zitko et al., 

1998) and harbor seals from the Northwest Pacific (Lake et al., 1995). Overall, the low 

concentrations of bioaccumulated PAHs in tissues from these marine mammals are fairly similar to 

those reported in atmospheric fallout PAHs from combustion sources (Zitko et al., 1998). During 

EVOS, control samples for comparisons were taken from animals inhabiting nearby non-oiled areas 

(Frost et al., 1995; Mulcahy and Ballachey, 1995). In an experimental exposure study (both 

immersion and ingestion) involving ringed seals (Phoca hispida), differences in detectability of PAHs 

in various tissues were noted (Engelhardt et al., 1977), with the highest levels in urine and bile, less 

elevated in blood and plasma, and lower in tissues (lowest in lung) at 2 days post-immersion. Tissue 

sampling in the ingestion study was limited to samples that could be collected from live animals 

either by venipuncture or biopsy: PAHs were highest in blood, and higher in liver and blubber 

compared to muscle. This study illuminates the importance of selecting appropriate tissues for PAH 

analysis, the need to collect samples during all oil spill responses involving marine mammals for 

baseline data, and has directed the sampling strategies developed in these Guidelines. 

Overview of Effects of Oil on Marine Mammals

In comparison to marine birds, marine mammals in general (and pinnipeds and cetaceans in 

particular) have infrequently been documented as affected during oil spill incidents and 

comparatively little is known regarding the direct and indirect effects on these species (summarized 

in (Jessup and Leighton, 1996; St. Aubin and Geraci, 1990)). However, as these animals spend much 

or all of their time in the water (and especially at the air/water interface where oil is found floating), 

the risk of potential impacts is significant.

In general, most pinnipeds and cetaceans rely on thick blubber layers to maintain normal body 

temperature in their aquatic environments, therefore are at low risk to the acute thermoregulatory 

effects of external oiling when compared to seabirds. However, heavily furred marine mammals 

(e.g., sea otters, fur seals, pups with lanugo coats) have a dense pelage that traps a layer of air against 

the skin and provides insulation from cold marine waters. Upon exposure to oil products, this coat 

loses its ability to repel water, thereby decreasing insulation and buoyancy, and potentially leading to 

hypothermia and associated physiological problems. External oiling can also impede marine 

mammals’ normal behaviors, including reducing abilities to float, ambulate/swim, and forage 

effectively. Lastly, direct contact of skin with petroleum products may result in irritation, burning, 

and/or ulceration especially in sensitive tissues such as the eyes (conjunctivitis and corneal edema)

and mucous membranes, and may also interfere with hearing if accumulated in ear canals. 

In addition to observable external effects, internal exposure (e.g., inhalation and ingestion) to 

petroleum compounds can result in both acute and chronic medical issues, with the subsequent 

toxicity being dependent on the chemical composition of the ingested oil (Neff, 1990b), as well as a 

variety of other factors discussed below. Marine mammals may be at particular risk from inhaling the 
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volatile components in oil due to their proximity to the air/water interface where volatiles are 

present at greatest concentrations, as well as the large tidal volumes of air exchanged with each 

breath and large accompanying force of inhalation. Inhaled oil components can cause direct damage 

(such as chemical pneumonitis), may lead to more chronic problems in the respiratory system (such 

as increased susceptibility to bacterial pneumonias), may cause central nervous system dysfunction, 

and can be an effective transfer point for volatiles to be systemically absorbed. Mammals may also 

ingest significant amounts of oil through or with prey species, grooming, and nursing, with aromatic 

and other low molecular weight petroleum hydrocarbons being rapidly absorbed and distributed to 

various target organs. Baleen whales may be at particular risk from ingested oil if baleen is fouled

(Wursig, 1990). Injuries from internal exposure can include anemia and immunotoxicosis, 

gastrointestinal erosions/ulceration, hepatic/renal lipidosis and necrosis, adrenal gland dysfunction, 

reproductive dysfunction, and changes in acute phase proteins and cytokines.

It must be understood, however, that the number of individuals and species affected, as well as the 

degree of pathological impact of such exposure, will depend on many variables, such as the location 

and size of the spill, the characteristics of the oil (e.g. crude vs. refined, fresh vs. weathered), weather 

and water conditions, types of habitats affected, the time of year the spill occurs, as well as the 

physiology and natural history of the marine mammal (e.g., age and health status of the individual

and mode and duration of exposure, which can be determined by foraging behavior, social behavior, 

migration patterns, and distribution). 

Documented Effects of Oil on Pinnipeds

St. Aubin (1990) provides a comprehensive overview of all reported oil-exposed pinnipeds from the 

1940’s to 1990; however, documentation of oiling, species-specific sensitivity to oiling, and observed 

effects of oiling in pinnipeds has received relatively little attention in the scientific literature (see 

(Davis and Anderson, 1976; Engelhardt, 1982; Engelhardt et al., 1977; Geraci and Smith, 1976; St. 

Aubin, 1990). Small-scale field laboratory studies on the effects of oil have been conducted on 

ringed and harp seals (Geraci and Smith, 1976; St. Aubin, 1990); however most studies have been 

unable to correlate the degree of oiling with the type of effect and many of the observed lesions

(including mortality) may be related as well to captivity stress or other underlying factors (Geraci and 

Smith 1976). Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) and Steller sea lions (Eumatopius jubatus) were significantly 

exposed and studied during the EVOS (summarized in (Loughlin, 1995). Two months after the spill, 

81% of harbor seals in Prince Williams Sound were classified as externally oiled but, interestingly, 

one year later, no seals showed any signs of external oiling. External oiling was not observed to 

disrupt seal locomotion or mother-pup interactions, and externally oiled harbor seal pups collected 

during EVOS appeared to be in normal physical condition (Davis and Anderson, 1976; Zimmerman 

et al., 1995). However, some harbor seals were observed exhibiting abnormally tame or lethargic 

behavior; behaviors most likely explained by brain lesions found in some oiled harbor seals and

likely caused by the toxic systemic effects of inhaled hydrocarbons (Spraker et al., 1995). In 2015, 

151 (n = 56 live, n = 95 dead) California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) and Northern elephant seals 

(Mirounga angustirostris) were collected as part of the Refugio oil spill off of Santa Barbara, CA, but a 

concurrent Unusual Mortality Event makes the effects of oil versus other processes unknown at the 

time of this writing. Between 5,000 and 6,000 South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis) and 

sea lions (Otaria flavescens), primarily pups, were documented as being oiled and dying in the San Jorge

oil spill off Punta del Este in Uruguay in 1997, though little information has been published on the 

impact (Mearns et al., 1999). Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki; n=79) were documented as 

being oiled during the Jessica oil spill in 2001 (Salazar, 2003), with animals observed having a high 

prevalence of conjunctivitis and burns, but no long-term negative impacts on the population were 
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noted. Grey seals (Halichoerus gypus) have been documented as being oiled from chronic pollution in 

Norway due to coastal shipping and discharges (Jenssen, 1996), but little mortality and minimal 

disturbance to the seals’ behavior has been reported.

Documented Effects of Oil on Cetaceans

Similar to pinnipeds, relatively little is known about the effects of oil on cetaceans. Experimental 

studies have found that cetacean skin may be an effective barrier to petroleum compounds, with no 

observed acute effects from a 75-minute direct exposure of gasoline to dolphin skin and no 

substantial difference in healing ability of superficial cuts when massaged for 30 minutes with either 

crude oil or gasoline (Geraci, 1990). Additionally, early studies indicated that cetaceans may detect 

and actively avoid substantial slicks (greater than 6mm) on the surface of the water (Smith et al., 

1983), (Geraci, 1990). However, in subsequent spills, this experimental finding has not been 

validated, as orca (Orcinus orca) did not avoid slicks during EVOS (Matkin et al., 1994a) and several 

cetacean species (including bottlenose dolphins, sperm whales, and striped dolphins) were observed 

in the slick during DWH. Sporadic reports (with little data) of cetaceans being “affected” by oiling 

prior to EVOS have included whales and dolphins after the Platform A blowout in Santa Barbara, 

CA in 1969 (Geraci, 1990) and six cetaceans following the Amoco Cadiz spill off of France in 1978 

(Prieur and Hussenot, 1978). Following EVOS, orca, gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus), Dall’s 

porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli) and harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) were all observed either 

surfacing within slicks or with oil on their skin in the immediate aftermath of the spill (Harvey and 

Dahlheim, 1994; Loughlin, 1994; Zimmerman et al., 1995). Direct effects of the EVOS on these 

cetacean populations is still under debate, as few carcasses were found stranded and the results of 

necropsy and tissue analysis was inconclusive, but the AB and AT1 pods of orca experienced 

substantial population losses within the three years following EVOS, which lends evidence to the 

spill having either delayed or indirect effects (Matkin et al., 2008; Matkin et al., 1994b). Most notably, 

however, 122 cetaceans stranded or were reported dead offshore during the response phase of the 

DWH blowout in the Gulf of Mexico (30 April – 2 November 2010), with an additional 785 

cetaceans found stranded in the region impacted by the spill from 3 Nov 2010 – 16 June 2013; this 

is significantly elevated over the historical baseline stranding rate and has been declared an Unusual 

Mortality Event by NOAA (see 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/mmume/cetacean_gulfofmexico.htm). One study published 

to date found that live dolphins captured in Barataria Bay, LA (a region found to have heavy and 

prolonged oiling during DWH) showed evidence of hypoadrenocorticism, were five-times more 

likely to have moderate to severe lung disease when compared to animals sampled as part of health 

assessment studies in Sarasota Bay, FL, a location which did not experience oiling during DWH. 

Additionally, 48% of the Barataria Bay animals sampled were considered in a guarded or worse 

condition, indicating that they were unlikely to survive (Schwacke et al., 2013). A subsequent study 

on dead stranded animals in Barataria Bay during this time showed chronic adrenal insufficiency, 

thin adrenal cortices, and increased risk of bacterial pneumonias (Venn-Watson et al., 2015). It is 

expected that DWH data will help address many of the data gaps on the effects of oil on cetaceans.

Additionally, in March 2014, ~4,000 barrels of a marine fuel oil (RGM 380) were spilled into the 

Texas City Y Ship Channel following a collision between a deep draft vessel and a fuel barge. In the 

three weeks following the spill, 39 stranded cetaceans were recovered, of which four were visibly 

externally oiled. Findings from this response and subsequent damage assessment proceedings 

should also contribute to the understanding of impacts of oil on cetaceans.
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Legal and Structural Framework

Laws Governing Oil Spill Response

There are a number of key pieces of legislation that govern how the planning and response to oil 

spill incidents will occur in the United States. These include:

• Clean Water Act (CWA): The CWA, enacted in 1948 but significantly reorganized and expanded 

in 1972, establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of 

the US. Under the CWA, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has implemented 

pollution control programs and made it unlawful to discharge any pollutant (including petroleum 

products) from a point source into navigable waters unless a permit is obtained.

• Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): 

Commonly known as Superfund, CERCLA (enacted in 1980 and amended by the Superfund 

Amendments and Reauthorization Act, or SARA, in 1986) provides broad Federal authority to 

respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger 

public health or the environment. CERCLA also enabled the revision of the National 

Contingency Plan (NCP; see below), which provides the guidelines and procedures needed to 

respond to releases and threatened releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, or 

contaminants.

• Oil Pollution Act (OPA90): OPA90, signed into law in 1990 largely in response to the EVOS, 

modified the CWA to expand the federal government's ability to prevent and respond to oil 

spills. While broad in approach, OPA90 provided three key planning and response elements not 

previously established in legislation. First, OPA90 developed new requirements for contingency 

planning by government and industry by expanding the NCP to a three-tiered system: 1) the 

federal government, through the National and Regional Response Team(s) (NRT and RRTs, 

respectively, see below) were now empowered to direct all public and private response efforts 

for certain types of spill events through their corresponding Response Plans; 2) Area 

Committees (composed of federal, state, and local government officials and stakeholders) were 

now required to develop detailed, location-specific Area Contingency Plans (ACPs); and 3) 

owners or operators of vessels and certain facilities that pose a serious threat to the environment 

must prepare their own Facility Response Plans. The OPA also created the Oil Spill Liability 

Trust Fund (OSLTF), which is managed by the US Coast Guard (USCG) and available to 

provide up to one billion dollars per spill incident should immediate funds be required by federal 

agencies to initiate response actions. Finally, the OPA increased the penalties for regulatory 

noncompliance, and established an extensive liability scheme that was designed to ensure that, in 

the event of a spill or discharge of oil, the responsible parties were liable for the removal costs 

and damages that result from the incident. Damages would be determined by appointed trustees 

through the development of natural resource damage assessments (NRDAs), and subsequent 

monetary settlements based on these damages would lead to restoration projects designed to 

return the trust resources, if possible, to pre-spill conditions.

National Oil Spill Planning Structure

In the United States, there exists an organized framework of national, regional, and local plans to 

prepare for potential oil spills, each of which work collectively to ensure the highest level of 

readiness. As an overarching structure, disaster management is led by the Department of Homeland 

Security - Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) following what is known as the 

National Response Framework (NRF) – a structure mandated by the Homeland Security Act of 

2002 and Homeland Security Presidential Directive-5. The NRF “presents the guiding principles 

that enable all response partners to prepare for and provide a unified national response to disasters 
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and emergencies,” “defin(ing) the key principles, roles, and structures” and “describes how 

communities, tribes, States, the Federal Government, and private-sector and nongovernmental 

partners apply these principles for a coordinated, effective national response.” The NRF is based on 

a series of Emergency Support Functions (ESFs), each of which direct one or more federal agencies 

to provide assistance, when necessary, to national disasters. Further, the management structure 

defined within the NRF is built on the template of the National Incident Management System 

(NIMS), a command-and-control system that defines a unified approach to incident management, a 

standard command and management structure (also known as the Incident Command System, or 

ICS), and an emphasis on preparedness, mutual aid and resource management.

When dealing with releases of oil and other hazardous materials, a more directed multi-layered 

system of local, state, and federal agencies make up a similar structure known as the National 

Response System (or NRS). This system allows individuals, teams and the federal government to 

“share expertise and resources to ensure that oil spill control and cleanup activities are timely, 

efficient, and minimize threats to human and environmental health” that are beyond the capabilities 

of local and state responders. At the heart of the system is the National Contingency Plan (NCP, or 

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan), which provides the framework 

for the NRS and establishes how the system works. If events are serious enough to be considered 

“Spills of National Significance” (or SONS), the NRF can be activated, and then works in 

conjunction with the NRS and NCP.

The NCP defines three key elements necessary for an effective national system - the first being the 

establishment of defined federal on-scene coordinators (FOSCs) that can coordinate all federal 

containment, removal, disposal efforts, and resources during an incident. These individuals are predesignated by the EPA for inland areas and by the USCG for coastal or major navigable waterways 

and, in addition to response duties, also oversee area planning, provide access to the expertise of the 

NRS federal member agencies, and are valuable sources of support and information to the local 

response community. The FOSCs are assisted in their efforts by scientists from the EPA (the 

Environmental Response Team or ERT) and/or from NOAA’s ORR-ERD (Scientific Support 

Coordinators or SSCs). These personnel act as Command Staff for the FOSC, and provide expertise 

in environmental and engineering issues, contingency planning and act as liaisons to the scientific 

community and the natural resource trustees.

Another key aspect of the NRS as defined by the NCP is the National Response Team (NRT),

which is comprised of the 15 federal member agencies of the NRS, each with responsibilities and 

expertise in various aspects of emergency response to pollution incidents. Prior to an incident, the 

NRT provides policy guidance and assistance, including periodic review of the NRP and staffing of 

the National Response Center, a 24-hour communications hub for incident reporting. During an 

incident, the NRT may be activated if needed to provide national-level advice and assistance, as well 

as access to member agency resources that are best provided at a national level. This can also include 

the mobilization of funds from the OSLTF as necessary. The EPA serves as chair of the NRT, and 

the USCG serves as vice chair.

The third key planning element required by the NCP is a mechanism to provide more localized

planning and response capabilities throughout the US. Oil spill response readiness is further broken 

down within the US into 13 Regional Response Teams (RRTs) - one for each of the ten regions, 

plus Alaska, the Caribbean, and Oceania. Similar to the NRT, the RRTs are comprised of 

representatives from the 15 federal NRS member agencies and are co-chaired by the EPA and 
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USCG, however each RRT also includes the appropriate state representatives. Each RRT develops 

and maintains a Regional Contingency Plan (RCP) that describes the policies and procedures for a 

quick and effective response to pollution incidents within their respective region, and provides more 

localized federal assistance when the NRT is not required to assist.

As stated above, the OPA also required the development of more localized area contingency plans 

(ACPs) for all coastal areas of the US through the establishment of Area Committees (composed of 

regional, federal, state, and local stakeholders). These plans are designed to be implemented in

conjunction with the NCP, outline the roles and responsibilities of various agencies in response to 

oil spills, and, most importantly, define regional environmental and socio-economic resources that 

require priority protection through the establishment of Geographic Response Plans (GRPs). The 

boundaries of each ACP include those areas within the Area of Responsibility of the USCG’s 

Marine Safety Office (MSO) for a region, known as the Captain of the Port (COTP) Zone. 

The OPA also requires that a Fish and Wildlife and Sensitive Environment Plan be developed for 

the NCP, in consultation with the USFWS, NOAA, and other interested parties, including state fish 

and wildlife agencies (33 U.S.C. § 1321(d)(2)(M)). The NCP calls for Fish and Wildlife and Sensitive 

Environments Plans to be included in ACPs “in order to provide for coordinated, immediate and 

effective protection, rescue, rehabilitation of, and minimization of risk of injury to fish and wildlife 

resources and habitat.” In 40 CFR Part 300, Section 300.210(c)(4), the requirements for this plan 

are set forth as an annex to Regional or Area Contingency Plans. 

Laws Governing Marine Mammal Protection

There are two key pieces of legislation that govern interactions with marine mammals in the United 

States. These are:

• Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA): The MMPA, signed into law in 1972, prohibits the 

“take” of sea otters, seals, sea lions, walruses, whales, dolphins, and porpoises, which includes 

harassing or disturbing these animals, as well as actual harming or killing, unless such take is 

specifically exempted in the statute or authorized. The MMPA divides responsibility for marine 

mammal species between the Secretary of Commerce (overseeing NOAA and the NMFS) for 

cetaceans and pinnipeds with the exception of walrus, and the Secretary of the Interior 

(overseeing the USFWS) for walrus, polar bear, sea otter, and manatee. Title IV of the MMPA 

establishes the Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program (MMHSRP) under 

NMFS (see Chapter 2 below).

• Endangered Species Act (ESA): The ESA, enacted in 1973, provides for the conservation of 

species that are listed as endangered (in danger of extinction) or threatened (at risk of becoming 

endangered in the foreseeable future). The ESA also contains a prohibition on “take” including 

harassment and disturbance as well as injuring and killing. There are approximately 2,095 

species listed under the ESA with 1,475 found within the United States. Of these, NMFS has 

jurisdiction over 94 marine and anadromous species, with the remainder of the species under the 

USFWS (generally the terrestrial, avian, and freshwater species, but including the sea otter and

polar bear, both of which are listed as threatened, and manatee, which is listed as endangered). 

Wildlife Trustee Authority

Because of the MMPA and ESA, the NMFS and USFWS have trustee responsibility for marine 

mammals; therefore, the FOSC (and the Unified Command, or UC) is/are required to immediately 

consult with FWS or NMFS whenever an oil spill and its subsequent response may affect these 
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resources. The ESA and its implementing regulations provide special provisions for consultations 

during emergencies (such as oil spills) with FWS and/or NMFS for making recommendations to the 

FOSC to authorize incidental take of listed species, and these consultations may also identify 

required or recommended measures to avoid the taking of listed species or to otherwise reduce 

response-related impacts. This consultation would provide the authorization for take of listed 

marine mammals under the ESA. Similarly, Section 109(h) of the MMPA allows take by federal, 

state, or local governmental employees during their official duties, provided the take is for the 

welfare and protection of the animal or public health, therefore the FOSC/UC is authorized to take 

marine mammals during an oil-spill response to protect that animal. Section 112(c) of the MMPA 

allows NMFS and the USFWS to enter into cooperative agreements with outside entities to further 

the purposes of the Act, including Title IV. Stranding Agreements are issued under 112(c) between 

NMFS and stranding network participants to allow these members of the national stranding network 

to take marine mammals in order to carry out the purposes of the MMPA. To provide coverage for 

directed take of ESA-listed marine mammals, an enhancement permit has been issued under Section 

10 of the ESA to the MMHSRP, with stranding network participants as Co-Investigators. Because 

of shared trust responsibilities, both federal and state agencies may be required to respond to spills, 

or potential spills, that may impact marine mammals. To facilitate efficient and effective 

coordination during an oil spill response, federal and state agencies may consider developing 

Memorandums of Agreement (MOA’s) or Memorandums of Understanding (MOU’s) that predesignate regional primary points of contact, establish lead representatives, and define roles for 

natural resource emergency situations.
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Chapter 2 – Readiness

Stranding Networks

National and Regional Structure

“Stranding”, for the purposes of the MMPA, is defined as an event in the wild in which a marine 

mammal is:

(A) Dead and is either on a US beach or shore; or in waters under US jurisdiction (including any 

navigable waters); or

(B) Alive and is on a US beach or shore and unable to return to the water; on a US beach or 

shore and, although able to return to the water, is in need of apparent medical attention; or

in waters under US jurisdiction (including any navigable waters), but is unable to return to its 

natural habitat under its own power or without assistance.

NOAA Fisheries’ MMHSRP, formalized by amendments to the MMPA in 1992, was developed to 

help NOAA Fisheries accomplish key management goals related to marine mammal health, 

including the collection and dissemination of reference data on the health of marine mammals and 

health trends of marine mammal populations in the wild; investigation of unusual and regular 

mortality events; ongoing biomonitoring and tissue/serum banking; and analytical quality assurance 

for mammal programs (for the organizational structure of NOAA, please see Figure 1). The first of 

these mandates, collection of reference data on marine mammal health, has been addressed through 

the coordination of volunteer stranding networks, and is a critical element to all readiness and 

response activities related to oil spill response. Five regional networks have been established within 

US coastal states (see Figure 2), each consisting of numerous approved network participants [either 

Figure 1: NOAA’s Organization Structure as it relates to oil spill response
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authorized through signed Stranding Agreements from the NMFS Regional Offices or Letters of 

Authorization from the USFWS, issued under MMPA Section 112(c)], or working under their 

MMPA Section 109h authority, and managed by a NMFS Regional Stranding Coordinator (RSC), all 

of which are overseen by the national MMSHRP Coordinator. In whole, the MMHSRP oversees, 

coordinates, and authorizes the activities of more than 120 organizations to respond to marine 

mammal strandings – some of which are strictly first responders (e.g., animal rescue only), some 

responding only to dead marine mammal strandings, and some of which are authorized to

rehabilitate live stranded marine mammals. Network organizations include federal, state, and local 

governmental entities, non-profit organizations, academic institutions, museums, scientists, and 

managers, among others.

Because of these pre-existing authorizations and structure of the regional marine mammal stranding 

networks, all planning for oiled wildlife response in each Area or Region should include significant 

input from the appropriate RSC(s) and/or key stranding network participants to decrease 

unnecessary infrastructure re-establishment. In turn, through the inclusion of these individuals in 

planning efforts, responders can be assured of the involvement of organizations with experience 

related to live and dead animal stranding response for the local area and pre-existing authorization to 

handle, collect, and treat marine mammals. Additionally, RSCs can then establish priorities for 

necessary training of stranding network participants, determine equipment and supply needs, and 

ascertain the most effective way of including and using regional stranding network organizations 

during events. This can also help each region and network to identify deficiencies that might need to 

be filled during oil spill incidents from other regions and/or contractors, and what resources they 

can provide during large-scale spills.

Network Member Organizations

Categories of Organizations/Facilities

At a stranding network participant level, different organizations will have different levels of interest, 

capabilities and capacity to respond and take part in oil spill efforts. For effective planning to occur, 

within each region, established roles and responsibilities that are expected from each stranding

network member should be identified and, if needed, added to their stranding agreement. As 

described above, there are three general classifications of organizations related to their stranding 

agreements. For the purposes of oil spill response planning, these can be delineated into five 

Figure 2: NOAA’s Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Regions; the Greater Atlantic (Northeast) 

Region covers Maine through Virginia; the Southeast Region covers North Carolina through Texas including 

the Caribbean; the West Coast Region covers California, Washington, and Oregon; the Alaska Region covers 

Alaska; and the Pacific Islands Region covers Hawaii and the US territories in the Pacific Ocean.
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different classifications (with individual organizations having the capacity to fill one or more of the 

following categories):

1) Primary Care Organization/Facility: A stranding network organization that possesses the 

permits, appropriate facilities (either purpose-built, readily modifiable, or plans/materials onhand to develop a temporary facility), necessary equipment, personal protective equipment, 

personnel and experience to receive live oiled pinnipeds and/or cetaceans (one or both taxa), 

stabilize, clean, and rehabilitate them until the animal(s) are deemed ready for release. This 

includes the ability to safely and effectively store and dispose of oiled hazardous waste, including 

wash water from oiled animals, as well as personnel that possess the appropriate OSHA training 

certification for working with oiled animals.

2) Secondary Care Organization/Facility: A stranding network organization with similar capabilities 

to a Primary Care Organization/Facility with the exception of not having the ability to 

handle/deal with oiled hazardous waste, therefore would not be able to clean animals that were 

recovered with external oil. These organizations can, however, take animals that are cleaned 

elsewhere (either at a Primary Care center or in the field) or unoiled animals for rehabilitation 

prior to release.

3) Processing Organization/Facility: A stranding network organization that possesses the permits, 

appropriate facilities, necessary equipment, personal protective equipment, personnel and 

experience to either conduct field sampling/necropsies within the oil spill area, or can do the 

same within their facility. This includes the ability to safely and effectively store and dispose of 

oiled hazardous waste, store samples in manner that preserves the chain of custody, as well as 

possess the appropriate OSHA training certification.

4) Field Collection Organization: A stranding network organization that possesses the permits, 

necessary equipment, personal protective equipment, personnel and experience to conduct field 

collection of live and/or dead stranded pinnipeds and cetaceans from within the oil spill area

and transport these animals to the designated Primary Care, Secondary, or Processing Facility.

5) Personnel Organizations: A stranding network organization that cannot fulfill one of the four 

previous categories (due to conflicting priorities, size, lack of appropriate facilities, etc.) but that

wishes to assist in a response by providing limited number of personnel to assist other regional 

organizations in the oil spill effort. Similarly, these may be organizations that provide discrete 

and specific skillsets (e.g., deterrence, observers, large whale euthanasia) to oil spill efforts. 

Personnel from non-stranding network members with appropriate training and expertise (e.g., 

staff of zoos and aquaria) may also be considered upon request by a stranding network member. 

While organizations from within the region that the spill is occurring should be used first if possible, 

RSCs should clearly communicate with other regions to determine available resources should the 

spill exceed local capacity, as well as explore the opportunities for cross training and the building of 

depth for such emergencies. Similarly, there will likely be key contractors that will need to be

brought in at the time of a spill to fill gaps in regional coverage, perform specific roles, and/or to 

augment existing staff. If at all possible, this should be limited to only those personnel that are 

necessary, as local assets should be prioritized when possible, and stranding network members from 

other regions will be considered next.

Criteria for Evaluating Organizations

In the development of oiled mammal response plans, organizations and individuals will need to be 

evaluated to determine the most appropriate and effective placement within the response structure. 

The following criteria should be used when considering and evaluating stranding network members:
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 Holds all necessary permits, Stranding Agreements (NMFS) and Letter of Authorizations 

(USFWS) for marine mammal stranding and response activities 

 Experience in the capture, treatment, and care of the species of marine mammals likely to be 

encountered

 Trained in the capture, treatment, and care of oiled marine mammals

 Knowledge of conducting marine mammal response activities within an Incident Command 

System structure, including appropriate communication and notification procedures

 Sufficiently trained (health/safety and animal care), equipped, and experienced supervisory 

staff (including a surge capacity plan to augment staff when needed)

 Ability to train and equip personnel and volunteers for marine mammal response during an 

emergency oil spill response

 Availability of appropriate equipment (and the ability to quickly mobilize it) to perform 

marine mammal capture, field evaluation, stabilization and transport (including to remote 

locations if necessary)

 Access to appropriate facilities for treating and housing oiled marine mammals (including 

adequate animal care, hazardous waste, and personnel infrastructure)

 Ability to establish and operate marine mammal intake, holding, and isolation areas within 12

- 24 hours of wildlife response activation

 Ability to establish and operate marine mammal cleaning and pre-release areas within 72 

hours of wildlife response activation

 Agreement with a licensed veterinarian experienced in the treatment of marine mammals 

(and knowledgeable and, ideally, trained in the treatment of oiled marine mammals) to 

provide necessary medical care

 Commitment to use of best practices as outlined in the remainder of this document

Facility Requirements

General Considerations

The size of the spill, its location, and the number and species of animals oiled will help determine 

the type and location of a facility that can meet the required need. Not all spill responses will be in 

the vicinity of a permanent rehabilitation facility - facilities close to spill events will often need to be 

improved or retrofitted to allow for oiled marine mammal care. Temporary facilities that can care for 

oiled marine mammals in the short or long-term can be established in local, fixed structures, or 

mobile units can be brought to a spill location to serve as temporary facilities. However, it is critical 

that spill planners and responders recognize the degree of effort, the unique requirements of oiled 

wildlife care, and the complexity required to implement and establish an adequate facility. It must 

also be understood that, should facilities need to be constructed or modified at the start of a spill, 

those costs are considered appropriate costs to be borne by the Responsible Party – often at a 

significantly higher cost than if planned and built during non-spill periods. Pre-spill planning is 

strongly encouraged to achieve wildlife response systems that will adequately address the needs of 

small as well as large rescue efforts as rapidly as possible during a spill.

There are published standards for the design of facilities housing marine mammals in captivity. In 

the United States, these standards are published by the Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service (APHIS, www.aphis.usda.gov) and are a requirement for facilities that 

wish to display animals to the public. They include such items as haul-out requirements, pool size 

and depth, water quality, number of animals to be kept in a particular environment, and strict 
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standards for food preparation areas and medications. In 2009, NMFS developed specific marine 

mammal rehabilitation facility guidelines (Policies and Best Practices for Marine Mammal Response, 

Rehabilitation, and Release, available at www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/health/rehab_standards.pdf), 

which set minimum facility, husbandry, and veterinary standards for rehabilitating marine mammals. 

It should be noted that there are some differences between the two documents in that the latter was 

developed for temporary care and all age groups, and thus is more appropriate for use during oil 

spill responses. It should also be noted that temporary facilities that are established at the time of an 

oil spill response may not be able to follow every aspect outlined in these documents due to the 

emergent nature of the incident. Thus, oiled marine mammal temporary facilities should strive to 

follow these Policies and Best Practices as closely as possible, but to consult with the veterinary and 

husbandry staff to confirm necessary “trade-offs” and receive approval from the MMSHRP 

Coordinator (or his/her designee) where they differ.

Facility design for rehabilitation centers is an ongoing area of study and no perfect facilities exist to 

suit all needs for each species and age class of marine mammal. Notwithstanding, certain principles 

should be kept in mind when designing an oil spill response facility or when attempting to house 

oiled marine mammals in an existing facility (Davis and Davis, 1995). An ideal facility should 

include: intake/physical exam/evidence processing area; a veterinary hospital with isolation 

capabilities; indoor wildlife housing/caging areas; food storage and preparation facilities; animal 

washing and rinsing areas; drying areas; outdoor pool and pen areas; pathology facilities; volunteer 

training and eating areas (with restrooms); administrative offices with multiple phone/fax lines and 

conference space; storage for documents, data, photos, samples, and carcasses that is appropriate to 

preserve evidence for use in natural resource damage assessment or other legal claims (e.g., locked or 

controlled access, etc.); access to a large parking area; and contingency plans for animals in the event 

of a natural disturbance (e.g., hurricane). Minimizing stressors is an important aspect of creating a 

good rehabilitation environment; some considerations would include a low level of ambient noise 

and the ability to restrict access to the facility to only authorized personnel (e.g., no general public 

access). Specific animal needs must be taken into account when trying to provide adequate housing 

for animals during an oil spill. These needs may be affected by such factors as the animal's species, 

age, physical condition, degree of oiling, and nature of the product with which it was oiled.

Housing Requirements and Considerations

In addition to abiding by the Policies and Best Practices documents referenced above, indoor and 

outdoor housing should maximize safety to humans and the animals, provide an escape-proof 

enclosure, and minimize stress (auditory and visual, including human traffic). Within an oil spill 

response facility, housing should be set up so that there are appropriate areas for holding animals 

prior to intake, pre-wash assessment and stabilization, post-wash, quarantine, and longer term 

housing. Areas containing oiled mammals (e.g., intake and pre-wash) should be sited and equipped 

to ensure that cross-contamination of oil to clean animals does not occur. All areas will differ in the 

amount of access to the animals that is required, the space that each animal requires, the degree to 

which the environmental temperature can be controlled, and type (if any) of water requirements 

(fresh versus salt).

• Environmental Control: A finer degree of environmental temperature control is required for 

newly admitted animals, neonates, and animals that are compromised due to poor nutritional 

state, greater extent of secondary effects, or underlying disease. For pinnipeds, compromised 

animals require easy or limited access to water, haul-out areas, and heat sources such as heating 

pads and lamps. Severely debilitated pinnipeds may not be able to move away from heat sources, 

necessitating frequent observations by caregivers to prevent hyperthermia and burns. For 
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cetaceans, water temperature, air temperature, and water depth may all need to be monitored 

and regulated based upon the needs of the animal. Some animals may require more frequent 

handling for monitoring, sample collection, feeding or medicating. Housing should minimize 

stress but maximize accessibility and ease of monitoring (Tuomi et al., 1995).

• Ventilation: Adequate ventilation is an extremely important factor for maintaining marine 

mammals in captivity and is especially important in oil spill situations to protect against the toxic 

effects of volatile agents of the contaminant. Ten to fifteen air changes per hour has been 

recommended as adequate for inside animal holding (NRC, 2011) and should be adhered to if at 

all possible for oiled marine mammal facilities as well. Outdoor housing is ideal for maintaining 

ventilation in most marine mammals (aside from those at greatest risk from hypo- or 

hyperthermia) but drawbacks include lack of environmental control, potential discomfort for 

personnel working with the animals due to ambient temperatures, and more challenging access 

control by staff.

• Quarantine: The potential for the spread of disease is an important issue to consider for marine 

mammals in captivity. Newly captured animals, staff and volunteers may carry infectious agents 

without showing signs of disease and could pose a threat to other animals already at the 

rehabilitation facility. Staff should use effective quarantine protocols including foot baths 

containing appropriate antimicrobial solutions between housing areas, cleaning/disinfecting or 

changing protective clothing between animals, designating separate feeding and cleaning 

equipment for different areas, and minimizing movement of animals and personnel between 

areas. Extra care must be taken in areas where animals with infectious diseases are kept and 

when handling immunocompromised animals.

• Water Supply: Oiled wildlife care facilities require large quantities of water in all areas 

simultaneously (e.g., wash/rinse area, pool area, laundry). The quantity should be sufficient to 

provide at a minimum a continuous flow of 4 gallons/minute to all indoor valves and additional 

supply to fill, operate filtration and/or ozonation equipment, and provide overflows for pools. 

Washing and rinsing areas require temperature-controlled hot water (exact temperature speciesspecific, but ~98°F) to ensure hypothermia does not occur during the effort. Ideally, when 

washing heavily furred animals (e.g., fur seals), use of water at a hardness of 2-5 grains per gallon 

at pressure of 40-60 psi is desired to prevent hard water deposits from forming and allowing all 

soap residues to be rinsed from the pelage.

• Waste Water: Facilities must dispose of all oil and animal wastewater in accordance with 

appropriate Federal, State, and municipal regulations. Oil contaminated water often must be 

contained in separate holding tanks and not released into the normal sewer system.

Equipment and Supplies

Oiled wildlife response is a specialized field and, as such, requires a great deal of equipment and 

supplies to accomplish it effectively. The degree and extent of the necessary materials is directly 

dependent on a number of factors including species at risk, location, number of animals at risk, 

specific tasks for response (e.g., field processing, live animal rehabilitation), remoteness of 

operation/ease of acquiring needed supplies, and similar logistical concerns. Ideally, facilities and 

organizations taking part in oiled wildlife response planning will have a cache of supplies that will 

enable them to perform specific tasks for a pre-identified target readiness level (e.g., 10 live oiled 

cetaceans), with vendors and equipment lists established to allow for rapid renewal of that supply 

should either the target number of animals be exceeded or supplies be used over time. The stocking 

of hard-to-acquire items which may not be used in routine rehabilitation (e.g., specialized petroleum 

sampling supplies such as I-Chem bottles with Teflon-lined lids) is strongly encouraged, even if they 
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may not be needed for the initial portions of the spill response. Equipment and supplies used for 

oiled animals may not be able to be cleaned appropriately for subsequent use (and especially for 

unoiled animals to avoid contamination), and therefore multiple sets of some items may be needed.

While no equipment and supply list is complete and comprehensive, Appendix 8 includes a basis for 

possible items that should be considered for regional planning based on the organizational category 

(e.g., primary care, secondary care, recovery).

Personnel

Categories of Personnel

Similar to the different classifications of stranding network organizations, there are different levels 

of personnel involved in spill response – each of which has different requirements for skills, training, 

knowledge, abilities and responsibilities. While the specific details of each job function is more 

extensively detailed in the “Command Structure” chapter, these classifications roughly break down 

into the following:

• Group Supervisor – This classification is assigned to the upper manager for each of the key 

response functions during a response. This can include Recovery & Reconnaissance, Care & 

Processing, Hazing, and/or any other broad category where multiple organized functions (each 

with a Leader) fall under it. This position is responsible for developing the vision and direction 

of the Group, collating information from Task Force Leaders to move to the Wildlife Branch

Director, and projecting operational needs into the next period. 

• Task Force Leader – This classification is assigned to the lead staff member with a specific 

function and multiple personnel under him/her. This can include Capture, Field Processing, 

Facility Processing, Animal Care and other discrete functions. This position is responsible for 

enacting all protocols and procedures for the Task Force (and suggesting/implementing 

adjustments when necessary), and collating information from each Area for reporting to the 

Group Supervisor. 

• Area Coordinator – This classification is assigned to key personnel within a Task Force that has, 

for ease and clarity of operation, been further subdivided into discrete elements. This can 

include Intake, Animal Cleaning, Veterinary, and other functions.

• Area Staff – This classification is assigned to personnel that, by benefit of the skills and 

knowledge, are assigned critical staff-level roles within the area, but are not responsible for the 

supervision of other staff.

• Technical Specialists – This classification is assigned to key personnel with specialized training 

and experience that fill individual roles within the response – often as a consultant or contractor. 

This can include deterrence, large whale euthanasia, or other key elements that may or may not 

be necessary within each spill response. Veterinarians with marine mammal experience may also 

be considered technical specialists within any of the Groups, Task Forces, or Areas. This may 

include assigning a veterinarian-of-record for the spill who will oversee all medical protocols.

• Volunteers – This classification is assigned to personnel that are not monetarily compensated for 

their roles during a spill effort. Typically, these individuals fall into two broad categories:

o “Spontaneous” volunteers are those interested members of the public that express 

interest in assisting at the time of the event but have no previous association with the 

Stranding Network;

o “Pre-Trained” volunteers or “Paraprofessionals” are those individuals that:
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 Either possess, or work directly under a person possessing, an active permit or 

authorization related to the species to be worked on;

 Are affiliated with a wildlife organization working within the Wildlife Branch of 

the ICS structure, or are a staff member of a wildlife trustee agency;

 Agree to work under, and abide by, appropriate planning documents prepared by 

the Unified Command (such as Site Safety Plan, Incident Action Plan, public 

affairs requirements, etc.); and

 Have a working knowledge and experience (> three months) with the general 

protocols, procedures and safety hazards associated with working on the species 

of question.

It should be noted that some of the prior defined positions (Area Coordinators, Area Staff) may be 

filled by personnel during an oil spill response that may be volunteers, but are not normally paid 

staff, of pre-existing stranding network members. In these instances, it must be defined at the start 

of a response whether these people will continue to work as a volunteer during the response or if 

the Network member will employ them as staff during the response and bill for their time. 

Additionally, it should be reinforced to the Unified Command that most wildlife response programs 

regularly use volunteers (particularly at the rehabilitation facility) and that volunteers can be an 

effective and efficient means to provide the necessary manpower to mount effective wildlife efforts

if managed directly by a Volunteer Coordinator within the appropriate Group. Furthermore, the 

inclusion of volunteers within an oil spill effort, if identified as a need by the stranding network

facility and requested by the Deputy Wildlife Branch Director as a necessary source of personnel for 

oiled marine mammal operations, is a mechanism by which the public can feel empowered to do 

something about the disaster within their region, as well as gain an experience with animals they may 

not have been otherwise able to be associated with. The sociological benefits of inclusion of 

volunteers should not be minimized, and should be encouraged if at all possible within the oil spill 

response framework. That being said, wildlife response managers need to ensure that volunteers are 

appropriately trained, supervised, and informed of all hazards. A comprehensive volunteer 

management program is an essential component of an efficient wildlife response. This management 

program needs to address, at a minimum, volunteer safety, training, supervision, scheduling, conflict 

resolution, and liability.

Training 

Depending on the role that the individual will be filling, different levels of training (both required 

and recommended) will be necessary (see Table 1). Some training requirements will directly relate to 

the tasks that the person will fill, including those directed at mastering specific marine mammal 

rescue and rehabilitation tasks. Others are mandated to ensure the safe accomplishment of activities, 

such as recognizing and minimizing the risk of injuries from oil-related and physical hazards 

associated with oil spill response operations. Training-hour requirements and specific courses vary 

with level of involvement, agency policy, and OSHA and state regulations.

Required Training

Personnel involved in oil spill response activities must comply with all applicable worker health and 

safety laws and regulations. The primary Federal regulations are the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA) standards for Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response 

(HAZWOPER) published by the U.S. Department of Labor in Title 29 of the Code of Federal 

Regulations (CFR), section 1910.120 (www.osha.gov). Oiled marine mammal responders and 

rehabilitation centers are not specifically addressed by HAZWOPER and training to address risks 

associated with marine mammal stranding and oil spill response personnel may fall within the scope 
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and application of the Hazard Communication Standard (HAZCOM, 29 CFR 1910.1200(h)). 

However, for those personnel involved in activities within the Exclusion, or “Hot” Zone (e.g., 

collection of an animal from an area with oil in the environment), 24-hour HAZWOPER 

certification (24-hour initial training with annual 8-hour refresher courses) will most likely be 

required and it is recommended that stranding network organizations maintain a few trained 

individuals. During a spill, the OSHA field compliance or Safety Officer should be contacted to 

ascertain the worker training requirements (as there may be additional spill-specific needs) and 

develop an implementation plan to minimize the hazards of exposure to workers involved in 

cleanup operations. For maximum protection of the environment, OSHA has recognized the need 

to quickly clean up spilled oil and has empowered the OSHA Regional Response Team 

representative to reduce the training requirements for responders engaged in post-emergency 

response operations as directed by OSHA Instructions CPL 2-2.51 (www.osha.gov). State 

requirements that are more restrictive will preempt Federal requirements. Marine mammal stranding 

network organizations are responsible for training and certifying their employees and volunteers.

Recommended Training

In addition to the training required by federal regulations, further training is highly recommended 

for safe and efficient operations during a spill response. Internally, some training opportunities may 

be considered “required” for staff to fill certain roles to ensure full understanding of the processes 

and procedures required for that effort. This guidance is considered a minimum essential training for 

oiled marine mammal response personnel in accordance with the goal of establishing best practices.

Regional requirements (and availability/scope of standard trainings such as first aid and boat safety) 

may differ and should be tailored to addressing those risks/elements present in that Region. These 

training opportunities may include:

• ICS 100 (or IS-100.b): Introduces ICS and provides the foundation for higher-level ICS training. 

This course describes the history, features and principles, and organizational structure of the 

Incident Command System. It also explains the relationship between ICS and the National 

Incident Management System (NIMS). Available at training.fema.gov/emiweb/is/is100b.

• ICS 200 (or IS-200.b): Designed to enable personnel to operate efficiently during an incident or 

event within ICS. ICS-200 provides training on and resources for personnel who are likely to 

assume a supervisory position within the ICS. Available at training.fema.gov/emiweb/is/is200b.

• Live Animal Handling: For personnel who will be in positions where the capture and care of live 

marine mammals will occur. Should include marine mammal-specific health and safety 

information (e.g., zoonotic diseases). Currently not available in a centralized location, but 

individual stranding networks/network members may have offerings available that can satisfy 

this requirement.

• “Oil Spill 101” Training: Personnel involved in oil spill responses should understand the basics 

of oil chemistry, spill response structure/incident command system, cleanup technologies, and 

the roles of each group within the response. This information allows wildlife professionals to

speak with some common language to others within an effort. Both NOAA’s ORR-ERD and 

the California Department of Fish and Wildlife offer Environmental Response courses that 

provide similar content. 

• First Aid: For personnel involved with field activities or those in a supervisory role. Courses 

available through the American Red Cross (www.redcross.org/take-a-class) or the National 

Safety Council (www.nsc.org/products_training).
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• Boat Safety: For personnel involved in field activities on boats. Courses may be offered through 

the USCG (http://www.uscgboating.org/safety/boating_safety_courses_) as well as other 

agencies (e.g., DOI).

• Rehabilitation: For facility personnel. Should include basic animal care protocols, procedures and 

best practices used within that Region, plus additional information related to oil-specific effects.

Currently not available in a centralized location, but individual stranding networks/network 

members may have offerings available that can satisfy this requirement.

• Processing: For field and facility processing personnel. Should include appropriate 

documentation, sample collection and chain-of-custody information pertinent to oil spill 

response. Currently not available in a centralized location.

• Crisis Management and Media Relations: For field and facility personnel who are in supervisory 

positions and/or have the potential to address the media. Currently not available in a centralized 

location from NOAA, but many training/certificate programs are available through online and 

in-person vendors.

Table 1: Required and recommended training for oiled marine mammal personnel 24-Hr HAZWOPER

4-Hr HAZCOM

ICS 100-200

Drill Participation

"Oil Spill 101"

First Aid

Boat Safety

Live Animal Handling

Rehabilitation

Processing

Crisis Management

Media Relations

Deputy Wildlife Branch 

Director R R R R H R R

Network Member Director R R R R H R R

Response Management R R H R H R R R R R R

Collection Area Lead/Staff R H H R R R R H

Field Processing Area 

Lead/Staff R H H R R H H R H

Facility Processing Area 

Lead/Staff H R H H R H H H R H

Primary Care Area Lead/Staff H R H H R H R R

Secondary Care Area 

Lead/Staff H R H H R H R R

Field Volunteers R H H R

Facility Volunteers

(Live Animal) R H R H H

Facility Volunteers 

(Organizational Support) R H H H H

R = Required training; H = Highly recommended for establishing best practices
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Safety and Human Health

Worker health and safety are of primary importance in any oiled marine mammal rescue and 

rehabilitation effort. The earliest phases of an oil spill are generally the most hazardous to human 

health and safety. Thus, safe practices during field collection of marine mammals must be a priority. 

Rescue programs should not be initiated unless personnel can conduct activities safely. As with all 

spill response activities, the marine mammal rescue and rehabilitation effort needs to be coordinated 

and monitored by the spill response command center operations, safety, and medical staffs. It is 

imperative that marine mammal response operations are organized and implemented within the

Incident Command Structure. A written Site Safety Plan (SSP) must be developed and approved by 

the spill’s Safety Officer for the rehabilitation facility. If field activities are on-going for marine 

mammal response, the site safety plan needs to be expanded to include these activities including any 

specialized equipment that will be used. All staff and volunteers working on the spill must be 

familiar with and sign the SSP prior to work.

Personal Protective Equipment 

Personal protective equipment (PPE) must be used to protect wildlife response personnel from 

exposure to hazardous substances and dangers associated with animal care activities. To guard 

against injury from marine mammals, all workers should wear approved PPE appropriate to their 

task.

Recommended PPE for General Oiled Marine Mammal Activities

 Full eye protection, i.e., goggles, safety glasses, or face shield 

 Oil resistant rain gear or oil protective clothing (coated Tyvek, Saranex, etc.)

 Gloves (neoprene or nitrile) that are oil resistant and waterproof

 Non-skid shoes/boots that are oil resistant and waterproof

 Ear protection (muff or ear plug type) when using pyrotechnic devices or operating machinery

 Appropriate Type personal flotation device (PFD) when working on or near water

Respiratory protection from organic vapor hazards may also be required for some operations. If 

respirators are used, training and fit testing are required. All workers must be trained on the proper 

use and limitations of all PPE prior to using the equipment.

Hazardous Substances

Rescue and rehabilitation workers may be exposed to spilled oil, and must be so informed. Prior to 

handling a contaminated marine mammal, the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for the spilled material 

should be reviewed and all recommended precautions followed. The rehabilitation facility should be 

periodically monitored by the incident’s Safety Officer to ensure air quality and other regulatory 

requirements are met. Ventilation in all work areas should prevent the buildup of airborne 

contaminants. 

A portion of the rehabilitation facility should be designated for the storage of contaminated clothing, 

equipment, and medical waste until the items can be decontaminated or disposed of properly in 

accordance with the site safety plan and all local, state, and federal regulations.
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Chapter 3 - Response

Incident Reporting and Resource Activation

When oil spills occur within navigable waters of the United States, there are specific reporting 

requirements mandated by the federal government (outlined in Figure 3). Specifically, any person in 

charge of a vessel or onshore/offshore facility is required to report to the National Response Center 

(NRC) “harmful quantities” of oil, defined as “any quantity of discharged oil that violates state water

quality standards, causes a film or sheen on the water’s surface, or leaves sludge or emulsion beneath 

the surface.” There are certain facilities that are exempt from this requirement and must only report 

discharges greater than 42 or 1,000 gal (defined in the Spill Prevention, Control, and 

Countermeasures, or SPCC Rule), but most must report based on the aforementioned “sheen rule”. 

These reports can also be made to the EPA’s Regional Office or USCG’s Marine Safety Office.

Once the NRC receives the report, notification is made to a USCG or EPA On-Scene Coordinator 

(OSC), who determines whether further federal action is required. If the OSC determines that 

federal involvement is required, he/she will assume control of all spill response operations at the site 

as part of the forming Incident Command System structure, and will obtain and direct all needed 

resources. If adequate personnel, equipment, and other necessary support are not available through 

the PRP, the OSC can activate additional spill contractors using funds from the Oil Spill Liability 

Figure 3: Initial federal notifications (Source: USEPA Website)
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Trust Fund, as well as activate the Regional Response Team to provide broader technical advice, 

equipment, or manpower.

As part of this initial activation process, federal and state wildlife trustees should be notified about

the potential impact to their assigned trust resources. This may be directly by the OSC, by NOAA’s 

SSC providing directed support to the OSC, through the Liaison Officer, or through a party or 

mechanism designated within the RCP, ACP or RP’s response plan (see Figure 4 below). Generally, 

the NMFS RSC will receive the notification via NOAA’s SSC, and the stranding network will be 

mobilized via coordination with them and the Wildlife Branch Director (if activated). If a stranding 

network organization is contacted directly by an RP or their representative regarding a spill, they 

should contact the NMFS RSC to coordinate.

Note that the above reporting structure only details instances where oil spills are officially observed 

and declared by the local, state or federal agencies in charge of spill response. In some instances, 

individual animals may be observed by the public and/or wildlife professionals as oiled without a 

spill being reported (e.g., from natural seeps, animals entering waste facilities, non-petroleum oils 

from fishing activities, unreported spills). The presence of these oiled animals does not normally 

necessitate activation of the full spill response structure, yet the wildlife response community is often 

placed in a situation where recovery and rehabilitation is warranted. Additionally, these animals may 

be the first evidence that a spill is occurring, so these data may be important for subsequent 

response. Discussions within each Region and with the local Area Committee should take place to 

develop a plan for reporting and sampling these individually oiled animals such that critical 

information is shared in a time- and cost-sensitive manner. At a minimum, individually oiled animals 

should be reported to the NMFS RSC. 

Incident Command System

All oil spill responses in the US are managed by following a defined Incident Command System 

(ICS) structure as standardized by the National Incident Management System (NIMS) and modified 

for oil and hazardous substance spill response by the National Response Team (Figure 4; see ICS100b training detailed previously for more information). Leading the response is the Unified 

Command (UC), made up of a Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) (usually a Coast Guard 

Captain of the Port for the affected area), a State On-Scene Coordinator (SOSC), and a qualified 

individual from the Responsible Party (RP), if known. When appropriate, tribal or local government 

representatives can also be included in the UC. The FOSC has the ultimate responsibility for 

directing the oil spill response if a consensus cannot be reached among the members of the UC.

Directly assisting the UC are several individuals or groups serving in Command Staff functions. 

These include:

• Information Officer: Responsible for developing and releasing information about the incident, 

often generated through a Joint Information Center (JIC) that he/she manages.

• Liaison Officer: Responsible for coordinating the input from, and delivering information to, 

those agencies that are not represented within the UC. This also includes functions that are not 

necessarily represented within the response structure, such as natural resource damage 

assessment, investigations, and natural resource trustees.

• Safety Officer: Responsible for developing and recommending measures for assuring personnel 

safety, including the drafting of Site Safety Plans (SSPs).
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Key activities within the spill’s ICS are broken down into four discrete Sections: Planning, 

Operations, Logistics, and Finance/Administration, with those Section Chiefs acting as the General 

Staff to the UC:

• Planning: Responsible for the collection, evaluation, dissemination and use of incident 

information, including maintaining status of assigned resources. This is primarily accomplished 

through the completion of Incident Action Plans (IAPs), which project plans and resources 

needed to the next operational period. The Environmental Unit is included within the Planning 

Section.

• Operations: Responsible for all tactical operations, including recovery/protection, air support, 

and wildlife operations. The Wildlife Branch is included within the Operations Section.

• Logistics: Responsible for providing facilities, services and material in support of the incident.

• Finance/Administration: Responsible for all financial, administrative and cost analysis aspects of 

the incident.

Wildlife Branch

Coordination of response activities directed at wildlife (including reconnaissance, hazing, capture, 

and care) usually occurs within the Wildlife Branch, which works under the Operations Section. 

Some actions that are related to wildlife or can help inform wildlife response efforts occur with the 

Environmental Unit of the Planning Section (e.g., identification of resources at risk, assessment of 

Section 6 and 7 issues, GIS/mapping, provision of trained wildlife observers on response 

equipment, and collection of shoreline information). Guidance for dealing with oiled wildlife is not 

specifically provided in the National Contingency Plan; therefore the Wildlife Branch operational 

Figure 4: Standard Incident Command Structure for Oil Spill Response. Acronyms: FOSC = Federal On-Scene 

Coordinator, SOSC = State On-Scene Coordinator, RPIC = Responsible Party Incident Commander
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plan is developed uniquely within each Regional and Area Contingency Plan based on the specific 

resources present locally and agency involvement (see Figure 5 for a generalized Wildlife Branch 

structure used in California). Under the direction of the Wildlife Branch Director (WBD), the 

principal objectives of the Wildlife Branch are to:

• Conduct all operations in a safe manner for people and animals;

• Minimize injuries to wildlife and habitats from the contamination;

• Minimize injuries to wildlife and habitats from the cleanup effort;

• Collect all data, samples and animals in a legally defensible manner;

• Document for the Unified Command (and potentially other efforts) the immediate impacts to 

wildlife of the oil spill and cleanup; 

• Report to the Unified Command (via the Operations Section Chief) in a timely and complete 

manner all pertinent data and information necessary to ensure clarity of wildlife operations; 

• Support the efforts of the Joint Information Center (JIC) in disseminating information (much of 

which may be real-time) to the media, public and other interested parties; and

• Provide the best achievable care to impacted and/or threatened wildlife.

To ensure these objectives are achieved with maximum efficiency, the WBD (in coordination with 

the Environmental Unit) manages the activities of the federal, state, and local agencies along with 

commercial and non-profit organizations responsible for wildlife protection and management who 

fall under the authority of the Unified Command during spill response. Early development and 

implementation of a wildlife response plan ensures timely mobilization of dedicated staff, 

equipment, and volunteers. The degree of the wildlife response effort is designed to be flexible and 

scalable to the size of the oil spill - only those positions necessary and appropriate for a specific spill 

incident are filled. 

Figure 5: Example Wildlife Branch used for bird response in California (OWCN 2013)
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Once the UC activates the Wildlife Branch, several components of oiled wildlife response can be 

initiated, including reconnaissance to determine what species and which areas are at greatest risk, the 

feasibility of hazing of animals to prevent oiling, search and collection for live and dead animals in 

the spill area, treatment and rehabilitation of visibly or suspected internally oiled animals, and release 

and monitoring of recovered animals. Wildlife contractors [if pre-identified within the spiller’s, the 

Area, or the Regional contingency plan(s)] may be contacted and possibly deployed depending on 

the region and risk. The agencies, organizations, and individuals responsible for these functions 

should be outlined in the Area Contingency Plan. 

Pinniped and Cetacean Operations

For effective coordination within the overall spill response structure (and the Wildlife Branch in 

particular), these Guidelines have established a working model of how pinniped and cetacean 

operations should be managed. As in any oil spill response, however, the number of positions on the 

organizational chart, and whether one individual fills single or multiple roles (including that of an 

entire group or task force), is entirely dependent on the scope and complexity of the event. For most

Figure 6: NOAA Marine Mammal Notifications. Acronyms: UC = Unified Command; SSC = Scientific 

Support Coordinator; RSC = Regional Stranding Coordinator
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spill situations, a small number of individuals can successfully fill all of the necessary responsibilities; 

however, the basic tenets of ICS management (maintaining an appropriate span of control while 

keeping unity of command) should be exercised. Using this general framework, pre-identified

personnel (with roles and responsibilities) and locations should be established for each Area/Region 

and documented within its specific Contingency Plan. These plans should be exercised regularly, 

with NOAA and MMHSRP staff/stranding network members taking part in larger exercises (such 

as National Preparatory, or NPREP, drills). This will decrease the time and confusion that can exist 

early in a response effort, as well as identify gaps in coverage that additional personnel, equipment or 

facilities are needed to fill.

In a spill incident where wildlife are at risk and/or known to be affected, a Wildlife Branch will likely 

be activated (see Figure 6). In areas where pinnipeds and/or cetaceans may be impacted, the WBD 

and/or the SSC should contact the RSC, as he/she will be most familiar with local assets that can be 

used when appropriate. Similarly, the Environmental Unit Leader and/or the SSC will likely be in 

contact with NOAA Fisheries’ Regional Office for Section 7 (ESA) consultation. Initial discussions 

between the WBD/SSC and RSC should include whether pinnipeds and/or cetaceans are at risk, 

what assets have been made available by the UC and/or the RP, the regional capacity of the 

stranding network, whether the UC has approved the development of a Pinniped/Cetacean Group 

within the Wildlife Branch, and whether the response is large or complex enough to warrant the 

activation of a Deputy Wildlife Branch Director (DWBD) to focus on pinniped/cetacean issues. In 

most instances, the RSC can fill the DWBD role, but other marine mammal/response specialists 

from the MMHSRP and/or other professional wildlife organizations may also effectively fill this role

if authorized/approved by the MMHSRP Coordinator. Once these initial discussions occur, the 

level, degree and staging of activation of resources can take place (as well as contacting other RSCs 

and the MMHSRP Program Coordinator to request additional assistance, as needed).

It must also be noted that the selection of individuals to fill specific roles within the ICS structure 

should be based on qualifications, not necessarily the position they fill during non-spill periods. 

Similarly, reporting structures and command/control decisions for spill information and actions 

should follow the organizational chart put into place for the spill by the DWBD operating within the 

Wildlife Branch, not those used for general non-response activities. Employment and availability 

information (and similar logistical issues) will likely need to be coordinated between the staff 

member and their employer but, once deployed to a spill and filling a specific role within the 

response structure, reporting and tasking should be from within the Incident Command System. 

Pinniped and Cetacean Command Staff

The roles and responsibilities of each Strike Team and Area identified in the diagrams below will be 

further detailed in each chapter dedicated to those discrete protocols. However, there are a number 

of Command Staff (DWBD, volunteer coordinator, etc.) that may/will play shared roles across all 

groups within Pinniped/Cetacean Operations. Briefly, descriptions of these positions are as follows:

• Deputy Wildlife Branch Director: In situations where significant risks to pinniped/cetacean 

stocks are present and on-site activities are required, the WBD may choose to activate this 

position. This function may be filled by the NMFS RSC, but may also be filled by other Regional 

or non-Regional staff with significant spill experience and knowledge of local assets. Specific 

duties of the DWBD will depend on the spill event, but may include the following: playing a lead 

role in supervising the pinniped/cetacean-specific Groups within the Wildlife Branch (Hazing, 

Recovery, and Care & Processing); coordinating the logistical needs between the managed 
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Groups and the Logistics/Finance Sections to ensure proper documentation and timely 

processing of requests (e.g., completing ICS Resource Requests in no Logistics/Finance 

Coordinator is activated); updating the Unified Command (through the WBD) of spill-related 

wildlife statistics (e.g. numbers of dead/live oiled mammals); coordinating pinniped/cetaceanrelated activities with the various trustee agencies; coordinating the staffing and updating of oiled 

mammal and volunteer hotlines; and updating the Joint Information Center/media as requested 

by the Unified Command. The DWBD must have extensive experience, background and 

understanding of the capture and treatment of oiled pinnipeds and cetaceans during an oil spill 

event, understand the planning for and implementation of NOAA’s Guidelines and Regional 

Response Plans, as well as possess oil spill/crisis management experience. 

• Volunteer Coordinator: Under direction of the DWBD, this position organizes and schedules 

volunteers on a daily basis for all Groups. During larger responses, this position should be sited 

at the Command Post for ease of coordination with the DWBD and each individual Group 

Supervisor, with Deputies located at each facility and at staging areas for each Recovery Task 

Force. During smaller responses with a single facility activated, this position may be housed at 

the Primary Care Facility (and staffed by that facility’s Volunteer Coordinator) and managed by 

the Care and Processing Group Supervisor if volunteers are not needed/approved for field 

deployment. Specific duties include scheduling and conducting orientations and safety trainings 

as needed; managing and reporting volunteer issues and problems as necessary; reporting 

pertinent volunteer-related issues up the chain of command; and addressing logistical needs for 

volunteers (e.g. volunteer meals).

• Logistics/Finance Coordinator: Under direction of the DWBD, this position coordinates 

financial and administrative matters relating to pinniped/cetacean spill response. During larger 

responses, this position will need to be sited at the Command Post for ease of coordination with 

the larger Logistics and Finance/Administration Sections, with Deputies located at each facility

and at staging areas for each Recovery Task Force. In smaller incidents, the Coordinator role 

may be accomplished at the Primary Care Facility. Specific duties include assisting with 

completion of special forms (ICS Resource Requests, if sited at the Command Post), daily 

logs/reports, and daily cost accounting; ensuring logistical needs of Groups are met (e.g. travel 

arrangements, car rentals, hotels, staff and volunteer meals, supply ordering); compiling and 

reviewing invoices from stranding network members and contractors for accuracy; acquiring 

supplies as needed; coordinating with PRFA administrators for Federal employee costs; and 

assist with logistics when necessary.

• Data Coordinator: Under direction of the DWBD, this position ensures the proper collection of 

all pinniped/cetacean-related data during an oil spill event and organizes and collates 

information received from the different Task Forces and Facilities into a cohesive common 

operating picture. During larger responses, this position will need to be sited at the Command 

Post for ease of reporting to the Planning Section, the UC, and NOAA staff managing ERMA 

(Environmental Response Management Application), with Deputies located at each facility and 

at staging areas for each Recovery Task Force to review incoming data. In smaller incidents, the 

functions intrinsic to this position may be accomplished at the Primary Care Facility. Specific 

duties include ensuring all Groups and Areas are properly collecting data; conducting training 

when necessary to ensure appropriate data collection; reviewing all Chain of Custody procedures 

and interacting with NOAA-OLE and NOAA-GC (as appropriate) to ensure compliance; 

conducting data validation/quality control procedures; ensuring that the DWBD is appropriately 

briefed and informed about relevant numbers; and compiling daily summary reports for delivery 

of information to Situation Status and the UC (via the DWBD and Wildlife Branch Director) 
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when necessary. This position may be filled by the Processing Strike Team Leader in small- to 

moderate-sized spills.

• Hotline Coordinator: Under direction of the DWBD, this position manages a reporting system 

for collecting and distributing information from the public and other responders on pinnipeds 

and cetaceans affected or at risk during oil spills. In smaller incidents, this role may be 

accomplished within the Recovery Group. Specific duties include the establishment and staffing 

of a hotline system; and interaction with other regional emergency response systems to ensure 

appropriate information flow. In areas with a pre-existing stranding network member with their 

own hotline (which is likely well known in the local community), the Hotline Coordinator 

should work with the stranding organization to ensure that the reports received directly by the 

organization from members of the general public are collected and acted upon appropriately 

within the framework of the ICS.

Tiered Wildlife Response Planning

As mentioned above, each oil spill incident involving wildlife will be very different based on a 

number of different variables, including (but not limited to) spill dynamics (e.g., product, volume), 

time of year, location of spill, and oceanographic/meteorological status. Because of this dynamic 

state, no “one size fits all” organizational structure for marine mammal response can be applied to 

each and every response. At an industry level, oil spill planners have addressed this same issue using 

a Tiered system concept, where differing levels of readiness are defined based on extent of needed 

response. Typically, these tiers are broken down in the following manner:

• Tier 1: Spills that only have a local impact and require only local resources;

• Tier 2: Spills that have regional or national significance, and require resources from a larger area 

or across that nation; and

• Tier 3: Spills that have international significance, and require resources from multiple countries.

Note that this internationally-recognized structure for oil spill readiness is different than that 

recommended under NIMS to describe incident complexity. In the NIMS structure, a Type 1 

response is the most complex, requiring national resources for implementation (likely equivalent to a 

Tier 3 response), and Types 2-5 are in decreasing order of resource needs (equivalent to Tier 2-1). 

For the purposes of marine mammal readiness within the United States, it has been determined that 

the international standard will be followed to allow for local/Regional planning, but also allow for 

assistance when needed across stranding networks. This revised concept is as follows:

• Tier 1 Marine Mammal Response (Local): A discrete spill occurring in a localized area where 

Figure 7: Tier 1 Pinniped/Cetacean Wildlife Branch Organization
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the assets within a single stranding network member organization/facility can provide an 

appropriate response should mammals be affected. In this scenario, the RSC may not need to 

be physically present at either the Incident Command Post or at the Primary Care Center, but 

can be consulted via telephone or email should questions or concerns arise (see Figure 7). Due 

to the limited extent of the response, a single Marine Mammal Group can be deployed (which 

consists of recovery as well as rehabilitation), and operations can likely be focused from a single 

stranding network organization, primarily using their resources. If the most local facility does 

not have Primary Care capabilities, a Primary Care Facility will also be identified. Staff and 

volunteers from other organizations within that Regional Network may be activated or put on 

stand-by, but may not need to deploy personnel (aside from efforts for training and outreach 

purposes, which may not be reimbursed by the Responsible Party). Communications between 

the WBD/UC and marine mammal operations should flow back and forth via the RSC by 

phone and email, with the RSC ensuring that operational activities are captured within the 

Incident Action Plan and that appropriate resource requests are made to support the operation.

It should be noted that, for many regions in the US, Tier 1 capacity may not be available due to 

lack of infrastructure, distance from key marine mammal facilities/organizations, or other 

reasons. In these situations, even small responses may require a Tier 2 response from the start 

of the spill. 

• Tier 2 Marine Mammal Response (Regional): A more substantial spill (by volume, extent, or 

complexity of the response, as well as the size and species of marine mammal populations 

exposed) where the local stranding network member organization/facility’s assets need to be 

supplemented by additional personnel and (potentially) other facilities from within that Regional 

stranding network (see Figure 8). In this scenario, the RSC/designee will either need to be 

physically present at the Primary Care Center acting as a Deputy Wildlife Branch Director with 

regular consultation and reporting occurring via telephone and email to the Wildlife Branch 

Director at the ICP, or present at the ICP with regular communication with the Care & 

Processing Group Supervisor stationed at the Primary Care Center. Due to the increasing 

complexity of the mammal response, Recovery and Care operations would be separated, with 

different Group Supervisors in charge of each. Operations can likely be focused from a single 

Figure 8: Tier 2 Pinniped/Cetacean Wildlife Branch Organization
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Primary Care Center, but may require additional staging areas for recovery and (possibly) field 

stabilization and/or processing (necropsy) to occur. Resources (personnel, equipment and 

supplies) from multiple organizations within that stranding network will likely be needed, but 

staff and volunteers from other Regional Networks may not be necessary (aside from training 

and outreach purposes).

• Tier 3 Marine Mammal Response (National): A large/complex spill where the assets from 

multiple different Regional stranding networks are necessary to mobilize an effective response 

(see Figure 9). In this scenario, the RSC/designee where the incident has occurred will need to 

be physically present at the Incident Command Post acting as a Deputy Wildlife Branch 

Director, with regular communications occurring via telephone and email to each Group 

Supervisor. Command staff (Volunteer/Data/Administrative Coordinators) would likely be 

located with the DWBD at the Command Post, with Deputies, when appropriate and necessary, 

located at each Primary Care Facility and Recovery Staging Area. Due to the increasing 

complexity of the mammal response, Recovery and Care/Processing operations would be 

further divided into Strike Teams responsible for discrete functions within those groups. 

Similarly, formalized reconnaissance would be added to the tasking of the Recovery Group as a 

separate Strike Team, and hazing may be added to the mission of the Branch and initiated as a 

separate Group. There will likely be multiple Primary Care Facilities located in different areas 

throughout the spill site, each of which would contain separate Processing and Care Strike 

Teams. Similarly, there will likely be multiple Recovery Strike Teams in different regions 

Figure 9: Tier 3 Pinniped/Cetacean Wildlife Branch Organization
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throughout the area, all of which have Strike Team Leaders reporting to a single Recovery 

Group Supervisor. Resources (personnel, equipment and supplies) from multiple stranding 

networks will likely be needed to provide the depth of coverage and the longevity of the 

response.

For ease of presenting information within these Guidelines, all operational discussions will describe 

a Tier 3 response, as this would be the most elaborate and difficult to plan for and enact. For Tier 1 

and 2 responses, while the overall duties and obligations would remain the same for each 

Group/Strike Team/Area, those obligations could be “collapsed” up the organizational chart so that 

one discrete unit can suffice for multiple tasks (e.g., the Recovery Area under the Marine Mammal 

Group in a Tier 1 response can cover the duties of the entire Recovery Group as described in the 

following text). However, it should be recognized that, as a spill evolves over time, a response may 

evolve to a higher tier (or conversely, devolve to a lower Tier); the concepts and practices of the 

Incident Command System allows for this change in an organized fashion.

Formal Transitioning Between Tiers

As described above, the scaling of a marine mammal response may need to transition between 

smaller and larger response efforts throughout the spill. At a minimum, the wildlife response must 

eventually be demobilized once rescue and rehabilitation efforts are concluded. This scaling, whether 

up or down, can be a very difficult process to both plan for within the Wildlife Branch as well as 

explain to the Operations Section and the UC. Therefore, a defined and written “Transition Plan” 

that specifies those activities (and associated resources) that will be needed based on meeting certain 

milestones during the response is highly recommended. “Transition Plans” should:

• Provide a tiered approach to the allocation, movement, demobilization or remobilization of 

resources (numbers and locations);

• Provide triggers (decision points) to guide changes to wildlife response, rehabilitation, 

assessment and monitoring activities based on:

o Numbers, locations, and degree of oiling of rescued and recovered marine mammals;

o Behavior and distribution of marine mammals;

o Assessment of marine mammal habitat quality;

o Best available environmental information, including:

 Presence and extent of surface oil;

 Presence and extent of subsurface oil;

 Oceanographic conditions;

 Meteorological data; and

o Any other information deemed relevant by this Group; and

• Provide data reporting to the UC and Federal and State wildlife trustee agencies.

Ideally, the “Transition Plan” will have defined metrics (e.g., number of animals collected, number 

of animals still in care, number of days since the last oiled marine mammal was observed) that will 

assist in the decision-making process. Lastly, it must be understood that marine mammals often have 

protracted rehabilitation time requirements and that the ongoing care of these animals in 

rehabilitation is the obligation of the UC. Therefore, even if the decision is made to demobilize 

stranding response/field efforts and no new intakes will arrive at the facility, the care of animals 

collected during the response must continue and be adequately funded.
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Overview of Data Management 

Systematic reconnaissance, hazing, search and recovery, transportation, processing, and treatment of 

all oil-affected wildlife is critical for guiding response actions and gaining an understanding of the 

short-term and long-term consequences of oil spills to wildlife populations. In addition, these data 

can be used after the emergency response for natural resource damage assessment activities. In order 

to track the samples and collect data during oiled wildlife response, the trustee agencies and 

response organizations must adhere to pre-established chain-of-custody and animal identification 

procedures. During large-scale responses, pre-identified wildlife agency personnel or their agents 

may complete the necessary forms; however, field and rehabilitation responders should also be 

familiar with the documents and their completion for smaller-scale responses and for individual 

oiled animals that present to participating facilities independent of a spill response. In addition to 

the tracking of live animal data, all samples (carcasses, samples, photos, records) that may be used as 

evidence in legal proceedings must be tracked and secured at all times.

Quality assurance (QA) procedures are necessary to ensure that data are collected in a scientifically 

valid manner. During large-scale spills, this will ultimately be the responsibility of the Data 

Coordinator, but it is imperative that all supervisors throughout the response understand the 

importance of collecting and documenting complete information. It is important throughout any 

sampling and analysis program to maintain integrity of the sample from the time of collection, 

through the point of data reporting, to the final sample disposition. Proper chain-of-custody 

procedures allow the possession and handling of samples traced from collection to final disposition.

Details on completion of the discrete forms needed in each area are provided below in the 

appropriate chapter. When appropriate, use of waterproof paper is recommended to maintain the 

integrity of the form. Briefly, the documents needed to maintain proper chain-of-custody include:

• Search Effort Log: All pertinent information on field searches should be recorded on the Search 

Effort Log (Appendix 1-A). For tracking and chain-of-custody purposes, all live and dead 

animals recovered should be identified (tagged/marked) in the field and the identification noted 

on the Search Effort Log. For general field activities, personnel may choose to record efforts in 

a field logbook, then transcribe the pertinent information to the Search Effort form at a later 

time. The logbook should enable someone else to completely reconstruct the field activity 

without relying on the memory of the field crew. All entries should be made in indelible ink 

(preferably ballpoint), with each page signed and dated by the author, and a line drawn through 

the remainder of any page. All corrections must consist of permanent line-out deletions that are 

initialed. 

• Animal Logs: At admittance to a wildlife care and processing facility, the animal must be logged 

into the Live Marine Mammal Data Log or Dead Marine Mammal Data Log (Appendices 1-D 

and 1-E) and all of the boxes on these forms must be completed. All dead and alive animals are 

given a unique log number and identifier (e.g. tag), as well as a Level A data field number, in 

order to track the individual animals through the capture/collection, processing, and, for live 

animals, the rehabilitation and release process.

• Sample Collection and Label: An oil sample and photo must be collected from each individual 

animal. A detailed protocol for the collection of evidence is provided in Appendices 2 and 3. 

Each sample must be identified with a waterproof label that is securely attached to the outside of 

each sample container. Labels must contain the oil spill name, date, species, intake log number 

and Level A data field number of that animal, animal capture location, and flipper tag color and 

number (if used)and then sealed with evidence tape or custody seals. Custody seals are used to 
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detect unauthorized tampering with the samples. Samples and photo must be properly stored in 

a secure location that has limited and controlled access.

• Intake Form: For live animals, the Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form (Appendix 1-H) must be 

completed for each animal. This form contains important data about the extent of oiling, 

location and depth of oiling, as well as space for documenting physical examination findings. For 

evidence documentation, a photo of the animal and oil sample must be taken during intake and 

admission into the wildlife care and processing centers (see Intake and Admission Procedures). 

During rehabilitation, each animal must have individual records documenting its treatment and 

care of that animal. Authorization for cleaning and later release must be documented on this

Form and signed by the authorizing authority (i.e. attending veterinarian). For resource damage 

assessment purposes, a photo of the animal with identification (i.e. card with animal log number 

and date) must be taken prior to release.

• Chain-of-Custody Forms: A chain-of-custody (CoC) form (Appendix 1-C) must accompany 

every animal collected during response activities. A CoC form will also need to be used for the 

transferring of samples taken from the animal if that sample has been collected to prove oil 

exposure status and has not been collected/transferred for diagnostic purposes only. 

Samples always requiring CoC include external oil swabs, photographs, tissues/samples taken 

during necropsy for histopathological/chemical analysis, and blood/other biomedical samples 

taken from live mammals to determine exposure status (e.g., whole blood for PAH analysis). In 

most cases, blood, bacterial/viral swabs and other biomedical samples that are collected only for 

diagnostic purposes may be sent to off-site diagnostic laboratories for evaluation without having 

to follow strict CoC procedures. However, if samples will be returned from the laboratory to the 

response, and those samples may later be used to assess exposure, CoC procedures must be 

followed. One simple rule to use in determining the necessity of following CoC procedures: if 

there is ever a possibility as to whether the laboratory results may be used in support of a claim 

for natural resource injuries associated with the oil spill (for example, used to show exposure to 

oil), it is better to err on the side of completing a CoC form versus not having one. The CoC 

initiation should start with collection of the animal or sample and show each transfer of the 

animal/sample to another individual. Both the person relinquishing custody of the sample(s) and 

the person receiving the sample(s) must sign the form and ensure that the samples and records 

are not left unattended unless secured properly. The trustee agency (NMFS, USFWS) that is 

acquiring custody of samples (such as oil swabs collected from animals during Processing) from 

a rehabilitation center should supply appropriate CoC forms. For samples taken from a carcass 

that is already under CoC, a “child” CoC form may be used to follow samples from the larger 

“parent” (see Appendix 1-C, Subsample Form).
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Chapter 4 – Hazing Group

Introduction and Goals

The most effective means to protect pinnipeds and cetaceans from damage associated with oil spills 

is preventing them from being oiled in the first place. Much of the effort by which this can occur is 

directly related to oil clean up (or so-called “primary” response efforts), such as deflection booming, 

skimming, dispersing oil and in situ burning, which reduces the amount of the oil product in specific 

compartments of the environment (e.g., on the water surface, in the water column, or shorelines). 

However, “secondary” response efforts, including minimizing injuries to wildlife by attempting to 

keep animals away from oil and/or cleanup operations, can be equally effective in preventing species 

from requiring recovery and rehabilitation. Deterrence activities do not come without risks, as many 

techniques use potentially dangerous and regulated materials (e.g., pyrotechnics, sound generators, 

propane cannons), as well as there being a dearth of significant knowledge on how each method 

works on specific species. Additionally, deterrence actions only are effective when there are safe 

locations to drive animals to, when species do not have such strong site fidelity that they will not 

quickly return or are not able to be disbursed, and when the geographic area involved is small 

enough that it can be effectively controlled (e.g., hazing may be inappropriate for larger spills). 

Marine mammal hazing activities also typically require significant lead time for preparation, 

particularly in situations where equipment has not been “cached” and communication and 

coordination with non-stranding network local groups is needed, and therefore may not be able to 

implemented on the time scale of a spill response (within hours to the first few days following a 

release). Lastly, hazing activities must take place only under the authority and oversight of trustee 

agencies, in coordination with the UC, as such actions are designated as “harassment” or “take” by 

the MMPA and ESA. 

Personnel

Only experienced personnel should staff the Hazing Group due to proper training in the use of 

hazing equipment, as well as significant experience using such techniques on the species at risk being 

required. It is likely that local stranding network members may not have this expertise or equipment, 

and therefore external personnel may be required (even for a Tier 1 response). Hazing activities, 

observations, and results are to be reported to the WBD, 

who will then pass this information on to the Planning 

Section’s Environmental Unit Leader and to the UC as 

needed.

• Hazing Group Supervisor – This position is 

responsible for the deterring of live unoiled wildlife 

from environments where they may become impacted

(see Figure 10). This Group, either through the 

Supervisor or through the Deputy WBD, should 

coordinate with the Situation Unit (Planning Section), 

Reconnaissance Group and Recovery Group (Wildlife 

Branch) to determine wildlife at risk in the vicinity of 

the spill. The Hazing Group Supervisor must have 

extensive background in marine mammal ecology and 

behavior, must be conversant and experienced with all Figure 10: Hazing Group Organizational 

Chart
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different deterrence equipment and techniques for marine mammals, and (when possible) have 

oil spill and crisis management experience.

• Hazing Staff - Hazing Staff assist the Hazing Group Supervisor with the deterring of live 

unoiled wildlife from environments where they may become impacted. Must have significant 

background in wildlife ecology, and different deterrence equipment and techniques.

Safety

Hazing of marine mammals during an oil spill event presents personnel with health and safety risks 

related both to the risk associated with the equipment used (e.g., pyrotechnics) as well as working 

outdoors under sometimes rugged conditions and/or in inclement weather for long hours.

Therefore, only qualified personnel who have received the appropriate safety training should 

perform hazing of oiled mammals. Because hazing duties vary with each response and may involve 

more risk than other duties, the Safety Officer will communicate to the Wildlife Branch Director 

what level of equipment and training is appropriate for field response personnel; this training may 

include a 24-hour HAZWOPER training (Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response), 

first aid/CPR, water safety, or boat safety courses (see Safety and Human Health). In general, 

however, safe practices can be maximized by following these steps:

• Maintain the level of OSHA health and safety certification required by the Safety Officer for oil 

spill response, which ensures that field staff members have been advised of the safety hazards 

associated with spill response and the many ways in which hazards can be minimized and safety 

maximized.

• Prior to initial deployment and/or as soon as it is available, all field staff must read and sign the 

Site Safety Plan prepared for the spill event by the Safety Officer, which ensures that field staff 

are aware of any specific safety issues he/she may face in responding to that particular spill and 

typically lists the nearest medical facilities (emergency rooms, clinics, temporary first aid stations, 

etc.).

• Field staff must wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE), as determined by the Safety 

Officer, at all times when hazing marine mammals. Proper PPE requirements will be dictated by 

their primary location of operations. Personnel deployed on boats within an Exclusion Zone 

may be required to wear safety glasses or goggles, Tyvek coveralls, nitrile or vinyl gloves,

weather-appropriate personal flotation devices (PFDs), and skid-resistant boots. For personnel 

not in an exclusion zone, PPE requirements may be reduced to include only PFDs and 

appropriate footwear. For shore-based hazing personnel, similar PPE requirements may apply, 

though PFDs may only be necessary within a designated distance from the surf zone. If working 

with auditory deterrence methods, ear protection will be necessary. Use of pyrotechnic and 

propane cannons must follow a plan to minimize the risks from fire and may require proof of 

firearms safety training. Hazing personnel may encounter exposure hazards in inclement 

weather, so appropriate foul weather gear should be available to avoid cold exposure, as well as 

hats and sunscreen in hot weather. Additional PPE and safety plans may be required at the 

discretion of the Safety Officer or other staff.

• No in-person hazing efforts should take place after sunset (or civil twilight), by boat, or by offroad vehicle (e.g., all-terrain vehicle) unless specifically approved by the Wildlife Branch Director 

and directed by the Hazing Group Supervisor.

• Hazing personnel should carry a first-aid kit at all times while in the field, so that immediate care 

for an injury is achievable, prior to further medical attention as necessary.

• All injuries must be reported to the Recovery Group Supervisor, who will complete an injury 

report and communicate with the Wildlife Branch Director.
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Documentation

Full documentation of methods deployed, reasons for choice of method, effects on observed 

species, and plans for alternate techniques should be collected in a methodical organized fashion for 

rapid dissemination to the other personnel within the Wildlife Branch. In most situations, data may 

be collected in Field Logs and later transcribed to appropriate Hazing Forms for clarity of 

information.

Hazing Procedures

Decision-Making

If pinnipeds or cetaceans are observed or are likely to be in the vicinity of a spill event at the start of 

an oil spill, the Wildlife Branch Director should consult with NOAA Marine Mammal Health and 

Stranding Program to consider whether to develop a hazing plan for those species. Several different 

factors must be taken into account before hazing is officially undertaken:

 What is the location and/or the extent of the spill?

 What are alternative areas that marine mammals can be hazed to?

 What species are present or likely to be at risk?

 What is the life history status of the mammals at risk (e.g., pregnant, with calf, juveniles 

vs. adults, etc.)? Are the species present migrating through the area or resident? What is 

their behavior in the area likely to be (e.g., foraging, resting with calves, etc.)?

 Who is available with experience and knowledge for hazing the species at risk?

 Are there techniques known to work on the species at risk?

 Are the necessary supplies and equipment to implement those techniques available or 

can they be obtained quickly?

 What are the environmental conditions?

 Can the hazing plan be enacted in a safe manner for people and wildlife?

In some situations, hazing and monitoring activities may be the only mitigation measures possible 

for marine mammals during an oil spill, as capture and rehabilitation of larger cetaceans is 

impracticable. 

Hazing Plan

If it is decided to proceed with hazing of marine mammals, the Hazing Group Supervisor will 

develop a cohesive plan to deter wildlife from entering a spill area for UC approval, which will then 

be incorporated into the Incident Action Plan (IAP) before operational activities commence. The 

plan must deal with mammals habituating to hazing techniques over time, as well as the degree to 

which mammals may be attracted to an area (due to curiosity, transiting the region, attraction from 

possible increased food presence). Additionally, the plan must address the benefits of keeping 

mammals from entering the spill area relative to the risks to people and wildlife associated with 

hazing, as well as the costs and benefits associated with taking no hazing action. The plan should 

also address metrics and procedures for determining if implemented hazing techniques were 

effective. This might require the use of observers not involved with the hazing activity to assess the 

response of the marine mammals to the techniques being employed. The plan should also include a

protocol for deciding if implemented techniques should be continued or modified. These metrics 

and decision trees will likely be case-specific depending upon the species involved, availability of 

different options, and the logistics of the situation.

Hazing Techniques

There are a number of potential deterrent options that can be used on marine mammals – each of 

which have associated positive and negative benefits. The hazing methods recommended (if any) 
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would be those that have the greatest chance of success depending on current conditions and 

information.

Close-Range Techniques 

• Oikomi Pipes: Reverberant metal devices; usually a pipe with a cap on the top. A handle on the 

top of the pipe and a cone at the bottom of the pipe improves reverberation. Numerous pipes 

can be used in multiple lines. 

o Advantages: Shown effective for some species of toothed whales and dolphins (in 

particular, orca); safe; little training or experience required; high public acceptance level. 

o Disadvantages: Not as efficacious for very large area; requires coordination of multiple 

vessels; could be dangerous at night or during poor sea conditions; not effective for all 

species of marine mammals. 

• Seal Control Devices (seal bombs, underwater firecrackers, cracker shells): Explosive devices 

that put out a pulse of noise and an associated pressure wave, especially when detonated in the 

water. 

o Advantages: Work at a distance (1 mile); not very expensive; readily available.

o Disadvantages: Concerns where highly volatile oil was present; can cause fish mortality; 

potential to cause marine mammal injury or mortality if not used properly; require more 

training by personnel to use. 

• Acoustic Deterrent Devices (ADDs, or net pingers): ADDs make sound not loud enough to 

cause pain, but which is audible to some species of marine mammals.

o Advantages: Relatively readily available; easily deployed on oil booms or vessels; 

demonstrated effective for several species of odontocetes when used on fishing gear.

o Disadvantages: May not have sufficient power; marine mammals may habituate quickly; 

not effective for all species of marine mammals.

• Prerecorded Calls: Calls made by conspecifics or predators can be played from a small boat to 

theoretically attract mammals towards a safe area or deter them from entering an area, 

respectively. 

o Advantages: Calls and broadcasting equipment relatively readily available; when kept 

below certain species-specific threshold received levels, not likely to have the potential to 

cause injury 

o Disadvantages: Additional research needed; may attract animals or stimulate aggression; 

marine mammals may habituate quickly. 

• Vessel Traffic: The noise and motion of boat traffic could be used to drive mammals from an 

area or deter them from entering one.

o Advantages: Small boats are potentially available for this activity.

o Disadvantages: Little value in long-range displacement. 

• Aircraft: Helicopters can generate a fair amount of noise and wave movement at close range and 

could produce a startle or avoidance response. 

o Advantages: Might be very effective initially; can be quickly mobilized; could provide 

reconnaissance at same time; could simultaneously deploy additional deterrent devices.

o Disadvantages: Safety issue; cost factor; little control of animal movement; marine 

mammals may be likely to habituate quickly. 

• Fire Hoses: Fire hoses could be used to direct streams of water at whales on the surface at 

extremely close range. 
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o Advantages: Can use available high-powered fire monitors mounted on some regional 

tug boats, therefore could be deployed on fairly short notice; effective at influencing 

whale behavior, causing animals to turn (Gulland et al., 2008).

o Disadvantages: Limited to very close range (approximate 100 yards); little control of 

animal movement; limited availability.

• Experimental Methods: Theoretically, methods such as strobe lights, bubble curtains, and 

booms could provide a visual deterrent to marine mammals. 

o Advantages: Theoretically could fence off an area without risk of physical harm.

o Disadvantages: No data available on effectiveness; light and other visual stimuli will not 

penetrate water very far; not currently readily available.

Longer-range techniques

• Acoustic Harassment Devices (AHDs): AHDs produce noise loud enough that they are likely to 

cause pain in animals at a certain range. Airmar AHDs have a source level of 195 dB re 1 μPaRMS 

and their peak energy at 10 kHz with higher harmonics. These could be moved at low speed 

from small boats or could be hull mounted on boats to allow faster movement. They are 

designed with 4 transducers that alternate transmission. They can be battery operated, but need a 

continuous power source for long-term use. 

o Advantages: Short training time; may deter cetaceans up to 3 km away; publicly 

acceptable at long range. 

o Disadvantages: Potential acoustic trauma at short range; repeated exposures could result 

in long-term displacement.

• Chemoattractants: There are reports that humpback whales in Alaska may be attracted to 

dimethyl sulfide (DMS) as an indicator of zooplankton prey (Straley et al., 2013). This method 

may have strong advantages in luring larger baleen whales from regions of high risk; however, it 

is preliminary and needs to be further developed before being operationally ready.

• Air Guns: This is a mechanical device that uses air that expands and contracts to give a strong 

pulse under water to map earthquake faults or for oil exploration. They are frequently used in 

arrays to give a higher source level. Depending on the size, the peak energy can be from 10 Hz 

to 1 kHz, but they produce broadband pulses with energy at frequencies ranging to over 100 

kHz. The higher frequencies are less intense and attenuate faster. Intensity of output is 

controllable by the operator to account for distance from the subject.

o Advantages: Harbor porpoise have been seen moving away from them at 70 km so they 

could have impacts at great distances. 

o Disadvantages: Because mysticetes hear low frequencies better, there is more concern 

with their use around mysticetes than odontocetes; securing a ship to tow the array could 

be an issue; concern about acoustic impacts to species including fish; not readily available 

locally. 

• Mid-Frequency Sonar: This has caused behavioral changes in killer whales in Haro Strait during 

the USS Shoup transit episode in 2003. The source level was approximately 235 dB (exact level is 

classified) and frequency was 2.6-3.3 kHz over 1-2 second signals emitted every 28 seconds.

o Advantages: Mid-frequency sonar could be effective for over 25 km, which could be 

useful in a large spill and it can be operated at night. 

o Disadvantages: Unlikely to be used during a spill response. Received levels that were 

effective in causing a response during the USS Shoup incident are unknown. There are a 

very limited number of boats that have the capability to deploy this sonar and they are 

engaged in national security missions. Concerns with using sonar include the potential 
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for acoustic trauma in orca and other marine mammals and a lower level of public 

acceptance as a deterrent device. Difficulty in limiting range makes this technique 

excessive for a small spill.
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Chapter 5 – Recovery Group:

Recovery Strike Team

Introduction and Goals

Wildlife recovery focuses on the collection/capture of dead and live externally and internally oiled 

wildlife and their transport to processing centers. The determination of whether a marine mammal is 

oiled can be a difficult task in field conditions, as the primary route of oil exposure in most marine 

mammals is through ingestion or inhalation. Therefore, in order to collect live or dead stranded 

mammals that could possibly have been adversely affected from oil exposure, all stranded marine 

mammals in the “designated spill area” (see below for definitions) that appear injured, debilitated, or 

otherwise not normal will be collected if logistically possible, including all carcasses that are 

observed. In highly specialized circumstances (e.g., for ESA-listed species), the pre-emptive capture 

of unoiled individuals to prevent them from becoming oiled may be considered. Marine mammal 

collection during an oil spill response must be done under the direction of the UC, under the 

applicable agreements/permits from the appropriate management agencies (i.e., NMFS, FWS), and 

be accomplished with a view not only towards the immediate care of the affected animals but care to 

collect appropriate data and follow established chain of custody procedures. For most spills, the 

Recovery Group is the first Group mobilized (due to field operations being of paramount concern 

early in a response) therefore effective training and planning within Regional stranding networks 

should ensure that robust field operations can be mounted quickly.

During most oil spills, recovery activities requiring large-scale deployment of marine-mammal 

specific teams will not be necessary. If marine mammals are known to be in the vicinity, mammal 

recovery teams should be placed on stand-by should animals be reported through field teams 

deployed to search for and collect oiled birds, through the Hotline reports, or through activities of 

other spill response functions (e.g., SCAT, cleanup). However, these teams do not necessarily need 

to “deploy” or cease doing their other daily jobs. If teams encounter oiled wildlife during their 

operations outside of the “designated spill area,” the team or their supervisor should immediately 

notify the Recovery Group Supervisor for further instructions. Another possible option would be 

to embed one or two marine mammal experts within select bird field teams. In these situations, 

should an oiled marine mammal be encountered, these individuals could then direct the capture 

operation. In both of these plans, a small number of marine-mammal-specific teams or personnel

can be deployed within the structure of the Wildlife Branch without initiating a separate Marine

Mammal Task Force. 

During larger events where significant mammal operational activities are required, pinniped and 

cetacean field operations will take place within two discrete strike teams – one focused on recovery 

activities and one collecting detailed reconnaissance data (see Chapter 6 below for more detailed 

information on Reconnaissance Strike Team functions). Within the Recovery Strike Team, further 

division of activities may occur, placing teams of personnel responsible for at-sea collection and 

capture, land-based collection, and transport of collected marine mammals. Frequently, the most 

effective use of marine mammal recovery personnel will be to focus efforts on the collection of 

affected mammals by land capture on beaches and piers though, in certain situations (e.g., sea otter 

capture, collection of dead floating carcasses), on-water teams may be necessary. The land-based 

strike team may be further subdivided into teams focused on live animal assessment and capture and 
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those assigned to the collection and/or processing of carcasses of dead mammals. However, if this is 

the operational structure of this Group, those teams must be able to be deployed immediately upon 

contact and must be within a relatively close distance (1-2 hours) to ensure adequate speed of 

response. While every response is different, deployment of these recovery teams may follow a 

number of different approaches:

• “Small” Responses (or where risk to marine mammals is very low): Recovery teams (collecting 

and transporting both live and dead mammals) are placed on standby at a local stranding 

network member organization and deploy when notified by the Recovery Group Supervisor or 

DWBD (typically after a report of an affected animal is called into the Wildlife Hotline and/or 

observed by response field personnel). 

• “Moderate” Responses (or where a few key areas are at greater risk, such as haul-out areas): 

Recovery teams will be deployed to regularly survey and provide active coverage of key discrete 

areas of highest risk, which may either be pre-determined or determined for each operational 

period. The remainder of the oil-affected areas will be passively covered, where teams are 

deployed upon direction by the Recovery Group Supervisor (or DWBD), typically after a report 

of an affected animal is received (e.g. called into the Wildlife Hotline). In this situation, most 

teams will be considered on-land (collecting both live as well as dead mammals), but it may be 

advisable to have on-water teams on standby should they become necessary (e.g., if a floating 

carcass is detected).

• “Large” Responses (or where large numbers of at-risk areas are affected): On-land (consisting of 

separate live and dead mammal teams) and on-water teams will be deployed to regularly and 

repeatedly cover a defined search area for affected mammals, with on-water teams with the 

ability to act in support roles for land-based teams if 

needed. Depending upon the terrain, aerial search 

efforts may also be effective for scanning shorelines for 

beach-cast stranded animals, and can cover large areas 

of water for floating carcasses. Should the scope of 

activities preclude Recovery teams from effectively 

transporting animals from their assigned area (e.g., if 

they need to continue their search efforts to cover the 

entire area in an operational period), separate Transport 

teams may be developed and assigned. Similarly, a 

separate Reconnaissance Strike Team may be activated 

based on the need for more detailed information on the 

presence and potential effects of oil on marine mammal 

stocks and the scope of Recovery Teams activities not 

allowing those data to be collected.

Personnel

The Recovery Group usually includes personnel from state 

and federal trustee agencies, approved contractors, and 

marine mammal stranding network and rehabilitation 

organizations. If at all possible, members of the Regional 

stranding network should be primarily used, with back-up 

and depth coming from other Regional networks as needed, 

to ensure local knowledge is used effectively. Trained, 

qualified volunteers can be utilized as long as OSHA and Figure 11: Recovery Strike Team 

Organizational Chart
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other training requirements are met and adhered to. Any personnel responding to oiled marine 

mammals must be operating within the Incident Command System and cannot be operating 

independently of the other elements of the response. All responders must also be appropriately 

authorized to respond under the MMPA and ESA (if applicable).

• Recovery Group Supervisor (RGS) - This position is responsible for the surveillance for and 

recovery of dead and live impacted marine mammals and transport of them to field processing 

center(s) (or Primary Care centers if no field stabilization has been established)(see Figure 11). 

Specifically as it relates to Recovery Strike Team(s), the RGS is responsible for determining 

current and future recovery personnel and equipment needs, identifying needed capture 

techniques to use, needed equipment and supplies to implement those techniques, deployment 

and oversight of recovery personnel, ensuring the integrity of ongoing field data collection, 

working with the DWBD and/or Care & Processing Group Supervisor to ensure full 

coordination of animals from field to facility, and timely delivery of data to the Wildlife Branch 

Director. This Group Supervisor should closely coordinate activities, either directly or through 

the WBD/DWBD, with the Environmental Unit (Planning Section) and Reconnaissance and 

Hazing Groups (Wildlife Branch), as all have personnel with the ability to in conduct surveys of 

wildlife in the vicinity of the spill. The RGS must have oil spill and crisis management 

training/experience; extensive background in all aspects of oiled wildlife capture, care and 

response; a full understanding of the Incident Command System; familiarity with CoC and 

evidence preservation requirements; and knowledge/experience in how to manage media 

inquiries.

• Recovery Strike Team Leader(s) (Recovery STLs) - Recovery Strike Team Leader(s), under 

the direction of the RGS, is/are responsible for the search for and recovery of dead and live 

impacted pinnipeds and cetaceans. Duties include assisting the Recovery Group Supervisor in 

determining current and future recovery needs for their area of operation (e.g., on water or on 

land activities, required team size and special expertise/equipment), deployment and oversight of 

recovery personnel in their area, management of ongoing data collection and storage (including 

evidence preservation), insuring compliance with CoC requirements, working with the other 

Recovery STL(s) to ensure full coordination of animals from the field, and timely delivery of 

data to the RGS. The Recovery STL(s) must have oil spill and crisis management 

training/experience; background in all aspects of oiled wildlife capture and response; a full 

understanding of the Incident Command System; and knowledge/experience in how to manage 

media inquiries. Note: The activation of these discrete Strike Teams will be dependent on the 

dynamics of the spill, location impacted, species at risk, and other aspects of the response. In 

many instances, Strike Teams will not need to be divided into on-water or on-land; in other 

situations, all functions can be accomplished by a Recovery team under the direct supervision of 

the RGS without needing an intermediate Strike Team Leader. Similarly, for smaller responses, 

separate live mammal and dead mammal recovery teams may not be formed, with deployed 

personnel responding to both, should they be encountered.

• Live/Dead Mammal Recovery Staff - Recovery personnel within the Strike Teams enact the 

operational plan developed by the Recovery Strike Team Leader and/or the Recovery Group 

Supervisor to find and recover dead and/or live impacted wildlife. In smaller responses, both 

live and dead mammal recovery may be carried out by all teams but, during larger responses, 

these duties may be divided into specific groups. Recovery staff must be legally authorized under 

the MMPA (either Section 112c or Section 109h); have significant experience in wildlife capture;

a full understanding of the Incident Command System; familiarity with evidence preservation 

and CoC requirements, and knowledge/experience in how to manage media inquiries.
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• Transport Staff - Transport Staff assist the Recovery Strike Team Leader and/or the Recovery 

Group Supervisor with the transportation of live and dead animals from field settings to Primary 

Care centers. Transport staff must have general knowledge of oiled wildlife capture, care, 

response, and the Incident Command system.

Safety

Conducting recovery and transportation activities on marine mammals during an oil spill event 

presents personnel with health and safety risks related both to the inherent risk in handling wild 

animals as well as working outdoors under sometimes rugged conditions and/or in inclement 

weather for long hours. Therefore, capture and transportation of oiled mammals should be 

performed only by qualified personnel who have received the appropriate safety training as well as 

marine mammal handling and restraint training, and ideally have previous experience with the 

species likely to be encountered and using the capture techniques chosen for the spill response. 

Because recovery duties vary with each response and may involve more risk than other duties, the 

Safety Officer will communicate to the Wildlife Branch Director what level of equipment and 

training is appropriate for field response personnel; this training may include a 24-hour 

HAZWOPER training (Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response), first aid/CPR, 

water safety, or boat safety courses (see Safety and Human Health). In general, however, safe 

practices can be maximized by following these steps:

• Maintain the level of OSHA health and safety certification required by the Safety Officer for oil 

spill response, which ensures that field staff have been advised of the safety hazards associated 

with spill response and the many ways in which hazards can be minimized and safety maximized;

• Prior to initial deployment and/or as soon as it is available, all field staff must read and sign the 

Site Safety Plan prepared for the spill event by the Safety Officer, which ensures that field staff 

are aware of any specific safety issues he/she may face in responding to that particular spill;

• Field staff must wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE), as determined by the Safety 

Officer, at all times when handling live and dead animals. Proper PPE requirements will be 

dictated by their primary location of operations. Personnel conducting recovery on-water within 

an Exclusion Zone may be required to wear safety glasses or goggles, Tyvek coveralls, nitrile or 

vinyl gloves, heavy outer gloves, weather-appropriate personal flotation devices (PFDs), and 

skid-resistant boots. Personnel that are required to enter the water should not do so in oiled 

environments unless specifically approved by the safety officer and wearing items that prevent

oil from touching the skin (e.g., hip waters, dry suits). For personnel not in an exclusion zone, 

PPE requirements may be reduced to include only PFDs, gloves, and appropriate footwear. For 

shore-based recovery personnel, similar PPE requirements may apply, though PFDs may only be 

necessary within a designated distance from the surf zone. Recovery personnel may encounter 

exposure hazards in inclement weather, so appropriate foul weather gear should be available to 

avoid cold exposure, as well as hats and sunscreen in hot weather. Additional PPE and safety 

plans may be required at the discretion of the Safety Officer or other staff.

• Teams must remain in visual contact with at least one of their teammates at all times: at no time 

should teams split up in the interest of covering more area. If there is any doubt about the 

safety of a situation, field staff should err on the side of caution.

• Teams should agree upon a Communications Plan to determine regular check-ins between team 

members and ensure that team members have appropriate communications equipment (see 

Communications section below).

• Unless specifically approved by the Wildlife Branch Director and directed by the Recovery

Group Supervisor, no field recovery efforts should take place after sunset. “Night ops” presents
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personnel with additional potential hazards that must be anticipated and planned for prior to 

deployment.

• Recovery personnel should carry a first-aid kit at all times while in the field, so that immediate 

care for an injury is achievable, prior to further medical attention as necessary.

• All injuries must be reported to the Recovery Group Supervisor, who will complete an injury 

report and communicate with the Wildlife Branch Director.

Documentation

Documentation within the Recovery Group is extremely important to understand and follow from the 

onset of a deployment, as data collection is critical for a number of different spill functions: legal, 

investigations, NRDA, animal care, and planning for future deployments.

• Search Effort Log: For each team deployed into the field, the details of the search effort for each 

day must be captured from the start of the deployment via a Search Effort Log form (Appendix 

1-A). These forms document areas searched, search methods, and mammals collected, and data 

must include the start and stop times and locations of each search effort segment (i.e. a beach or 

offshore identification) using coordinates determined by a hand-held GPS unit, observations of 

any oiled animals, and detailed info on the stranding and/or collection (location of capture, GPS 

decimal degree coordinates, reason for capture). For on-water deployment, vessel tracks may be 

recorded and downloaded to establish the entirety of the search effort. The Search Effort Log

must be completed and turned in to the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike Team Leader at the 

end of each day. If the team is not returning to the R&T center at the end of the day, the Beach 

Search Effort Log should be faxed or e-mailed the same evening.

• Level A Data Form: Field information necessary for completion of NOAAs Level A data form 

must be collected and, if possible, the form started before animals are handed over to Transport. 

This will include the assignation of a unique identifier (Field ID number per Regional stranding 

network protocols) that will be an ancillary identifier while in care. This form may be completed 

electronically via direct entry into the National Database.

• Evidence Collection: In addition to collection of field data, Recovery teams must start initial 

sampling for evidentiary purposes. The degree and scope of this sampling will be determined at 

the time of collection based on size/taxon of animal, safety for the personnel, and the eventual 

disposition of the mammal (e.g., to be processed in the field by the Field Processing team or 

taken to a rehabilitation center). At a minimum, photographs will need to be taken; additional 

procedures, such as field sampling for oil, may be required. If oil or medical samples are 

collected from the animal prior to reaching the Primary Care facility, make sure they are labeled 

properly with a unique field identification number for each animal. For further details on oil 

sample collection consult Appendix 3, Oil Sampling Protocol.

• Chain-of-Custody Form: If mammals are found and the decision is made to collect/sample 

them, a Chain of Custody form (Appendix 1-C) must be started and, once the animal/samples 

are handed over, signed by both parties involved; the Form remains with the animal/sample.

Recovery Procedures

Due to the intensive nature of marine mammal rescues, these Guidelines cannot cover every detail 

related to the capture of stranded animals. The reader is referred to the excellent reference Marine 

Mammals Ashore: A Field Guide for Strandings by Geraci and Lounsbury (2005) and additional 

references listed below for detailed descriptions of procedures to use in species of concern.
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Recovery Teams

Teamwork is essential to safe, efficient collection of oiled marine mammals. Each on-land team 

must consist of a minimum of two people, although more will be required for certain species/age 

classes. Each team should be outfitted with the resources and equipment necessary to complete its 

assignment. On-water teams will require larger numbers of capture and support personnel, and 

necessitate greater logistical requirements. A plan of action should be developed and discussed 

among all search and collection personnel and approved by the Wildlife Branch Director prior to 

entering the search area. Upon finding a marine mammal that is deemed to require rescue (following 

the defined decision-making criteria, see below), the site should be evaluated and a capture strategy

developed to suit the situation, including considerations for the terrain and species involved. This 

strategy should be communicated to all team personnel, and a plan agreed upon by all prior to 

implementation. Capture of affected animals should not be attempted if adverse weather, sea 

conditions, cliffs, or other physical and chemical hazards in the “hot zone” are present. 

Communication between the Recovery Group and Reconnaissance personnel (within the Operation 

Section or the Environmental Unit) is important to maximize the success of search effort. Domestic 

animals should not be permitted near the capture location nor should they come into contact with 

marine mammals. Domestic animals are not to be allowed in the transport vehicle and, if the vehicle 

has previously been used to transport domestic animals, it should be disinfected and cleaned prior to 

transporting marine mammals.

Equipment

Prior to mobilizing for a response, ensure that all equipment is ready and in working condition. 

Capture and recovery materials, depending on scope of activity, may include:

 Communication equipment - portable phones and/or radios

 Data recording equipment – GPS unit, maps, data forms, pens, labels

 Reconnaissance equipment – spotting scope, binoculars

 Specialized vehicles - 4-wheel drive with lifting tailgate or crane, adequate floor space, seats 

and seat belts for all team members, easily cleaned, and good ventilation

 Boats - capture vessel and support vessel

 Aircraft - fixed wing or helicopter for directing boats onto animals

 Nets - type varies by species and location of capture

 Cages and transport boxes - type varies by species, with frame and/or foam

 Stretchers and/or slings - specifically designed to support the species

 Large, body size garbage bags, body bags, or large pillowcases

 Cane pole or wooden stake/flagging tape (to mark the carcass, if needed- see below)

 Rope or other materials to secure carcass from refloating

 Water sprayers, buckets, sponges, towels, blankets, etc.

 Herding boards

 Animal medical kit - as directed by Vet staff

 Personal protection equipment (PPE) and a first aid kit for humans. In addition to PPE 

required by the Safety Officer to protect personnel from oil exposure, appropriate attire for 

capture teams includes closed-toed shoes or boots, long-sleeve shirts, long pants, rain gear, 

coveralls, and organizational identification (e.g., clothing labeled with insignia or logo). 

Depending on anticipated length of deployment, additional personal necessities may be 

required (e.g., water, snacks, hand warmers).

High cost and/or non-consumable items may be checked out to each team at the start of an 

operational period or for the period of time they will be on site. Consumable supplies, such as PPE, 
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paper bags, pens, labels, etc. will be available during a spill at the Recovery Staging Area or at a 

primary care center.

Communications

In order to ensure unity of command and to prevent field teams from being disrupted from 

accomplishing their assignments, the single point of contact for Recovery personnel during field

operations should either be the appropriate Strike Team Leader or the Recovery Group Supervisor. 

Modes of communication will include in-person meetings, mobile or land telephones, or VHF 

radios. When VHF radios are used for communications, field staff will be advised as to the channel 

to monitor and utilize, and given a “name” for the R&T staging area (e.g. “R&T” or “base”). Staff 

should adhere to standard and traditional VHF radio protocols: the staff should first call out the 

Recovery Group Supervisor twice, identify him or herself once, and end each relay with “over”. In 

general, communication times/details should include the following:

• Start/End of Day: Field staff will meet in person (or talk via phone) with their Recovery Group 

Supervisor/Strike Team Leader at the start of the day’s field operations to discuss and confirm 

initial plans for the day, and at the end of the day’s field operations to de-brief and make plans 

for the following day. When a field staff is working remotely from the Recovery Staging Area, or 

traveling long distances in order to arrive early at a field site, this initial or end-of-day 

communication can happen by telephone, radio, text message, email, or Skype at the Recovery

Group Supervisor/Strike Team Leader’s discretion.

• During Day: Field staff should also check in with their supervisor according to the 

communications schedule developed in the initial Recovery plan. Typically, this is when a team 

concludes a defined search segment (e.g., division or area) with no observations made, to report 

observations in the field, to arrange field transport of mammals in hand, and/or to propose 

major changes in field location or field plans for the day. Best efforts should be made to 

communicate according to the planned schedule, but it is recognized that field staff will not 

always be in cell phone or radio range, or have access to a land telephone at these times; in such 

cases, best efforts should be made to communicate with the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike 

Team Leader as soon as is feasible. As the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike Team Leader 

receives information of relevance to the field staff (e.g., a report into the hotline on an oiled 

animal, update on weather conditions or field operations), they will contact/leave messages on a 

regular, frequent basis to pass along the information.

Specialized communications protocols will likely be necessary for on-water operations occurring 

offshore, where aircraft are used to spot at-risk or affected animals and direct boats to the 

appropriate sites. Due to the risk associated with such activities, these communication details (in 

addition to emergency information and specific search/capture protocols) should be fully fleshed 

out within a capture plan that is reviewed and approved by the Wildlife Branch Director before the 

operation begins.

Geographic Margins of Collection for Marine Mammals and Area of Responsibility

Because the primary route of oil exposure in birds is typically external, animals tend to strand fairly 

close to the location of their oiling due to an inability to thermoregulate and ambulate effectively. 

For marine mammals, however, we must also be concerned about significant effects from internal 

exposure to petroleum products – typically through ingestion or inhalation at the air-sea interface. 

Thus, even highly exposed animals can travel long distances prior to succumbing to the adverse 

effects of petroleum intoxication. Therefore, in order to collect live or dead stranded mammals that 

could have been oiled, a geographic area that extends some distance away from the spill area of 

observed shoreline impacts should be fully covered by Recovery teams. This “Marine Mammal 
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Designated Spill Area” will be specified at a distance that affected mammals may plausibly travel 

after contacting the oil, will be a different size in each spill, and should be determined and 

periodically reviewed by the DWBD and WBD in consultation with other experts and as additional 

information about the spill and trajectory becomes available. Depending on the species at risk and 

the geographic/oceanographic details of the spill area, this may be a large expanse that could quickly 

tax the resources of the Recovery Group. In these instances, a fully deployed Reconnaissance Group 

scanning larger expanses of shoreline or waterways, with directed Recovery occurring either when 

animals are observed and/or in key habitats, may be the most efficient deployment model.

Once the “Designated Spill Area” (DSA) is determined, each Recovery Strike Team will be assigned 

a section of the spill response area by the Recovery Group Supervisor; teams should confine their 

recovery efforts to this area unless otherwise instructed by the Recovery Group Supervisor and/or 

Strike Team Leader. It should be the supervisor’s and the field staff's mutual understanding that the 

Recovery Group Supervisor may need to redeploy the team to another area; at the same time, the 

field team should advise their supervisor if the assigned section of the spill response area requires 

more or less coverage by field teams, based on the numbers of oiled mammals observed. All-terrain 

vehicles (ATVs) or 4-wheel drive trucks may be used by some teams to expedite recovery efforts 

(e.g. to enable surveys of miles-long beaches), but only by experienced, trained personnel, only at the 

instruction of the Recovery Group Supervisor, and only in compliance with state and federal 

guidelines established to minimize impacts of ATVs on species of concern and on protected 

habitats.

We recognize that the typical geographic response area for a pre-existing marine mammal stranding 

response organization may not completely overlap with the DSA. Thus, a response organization 

may have a portion of their response area within the spill and a portion without. If a response team 

operating outside the DSA encounters an oiled marine mammal, they should immediately inform the 

Response Group Supervisor for instructions on how to proceed, which will include the use of the oil 

spill protocols. A reconsideration of the boundaries of the DSA is likely.

Reporting from Other Response Assets

During most oil spills, a variety of personnel will be transiting the response area conducting 

operations and surveillance key to the overall response. These will include cleanup operators (either 

shore-based beach cleanup or water-based booming and skimming personnel), SCAT (shoreline 

cleanup assessment technology) teams, NRDA (natural resource damage assessment) staff collecting 

ephemeral data, and others germane to the response effort. These personnel can act as excellent 

additional “eyes on the scene” to allow surveillance throughout a broader expanse without having to 

deploy either dedicated Reconnaissance or Recovery personnel. However, detailed procedures 

should be developed and formalized (in written documentation via a job aid pamphlet, “one-pager” 

or other similar materials) to be conveyed to supervisory staff of these areas stating what steps 

should be taken should a live or dead marine mammal be found. These procedures should include 

the following information:

 Contact Number: Sightings should be reported as quickly as possible to the Reporting 

Hotline or other dedicated personnel to assess information;

 Location Data: Location information (ideally latitude and longitude in decimal degrees, 

stranded on land or sighted in water);

 Sighting Data: Alive or dead? Species (If unknown, size, color, and physical characteristics)? 

Number of animals? Visibly oiled? Current environmental conditions (weather, sea state)?

 Contact Information: Cell number or radio code.
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For dead marine mammals that are found in the water, it may be possible that the spill responder 

can anchor or tow the animal back to shore so that a full examination by Recovery or Field 

Processing staff can occur. If this action is not possible, the Marine Mammal Group (likely through 

the DWBD or Recovery Group Supervisor) may request spill personnel collect samples from the 

animal (and provide them with specific guidance on how to do so). For live and dead marine 

mammals stranded on the shoreline, it may be possible to have them kept shaded and as cool as 

possible. Non-Wildlife Branch response personnel should be specifically instructed not to attempt to 

move or push live animals off the beach and, if conditions are dangerous, not to attempt to 

approach the animal.

Live Mammal Team Procedures

All field staff involved in the capture of live marine mammals should have extensive previous 

professional experience. Individuals with wildlife experience (i.e. natural resource agency biologists, 

independent contractors, animal control officers, professional wildlife rehabilitators) who may not 

have sufficient experience specifically in capturing mammals may be teamed with a more 

knowledgeable individual to acquire first-hand experience with useful techniques for approaching 

and catching these species.

• General: Specific procedures for the capture of live oiled pinnipeds and cetaceans are beyond 

the scope of this document. Many excellent resources are available for different techniques that 

are effective for the species in question. The reader is referred to the CRC Handbook of Marine 

Mammal Medicine (Dierauf and Gulland, 2001), chapters on Marine Mammal Transport (Antrim 

and McBain, 2001), Cetacean Medicine (McBain, 2001) and Seals and Sea Lions (Gulland et al., 

2001) for more specific information. These Guidelines will provide only a general overview and 

those specific aspects related to oil spill recovery. However, appropriate safety techniques listed 

above (PPE, PFDs) should be observed at all times. It is also important to note that, while the 

Live Mammal Recovery team’s priority is the capture of live mammals, the identification and (at 

times) collection and sampling of dead oiled mammals is also of paramount concern and, in 

smaller spills, may be added to their tasking. At a minimum, should dead mammals be observed 

during a survey by the Live Mammal team, reporting to the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike 

Team Leader should be done immediately, as well as recording the location, taking of photos, 

and the securing of the carcass to ensure it does not float away. In rare instances, a buoy or 

other marker may be attached to a floating carcass to aid in relocation of the animal.

• Decision-Making: Prior to the capture of any oiled marine mammals, a defined decision-making 

process should be followed and the decision to capture marine mammals as part of the spill 

response must be approved by the appropriate trustee agency (NMFS, FWS) prior to initiation

(see Figures 12 and 13). Decision-making regarding individual animals may be delegated to the 

Field Recovery Team members, but must consider the following factors. First and foremost, 

captures should only be contemplated if they can be performed in a safe manner for personnel 

as well as the animals to be recovered. The potential benefits of capture of oil-affected mammals 

must outweigh potential negative consequences before the capture effort is initiated. In many 

instances, a small amount of oil on the fur (e.g., tarball on the external hair, 20 cm patch of fresh 

oil not on sensitive tissues) of most pinnipeds, in itself, will not warrant the capture of that 

animal. In general, no rescue should be initiated on free-swimming or beached pinnipeds in the 

vicinity of an oil spill unless the animal in question is in obvious distress (e.g., not behaving 

normally and/or exhibits signs of respiratory problems). Also, no active rescue on freeswimming cetaceans should ever be initiated in the vicinity of an oil spill where oiling is the 

primary problem unless that cetacean is moribund, the capture vessel can approach it slowly 
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Figure 12: Example flow diagram for decision-making regarding capture of live pinnipeds during an oil spill
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Figure 13: Example flow diagram regarding decision-making for capture of live cetaceans during an oil spill
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without indication of avoidance behavior, and the capture vessel has the appropriate capabilities 

to take the cetacean on board safely for both personnel and animal (e.g., adequate deck space, 

low gunwales). Lastly, unless specifically authorized by appropriate trustee agencies, no nondebilitated/non-stranded live animals will be collected during spill incidents (with “debilitated” 

in this context meaning oiled for those species where oiling can cause significant injury and/or 

medically unfit and requiring capture and rehabilitation were there not an oil spill present).

Preemptive captures to prevent the oiling of sensitive species may be considered only under dire 

circumstances (e.g., endangered marine mammal species where other response options are 

limited or unable to be successful) at the direction of the UC and trustee agencies and when 

adequate transport and holding facilities exist. A decision to capture should consider such 

factors as sex, age, reproductive state, and size of individual animal, and their location with 

respect to other marine mammals.

o Euthanasia: It is understood that, during oil spill responses, the euthanasia of marine 

mammals in the field may be the most humane consequence of being stranded. Marine 

mammal euthanasia procedures have been spelled out in the MMPA/ESA permit issued to 

the MMHSRP, as well as in two recent review papers for cetaceans (Barco et al., 2012; 

Moore, 2010) and a relatively new technique for large whales (Harms et al. 2013). Written 

criteria and protocols for the humane euthanasia of oiled marine mammals must be 

developed at the start of a response to be specific for the species and locations involved in 

the spill and approved by the Wildlife Branch Director and the UC; for species listed under 

the ESA, these criteria and protocols also need to be approved by the Principal Investigator 

of the MMHSRP’s permit, and individual animals should also be discussed on a case-by-case 

basis if possible. Criteria used by the Northwest Marine Mammal Stranding Network can be 

found in Appendix 7, and criteria and details may be found in Geraci and Lounsbury (2005);

however, in short, chemical euthanasia via intravenous administration of anesthetic agents 

and euthanasia preparations (with subsequent removal of the carcass to the facility for 

processing and necropsy and carcass disposal following appropriate methods) will generally

be the preferred method. 

• Capture Techniques

o Pinnipeds: The method of capture of oiled pinnipeds may vary according to species and 

situation. Captures must only be undertaken when enough experienced personnel are 

available for restraint and transport, and the necessary equipment and supplies are at the 

ready. Captures should generally only be considered for isolated individuals on beaches, 

spits, tide flats or other relatively flat surfaces, using herding boards and nets (brail, hoop, 

breakaway or steel frame pole). Less often, captures may be attempted from rock jetties, 

piers, docks or even in the water for severely debilitated animals. Personnel will only be 

authorized to perform in water rescue if they possess significant previous experience with 

applicable techniques. Long-handled dip nets, floating bag nets, and a net gun have all been 

used with some success. Depending on the species involved, aquatic captures may use 

tangle nets, float nets, or Wilson traps. Chemical restraint of pinnipeds using remote delivery 

systems (e.g., dart guns) will typically not be used during oil spill response due to the 

inherent dangers associated with the practice. Typically, if a large pinniped is healthy enough 

to require chemical immobilization techniques upon capture, the subsequent care of that 

animal will be too great of a risk to personnel after recovery. However, under certain 

conditions (e.g., entanglement, animal creating a public hazard, listed species) and upon the 

approval from the Wildlife Branch Director, darting of pinnipeds can be attempted if highly 
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trained personnel are available, a capture plan is developed and approved, and sufficient 

equipment and manpower is available to safely undertake the operation. 

o Cetaceans: Typically, only stranded (beached) live cetaceans will be considered for capture; 

free-swimming cetaceans will not be considered unless they are in distress, behaving 

abnormally, and no avoidance activity is noted upon approach. When approaching a 

stranded cetacean, a perimeter marker (e.g. tape) should be immediately set up to keep 

unnecessary people at a distance of at least 30 feet. The animal should be supported upright, 

holes dug for the pectoral fins, and the skin kept moist using wet light colored towels or 

blankets and misting. Once restrained and stabilized, an initial assessment should take place, 

estimating size (length & weight), species, age class, condition of body, injuries, state of 

nutrition, condition of the skin, and oiling status. It is important to note that beached 

cetaceans should not be pushed back out to sea without first being examined by an 

NMFS-approved marine mammal veterinarian and the action approved by NMFS; if 

return to the open ocean is the approved course of action, cetaceans should be 

affixed with a NMFS approved tag to facilitate resightings or quick identification if 

the cetacean should restrand.

• Field Sampling/Documentation: If live mammals are collected during recovery operations, 

documentation and initial sampling must begin as soon as possible, but also consistent with 

human health and safety concerns. At a minimum, field information necessary for completion of 

NOAAs Level A data form must be collected and, if possible, the form started before animals 

are handed over to Transport (see Appendix 1-B). This will include the assignation of a unique 

identifier (Field ID#, per Regional stranding network protocols) that will be an ancillary 

identifier while in care. The Level A form may be completed electronically via direct entry into 

the National Database. Additionally, the collection of the live mammal(s) must be indicated in 

the appropriate section of the Search Effort Log. Lastly, Recovery teams should start initial 

sampling/photo documentation for evidentiary purposes as early as possible in the collection 

process. The degree and scope of this sampling will be determined at the time of collection 

primarily based on the size/taxon of animal, safety for the personnel, and logistical support for 

the capture operation. For example, collecting an oil sample from a stranded live cetacean can be 

safely and effectively done, but collection of that same sample in an adult fur seal under manual 

restraint may not be able to be done in a safe manner. At a minimum, photographs will need to 

be taken by the Recovery team once the animal is under restraint. If oil or medical samples are 

collected from the animal prior to reaching the Primary Care facility, they must be labeled 

properly with a unique field identification number for each animal. For further details on oil 

sample collection consult Appendix 3, Evidence Collection Protocol. Remember that any live 

mammals and their associated samples must follow full chain of custody procedures that begin 

when the animal or sample is collected. The CoC is updated to reflect a transfer when handing 

over the animal or samples to transporters or at the Primary Care Center (form in Appendix 1-

C), the Form must be signed by both parties involved, and the Form remains with the 

animal/sample.

Dead Mammal Team Procedures

• General: The collection of all dead animals, mammals or birds, oiled or unoiled, is important for 

an effective wildlife response for a number of reasons:

 It reduces the level of contamination in the environment;

 It reduces the risk of secondary contamination of scavengers and people;

 If currently unoiled, it prevents secondary oiling of the carcass at a later date; 
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 It prevents re-evaluation of the same carcass in subsequent searches; and

 It provides essential data for determining the overall impact of the spill on wildlife 

resources.

Therefore, measures must be taken to ensure that every marine mammal carcass, regardless 

of condition code, is appropriately collected, identified, documented, and not disposed of until 

approved by the trustees. Most carcasses found in the Designated Spill Area should be collected, 

regardless of whether or not they are obviously oiled, and retained until no longer needed, as 

they are considered evidence. For smaller furred mammals (e.g., sea otters, fur seals), it may not 

always be feasible, reliable, or practical to attempt to discriminate between spill-related and nonspill-related casualties while conducting beach surveys, therefore all of these carcasses must be 

collected. In some cases, animals in advanced decomposition (Code 5) found above the 

waterline with no signs of oil and are clearly older than the spill can be left; however, all data 

must still be collected. For very large marine mammals (mysticetes, adult elephant seals, adult 

Steller sea lions), collection will be logistically complicated but should be the goal whenever 

possible; resources needed for these cases should be pre-identified whenever possible (e.g., 

flatbed trucks, cranes, numerous personnel).

• Decision-Making: If at all possible, oiled mammals should be collected and transported to a 

facility so that the Processing Strike Team (specifically the Facility Processing Team; see below) 

can conduct a full evaluation in more controlled conditions), regardless of the status and 

condition (i.e. degree of decomposition, degree of oiling). Size and condition of the carcass, 

resource availability (e.g., many or few Dead Mammal Teams, vehicle available for transport), 

and location of the carcass will help determine whether the animal can be transported effectively, 

or whether Field Processing must occur. If the carcass can be transported, initial sampling and 

data collection must occur on the beach then the animal should be transported to a facility for 

examination and sampling by a veterinarian. If the decision is made that the carcass must remain 

in the field until Field Processing can occur, carcasses should be examined and sampled and the 

carcass secured and visibly identified until the Field Processing team can arrive. Therefore, each 

Dead Mammal Recovery Team should have the necessary equipment to retrieve/transport 

carcasses, secure carcasses, and do beach assessments and sampling.

• Field Sampling/Carcass Securing: If the decision is made to deploy a Field Processing Team, the 

Dead Mammal Recovery team must do initial photo documentation, data collection (e.g., Level 

A data) and oil sampling prior to handing off carcass to Field Processing. This is to ensure that 

disturbance or secondary contamination of the carcass does not occur between initial discovery 

and necropsy. Specific procedures for field sampling are detailed in Appendices 2-4 (Oiled 

Marine Mammal Evidence Collection Protocol). Samples and data should be handed off to the 

transporter following appropriate Chain of Custody procedures if the carcass is to be taken to a 

Primary Care facility for full processing and the transporter arrives while the Recovery team is 

still present. If the animal is to remain in the field for processing and/or the transporter will not 

be able to meet the Recovery team, all samples and data should remain with the Dead Mammal 

Recovery team until returning from the daily deployment; they can then be handed off to the 

Recovery Group Supervisor (or Strike Team Leader). The carcass should be left with identifying 

information [collector’s name, collection date/time, collection location (beach name and/or 

GPS coordinates), and temporary identification number (if assigned) from Level A data form] 

either by the attachment of a Collection Tag, a copy of the initial Level A data form, or written 

directly on the transport container (if left). Once sampling/documentation is complete and if the 

carcass is to remain, the Recovery team should identify the carcass as being initially sampled 

(either through marking via permanent markers or paint), cordoned off using stakes and caution 
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tape, and, if possible, secured above the tideline (by rope) so that the carcass does not float away 

on the high tide. Discussions should then occur between the Recovery Strike Team 

Leader/Recovery Group Supervisor and the Operations Section Chief to determine the most 

effective and safe means to dispose of the carcass (e.g., burying on site or towing to sea if 

minimally/not visibly oiled, disposal as part of the overall clean-up operation).

Transport Procedures

After capture and/or collection of oiled marine mammals, a cohesive and organized plan for 

transporting these animals quickly, safely and efficiently to a Primary Care Center (or Processing 

Facility) needs to be in place to ensure animals do not linger after collection. Transport can be 

accomplished directly by the Recovery Teams for small to medium spill events, as necessity for 

those teams to continue through a search area is not as time-dependent, or the dedicated 

Reconnaissance Team can cover the area appropriately. However, for larger events, dedicated 

transport personnel (working under and for the Recovery Group Supervisor or Strike Team Leader) 

may be necessary to allow efficient hand-off of affected animals and allow Recovery Teams to 

complete their primary mission.

• Field Stabilization: Prior to transport, field stabilization techniques should be considered for live 

marine mammals if it will be more than one or two hours until the animal reaches the 

rehabilitation facility. These techniques may involve assessing the animal for hypo- or 

hyperthermia and treating accordingly; administering oral electrolyte solution and subcutaneous 

fluids; removing large amounts of oil from the eyes and nares; and administering emergency 

medications (under the guidance of a veterinarian). Because of this, personnel with medical 

training and experience should either be part of the Live Mammal Recovery Teams or be 

available for consultation should field stabilization be warranted. Alternatively, for very large 

responses (or responses where lengthy transport of live marine mammals may be a frequent 

occurrence), the establishment of a separate Field Stabilization Group (similar in structure to 

California’s organizational chart shown previously) or Field Stabilization Strike Team (under the 

Recovery Group) may be warranted. This Group/Strike Team can then be centrally located 

within the search area, staffed with medical professionals able to provide initial “first aid” to 

oiled animals, and act as the central point for transport from the field and to the Primary Care 

center. Details related to the specific care procedures to follow within this Group/Strike Team 

should follow a slight modification from the Care procedures detailed in subsequent sections.

• Transport Techniques: Similar to capture techniques above, specific transport methods for 

affected mammals are too detailed to list in these Guidelines. The reader is referred to the CRC 

Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine (Dierauf and Gulland, 2001), chapters on Marine Mammal 

Transport (Antrim and McBain, 2001), Cetacean Medicine (McBain, 2001)and Seals and Sea 

Lions (Gulland et al., 2001) for more specific information.

o Pinnipeds: After capture and field stabilization, smaller oiled animal(s) should be placed in a 

quiet, sheltered, well-ventilated area in a transport box, airline kennel, or cage (depending on 

pinniped species) for transport. For smaller pinnipeds, the cage should be large enough to 

allow the animal to lie down in a comfortable position. Only one animal per transport cage is 

recommended for the safety of the animals and to prevent cross-contamination of oil. Fur 

seal transport kennels should ideally be fitted with a raised bottom grate to avoid additional 

fur fouling. Females and their pups are most safely transported in separate cages, although 

they can be positioned so that they can hear, see, and smell each other. Pinnipeds less than 

70 – 80 kg (145 - 175 lbs) can be transported in large airline sky kennels. Aluminum or other 
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lightweight material is recommended to minimize weight of cages designed for larger 

animals. Each cage must be firmly tied or secured in the vehicle.

o Cetaceans: After capture, the oiled cetacean should be placed on a stretcher appropriate for 

the species which allows for normal respiration, does not impinge on the mouth, pectoral 

flippers or fluke, and distributes weight equally across the surface to avoid pressure lesions. 

The animal should then be placed in the transport vehicle (usually a flatbed or pickup truck) 

on foam or other soft substrate to support its body weight for the duration of the move. 

Temperature control of the cetacean is of paramount concern; therefore planned transport 

at night is ideal in warm climates. If timing cannot be controlled, covering the mammal with 

light, wetted towels to prevent sunburn and desiccation is required.

• Transport Vehicles: Animals are generally transported in either a pick-up truck or an enclosed 

van-type vehicle. Adequate ventilation must be maintained to protect both humans and animals 

from inhaling fumes emitted by freshly oiled animals. Keep in mind that human comfort during 

transport may not be synonymous with or sufficient for the temperature and ventilation needs of 

the transported marine mammals. Additional PPE may be required for individuals involved in 

transport for climate control (personal cooling devices, or alternately, thicker jackets or other 

warm clothing). Personnel transporting animals between the field and the rehabilitation center 

must maintain contact with their supervisor at all times so that departure and arrival times may 

be anticipated.

• Monitoring: Animals must be monitored periodically on transports greater than one hour, as 

directed by a response veterinarian. In most cases, sedation during transport is not 

recommended. Critical cases (e.g., unstable, hypo- or hyperthermic animals) may require more 

frequent monitoring. Unless hypothermia is observed or suspected, keep animals damp and 

cool. The preferred air temperature for non-Arctic pinniped transport is 50-68°F (10-20°C) 

(Geraci et al., 2005). Fur seals whose coats are oiled or saturated, neonates of all species, and 

animals with extensive wounds or severe emaciation may require higher temperatures compared 

to minimally oiled animals or non-oiled, stranded animals. Arctic pinnipeds, particularly in 

winter, may need cooler air temperatures. Keep in mind that oiled, stressed, or injured seals are 

not able to regulate their body temperature effectively, and their conditions can change within 

minutes. Hyperthermic animals may be sprayed gently with water, ice cubes may be added to the 

top of the cage and allowed to drip onto the animal as it melts, or ice cubes may be placed under 

a plastic grate (if present) in the kennel. In order to prevent inhalation and subsequent drowning 

by unconscious animals, do not allow water to accumulate in the bottom of transport cages. 

Hypothermic animals should be placed in a sheltered location out of the wind, although good 

ventilation must be maintained to prevent animals and humans from inhaling petroleum fumes. 
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Chapter 6 – Recovery Group:

Reconnaissance Strike Team

Introduction and Goals

Baseline information on the distribution of wildlife during an oil spill event is important for 

assessing which resources are at significant risk and for developing appropriate response actions. A 

priori historical information is most often available during a spill from the Environmental Unit of the 

Planning Section (via a trustee acting as a Resources at Risk Specialist), from published documents 

(e.g., Environmental Sensitivity Index maps, peer-reviewed literature, federal and state management 

reports), and from the record-keeping and “corporate knowledge” of local organizations, including 

stranding network members. Variations from historic conditions due to daily and seasonal 

movements of pinnipeds and cetaceans, however, necessitate rapid, real-time reconnaissance of 

wildlife presence in the spill area. Additionally, indirect effects of spills and their cleanup, such as 

alterations to behavior, can also be problematic to marine mammal species. In most instances, these 

data can be collected by the Recovery Strike Team through normal marine mammal collection 

activities. However, when oil spill incidents become very complex in either size or type of the spill 

and the habitats involved, the Recovery Strike Team may be challenged to both collect surveillance 

data in a methodical manner as well as respond to animals in crisis. Real-time data on both presence 

as well as behavior should then be collected actively via a Reconnaissance Strike Team within the 

Recovery Group using response personnel deployed as aircraft, boat, and/or ground teams, or more 

passively through manning a “hotline” to receive reports from the general public and from cleanup 

operators.

In certain situations, it may be determined that the deployment of trained wildlife observers on 

specific response operations (e.g., skimmers, in situ burn teams) may be necessary during a spill to 

determine the extent that protected species (under the MMPA and ESA) are being impacted, which 

needs to be documented for the Section 7 emergency consultation under the ESA and reporting 

requirements under Section 109(h) of the MMPA. This information is also of interest to the natural 

resource damage assessment. This function most often fits within the Environmental Unit of 

planning (in a similar manner to Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique, or SCAT, teams). 

However, in cases where limited operational capability is needed and the Wildlife Branch has the 

capability, select observer operations may fall under the Reconnaissance Strike Team. However, this 

should be the exception rather than the rule. 

Personnel

Experienced personnel are essential for effective wildlife reconnaissance. Observers should be able 

to identify species, behavioral characteristics and patterns, and be knowledgeable about local 

ecological factors. Local trustee agency personnel, such as local USFWS refuge biologists, can be 

extremely valuable for timely reconnaissance. As was stated previously, for smaller spills, 

reconnaissance activities may be undertaken directly by Recovery personnel. Reconnaissance staff 

may also be integrated within Recovery teams for efficient deployment, with these combined team(s) 

surveying assigned areas fairly quickly but tasked to stop to collect any oiled marine mammals that 

are found (versus only noting and reporting locations and conditions of affected animals). Similarly, 

Reconnaissance teams may be comprised of both bird and mammal experts, with pertinent data 

transmitted to a single Reconnaissance Strike Team Leader, then upwards to the appropriate 
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Recovery Group Supervisor (e.g., Bird or Marine Mammal) as needed. Data collected by the 

Reconnaissance Strike Team are also important to informing the natural resource damage 

assessment. If specialized surveys for species are needed, additional wildlife specialists may be called 

in by the Reconnaissance Strike Team Leader, the Recovery Group Supervisor, or WBD. These 

specialists will advise the Branch Director and the UC about threats to listed species, the locations 

and numbers of oiled animals, and the potential need for pre-emptive capture, hazing or other 

protection strategies.

• Recovery Group Supervisor (RGS) - This position is responsible for the surveillance for and 

recovery of dead and live impacted marine mammals and transport of them to field processing 

center(s) (or Primary Care centers if no field stabilization has been established)(see Figure 14). 

Specifically as it relates to Reconnaissance Strike Team(s), the RGS is responsible for collecting 

and compiling all wildlife reconnaissance information and passing this information on to the 

Hazing and Care & Processing Group Supervisors in a timely manner to allow for effective 

tactical response. This Group Supervisor should closely coordinate activities, either directly or 

through the WBD/DWBD, with the Environmental Unit (Planning Section) and 

Reconnaissance and Hazing Groups (Wildlife Branch), as all have personnel with the ability to

conduct surveys of wildlife in the vicinity of the spill. Must have oil spill and crisis management 

experience, extensive background in all aspects of oiled wildlife capture, care and response, a full 

understanding of the Incident Command System and how to manage media inquiries.

• Reconnaissance Strike Team Leader (Reconn STL): Reconnaissance STL(s), under the 

direction of the Recovery Group Supervisor, is/are responsible for the coordination of data 

collection related to animals at risk from, or affected by, 

an oil spill incident. This information will be used to 

help direct other Wildlife Branch field teams (e.g., 

hazing, recovery or field processing), will be used by the 

Planning Section to develop response strategies that 

minimize adverse effects on wildlife, and will keep the 

Unified Command informed regarding potential 

impacts. Duties include assisting the Recovery Group

Supervisor in determining current and future recovery 

needs for their area of operation (e.g., behaviorists, 

aerial/water/land-based activities), deployment and 

oversight of reconnaissance personnel in their area, 

management of ongoing data collection, working with 

the other Reconn STL(s) to ensure full coordination, 

and timely delivery of data to the Recovery Group 

Supervisor. Reconn STL(s) must have oil spill and 

crisis management training/ experience; background in 

all aspects of oiled wildlife response; a full 

understanding of the Incident Command System; and 

know how to manage media inquiries. Note: The 

activation of these discrete Strike Teams will be 

dependent on the dynamics of the spill, location 

impacted, species at risk, and other aspects of the 

response. In most instances, all functions can be 

accomplished by Recovery teams under the direct 

supervision of the Recovery Group Supervisor. Figure 14: Reconnaissance Strike Team 

Organizational Chart
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• Surveillance Staff: Surveillance personnel within Reconn ST(s) enact the operational plan 

developed by the Reconn STL and/or the Recovery Group Supervisor to evaluate the numbers, 

species, and locations of animals that could be or have been impacted by the spill. Teams may 

be divided into aerial, boat, and/or shoreline survey teams as necessary. For entry on any public 

or private land, the appropriate land manager should be contacted.

• Behavior Staff: Behavior staff within the Reconn ST are responsible for conducting 

assessments of individual or groups of marine mammals as necessary to determine whether spill 

response operations or oil exposure are causing impacts that require modification of activities. It 

is likely that these functions will largely be performed by technical specialists, as the skills 

necessary to conduct these operations are highly specialized.

Safety

The primary safety concerns for Reconnaissance personnel during an oil spill event are related to 

working outdoors under sometimes rugged conditions, in inclement weather for long hours and/or 

on a boat or plane. Because of these risks, the Safety Officer will communicate to the Wildlife 

Branch Director what level of equipment and training is appropriate for field response personnel; 

this training may include a 24-hour HAZWOPER training (Hazardous Waste Operations and 

Emergency Response), first aid/CPR, water safety, and/or boat/aircraft safety courses (see Safety 

and Human Health). In general, however, safe practices can be maximized by following these steps:

• Maintain the level of OSHA health and safety certification required by the Safety Officer for oil 

spill response, which ensures that field staff have been advised of the safety hazards associated 

with spill response and the many ways in which hazards can be minimized and safety maximized;

• For reconnaissance personnel in the Aerial Survey Unit, levels of aircraft safety training 

approved by the spill’s Safety Officer and the staff member’s employer must be met;

• Prior to initial deployment and/or as soon as it is available, field staff must read and sign the Site 

Safety Plan prepared for the spill event by the Safety Officer, which ensures that field staff are

aware of any specific safety issues he/she may face in responding to that particular spill and 

typically lists the nearest medical facilities (emergency rooms or clinics);

• Field staff must wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE), as determined by the Safety 

Officer, at all times. Proper PPE requirements will be dictated by their primary location of 

operations. Personnel deployed on boats within an Exclusion Zone may be required to wear 

safety glasses or goggles, Tyvek coveralls, nitrile or vinyl gloves, weather-appropriate personal 

flotation devices (PFDs), and skid-resistant boots. For personnel not in an exclusion zone, PPE 

requirements may be reduced to include only PFDs (if on a boat or near the surf zone) and 

appropriate footwear. Reconnaissance personnel may encounter exposure hazards in inclement 

weather, so appropriate foul weather gear should be available to avoid cold exposure, as well as 

hats and sunscreen in hot weather. Additional PPE and safety plans may be required at the 

discretion of the Safety Officer or other staff.

• No field reconnaissance efforts should take place after sunset, by boat, or by off-road vehicle 

(e.g., all-terrain vehicle) unless specifically approved by the Wildlife Branch Director and 

directed by the Reconnaissance Group Supervisor.

• Field reconnaissance personnel should carry a first-aid kit at all times while in the field, so that 

immediate care for an injury is achievable, prior to further medical attention as necessary. 

• If the nearest medical facilities have not been identified in the Site Safety Plan, the 

Reconnaissance Group Supervisor should identify the available options (walk-in clinic, 

emergency room, 911 coverage, etc.), in writing if possible.
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• All injuries must be reported to the Recovery Group Supervisor, who will complete an injury 

report and communicate with the Wildlife Branch Director.

Documentation

Full documentation of observed species, including animal numbers, locations, survey method, and 

other pertinent data, should be collected in a methodical organized fashion for rapid dissemination 

to the other personnel within the Wildlife Branch. In most situations, data may be collected in Field 

logs and later transcribed to appropriate Reconnaissance forms for clarity of information.

Wildlife Hotline

For any spill that may involve oiled wildlife, a Wildlife Hotline should be established to allow the 

public (and responders) a means of reporting oiled wildlife. For smaller incidents, this Hotline may 

be staffed at the Incident Command Post and report directly to the WBD (if all species are reported 

to a single line) or to the DWBD (if a marine mammal hotline is activated separately from other 

species). However, for moderate to large responses where a Reconnaissance Strike Team is 

activated, this position is more appropriately housed within that Strike Team, with calls being 

immediately delivered to the appropriate field team.

During a spill response, the number should be provided in press releases, and a Hotline Operator 

should be assigned to monitor the line. A script should be developed to ensure consistent 

information collection. At a minimum, the information that should be noted by the operator 

includes: 

 Date and time of call

 Caller’s name and return phone number

 Date and time of observation

 Location of oiled animal(s), as specific as possible

 Type of animal (species, if known)

 Whether the animal is live or dead

 Whether the animal is in hand, on land or in the water

 What degree of oiling is visible

 If the animal is live, the behavior, and whether or not it appears to be catchable

The operator should request this information, and inform callers that they should not attempt to 

capture oiled wildlife themselves, for the safety of both the caller and the animal. The Hotline 

Operator(s) may be any qualified individual, such as staff of a trustee agency or a qualified volunteer. 

Preferred qualifications include local area knowledge (e.g., local beach names) and some biological 

knowledge (appearance and behavior of common species). Local Emergency Operations offices 

may be able to facilitate multiple parallel operators (facilitated through the Liaison Officer). The 

Hotline Operator should collate reports, and provide this information to the Reconnaissance Strike 

Team regularly (e.g., immediately for any live animal reports, or every 30 minutes for dead animals, 

depending on the number of reports).

If the stranding network organization has a pre-existing hotline, the operator for that effort should 

ask the same questions as that working under a spill response. Any reports received by the local 

stranding network hotline from within the DSA should be relayed immediately to the spill Hotline.
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Reconnaissance Procedures

Surveillance Teams

In short, surveillance teams are deployed to locate and quantify wildlife at risk in real time in the area of 

the oil spill. These data may be used by the Recovery Group and the DWBD to scale and prioritize 

efforts.

• Aerial Survey Unit – In many instances during large-scale oil spill events, the most time- and 

cost-effective means to collect survey data on pinnipeds and cetaceans will be by fixed-wing 

aircraft or helicopter. Any observers used for aerial reconnaissance for wildlife should have 

previous training and experience regarding identification of marine mammals from the air, and 

knowledge of proper standardized survey techniques, including the use of GPS receivers to 

accurately map flight paths and determine locations of sightings and photographs. While in the

air or immediately after landing, oral summaries of mammal observations are reported to the 

Strike Team Leader who relays the information to the Recovery Group Supervisor. Written files 

can be later conveyed via email to the Group Supervisor, who can then forward them on to the 

Environmental Unit (if requested). General aerial surveys can successfully be accomplished as 

part of operational overflights done for mapping oil if a qualified biologist can participate. 

However, these flights are typically conducted at relatively high altitudes making species 

identification difficult, so wildlife-specific flights involving two to three trained observers who 

each conduct line transects on either side of the plane at an altitude of 750-1000 ft. can provide 

much more detailed information.

• Boat Survey Unit – Similar to above, boat-based surveys can complement boat-based Recovery 

work as well as add important info to aerial surveys should fog or airspace issues limit aerial 

surveys from occurring. Exact survey methods will vary on a case-by-case basis, but surveyors

will collect information on species present and their location and condition (live, dead, visibly 

oiled, and visibly unoiled); basic weather and sea conditions; and any other notable information 

that may be useful to response efforts. Survey methods, route, and transect design should be

established just prior to the survey to accommodate the specific areas, issues, and species of 

concern for a particular spill. In all cases, at least one member of the team must be qualified to 

operate the boat, given the habitat, weather, and sea conditions. Other personnel must be 

qualified to observe and identify wildlife and determine oiling status. Depending on the boat 

and search area, two persons are a minimum crew. However, an optimal and preferable boat 

crew has three people for safety and search efficiency. In some cases, boat reconnaissance survey 

teams may also collect dead wildlife and catchable (e.g., moribund) live oiled animals, but 

personnel on board must have the necessary minimum qualifications, along with specialized 

training and equipment, needed to capture animals that might be found. Otherwise, sightings of 

recoverable wildlife must be relayed to the Reconnaissance Strike Team Leader for immediate 

follow-up and coordination with the Recovery Group. 

Behavior Teams

During oil spills, there are often reports from the public and responders alike of marine mammals 

“acting strangely”. These actions may be true effects of oiling (e.g., neurological symptoms resulting 

from inhalation of toxic vapors), a behavioral response to clean up activities, or natural behaviors 

observed by inexperienced personnel. In order to differentiate such responses, experienced teams of 

individuals should be deployed where reports of mammals in proximity to oil have been received, or 

where the trajectory of oil and known information about mammal abundance or distribution 

demonstrates a need for concern. Each team should consist of at least two personnel with 

experience in observing the behavior of the specific marine mammal species in question. Each team 
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will identify groups of mammals, record the location, take video/photographs appropriate for 

photo-identification (to be used to examine the condition of animals over time to identify if changes 

have occurred), and then conduct focal animal follows with a particular group for an extended 

period of time (but not to exceed four hours to prevent excessive harassment). Special attention 

should be paid to potential indications of distress or debilitation, including labored breathing or 

other respiratory distress, aberrant behavior such as listing to one side, non-responsiveness and 

lethargy, or a decline in body/skin condition over time in subsequent sightings. Information should 

also be recorded about the oil found in the area and the animals’ behavior and proximity to the oil. 

If the animals are determined to be in distress, teams could either provide a credible alert to 

Recovery Group personnel that a rescue effort may be necessary, a notice to the Hazing Group that 

mammals are present that may be effectively deterred from the spill area, or perform the 

intervention or work in cooperation with other groups to expedite a solution where a relatively 

straightforward solution can be implemented. Field logs should be transcribed onto Reconnaissance 

forms at the end of a survey period and provided to the Reconnaissance Strike Team Leader via email or fax, with hard copies to be retained and provided periodically.
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Chapter 7 – Care & Processing Group:

Processing Strike Team

Introduction and Goals

As discussed in the Recovery section above, extensive measures must be taken to ensure that all live 

and dead animals recovered during an oil spill incident are appropriately collected, identified, 

documented, and not released or disposed of until approved by the natural resource trustees. Legal 

staff should also be consulted to ensure that all requirements for the preservation of collected 

evidence are satisfied. Each oil spill incident has legal implications, with a number of different 

activities (such as investigation of cause, determination of environmental impacts, and effects on 

individual animals) requiring detailed data collected in a legally sufficient manner. This evidentiary 

and documentary portion of wildlife operations is collectively known as “Processing”. While 

additional information is collected and used in each other area of the response, the information 

collected through the Processing Strike Team is key if questions should arise as to who is or is not 

the Responsible Party, whether animals were indeed oiled during the event, and whether samples 

were collected, analyzed and stored in an appropriate manner.

Due to the sensitivity of the information being collected, marine mammal processing during an oil 

spill response must be done under approval from the appropriate management agencies (i.e., NMFS, 

FWS) following procedures that are pre-established and pre-approved by the Agency’s law 

enforcement and legal office/division. In certain instances, these procedures may be modified 

during a response to satisfy the UC and/or incident-specific needs. However, for most incidents, the 

methods and procedures detailed here will suffice.

Unlike the processing that occurs for birds affected by oil spills in the United States, a key element 

for pinniped/cetacean procedures involves the complete necropsy (or post-mortem evaluation) of 

all collected animals whenever possible as part of the response effort. Marine mammals (aside from 

heavily furred animals such as fur seals) are far less likely to succumb to acute injury or death due to 

external coating, but may have significant internal exposure (from ingestion or respiration) and 

damage that occurs without concurrent external signs. Therefore, a full internal examination may 

provide the only means to determine whether those animals found dead in the environment were 

indeed exposed (thereby assisting in defining margins of search effort and species at risk, among 

other factors), as well as critical medical information for rehabilitators on potential adverse effects 

from the oil (or clean-up methods used).

Processing of affected mammals may occur either at the Primary Care Facility or designated 

necropsy facility (the ideal situation, as data collection and sampling can occur under controlled 

conditions) or in the field (should the animal be too large or if it is logistically impossible to 

transport back to a facility). In either case, the Processing Strike Team must be able to fully sample 

and document any and all animals that are found. In most situations where field processing is 

required, staff from the Processing Strike Team located at the facility can be deployed to conduct 

necropsies/data collection on individual animals in an appropriate, albeit remote, manner. However, 

for larger responses and/or when animals are being found at great distance from processing 

facilities, a separate Field Processing Team may need to be formed and remain in a stand-by 
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condition, able to respond if needed. There may also need to be numbers of personnel identified 

and available in a stand-by fashion to augment Processing Strike Team(s) for response to mass 

strandings or large marine mammals, as these responses can be very labor intensive.

Personnel

• Care & Processing Group Supervisor (CPGS) - This position is responsible for coordinating 

the overall processing and rehabilitation resources and capabilities of the Wildlife Branch in 

order to provide optimum care and documentation of affected wildlife, including oversight and 

management of the Care and Processing Strike Teams (see Figure 15). Specifically as they relate 

to the Processing Strike Team, the CPGS’s duties include call-out of personnel, activation of 

Primary Care Center(s) that have the capacity to fully process (e.g. necropsy) marine mammals, 

oversight of processing protocol(s) (including collection of evidentiary samples and data), regular 

reporting of pertinent information (number/type/species/disposition) to the Wildlife Branch 

Director, and implementation of the demobilization plan. The CPGS should have extensive 

experience, background and understanding of the evaluation and treatment of oiled wildlife 

during an oil spill event, as well as possess oil spill and crisis management experience.

• Processing Strike Team Leader (Processing STL)- The Processing STL, under the direction 

of the CPGS, is responsible for receiving and documenting all live and dead marine mammals 

collected, maintaining and reporting information on wildlife collected, and ensuring appropriate 

secure cataloged storage for dead animals. Under certain instances, the documentation and 

sampling of dead marine mammals may be divided into separate Field and Facility Processing 

Units, each led by a separate Unit Leader, should large mammals not be able to be physically 

transported to a Primary Care Center and field necropsies be necessary. Duties include assisting 

the CPG Supervisor in: determining current and future 

processing needs including personnel, equipment, and 

supplies; the establishment of central, and, if needed, 

ancillary, processing center(s) for receiving and 

documenting all collected mammals; deployment, 

administration and oversight of Processing Strike Team 

personnel; management of ongoing data collection and 

storage; and timely delivery of data to the CPG 

Supervisor. The Processing STL must have oil spill and 

crisis management training/experience; background in 

all aspects of oiled wildlife processing and response;

and a full understanding of the Incident Command 

System.

• Field/Facility Processing Staff - Processing Staff 

assist the Processing STL with all aspects of mammal

processing, including: receiving dead and debilitated 

mammals; assigning unique intake numbers to wildlife; 

ensuring complete Chain of Custody information is 

recorded for each individual; assessing oil data; taking 

oil samples; maintaining photographic record of all 

processed mammals; completing records of all aspects 

of data collection; conducting complete necropsies and 

tissue collection from dead mammals; maintaining 

supplies used for sample collection and identifying Figure 15: Processing Strike Team 

Organizational Chart
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ordering needs; and organizing storage of carcasses, oil/tissue samples, and documentation.

Necropsies of dead oiled marine mammals must either be conducted or supervised by personnel 

with extensive experience in conducting gross necropsies, collecting appropriate tissues, and 

instituting immediate diagnostics to assist in the assessment of animals collected during spills.

Ideally, a veterinary pathologist with specialized training and experience with marine mammals 

will perform necropsies. If an appropriate veterinary pathologist is not available, a veterinarian 

with experience in necropsies of marine mammals can be asked to perform the necropsy. In 

situations where an experienced pathologist or veterinarian is not available to conduct the 

necropsy, a biologist with extensive necropsy experience may be approved by the response 

veterinarian and/or Care and Processing Group Supervisor to lead this effort.

Safety

Safety practices, including appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), for Processing staff will 

be dictated by their primary location of operations and the techniques to be used. Because Field 

Processing may involve more risk than Facility duties, the Safety Officer will communicate to the 

Wildlife Branch Director what level of equipment and training is appropriate for field response 

personnel; this training may include a 24-hour HAZWOPER training (Hazardous Waste Operations 

and Emergency Response), first aid/CPR, water safety, or boat safety courses (see Safety and 

Human Health). For Facility Processing personnel, however, a 4-hour Hazardous Communication 

(HAZCOM) training specific to the risks associated with oiled wildlife processing and care, may 

suffice. In general, however, following these steps can maximize safe practices:

• Maintain the level of OSHA health and safety certification required by the Safety Officer for oil 

spill response, which ensures that field/facility staff have been advised of the safety hazards 

associated with spill response and the many ways in which hazards can be minimized and safety 

maximized;

• Prior to initial deployment and/or as soon as it is available, all staff must read and sign the Site 

Safety Plan prepared for the spill event by the Safety Officer, which ensures that personnel are

aware of any specific safety issues he/she may face in responding to that particular spill;

• Field and facility staff must wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE), as determined by 

the Safety Officer, at all times when handling live and dead animals. Proper PPE requirements 

will be dictated by their primary location of operations. Personnel conducting field processing

within an Exclusion Zone may be required to wear safety glasses or goggles, slickers, Tyvek 

coveralls, nitrile or vinyl gloves, personal flotation devices (PFDs), and skid-resistant boots. For 

facility personnel, PPE requirements may be reduced to not include PFDs. Field processing

personnel may encounter exposure hazards in inclement weather, so appropriate foul weather 

gear should be available to avoid cold exposure, as well as hats and sunscreen in hot weather.

Additional PPE and safety plans may be required at the discretion of the Safety Officer or other 

staff.

• As processing personnel will likely be involved with necropsies of dead marine mammals, care 

should be taken as it related to working with sharp instruments in slippery conditions. 

• All injuries must be reported to the Recovery Group Supervisor, who will complete an injury 

report and communicate with the Wildlife Branch Director.

Additionally, handling stranded marine mammals should be done with care as they may carry known 

and unknown infectious agents (zoonoses). Please note the following:

 The viability of an infectious agent is variable and may be related to body temperature, need 

for a viable host, sunlight, effect of saltwater, and organismal (pathogen) characteristics.
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 Live and freshly dead (Code 2) animals are likely to present the greatest risk of disease from 

infectious agents due to a concentrated pathogen load, viable pathogens in live animals, and 

possibly viable pathogens following death of the host.

 Decomposed carcasses may carry an infection risk from post-mortem bacteria if there are 

skin punctures or exposure to open wounds.

 The risk of infection is decreased by taking safety precautions for every dead animal 

(regardless of decomposition status), such as using appropriate PPE (e.g., gloves, eye 

protection), taking precautions to avoid skin puncture or exposure to open wounds, cleaning 

exposure sites immediately, reporting the occurrence of any injury or illness to a supervisor, 

and letting your physician know that you work with wildlife.

Documentation

The documentation generated within the Processing Strike Team is the most critical for the overall 

response effort, as it details (in a legally defensible manner) key data that is used to report animal 

numbers, species, collection locations, exposure status, and disposition to the UC (and, in turn, to 

the Joint Information Center and the public) as well as collects samples to establish that animals 

were exposed to the spill in question. Similarly, after the response is concluded, these data/samples 

will be used for other non-emergency aspects of the response, including Natural Resource Damage 

Assessment, investigations, and research. Therefore, it is extremely important that staff within the 

Processing Strike team understand and follow the documentary processes as outlined in these

Guidelines from the onset of a deployment. Specific components of Processing documentation 

include:

• Level A Data Form: Field information necessary for completion of NOAA’s Level A data form 

should have been collected by the Recovery Group and, if possible, the form started before 

animals are handed over to Processing. The Processing Strike Team is responsible for collecting 

the remainder of the data necessary to complete the form, and for ensuring the information is 

provided to the appropriate NOAA representative (generally, the Regional Stranding 

Coordinator). The Level A data form can be found in Appendix 1-B. This form may be 

completed electronically via direct entry into the National Database.

• Animal Log Forms: Upon admittance to a wildlife care facility (or upon processing of dead 

mammals at the facility, or in the field if too logistically difficult), each animal must be logged 

into either the Live Marine Mammal Data Log or Dead Marine Mammal Data Log for that 

facility (Appendix 1-D). All animals collected dead or alive are given a unique log number and 

identifier (e.g., Field ID # or tag) in order to track the individual animals through the 

capture/collection, processing, and, for live animals, the rehabilitation and release process (see 

below for more details on designating log numbers). At some point, a Level A 

Regional/National Database number will also be assigned and should be entered on the log 

when acquired. During Tier 3 responses (where multiple facilities may be deploying Processing 

Strike Teams), each Log Form must have the facility clearly indicated on the form so that a 

unique prefix can be added to each log number.

• Photo Log: Each marine mammal, live or dead, must be photo documented. Processing photos 

upon intake must be labeled (ideally using a dry erase board behind the animal) with: Spill Name, 

Date, Species, Log number, Capture Location, and Field ID number. Photos taken during 

necropsies should be labeled (ideally using an index card) with: Spill Name, Date, Species, Log 

and Field ID number, and should also include a size scale. Each photo should be recorded on 

the Photo Log, which helps to identify the photographer and date/time taken. If possible, 

date/time stamp capabilities of digital cameras should be used to imprint the date and time on 
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the photograph. Full instructions on the taking of photos for evidentiary purposes are detailed 

below and in Appendix 2. 

• Necropsy Report: For dead mammals, complete necropsies should be conducted if at all 

possible (e.g., Code 2/3 carcasses). In doing so, full photo documentation and complete 

recording of all pertinent findings must be noted in a Necropsy Form (an example of such form 

can be found in Appendix 1-J). If the facility/necropsy staff member have necropsy forms that 

they are familiar with, alternate forms can be used if they collect all necessary data in an 

organized fashion Additionally, all tissue samples collected (following the protocol found in 

Appendix 4, Tissue Sampling Protocol) must be noted on the form.

• Chain-of-Custody (CoC) Form: Mammals that are found and collected must have a CoC form

started in the field, and continued whenever the animal/samples are handed over. Both parties 

involved in a transfer must sign the form, and the original form must remain with the 

animal/sample. In situations where samples/tissues are collected from an animal that already has 

a single CoC form started on it, a “child” CoC form may be started delineating that the original 

“sample” was further “divided”. The CoC form can be found in Appendix 1-C.

Processing Procedures

Defining Oiling Status of Stranded Marine Mammals

Determining the oiling status in lightly exposed pinnipeds and cetaceans can be extremely 

challenging when compared to assessment of birds and heavily furred mammals. Pinnipeds (except 

fur seals) and cetaceans are unlikely to have a thermoregulatory response to acute oiling; however,

fur seals and sea otters may be observed hauling out more frequently in an attempt to stay warm. 

Additionally, light oil exposure would be less likely to be visually detected within the shorter hair and 

impenetrable skin of seals and cetaceans, and internal exposures may not be apparent without either 

extensive biomedical sampling (e.g., fecal or blood samples) or post-mortem evaluation. External 

exposure can, however, create damage to sensitive tissues such as eyes and mucous membranes, and 

internal exposures can create both acute as well as chronic lesions that can be life threatening. 

Therefore, marine mammals during oil spill events must be classified carefully to avoid implying that 

animals not appearing to be oiled on an initial evaluation are truly unoiled, and require oiling status

(“visibly oiled” or “not visibly oiled” as defined below) be determined based on both external as well 

as internal gross evaluation. Note that the determination of oiling status does not establish 

sub-apparent oil exposure or the cause of death. This point is important to continually reinforce 

within the group, and also when dealing with other members of the Incident Command and the 

media, who are likely more familiar with the impacts of oil on birds. The determination of these 

types of impacts in marine mammals must come from further evaluation of the samples and other 

evidence, such as histopathological evaluation of tissues and/or PAH analysis of the biological 

samples. For the purposes of oiling status of marine mammals, the following categories should be 

used when classifying animals collected during an oil spill:

 Visibly Oiled: Based on

a. Evidence of external oiling; or

b. Evidence of internal oiling on initial exam (e.g., oil in oral cavity and/or 

gastrointestinal tract); or

c. Evidence of internal oiling on necropsy (e.g., oil in esophagus, gastrointestinal tract 

and/or respiratory tract).

 Not Visibly Oiled: Do not meet criteria above.

a. It must be noted that “not visibly oiled” does not imply that the mammal was not 

exposed to oil or that the cause of death is unrelated to the spill event.
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 Pending: Full evaluation (physical exam or necropsy) not yet completed.

Decision-Making

As stated in the “Recovery” section above, when dead oiled pinnipeds or cetaceans are found during 

a declared oil spill, an initial decision must be made as to whether to transport that animal back to 

the facility to collect full information, or whether the specifics of that collection (e.g., size of animal, 

state of decomposition, resource availability) makes it more beneficial to process that mammal in the 

field. For the purposes of assessing decompositional state, the following codes will be used:

• Code 1 (Live Animals): Requires rapid triage and decision-making regarding the potential for 

rehabilitation, release, or humane euthanasia. 

• Code 2 (Fresh Dead): Normal appearance, usually with little scavenger damage; fresh smell; 

minimal drying and wrinkling of skin, eyes and mucous membranes; eyes clear; carcass not 

bloated, tongue and penis not protruded; blubber firm and white; muscles firm, dark red, welldefined; blood cells intact, able to settle in a sample tube; serum unhemolyzed; viscera intact and 

well-defined, gut contains little or no gas; brain firm with no discoloration, surface features 

distinct, easily removed intact.

• Code 3 (Moderate Decomposition): The carcass is intact, bloating evident (tongue and penis 

protruded) and skin cracked and sloughing; possible scavenger damage; characteristic mild odor; 

mucous membranes dry, eyes sunken or missing; blubber blood-tinged and oily; muscles soft 

and poorly defined; blood hemolyzed, uniformly dark red; viscera soft, friable, mottled, but still 

intact; gut dilated by gas; brain soft, surface features distinct, dark reddish cast, fragile but can 

usually be moved intact.

• Code 4 (Advanced Decomposition): Carcass may be intact, but collapsed; skin sloughing; 

epidermis of cetaceans may be entirely missing; often severe scavenger damage; strong odor; 

blubber soft, often with pockets of gas and pooled oil; muscles nearly liquefied and easily torn, 

falling easily off bones; blood thin and black; viscera often identifiable but friable, easily torn, 

and difficult to dissect; gut gas-filled; brain soft, dark red, containing gas pockets, pudding-like 

consistency.

• Code 5 (Mummified/Skeletal Remains): Skin may be draped over skeletal remains, remaining 

tissues are desiccated, and no internal organs.

The initial evaluation will be done by the Recovery Group, and the decision as to whether to process 

in the field or facility (and, if done in the field, who will do so and to what degree) will be made in 

consultation with the Processing Group. All animals found within the “designated spill area” (e.g., all 

animals within a specified distance that affected mammals may travel or float after being affected; 

distance to be determined upon consultation with the Environmental Unit within the Planning 

Section and/or the NRDA Unit) will be assessed for sampling. Additionally, based on the spill 

dynamics, animals found in areas adjacent to the “designated spill area” may also be requested to be 

sampled and/or collected, but approval (and funding) of this will come from the Wildlife Branch 

Director upon agreement by the UC. For each animal found, the decision as to what course of 

action to follow includes the following options (in decreasing order of preference):

• Option 1 (Preferred): For every marine mammal stranding, the animal will be initially sampled 

and data collected on the beach by the Dead Mammal Recovery team (see Field Sampling 

section above) and then transported immediately to a facility for examination and more 

thorough sampling by the Facility Processing team.

• Option 2: In some cases, it will be impossible to immediately transport a carcass back to a 

facility at the time of the initial response for safety or logistical reasons (e.g., the seas may be too 

rough to load the carcass into the boat, the distance to carry or tow the carcass may be too great 
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to complete before night) but may be done at a later, safer time. In these situations, field 

sampling should be conducted by the Dead Mammal Recovery team (see Field Sampling section 

above) and the carcass appropriately marked so that additional Recovery or clean-up crews know 

the animal has been initially sampled but will be removed at a later time.

• Option 3: In situations where it will be impossible to remove the carcass from where it is found, 

initial sampling should be conducted by the Dead Mammal Recovery team (see Field Sampling 

section above) and full processing (including field necropsy) should be conducted by the Field 

Processing team. For full necropsy procedures, please see Appendix 9. Preferably, after the field 

necropsy is completed, the resulting portions of the carcass can be hauled out of the area by 

either the Field Processing team or by a clean-up crew working under the Operations Section. 

Before departing, you must mark the carcass so that the clean-up crews and others know the 

animal has been investigated and sampled.

• Option 4 (Least Preferred): If the carcass cannot be removed and field necropsy cannot be done 

(or will not provide important data, such as that attempted on Code 5 cetaceans), burying the 

carcass on scene after initial sampling being conducted by the Dead Mammal Recovery team 

(see Field Sampling section above) may be the only option to minimize effects on predators as 

well as prevent duplicate reporting of stranded animals. Burial must be coordinated with the 

NMFS Regional Stranding Coordinator and Deputy Wildlife Branch Director before departing 

for the beach to ensure there is not another logistical option to arrange carcass transport. Before 

departing, the carcass must be marked so that the clean-up crews and others know the animal 

has been investigated, sampled, and is ready to be buried. To do so, cane poles or wooden stakes

with flagging (or other material) tied to their tops can be staked around the animal. As clean-up 

crews may not have plans to conduct operations on the same beach as the stranded animal, this 

is the least preferred outcome and should only be used as a measure of last resort. Note that 

carcass burial must be done in coordination with the landowner; for some entities (e.g., National 

Parks Service), arrangements should be made in advance.

Processing Procedures

Upon the arrival of oiled mammals (live or dead) at the Primary Care facility, Processing personnel

should obtain all paperwork and samples that accompanied the animal on transport, and complete 

the accompanying CoC form. If the animal was transported without samples and/or paperwork 

(e.g., carcass where the Dead Mammal Recovery team had to continue their search) or if the Field 

Processing team was deployed to examine a stranded mammal, essential data [including collection 

location (beach name and/or GPS coordinates), Field ID number, collection date/time, and 

collector’s name] must be acquired either by the transporter, from the collection tag/transport 

container, or from the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike Team Leader for initial animal 

identification. In certain instances, the Recovery Group Supervisor/Strike Team Leader may be able 

to transmit all pertinent information via email, text, or fax to the facility, where either the Facility 

Processing personnel can begin to fill out appropriate forms, or Field Processing team members can 

compile those data prior to deployment. If the animal is transported to the facility, the transporter 

should not leave the facility until all necessary information has been transferred to processing 

personnel and the CoC form is complete.

Live Marine Mammal Facility Processing

While completing processing procedures on live mammals, it is important to collect all samples and 

data while minimizing the animal handling time and remaining safe. In many instances, it may be 

more efficient to conduct processing procedures at the same time as intake (see more in Chapter 9),

as manual or chemical restraint may be required. If so, appropriate restraint measures (including 
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PPE) outlined in the Intake section below should be followed. Pinnipeds waiting for processing and 

intake should be held in their transport containers in a well-ventilated area with appropriate climate 

control (heaters if cold, fans if hot). The exception to this is if pinnipeds come in directly from the 

field in inappropriate containers or are medically unstable – these animals should be transferred to 

appropriate holding containers and/or processed immediately. For cetaceans, due to the risks 

associated with remaining in slings and/or transport crates for long periods, processing and intake 

should occur immediately upon arrival. When live and dead mammals arrive simultaneously and a 

separate dead Facility Processing team is not available, live mammals are always given priority. Live 

animal processing should be closely coordinated with the intake examination (Chapter 9) to reduce 

animal handling time. Once processing commences, the steps undertaken are as follows:

• Live Animal Data Log: Detailed information required to complete the Live Oiled Animal Data 

Log is contained in the Code Key for Oiled Mammal Data Log (Appendix 1-D). The pertinent 

animal data from field data (e.g., capture location, date/time, collector) and processing 

(Date/time, processor) should be entered on the appropriate Live Log, and then transcribed 

onto a blank Intake Form (Appendix 1-H). The Log is the master repository for information 

about collection, processing, and disposition of all animals collected during spill response. 

Separate logs are maintained for live and dead animals at each facility where processing takes 

place, with the first three letters of the facility’s agreed-upon name being the prefix for that log.

Each Field Processing team will be assigned a unique identifier designated as “FP” plus a 

numerical designation (e.g., FP1 being the first Field Processing team sent out). A log number 

should be assigned and recorded on the Data Log, Intake Form, Level A data form, and any 

other paperwork. Log numbers are sequential and unique (beginning with 0001) within each 

Primary Care facility, and are typically assigned in the order of admission. All evidence collected 

and all treatment provided will be referenced by the log and/or Field ID number, so it is critical 

that each animal is assigned a unique number and that it is clearly marked on all relevant forms. 

Live and dead animal log numbers are differentiated by the prefixes “L” and “D”; therefore the 

first live mammal processed during the spill will have the designation L-0001, with an additional 

prefix added to the log number if multiple facilities and/or field processing occurs. Note that log 

numbers do not correlate to field numbers assigned prior to arrival at the Primary Care facility.

• Animal Information: All mammals need to be identified to species and, when possible, age class 

(pup, yearling, subadult, adult) and sex. Consult charts on age estimation for pinnipeds from 

marine mammal guides such as Geraci and Lounsbury (1993), Reeves et al., (1992) and Ainley et 

al. (1980).

• Animal Identification: If multiple marine mammals are recovered during a spill and housed in 

shared enclosures, each must be tagged, marked or otherwise individually identified. The timing 

of this application depends on the species, method used and whether the animal is being 

restrained or anesthetized for other purposes at a later time. Identification in pinnipeds should 

be done with plastic livestock ear tags (e.g., Rototag, Temptag) attached through a flipper, by 

applying hair dye, using colored livestock markers, or by shaving a small patch of pelage on the 

flank in a recognizable pattern (e.g., Farrell or Alpha Angle System mark, used in phocids and 

sea lions only). Dye marking and clipping is not advisable for fur seals and may be difficult in 

other species depending on the location and extent of oiling. Pinnipeds may also be identified 

using a commercially available pet microchip inserted subcutaneously at the inguinal region. 

Cetaceans may be identified using physical characteristics (rake marks) or tags attached to the 

trailing edge of the dorsal fin. It is essential to ensure that there are no duplicate tags used during 

a spill response.
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• Photograph: A digital photograph of each animal must also be taken. The photograph needs to 

include the entire animal, the oiled region on the body, and if possible, show the identification -

flipper tag numbers, shave mark, or color pattern. The spill name, facility name, processing date, 

log number, Field ID number, and species should be written on a dry erase board behind or in 

front of the animal and be entirely visible within the photo. Each photo should be recorded on 

the Photo Log (Appendix 1-F), with mistakes not deleted on the card, but retaken and noted on 

the Log. Digital memory cards and photographs of mammals collected during processing are 

legal evidence; photographs must remain on the designated memory card and should not be 

modified in any way, including downloading to a computer hard drive. To prevent data loss, a 

daily back up of all memory cards should be performed using a stand-alone DVD 

recorder/burner that does not allow any form of modification to the photographs. When a 

memory card is full, it should be backed up and stored in a locked evidence cabinet. Memory 

cards should not be erased, even after backup. The enforcement officer of the appropriate 

trustee agency will provide any necessary changes to this protocol if necessary for securing 

digital photographs for evidentiary purposes.

• Oil Sample: For legal purposes, it is necessary to collect a sample to be analyzed for oil from 

each individual animal. A detailed protocol for the collection of evidence is provided in 

Appendix 3. Briefly, visible oil is scraped from the fur with a clean wooden spatula and placed 

into a chemically cleaned glass jar. For animals with no visible gross oiling, an affected area is 

rubbed with a 4x4 piece of fiberglass cloth or cotton gauze with forceps or hemostats that have 

been cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. Precautions must be taken to collect the sample without 

allowing nitrile gloves to touch the oil sample or the cloth it is collected on. The oil sample is 

placed in a glass container and labeled appropriately with the following information: the oil spill 

name, date, species, intake log number of that animal, animal capture location, and flipper tag 

color and number and then sealed with evidence tape and placed in secure freezer.

• Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form: The Processing team must begin the Oiled Marine 

Mammal Intake form (Appendix 1-H), filling out the data that is captured on the Animal Log 

sheet. Intake information, such as degree and extent of oiling and biomedical findings, will be 

collected by the Intake team.

Dead Marine Mammal Facility Processing

Live animal processing necessarily takes priority over dead animal processing due to the need to 

immediately provide care for any live mammal recovered. However, in total, dead mammal 

processing often provides much more extensive information as to the extent and degree of oil 

effects on wild animals. The steps of processing a dead marine mammal are similar to those for a 

live animal (see above) with the exception that:

 No Intake Form is created;

 The Dead Animal Data Log contains additional oiling and other data (information that 

would have been collected on the Intake Form); and

 Carcasses do not have to be processed in the order received.

For each mammal, a log number is assigned and recorded on the Data Log, Level A data form, and 

any other paperwork. This number will begin with the prefix “D” (e.g., the first dead mammal 

processed during the spill will have the designation D-0001), with an additional prefix added to the 

log number if multiple facilities and/or field processing occurs (e.g., the first dead mammal 

processed by Field Processing team 1 would be designated “FP1-D-0001”). Information and 

sampling/photo documentation of dead mammals follow the same procedures as described above.
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Dead Marine Mammal Field Processing

Under certain circumstances listed above, certain dead marine mammals will not be able to be

transported back to the facility for processing. This can include the size of the mammal, condition of 

the carcass, or other logistical challenge to the procedure. In these circumstances, sending a team out 

to conduct sampling in the field and a necropsy will be the necessary course of action. The capability 

of the overall response effort to conduct field processing is important during the oil spill response to 

ensure that samples are collected in the timeliest manner possible. Field processing, however, is 

dependent upon several factors, including accessibility (e.g., location of animal, weather conditions, 

tide, and time of day, which may limit necropsy and sampling time) and the condition code of the 

animal. Field processing teams should be composed of trained stranding responders and/or 

veterinarians, plus additional personnel to help with the removal or burial of the carcass. In general,

field procedures, forms, labeling, photographs, and field log instructions are the same as those listed 

above for dead mammal processing in the facility, therefore field teams should make sure that all 

equipment and supplies needed for these activities are in the vehicles before deploying. An 

equipment checklist can be found in Appendix 9.

Necropsy

As was mentioned previously, the response to all dead stranded marine mammals (as well as live 

mammals that die in care) during oil spill events will involve necropsy and focused sampling. There 

are a variety of reasons why this is a required response-related activity (versus one focused on within 

Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA), including (but not limited to):

 To assist in the validation and, where necessary, modification of animal care protocols to 

address spill-specific pathology;

 To allow for accurate oiling assessment (e.g., sub-apparent oil exposure) through internal 

gross evaluation; and

 To determine if death was caused by human response-related interactions.

Additional information, such as determining whether petroleum exposure and/or natural conditions, 

contributed to the mortality may (and should) be better understood from these examinations but, as 

these are more in line with NRDA activities, additional costs associated with their exploration (e.g., 

costs of PAH analyses, histopathology on dead stranded mammals) may need to be acquired from 

non-response sources. Similarly, additional samples for non-spill-related research MAY be collected 

during these examinations, but this collection should NOT interfere with the primary purpose of the 

necropsy and those tissues must be held until the UC and NRDA representatives give clearance. 

Prior to performing a necropsy on an oiled marine mammal, permission to do so must be confirmed

from UC and the appropriate NMFS/FWS enforcement officer. This permission should be 

forthcoming due to the requirements as outlined in these Guidelines; however, insurance that both 

the UC as well as the Regional Enforcement personnel are aware of these standard operating 

procedures is warranted.

Necropsy Procedures

Necropsy methods and techniques are diverse, but general procedures for marine mammal 

necropsies can be found in (Rowles et al., 2001), (Pugliares et al., 2007), and (Geraci et al., 2005). 

Specific protocols have also been developed for some marine mammal groups and species including 

phocids (Winchell and Laboratory, 1990), killer whales (Raverty and Gaydos, 2004), right whales

(McLellan et al., 2004), and Hawaiian monk seals (Yochem et al., 2004). These species specific 

procedures should be followed whenever possible in order to maintain consistency with previous 

data. However, in general, components of a necropsy will include examination of organs and body 
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systems, recording of observations, collection of samples for microscopic examination, and 

reporting of findings. In the response to oil spills, focused sampling and sampling strategies for 

PAH analyses are a critical component of the necropsy.

Depending on carcass condition and accessibility, three different levels of necropsies can be 

undertaken: Full, limited, and minimal necropsies. These different necropsy types are necessary to 

ensure that field responses under varying conditions yield the most information possible. Although 

not preferable, based upon the situation encountered limited and minimal necropsies may be 

necessary for Code 2 and 3 animals. Note that no necropsy is conducted on Condition Code 5 

carcasses.

 Full Necropsy –A full necropsy examines all organ systems possible under field or facility

conditions. This includes extraction of the brain and examination of the ears and eyes, which 

may be challenging in the field. 

 Limited Necropsy – In a limited necropsy, an examination of internal organs is conducted with 

all major organs (heart, lungs, kidney, liver, thoracic and/or abdominal lymph nodes, spleen, 

skin/blubber) examined and samples collected. Examination and collection of other organs is 

conducted as possible. In a field situation, the head may need to be removed and brought back 

to a facility for extraction of the brain, and examination of ears and eyes. Method of transport 

and size of the animal may make this impractical.

 Minimal Necropsy, Code 3 Carcasses -A minimal necropsy involves opening the body cavities, 

having a cursory examination of organs, and strategic sampling of abnormal organs, plus 

collection of samples of heart, lung, kidney, liver, spleen, and skin/blubber, if possible.

 Minimal Necropsy, Code 4 Carcasses -A minimal necropsy involves opening the body cavity and 

a cursory examination of organs. Samples may be collected of abnormal organs as warranted by 

carcass condition.

The spill response veterinarian-of-record should conduct or supervise (directly or remotely after 

specific direction/instruction) all necropsies, in consultation with the designated NMFS 

enforcement officer (either via telephone or the officer being present). Ideally, a veterinary 

pathologist with specialized training and experience with marine mammals will perform necropsies.

If an appropriate veterinary pathologist is not available, a veterinarian with experience in necropsies 

of marine mammals can be asked to perform the necropsy. In situations where an experienced 

pathologist or veterinarian is not available to conduct the necropsy, a biologist with extensive 

necropsy experience may be approved by the response veterinarian and Care and Processing Group 

Supervisor to lead the effort. Necropsy reports are filed and all samples handled and stored using 

appropriate chain-of-custody protocols, as discussed previously (Data Collection) and provided by 

the trustee representative.

Sampling Procedures

Tissue samples for standard histopathology, disease profiling, and petroleum hydrocarbon analysis 

should be collected during all necropsies. While sampling is a component of any necropsy, it is given 

special priority due to the need for focused sampling for PAHs in an oil spill incident. Depending 

on the condition of the carcass, sampling should include: 

 Protocol for PAH Analyses

o External: Skin swabs or scraping (if tar present)
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o Internal: Organs and body fluids, focusing on bile collection for code 2 and early 

code 3 animals (see Tissue Sampling Protocols, Appendix 4)

 Biotoxins/Pathogens

o Biotoxins: Feces, liver, urine, gastric/intestinal contents

o Pathogens: Lung, spleen, lymph node plus additional samples if possible

 Histopathology (see Necropsy Procedures, Appendix 9)

o All organs

 Life History

o External: Skin

o Internal: Gastric contents, teeth (lower left mandible), reproductive organs 

(testes/ovaries), muscle, skull (if possible)

The levels of sampling will vary based upon the condition of the animal and the environment and 

the logistics associated with responding to the carcass. The different sampling levels are:

 Complete Sampling: All samples detailed in Appendix 4.

 Limited Sampling, Code 2/3: External and internal (gastric contents, intestinal contents, 

urine, bile, whole blood-heart, liver, kidney, spleen, lung, muscle, blubber); life history 

samples.

 Limited Sampling, Code 4: External and internal (gastric contents, intestinal contents, plus 

any additional samples, if possible); life history samples.

 Minimal Sampling, Code 4/5: External only; life history samples.

Sampling for oil exposure must be performed under specific conditions detailed in Appendix 3, in 

order to prevent contamination of the sample. Laboratories performing the petroleum analysis must 

be contacted as soon as possible in order to verify that sampling protocols and sample sizes are 

consistent with that specific laboratory requirement. Considerations in choosing the lab should 

include details of forensic capabilities (ability to produce legally defensible results), quality assurance 

and quality control (QA/QC), and consistency with the analysis of other materials from the spill. 

Results can vary between labs and data should be comparable between the environmental and 

tissues of the different species sampled. Appendix 5 lists laboratories with expertise in petroleum 

hydrocarbon chemistry that can be contacted for oil spill sample collection and analysis information. 

Petroleum hydrocarbon analysis is a reimbursable response expenses if pre-approved by the UC.

Summary

The extent of the examination and sampling both at the facility as well as in the field will depend 

primarily on two key factors: accessibility to the stranded animal and the condition of the carcass, as 

summarized in this table. 
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CARCASS CONDITION CODE

2/3 4/5

Full 

Accessibility

(or Facility 

Processing)

• Full Necropsy (ideally in 

laboratory)

• Complete Sampling

• Early Code 4: Minimal necropsy 

• Limited Sampling 

o External PAH

o Internal Limited, life history 

samples

Limited 

Accessibility • Limited Necropsy 

• Limited Sampling 

o External PAH

o Internal Limited, if possible, 

including life history samples

• Early Code 4: Minimal necropsy, if 

possible 

• Limited Sampling 

o External PAH

o Internal Limited, if possible, 

including life history samples

Minimal 

Accessibility • Minimal Necropsy 

• Limited/Minimal Sampling 

o External PAH

o Internal Limited, if possible, 

including life history samples

• No necropsy

• Minimal Sampling 

o External PAH

o Life History samples, if possible
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Chapter 8 - Care & Processing Group: 

Care Strike Team

Introduction and Goals

Live animals that are affected by petroleum must usually go through an extensive rehabilitation 

process to allow them to return to normal function. Typically this involves their capture from the 

environment and transport to a specially-prepared facility where they can be examined, stabilized, 

cleaned of oil, provided medical attention, given time and support to allow them to return to normal 

health, and then eventually released back into a clean environment. This rehabilitative care, for the 

purposes of oil spill response, is labeled as “Care”.

The rehabilitation of oiled pinnipeds and cetaceans is a very labor- and resource-intensive operation. 

If at all possible, facilities should be in place and ready to care for the species at risk at the onset of a 

spill, as the development of temporary sites during an emergency is difficult without significant prior 

preparation. Therefore, the use of existing marine mammal care centers within the appropriate 

Regional stranding network will always be prioritized as a key response decision, with the NMFS 

Regional Stranding Coordinator making choices as to which facilities should play what roles, in 

consultation with the MMHSRP Coordinator(s) in Silver Spring, MD, and the Wildlife Branch 

Director. If the facilities available do not have oil spill-specific equipment and supplies pre-staged 

and available (which is the most likely case), each will be improved and supplemented as a response 

cost. All facilities will also be managed by organizations with the appropriate Stranding Agreements 

to either hold live mammals or collect samples/necropsy dead animals. 

Facilities to be used during oil spill responses can have one of a number of different roles depending 

on their capacity, infrastructure, availability, closeness to the spill, and/or other factors. These 

facilities are designated as one of the following categories (with some facilities having the ability to 

meet multiple categories based on response needs):

• Primary Care: These facilities have the ability to receive live oiled marine mammals, conduct 

processing and intake procedures, clean them appropriately (and dispose of the oily waste water 

in a safe and legal manner), and hold them post-wash until they are cleared for release. These are 

typically larger facilities with full indoor and outdoor holding areas, cleaning space to de-oil 

mammals, the ability to zone the facility into “hot” and “cold” zones, and the necessary 

infrastructure (HVAC, water systems) to support spill operations.

• Secondary Care: These facilities do not have the ability (or interest) in receiving oiled animals (or 

to de-oil mammals) but could hold cleaned or non-externally oiled mammals for extended 

periods of time to allow for them to return to normal function. Often, zoos/aquaria can fill 

these roles if off-exhibit holding is available.

• Stabilization: These facilities have the ability to temporarily hold live oiled marine mammals and 

provide initial “first aid” before moving on to a Primary Care Center. Often, these are smaller 

facilities lacking sizable outdoor space and/or washing infrastructure but have the ability to hold 

oiled mammals within a “hot” zone. Alternatively, in cases where multiple facilities are necessary 
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(e.g., Tier 3 response), these may be larger facilities physically located closer to the spill area that 

are determined to be better used in this capacity than as a Primary Care Center.

• Processing: These facilities have the capacity to fully process/necropsy dead mammals 

(following appropriate protocols and sample storage requirements needed for evidentiary 

purposes). They may not have the ability or authorization to care for live animals, or it may be a 

strategic decision to use them for this purpose alone.

Due to the extensive nature of the care of oiled marine mammals (or, for that matter, the general 

rehabilitation of marine mammals), the Care Strike Team has been divided into many discrete 

components roughly translating to areas within a Primary Care Facility. These functional Areas are 

designated Intake, Pre-Wash Care, Cleaning, Post-Wash Care, Support and Veterinary Care, each of 

which contains a Coordinator, staff and volunteers (if needed). For smaller responses (Tier 1 and 2), 

these Areas may be collapsed into fewer functional elements (see Tiered Response above) but the 

duties and responsibilities as detailed in the following sections must be accomplished. The following 

information will provide a broad overview to the shared elements of each of these functional areas 

(Personnel, Safety and Documentation), but the specific procedures, as well as any specific 

requirements for that area, will be detailed in the following chapters. 

Personnel

• Care & Processing Group Supervisor (CPGS) - This position is responsible for coordinating 

the overall processing and rehabilitation resources and capabilities of the Wildlife Branch in 

order to provide optimum care and documentation of affected wildlife, including oversight and 

management of the Care and Processing Strike Teams (see Figure 16). Specifically as they relate 

to the Care Strike Team, the CPGS’s duties 

include call-out of personnel, activation of 

Primary Care or other Center(s) that have 

the capacity to receive and care for marine 

mammals, oversight of marine mammal care

protocol(s), regular reporting of pertinent 

information (animal status while in care) to 

the Wildlife Branch Director, and 

implementation of the demobilization plan. 

The CPGS must have oil spill and crisis 

management training/experience; extensive 

background in all aspects of oiled mammal

care, rehabilitation and response, a full 

understanding of the Incident Command 

System.

• Care Strike Team Leader(s) (Care STL) -

The Care STL(s), under the direction of the 

CPGS, is/are responsible for overseeing the 

rehabilitation of all live marine mammals

collected during the oil spill. In a situation 

where multiple Primary Care Centers are 

activated, each would have a STL assigned to 

manage that specific facility’s operations. 

Duties include assisting the CPGS to 

Figure 16: Care Strike Team Organizational Chart
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determine current and future facility and rehabilitation needs, oversight of Area Coordinator(s)

to ensure appropriate care, reviewing animal care protocols (and approving changes necessary to 

address spill-specific issues), ensuring the full recording of essential medical information

detailing the triage, stabilization, treatment, and rehabilitation of oiled animals, and timely 

delivery of animal care information (numbers, species, and status of animals in care) to the 

CPGS. The Care STL must have oil spill and crisis management training/experience; extensive 

background in all aspects of oiled mammal care, rehabilitation and response, and a full 

understanding of the Incident Command System. In small-scale responses, this position may be 

filled directly by the CPG Supervisor.

• Volunteer Coordinator: Under direction of the DWBD and/or the CPGS, this position 

organizes and schedules volunteers on a daily basis for all Groups and/or functional areas. 

During smaller responses with a single facility, this position may be housed at the Primary Care 

Facility (and staffed by that facility’s Volunteer coordinator) and managed by the CPGS if 

volunteers are not needed/approved for field deployment. Specific duties include scheduling 

and conducting orientations and safety trainings as needed; managing and reporting volunteer 

issues and problems as necessary; reporting pertinent volunteer-related issues up the chain of 

command; and addressing logistical needs for volunteers (e.g. volunteer meals). The Volunteer 

Coordinator should have oil spill and crisis management experience, the ability to work with a 

wide variety of individuals and organizations in a positive proactive manner, and have a working 

knowledge of marine mammal rehabilitation practices and the Incident Command system.

• Facilities Coordinator - Under direction of the CPGS, this position assures functionality of 

facilities and response equipment during oil spill events. Specific duties include working with the 

CPGS and Care STL to assess the capabilities of selected facilities to ensure proposed activities 

can be accomplished, making recommendations as to what improvements are necessary to 

conduct safe and effective operations at selected facilities, acquiring and installing needed 

upgrades to facility infrastructure (either permanent or temporary), and continually monitoring 

facility to identify and repair failing equipment and to make recommendations on necessary 

additional improvements. The Facilities Coordinator should have experience working with 

wildlife rehabilitation facilities in general (and marine mammal facilities specifically), capabilities 

to assess and modify indoor and outdoor machinery as needed, and have a working knowledge 

of oil spill response, marine mammal rehabilitation practices and the Incident Command system.

• Care Area (Intake, Pre-Wash, Cleaning, Post-Wash, Support) Coordinator(s) - Care Area 

Coordinators, under the direction of the Care STL, are responsible for overseeing care of oilaffected mammals within specific areas of an oiled wildlife response facility (e.g., intake, prewash care, cleaning, and post-wash care) or overseeing general support for wildlife rehabilitation 

activities. Specific duties include assisting the Care STL to determine rehabilitation/support

needs within their area, establishment and maintenance of equipment and supplies necessary to 

provide specific care following Guidelines, communication with Area Coordinators in adjacent 

sections to ensure animals move through the system smoothly, provision of appropriate 

oversight of Staff and Volunteers to ensure Guidelines are followed and animals receive 

appropriate care, and coordination with Staff Coordinators (i.e., Volunteer, Facility) to make 

sure required resource requests are filled. The Area Coordinator should have oil spill and crisis 

management experience, must have extensive background in marine mammal wildlife care, 

rehabilitation and response, and a working understanding of the Incident Command system. In 

small-scale responses, Care Staff may fill these positions.

• Veterinary Coordinator – Under direction of the Care STL, the Veterinary Coordinator leads a 

team of veterinarians and animal health technicians (if needed) to conduct assessments and 
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procedures where trained medical intervention is required (e.g., anesthesia for intake exams). 

This position must be filled by a licensed veterinarians within the state where the oil spill 

occurred, or covered under an agreement that allow them to practice medicine while in that state

(e.g., through a University appointment or emergency response article), or by a Federal 

veterinarian. The Veterinary Coordinator must have extensive experience, background and 

understanding of the treatment and rehabilitation of marine mammals (ideally oiled marine 

mammals), oil spill and crisis management experience, and have a working knowledge of the

Incident Command system.

• Care (Intake, Pre-Wash, Cleaning, Post-Wash, Support, Veterinary) Staff - Care staff assist 

the appropriate Area Coordinator with the housing, washing, rinsing, nutrition, veterinary care, 

and general rehabilitation of marine mammals during a spill event. Specifically, Care staff must 

have experience and training in the handling and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife; if not, they 

should be classified as volunteers until that experience has been obtained. The Veterinary area 

must be staffed by licensed veterinarians within the state where the oil spill occurred, or covered 

under an agreement that allow them to practice medicine while in that state (e.g., through a 

University appointment), but also can be staffed by Registered Veterinary Technician where 

applicable.

Safety

Safety practices, including appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), for Care staff will be 

dictated by the Area where they will be working. In many instances, facility personnel may only be 

required to attend a 4-hour Hazard Communication (HAZCOM) training specific to the risks 

associated with oiled wildlife processing and care, as the oil they will be exposed to is present only 

on the animal and not within the environment. The final determination of the safety training 

requirement will come from the Safety Officer, and it may include a 24-hour HAZWOPER training 

(Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response) in addition to site-specific training. In 

general, following these steps can maximize safe practices:

• Maintain the level of OSHA health and safety certification required by the Safety Officer for oil 

spill response, which ensures that facility staff have been advised of the safety hazards associated 

with spill response and the many ways in which hazards can be minimized and safety maximized;

• Prior to initial deployment and/or as soon as it is available, all staff must read and sign the Site 

Safety Plan prepared for the spill event by the Safety Officer, which ensures that personnel are

aware of any specific safety issues he/she may face in responding to that particular spill;

• Facility staff must wear proper personal protective equipment (PPE), as determined by the 

Safety Officer, at all times when handling live and dead animals. Proper PPE requirements will 

be dictated by their primary location of operations. Personnel conducting rehabilitation within 

“hot” (or Exclusion) zone (e.g., Intake, Pre-Wash) may be required to wear safety glasses or 

goggles, Tyvek coveralls, nitrile or vinyl gloves, heavy outer gloves, and skid-resistant boots. For 

personnel in “warm” (or Transition) zones (e.g., Cleaning, Support), PPE requirements may 

exchange Tyvek coveralls for impermeable aprons, rain slickers, or other more breathable items. 

For personnel in “cold” (or Support) zones, PPE requirements may be reduced to heavy gloves, 

rain slickers, and skid-resistant boots. Additional PPE and safety plans may be required at the 

discretion of the Safety Officer or other staff.

• Handling live marine mammals should be done with care as they may carry known and unknown 

infectious agents (zoonoses). Precautions must be taken to avoid skin puncture or exposure to 

open wounds, cleaning of exposure sites immediately, and letting your physician know that you 

work with wildlife.
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• All injuries must be reported to the Recovery Group Supervisor, who will complete an injury 

report and communicate with the Wildlife Branch Director.

Documentation

• Intake Form: For live animals, the Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form (Appendix 1-H) must be 

completed for each animal. This form contains important questions about the extent of oiling, 

location and depth of oiling, as well as a place for documenting physical examination findings. 

For evidence documentation, a photo of the animal and oil sample must be taken either during 

Processing or during Intake (depending on the protocols that work the best within the facility). 

During rehabilitation, each animal must have individual records documenting the treatment and 

care of that animal. Authorization for cleaning and later release must be documented on the 

Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form and signed by the authorizing authority (i.e. attending 

veterinarian).

• Individual Animal Record: The ongoing treatments prescribed, results of examinations 

performed, issues that arise in care, feedings, and diagnostic tests/findings on each live marine 

mammal must be recorded within the animal record. These Guidelines have a standard Daily 

Progress Form (Appendix 1-I) that can be used to record these findings, but the rehabilitation 

facility’s standard forms or electronic records system for stranded marine mammals can also be 

used provided that all information is clearly documented and assigned to the specific animal.

General Care Issues

• Mortalities/Euthanasia: All animals that die during an oil spill response must have disposition 

information recorded on their individual animal record as well as on the Live Marine Mammal 

Data Log (Appendix 1-D) and a NMFS Rehabilitation Disposition form. These deaths may be 

“natural” (e.g., unassisted) or, under certain circumstances, an oiled animal may need to be 

humanely euthanized in order to alleviate suffering. Euthanasia is appropriate for animals with 

injuries that will render them unable to survive in the wild or unsuitable for use in captivity. For 

each spill where marine mammal recovery and rehabilitation is undertaken, the Wildlife Branch

must prepare a written euthanasia plan in consultation with the appropriate trustee 

representative (see Appendix 7). The carcass should be refrigerated or kept on ice until a 

necropsy is performed. If a necropsy cannot be performed within 24 hours of death, the carcass 

needs to be frozen. Protocols and forms for the collection of samples and tissues from dead 

animals are provided in Appendices 1-J, 4 and 9.
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Chapter 9 – Care Strike Team: 

Intake Area

Introduction and Goals

Intake is the initial detailed physical examination and medical evaluation of live oiled animals that 

occurs immediately following Processing at the Primary Care Center. The examiners collect health 

data and create an initial treatment plan based on those findings. During intake, the examiner and 

medical staff triage animals based on factors including species status (e.g. threatened, endangered, of 

special concern), age class, historical success of that species/age class in rehabilitation, medical status 

(e.g. severe wounds, fractures), and characteristics of the spill response (e.g. size, caseload, available 

resources, product spilled). In short, “Intake” implies examination in a more traditional sense for a 

rehabilitation facility, while “Processing” entails legal evidence collection.

The intake portion of the facility should be located immediately adjacent to where animals will be 

dropped off by transport personnel. Ideally, this area will be large enough so that live animal 

processing can take place either immediately preceding intake or concurrently. If dead animal 

processing is occurring at the same facility, it should be near to intake as well for ease of processing 

personnel, for animal drop-off, and should live animals require euthanasia after initial intake 

examination. As this section will be receiving live oiled animals, it should be zoned as a “hot” (or 

Exclusion) zone, therefore “donning” and “doffing” areas for PPE should be incorporated as part 

of it. Appropriate lighting (for examinations) and heating/ventilation (for human and animal safety) 

should be considered. 

Intake Procedures

While undertaking the intake of oiled marine mammals, it is important to be safe, perform a 

thorough evaluation, collect all samples and data, and minimize the animal handling time. All 

personnel performing intake procedures should work in teams of at least two (handler, examiner) or 

three (handler, examiner, recorder) in order to perform the intake in an efficient manner. For larger 

animals, more than one handler may be required. Physical restraint devices such as squeeze cages, 

herding boards, or restraint boxes may be needed for medium-sized pinnipeds, and some larger 

animals may require chemical restraint for safe handling and examination. A brief physical 

examination is performed upon admission of each individual oiled animal (see below) or, in the case 

of a late night admission, as soon as possible during the next operational period. A veterinarian or 

animal care specialist should conduct the examination and treat any conditions that are considered to 

be life threatening. The capture, transport, and intake process is extremely stressful and an oiled 

animal’s condition may be very unstable. The intake area should be as dark and quiet as is practical 

and animals must be monitored closely during the examination and intake process. If an animal’s 

condition deteriorates and a veterinarian is not participating in the examination, the examiner should 

seek veterinary advice immediately. 

Physical Examination

The results of the initial examination must be fully documented on the Intake Form (Appendix 1-

H). This record contains important questions about the extent, location and depth of oiling, as well 

as a place for documenting physical examination findings, and can be used as a general guide for 

conducting the examination. The Live Animal Log may contain some of this information gleaned 
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from the Recovery and Processing teams; if so, transcribe these data over to the Intake Form. In 

addition to the Intake Form, the rehabilitation facility’s standard forms for stranded marine 

mammals can be used to record physical exam findings, laboratory values, treatments, and feedings, 

provided that all information is clearly documented and assigned to the specific animal. The extent 

of the physical examination will depend on the tractability of the animal, be it a species or size that 

allows for easy manual restraint or a larger more aggressive animal that may or may not require 

chemical restraint.

Each organization and stranding network will have different initial examination protocols and 

procedures that are used for standard marine mammal strandings. The purpose of these Guidelines 

is not to supplant existing procedures, but to ensure that key oil-related data (including findings that 

may be consistent with oil exposure) are collected in a systematic fashion. Elements that must be 

evaluated (or attempted to be examined) in an oil spill situation include the following:

• Samples: The Intake team should confirm that the Processing team has collected oil samples and 

photos; if not, these should be collected and indicated on the Intake form. Similarly, all animals 

must be tagged or marked for individual identification if not already done during Processing (see 

Animal Identification section in Processing section above).

• Oiling Evaluation: The degree and extent of oiling should be determined on each animal. Signs 

of oiling (oil visible, skin burns or smell of oil), the overall percentage of the animal oiled, the 

area where oil is found, and depth of oiling (deep = to the skin; surface = does not penetrate to 

the skin) should be noted on the record. For cetaceans, all oiling should be considered surface.

• Demographics: Animals need to be identified to species, age class (if possible) and sex (if 

possible), if not already done by Processing.

• Attitude: Assess activity level and alertness (BAR = bright, alert & responsive; QAR = quiet but 

alert & responsive). This can be done by observing the animal in the transport cage prior to 

handling (to evaluate locomotion and central nervous system status) or during restraint for 

examination.

• Body Condition: Assess body condition (normal, thin, emaciated) and, whenever logistically 

feasible, animals are also to be weighed.

• Morphometrics: Standard measurements should be taken on all mammals. For mammals that are 

not sedated or anesthetized, standard length may be all that can be safely recorded. On cetaceans 

and sedated or adequately restrained pinnipeds, standard length and axillary girth should be 

recorded at a minimum.

• Temperature: In sedated or restrained pinnipeds, body temperatures should be measured with an 

electronic thermometer with a flexible thermistor probe inserted into the rectum. Ideally, 

standard thermometers are not used, as they do not accurately measure core temperatures. 

Normal core temperature for most pinnipeds ranges from 98-102 °F (Dierauf and Gulland 

2001). If the use of a thermometer is not possible, feel the flippers (e.g., icy cold or dry and hot) 

and observe the animal’s behavior (e.g., shivering, agitation) in order to evaluate abnormally high 

or low body temperature.

• Hydration Status: Assess percent dehydration. Most stranded animals are at least slightly 

dehydrated (Mild <5%, demonstrated by decreased tear production and subdued behavior). 

More severely dehydrated animals (Moderate = 5-10%, demonstrated by lack of tear production, 

thick ocular mucus, “sunken” or crusty eyes, dry mucous membranes, skin tenting in otariids, 

curling of the vibrissae in phocids, and lethargic or depressed behavior) may need to be treated 
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with fluids prior to continuing the examination and intake procedures; however, it is preferable 

to obtain blood samples prior to hydration treatments.

• Physical Examination: A complete whole body examination should be conducted. All organ 

systems (particularly those that may be affected from oil exposure) should be assessed to the 

extent possible based on the ability to restrain the animal. In additional to standard physical 

exam procedures for stranded animals, this exam should include the following procedures 

specific to oil exposure and/or response-related injuries: 

o Neurologic – Continue neurologic exam started during Alertness evaluation.

o Head/Mouth – Due to the risk of being bitten, a thorough oral exam is possible only in 

anesthetized, comatose, or small pinnipeds, but a visual inspection of the oral cavity may be

possible opportunistically (e.g., during vocalization). Oral exams on cetaceans should be 

conducted to the extent possible, given the animal size and activity level. Look for any 

lesions, oiling, and determine mucus membrane color.

o Eyes/Ears - Check for irritated conjunctiva and apparent lesions to the cornea. Depending 

on restraint, staining of cornea to determine chemical damage may be warranted.

o Heart/Lungs – Note any asculted lung sounds, increased respiratory effort or apparent 

lesions. In cetaceans, note any abnormalities seen within the blowhole.

o Gastrointestinal – Palpate the abdomen gently to detect masses, pregnancy, or fluid 

accumulation and observe the urogenital area for urine, feces, or abnormal discharges. 

o Musculoskeletal – Palpate the neck and thorax for evidence of subcutaneous emphysema and 

the musculoskeletal system for fractures, wounds, or swellings. Subcutaneous emphysema 

may be an indicator of severe pulmonary damage.

o Integument – Check the skin for cuts, abrasions or evidence of human interaction (e.g., boat 

strike, net or line marks).

At the conclusion of the intake exam, the Intake Form must be signed by the examiner.

Routine Blood Sampling

Following the general examination, as soon as the animal’s condition permits, blood samples should 

be drawn for hematology (collected in an EDTA anticoagulant, lavender-top tube; LTT) and 

chemistry panels (collected in a serum separator tube; SST, or red-top tube; RTT) and serum 

banking. In phocids (e.g., harbor seals, elephant seals), blood is generally drawn from the epidural 

sinus or ventral (plantar) interdigital veins (at the apex of the web between the inner digits) of the 

hind flippers. In otariids (sea lions and fur seals), the caudal gluteal vein, plantar network (dorsal or 

ventral surface of the hind flipper just medial to the lateral digit or just lateral to the medial digit), or 

brachial vein are used for blood collection. In cetaceans, blood is typically drawn from the central or 

lateral tail veins (caudal vascular bundle on the flukes), dorsal fin vein or pectoral flipper vein. Blood 

samples should generally be collected at least three times during the rehabilitation process: on 

admission/intake, immediately prior to washing, and prior to release. However, the collection on 

wash or release may not be necessary if performed within 48 hours of previous blood sampling or at 

the discretion of the response veterinarian. At these times, baseline blood work should include a 

complete blood count and standard serum chemistry tests. For more details on blood collection 

(including necessary supplies) and normal blood values for marine mammal species, please see 

(Bossart et al., 2001).

Standard Blood Tests

When possible, standard blood tests should be performed at the Primary Care Facility, as this will provide 

the most timely and interpretable results. If not possible, fee for service laboratories may be used. 
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Specific methodology will be dependent on the equipment available; however, the following are standard 

practices for most diagnostic equipment:

• Complete Blood Cell (CBC): A standard CBC will include the following - White cell blood 

count, red cell blood count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean 

corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), a 

differential cell count, platelet and reticulocyte counts. One full lavender-top tube (EDTA) (1 or 

3 ml) is taken and refrigerated until analysis. 

• Chemistry Profile: Standard serum chemistry profiles will/should include albumin, alkaline 

phosphatase, bicarbonate, bilirubin (total and direct), BUN, calcium, chloride, cholesterol, CK, 

creatinine, globulin, glucose, phosphorus, potassium, total protein, sodium, AST (SGOT), ALT 

(SGPT), GGT, and ratios of albumin:globulin, BUN:creatinine, and sodium:potassium. Blood 

should be placed in a serum separator tube or red top tube, allowed to clot, centrifuged within 

two hours of collection, and refrigerated prior to analysis. Excess serum can be saved and 

banked (frozen) at the rehabilitation facility. 

Special Biomedical Sampling Protocols

At times, additional protocols may be used that require additional blood samples for other tests (e.g., 

PAH estimation, immune function assays, serum protein electrophoresis, serological tests for 

infectious diseases). If blood is to be collected for PAH analyses, the following specialized sampling 

procedure must be followed: 

• Option 1 (Preferred): Collect blood using a Vacutainer needle/holder system into a glass RTT

with no gel (e.g., no anticoagulant). Remove the Vacutainer top and pour the whole blood into a 

20 ml I-Chem bottle for freezing. Be careful not to touch the interior of the I-Chem bottle or lid 

or blood.

• Option 2 (Acceptable): Collect blood using a plastic syringe or extension set, and immediately 

transfer it into a 20 ml I-Chem bottle for freezing. Be careful not to touch the interior of the IChem bottle or lid or blood. Note on the Intake Form that a plastic syringe was used for blood 

collection. If you are using an I-Chem bottle with a septa lid (one that allows a needle to be 

inserted through it), do not insert the needle through the lid. Instead, carefully remove the lid and 

discharge the syringe directly into the glass bottle. Note that if this method is to be used, set 

aside a designated box of syringes with a single lot number for blood collection.

Keep an unused needle/holder systems and empty RTT as a reference to be submitted when 

frozen samples are shipped for analysis. If more than one lot number of needle/holder systems or 

RTTs are used during a response, note which samples were collected from each lot, and keep a 

reference for each.

Other biomedical samples (e.g., urine sample, fecal sample, microbiological swab, blubber biopsy) 

may also be collected at the discretion of the response veterinarian based on the medical needs of 

the patient. Remember if the samples are collected for health diagnostic purposes only, they may be 

sent to a consulting diagnostic lab without a Chain of Custody form. However, if ancillary samples 

are collected for exposure determination, assessment of endemic diseases, or other non-point of care 

reasons, they must be sent following CoC protocols.
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Chapter 10 – Care Strike Team: 

Pre-Wash Care Area

Introduction and Goals

The goal of Pre-Wash Care is to ensure that oiled marine mammals are physiologically stable enough 

to endure the stress of washing. It is anticipated that many marine mammals will be deemed stable 

enough to be washed immediately after the intake examination is performed, as many animals will be

“healthy” aside from the presence of oil on their skin/coat. In fact, for those animals that must be 

sedated or anesthetized for processing and intake procedures, cleaning immediately after intake is 

the preferred option, as it reduces the number of procedures that must be done. However, some 

animals may require more extensive pre-wash care to be able to withstand the stress of the cleaning 

process, as they will be suffering nutritional compromise, dehydration, hypothermia, and the stress 

of capture, transport, and handling. Initial care in this area is focused on addressing 

thermoregulatory problems, rehydration, and feeding so animals are no longer in a negative 

metabolic balance. The washing procedure is very stressful; therefore, prior to the procedure, the 

animal needs to have regained strength. For these mammals, a treatment plan should be developed 

immediately following intake by the Veterinary team, which will include any initial therapy, such as 

supportive fluids and medications, and biomedical criteria (including blood values and physical 

condition) will be used to track progress and determine when the mammal is ready for cleaning. 

The Pre-Wash Care area of the facility should be immediately adjacent to the Intake area for ease of 

animal/data hand-off, as well as for zoning (as Pre-Wash Care is also a “hot” or Exclusion zone, 

thus full PPE and “donning”/ “doffing” areas must be planned for). Depending on the species 

collected, this area may either be outdoors (e.g., pools for cetaceans, dry pens for larger pinnipeds) 

or indoors (e.g., wall caging or pens for smaller pinnipeds); however, the area should be relatively 

quiet, free of extraneous stressors and (if possible) able to be temperature controlled. Similar to the 

Intake area, ventilation should be maximized, as fumes from oil-exposed animals will accumulate.

Within this area, there must be close communication between Intake, Pre-Wash, Cleaning and 

Veterinary teams, as animals may be moving to different areas on different timetables depending on 

the animal’s status.

Pre-Wash Care Procedures

Marine mammal rehabilitation organizations involved in oil spill response likely have general 

rehabilitation policies, practices, and protocols that they follow for non-oiled mammal care. The 

goals of these guidelines are not to replace these standardized practices but to augment them based 

on specific information related to the effects of oiling on marine mammals, as well as act as guidance 

on the most important aspects of marine mammal rehabilitation to emphasize when dealing with 

oiled animals. For most oil spill incidents where a single stranding network member is acting as a 

Primary Care Facility, those protocols should be followed if agreed upon by the Response 

Veterinarian and Care Strike Team Leader/Care & Processing Group Supervisor. In situations 

where multiple Facilities are activated and/or multiple stranding network members are involved, the 

Care & Processing Group Supervisor (with assistance from the veterinarians/Strike Team Leaders 

from each organization) should take steps to standardize practices wherever possible to decrease 

confusion should personnel or animals be shifted between operations.
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Fluid Therapy

Total fluid requirements (maintenance fluids plus correction of fluid deficits) should be determined 

by the attending veterinarian, based on an evaluation of blood work, concurrent fluid losses, and 

assessment of the animal’s condition. All oiled marine mammals are assumed to be at least 5%

dehydrated if captured and transferred to a Primary Care facility. This amount should be added to 

the animal’s daily maintenance fluid requirement (at least 40 ml/kg/day) and administered within the 

first 24 hours if possible. The route of fluid administration will depend on the tractability of the 

mammal, the size of the animal (as most adult animals are too large to be given fluids orally), the 

overall fluid requirement, and the health status of the animal in question. If possible, isotonic fluids 

should be administered to animals orally at a rate of 10-20 ml/kg per tubing. Animals that are 

chemically immobilized for intake procedures or are weak and obtunded should not be given oral 

fluids; subcutaneous or intraperitoneal fluids (e.g., lactated Ringer’s solution), may be administered 

instead at 20-40 ml/kg. Severely depressed animals may require intravenous fluid administration and 

other medication in addition to isotonic fluids. If ingestion of highly volatile oil is suspected (e.g., fur 

seals during grooming, neonates during nursing, feeding on oiled prey), an activated charcoal (e.g., 

Toxiban) slurry at 6ml/kg MAY be administered via a stomach tube if oral fluids are being 

administered or just prior to anesthetic reversal (Williams and Sawyer, 1995). However, this 

treatment has not been proved to help adsorb ingested oil, and the risks associated with passing a 

stomach tube (and possible gastric reflux and aspiration) in obtunded or anesthetized animals must 

be weighed against the risks associated with continued exposure to ingested petroleum.

Nutritive Therapy

The dietary requirements of stranded marine mammals are generally grouped into two categories 

according to age and nutritional needs: Unweaned pups and weaned animals. Pups need special 

dietary formulas and feeding regimes based on species and age while free-feeding animals are 

generally fed a diet of good quality fish such as herring, smelt, anchovies, sardines and/or capelin 

(exact diet may vary depending upon what is commercially available and not cost prohibitive). 

Marine mammals also usually need to receive a supplemental multivitamin, vitamin E, and salt 

tablets (if appropriate) with amounts based on species and weight. Monitoring fecal production and 

hydration status is especially important when beginning any formula, switching diets, or weaning 

animals. Recommended diets change with continued research and experience and stranding network 

participants should collaborate in the development of dietary protocols for each species and facility, 

taking advantage of the lessons learned. More information can be obtained on marine mammal 

nutrition and energetics from (Worthy, 2001), and hand-rearing and artificial milk formulas from 

(Townsend and Gage, 2001).

Temperature Therapy

Due to the potential for hypo- and/or hyperthermia in oiled marine mammals, ongoing monitoring 

of body temperature (and adjustment of ambient conditions) should be done for all animals in care. 

Typically, behavioral observations will suffice for determining if animals are too cold (e.g., shivering, 

listless, floating, cold flippers) or too hot (e.g., panting, open-mouth breathing, hot flippers). For 

pinnipeds, pens should be established that have a normal ambient temperature but allow for a 

localized gradient of heat within the pen. Commercial electric livestock warming pads or ceramic 

heaters (located at a distance above the pen to ensure burning of tissues and combustibles within the 

pen do not occur) can be used very effectively to provide warmth, while shallow pans of water 

and/or ice, misters, or running water can provide cooling as needed. Animals should be monitored 

regularly to ensure they do not “flip” from hypo- to hyperthermia or vice versa. Temperature in 
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cetaceans may be impossible to control, though changing the temperature of pool water and/or 

holding within indoor pools where ambient temperatures can be controlled (if available) can help.

Ongoing Monitoring

During pre-wash care, the initial treatment plan developed by the Veterinary team (or Intake) should 

be followed and adjusted as needed. This will include addressing issues related to dehydration, 

thermoregulatory problems, and any significant findings from the initial exam. However, additional 

problems may arise after the original evaluation related to more chronic effects of oil (and/or 

masked by the stress of capture and transport), and should be closely looked for. These issues may 

include (but certainly are not limited to):

 Anemia

 Hypoproteinemia

 Respiratory problems

 Depression/other CNS issues

 Problems related to infectious diseases

All animals must be regularly monitored during this process via clinical observations, feeding 

observations (food consumption and/or preferences), and behavior, and should be recorded on the 

medical records. Body weight should also be monitored regularly (if possible) to determine whether 

feeding is adequate. Whenever medications are administered, the name of the drug, dose, route (oral, 

SQ, IM, IV), and time of administration should be recorded as well as the initials of the person who 

administered the medication. Medical records are viewed as potential evidence by Law Enforcement

and must be carefully and completely filled out by animal caretakers and preserved.

Pre-Wash Evaluations and Criteria

For relatively healthy individuals, repeat physical examinations of animals in Pre-Wash Care should 

be scheduled for 48 to 72 hours after intake to determine if the animal is stable enough to clean. PreWash and/or Veterinary teams should conduct a full physical examination, evaluation of alertness, 

strength and body condition, and assess blood parameters. These examinations may need to be 

conducted more or less frequently depending on the specific conditions of the animal under care, 

but should be done as soon as feasible to ensure the marine mammal can continue to progress 

through the oil spill rehabilitation process. All pertinent information from each examination 

(including results from diagnostic tests) must be recorded on individual medical records, and the 

examiner must sign the Intake Form in the appropriate section. For re-examined marine mammals, 

certain criteria must be met to ensure they are stable enough to withstand the rigors of that process. 

These criteria should include:

 Attitude: Animal should be bright, alert, and responsive;

 Blood Values: Animal should have CBC and serum chemistry values that indicate relative 

good health from a blood sample taken within 24-48 hours of the proposed wash. In 

particular, red blood cell parameters and serum protein values should be close the normal 

range for free-ranging animals of that species; and

 Physical Exam: The latest physical exam shows either a return to normal status for issues 

noted on intake (e.g., dehydration) or, at a minimum, the stabilization of those problems.

Exceptions to these criteria may be made by the Veterinary team under certain circumstances, such 

as when highly sensitive species are collected, caustic products (e.g., diesel or jet fuel) are present, or 

if the animal is deemed to be at greater risk if not moved forward in the process.
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Chapter 11 – Care Strike Team: 

Cleaning Area

Introduction and Goals

The goal of cleaning marine mammals is to remove all external contamination in order to enable the 

animal to regain normal function. This can include the ability to regain its natural waterproofing (in 

fur seals), to ambulate normally (in pinnipeds), and to decrease the risk of oil ingestion and 

absorption (in all mammals). Contaminants include the original oil product, but can also include 

feces and fish oils acquired during pre-wash care, any compounds used to break up the oil (e.g., 

chemical dispersants), and the detergent used for wash. The overall cleaning process is one that uses 

a detergent (either directly on the skin/fur or diluted in a tub of water) to remove the oil, then clean 

rinse water to remove the soap. In heavily furred mammals (e.g., fur seals), an additional drying step 

will be necessary to allow a trapped layer of air to return in the undercoat. Failure to adequately wash 

and rinse oiled mammals can lead to incomplete recovery of waterproofing.

Facility requirements to support effective cleaning of oiled marine mammals can be extensive. The 

cleaning area should be designed to accommodate the variety of species that might be cared for at 

that facility. Each wash station must have adequate space for the animals, animal handlers, and 

restraint equipment that might be necessary. Water quality and quantity must also be taken into 

account when selecting an appropriate Primary Care location. Every oiled marine mammal requires a 

large volume of temperature controlled (80-98°F) warm water for wash and rinse, the volume 

necessary directly related to how oiled the animal is and how difficult it is to remove it. For fur seals, 

water hardness and water pressure are also important for complete cleaning, with 3-5 grains of 

hardness delivered at 40-60 psi being optimal conditions for birds (Clumpner, 1990). Wastewater 

storage, containment, and removal must also meet the requirements of the municipality, city, and 

county. Lastly, the cleaning area must be designed to minimize human health issues, as slips, trips 

and falls, as well as the potential for heat exhaustion, are high in this area.

Cleaning Procedures

General

Animals approved for cleaning should not be fed immediately (e.g., within 2-4 hours) before 

beginning the process to reduce the chance of regurgitation, but should ideally receive fluids 

subcutaneously to combat dehydration. At least two or three people usually wash and rinse animals

as a team, with support personnel providing needed supplies. Communication between all members 

of the cleaning team is necessary for safe and effective washing and rinsing. Fur seals may require 

teams of four to six persons because the density of their fur requires much greater effort. Large 

animals such as elephant seals may require a washing team with three or four persons to properly 

restrain and wash the animal. Large animals, aggressive animals, and fur seals may require

sedation/anesthesia and veterinary assistance for washing and cleaning. For these animals, either 

inhalant or injectable agents may be used, dependent on the species, available drugs, time necessary 

to complete procedure, and logistical support. If sedatives are used, supplemental oxygen should be 

provided either via facemask or endotracheal tube if possible, to ensure adequate oxygenation. 

Additionally, during sedation and cleaning, core temperatures must be monitored continuously 
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because mammals can become hypothermic or hyperthermic very quickly, and bags of crushed ice 

should be readily available and placed under the animal’s neck and flippers if hyperthermia occurs. 

Recommended agents, required supplies, and recommended monitoring/support can be found in 

(Haulena and Heath, 2001) for species most likely to strand during oil spills in the US. Care should 

be taken with oil cleaning around the mouth, eyes, and nostrils.

There has been a great deal of research in oiled wildlife medicine regarding ideal cleaning agents to 

use during oil spills. While most of this work has focused on oiled birds, liquid dishwashing 

detergents have also been shown to be safe and effective for removing oil from the coats of sea 

otters and harbor seals (Davis and Hunter, 1995). In particular, Dawn dishwashing liquid has been 

proven to provide the best cleaning capabilities in oiled feathers when compared to other 

commercially available products (Miller et al., 2000). Depending on the species (see below), liquid 

dishwashing detergent is applied either directly on the animal or as a diluted solution (in water) and 

agitated manually on the skin/fur to remove the oil using gloved fingers. Soft scrub brushes, 

toothbrushes, cotton swabs, and water piks can also be helpful for removing oil in hard to clean 

areas (e.g., inside the mouth, around the eyes). It is important to be systematic when washing to 

ensure that all areas of the body are thoroughly exposed to the detergent solution.

If the oil is tarry or very weathered, “pre-treatment” of animals may be necessary to completely 

remove the petroleum product (Massey, 2006). Pre-treatment is accomplished by applying warmed 

(95-98°F) methyl soyate, methyl oleate, or vegetable oil to the affected region, and manually working 

the compound into the tarred areas for up to 30 minutes (or until the tar loosens and can be wiped 

off using an absorptive pad or towel). Tar removal is necessary for furred and non-furred marine 

mammals if the patch(es) are large, potentially interfering with thermoregulation, contribute to 

toxicity and result in clinical symptoms, or there is an ecosystem concern related to secondary 

toxicity in scavengers or predators. In other cases, tar removal is not recommended. Clipping away 

tar patches (with accompanying fur) can be done if the tar patch is small and the resulting bald patch 

would not negatively impact thermoregulation.

Fur Seals

In contrast to cetaceans and other pinnipeds, fur seals possess only a thin subcutaneous fat layer and 

utilize a thick pelage to thermally insulate them from cold ocean water (Riedman, 1990). Oiling 30% 

of a fur seal’s coat has been shown to result in a 50% increase in heat loss (Kooyman et al., 1977). 

Since they rely more heavily on their pelage, fur seals must be washed carefully and completely in a 

similar fashion to otters. Fur seals are washed with multiple applications of diluted (5%) solution of 

Dawn dishwashing detergent. Ideally, washing tables are equipped with three or four well-aerated 

nozzles dispensing temperature controlled (~98°F), softened (3-5 gr.) fresh water. The water 

temperature affects the body temperature and needs to be continually monitored and, if need be, 

adjusted according to the fur seal’s body temperature to prevent hyper or hypothermia. Four to six 

people are required per washing table, with one (with heavy gloves) specifically to hold the head if 

the fur seal is not anesthetized. The detergent is gently massaged into the oiled fur and then rinsed 

off under moderate pressure (30-40 psi) with a spray nozzle. Cleaning should consist of a wash, 

rinse, wash, rinse cycle until there is no indication of oil in the wash water and no petroleum odor 

on the fur. Depending on the degree of oiling, this cycle will usually take from 40-60 minutes. A 

final rinse with a spray nozzle with fresh, soft water under moderate pressure (30-40 psi) lasting an 

additional 40-60 minutes (until no oil is visible in the rinse water and no petroleum odor is 

detectable on the fur) is essential to thoroughly remove the detergent and restore the fur’s water 

repellency. Fur seals should then be completely dried depending on the method of restraint. If 
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sedated or anesthetized, they can initially be hand dried with dry, clean, cotton terry cloth towels, 

then dried with commercial pet dryers that deliver a high volume of temperature controlled air. If 

the fur seal is manually restrained, it can be dried by placing in a drying enclosure that is warmed 

with an industrial pet dryer blowing room temperature air (68°F). Animals in drying pens must be 

monitored for dehydration, hyperthermia, hypothermia, and alertness, as they become increasingly 

prone to hyperthermia as their hair is drying. Once dry and alert, fur seals can be returned to their 

outdoor pens, but should be monitored regularly by qualified personnel familiar with normal fur seal

behavior to ensure hypothermia post-wash due to lack of air insulation in washed fur does not 

occur.

Other Pinnipeds (Harbor Seals, Elephant Seals, Sea Lions)

Sea lions, harbor seals and elephant seals rely on their thick blubber layer for insulation, making 

them less susceptible to hypothermia when they become externally oiled. Therefore, the advantages 

of cleaning lightly oiled pinnipeds (other than fur seals) and those having discrete tar patches on 

their fur must be weighed with the potential disadvantages of restraining (manually or chemically) 

and washing the animal. Criteria when weighing these options should include the freshness of the 

product, extent of oiling, overall health of the individual, available support for the procedure, and 

whether additional diagnostics/procedures are necessary that can be coupled with the wash effort. If 

the decision is made to clean the seal/sea lion, it can be washed with liquid dishwashing detergent in 

thermal-neutral (~ 98°F) water. Soap is applied and rubbed on the fur until the oil is visibly 

removed. The detergent can be made into a uniform solution by mixing it with water at a 1:1 ratio 

prior to applying thus making it easier to work into the hair and oil. Washing pinnipeds takes 

between 10-30 minutes depending on the extent and type of oil, species and health of the animal, 

and the proficiency of the staff. An initial quick rinse can be done at the wash station and then 

completed with the animal unrestrained in its pen using a pressure nozzle. This modified rinse 

procedure decreases the duration of manual restraint. In general, rinsing should be continued until 

there is no evidence of oil or detergent in the rinse water. Most pinnipeds are placed directly into 

their outdoor pens to dry.

Cetaceans

Very little information exists regarding methods and success of removing oil from the skin of 

cetaceans, as few documented cases during spills have occurred. As the epidermis of cetaceans is 

extremely thick, it is largely considered a barrier to the potential deleterious compounds found in oil 

(Geraci, 1990); therefore, lightly oiled animals will not be captured specifically for cleaning. If a live 

cetacean is deemed in need of rehabilitation for other reasons, however, cleaning of the skin should 

occur. Cleaning should be done in a similar fashion to non-fur seal pinnipeds, with a 1:1 liquid 

dishwashing detergent – water solution poured directly onto the skin and manually rubbed to 

remove the compound. Care should be taken with oil cleaning around the mouth, eyes, and 

blowhole. For stranded cetaceans that are candidates for immediate release (e.g., otherwise healthy, 

presents no apparent risks to population, social requirements can be met, environment is clean and 

within the animals natural range), beach cleaning of oil can be considered on a case-by-case basis. 

Portable decontamination booms, plastic sheeting, and sumps to collect wastewater could possibly 

be used to allow the effective cleaning of the animal without the need for transportation to a 

rehabilitation facility. However, approval from the Wildlife Branch Director, close coordination 

from cleanup personnel, and the availability of PPE and supplies to allow this to occur in a safe 

manner would be necessary to attempt this task.
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Common Problems

In certain instances, cleaning staff may experience problems in completely removing contaminants 

from oiled animals. These issues may arise during the wash/rinse, or may be noticed after the 

cleaning process has occurred. Some of the more common issues (and their causes) are as follows:

 Oil is not coming off with Dawn

o Pretreatment with canola oil, olive oil, or methyl oleate is required.

 The animal’s coat is not clean

o The animal may not have been washed or rinsed adequately. In either case, the 

animal may need to be re-washed or re-rinsed.

o The holding pool is not clean. Check whether the water is turbid or if there is fish oil 

or debris floating on the pool surface. Water flow may need to be increased or pool

drained and cleaned.

 The wash or rinse water is too hard and mineral deposits are forming on the fur.

o Water hardness should be rechecked to make sure it is 3-5 grains.
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Chapter 12 – Care Strike Team: PostWash Care Area

Introduction and Goals

The goal of Post-Wash Care (or “Pre-Release Conditioning”) is to allow animals the time and 

support to regain normal physiological and behavioral function in anticipation for release back into 

the wild. Specific criteria must be met before marine mammals can be released; these have been 

developed to increase the likelihood that animals are healthy, in good body condition, have 

appropriate exercise tolerance, and have the ability to perform the full range of behaviors required 

for survival in the wild. For all intents and purposes, Post-Wash Care closely models the policies and 

practices of general marine mammal rehabilitation.

Facility requirements for post-wash care relate directly to the species needing rehabilitation. Pools or 

pens with access to water that are safe and appropriate for the animals to be held are necessary. All 

criteria laid out in the Policies and Best Practices for Marine Mammal Response, Rehabilitation and 

Release (Gage, 2009) should be closely adhered to. This being said, this document does provide for 

the case of emergency response as follows:

“During multiple or unusual stranding situations such as hazardous waste spills, catastrophic 

weather events, toxic algal blooms, or other events leading to unusually high morbidity, 

rehabilitation center personnel may need to adjust the number of animals that would be 

normally housed in each pool, bay or ocean pen. The attending veterinarian is responsible for 

assuring that the number of animals housed in one pool or pen will be appropriate based on the 

situation.”

Additional species-/taxon-specific information can be found in the appropriate chapters of Dierauf 

and Gulland (2001).

Post-Wash Procedures

General

Care of animals in the post-wash area will mimic that of general marine mammal rehabilitation, with 

appropriate fluid and nutritional support, medical treatments, diagnostic procedures, and antibiotic 

therapy given as needed. Key aspects of overall animal health that can be linked to potential oil 

exposure (e.g., skin, respiratory, ocular, and/or gastrointestinal problems) should be particularly 

looked for. More chronic effects of oiling (e.g., anemia, gastrointestinal damage, organ dysfunction) 

may present themselves while in Post-Wash Care. Exposure to petroleum can also cause immune 

dysfunction, so opportunistic infections and/or pneumonias may be of concern. Fluid therapy, 

nutritive therapy, and ongoing monitoring needed in Post-Wash Care closely follow those outlined 

in Pre-Wash Care (above), with the exception that fluid deficits should not be as prevalent (unless 

fluid loss is ongoing, such as the case with diarrhea). All clinical observations, feeding observations 

(food consumption and/or preferences), and behavioral abnormalities should be noted in the 

medical records and brought to the attention of the Veterinary team. If possible, body weight should 

also be monitored repeatedly during rehabilitation and recorded; if not, assessment of body 

condition should be continued. Whenever medications are administered, the name of the drug, dose 

and route (oral, SQ, IM, IV) should be recorded, as well as the initials of the person who 
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93

administered the medication. Any notation of care or treatment administered needs to be initialed by 

the provider. 

Release

The goal in rehabilitating oiled marine mammals is to release healthy animals back into their natural 

environment. As such, certain criteria must be met prior to releasing marine mammals back into wild 

populations, and a number of tests, factors, and steps will need to be considered and conducted. 

Current recommendations are based largely on information derived from husbandry practices at 

aquaria and rehabilitation centers in the United States. NMFS and FWS have developed guidance 

and criteria for release based on optimizing the chances for survival and minimizing the risk to wild 

populations (Best Practices for Marine Mammal Stranding Response, Rehabilitation, and Release –

Standards for Release, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/health/release_criteria.pdf) (Whaley 

and Borowski, 2009). These release criteria must be evaluated throughout the animal’s rehabilitation 

during conference calls between the veterinary/ rehabilitation staff at the facility, NMFS personnel, 

and, if necessary, outside medical and behavioral experts. These criteria should be discussed prior to 

the submission of the Release Determination Recommendation letter (see below) by the Regional 

stranding network organization. Pre-release assessment for marine mammals must include the 

following steps and parameters:

• Historical Assessment: Collection of information from time of stranding to present, including 

current environmental issues, animal information (re-stranding, exposure to domestic animals, 

infectious disease exposure, human interaction).

• Developmental and Life History Assessment: Nursing status, reproductive status, body 

condition, age, social development and “ecological status”.

• Behavioral Assessment and Clearance: Breathing/swimming/diving, locomotion (pinnipeds), 

aberrant behavior, auditory/visual function, prey capture, predatory avoidance (cetaceans), and 

social factors (cetaceans).

o NOTE: Auditory evoked potential (AEP) diagnostic testing is recommended on dolphins 

undergoing rehabilitation and may be required prior to a release determination.

• Medical Assessment and Clearance: Results of diagnostic testing and treatment while in 

rehabilitation, physical exam results within 72 hours of release, and results of infectious disease 

testing prior to release.

o NOTE: Cessation of antibiotics should occur two weeks prior to release to assure that the 

animal is no longer dependent on the medication. If this is not possible, a justification for 

the need to release the animal prior to the end of the antibiotic regimen should be included 

in the medical assessment by the veterinarian.

The attending veterinarian should make a written recommendation for release or non-release to the 

Regional Administrator. If recommending release, this Release Determination Recommendation 

Letter should include a description of the marine mammal (i.e., physical condition and estimated 

age), its stranding and medical history, and a signed statement from the attending veterinarian stating 

that the marine mammal is medically and behaviorally suitable for release in accordance with the 

Best Practices for Marine Mammal Stranding Response, Rehabilitation, and Release – Standards for 

Release. The letter should include a written release plan and timeline that contains the following:

 Date and location of intended release;

 Method and duration of transport prior to release;
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 Justification of release location (e.g., reflect the natural history of their species, maximizes 

the likelihood for survival, ideally near those of the same genetic stock, little to no risk of 

becoming re-oiled);

 Justification of release timing (e.g., minimizes energetic and social demands, maximizes 

foraging success and ease of social acceptance);

 Detailed description of transport logistics, crowd control, and media coordination;

 Tagging plans (e.g., photo-identification, freeze branding, and/or flipper/dorsal fin tags);

 Post-release monitoring plan (e.g., visual observations from land, sea, or air, and/or radio or 

satellite-linked monitoring);

 Contingency plans for recovery should the release be unsuccessful; and

 Treatment, permanent care, and/or euthanasia plan if the animal is retrieved or restrands.

The NMFS Regional Administrator will review the recommendation and release plan and provide a 

signed written Letter of Concurrence or directions for alternate disposition to the stranding network

participant, who will then provide this to the Wildlife Branch Director for Unified Command 

coordination. Upon approval by the Regional Administrator and the Unified Command, the 

mammal(s) may be released, with exit photos of each marine mammal taken and the specifics of the 

release (location, time, personnel) recorded for Natural Resource Damage Assessment purposes

For those animals that do not meet release criteria, several options are available including additional 

rehabilitation, euthanasia, or placement in a permanent care facility. Placement decisions will be 

made and arrangements coordinated by the Agency (NMFS or FWS). 

Post-release monitoring

As part of the release plan, a full description of post-release monitoring methods must be provided 

before approval is acquired. Flipper/dorsal fin tags and/or freeze branding should be strongly 

considered, as this will allow for passive monitoring and identification of animals that have 

successfully completed rehabilitation. If at all possible, radio or satellite telemetry should be 

undertaken during marine mammal releases following oil exposure. This effort should focus on 

survival rates, behavior, and reproductive success following oil contamination and rehabilitation, 

thus enabling marine mammal responders to evaluate the efficacy of oiled marine mammal care. 

This being said, post-release monitoring is often not considered a response expense and must 

therefore be funded by the Regional stranding network participant, trustee agency or NRDA. 
95

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Whaley, J.E., Borowski, R. 2009. Standards for Release. In Policies and Best Practices: Marine 

Mammal Stranding Response, Rehabilitation, and Release (Silver Spring, MD, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/US Fish and Wildlife Service), p. 114 pp.

Williams, T.D., Sawyer, R.L., 1995. Physical and Chemical Restraint, In: Williams, T.M., Davis, R.W. 

(Eds.) Emergency Care and Rehabilitation of Oiled Sea Otters: A Guide for Oil Spills 

Involving Fur-Bearing Marine Mammals. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, pp. 39-44.

Winchell, J.M., Laboratory, S.F.S.C.H., 1990. Field Manual for Phocid Necropsies (specifically 

Monachus Schauinslandi). U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science 

Center.
99

Worthy, G.A.J., 2001. Nutrition and Energetics, In: Dierauf, L.A., Gulland, F.M.D. (Eds.) CRC 

Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 791-828.

Wursig, B., 1990. Cetaceans and Oil: Ecological Perspectives, In: Geraci, J.R., St. Aubin, D.J. (Eds.) 

Sea Mammals and Oil : Confronting the rRsks. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 129-166.

Yochem, P.K., Braun, R.C., Ryon, B., Baker, J.D., Antonelis, G.A. 2004. Contingency Plan for 

Hawaiian Monk Seal Unusual Mortality Events (US Department of Commerce), p. 197 pp.

Zimmerman, S.T., Gorbics, C.S., Lowry, L.F., 1995. Response activities, In: Loughlin, T.R. (Ed.) 

Marine mammals and the Exxon Valdez. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 23-45.

Zitko, V., Stenson, G., Hellou, J., 1998. Levels of organochlorine and polycyclic aromatic 

compounds in harp seal beaters (Phoca groenlandica). Sci. Total Environ. 221, 11-29.
100

Internet Resources

NOAA Fisheries, Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/

NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration

http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/

U.S. Coast Guard - Homepage

http://www.uscg.mil

U.S. Coast Guard – Documentation

https://homeport.uscg.mil/

FEMA – Emergency Management Institute

http://training.fema.gov/IS/NIMS.aspx

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency - Oil Spill Program

http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/

National Response Team

http://www.nrt.org/

National Response Center

http://www.nrc.uscg.mil

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service – Oil Spill Program

http://www.fws.gov/contaminants/Issues/OilSpill.cfm

UC Davis, Oiled Wildlife Care Network:

http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/owcn
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Appendices 

• Appendices 1: Forms

o 1-A: Search Effort Log

o 1-B: NOAA’s Level A Data Form (Front and Back)

o 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form and Subsample Form (Front, Back, and Directions)

o 1-D: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log – Live Animals (Front and Back)

o 1-E: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log - Dead Animals (Front and Back)

o 1-F: NOAA’s Photograph Log

o 1-G: Oiled Marine Mammal Evidence Log

o 1-H: Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form

o 1-I: Oiled Marine Mammal Progress Form

o 1-J: Oiled Marine Mammal Necropsy Form

• Appendix 2: Oiled Marine Mammal Photography Protocol

• Appendix 3: Oiled Marine Mammal Oil Sampling Protocol

• Appendix 4: Oiled Marine Mammal Tissue Sampling Protocol

• Appendix 5: Oiled Marine Mammal Analytical Laboratories

• Appendix 6: Oiled Wildlife Best Management Practices (BMPs)

• Appendix 7: Draft Euthanasia Protocol

• Appendix 8: Draft Supply List for Oiled Marine Mammal Response
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Appendix 1-A: Search Effort Log

Search Effort Log

Please record all beaches searched even if no animals are found. 

Spill Name: ___________________________________ Date: ___________________ 

Searchers: ________________________________________

Note: Time should include all time spent on the beach, even when backtracking. North and south 

endpoints should be GPS pts. If not, please provide a good description of the area covered. For 

collected animals, put GPS location here.

Beach Name Start 

Time

End 

Time

North/West

Extreme

(Lat/Long)

South/East

Extreme

(Lat/Long)

Total 

Distance 

Searched

Method

(by boat, foot, 

ATV, truck, 

scan)

Mammals

Collected 

Note:

(live/ dead, 

GPS, ID # )

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H
A-3

Appendix 1-B: NOAA’s Level A Data Form (Front)
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Appendix 1-B: NOAA’s Level A Data Form (Back)
A-5

Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Front)
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Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Subsample Form (Front)

SUBSAMPLE

CHAIN OF CUSTODY

RECORD

Reference Number

of original evidence:

DATE OF SUBSAMPLE: EVIDENCE/PROPERTY SUBSAMPLED BY:

ITEM NO: DESCRIPTION OF SUBSAMPLE (include Subsample reference numbers):

ITEM NO: FROM: (PRINT NAME, AGENCY) RELEASE SIGNATURE: RELEASE DATE:

DELIVERED VIA:

U.S. MAIL

IN PERSON

OTHER: TO: (PRINT NAME, AGENCY) RECEIPT SIGNATURE RECEIPT DATE:

ITEM NO: FROM: (PRINT NAME, AGENCY) RELEASE SIGNATURE: RELEASE DATE:

DELIVERED VIA:

U.S. MAIL

IN PERSON

OTHER: TO: (PRINT NAME, AGENCY) RECEIPT SIGNATURE: RECEIPT DATE:
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Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Back)
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Appendix 1-C: NOAA’s Chain of Custody Form (Directions)

Stranding Response: Guidelines for Chain of Custody and Evidence 

Handling (Draft 3.11.2011)

Introduction

Stranding responders may be asked to incorporate chain of custody (COC) and special sample and data 

handling procedures in cases or events that have potential legal implications. These guidelines are 

intended to provide instructions for common scenarios. Law enforcement from your federal or state 

agencies can assist with questions and should be consulted whenever necessary. Although the COC and 

evidence handling may seem daunting at first, the primary objectives are good record keeping and 

security, with the goal of preserving the integrity and validity of materials. These principles are good 

practices in stranding investigation regardless of the circumstances. There are two sections in these 

guidelines: chain of custody and handling of evidence. 

I. Chain of custody

Chain of custody is a written record of the origin of evidence and provides a list of people that have had 

possession of that evidence. The COC record can be used for various purposes, such as to address 

concerns as to whether items were tampered with or otherwise altered in a manner that is relevant to a 

given case. Evidentiary items that stranding responders may encounter include: carcasses, 

biological/diagnostic samples, data sheets and electronic photographic data. Generally, any material 

collected from a case should be documented under COC. If you are unsure if an item is considered to be 

evidence, be conservative and document it. The best COC record is clearly written and thoroughly 

documents the history of an evidence item, starting with the collector or initial recipient, and as it 

passes from person to person, i.e. there are no “breaks” in the chain. Anyone that takes possession of 

evidence or alters evidence (such as someone who runs an analysis on a sample or performs a necropsy)

should appear has having received that evidence on the COC record. The only exception is shipping of 

samples and couriers (e.g. FedEx delivery personnel), which is covered in a subsequent section. The COC 

passes from person to person, not facility to facility, e.g. it is not appropriate for one person within a 

facility to accept custody of an item and another person to release it. The same person that is the last 

recipient must be the person who releases the item(s). 

A COC record format has been developed for stranding response and blank forms are attached to this 

document. There are both written and electronic fill-in versions of two forms, a Primary Form and a 

Subsample Form. The Primary Form should be used to document the animal (alive or carcass) and any 

items collected in the field, such as external samples, fishing gear, field data sheets, and photographs. 

The Subsample Form is used for anything collected from items listed on the primary form, such as 

clinical samples or necropsy samples. Data sheets can be listed in either form as appropriate depending 

on when the datasheet is completed. Make sure the number of pages are indicated for each data sheet 

(see example below). Typically, an animal will have one primary form and one or more subsample forms. 

You may use the written or electronic forms, although electronic forms are preferred (for legibility 

purposes). Try to avoid combinations of written and typed entries for the descriptive fields (all except 

for the release/receipt fields). If you make a mistake, line through the error (single line) add the 

correction and initial the change. Never scratch out, erase, use white out, or otherwise obscure entries. 

This rule applies to COC records as well as any other documents, e.g. stranding forms, and is good 

scientific practice. Use a pen for all written entries, black or blue ink. Write clearly and legibly.
A-9

Who starts a Primary COC record? Ideally, it is the person who is the initial stranding responder. 

Subsample forms are started by a hospital manager, veterinarian, or person leading necropsy, i.e. 

someone primarily responsible for collecting samples/data. If an animal is collected by a member of the 

public or someone unfamiliar with COC, the person who receives the animal may initiate the COC and 

enter the relevant information in the “received from” field. Only one person initiates the COC record. 

The following are example forms to illustrate how to fill out a COC record. The first example is the 

Primary Form for a dead, stranded bottlenose dolphin.

BP Deepwater Horizon Spill Incident (MC252)

The shaded fields document any transfer of items and who released or received them. 

IMPORTANT: The first person to release any items should be the same 

person as listed in the “Seized/collected by” field at the top of the form. The 

numbers of items transferred are entered in the left column. In this simple example, 

all items were given from the initial responder, James Smith, to Allison Doe. The 

parties sign the form and the delivery method (in person) is circled. 

Case number: This number is 

assigned by law enforcement, it is left 

blank unless otherwise instructed.

Date and time of collection: Enter 

the complete date and time (use 

military format or indicate am/pm) 

Agency/affiliation: Affiliation of the 

person initiating the form.

Seized/Collected by: Person 

initiating the form. Do NOT enter 

multiple people.

Source of evidence/property:

Includes any information relevant to 

the source of evidence. “Taken from” 

generally is left blank as it applies to a 

law enforcement action. “Received 

from” is filled out if some else was the 

primary source of the item, for 

example if a member of the public 

brought in an animal or item. “Found 

at” includes the physical location and 

coordinates of the stranding.

Defendant/Company name: For the 

Northern Gulf = “BP Deepwater 

Horizon Spill Incident (MC252)”

Item number: All items are given 

sequential individual numbers. If 

possible, avoid assigning items a single 

number.

Description of evidence: Include the 

stranding identification number, any 

other identifier applied, and species.

6 Original data sheet (Level A Data – 2 pages)

BP Deepwater Horizon Spill 

Incident (MC252)
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The next action that may happen is submission of a sample for analysis. In the example above, the 

primary stranding responder, James Smith, has transferred everything to Allison Doe at a facility where 

necropsy is to be performed. Among the items were two external swabs that were collected to 

determine the identity of an unknown substance on the carcass. Allison needs to ship these samples to 

a laboratory. The original primary COC record should remain with the main evidentiary item, typically 

the live animal or the carcass. The COC is copied, and then the items are signed as released on both the 

original and copied forms. The signed copy is sent with the sample to the laboratory. A notation is then 

entered on the original COC record. This procedure is done the same for the Subsample Form, as shown 

in the next section. Here is what the bottom of the forms should look like:

Original (still at the same facility as the animal)

Copy signed for release (sent with sample and signed upon receipt)

The courier, FedEX in this example, does not sign for custody. Sealing of evidence will be covered in 

the next section. This is how the COC is split to accommodate sending items to various 

people/locations. The end result should be that the original COC has notations of where all items are or 

were sent. The copy sent out with sample now serves as the COC record for that specific sample. If the 

animal is transferred, then the original primary COC record goes with it and a copy is retained at the 

facility as the record for any samples remaining in-house. If the animal is released into wild, retained as 

a long-term captive, or if the carcass disposed of, keep the COC record with the animal’s record unless 

otherwise instructed.
A-11

The Subsample Form is used whenever material is derived from an item on the Primary Form. Typical 

examples are clinical samples, e.g. blood, collected from a live animal, necropsy samples, or division of a 

sample into smaller quantities. Simply put, if you collect anything from a live or dead animal, initiate a 

Subsample COC. Continuing with the example of the dolphin, here is how the Subsample Form would 

be filled out when this animal is necropsied. A subsample form is started by the necropsy lead and all 

items collected at necropsy are entered. 

Date and time of 

collection: Date and time 

of necropsy.

Collected by: Necropsy 

lead: veterinarian, 

pathologist, or biologist.

Source: Include any specific 

identifers for the animal and 

species.

8 Original data sheet (Necropsy form – 5 pages, Sample collection checklist – 1 page)

BP Deepwater Horizon 

Spill Incident (MC252)
A-12

As in the previous example, specific items are signed as released and their disposition is noted on the 

original COC subsample record (shown here) and a signed released copy (not shown) is sent with the 

sample(s). Based on this COC record, all items except for items 1 and 3 should still be in Allison Doe’s 

possession. The original COC subsample record should stay with the necropsy record at the facility 

unless otherwise instructed.

A similar approach is used for clinical samples from a live animal. Here is an example if the dolphin 

above was a live rehabilitation case:

A subsample form can be used for individual samples, or multiple samples on a given day. If the form 

includes a single sample that is to be sent out, then the original subsample form should be sent with 

the sample as no items on that form would be left in possession of the collector (a copy should be 
A-13

retained in the animal’s record). Another possible exception is shown here. It is standard that some 

types of samples, such as blood smears or cytology slides, are collected in many replicates. It is 

acceptable to list the number of replicates and how many are released. In this example, serum and one 

blood smear are sent for clinical pathology, and one serum sample and four blood smear slides are 

retained at the facility. A live clinical case likely will have many subsample forms for its duration in 

rehabilitation.

In summary, here are the steps for COC and shipping items: 

1. Copy the original COC record (Primary Form or Subsample Form) that has the item on it.

2. Sign a release of the sample on BOTH the copy AND the original.

3. Note where the item was shipped on the original form and keep the original.

4. Send the signed copy with the shipped sample(s).

5. The person receiving the sample signs the copy and keeps the COC as a the record for that 

sample(s).

Helpful practices for COC records within facilities/organizations:

1. Have the fewest people possible serve as evidence custodians, and make sure that these 

individuals are familiar with the guidelines. Evidence can be signed over to one or two 

designated custodians within an organization, which facilitates transfer of custody.

2. Keep track of anyone who leaves your organization that is listed as a holder of evidence, 

especially if it will be difficult to reach them. Be sure that they sign over custody to another staff 

member before they leave. This measure is especially important when temporary personnel are 

brought in.

3. Do not create gaps in the COC record. If you are not the last person to have custody of a 

sample, then you cannot release it. Chain of custody is from individual to individual, not from 

organization to organization.

4. Be aware that anyone that assumes custody of evidentiary material is subject to be called upon 

for legal purposes, such as to verify custody and handling of a sample. This responsibility should 

not be taken lightly.
A-14

II. Handling of evidence

Sealing samples/evidence

When evidence is collected, it should be preserved in a way that ensures integrity during storage and 

shipment. All items should be clearly labeled/tagged with identifiers, contents, date of collection, and 

evidentiary item number. The collector that is the primary evidence holder, i.e. the person listed in the 

“seized/collected by” field of the COC should seal the sample using tamperproof tape as soon as 

possible after collection, and before it is released to the next person. Tamperproof tape is initialed and 

dated in manner that would be visibly disrupted if the item was opened/accessed. Here are some 

examples:

Helpful practices for sealing evidence

Plastic bags of all shapes and sizes are commonly used to hold 

evidentiary items/biological samples. The opening should be 

completely sealed as shown here, and initialed and dated along the 

edge. Any tampering would be clearly visible. Clean and dry the 

surface before applying tape. Take time to seal containers thoroughly, 

avoiding wrinkles, to reduce accidental loss of the seal.

Jars are sealed by wrapping tape around the lid or around the entire 

jar, as shown. The initials and date overlap an area that would be 

broken if opened.

If a sample is accessed, and the seal broken, it 

should be resealed and the action noted in 

laboratory notes. For bags, an unsealed part of 

the bag should be cut open, and then resealed. In 

this example, the bag was originally sealed on 

12/13/2010 and then accessed and resealed on 

3/2/11. The original seal is left intact. Note that 

the evidentiary item number is included on the 

container label.
A-15

1. Place small items and items that are difficult to seal, such as blood tubes and slides, in a bag and 

seal the bag. 

2. Clean and dry surfaces thoroughly before applying tape and avoid wrinkles and exposed 

adhesive surfaces.

3. If sealed items are to be frozen, place them in a second bag before freezing. The second bag will 

reduce potential damage to the tape and the likelihood of accidental loss of the seal after 

freezing.

4. Use the red/black rolled evidence tape (shown in the photo examples) for frozen samples. The 

individual strips of tamperproof tape and other brands tend to come off during freezing.

Photographic evidence

Most photographic evidence is in a digital format. Use designated cameras and photo cards. A placard 

that includes identifiers, such as stranding number and pathology accession numbers, date, and a scale 

should appear in the photos. It is a good practice to begin each case with a photo placard labeled 

“start” and the time, and end the photographic series for a case with a placard labeled “end” and the 

time. It is critical that photos remain unaltered and sequential. While photos may be reviewed on the 

camera to ensure that necessary parts of the image were captured and are in focus, do not delete any 

photos on the camera (even if they do not provide useful evidence). The contents of the photocard 

should be transferred directly to a non-rewritable CD or DVD. The transfer must be direct. Do not 

transfer photos to a computer hard drive and then to a disk, and do not open the files prior to making 

copies. Most computers will do this with a card reader and CD/DVD burner. Transfer the complete 

contents of the disk, do not delete or alter photos for any reason. You can always note the relevant 

image numbers in the record. Make a minimum of two copies and check to make sure that the photos 

were successfully written onto the disc. The disks serve as the official photographic evidence. After 

these official copies have been made and confirmed, it is permissible to copy data onto a hard drive, 

print images, and format and reuse the electronic photo card.

Security

All items collected as evidence should be stored in a secure, locked area. Freezers containing evidence 

should be locked. Only keyed locks, not combination locks, should be used. It is best if three or fewer 

people are designated key holders and primary evidence custodians for a given facility. 
A-16

Appendix 1-D: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log – Live Animals (Front)
A-17

Appendix 1-D: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log – Live Animals (Back)
A-18

Appendix 1-E: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log - Dead Animals (Front)
A-19

Appendix 1-E: Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log - Dead Animals (Back)
A-20

Appendix 1-F: NOAA’s Photograph Log
A-21

Appendix 1-G: Oiled Marine Mammal Evidence Log
A-22

Appendix 1-H: Oiled Marine Mammal Intake Form
A-23

Appendix 1-I: Oiled Marine Mammal Progress Form
A-24

Appendix 1-J: Oiled Marine Mammal Necropsy Form (EXAMPLE) – Can 

be used if processing facility doesn’t have pre-existing form or system for necropsies
A-25

Appendix 2: Oiled Marine Mammal Photography Protocol 

Supplies

 Digital camera with dedicated memory card

 Dry erase board (or piece of paper)

 Dry erase marker (or Sharpie)

 NOAA Photograph Log

Procedure

1. List identifying information on dry erase board/paper

a. Spill name

b. Date/time of photograph

c. Intake log number (or Level A/Field ID # if field processed)

d. Other animal identification number if available (such as Field ID #/tag #/color)

e. Species

f. Name of facility (or beach name if field processed) where photo is taken

2. Take photo of the animal’s entire body showing the best view of the oiled area(s)

a. If the animal is too large to photograph in a single image, take a photo that clearly illustrates 

the area oiled and an identifying tag or other device

b. Once a picture has been taken it must remain on the memory card and cannot be modified 

in any way (this includes downloading images from the card to a computer). No 

photograph should be deleted from the memory card.

3. Record the photo on the NOAA Photograph Log

a. Include all photos taken on the Log, including mistakes and/or bad photos

4. Indicate photograph taken on Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log and Intake Form

5. Secure the camera and memory card in a locked evidence cabinet

a. When the memory card is full, use a stand-alone DVD recorder (not a computer) to create a 

backup copy.

b. Once a backup copy is created, place the memory card and DVD in an envelope labeled 

with the spill name and the range of log numbers for the animals imaged on the card

c. Place new memory card into camera for additional use
A-26

Appendix 3: Oiled Marine Mammal Oil Sampling Protocol

Supplies

 Sampling instrument

o Visibly Oiled = Wooden spatula (e.g., individually paper-wrapped tongue depressor)

o Not Visibly Oiled = 4” x 4” fiberglass cloth or cotton cloth gauze, mosquito forceps, 

isopropyl alcohol 

 Solvent-rinsed glass jar with a Teflon-lined lid (e.g, I-Chem 300 Series jars)

 Aluminum foil

 Waterproof labels (e.g., Avery 5522 weatherproof white labels)

 Evidence tape

 Permanent Sharpie marker

 Zip-lock baggies

Procedure

1. Take sample from fur/skin

a. Visibly Oiled = Scrape visible oil from fur/skin with wooden spatula (tongue depressor)

b. Not Visibly Oiled = Rub most likely affected area (e.g., skin, mouth, blowhole) with a 4x4 

fiberglass or cotton cloth (or gauze) with sterile forceps or hemostats that have been cleaned 

with isopropyl alcohol.

2. Place sample in I-Chem jar and close lid

a. Visibly Oiled = Break off spatula and discard un-oiled portion (avoid touching 

/contaminating oil sample with nitrile gloves)

b. Not Visibly Oiled = Drop cloth into jar

c. NOTE: If jar is not available, wrap sample/spatula in aluminum foil (dull side to sample)

3. List identifying information on waterproof label to place on the glass jar (or foil packet):

a. Spill name

b. Date/time of sampling

c. Intake log number (or Level A/Field ID # if field processed)

d. Other animal identification number if available (such as Field ID #/tag #/color)

e. Species

4. Fill out Custody Seal and apply it across the lid of the jar and onto the sides of the glass

a. If using foil, use the label to seal the folded ends of the packet, then place into Zip-lock bag

5. Lock sample in a -20°C (or colder) freezer

a. If processed in the field, keep sample refrigerated or on ice until it can be stored

6. Fill out NOAAs Oiled Marine Mammal Freezer Log with sample information

7. Indicate oil sample collected on Oiled Marine Mammal Data Log and Intake Form

All evidence should be securely stored and refrigerated/frozen until the Wildlife Branch Director provides 

further instructions. If samples are to be sent for analysis, a Chain of Custody Form is required.
A-27

Appendix 4: Oiled Marine Mammal Tissue Sampling Protocol

Supplies

 Solvent-rinsed glass containers with Teflon-lined lids for tissues 

 Solvent-rinsed Teflon sheets for tissues

 Aluminum foil (if Teflon sheets are not available)

 Sterile syringes and needles 

 Amber glass vials or glass vials covered with foil with Teflon lids (for bile, urine) 

 Teflon screw top vials (for blood storage and urine) 

 Stainless steel scalpels, knifes, forceps

 Isopropyl alcohol (99.9% pesticide free IPA) to rinse instrument

 Wooden tongue depressors (can be used to handle tissues if necessary)

 Whirl-pak bags or Zip-lock freezer bags

 Permanent marker or pen (Industrial Sharpie)

 Evidence/Custody tape and labels

All instruments used in handling (e.g., scalpels, forceps, cutting boards) or storing (e.g., jars, foil) 

samples must be made of a non-contaminating material (stainless steel, glass, Teflon, or aluminum)

Comments on Tissue Collection for PAH Analysis

• Tissues to collect (in decreasing order of preference): Bile; urine; whole blood; stomach and 

intestinal contents; blubber/fat; liver; kidney; lung; intestine; brain; muscle 

• Samples taken for analysis should only be collected from alive or freshly dead animals

o If a necropsy cannot be performed within 24 hours, carcass should be frozen

• Recommended minimum sample size is 10-20 g of tissues (approx. 1-2 tablespoons) and 5 

ml for fluids (blood, urine, bile, feces, stomach contents)

o However, collect whatever amount is present

• Fluids such as blood, urine, and bile should be collected using sterile syringes or pipettes and 

transferred to Teflon vials (blood) or amber glass vials (bile, urine) 

• Use powder-free nitrile gloves (vinyl gloves are an acceptable alternative)

• Cutting tools should be cleaned and rinsed with isopropyl alcohol between tissues

o If heavily oiled, instruments can be cleaned with detergent (e.g., Dawn), rinsed with water, 

and then rinsed with alcohol. 

• Samples are stored preferably in solvent-rinsed Teflon-lined glass jars, labeled, and secured with 

evidence tape/custody seal.

o If glass jars are not available, samples can be placed in Teflon sheets or aluminum foil and 

stored in whirl-paks/freezer bags. 

• If samples/tissues have come in contact with a contaminating material (e.g. plastic bag), collect 

and store a representative example of that material (e.g. plastic bag) using the above methods 

• Duplicate hydrocarbon and histology samples whenever possible.

• Each sample/vial must be labeled with spill name, sampling date/time, log number (or Level A/Field 

ID # if field processed), other animal ID if available (e.g., Field ID #/tag #/color) and species

o List identifying information on waterproof label to place on the glass jar (or sheet)

• Samples should be chilled immediately on ice then frozen ASAP in -20oC in a locked freezer on 

return to facility

All evidence should be securely stored and refrigerated/frozen until the Wildlife Branch Director 

provides further instructions. If samples are transferred to a different location or sent for analysis, a 

Chain-of-Custody form is required. 
A-28

Appendix 5: Oiled Marine Mammal Analytical Laboratories

Alpha Woods Hole Laboratories

Peter Kane

375 Paramount Drive

Raynham, MA 02767

(508) 822-9300

TDI-Brooks International

Thomas McDonald

1902 Pinon 

College Station, TX 77845

(979) 693-3446, (979) 220-3821

Mote Marine Laboratory

Dana Wetzel

1600 Ken Thompson Parkway

Sarasota, FL 34236

(941) 388-4441, ext. 335

Geochemical & Environmental Research 

Group (GERG) 

Terry Wade

Texas A&M University

833 Graham Road

College Station, TX 77845

(979) 862-2323, ext. 134

The laboratory should be able to perform analysis of the 16 traditionally-studied, parent PAHs listed 

as priority pollutants by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in addition to the 44 alkylated 

and heterocyclic PAHs and metabolites. Additional laboratories, including those managed by 

NOAA, may be selected during oil spill response.

Unified Command and trustee agencies will make final decision on laboratory use.
A-29

Appendix 6: Example Oiled Wildlife Best Management Practices (BMPs) – from 

Deepwater Horizon/MC-252 oil spill
A-30

Appendix 7: Northwest Region Euthanasia Protocol

(From Geraci and Lounsbury, 2005)

The Northwest Region recognizes two options for administrating euthanasia (humane killing); 

chemical euthanasia and ballistics (gunshot). Chemical euthanasia by injection must be administered 

by a veterinarian or an animal technician under direct or indirect supervision of a veterinarian (WAC 

246-935-050). Ballistics must be carried out by accredited state, local, or federal law enforcement 

personnel and may take a marine mammal in the normal course of their duties as an official or 

employee, and no permit is required as long as it is accomplished in a humane manner and is for the 

protection or welfare of the animal or for the protection of the public health and welfare (50 CFR 

216.22, Permit No. 932-1489-08). Steller Sea Lion covered under 50 CFR 223.202. Guadalupe Fur 

Seal covered under 50 CFR 223.201. 

Chemical euthanasia or the dispatch of a marine mammal is an option when; it is necessary to 

end the suffering of an animal in irreversibly poor condition, the action is permitted by all relevant 

agencies, the procedure can be carried out humanely, no rehabilitation facility is available, the animal 

persistently strands, the animal is an immediate danger to public safety, a licensed veterinarian is not 

available for euthanasia, and the release of the animal endangers wild populations or public health. 

Please contact the Northwest Marine Mammal Stranding Network before dispatching any marine 

mammal, trained professionals are available for consultation. If possible, please take photos of the 

animal, this will assist the stranding network on determining species and overall health condition. If 

you believe an animal is moribund , contact the stranding network so we can assess the animal and 

determine an appropriate course of action. If there is an emergency situation and a decision needs to 

be made immediately, please use this protocol to make an educated decision. 

If chemical euthanasia is impractical, larger animals (elephant seals and some sea lions and select 

cetaceans) are best dispatched by firing a high-velocity bullet into the brain. This technique requires 

skill, training, and legal authorization for the weapon and should not be considered an option on a 

busy beach. If dispatch is the only option on a busy beach please keep in mind one of the cardinal 

rules of gun safety: Be sure of your target and what is beyond and around it. 

Chemical euthanasia for smaller cetaceans and natural death for large whales may be the most 

humane and practical option. Specific cases that clearly call for euthanasia or dispatch in cetaceans 

include; disabling injuries such as a dislocated or broken tailstock, penetrating wounds in the thorax 

or abdomen, hemorrhage from the mouth, blowhole, genital opening, or anus, blistering or 

sloughing of a major portion of the skin surface, loss of reflexes, or loss of jaw tone, or protruding 

penis. Suffocation by obstructing the blowhole is neither effective nor humane. 

Dolphins and small whales (to 8 m) can be killed quickly by shooting. Any high-powered rifle 

with standard bullets can be used for cetaceans less than 2 m. For cetaceans 2-8 m in length, use a 

firearm with a large bore (.303 or greater) and high muzzle velocity, and 180-grain soft or solid 

round- nosed bullets. The gun should be fired approximately 1 meter from the animal’s head; a 

firearm discharged directly against the skin may explode. Aiming down and backward through the 

blowhole to an imaginary point joining the flippers is sometimes recommended; however, if the shot 

is aimed to far backwards, the bullet must pass through the thickest part of the skull. Another option 

is to shoot from the side, about halfway between the posterior margin of the eye and a point above 

the origin of the pectoral flipper, for added assurance, fire three shots in a line through the targeted 

area. See the figure below to ensure you have the correct target area in mind. Shooting is not advised 

for euthanizing whales more than about 8 m in length or sperm whales of any size.
A-31

Appendix 8: Draft Supply List for Oiled Marine Mammal Response

Supply List for Collection of External Oil Samples

Quantities reflected are per team to collect 50 samples (w/ 10% added for waste). Teams may be 

field or facility-based. Field teams need not carry all supplies with them on to the beach.

Type Item Amount

Data Collection Digital Camera 1 per team

Data Collection Memory cards for digital camera 1 per team

Data Collection Dry erase board 1

Data Collection Dry erase markers 2

Data Collection Waterproof copy paper, 8.5" x 11" 2 boxes/ 200 

sheets

Data Collection Clipboards 1

Data Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 2

Marking Paint stick 2

Marking Rototags, Jumbotag, various colors 50

Marking Rototag, Jumbotag applicator 1

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves to fit team members

1 box (note: 

for pre-staged 

kits, 1 box L)

PPE Tyvek suits to fit team members

2 each person

(note: for prestaged kits, 5 

XL)

Sample Collection Wooden tongue depressors 6in 55

Sample Collection Sterile cotton gauze individually wrapped squares 55

Sample Collection Mosquito forceps 1

Sample Collection Reclosable plastic bags, 5"x8" 55

Sample Collection Tyvek tags, blank, white, 3" x 4" approx. 55

Sample Collection Aluminum foil food grade 55 sheets or 1 

roll

Sample Collection Evidence strips 6 1/2" x 1 1/4", 100 strips or 1 roll 1 pack/100 

strips or 1 roll
A-32

Supply List for Dead Recovery

Quantities reflected are collect 50 carcasses. The Staging Area/Kit reflects 3 teams simultaneously 

deployed, with the “w/Team” amounts being what would be carried into the field. Assumes 

supplies can be refilled as used – this is the immediate needs kit for the first few days. Some items 

may need to be modified for the geographic region/species that are possible to be encountered.

Type Item Amount 

w/Team

Amount at 

Staging 

Area/Kit

All 100 piece multi-color cable ties 1 bag/100 3 bags/100

All 1/2" braided rope 100 ft 500 ft

Animal Recovery Heavy duty Polyethylene tarps, 16' x 20' 2 6 ea

Animal Recovery Heavy duty Polyethylene tarps, 20' x 30' 1 3 ea

Animal Recovery Heavy duty Polyethylene tarps, 12' x 16' 3 ea

Animal Recovery Cotton sheets 2-3 50 ea

Animal Recovery Heavy duty body bags, 36" x 96" long, 

w/straps, weight 800 lbs 1 1 case (10 bags)

Animal Recovery Heavy duty body bags, 48" x 100" long, 

w/straps, weight 450 lbs 1 1 case (6 bags)

Data Collection Digital Camera 1 5 (1 per team 

+2 extra)

Data Collection Memory cards for digital camera 1 6 (1 per team 

+3 extra)

Data Collection Waterproof copy paper 8.5" x 11", 200 sheets as 

appropriate

2 boxes/ 200 

sheets

Data Collection Clipboards 1 3 ea

Data Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 3 5 boxes/12

Data Collection Open-reel measuring tape 100'/30 M 1 3 ea

Marking Paint stick 2 1 box/10

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves to fit team 

members

Equivalent 

to 1 box

3 boxes ea of 

M, L, XL

PPE Tyvek suits to fit team members 2 each 

person

2 cases/25 of 

M, L, XL

PPE Steel toe rubber boots to fit team members 1 each 

person
A-33

Supply List for Live Recovery

Quantities reflected are per team to collect 5 pinnipeds or 1 cetacean (estimated daily max). The 

Staging Area/Kit reflects 3 teams simultaneously deployed, with the “w/Team” amounts being 

what would be carried into the field. Assumes supplies can be refilled as used – this is the 

immediate needs kit for the first few days. Some items may need to be modified for the geographic 

region/species that are possible to be encountered. 

Type Item Amount 

w/ Team

Amount at 

Staging Area

All 100 piece multi-color cable ties 2 bags/100

All 1/2" braided rope 100 ft

Animal Rescue Foam sheet, closed cell, 2" thick, 4ft x 10 ft

(cetaceans) 1 3 (if cetaceans)

Animal Rescue XL dog crates (pinnipeds) 5 15 (if 

pinnipeds)

Animal Rescue Nets 2 6

Data Collection Digital Camera 1 5 (1 per team 

+2 extra)

Data Collection Memory cards for digital camera 1 6 (1 per team 

+ 3 extra)

Data Collection Waterproof copy paper 8.5" x 11", 200 sheets 20 sheets 2 boxes/ 200 

sheets

Data Collection Clipboards 1 3

Data Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 3 5 boxes/12

Marking Paint stick 2 box/10

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves to fit team 

memberes

Equivalent 

to 1 box

3 boxes ea of 

M, L, XL

PPE Tyvek suits to fit team members 2 each 

person

2 cases/25 of 

M, L, XL

PPE Steel toe rubber boots to fit team members 1 each 

person
A-34

Supply list for Rehabilitation Facility

Quantities reflected are per facility to serve as primary care facility - de-oiling, etc. Additional 

supplies will be needed for rehabilitation that are not included on this list. Species-specific 

supplies will be needed for each animal. Assumes external oil sample has already been taken. 

Assumes supplies can be refilled as used – this is the immediate needs kit for the first few 

days. If personnel are pre-identified or will provide their own PPE supplies (e.g., boots, 

slickers), those amounts may be modified/reduced.

Type Item Amount

Animal Treatment

Kiddie pools- large blue, or appropriate shallow water 

pools (pinnipeds) 20 ea

Animal Treatment

Large, deep pool (e.g., K-D pool) (pinnipeds or sm 

cetaceans) 2

Animal Treatment Toxiban suspension, 240 ml 1 case/12

Animal Treatment Isotonic oral fluids, 1 l bottles 36

Animal Treatment Foal stomach tube, 3/8" OD x 7' long 2

Animal Treatment Non-irritating surgical lubricant 4.5 oz tube 2

Animal Treatment Dawn soap 1 case

Data Collection Digital camera 2

Data Collection Dry erase board 2

Data Collection Dry erase markers 3

Data Collection Memory cards for digital camera 5

Data Collection Waterproof copy paper, 8.5" x 11", 200 sheets 2 boxes/ 

200 sheets

Data Collection Clipboards 3 ea

Data Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 3 boxes/12

Facility Trash bags, 6 mil, 55 gal, BLACK for unoiled solid waste 2 boxes/50

Facility Trash bags, 6 mil, 55 gal, CLEAR for oiled solid waste 2 boxes/50

Facility 5 gallon buckets, w/lid 2 ea

Marking Paint stick 1 box/10

Marking Rototags, Jumbotag, various colors 30 tags

Marking Rototag, Jumbotag applicator 2 ea

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, small 1 case

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, medium 1 case

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, large 1 case

PPE Tyvek suits, medium 2 cases/25

PPE Tyvek suits, Large 2 cases/25

PPE Tyvek suits, XL 2 cases/25

PPE Rubber boots- size 5 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 7 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 9 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 11 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 13 2 pair

PPE Yellow rain slickers-small 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers-medium 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers - large 3 ea
A-35

PPE Yellow rain slickers - X Large 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers- XX large 3 ea

PPE N95 particulate respirator mask 1 case (12 

boxes of 20)

PPE Goggles 20 ea

Sample Collection

2 ml freestanding cryule (cryovial) w/cap, sterile, w/ 

white block 1 case

Sample Collection RNAlater RNA stabilization reagent 50 ml

Sample Collection Viral transport media 2 boxes of 

50 vials

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, Red/gray tiger serum, 10 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, green sodium heparin, 10 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, lavender whole blood w/EDTA, 5 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Sharps containers, large (2+ gallon) 1 ea

Sample Collection Sharps containers, small (5 quarts or more) 1 ea

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 10ml 50 ea

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 20 ml 50 ea

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 60 ml 20 ea

Sample Collection Mechanical pencils 2 boxes/10

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 18 G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 20G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 22G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 23G x 1" 1 box/100

Sample Collection

Butterfly catheter infusion sets, 19G x 3/4" needle, luer 

adapter 1 box/50

Sample Collection

Butterfly catheter infusion sets , 22G x 3/4" needle, luer 

adapter 1 box/50

Sample Collection Culture swab plus Amies gel w/o charcoal 1 box/50

Sample Collection Culture swabs - with sponge 1 box/50

Sample Collection Sterile swabs 1 box/50

Sample Collection 5 ' folding table 3 ea

Sample Collection Hemostat forceps 3 ea
A-36

Supply List for Necropsy

Quantities reflected are per team and should be enough for multiple animals; assumes external 

oil sample has already been taken by oil sample team. Assumes supplies can be refilled as used 

– this is the immediate needs kit for the first few days. If personnel are known or have own 

PPE supplies (e.g., boots, slickers), those amounts may be modified/reduced.

Type Item Amount

All 100 piece multi-color cable ties 2 bags/100

All 1/2" braided rope 100 ft

Animal Recovery

Heavy duty body bags, 36" x 96" long, w/straps, weight 

800 lbs

1 case (10 

bags)

Animal Recovery

Heavy duty body bags, 48" x 100" long, w/straps, weight 

450 lbs

1 case (6 

bags)

Data Collection Digital camera 1 per team

Data Collection Dry erase board 1 per team

Data Collection Dry erase markers 3 per team

Data Collection Memory cards for digital camera 10

Data Collection Waterproof copy paper, 8.5" x 11"

2 boxes/ 

200 sheets

Data Collection Clipboards 3 ea

Data Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 5 boxes/12

Facility Trash bags, 6 mil, 55 gal, RED for animal waste box/50

Facility Trash bags, 6 mil, 55 gal, BLACK for unoiled solid waste 2 boxes/50

Facility Trash bags, 6 mil, 55 gal, CLEAR for oiled solid waste 2 boxes/50

Facility 100 quart ice chest 1 ea

Facility 70 quart ice chest 2 ea

Facility 5 gallon buckets, w/lid 10 ea

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, small 1 case

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, medium 1 case

PPE Powder-free Nitrile gloves, large 1 case

PPE Tyvek suits, medium 2 cases/25

PPE Tyvek suits, Large 2 cases/25

PPE Tyvek suits, XL 2 cases/25

PPE Rubber boots- size 5 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 7 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 9 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 11 2 pair

PPE Rubber boots- size 13 2 pair

PPE Yellow rain slickers-small 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers-medium 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers - large 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers - X Large 3 ea

PPE Yellow rain slickers- XX large 3 ea

PPE N95 particulate respirator mask, reg 1 case (12 

boxes of 20)
A-37

PPE Goggles 20 ea

Sample Collection Reclosable white block bags, 5"x8" case 1000

Sample Collection Reclosable white block bags, 9" x 12" case 1000

Sample Collection Reclosable bag, 13" x 18" case 500

Sample Collection Whirlpak write-on clear sampling bags, 4 oz 1 pack/500

Sample Collection Tyvek tags, blank, white, 3" x 4" approx. 5 packs/100

Sample Collection

Aluminum foil food grade double matte sided, 12" x 

1000 ft 1 roll

Sample Collection

Evidence strips 6 1/2" x 1 1/4", 100 strips or 108’ tape 

roll

1 pack/100

or 1 roll

Sample Collection Evidence box sealing tape, 3" wide 1 roll

Sample Collection

2 ml freestanding cryule (cryovial) w/cap, sterile, w/ 

white block 1 case

Sample Collection RNAlater RNA stabilization reagent 50 ml

Sample Collection Viral transport media 2 boxes of 

50 vials

Sample Collection Biopsy punches 2 boxes/50

Sample Collection Scalpel blades, size #60 2 boxes/500

Sample Collection Scalpel handles/dissecting blade handle size #8 1 box/5

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, Red/gray tiger serum, 10 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, green sodium heparin, 10 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Blood tubes, glass, lavender whole blood w/EDTA, 5 ml 1 flat of 100 

tubes

Sample Collection Glass, closed-top jar w/teflon lid, 250 ml solvent rinsed 100 ea

Sample Collection Teflon screwtop vials with snap-in tabs 15ml 100 ea

Sample Collection 40ml amber borosilicate Closed-cap vials 300series 1 case 72

Sample Collection Conical vials 15ml 4 flats/50

Sample Collection Sharps containers, large (2+ gallon) 1 ea

Sample Collection Sharps containers, small (5 quarts or more) 1 ea

Sample Collection Plumber's teflon tape 3 rolls

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 10ml 50 ea

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 20 ml 50 ea

Sample Collection Sterile syringes, 60 ml 20 ea

Sample Collection Dichloromethane 2L (x2)

Sample Collection Sharpie marker, fine point 5 boxes/12

Sample Collection Sharpie marker, extra fine point 5 boxes/12

Sample Collection Mechanical pencils 2 boxes/10

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 18 G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 20G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 22G x 1 1⁄2” 1 box/100

Sample Collection Hypodermic needles 23G x 1" 1 box/100

Sample Collection Butterfly catheter infusion sets, 19G x 3/4" needle, luer 1 box/50
A-38

adapter

Sample Collection

Butterfly catheter infusion sets , 22G x 3/4" needle, luer 

adapter 1 box/50

Sample Collection Culture swab plus Amies gel w/o charcoal 1 box/50

Sample Collection Culture swabs - with sponge 1 box/50

Sample Collection Sterile swabs 1 box/50

Sample Collection Knives 9" blade, plastic handle 5 ea

Sample Collection Knives 12" blade, plastic handle 3 ea

Sample Collection Electric knife sharpener 1 ea

Sample Collection Gator I folding saw, 10" 1 ea

Sample Collection 5 ' folding table 3 ea

Sample Collection Formalin 10% buffered, 5 gal cube 1 ea

Sample Collection Biohazard tags, 3 1/4" x 6" vinyl, pkg 25 3pk/25

Sample Collection 5 " dissecting forceps 5 ea

Sample Collection Scissors, 5 1/2" straight 5 ea

Sample Collection Scissors, poultry shears 3 ea

Sample Collection 6" flexible plastic english/metric ruler 3 ea

Sample Collection Sani-safe boning hook w/orange handle 3 ea

Sample Collection Hemostat forceps 3 ea