Best Management Practices 

for 

Integrated Mosquito Management 

 

American Mosquito Control Association 

December 2, 2009 
OVERVIEW OF INTEGRATED MOSQUITO MANAGEMENT 

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was first conceived as a means of achieving sustained, effective control of 

agricultural pests through concomitant employment of a wide range of control methodologies. IPM has been in 

widespread usage for many years and its success as a general strategy has led to usage of the term to describe an 

increasing number of approaches to control strategies – often leading to misunderstanding of its actual 

conceptual framework. In order to clarify the concept in terms of its relationship to the unique nature of 

mosquito prevention/control methodologies, we will use the term Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) in 

lieu of IPM. 

 

Integrated Mosquito Management is a comprehensive mosquito prevention/control strategy that utilizes all 

available mosquito control methods singly or in combination to exploit the known vulnerabilities of mosquitoes in 

order to reduce their numbers to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment. Integrated mosquito 

management methods are specifically tailored to safely counter each stage of the mosquito life cycle. Larval 

control utilizing natural biological control methods, water sanitation practices, and water or vegetation 

management or other types of source reduction measures where compatible with other land management uses, 

are prudent mosquito management alternatives - as is use of EPA-registered larvicides and adulticides. When 

source elimination or larval control measures are not feasible or are clearly inadequate, or when faced with 

imminent mosquito-borne disease, application of adulticides by certified applicators trained in the special 

handling characteristics of these products may be needed. Adulticide products are chosen based upon their 

demonstrated efficacy against species targeted for control, resistance management concerns and minimization of 

potential environmental impact. IMM does not emphasize mosquito elimination or eradication. 

Full implementation of modern-day IMM entails significant expenditure of resources that may be beyond the 

capabilities of many mosquito control programs, particularly in light of collapsing state, county and municipal 

budgets. IMM requires a thorough understanding of mosquitoes and their bionomics by control personnel;

careful inspection and monitoring for their presence and conditions favoring their development; and prevention 

of oviposition and human/mosquito contact through effective public education, sanitation and facility 

maintenance. All mosquito control programs should strive to employ these IMM components to the extent

possible, but resource availability may limit what any individual program can do. 

In IMM programs, all intervention measures are driven by a demonstrated need based on surveillance data and 

action thresholds. Applying mosquito larvicides or adulticides on a pre-determined schedule absent a 

documented need is not acceptable practice in any IMM program. 
INTRODUCTION 

Since the need for mosquito control was recognized in the early twentieth century, increased knowledge of 

mosquito biology has driven the formulation of a variety of methodologies designed to successfully reduce both 

mosquito nuisance levels and mosquito-borne disease transmission. As the technologies and knowledge base 

from which these methodologies were derived have matured, they have been increasingly seen as mostly 

complimentary or synergistic in nature, providing optimal control as part of an overall strategy. This has 

ultimately evolved into a strategy termed Integrated Mosquito management (IMM). IMM has been developed to 

encourage a balanced usage of cultural and insecticidal methodologies and habitat manipulations in order to 

minimize adverse environmental impacts. IMM is knowledge-based and surveillance-driven, and when properly 

practiced is specifically designed to accomplish the following: 

1. Protect human, animal and environmental health. 

2. Promote a rational use of pesticides. 

3. Reduce environmental contamination to soil, ground water, surface water, pollinators, wildlife and 

endangered species. 

4. Utilize natural biological controls to conserve and augment other control methods. 

5. Use target specific pesticides to the extent possible. 

6. Emphasize the proper timing of applications. 

7. Minimize pesticide resistance problems. 

The circumstances necessitating formation of a mosquito control program, however basic, are unique for each 

jurisdiction in terms of available resources, topography, hydrology, and the bionomics of the mosquito species 

to be controlled. For this reason, considerable judgment must be exercised in allocation of limited resources to 

extract the maximum benefit for both the citizenry and the environment. It must be emphasized that program 

funding and other extrinsic factors will dictate the extent to which individual programs can implement the Best 

Management Practices (BMPs) described herein. 

To assist in this calculation, the following document will outline a series of BMP program elements that 

constitute a fully integrated approach to mosquito management. These BMPs should be viewed as minimums

that should be performed in concert with any general or individual National Pollution Discharge Elimination 

System (NPDES) permits that might issued for mosquitocide use in accordance with the Clean Water Act 

(CWA) requirements. 

The extent and manner to which control agencies exercise these BMPs should be ultimately based on the best 

professional judgment of district/agency personnel, often undertaken in consultation with local health and 

government authorities in addition to resources available. It is important to emphasize that adherence to these 

BMPs to the maximum extent practicable is to be considered the necessary minimum to undertake or perform 

for purposes of regulatory compliance with general or individual NPDES permits for mosquitocide use. 
Best Management Plans for Mosquito Management 

Best Management Practices (BMP) should form the fundamental approach to mosquito management for all 

mosquito control programs. It is acknowledged that individual agencies/entities charged with mosquito 

management responsibilities may not have the resources to practice all of the specific sub-elements discussed 

herein. Nevertheless, agencies should strive to adhere to these BMPs to the maximum extent practicable, given 

resource availability. Programs are encouraged to maintain documentation as to how they intend to employ the 9 

BMP components listed below. 

1. Surveillance – Should be the backbone of all IMM programs. Identifies problem species and population 

trends in order to direct and evaluate control methods. 

a. Visually check jurisdiction for potential large-scale larval habitat and larval populations 

themselves that could contribute to unacceptable adult mosquito populations and determine if 

larval control is appropriate within resource constraints. 

i. Rural - swamps, salt & freshwater marshes, woodland pools, flooded fields/ pastures, 

roadside ditches, storm water retention ponds, tree holes, rice fields, etc. 

ii. Urban - flower pots, tires, trash containers holding water, gutters, tree holes, septic 

ditches, roadside ditches, lawn swales, non-functional swimming pools, stagnant bird 

baths, street catch basins, junk yards, depressions in tarp covers, etc. 

a. Determine population levels of adult mosquitoes using professionally acceptable techniques, 

including public complaints or landing rate counts (if appropriate), to establish needs for action. 

b. Determine if problem species are peridomestic. Peridomestic mosquito species oviposit primarily 

in containers around human habitation. Their presence as the primary pest species will dictate 

prevention/control strategies directed toward removal of oviposition sites through public 

education. 

2. Mapping – Utilize township/city/county maps to continually monitor major sources of larval/adult 

mosquitoes in addition to areas where control measures have been instituted. 

3. Set Action Thresholds – Decisions to apply public health pesticides should be based on the analysis of 

either larval or adult mosquito surveillance data. Programs must establish a mechanism on which 

decisions to institute control measures are based.

a. Determine which methodology shall be used to determine if and when control measures are 

instituted.

i. For larval mosquito control this methodology can consist of numbers of larvae observed 

in larval dip counts or observation of larval presence in water sources. 

ii. For adult mosquito control this methodology can consist of: 

1. Number and pattern of citizen’s service requests. 
2. Visual – numbers of mosquitoes landing on inspector/applicator within 1-minute 

periods. When practicable, landing rate counts should be taken near or at times of 

peak mosquito activity for the species of concern. Performance of landing rate 

counts is only advised in areas or at times without significant mosquito-borne 

disease activity. 

b. Determine threshold values that trigger control measures.

4. Physical Control or Source Reduction –Source reduction (the elimination, removal or reduction of 

larval mosquito habitats) typically is the most effective and economical long-term method of mosquito 

control, but this may not be practicable for many larval habitats. Source reduction can be as simple as 

overturning a discarded bucket or disposing of a waste tire. These efforts often minimize and/or 

eliminate the need for mosquito larviciding in the affected habitat in addition to greatly reducing the 

need for adulticiding in nearby areas.

a. Determine feasibility of removing or modifying oviposition sites. 

b. Maintain liaison with city/county agencies responsible for ditch/impoundment maintenance. 

c. Maintain familiarization with jurisdiction health nuisance abatement policy. 

5. Biological Control – These control methodologies are often resource-intensive and not usually 

practicable for many programs. Nonetheless, their feasibility should be explored. 

a. Stocking of certain species of fish known to be predators of mosquito larvae, if allowed by 

applicable state or local authorities, may provide significant reductions in larval mosquito 

populations in basic programs where management of large perennial oviposition sites is to be the 

primary control strategy. 

b. Utilization of bats, birds, dragonflies and other putative predators of mosquitoes is both 

ecologically problematic and ineffective as a primary control strategy and is therefore not 

recommended as a major component of any control strategy. 

6. Chemical Control – Handling, disposal, personal protective measures and applications must be made in 

full accordance with product label specifications.

a. Larvicides – Often may be the primary control method in natural or man-made wetlands (salt 

marshes or tidal wetlands, riverine bottomlands, woodland pools, freshwater marshes, meadow 

swales, roadside ditches, stormwater management ponds, etc.). These can also be a primary 

control method in locations where mosquito populations are determined to be arising from 

defined, concentrated sources in urban areas or in close proximity to houses. Due to continual 

influx of adult mosquitoes from outlying areas, larviciding programs may have limited visible 

effect on mosquito populations in jurisdictions lacking resources to adequately larvicide outlying 

production areas. 

i. Several materials in various formulations registered by EPA are labeled for mosquito 

larviciding. Choice of active ingredient and formulation chosen will depend on sitespecific factors and resistance management, and may include: 

1. Organophosphate - temephos 

2. Microbial larvicides – Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Bacillus 

sphaericus (Bs) 
3. Growth regulators – methoprene 

4. Monomolecular surface films 

5. Oils – petroleum or mineral-based 

6. Chitin synthesis inhibitors – diflubenzuron 

ii. Larvicides, if used, should be specific for mosquitoes, minimize impacts to non-target 

organisms and must, in many instances, be capable of penetrating dense vegetative 

canopies. Larvicide formulations (e.g., liquid, granular, solid) must be appropriate to the 

habitat being treated, accurately applied and based on surveillance data. 

iii. Larvicide application equipment should be calibrated and maintained per equipment 

manufacturer’s specifications and timetable, or per instructions from product registrant. 

b. Adulticides – Adulticiding based on surveillance data is an extremely important part of any IMM 

program, and often forms the primary treatment method for basic programs. In fact, the general 

public typically associates basic mosquito control programs with spray trucks or “foggers,” not 

realizing the existence or importance of the other parts of the integrated program. Adulticides are 

applied so as to impinge upon the mosquito target in flight or at rest on vegetation. 

Adulticides utilized in basic programs are typically applied as an Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) spray 

where small amounts of insecticide are dispersed by aircraft or truck-mounted equipment. A vast 

majority of mosquito control programs don’t have aerial application capabilities, but most have 

some type of ground delivery system for adulticiding. In some jurisdictions, adulticides may also 

be applied via “thermal fogs”, utilizing heat to atomize droplets. Adult mosquitoes may also be 

targeted by “barrier treatments”, which involve application of a residual insecticide to vegetation 

where mosquitoes are known to rest. 

i. Adulticides should only be applied when established spray thresholds have been 

exceeded. 

ii. Non-residual adulticides applied to the air column in order to impinge upon mosquitoes 

in flight should only be applied when the target species is active. 

iii. Adulticides should be applied strictly according to label specifications. This will produce 

minimal effects on non-target organisms and promote efficacy. Adulticides should not be 

applied in rainy or windy conditions. 

iv. Adulticides should only be applied by personnel trained or state certified in their usage 

and handling, or when operating under the supervision of an individual having state 

certification. 

v. Adulticides labeled for mosquito control in part may include: 

1. Organophosphates – malathion and naled 

2. Natural pyrethrins 

3. Pyrethroids – permethrin, resmethrin and sumithrin 

4. Pyrethroid derivatives – etofenprox 
vi. Adulticides should be applied at label rates that are efficacious as determined by 

monitoring. Applying doses lower than those that provide adequate control can in fact 

result in the need for additional adulticide treatments and can also encourage insecticide 

resistance by treating with sub-lethal doses. 

c. Adulticide application equipment should be calibrated and maintained per equipment 

manufacturer’s specifications and timetable, or per instructions from the product registrant. 

7. Monitoring for Efficacy/Resistance – Resistance management techniques attempt to minimize the risk 

of mosquitoes becoming resistant to the existing chemicals and should be practiced in even basic 

programs. 

a. Basic resistance management techniques can include: 

i. Do not use the same class of chemical against both immature and adult mosquitoes. 

ii. Apply pesticide at rate recommended on the label. Do not underdose. 

iii. When possible, utilize a different chemical class at the beginning and end of treatment 

season. 

iv. If possible, assess susceptibility at the beginning and sometime during the mosquito 

season. 

b. Resistance management can also involve utilizing surveillance methods following larvicide or 

adulticide applications to continually check for control efficacy. 

8. Public Education & Community Outreach – Education of the general public should be encouraged to 

teach residents how they can aid mosquito control by disposing of (or modifying) containers.

a. The public should be notified via appropriate means of upcoming spray operations as soon as the 

need is determined. 

b. Beekeepers or persons not wishing their premises to be treated should be notified of any 

adulticiding operations per label specifications prior to application operations. 

9. Record-keeping – Operators/applicators should record the following for each application and maintain 

the records for the time specified by the lead regulatory agency:

a. Applicator’s name, address and pesticide applicator certification number (if applicable) 

b. Application date and time of day 

c. Product name and EPA registration number 

d. General location of application and approximate size of area treated 

e. Amount of material applied 

f. Application rate