Laura M. Burke, Robert D. Falck, and Melissa L. McGuire

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook:

Earth-to-Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045

NASA/TM—2010-216764

October 2010
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Laura M. Burke, Robert D. Falck, and Melissa L. McGuire

Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook:

Earth-to-Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045

NASA/TM—2010-216764

October 2010

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135
Available from

NASA Center for Aerospace Information

7115 Standard Drive

Hanover, MD 21076–1320

National Technical Information Service

5301 Shawnee Road

Alexandria, VA 22312

Available electronically at http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov

Level of Review: This material has been technically reviewed by technical management. 

This report is a formal draft or working 

paper, intended to solicit comments and 

ideas from a technical peer group.
NASA/TM—2010-216764 i 

Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1

Nomenclature ................................................................................................................................................ 1

Trajectory Characteristics ............................................................................................................................. 2

Ballistic Trajectories ............................................................................................................................... 4

Transfer Trajectories Using Deep Space Maneuvers ............................................................................. 7

Launch/Injection Geometry .................................................................................................................... 8

Launch Azimuth ..................................................................................................................................... 8

Description of Trajectory Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 8

Mission Opportunities ................................................................................................................................... 9

Assumptions ................................................................................................................................................ 11

Mission Design Data Contour Plots ............................................................................................................ 12

Earth to Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045 ............................................................................. 12

Earth to Mars—2026 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 12

Earth to Mars—2028 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 19

Earth to Mars—2031 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 26

Earth to Mars—2033 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 33

Earth to Mars—2035 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 40

Earth to Mars—2037 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 47

Earth to Mars—2039 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 54

Earth to Mars—2041 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 61

Earth to Mars—2043 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 68

Earth to Mars—2045 Opportunity ................................................................................................. 75

Appendix A.—Verification of Midas Results ............................................................................................. 82

Verification Contour Plots for 2005 Opportunity................................................................................. 83

References ................................................................................................................................................... 85

List of Tables 

Table 1.—Data for optimal missions: 2026 to 2045 ................................................................................... 10

Table 2.—Earth to Mars—2026 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 12

Table 3.—Earth to Mars—2028 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 19

Table 4.—Earth to Mars—2031 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 26

Table 5.—Earth to Mars—2033 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 33

Table 6.—Earth to Mars—2035 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 40

Table 7.—Earth to Mars—2037 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 47

Table 8.—Earth to Mars—2039 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 54

Table 9.—Earth to Mars—2041 Opportunity—Energy Minima ................................................................ 61

Table 10.—Earth to Mars—2043 Opportunity—Energy Minima .............................................................. 68

Table 11.—Earth to Mars—2045 Opportunity—Energy Minima .............................................................. 75

Table 12.—Energy minima for 2005 opportunity calculated by MIDAS................................................... 82

Table 13.—Energy minima for 2005 opportunity data from Reference 6 .................................................. 82

List of Figures

Figure 1.—Minimum departure energies for Earth to Mars Ballistic Missions: 1990 to 2045. ................... 3

Figure 2.—Lambert Theorem Geometry. ..................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3.—Mission space in departure/arrival date coordinates. .................................................................. 5

Figure 4.—Target planet orbital plane geometry forcing a polar inclination for a 180° transfer. ................ 6

Figure 5.—Mission space with nodal transfer. ............................................................................................. 6
NASA/TM—2010-216764 ii

Figure 6.—Orbit geometry for nodal transfer. .............................................................................................. 7

Figure 7.—Type I optimal ballistic mission departure energies. .................................................................. 9

Figure 8.—Type II optimal ballistic mission departure energies. ............................................................... 10
NASA/TM—2010-216764 1 

Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook:

Earth-to-Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045

Laura M. Burke, Robert D. Falck, and Melissa L. McGuire

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Glenn Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio 44135 

Introduction

The purpose of this Mission Design Handbook is to provide trajectory designers and mission planners 

with graphical information about Earth to Mars trajectory opportunities for the years of 2026 through 

2045. The trajectory data used to create the following opportunity contour plots was generated using 

MIDAS, a patched conic interplanetary trajectory optimization program that is able to optimize the times 

of specified trajectory events and other trajectory parameters (Ref. 1). The contour plots themselves were 

generated using the data visualization capabilities of MATLAB (The Mathworks, Inc.). The plots, 

displayed on a departure date/arrival date mission space, show departure energy, right ascension and 

declination of the launch asymptote, and target planet hyperbolic arrival excess speed, V∞, for each launch 

opportunity. 

Trajectory contour plots are particularly important in the beginning stages of mission design as 

valuable tools that display the interplanetary flight path characteristics for a particular launch opportunity 

to Mars. The use of these contour plots is an important first step for determining initial optimal launch 

opportunities for interplanetary missions. They also serve as good approximations for directional values 

of the launch asymptote vector, target planet (Mars) arrival excess velocities, and total mission flight 

time. These plots allow a mission designer to determine the basic requirements for an Earth to Mars 

transfer vehicle as well as a preliminary estimate of the required propellant load. 

Provided in this study are two sets of contour plots for each launch opportunity. The first set of plots 

shows Earth to Mars ballistic trajectories without the addition of any deep space maneuvers. The second 

set of plots shows Earth to Mars transfer trajectories with the addition of deep space maneuvers, which 

further optimize the determined trajectories. Providing two sets of plots for each opportunity allows 

mission planners the ability to compare and contrast different mission architectures.

Nomenclature

C3 Earth departure energy (km2/sec2), equal to the square of the departure hyperbolic excess 

velocity

dJ 2000 launch date in terms of full integer days elapsed since Jan. 1, 2000 1d

 12h UT (JD = 

2451545) 

DVMT total magnitude of the sum of the deep space maneuvers (km/sec)

GHADATE Greenwich hour angle at 0 h GMT of any date, assumes equator is J2000 (deg)

h altitude (km)

TOF time of flight (days)

tL time of launch (h, GMT, i.e., mean solar time) 

V spacecraft velocity of Mars flyby (km/sec)

V∞ hyperbolic excess velocity (km/sec)
NASA/TM—2010-216764 2 

α∞ right ascension of the launch asymptote (deg) 

αL right ascension of the launch site (deg)

∆V delta velocity (km/sec)

δ∞ declination of the launch asymptote (deg)

γ Vernal Equinox 

λL east longitude of launch site (deg) 

μM GM, gravitational parameter of Mars, 42,828.3 km3

/sec2

φL geocentric latitude of the launch site (deg)

rM radius of Mars, 3,397 km 

Σ∞ launch azimuth (deg) 

ωEARTH inertial rotation rate of Earth, 15.041067179 deg/h of mean solar time 

ωE angular velocity of Earth, s

7 rad 10994.1 − ×

ωM angular velocity of Mars, s

7 rad 1006.1 − ×

τS synodic period (days) 

Trajectory Characteristics

For the purpose of minimizing the required transfer energy, Earth departure and Mars arrival should 

occur when the two planets are in conjunction. Conjunction class missions, or Hohmann transfer 

missions, occur when the Earth at launch and Mars at arrival are essentially on opposite sides of the sun. 

The trajectories calculated with MIDAS were specified to be Venus flyby trajectories. A flyby arrival 

event was chosen because no weight is placed on the arrival ∆V thereby reducing the trajectory’s total ∆V. 

A propulsive capture arrival event was not chosen because it requires a large ∆V maneuver near the 

arrival planet and thereby obscures the Earth relative performance requirements. 

Using the hyperbolic excess speed, V∞, the gravitational parameter μM, and radius rM, and the

spacecraft’s altitude h of flyby, the velocity of a Mars flyby trajectory is given by:

2 2 + ∞ +

μ = V

hr

V

M

M

(1) 

Optimal launch dates for minimum departure energy conjunction class missions reoccur every 

synodic period. The synodic period is the time required for any phase angle to repeat, which for Mars 

with respect to the Earth is 779.935 Earth days (approximately 2.14 years), and can be confirmed using 

the following equation (Ref. 2): 

ME

S

ω−ω

π

=τ

2

(2) 

where ωE and ωM are the rotational rates of the Earth and Mars about the Sun.
NASA/TM—2010-216764 3 

Due to the fact that Earth and Mars orbits are neither exactly circular nor coplanar, the trajectory 

characteristics of each opportunity are not always the same. One opportunity may require less departure 

energy and have a lower Mars arrival V∞ than another opportunity. However, Earth and Mars nearly 

return to their original relative heliocentric positions every 7 to 8 synodic periods, or every 15 to 17 years 

(Ref. 3). Figure 1 shows the repeating cycle of minimum (either Type I or Type II) departure energy 

values for Earth to Mars ballistic opportunities 1990 to 2045. Type I trajectories are characterized as 

having shorter trip times and Type II trajectories are characterized as having longer trip times usually with 

a lower required ∆V than Type I trajectories. Type I and Type II trajectories have heliocentric travel 

angles less than and greater than 180° respectively and are discussed in more detail in the Ballistic 

Trajectories section of the handbook.

Each pair of departure/arrival dates defines a unique Earth to Mars transfer trajectory. For the 

purposes of these particular contour plots, each date pair is associated with an array of specific values for 

departure energy, right ascension and declination of the launch asymptote, and Mars arrival V∞. The 

resulting contours for each specified parameter are plotted in an Earth departure/Mars arrival mission 

space with a departure date coverage span of 160 days and an arrival date coverage span of 400 days.

Since numerous events can cause a mission to launch at a date other than optimal, the plots include 

departure energies up to 50 km2

/sec2. Departure energies above 50 km2/sec2 were considered to be 

generally not of interest because of the large propulsive maneuvers they require. A 160-day span for 

departure date was used because it sufficiently covered the range of desired departure energies. The 400-

day coverage span for Mars arrival dates was used in order to display time-of-flight times ranging from 

100 to 450 days. 

Figure 1.—Minimum departure energies for Earth to Mars Ballistic Missions: 1990 to 2045. 

14.4

11.7

9.5

8.9

8.4

7.9

8.8

15.5

12.8

10.3

9.0 8.8

8.0 7.7

13.2

13.8

11.2

9.1 8.9

8.2

7.8

10.2

14.8

12.2

9.8

9.0

8.6

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

199019921994199619982000200220052007200920112014201620182020202220242026202820312033203520372039204120432045

C3 (km2/sec2)

Year

Minimum Departure Energies: 1990-2045
NASA/TM—2010-216764 4 

Figure 2.—Lambert Theorem Geometry. 

Ballistic Trajectories

MIDAS uses Lambert’s Theorem to calculate Earth to Mars ballistic transfer trajectories in which 

two-body conic motion and a central force field are assumed. Lambert’s Theorem defines the following 

relationship (Ref. 4): the transfer time of a body moving between two points on a conic trajectory is a 

function only of the sum of the distances of the two points from the origin of force, the linear distance 

between the points, and the semi-major axis of the conic (Figure 2). A ballistic mission to Mars can be 

sufficiently represented by a two-body formation, thus, making this type of mission suitable to be 

analyzed using Lambert’s method. 

In most interplanetary missions, R1 and R2 are known, and the distance between them, C, can be 

related to the heliocentric transfer angle, θ, by the law of cosines (Ref. 4): 

−+= 2 21 cos θ 2

2

2

1 2 RRRRC (3) 

A more detailed description of Lambert’s Theorem, including Lambert’s equations and discussions of 

elliptical, hyperbolic, and parabolic trajectories, is available in Reference 4. 

The ballistic contour plots of departure energy reveal a unique mission space consisting of two 

distinguishable trajectory areas (Figure 3). The two trajectory areas are defined as Type I and Type II 

trajectories. A Type I trajectory is achieved if a spacecraft travels less than a 180° true anomaly (less than 

halfway around the sun); a Type II trajectory is achieved if a spacecraft travels more than a 180° but less 

than a 360° true anomaly (between one half and one revolution around the sun) (Ref. 3). Type I 

trajectories have shorter trip times and lower error sensitivity which often makes them desirable for 

interplanetary trajectories (Ref. 5). Due to the longer distance traveled, Type II trajectories have longer 

trip times and usually require a lower ∆V than Type I trajectories. 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 5 

Figure 3.—Mission space in departure/arrival date coordinates. 

It should be noted that there are two minimum energy areas within the ballistic plots, one of which is 

associated with a Type I transfer and the other with a Type II transfer (Ref. 3). The values of the energy 

minima for each opportunity are summarized in the Mission Opportunities section of this handbook. 

A notable ridge passes diagonally from the lower left to the upper right of the mission space 

separating the Type I and Type II trajectories. This dramatic rise is attributed to near-180° transfer angle 

trajectories. The cause of this phenomenon is that, for a ballistic 180° trajectory, the Sun and both 

trajectory end points must lie in the plane of the transfer orbit, and the endpoints must lie in the orbital 

plane of the departure planet along a common diameter in the ecliptic. If the nodal lines of the target 

planet and the transfer orbit are not aligned, any slight inclination by the target planet to cause a vertical 

out of plane displacement forces a polar inclination for a 180° transfer in order to recover (Ref. 6). The 

presence of an arrival position error (Figure 4), caused by inclination of the target planet’s orbit, at the 

Mars arrival location opposite the Earth departure location signifies that a polar trajectory must be used in 

order to reach the target planet at that point. Increasing the inclination, i, of the trajectory plane to 

anything less than 90° will not reach the target planet. Figure 4 describes the geometry of the transfer 

orbit, arrival planet orbit, and departure planet orbit that forces a polar 180° transfer. The dotted red lines 

show the transfer orbit’s progression as the inclination of the orbit is increased to 90° in order to arrive at 

to the target planet in this current geometry. Near-180° transfer trajectories require larger departure 

energies than orbits with less inclination because they are not able to take advantage of the energy 

provided by Earth’s orbital velocity. Hence, the Earth to Mars Transfer vehicle becomes responsible for 

obtaining the necessary orbital velocity. 

An exception to the polar inclination 180° transfer trajectories that occur in all ballistic missions is a 

nodal transfer (Figure 5). Nodal transfer opportunities are identified by a single node (highlighted in red 

in Figure 5) which connects the Type I and Type II trajectory peaks. A nodal transfer occurs when Earth 

departure takes place at the node where the orbit of the target planet (Mars) intersects the Earth’s orbit, 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 6 

and arrival occurs at the opposite such node (Figure 6). In these cases, the transfer trajectory plane can lie 

in Earth’s orbital plane, which requires less departure energy (Ref. 6). While the trajectory is still swept 

out 180° from Earth departure to Mars arrival, the trajectory is such that it provides an opportunity for a 

low departure energy transfer instead of trajectories with unattainable departure energy levels.

Figure 4.—Target planet orbital plane geometry forcing a polar inclination for a 180° transfer. 

Figure 5.—Mission space with nodal transfer.
NASA/TM—2010-216764 7 

Figure 6.—Orbit geometry for nodal transfer. 

While nodal transfers present a low departure energy advantage, they represent single-time-point 

missions with extraordinarily high error sensitivity, which is generally undesirable in current missions. A 

nodal transfer opportunity is not present in all opportunity cases, as demonstrated by the large ridge in 

Figure 3. 

Transfer Trajectories Using Deep Space Maneuvers

The addition of deep space maneuvers changes the architecture of a trajectory and may well reduce 

the overall cost of the mission by potentially minimizing the necessary total initial mass of a launch 

vehicle or the total ∆V of a mission (Ref. 7). Departure energies and arrival excess speeds are 

significantly reduced along the ridge in Figure 3 with the addition of deep space maneuvers. 

MIDAS determines where to perform a deep space maneuver by using calculus of variations and 

primer vector theory. If MIDAS determines that a deep space maneuver reduced ∆V, it places that 

maneuver at or near a node. This burn is often called a “broken plane” maneuver. The goal of performing 

broken plane maneuvers is to avoid high ecliptic inclination of the trajectory by performing a plane 

change maneuver, such that it would correct the path of the spacecraft toward the target planet’s out-ofecliptic position. The affects of performing this type of maneuver can be observed in the plots of 

departure energy for missions with added deep space maneuvers by observing the lack of a ridge of high 

departure energies separating Type I and Type II trajectories. 

Optimal trajectories for the launch opportunities with deep space maneuvers are not listed because in 

order to determine the minima ∆V case, the Earth departure ∆V must be combined with the total ∆V of the 

deep space maneuvers. A contour plot of Earth departure ∆V is not provided because Earth departure ∆V

is dependent on initial departure orbit. However, Earth departure ∆V can be computed from the plot of 

departure energy and then combined with the magnitudes of the deep space maneuvers to reveal the 

minimum ∆V trajectory. 

The contour plots of trajectories that utilize deep space maneuvers are of importance for determining 

Earth to Mars transfer vehicle requirements and launch asymptote specifications as well as verifying that 

a particularly low value for the total ∆V does not correspond to an unusually high departure energy. 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 8 

Launch/Injection Geometry

The launch V∞ vector is referenced to an Earth Ecliptic plane and Equinox of the year 2000 

coordinate system. The declination, δ∞, corresponds to the latitude of the outgoing asymptote from the 

equator. The right ascension, α∞, represents the asymptote’s equatorial east longitude from the vernal 

equinox. A graphical depiction of the launch asymptote geometry can be found in Reference 6. 

The outgoing V∞ vector is a function of departure and arrival date. Since it is a slowly varying 

function, it may be considered constant for a given launch date (Ref. 6). The arrival excess speed vector is 

located at the intersection of the trajectory plane and Mars’ orbit. It points outward normal to the Earth’s 

surface. 

Launch Azimuth 

An optimal Earth departure trajectory plane is defined by the Earth departure V∞ vector, the launch 

site, and the center of the Earth (Ref. 6). The launch azimuth, ΣL , the angle between the trajectory plane 

and the launch meridian, specifies the orientation of this plane: 

sin( )

)cos( tan( cos()sin() ) cotan( )

L

L L L

L

α−α

α−αφ−δφ =Σ ∞

∞ ∞

(3) 

The launch azimuth can also be defined in terms of the arc between the launch site and the arrival 

excess speed vector (Ref. 6), θ: 

)sin()cos(

)cos()sin()sin( )cos( θφθφ−δ =Σ ∞

L

L

L

(4) 

For a launch site of the NASA Kennedy Space Flight Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida, which has a 

declination of 28.45°, the Eastern Test Range Safety Requirements specify that the launch azimuth must 

be between 40° and 115°. This condition affects the times at which spacecrafts can be launched from this 

particular position (Ref. 2). 

Right ascension of the launch sire and Greenwich hour angle are two other quantities that define the 

trajectory plane and can be obtained from the following approximate expressions(Ref. 6): 

LL +λ=α GHADATE EARTH ⋅ω+ t L (5) 

GHADATE 985647365.04606.100 d J 2000 = + ⋅ (6) 

where

dJ 2000 is the number of days past noon January 1, 2000, UTC

ωEARTH is the Earth’s rotation rate about its axis

λL is the launch site longitude

For information concerning daily launch windows consult Reference 6. 

Description of Trajectory Characteristics

The plots are presented in a departure date/arrival date mission space. For each opportunity four 

parameters, including departure energy, launch asymptote declination and right ascension, and Mars 

arrival V∞ are each plotted within the mission space. These parameters are presented in two sets of 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 9 

contour plots, one without a performed deep space maneuver to minimize the departure energy, the 

ballistic trajectories, and another with a performed deep space maneuver. 

For the deep space maneuver option missions, a contour plot of the total magnitude of the deep space 

maneuvers as well as contour plots of the time and magnitude of each individual deep space maneuver is 

included in addition to the contour plots of the four parameters plotted for the ballistic missions. Included 

values of the total magnitude range from 0.0 to 5 km/sec. A value of zero signifies that no deep space 

maneuvers were performed. As such, some trajectories that lie outside of the outermost contour (0.0 

km/sec) are not subject to any deep space maneuvers.

Only the contour plots of the departure energy include diagonal time-of-flight lines. The time-offlight lines occur in 50-day increments. The contour plots of right ascension and declination of the launch 

asymptote as well as the plots of Mars arrival V∞ are superimposed on plots of the corresponding 

departure energy for reference purposes. The contour lines of the parameters are labeled with their values.

A table summarizing the optimal energy trajectories for both Type I and Type II ballistic missions is 

given at the beginning of each opportunity’s set of contour plots. This summary table provides the 

optimal mission characteristic values for both minimum departure energy and minimum Mars arrival V∞. 

Each row in the table defines a particular optimized mission. The trajectory characteristic optimized for 

that mission is in bold type. 

Mission Opportunities

The departure energy for the optimal mission was calculated for each launch opportunity for both 

Type I and Type II ballistic transfer trajectories. Summaries of these values are provided in Figure 7 and 

Figure 8. 

Figure 7.—Type I optimal ballistic mission departure energies. 

11.1

9.0 9.0

8.4

10.2

17.1

18.7

14.9

9.0 9.1

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

2026 2028 2031 2033 2035 2037 2039 2041 2043 2045

C3 (km2/sec2)

Launch Year

Departure Energies: Type I Ballistic Transfer Trajectories
NASA/TM—2010-216764 10

Figure 8.—Type II optimal ballistic mission departure energies.

TABLE 1.—DATA FOR OPTIMAL MISSIONS: 2026 TO 2045

Year C3

(km2/sec2)

Transfer type

2026 9.144 II

2028 8.928 II

2031 8.237 II 

2033 7.781 II

2035 10.19 I

2037 14.84 II 

2039 12.17 II

2041 9.818 II

2043 8.969 II

2045 8.587 II

It can be observed from Figure 7 and Figure 8 that a Type II mission is the optimal lowest energy 

trajectories for the majority of the launch opportunities. However, a Type I trajectory is optimal for the 

2035 launch opportunity. An explanation for the unusually high departure energy for the Type II transfer 

for this opportunity is that the arrival date for the Type II transfer approaches the aphelion date of Mars, 

and larger departure energies are necessary to reach Mars at its furthest point. Arrival at Mars before this 

date by using a Type I trajectory provides lower departure energies, consequently, Type I trajectories are 

optimal in these instances. This event can also be observed in the optimal mission data provided by 

Reference 3 for the 2018 opportunity, approximately 17 years before the 2035 launch opportunity, the 

time it takes for Mars and Earth to nearly repeat their relative heliocentric positions. 

As previously stated, some year’s optimal launch opportunity may be more optimal than another 

year’s optimal launch opportunity because the orbits of Earth and Mars are neither exactly circular nor 

coplanar. For the launch opportunities in this study, the opportunity requiring the least amount of 

departure energy occurs at 2033. 

9.1 8.9

8.2 7.8

17.5

14.8

12.2

9.8

9.0 8.6

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

2026 2028 2031 2033 2035 2037 2039 2041 2043 2045

C3 (km2/sec2)

Launch Year

Departure Energies: Type II Ballistic Transfer Trajectories
NASA/TM—2010-216764 11

Assumptions

The optimization code in MIDAS is defaulted to minimize total weighted mission ∆V therefore only 

conjunction class missions were considered in this study. 

Departure energy, declination and right ascension of the launch asymptote, and Mars arrival V∞ are 

assumed to be the same for flyby and capture trajectories when no deep space maneuvers are introduced 

into the mission. The rationalization for this is that the same arrival position is always targeted in a 

ballistic trajectory because there is no additional directional control over the spacecraft once it departs 

Earth. Hence, the V∞ vector will be the same regardless of the arrival event, and consequently the right 

ascension and declination of the V∞ vector remain the same. For missions in which deep space maneuvers 

are included, specifying a flyby trajectory over a capture trajectory does have consequences on the 

mission characteristics. The values of departure energy, declination and right ascension of the departure 

asymptote, and Mars arrival V∞ are all affected by changing the arrival event. The differences in the 

trajectory parameters caused by specifying either a flyby or capture arrival event are the result of 

optimizing the deep space maneuver to reduce the overall mission ∆V. In trying to minimize Mars arrival 

∆V for a capture arrival event, MIDAS calculates the optimal trajectory with a deep space maneuver in 

order to reach Mars with the optimal conditions for capture. Since Mars arrival ∆V is now being 

accounted for by the deep space maneuver, the original outgoing V∞ direction is changed to place the deep 

space maneuver in the optimal location at the optimal time, which may be drastically different than the 

placement of the outgoing V∞ vector when a flyby arrival event is specified. 

The Earth to Mars flight paths without added deep space maneuvers are ballistic trajectories, 

meaning, after the initial injection burn the spacecraft coasts the remainder of the trip to Mars. The Earth 

to Mars flight paths with added deep space maneuvers are, however, not ballistic. These trajectories rely 

on mid-course impulsive burns to optimize various trajectory characteristics en route to Mars. For 

missions in which maneuvers were added, no more than two were actually performed. MIDAS is capable 

of adding up to eight deep space maneuvers into a trajectory, however, using just two usually 

accomplishes the desired departure energy reduction without over complicating mission trajectories. 

For all contour plots, the spacecraft departs from a 407 km circular parking orbit. Inclination was not 

independently set for this study, as MIDAS has a parking orbit inclination default value of 90°. The 

default value of 90° was used because there is no plane change required, and therefore no ∆V required, in 

order to depart from a lesser inclination. 

In order to generate a range of data for each parameter, a parameter search was performed in MIDAS 

in which the departure and arrival dates were varied over a set range in two-day increments. MIDAS 

calculates the values of the specified trajectory characteristics only to a precision of two decimal places.

In some instances, this complicates the task of determining exactly which date is optimal for launch 

because two or more dates may result in having the same departure energy due to MIDAS rounding. 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 12

Mission Design Data Contour Plots

Earth to Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045 

Earth to Mars—2026 Opportunity

TABLE 2.—EARTH TO MARS—2026 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr) 

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr) 

C3

(km2/sec2) 

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 11/14/26 8/9/27 11.11 120 28.28 2.915

Type 2 10/31/26 8/19/27 9.144 130.7 23.16 2.729

Type 1 11/14/26 8/9/27 11.11 120 28.28 2.915

Type 2 11/6/26 9/8/27 9.646 130 32.8 2.565
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Earth to Mars—2028 Opportunity

TABLE 3.—EARTH TO MARS—2028 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr) 

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr) 

C3

(km2/sec2) 

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination 

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 12/10/28 7/20/29 9.048 158.9 1.581 4.892

Type 2 12/2/28 10/16/29 8.928 185.1 29.34 3.261

Type 1 1/17/29 9/2/29 24.12 140.9 1.581 3.593

Type 2 11/20/28 9/18/29 9.315 182.8 25.51 2.966
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Earth to Mars—2031 Opportunity

TABLE 4.—EARTH TO MARS—2031 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr) 

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr) 

C3

(km2/sec2) 

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 1/28/31 8/6/31 9.00 193.8 –34.2 5.541

Type 2 2/23/31 1/9/32 8.237 252.9 1.015 5.53

Type 1 3/1/31 9/27/31 17.89 177.7 –25.3 3.777

Type 2 12/13/30 9/25/31 12.48 225.9 8.543 3.445
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Earth to Mars—2033 Opportunity

TABLE 5.—EARTH TO MARS—2033 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr) 

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr) 

C3 

 (km2/sec2) 

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 4/6/33 10/1/33 8.412 271 –54.9 3.956

Type 2 4/28/33 1/27/34 7.781 311.4 –11.2 4.377

Type 1 4/20/33 11/6/33 9.266 267.1 –53.2 3.311

Type 2 1/26/33 10/17/33 17.78 278.3 –2.53 3.831
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Earth to Mars—2035 Opportunity

TABLE 6.—EARTH TO MARS—2035 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3 

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 4/21/35 11/3/35 10.19 0.5033 6.135 2.692

Type 2 6/12/35 7/28/36 17.52 54.360 2.953 4.063

Type 1 5/7/35 11/23/35 11.80 351.300 6.892 2.600

Type 2 3/12/35 11/7/35 19.33 17.900 –13.50 2.697
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Earth to Mars—2037 Opportunity

TABLE 7.—EARTH TO MARS—2037 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3 

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 6/2/37 12/17/37 17.07 43.45 39.79 3.344

Type 2 6/18/37 7/19/38 14.84 74.97 13.59 3.356

Type 1 6/30/37 2/19/38 28.33 26.54 32.34 2.334

Type 2 4/13/37 2/7/38 31.13 66.88 1.891 2.422
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Earth to Mars—2039 Opportunity

TABLE 8.—EARTH TO MARS—2039 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3 

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 7/19/39 2/16/40 18.65 82.89 49.48 4.03

Type 2 7/15/39 7/9/40 12.17 94.37 18.66 2.701

Type 1 8/12/39 5/4/40 29.07 63.6 40.89 2.361

Type 2 6/11/39 5/10/40 19.29 101.7 10.12 2.384
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Earth to Mars—2041 Opportunity

TABLE 9.—EARTH TO MARS—2041 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3 

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 10/31/41 6/20/42 14.86 119.6 46.18 4.016

Type 2 10/19/41 8/31/42 9.818 119.9 21.71 2.49

Type 1 11/12/41 8/31/42 15.84 104.2 39.59 2.489

Type 2 10/21/41 9/4/42 9.819 119.1 23.5 2.483
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Earth to Mars—2043 Opportunity

TABLE 10.—EARTH TO MARS—2043 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 11/23/43 7/20/44 9.032 149.10 6.097 4.263

Type 2 11/15/43 9/16/44 8.969 163.80 31.18 2.793

Type 1 12/31/43 8/29/44 22.88 163.80 31.18 3.386

Type 2 11/13/43 9/14/44 9.006 164.30 29.53 2.793
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Earth to Mars—2045 Opportunity

TABLE 11.—EARTH TO MARS—2045 OPPORTUNITY—ENERGY MINIMA

Mission 

type

Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3 

(km2/sec2)

Right ascension 

(deg)

Declination

(deg)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 1/8/46 7/27/46 9.061 178.80 –22.00 5.512

Type 2 1/22/46 12/18/46 8.587 227.60 11.17 5.119

Type 1 2/11/46 9/17/46 20.71 161.50 –14.4 3.767

Type 2 12/3/45 9/21/46 10.84 209.60 15.49 3.256
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Appendix A.—Verification of Midas Results

The MIDAS generated trajectory data with no performed deep space maneuver was validated 

by making a comparison between the contour plots generated by MIDAS and those published in 

References 3 and 6 for the year 2005. Contour plots of departure energy, launch asymptote declination, 

launch asymptote right ascension, and arrival excess velocity compared favorably to those in Reference 6. 

Reference 3 did not contain a contour plot for the launch asymptote right ascension. 

The data generated by MIDAS for the 2005 Opportunity was compared to the 2005 optimum energy 

data provided by Reference 6. Given that the MIDAS values only have accuracy out to one hundredth of a 

unit, and the values provided by Reference 6 have an accuracy of one thousandth of a unit, there are 

potential rounding differences between the two values. The departure dates and arrival dates fall within 

one or two days of each other. However, because the discrepancies are small, the values are effectively 

equivalent. Table 12 summarizes the energy minima data for the 2005 opportunity generated by MIDAS. 

Table 13 summarizes the energy minima data for the 2005 opportunity provided by Reference 6. 

TABLE 12.—ENERGY MINIMA FOR 2005 OPPORTUNITY CALCULATED BY MIDAS

Mission type Earth departure date

(m/d/yr)

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr)

C3

(km2/sec2)

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 8/10/05 2/20/06 15.89 3.219

Type 2 9/1/05 10/4/06 15.45 3.459

Type 1 9/7/05 4/19/06 25.45 2.361

Type 2 6/21/05 4/3/06 31.44 2.466

TABLE 13.—ENERGY MINIMA FOR 2005 OPPORTUNITY DATA FROM REFERENCE 6

Mission type Earth departure date

(m/d/yr) 

Mars arrival date 

(m/d/yr) 

C3

(km2/sec2) 

Mars arrival excess speed

(km/s)

Type 1 8/10/05 2/22/06 15.883 ------- 

Type 2 9/2/05 10/8/06 15.445 -------

Type 1 9/8/05 4/20/06 ------- 2.3602

Type 2 6/21/05 4/4/06 ------- 2.4668
NASA/TM—2010-216764 83

Verification Contour Plots for 2005 Opportunity 
NASA/TM—2010-216764 84
NASA/TM—2010-216764 85

References

1. Sauer, Carl: Preliminary Draft of Users Guide to MIDAS, March 1991. 

2. Bate, R.R.; Mueller, D.D.; White, J.E.: Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, Dover Publications, Inc., 

New York, 1971. 

3. George, L.E. and Kos, L.D.: Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook: Earth to Mars Mission 

Opportunities and Mars to Earth Return Opportunities 2009-2024, NASA/TM-1998-208533, 

July 1998. 

4. Clarke, V.C.: A Summary of the Characteristics of Ballistic Interplanetary Trajectories, 1962-

1977, JPL Publication 32-209, January 1962.

5. Jordan, J.F.: The Application of Lambert’s Theorem to the Solution of Interplanetary Transfer 

Problems, JPL Publication 32-521, February 1964. 

6. Segeyevsky, A.B.; Snyder, G.C.; Cuniff, R.A.: Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook, Volume 

1, Part 2. Earth to Mars Ballistic Mission Opportunities, 1990-2005, JPL Publication 82-43, 

September 1983. 

7. Navagh, J.: Optimizing Interplanetary Trajectories With Deep Space Maneuvers, M.S. Thesis, 

The George Washington University, Washington D.C., Langley Research Center, Contractor 

Report 4546, 1993.
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Interplanetary Mission Design Handbook: 

Earth-to-Mars Mission Opportunities 2026 to 2045

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14. ABSTRACT

The purpose of this Mission Design Handbook is to provide trajectory designers and mission planners with graphical information about 

Earth to Mars ballistic trajectory opportunities for the years of 2026 through 2045. The plots, displayed on a departure date/arrival date 

mission space, show departure energy, right ascension and declination of the launch asymptote, and target planet hyperbolic arrival excess 

speed, V∞, for each launch opportunity. Provided in this study are two sets of contour plots for each launch opportunity. The first set of plots 

shows Earth to Mars ballistic trajectories without the addition of any deep space maneuvers. The second set of plots shows Earth to Mars 

transfer trajectories with the addition of deep space maneuvers, which further optimize the determined trajectories. The accompanying texts 

explains the trajectory characteristics, transfers using deep space maneuvers, mission assumptions and a summary of the minimum departure 

energy for each opportunity. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Trajectories; Launching; Contours; Mission planning; Asymptotes; Targets; Deep space; Handbooks; Conics; Interplanetary 

trajectories; Trajectory optimization 

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