U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5188

Prepared in cooperation with Teton Conservation District

Characterization of Water Quality and Biological 

Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 

2007–08
Front cover

Background: The Teton Range as seen from Teton Point turnout on U.S. Highway 26/89, Wyoming, May 19, 2006.

 Photograph by Jerrod D. Wheeler.

Upper inset: Typical algal growth on cobbles from Fish Creek at site A-Wck during August 2008. Photograph by Cheryl Eddy-Miller.

Lower left inset: Equipment used for collection of macroinvertebrates. Photograph by Ty D. Blacklock.

Lower center inset: Making a discharge measurement at site A-R6D. Photograph by Jerrod D. Wheeler.

Lower right inset: Evaluating aquatic plants using RPS bucket. Photograph by Cheryl Eddy-Miller.
Characterization of Water Quality and 

Biological Communities, Fish Creek,

Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

By Cheryl A. Eddy-Miller, David A. Peterson, Jerrod D. Wheeler, and

Daniel J. Leemon

Prepared in cooperation with Teton Conservation District

Scientific Investigations Report 2010–5188

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2010

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reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Eddy-Miller, C.A., Peterson, D.A., Wheeler, J.D., and Leemon, D.J., 2010, Characterization of water quality and biological communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations 

Report 2010–5188, 70 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5188/.
iii

Contents

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................5

Acknowledgments................................................................................................................................5

Description of Study Area ............................................................................................................................5

Geology...................................................................................................................................................5

Hydrology ...............................................................................................................................................8

Climate....................................................................................................................................................8

Methods of Study Design and Sample Collection....................................................................................8

Study Design..........................................................................................................................................9

Physical Properties.............................................................................................................................12

Water Chemistry .................................................................................................................................12

Aquatic Plants .....................................................................................................................................12

Macroinvertebrate Communities .....................................................................................................13

Habitat Characteristics......................................................................................................................13

Water-Quality Characterizations...............................................................................................................13

Physical Properties.............................................................................................................................14

Streamflow..................................................................................................................................14

Groundwater Levels ..................................................................................................................14

Water-Quality Properties..........................................................................................................14

Water Chemistry .................................................................................................................................15

Nutrients......................................................................................................................................15

Isotopes of Nitrate.....................................................................................................................26

Wastewater Chemicals.............................................................................................................26

Biological Community and Habitat Characterization.............................................................................30

Aquatic Plant Communities...............................................................................................................30

Aquatic Plant Community Composition..................................................................................30

Aquatic Plant Community Production ....................................................................................33

Algal Communities.....................................................................................................................33

Algal Standing Crop..........................................................................................................33

Algal Community Composition........................................................................................37

Algal Community Traits ....................................................................................................41

Macroinvertebrate Communities .....................................................................................................45

Macroinvertebrate Community Composition .......................................................................45

Macroinvertebrate Community Traits.....................................................................................50

Habitat Characteristics .....................................................................................................................50

Streambed Substrate ................................................................................................................50

Riparian Canopy.........................................................................................................................50

Ecological Relations....................................................................................................................................54

Relations Between Algae and Nutrients ........................................................................................54

Relations Between Aquatic Plants and Higher Trophic Levels...................................................55
iv

Figures

1. Map showing location of Fish Creek study area as part of Jackson Hole .........................3

2. Map showing location of surface-water and groundwater sampling sites on 

 and near Fish Creek, Wyoming...................................................................................................4

3. Generalized geology and geologic section in the vicinity of Fish Creek.............................6

4–12. Graphs showing:

 4. Historical mean daily streamflow and mean daily streamflow for 2007 and 

 2008 at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming.........18

 5. Annual peak streamflow at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, Fish Creek

at Wilson, Wyoming,1994–2008.........................................................................................19

 6. Average mean daily streamflow at streamflow-gaging stations in Jackson

Hole, Wyoming.....................................................................................................................19

 7. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, August 2008........................................22

 8. Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphate in samples

from surface-water sites, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08...........................................24

 9. Dissolved nitrate concentrations......................................................................................25 

10. Dissolved orthophosphate concentrations.....................................................................27

 11. Isotopic composition of nitrate in samples collected from Fish Creek and

nearby groundwater ...........................................................................................................28

 12. Dissolved nitrate concentrations and isotopic composition of nitrate in

 samples collected from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater.....................................29

13. Photographs showing aquatic plant life in Fish Creek at sites A-R1D, A-RB, A-R3D, 

A-Wck, A-R6D, and A-R7, 2007 and 2008 ................................................................................31

14–34. Graphs showing:

 14. Average composition of aquatic plant communities by year, Fish Creek,

Wyoming, 2007–08...............................................................................................................32

 15. Seasonal variation in aquatic plant community composition at sites on

 Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ..........................................................................................34

 16. Diel fluctuations in dissolved-oxygen concentration and pH in Fish Creek at

Wilson (Site A-Wck), Wyoming, October 21–23, 2008...................................................36

 17. Seasonal change in average values of maximum rate of dissolved-oxygen

production, Pmax, at surface-water sites Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ...................37

 18. Average chlorophyll-a concentrations by season and by sampling site,

 Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ..........................................................................................39

 19. Similarities of algal communities depicted by nonmetric multidimensional

scaling ordination, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007 ..............................................................40

 20. Relative abundance of nitrogen-fixing diatoms (Rhopalodiaceae) in algal

communities of Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007....................................................................44

Summary........................................................................................................................................................56

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................58

Supplemental Data Graphs ........................................................................................................................61

Supplemental Data Tables...........................................................................................................[in pocket]
v

 21. Average taxa richness of macroinvertebrate communities by sampling

period for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08..........................48

 22. Similarities of macroinvertebrate communities depicted by nonmetric

multidimensional scaling ordination for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek,

Wyoming, 2007–08...............................................................................................................48

 23. Relative abundance of macroinvertebrate taxonomic groups at sites with

perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08...............................................................49

 24. Relative abundance of functional feeding groups of macroinvertebrates at

sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, May and August, 2007–08.............51

 25. Tolerance scores for macroinvertebrate communities based on taxa richness

and relative abundance for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming,

May and August, 2007–08 ..................................................................................................52

 26. Streambed substrate at five sites with perennial flow on Fish Creek, May and

October, 2008........................................................................................................................53

 27. Ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P). A, surface-water

 samples and B, groundwater samples, Fish Creek area, 2007–08 ..............................55

 28. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, March 2007..........................................62

 29. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, May 2007..............................................63

 30. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, July 2007 ..............................................64

 31. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, August 2007.........................................65

 32. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, October 2007 .......................................66

 33 Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, May 2008..............................................67

 34. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from

surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, October 2008 .......................................68

Tables

1. Sampling sites on and near Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08 ........................9

2. Sampling schedule for analyses of physical properties, water chemistry, aquatic

plants, macroinvertebrates, and habitat, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.........................10

3. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for

surface-water samples from Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 .............................................16

4. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for

groundwater samples from wells near Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ............................20

5. Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphate in samples from

Fish Creek (2007–08), Jackson Hole streams and rivers, and area groundwater............23

6. Maximum rate of dissolved-oxygen production, Pmax, in millligrams per liter per

hour, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ......................................................................................36

7. Concentrations of chlorophyll-a and ash free dry mass, algal cell density, and algal

cell biovolume, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ....................................................................38

8. Algal community traits, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007 .............................................................42

9. Macroinvertebrate community metrics, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08 ..........................46
vi

Conversion Factors

SI to Inch/Pound

Multiply By To obtain

Length

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft) 

kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)

micrometer (μm) 0.000039 inch (in.)

Area

square centimeter (cm2

) 0.001076 square foot (ft2)

square meter (m2

) 10.76 square foot (ft2) 

square centimeter (cm2

) 0.1550 square inch (ft2) 

square kilometer (km2

) 0.386 square mile (mi2)

Volume

liter (L) 33.82 ounce, fluid (fl. oz)

cubic meter (m3

) 264.2 gallon (gal) 

cubic meter (m3

) 35.31 cubic foot (ft3)

cubic meter (m3

) 0.0008107 acre-foot (acre-ft) 

Flow rate

cubic meter per second (m3

/s) 70.07 acre-foot per day (acre-ft/d) 

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NGVD 29).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983

NAD 83).

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius

(μS/cm at 25°C) or millisiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (mS/cm at 25°C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given either in milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Stable isotope values of nitrogen and oxygen are referenced to a standard and are given in 

parts per thousand or per mil.
vii

 Abbreviations and initialisms used in this report

< less than

cm3

/m2 cubic centimeter per square meter

g/m2 grams per square meter

mg/m2 milligrams per square meter

AFDM ash-free dry mass

AIR atmospheric nitrogen

EPT Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and Plecoptera 

IDAS Invertebrate Data Analysis System

LRL laboratory reporting level

N nitrogen

N:P ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations

NMDS nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordinations

NO3 nitrate

NWQL National Water Quality Laboratory

P phosphorus

p probability

Pmax maximum rate of productivity

PVC polyvinyl chloride

r correlation coefficient

RPS rapid periphyton survey

RTH richest-targeted habitat

ssp. subspecies

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VSMOW Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

Abstract 

Fish Creek, a tributary to the Snake River, is about 

25 river kilometers long and is located in Teton County in 

western Wyoming near the town of Wilson. Public concern 

about nuisance growths of aquatic plants in Fish Creek have 

been increasing in recent years. To address this concern, the 

U.S. Geological Survey conducted a study in cooperation with 

the Teton Conservation District to characterize the water quality and biological communities in Fish Creek. Water-quality 

samples were collected for analyses of physical properties and 

water chemistry (nutrients, nitrate isotopes, and wastewater 

chemicals) between March 2007 and October 2008 from seven 

surface-water sites and three groundwater wells. During this 

same period, aquatic plant and macroinvertebrate samples 

were collected and habitat characteristics were measured at the 

surface-water sites.

The main objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate 

nutrient concentrations (that influence biological indicators 

of eutrophication) and potential sources of nutrients by using 

stable isotope analysis and other indicator chemicals (such 

as caffeine and disinfectants) that could provide evidence 

of anthropogenic sources, such as wastewater or septic tank 

contamination in Fish Creek and adjacent groundwater, and 

(2) characterize the algal, macrophyte, and macroinvertebrate 

communities and habitat of Fish Creek.

Nitrate was the dominant species of dissolved nitrogen 

present in all samples and was the only bioavailable species 

detected at concentrations greater than the laboratory reporting 

level in all surface-water samples. Average concentrations of 

dissolved nitrate in surface water were largest in samples collected from the two sites with seasonal flow near Teton Village 

and decreased downstream; the smallest concentration was at 

downstream site A-Wck. Concentrations of dissolved nitrate 

in groundwater were consistently greater than concentrations 

in corresponding surface-water sites during the same sampling 

event. Orthophosphate was the primary dissolved species 

of phosphorus present in all surface-water and groundwater 

samples. The average concentration of dissolved orthophosphate in surface water was largest in samples collected from 

near Teton Village; samples from all other sites had similar 

average concentrations. Concentrations of dissolved orthophosphate in groundwater also were typically greater than 

concentrations in corresponding surface-water sites during the 

same sampling event. 

The aquatic plant communities in Fish Creek typically 

were composed of a mixture of macrophytes, macroalgae, 

microalgae, and moss. The composition of the aquatic plant 

community in Fish Creek appeared to shift in the downstream 

direction in 2007. On average, the proportion of macrophytes ranged from about 1 percent at site A-R1U, the most 

upstream site, to 54 percent of the plant community at site 

A-R6D, the farthest downstream site sampled during 2007. 

The downstream increase in macrophytes was accompanied by 

a downstream decrease in microalgae. The average proportion of microalgae ranged from 80 percent at site A-R1U to 

24 percent at site A-R6D. The proportion of the macroalgae 

Cladophora in the aquatic plant community was relatively 

high at sites A-Wck and A-R3D in both 2007 and 2008.

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a, which is one of the 

primary photosynthetic pigments in algal cells, tended to 

be higher at the sites with perennial flow than at sites with 

seasonal flow. Chlorophyll-a concentrations at the sites with 

perennial flow averaged more than 200 milligrams per square 

meter. Almost all of the chlorophyll-a concentrations from 

Fish Creek were in the range of, or exceeded, the range of 100 

to 200 milligrams per square meter, which is suggested as an 

indicator of nuisance algal conditions by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Most of the 199 algal taxa identified in the 2007 samples 

were diatoms (Bacillariophyta), accounting for an average of 

87 percent of the total taxa richness by sample. Blue-green 

algae composed about 8 percent of the taxa richness, and 

green algae (Chlorophyta) composed about 4 percent of the 

taxa richness, on average. In spite of having relatively few 

Characterization of Water Quality and Biological 

Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming,

2007–08

By Cheryl A. Eddy-Miller,1 David A. Peterson,1 Jerrod D. Wheeler,1 and Daniel J. Leemon2

1

 U.S. Geological Survey.

 2 Teton Conservation District.
2 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

species, blue-green algae commonly were dominant in terms 

of density (average of 47 percent), and green algae commonly 

were dominant in terms of biovolume (average of 68 percent) 

at sites with perennial flow. The taxonomic composition of the 

algal communities at sites with seasonal flow was notably different from the composition at sites with perennial flow. 

Nitrogen-fixing algae were present and sometimes dominant in the algal communities of Fish Creek. Nitrogen-fixing 

algae include diatoms in the family Rhopalodiaceae and bluegreen algae. Metrics for oxygen tolerance, organic nitrogen, 

and pollution class indicated relatively low organic enrichment 

in Fish Creek. 

Similar to the algal communities, the macroinvertebrate 

taxa richness was lower at the sites with seasonal streamflow 

than at the sites farther downstream with perennial streamflow. 

The Diptera (true flies) composed about one-half of the macroinvertebrate taxa identified in Fish Creek. The Ephemeroptera 

(mayflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies), and Plecoptera (stoneflies), which are collectively known as the EPT, composed 

smaller proportions of the overall community taxa richness 

and were more common in May than August of both 2007 and 

2008, indicating seasonal variation in community composition. Conversely, Diptera and noninsects accounted for higher 

proportions of the community taxa richness in August than 

May of both years. Although the seasonal change in macroinvertebrate community composition in Fish Creek indicates 

a shift toward more tolerant taxa later in the year, this change 

might be due to factors other than water quality, such as the 

change in algal communities. 

Although nutrient concentrations in Fish Creek generally 

were low, the standing crop of algae in Fish Creek was high 

compared to other streams in the region and was within the 

range of nuisance conditions. This apparent paradox also has 

been noted in other ecosystems and can be explained by rapid 

consumption of nutrients by the aquatic community as soon as 

the nutrients are introduced to the system. Rapid consumption 

of nutrients might also be a factor in the lack of statistically 

significant correlation between nutrients (various forms of 

nitrogen and phosphorus) and algal standing crop (algal biovolume, algal cell density, and chlorophyll-a) in Fish Creek. 

Groundwater is a likely source of nutrient loading to Fish 

Creek based on substantial contributions of groundwater to 

Fish Creek and consistently higher concentrations of nutrients 

in the groundwater compared to the surface water. The aquatic 

plant communities in Fish Creek affect the macroinvertebrate 

and fish communities in various ways such as by providing 

food and shelter and by causing diel changes in dissolved oxygen. The seasonal changes in macroinvertebrate communities 

were consistent with the seasonal increases in Cladophora and 

macrophytes in Fish Creek that affect food and shelter available to the macroinvertebrates. The macroinvertebrates, in 

turn, are an important food source for the fish community that 

is dominated by salmonids, such as the Snake River cutthroat 

trout (Oncorhynchus clarki spp.). 

Introduction

Fish Creek, an approximately 25-kilometer (km) long 

tributary to the Snake River, is located in Teton County in 

western Wyoming near the town of Wilson (fig. 1). Fish Creek 

is an important water body as it is used for irrigation, fishing, and recreation and adds scenic value to the Jackson Hole 

properties it runs through. The clear, cold water in Fish Creek 

makes it an important spawning tributary for the Snake River 

cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki spp. [Baxter and Stone, 

1995]). The Fish Creek drainage is located along the southwestern margin of Jackson Hole. Fish Creek’s drainage area 

includes part of the southern extent of the Teton Range and the 

southwestern part of Jackson Hole and is 183 square kilometers (km2

) at the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) streamflowgaging station, Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming (station 

13016450; fig. 2) (Eddy-Miller and others, 2009). Groundwater and groundwater/surface-water interaction studies near 

Fish Creek have shown that streamflow in Fish Creek is very 

responsive to changes in groundwater levels, and flow in the 

creek is a combination of groundwater discharge to the stream 

as well as surface-water inflows from tributaries and irrigation 

diversion that terminate in Fish Creek (Nelson Engineering, 

1992; Hinckley Consulting and Jorgensen Engineering, 1994; 

Wyoming State Engineer’s Office; 2005, Eddy-Miller and 

others, 2009). 

Public concern about nuisance growths of aquatic plants 

in Fish Creek has been increasing since the early 2000s (Brian 

Remlinger, Teton Conservation District, oral commun., 2004). 

Aquatic plants, such as algae and macrophytes, are integral 

parts of a healthy stream ecosystem because they are primary 

producers in the aquatic food web, providing food and habitat 

for invertebrates and other organisms. Excessive growths of 

aquatic plants, however, can be esthetically displeasing and a 

nuisance for anglers, irrigators, and other water users (Peterson and others, 2001). During daylight hours, aquatic plants 

produce oxygen that is essential for aquatic life, sometimes 

resulting in supersaturated concentrations of oxygen. At night, 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations can decrease to levels lethal 

to fish, particularly trout, because of microbial respiration and 

consumption of oxygen as a result of decomposition of plant 

cells and other organic matter in the water. Respiration and 

decomposition of organic matter consume oxygen throughout the day and night but are offset by photosynthesis during 

daylight hours. 

To address concerns about nuisance algal growths in Fish 

Creek, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted a study 

in cooperation with the Teton Conservation District to characterize the water quality and biological communities of Fish 

Creek. Water-quality samples were collected for analyses of 

physical properties and water chemistry between March 2007 

and October 2008 from seven surface-water sites and three 

wells. During this same period, aquatic plant and macroinvertebrate samples were collected and habitat characteristics were 

measured at the seven surface-water sites. The main objectives 
Introduction 3

EXPLANATION

Approximate boundary of 

 Jackson Hole

Grand Teton

National Park

Yellowstone

National Park

WYOMING

Study area

13027500

13010065

Approximate area of 

figure 2 (study area)

110°45’ 110°30’

IDAHO

WYOMING

Base from U.S. Census Bureau, 2001, 1:100,000

Lambert Conformal Conic projection

Standard parallels 43°N and 44°N 

Central meridian 110°30’W

North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83)

Jackson

Moran

Moose

22

191

26

89

287

National

Elk Refuge

GRAND TETON

NATIONAL

PARK

Wilson

111°00’

43°45’

43°30’

Teton

Village

0 5 10 KILOMETERS

0 5 10 MILES

191

BRIDGER-TETON

NATIONAL

FOREST

Jackson Lake

Leigh

Lake

Emma

Matilda

Lake

 Jenny

Lake

Phelps 

Lake Lower Slide 

Lake

JACKSON

HOLE

Gros

Ventre

River

Cache Creek

Flat Creek

Mosquito

Creek

Creek

Fish

Moose

Creek

TARGHEE

NATIONAL

FOREST

287

Teton Creek

Creek

Spread

Creek

Ditch

River

Snake

Creek

Figure 1. Location of Fish Creek study area as part of Jackson Hole.

Rendezvous

Peak

3,300

T E

T O N

R A

N G E

GROS VENTRE RANGE

HOBACK RANGE

SNAKE RIVER RANGE

U.S. Geological Survey

 streamflow-gaging

 station and number

13018350 13018300

13018300

13016305

Granite

13013650

13016450

Figure 1. Location of Fish Creek study area as part of Jackson Hole.
4 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Snake

River

River

Ventre

Gros

Creek

Creek

Creek

Fish

Fis

Tra

h

il

Canyon

Canyon

Black

Phillips

Lake

River

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Creek

Flat

Spring

Flat

Cottonwood

Taylor

Mosquito

R IV

E

26

89

26 

89 

187 

189 

187

189

22 

22 

390 

390 

110°45'

43°30'

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

Teton

Village

Jackson

Wilson

Creek

Fall

Road

Creek

Fish

Road

Resor’s Road

Pine Meadow 

Road

Base from U.S. Census Bureau, 2001, 1:100,000

Public land survey system modified from Wyoming Water Resources Center digital data, 1994

Albers Equal-area Conic projection

Standard parallels 41°N and 45°N, central meridian 110°30'W

S

NA

K

E

R

R

A

NG

E

EGNAR ERTNEV SORG

110°55' 110°50'

43°25'

43°35'

T. 41 N.

T. 40 N.

T. 42 N.

T. 41 N.

R. 117 W. R. 116 W.

TETON

RANGE

Creek

Creek

Snake

Approximate area of 

Snake River west bank

Creek

Granite

Snake River Diversion

Figure 2. Location of study area with surface-water and groundwater sampling sites on and near Fish Creek, Wyoming.

Intermittent water-quality and(or) biological data 

 sampling station and site name

Groundwater-sampling station and site name

Continuous streamflow-gaging station and site name A–Wck

A–Wck

Intermittent streamflow-gaging station and site name A–R7

A–Wck–W1

EXPLANATION

Resor’s

Bridge

A–Wck–W1

A–R1U

A–R1D

A–R1D–W1

A–RB

A–R6D

A–Wck (gaging

station 13016450)

A–R3D

A–R3D–W1

A–R7

Phillips Bench 

SnoTel site

Figure 2. Location of surface-water and groundwater sampling sites on and near Fish Creek, Wyoming.
Description of Study Area 5

of this study were to (1) evaluate nutrient concentrations (that 

influence biological indicators of eutrophication) and potential sources of nutrients by using stable isotope analysis and 

other indicator chemicals (such as caffeine and disinfectants) 

that could provide evidence of anthropogenic sources of 

contamination in Fish Creek and adjacent groundwater, and 

(2) characterize the algal, macrophyte, and macroinvertebrate 

communities and habitat of Fish Creek.

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to describe the characterization of water quality and biological communities of Fish Creek 

in western Wyoming using data collected during 2007–08. 

Physical properties were determined in the field for all 

surface-water and groundwater sites during each visit. Streamflow was measured at surface-water sites, and water-level data 

were collected at groundwater sites. Water-quality samples 

from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater were collected for 

analyses of nutrients, nitrate isotopes, and wastewater chemicals, depending on the sampling schedule. Biological samples 

(aquatic plants and macroinvertebrates) were collected and 

riparian canopy and pebble counts were measured at all 

surface-water sites.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the generous assistance of landowners near Fish Creek who provided access to 

their property for this study. Andrew Long, Nicholas Paretti, 

Janet Carter, and Mary Kidd, USGS, are acknowledged for 

their reviews of the draft. The authors also acknowledge 

assistance from Ty Blacklock, USGS, during the datacollection phase of the study, and Suzanne Roberts and 

Margo VanAlstine, USGS for publication assistance.

Description of Study Area

Teton County in Wyoming is experiencing rapid 

growth and development in the west bank area of the Snake 

River (fig. 2). Nelson Engineering (1992) estimated that 

1,670 homes were in the west bank area in 1992. Between 

1992 and 2007, an additional 640 homes were constructed in 

the west bank area (Jennifer Bodine, Teton County Planning 

and Development, written commun., 2008). Water is supplied 

to area residents from the alluvial aquifer, either from a water 

supply system or individual wells. Effluent from most of these 

residences and businesses is discharged into the alluvial aquifer through injection wells at a sewage-treatment plant or septic systems. The exception is effluent from the town of Wilson, 

which is piped to Jackson’s waste disposal system. Multiple 

anthropogenic activities exist in the Fish Creek drainage basin 

including a ski area, golf courses, cattle grazing, and irrigation 

associated with agricultural and esthetic uses that have the 

potential to affect water quantity and quality. Altitudes in the 

study area range from approximately 1,875 meters (m) above 

the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) 

at Fish Creek at the Wilson gaging station to about 3,200 m 

above the NGVD 29 at the summit of Rendezvous Peak.

Geology

The geology within the study area is structurally complex 

and is composed of diverse strata ranging from Precambrianera basement rocks to Quaternary-era unconsolidated surficial 

deposits (fig. 3). The study area lies within the Jackson Hole, 

a folded and faulted downwarp of deposits 1,200 to 2,100 m 

thick, generally bounded by the Teton Range to the west and 

the anticlinal uplifts of the Gros Ventre and Washakie Ranges 

to the east (Nolan and Miller, 1995). The southern boundary 

of the basin consists of the Snake River, Hoback, and Salt 

River (not in fig. 1 map) Ranges associated with the Wyoming 

Thrust Belt (fig. l). The Teton Range is a north-south-trending, 

upthrown fault block that generally parallels the Fish Creek 

and Snake River drainages along the southern part of the 

valley. The associated Teton fault zone has caused westward 

tilting of the basin (fig. 3), which provides relief of nearly 

1,500 m from the valley floor to the top of the peaks near the 

study area, and relief of more than 2,100 m in other parts of 

the valley. 

The steep hillside of the Teton Range immediately west 

of Fish Creek consists of Precambrian-age metamorphosed 

(mafic) and other ultramafic rocks, granitic gneisses, and 

various granitic rocks with associated pegmatites (Love and 

others, 1992). Capping the Precambrian rocks are Paleozoic 

sedimentary sequences including the Flathead Sandstone, Gros 

Ventre Formation, Gallatin Limestone, Bighorn Dolomite, 

Darby Formation, and Madison Limestone (Love and others, 

1992). Quaternary-age surficial deposits occupy most of the 

Fish Creek drainage basin and are primarily the result of glacial and postglacial fluvial deposition, both in the Snake River 

Basin and in some of the subsidiary tributary basins. Several 

areas of basin margin alluvial fans, flood-plain alluvium and 

colluvium, landslide debris, pediment, and talus deposits also 

exist in the area (Cox, 1974; Love and others, 1992). 

The predominant surficial geology near Fish Creek 

between the Teton fault and the Snake River consists of an 

alluvial plain of unconsolidated clay, silt, sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders that likely have high depositional variability 

and are highly permeable. These deposits include alluvium, 

colluvium, glacial till, and outwash as a result of fluvial deposition and Pleistocene-age valley glaciation (Nolan and Miller, 

1995). Geophysical surveys have been performed in the area 

to attempt to determine the relative thickness of these Quaternary unconsolidated deposits. Results from a time-domain 

electromagnetic survey (Nolan and Miller, 1995) indicated 

that unconsolidated deposits range in thickness from 120 m 

to 730 m along the Jackson Hole valley, with a thickness 
6 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

A A'

Qa

Qa Qt

Qa

Qg

Qa

Qa

Qg

Qa

Qt

Qa

Qg

Qg

Qg

Qg

QTc

QTc

Qg

Qg

Kb

Qls QTc

Qg

Tii

QTc

QTc

Qa

QTc

Qa

Qls

Kb

Ka

Tii

Qt

Qa

Qa

Qa

Qg

Qa

Qa

Qa

Qa

Qls Qg

QTc

Tte

Qls

Qls

Qg

Qa

Qg

QTc

Qa

Qg

Qa

Qg

Qa

Qg

Qg

QTc

Qls

Qls

Qls

Qt

Qg

Qls

Qg

Qa

Jst

Tte

Tte

Qg

Qg

Qg

Qg

Tte

Qt

Qg

Qg

Qa

Qa

Jst

pC

pC

pC

pC

pC

pC

pC

cd

cd

PMP

PMP

PMP

PMP

PMP

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

PMP

PMP PMP

CM

PMP

CM CM

CM

PMP

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

CM

PMP

PMP

PMP

PMP

0 2 4 MILES

Base from Wyoming Gap Analysis digital data, 1996, 0 2 4 KILOMETERS

1:100,000

Albers Equal-area Conic projection 

Standard parallels 41°N and 45°N, 

central meridian 110°30'W

Figure 3. Generalized geology and geologic section in the vicinity of Fish Creek.

Geology modified from Case and others, 2000; 

Love and Christiansen, 1985; Love and others, 

1992; and Love and others, 2003 

110°50' 110°45'

43°40'

43°35'

43°30'

Jackson

Moose

Wilson

Snake

River

River

Snake

West 

Gros Ventre 

Butte East 

Gros Ventre 

Butte

Fish

Teton Village

Creek

Gros Ventre

River

Creek

Lake

Phelps Lake

Granite

Creek

Creek

Spring

Creek

Flat

Creek

Cache

Teton Fault

Figure 3. Generalized geology and geologic section in the vicinity of Fish Creek.
Description of Study Area 7

A A' Fish Creek Snake River Gros Ventre River

Qls

pC

Qa, Qt, and Qg

CM

Tte

cd

pC

Teton fault zone branch (?)

3,500

3,000

2,500

2,000

METERS

1,500

1,000

500

NGVD 29

–1,500

–1,000

–500

CM

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION APPROXIMATELY X2

?

Teton Fault

Details of fault and buried strata are approximate and largely diagrammatic. For simplicity, Quaternary-age deposits are not distinguished in the geologic 

section. Schematic based on a nearby cross section in Love and others (2003).

PMP

0 2 4 MILES

0 2 4 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Tertiary sedimentary and igneous rocks

Mesozoic and Paleozoic rocks

Teewinot Formation

Bacon Ridge Sandstone

Chugwater and Dinwoody Formations

Alluvium and colluvium

Gravel, pediment, and alluvial fan deposits

Conglomerate

 Jackson Hole (Pleistocene or Pliocene)

Landslide deposits

Gravel, pediment, talus, and alluvial fan deposits—May 

 include some glacial deposits (fill and outwash) and 

 Tertiary gravels

Quaternary unconsolidated deposits

Kb

Jst Stump Formation

Bacon Ridge Sandstone

Ka Aspen Shale

Tte

Qa

Qt

Qtc

Qls

Qg

Tii Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks

cd

Precambrian rocks

Phosphoria Formation, Wells Formation, Tensleep

 Sandstone, and Amsden Formation

Flathead Sandstone, Gros Ventre Formation, Gallatin 

 Limestone, Bighorn Dolomite, Darby Formation, and 

 Madison Limestone

Granitic and basaltic rocks, granite gneiss, metasedimentary 

 and metavolcanic rocks, metasedimentary and 

 metamorphosed mafic and ultramafic rocks 

Fault—Dashed where concealed and approximately located. 

 Bar and ball on downthrown side

Thrust fault (concealed)—Saw teeth on upper plate

Relative fault movement

pC

PMP

CM

Figure 3. Generalized geology and geologic section in the vicinity of Fish Creek.—Continued Figure 3. Generalized geology and geologic section in the vicinity of Fish Creek.—Continued
8 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

of 140 m near the confluence of the Gros Ventre River and 

Snake River. Results from an audio-magnetotellurics survey 

(Nolan and others, 1998), primarily conducted in the southern part of the valley and within the study area, indicated 

that unconsolidated material thickness ranged from 30 m in 

the southernmost part of the valley to 210 m near the town 

of Wilson. Groundwater velocities in the Quaternary unconsolidated deposits range from 1.1 to 5.5 m per day (Nelson 

Engineering, 1992).

Hydrology

On the west side of the Snake River is an alluvial aquifer 

known locally as the west bank aquifer that underlies the 

area shown as Snake River west bank in figure 2. The Fish 

Creek streambed is incised into the sediments of the Snake 

River alluvium and intersects the water table of the west 

bank aquifer. The water table in the west bank aquifer can 

rise due to natural recharge from precipitation on the valley floor, recharge from local flood irrigation, and injection 

of tertiary-treated sewage. The water table also rises from 

infiltration of recharge of water from Lake Creek, which has 

flow augmented by a diversion from the Snake River (Nelson Engineering, 1992), and from the Snake River, which is 

topographically higher in altitude than Fish Creek at a given 

latitude (Wyoming State Engineer’s Office, 2005). Fish Creek 

surface-water inflows can include springs, irrigation diversions from area rivers and streams, irrigation return flows, 

and tributary streams. Groundwater discharge contributes a 

substantial portion of the flow to Fish Creek (Eddy-Miller and 

others, 2009), although the volume of water contributed from 

groundwater varies along the length of the creek. 

Flow in Fish Creek in the area near Teton Village, the 

creek headwaters, is strongly influenced by two factors: 

(1) runoff from snowmelt directly upstream in the drainage 

basin and (2) the large fluctuations in the water table from 

applied irrigation water and an increased stage in the Snake 

River (Eddy-Miller and others, 2009). From Teton Village to 

near Resor’s Bridge (fig. 2), the creek is seasonal, typically 

flowing from about late April through October. Near Resor’s 

Bridge, the creek becomes perennial, and flow is influenced by 

increased groundwater discharge from a rising water table due 

to infiltration of valley snowmelt, a snowmelt pulse from the 

west-side mountains, infiltration of irrigation water application, and increased recharge from the higher stage of the 

Snake River to the west bank aquifer (Eddy-Miller and others, 

2009). About 2 km downstream from Resor’s Bridge, a major 

tributary, Lake Creek, enters Fish Creek. Flows in Fish Creek 

at Wilson are influenced in the summer by tributary inflows 

and a small, constant input of groundwater. Flows at Wilson in 

the winter have similar groundwater inputs, but the tributary 

inputs are minimal (Eddy-Miller and others, 2009).

Climate

The study area is semiarid with cold winters and warm 

summers. Average temperatures and annual precipitation are 

variable with changes in season and altitude. Average monthly 

temperatures at a climate station in Moose, Wyoming (fig. 1) 

ranged from –10.3 degrees Celsius (oC) in January to 16.0oC 

in July during the period 1958–2007 (National Climatic Data 

Center, 2009). Average temperatures decrease with increasing altitude. Total average precipitation near the study area, 

in the form of rain and snow, ranges annually from 54 centimeters (cm) at an altitude of 1,960 m above NGVD 29 near 

Moose, Wyo. (National Climatic Data Center, 2009) to more 

than 178 cm in the Teton Range at altitudes above 3,000 m 

(Oregon Climate Service, 2010). At the Phillips Bench SnoTel 

station (altitude of 2,500 m above NGVD 29) located about 

4 km west, northwest of site A-Wck (fig. 2), the mean annual 

precipitation (1971–2000) was 112 cm (Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, 2008).

Methods of Study Design and Sample 

Collection

Seven surface-water and three groundwater sites were 

selected for sampling on the basis of their locations along the 

reach of Fish Creek from near the headwaters at Teton Village 

to a location about 2 km from the confluence with the Snake 

River (table 1, fig. 2). Surface-water and groundwater sites 

were sampled during 2007 and 2008 (table 2). Physical properties were determined in the field for all surface-water and 

groundwater sites during each visit. Streamflow was measured 

at surface-water sites, and water-level data were collected 

at groundwater sites. Water-quality properties of dissolved 

oxygen, pH, specific conductance, and water temperature were 

measured at all surface-water and groundwater sites during 

each visit. Water-quality samples from Fish Creek and nearby 

groundwater sites were collected for analyses of nutrients, 

nitrate isotopes, and wastewater chemicals, depending on the 

sampling schedule. Biological samples (aquatic plants and 

macroinvertebrates) were collected and habitat characteristics 

of streambed substrate (pebble count) and riparian canopy 

were measured at surface-water sites. Aquatic plant communities were surveyed and biological samples were analyzed for 

algae taxonomy, chlorophyll-a, and macroinvertebrate taxonomy. All samples were collected in accordance to published 

USGS or other protocols.
Methods of Study Design and Sample Collection 9

Site name Station number Station name Reach

type

Well 

depth

(meters)

Average

instantaneous 

streamflow 

(m3

/s)

Number of

instantaneous

flow measurements

Surface-water sites

A-R1U 433505110494001 Fish Creek, nr headwaters, south 

of Teton Village, WY

S na 0.05 3

A-R1D 433438110495901 Fish Creek about 1 mile south of 

Teton Village, WY

S na .65 4

A-RB 433302110504701 Fish Creek 1/2 mile above 

Resor’s Bridge

P na 1.60 8

A-R3D 433117110515101 Fish Creek about 1.5 miles north 

of Wilson, WY

P na 5.57 8

A-Wck 13016450 Fish Creek at Wilson, WY P na 5.74 8

A-R6D 432906110522601 Fish Creek about 1 mile south of 

Wilson, WY

P na 6.26 8

A-R7 432748110515301 Fish Creek at Crescent H Ranch, 

near Wilson, WY

P na 6.78 3

Groundwater sites

A-R1D-W1 433431110501101 42-117-25bcd01 na 2.59 0.84 5

A-R3D-W1 433122110514201 41-117-15aaa01 na 2.68 .95 5

A-Wck-W1 433005110521801 41-117-22dbb07 na 2.47 .71 6

Table 1. Sampling sites on and near Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08.

[S, seasonal; P, perennial; m3/s, cubic meters per second; n, number of measurements; na, not applicable]

Study Design

Six surface-water sites, A-R1U, A-R1D, A-RB, A-R3D, 

A-Wck, and A-R6D (fig. 2) and three newly installed monitoring wells, A-R1D-W1, A-R3D-W1, and A-Wck-W1(fig. 2) 

were sampled during 2007. These initial sites were selected, 

in part, to relate sampling results to a seepage investigation (Wheeler and Eddy-Miller, 2005) and a groundwater/

surface-water interaction study (Eddy-Miller and others, 2009) 

of Fish Creek. During the 2008 sampling season, sites A-R1U 

and A-R1D were discontinued as sampling sites for the full set 

of analyses, although A-R1D remained as a water-quality sampling site, and site A-R7 (fig. 2) was added as a sampling site. 

Site A-R1U is near the headwaters of the stream and is 

the most upstream location where Fish Creek has a defined 

channel. Site A-R1D is at the downstream end of the rechannelized section of the stream in the Teton Village area. Previous studies showed that Fish Creek rapidly gains flow from 

groundwater input between these two sites (Wheeler and 

Eddy-Miller, 2005; Eddy-Miller and others, 2009).

Four sites on Fish Creek with perennial flow were 

selected and sampled during both 2007 and 2008 (table 2). Site 

A-RB is located near the location where Fish Creek transitions 

from a seasonal to a perennial stream. Site A-R3D was part of 

the seepage investigation, and is the first site downstream from 

the Lake Creek tributary input. Site A-Wck is at USGS gaging 

station 13016450. The colocation of this site with the gaging 

station was important for relating the data collected during this 

study to the long-term hydrologic data collected at the station. 

Initially, site A-R6D was selected as the most downstream site 

sampled, the same as for the seepage investigation. 

The seasonal nature of flow at sites A-R1U and A-R1D, 

local interest in sites farther downstream from A-R6D, and 

budget constraints prompted a change in sites and analyses for 

the 2008 season (table 2). Most of the sample collection and 

analyses were discontinued for sites A-R1U and A-R1D in 

order to quantify the characteristics of the entire perennial part 

of the stream. Site A-R1D was still sampled for physical properties and nutrients to evaluate differences in groundwater and 

surface-water nutrient concentrations in the colocated well, 

A-R1D-W1. Site A-R7 was established in 2008 to characterize Fish Creek at a location closer to its confluence with the 

Snake River.

Three shallow (about 2.5 m below land surface), smalldiameter (2 cm) PVC wells with 1.5-m screens were installed 

in March and May of 2007. The wells were installed by 

pounding a 3-cm diameter steel pipe with disposable well 

point into the ground, inserting the screened 2-cm well 

inside, then extracting the steel pipe. Each well was located 

between 10 and 160 m away from the stream in the estimated 

upstream groundwater flow path of one of the surface-water 

sampling sites. 
10 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Table 2. Sampling schedule for analyses of physical properties, water chemistry, aquatic plants, macroinvertebrates, and habitat, 

Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

[D, dry; Q, streamflow; CQW,1 continuous water quality; WL, water level; IQW,1 instantaneous water quality; Ch, chlorophyll-a; AT, algal taxonomy; RPS, rapid 

periphyton survey; N, nutrients; NI, nitrate isotopes; WW, wastewater chemicals; EF, equipment failure; M, macroinvertebrate classification; RS, ruined sample; 

PC, pebble count; RC, riparian canopy; --, no sample scheduled or attempted]

Sampling types

Surface-water sites Groundwater sites

A-R1U A-R1D A-RB A-R3D A-Wck A-R6D A-R7 A-R1D-W1 A-R3D-W1 A-Wck-W1

March 2007

Physical properties D D Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

-- D WL

IQW

WL

 IQW

Water chemistry D D N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

N

WW

N

NI

WW

-- D N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

Aquatic plants D D Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

-- D -- --

May 2007

Physical properties Q

CQW

D Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

EF

Q

CQW

-- WL

IQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

Water chemistry N

NI

WW

D N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

N

WW

N

NI

WW

-- N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

Aquatic plants Ch

AT

D Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

-- -- -- --

Macroinvertebrates M D M M M M -- -- -- --

July 2007

Physical properties Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

-- -- -- --

Aquatic plants Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

-- -- -- --

August 2007

Physical properties Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

-- WL

IQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

Water chemistry -- -- N

NI

WW

N

WW

N

WW

N

WW

-- N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

N

NI

WW

Aquatic plants Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

-- -- -- --

Macroinvertebrates M M M M M M -- -- -- --
Methods of Study Design and Sample Collection 11

Sampling types

Surface-water sites Groundwater sites

A-R1U A-R1D A-RB A-R3D A-Wck A-R6D A-R7 A-R1D-W1 A-R3D-W1 A-Wck-W1

October 2007

Physical properties D D Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

-- -- -- --

Aquatic plants D D Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

Ch

AT

RPS

-- -- -- --

May 2008

Physical properties -- D Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

Water chemistry -- D N N N N N N N N

Aquatic plants -- D Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

-- -- --

Macroinvertebrates -- D M M M M M -- -- --

Habitat -- D PC PC PC PC PC -- -- --

August 2008

Physical properties -- Q

IQW

Q

QWC

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

Water chemistry -- N RS N N N N N N N

Aquatic plants -- -- Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

-- -- --

Macroinvertebrates -- -- M M M M M -- -- --

October 2008

Physical properties -- Q Q

CQW 

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

Q

CQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

WL

IQW

Water chemistry -- N N RS N N N N N N

Aquatic plants -- -- Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

Ch

RPS

-- -- --

Habitat -- -- PC

RC

PC

RC

PC

RC

PC

RC

PC

RC

-- -- --

1

Continuous and instantaneous water quality includes dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, and water temperature.

Table 2. Sampling schedule for analyses of physical properties, water chemistry, aquatic plants, macroinvertebrates, and habitat, 

Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.—Continued

[D, dry; Q, streamflow; CQW,1 continuous water quality; WL, water level; IQW,1 instantaneous water quality; Ch, chlorophyll-a; AT, algal taxonomy; RPS, rapid 

periphyton survey; N, nutrients; NI, nitrate isotopes; WW, wastewater chemicals; EF, equipment failure; M, macroinvertebrate classification; RS, ruined sample; 

PC, pebble count; RC, riparian canopy; --, no sample scheduled or attempted]
12 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Physical Properties

Onsite measurements of physical properties of streamflow, water levels, and water-quality properties were made 

using standard methods described in Rantz and others (1982), 

Sauer (2002), and Koterba (1998). Streamflow or water level, 

depending on the type of site, was measured each time the site 

was visited (table 2). Streamflow is noted as estimated if the 

measurement rating was considered poor.

Water-quality properties of dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, and water temperature were measured with 

a multiprobe instrument either continuously or instantaneously 

according to methods described in the National Field Manual 

for the Collection of Water-Quality Data (U.S. Geological 

Survey, variously dated). Continuous measurements were 

recorded every 15 minutes at sites where chlorophyll-a data 

were collected for a minimum of 48 hours to record diel 

(24-hour period) fluctuations. Instantaneous measurements 

were collected in wells, after the removal of at least three well 

volumes of standing water (USGS, variously dated), and in the 

stream when water chemistry samples were being collected. 

Air temperatures were noted as estimated when non-NISTchecked thermometers were used to obtain the values.

Water Chemistry

Water samples were collected for analysis of nutrients 

(nitrogen and phosphorus species), isotopes of nitrate, and 

wastewater chemicals (table 10 in the “Supplemental Data” 

section) from surface-water and groundwater sites. Surfacewater samples were collected with depth-integrating samplers 

at equal intervals across the stream according to USGS standard methods (U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated). Samples were composited in a Teflon churn splitter. Bottles were 

filled with unfiltered water for selected total nutrient analyses, 

water filtered through a 0.45-micrometer (μm) capsule filter 

for selected dissolved nutrient analyses and for nitrate isotope 

analyses, or water filtered through a 0.70-μm glass-fiber filter 

for wastewater chemical analyses, then preserved and shipped 

according to USGS standard methods. Groundwater samples 

were collected with Teflon equipment by using methods 

described in Koterba (1998), and processed the same as the 

surface-water samples.

Samples to be analyzed for nutrients were shipped to 

the USGS National Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in 

Lakewood, Colorado. Nutrients were analyzed using methods 

described in Patton and Kryskalla (2003) and Fishman (1993). 

Filtered samples were analyzed for dissolved ammonia, 

nitrate plus nitrite, nitrite, orthophosphate, and total dissolved 

nitrogen (analytically determined total of dissolved nitrate, 

nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen), and total dissolved 

phosphorus (analytically determined total of all forms of 

dissolved phosphorus). Unfiltered samples were analyzed for 

total nitrogen (analytically determined total of total nitrate, 

nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen) and total phosphorus 

(analytically determined total of all forms of total phosphorus). Analysis of the isotopes of nitrate requires nitrate presence in the sample. Therefore, after results of nutrient analyses 

were obtained from NWQL, samples with sufficient nitrate 

were selected to be shipped to the Reston Stable Isotope Laboratory for analysis (Sigman and others, 2001; Casciotti and 

others, 2002; Révész and Casciotti, 2007).

Wastewater chemicals are a set of compounds found 

in water affected by anthropogenic activities. This suite 

of chemicals consists of pesticides, fragrances, flavorings, 

cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, human metabolites of parent 

compounds (nicotine, caffeine, and menthol), and petroleum 

products (table 10). The detection of any of these compounds 

can indicate anthropogenic effects in a drainage basin. 

Samples for wastewater chemical analyses were shipped to the 

USGS NWQL. The analytical methods for wastewater chemical determination used solid-phase extraction and capillarycolumn gas-chromatography/mass spectrometry described in 

Zaugg and others (2002). Table 10 lists all chemicals, their 

uses, and the laboratory reporting level (LRL) for wastewater 

chemicals analyzed for this study. The LRL generally is equal 

to twice the yearly determined long-term method detection 

level (Childress and others, 1999). Concentrations commonly 

are estimated when the concentration is greater than the 

minimum reporting level (MRL), defined by the NWQL as the 

smallest measured concentration of a substance that can be 

reliably measured by using a given analytical method (Timme, 

1995), but less than the LRL. Generally, concentrations that 

are less than the LRL have more uncertainty in their quantification than concentrations larger than LRLs.

Aquatic Plants

Aquatic plant communities were surveyed at surfacewater sites to estimate the relative proportion of macrophytes, 

moss, macroalgae, and microalgae present, following procedures modified from Barbour and others (1999, p. 6–21 to 

6–23) noted as RPS (rapid periphyton survey). At each site, 

three transects were established across the stream near the 

location of the algae and macroinvertebrate sampling. Three 

points were then randomly selected along each transect, and a 

viewing bucket with a 50-dot grid was used to record the type 

of aquatic plants present at a total of about 450 points per site 

on each sampling date. The plant types classified were macrophytes, which generally are large aquatic submergent plants 

with distinct stems and leaves; moss, which was true aquatic 

moss (Bryophyta); macroalgae, which includes the filamentous green algae Cladophora (Chlorophyta) and the colonial 

blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) Nostoc (Cyanophyta); and 

microalgae, which is the thin film (generally less than 5 millimeters (mm) thick) of algae such as diatoms present on the 

substrate. In cases where the substrate was judged to be too 

small or unstable to support growths of filamentous algae 

(fine gravel or smaller), the point was recorded as unsuitable 

substrate. Transects generally were laid out across the stream, 
Water-Quality Characterizations 13

perpendicular to the flow, except at site A-R1U where the 

narrow channel was surveyed with a transect parallel to the 

flow. Sites A-R1U and A-R1D were surveyed with the RPS 

bucket procedure only in July and August 2007 because of the 

seasonal flow at those sites. The other sites, A-RB, A-R3D, 

A-Wck, and A-R6D, where perennial flow exists, were 

surveyed five times in 2007, (March, May, July, August, and 

October) and three times in 2008 (May, August, and October; table 2). Consistent with the overall study design, sites 

A-R1U and A-R1D were not sampled in 2008, and one site, 

A-R7 (fig. 2), was added for the 2008 sampling. Samples of 

the dominant macrophytes were collected from selected sites 

during May and August, 2007, and sent to Burrell E. (Ernie) 

Nelson of the Rocky Mountain Herbarium at the University 

of Wyoming in Laramie for taxonomic identification.

The algal communities sampled in Fish Creek were 

the periphyton, or algae, attached to rocks in riffles. The 

protocol used, as described by Moulton and others (2002), 

was to collect periphyton from 25 rocks using a cylindrical 

delimiter and brush when the algae were primarily present 

as a film, or to collect periphyton using a top-rock scrape 

method when the algae were present primarily as branched 

filaments. Algal samples were homogenized before aliquots 

were filtered, preserved on dry ice, and sent to the USGS 

NWQL for analysis of chlorophyll-a and ash-free dry mass 

(AFDM). Separate aliquots were preserved with formalin and 

sent to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, Pa., 

for taxonomic identification and enumeration following the 

NAWQA protocol (Charles and others, 2002). Quality control 

(QC) samples for chlorophyll-a, AFDM, and algal taxonomy 

were collected as splits at site A-R1U in July and site A-R6D 

in October and analyzed by the same methods used for 

environmental samples. 

Algal community traits were calculated using algal autecology attributes described by Porter (2008). Tolerance and 

trophic metrics were calculated from all taxa, whereas Van 

Dam metrics (Van Dam and others, 1994) were calculated 

from diatoms only. Ambiguous taxa were resolved by distributing parents among children using the Algal Data Analysis 

System (Thomas F. Cuffney, U.S. Geological Survey, written 

commun., June 17, 2008). The PRIMER software (Clarke and 

Gorley, 2006) was used to calculate Bray-Curtis similarity 

coefficients (Bray and Curtis, 1957), which measure taxonomic (dis-)similarity among samples. The PRIMER software 

also was used to prepare nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordinations (NMDS), which show taxonomic similarities 

among sites on the basis of the Bray-Curtis coefficients. Algal 

and macroinvertebrate abundance data were log-transformed 

(log x + 1) to approximate normality before statistical tests 

were performed, except as indicated for linear Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and associated significance level (p) 

(Clarke and Gorley, 2006). Values of r generally can range 

from 0.00 (no correlation) to 1.00 (complete correlation) and 

were considered significant at p<0.05.

Macroinvertebrate Communities

Macroinvertebrate samples were collected in the richesttargeted habitat (RTH) following protocols described in 

Moulton and others (2002). RTH samples are intended to represent the habitat with highest taxa richness. Each RTH macroinvertebrate sample was a composite of five 0.25-square-meter 

(m2

) samples collected from multiple riffles, where available, 

with a Slack sampler equipped with 500-μm mesh. Macroinvertebrate samples were sent to Richard Durfee, formerly with 

RD Aquatics, in Pueblo West, Colo., for taxonomic identification and enumeration. A minimum of 500 macroinvertebrates 

were analyzed per sample and identified to genus or species 

for insects and higher levels for noninsects as appropriate. 

A reference collection of identified macroinvertebrates is 

maintained by the Teton Conservation District. Ambiguous 

taxa were resolved by distributing parents among children 

by using the Invertebrate Data Analysis System (IDAS) 

(Cuffney, 2003). IDAS also was used to calculate macroinvertebrate metrics. Macroinvertebrate abundance data were 

log-transformed (log x + 1) to approximate normality before 

Bray-Curtis similarity coefficients and NMDS ordinations of 

the macroinvertebrate taxonomic data were analyzed using 

PRIMER (Clarke and Gorley, 2006), similar to the methods 

described for the algal data analysis. 

Habitat Characteristics

Habitat characteristics that were measured at surfacewater sites for this study were streambed substrate (pebble 

counts) and riparian canopy. Pebble counts were measured 

according to Wolman (1954) in May and October of 2008, 

with a minimum of 100 particles measured along transects at 

each site. Particle sizes were categorized according to Potyondy and Bunte (2002). Densiometer readings to assess the 

variability and influence of the riparian canopy on Fish Creek 

were collected according to Fitzpatrick and others (1998) on 

the right and left banks at three transects for each site sampled 

in October 2008. 

Water-Quality Characterizations

The physical properties measured at and water chemistry samples analyzed from the seven surface-water and three 

groundwater sites help characterize the water quality of Fish 

Creek from the upper part of the stream near the headwaters, 

to the most downstream site near its confluence with the Snake 

River. The sampling schedule during spring, summer, and fall 

helped to characterize seasonal characteristics of the creek. 

Water-quality results are compared to results of studies of 

nearby water bodies and to applicable water-quality standards.
14 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Physical Properties

Field measurements of physical properties of streamflow, 

groundwater level, and water-quality properties (dissolved 

oxygen, pH, specific conductance, and water temperature) 

characterize the physical nature of Fish Creek. Streamflow or 

groundwater levels and water-quality properties were measured each time a site was visited. In addition, water-quality 

properties were continuously monitored at selected surfacewater sites.

Streamflow

Instantaneous streamflow measurements that were made 

during collection of water-quality samples at surface-water 

sites are shown in table 3 and figure 4. Streamflow ranged 

from 0.04 cubic meter per second (m3

/s) to 11 m3/s, indicating 

that water-quality samples were collected during a wide range 

of hydrologic conditions.

Streamflow in Fish Creek is affected by groundwater 

inflow, snowmelt runoff, tributary inflow, irrigation diversions, 

and irrigation return flows. Streamflow at the streamflowgaging station at Wilson (13016450) has been continuously 

measured since March 1994 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010a). 

During base-flow conditions, flow at the gaging station is 

about 1.1 m3

/s, and during mid-May to mid-July flow typically is greater than 14 m3

/s (Wheeler and Eddy-Miller, 2005; 

fig. 4), with peak flows as great as 40.5 m3

/s, occurring in 

1997 (fig. 5). The average annual mean daily flow at Wilson, 

during the 15 years of annual statistical calculations (water 

years 1995–2009), was 5.3 m3

/s (U.S. Geological Survey, 

2009). The average annual mean daily flow in water year 2007 

was the same as the 15-year average of 5.3 m3

/s. The average 

annual mean daily flow in water year 2008 of 5.6 m3

/s was 

slightly higher than the 15-year average. In addition, the total 

volume of flow passing by the gaging station, measured in 

cubic meters (m3

) of annual runoff, was near average in 2007 

and was slightly higher in 2008 than the mean annual runoff 

for the previous 15 years of streamflow record. Annual runoff 

for 2007 and 2008 was 1.67×108

 m3 and 1.76×108 m3, respectively, with the 15-year average annual runoff at 1.65×108

 m3.

Average mean daily streamflow as plotted on an annual 

basis shows the variability between Fish Creek and other 

streamflow-gaging stations in the Jackson Hole valley (fig. 6). 

When compared with other drainages in the valley, Fish Creek 

exhibits a streamflow pattern more similar to that of the larger 

Snake River system than to those of drainages closer to Fish 

Creek’s size and characteristics, largely due to the influence 

of both groundwater and surface-water inputs from the Snake 

River. Gaging stations on Granite Creek and Cache Creek, 

both with similar drainage areas, show streamflows that are 

more typical of an unregulated snowmelt-driven system, 

with groundwater-induced base flow most of the year, augmented by a sharp increase in May, peak flows in June–July, 

and a return to base-flow conditions by the end of August. In 

contrast, Fish Creek has an annually consistent increase that 

is earlier, beginning in late March through April, as lowland 

valley snowmelt occurs, some irrigation in the west bank 

area begins, and seasonal releases from Jackson Lake cause 

increases in stage to occur in the Snake River, subsequently 

recharging the west bank aquifer that discharges to Fish Creek. 

This early rise is followed by snowmelt runoff peak flows 

in late May–July, which are on average four times greater 

than peak flows for Flat Creek, a quasi-regulated drainage of 

similar size located across the valley. As peak flows subside 

in mid-August, Fish Creek shows a more gradual recession 

through the end of September, as the raised groundwater table 

(from irrigation infiltration and raised Snake River stage) 

discharges to the creek and irrigation return flows terminate 

in the creek. As the irrigation season abruptly ends near the 

beginning of October, a sharp decrease in flow occurs, likely 

from quickly receding surface-water inputs as evidenced by 

the sharp drop inflows in the Snake River. Flows in Fish Creek 

continue a more gradual recession to base-flow conditions in 

late November than that of the Snake River, the result of a 

slow recession of groundwater input to the system.

Groundwater Levels

Groundwater-level measurements that were made during 

collection of water-quality samples at monitoring wells are 

shown in table 4. Measured water levels indicate the groundwater level is less dynamic in the lower reaches of Fish Creek 

at sites A-R3D-W1 and A-Wck-W1 than in the headwaters 

near Teton Village at site A-R1D-W1 (table 4). The water 

levels in wells A-R3D-W1 and A-Wck-W1 changed about 

0.4 m between the time of low and high water tables. The 

water table in well A-R1D-W1 changed more than 2.3 m (the 

depth of the well), as the water level near well A-R1D-W1 

was lower than the bottom of the well during the time of low 

water table. These results are similar to those found in EddyMiller and others (2009), Nolan and Miller (1995), and Nelson 

Engineering (1992). 

Water-Quality Properties

Water-quality properties, continuous or instantaneous, 

were measured during each sampling event. Water-quality 

properties that were measured include dissolved oxygen, pH, 

specific conductance, and water temperature. Instantaneous 

water-quality properties are listed in table 3 for the surfacewater sites and in table 4 for the groundwater sites; instantaneous measurements also can be accessed at http://nwis.

waterdata.usgs.gov/wy/nwis/qwdata. Continuously collected 

data for the surface-water sites are in tables 11–18 in the 

“Supplemental Data” included on the CD–ROM. Continuously collected data for August 2008 are displayed in figure 7 

as an example, and in figures 28–34 in the “Supplemental 

Data” section for the other sampling dates (table 2). 
Water-Quality Characterizations 15

Continuous water-quality data show patterns that are 

evident in many of the sets of diel data. For example, in 

August 2008 (fig. 7), water temperature has a different pattern 

at site A-RB than at the downstream sites. Site A-RB has a 

lower volume of flow (table 3), which requires less time to 

heat up throughout the day. The water temperature at this site 

also remains warmer at night compared to the downstream 

sites and has a smaller temperature fluctuation in a 24-hour 

period, indicating a larger part of the creek’s water is from 

ground-water in the headwater area near site A-RB. The larger 

volume of flow at site A-R3D and farther downstream sites 

lead to more similar water-quality properties when compared 

to site A-RB. 

Water Chemistry

Samples were collected from Fish Creek and nearby 

groundwater sites and analyzed for nutrients, isotopes of 

nitrate, and wastewater chemicals. Dissolved concentrations of 

ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, orthophosphate, total nitrogen (sum 

of dissolved nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen), 

and total phosphorus (sum of dissolved species) were determined. Total concentrations (unfiltered samples) were determined for total nitrogen (sum of total nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, 

and organic nitrogen) and total phosphorus (sum of species). 

The isotopes of nitrate were analyzed as they can help identify 

the sources of nitrate detected. Wastewater chemicals are a 

set of compounds found in water affected by anthropogenic 

activities. Analytical results from nutrient, isotope, and 

wastewater chemical samples are available in U.S. Geological 

Survey (2010).

Nutrients

Concentrations of nitrogen species were analyzed in 

surface-water and groundwater samples collected in 2007–08. 

Results indicated that nitrate was the dominant species of dissolved nitrogen present in all samples (tables 3 and 4). Nitrate 

was the only bioavailable species detected at concentrations 

greater than the LRL in all surface-water samples. Average 

concentrations of dissolved nitrate in surface water were largest in samples collected from the two sites near Teton Village, 

A-R1U and A-R1D (table 5; fig. 8), and decreased downstream as far as site A-Wck. The average dissolved nitrate 

concentrations were greater at sites A-R6D and A-R7 than at 

site A-Wck. Average dissolved nitrate concentrations from the 

five downstream sites were similar to average concentrations 

of samples collected from streams and rivers in the Jackson 

Hole valley (table 5; Clark and others, 2007). 

Two samples were collected for quality assurance of 

nutrient samples: one replicate sample and one blank sample. 

The relative-percent difference (RPD) between concentrations 

in the replicate sample was calculated to compare the concentrations measured in both the replicate and environmental 

samples using the following equation:

The RPD of all nutrients in the replicate ranged from 

0 to 17 percent. The higher RPD is attributable to the small 

concentrations (0.13 and 0.11) in the samples. 

The blank sample collected was used to evaluate potential introduction of contamination to environmental samples 

during field sample collection, field equipment cleaning, and 

laboratory analytical procedures. Water certified to be free of 

all inorganic chemicals, was used as the source water for all 

blank samples. Phosphorus was the only nutrient detected in 

the blank sample and was at an estimated concentration of 

0.005 milligram per liter (mg/L), which is below the LRL of 

0.008 mg/L. 

Concentrations of dissolved nitrate at the two upstream 

sites (A-R1U and A-R1D) on Fish Creek with seasonal flow 

were always greater than concentrations at the five downstream sites with perennial flow (fig. 9A). The largest dissolved nitrate concentration of 0.32 mg/L was in the August 

2007 sample from site A-R1U. 

Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate in groundwater were higher in samples from two sites, A-R1D-W1 and 

A-Wck-W1, than in samples from the west bank area wells 

reported by Nolan and Miller (1995), whereas the average 

dissolved nitrate concentration at site A-R3D-W1 was lower 

than the average for the west bank area wells (table 5). Median 

nitrate concentrations in samples from wells completed in 

the geologic units to the west of Fish Creek (fig. 3), which 

may recharge the groundwater in the Fish Creek alluvium, 

ranged from 0.06 mg/L as nitrogen (N) for the Cambrian- and 

Precambrian-age units to 0.16 mg/L as N for the Mississippian- to Permian-age Tensleep Sandstone (Nolan and Miller, 

1995). Geologic units potentially contributing groundwater 

to the western side of the Fish Creek alluvium are primarily 

Cambrian- and Precambrian-age units for the upper one-third 

of the Fish Creek drainage basin, with the addition of Mississippian to Permian-age formations and glacial units in the 

lower two-thirds of the basin. Dissolved nitrate concentrations 

in the groundwater were largest at all three sites in May compared to the other months sampled (fig. 9B; table 4). 

Concentrations of dissolved nitrate in groundwater were 

consistently greater than concentrations in the corresponding surface-water samples during the same sampling events 

(tables 3 and 4; fig. 9B). As mentioned previously, the wells 

were designed to be in the flow path upstream from the corresponding surface-water site. The groundwater/surface-water 

pair with the most similar dissolved nitrate concentrations 

was sites A-R1D and A-R1D-W1. The consistent similarity 

is likely due to both the large groundwater recharge to the 

stream in this part of Fish Creek and that groundwater is a 

larger component of the streamflow compared to downstream. 

Groundwater samples from sites A-R3D-W1 and A-Wck-W1, 

in the upstream flow path of surface-water sites A-R3D and 

RPD=absolute value sample sample

sample sample

1 2

1 2

2

−

+















































×100
16 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Site 

number Date Time

Air

temperature

(

o

C)

Instantaneous 

streamflow 

(m3/s)

Dissolved 

oxygen 

(mg/L)

pH, 

unfiltered, 

(standard 

unit)

Specific 

conductance, 

unfiltered

(μS/cm)

Water

temperature

(

o

C)

Ammonia, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrate 

plus nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

A-R1U 05/10/2007 1330 26.0 E0.06 8.6 8.2 73 13.0 <0.020 0.19

07/10/2007 1300 -- .04 8.7 7.5 254 12.5 -- --

08/13/2007 1430 32.0 .04 9.2 7.0 258 13.0 <.020 .32

A-R1D 07/10/2007 1730 -- .52 8.8 7.8 270 12.0 -- --

08/16/2007 2045 -- 1.27 5.1 7.5 268 13.0 <.020 .14

08/18/2008 1730 -- .74 -- E8.2 265 -- <.020 .253

10/23/2008 1330 E5.0 .06 10.8 8.2 243 11.3 <.020 .268

A-RB 03/09/2007 0900 2.0 E.01 16.3 8.5 223 4.0 <.020 .042

05/08/2007 1700 -- .55 9.0 8.3 243 14.0 <.020 .115

07/11/2007 1100 -- 3.23 8.9 7.8 245 12.5 -- --

08/15/2007 1600 25.0 3.14 9.4 7.9 221 16.5 <.020 .017

10/22/2007 1700 -- .50 8.9 8.6 237 10.0 -- --

05/06/2008 1500 20.5 .55 14.4 7.8 232 14.3 <.020 .154

08/19/2008 1200 32.0 3.62 8.8 8.2 236 15.7 -- --

10/20/2008 1620 4.0 1.13 8.8 8.2 221 11.1 <.020 .079

A-R3D 03/07/2007 1345 4.0 1.04 10.7 8.6 266 11.0 <.020 .04

05/09/2007 0845 15.0 5.81 10.4 8.4 212 8.5 <.020 .034

07/11/2007 1600 -- 10.3 9.7 8.5 222 17.0 -- --

08/14/2007 1515 -- 9.54 8.0 8.4 203 17.0 <.020 <.016

10/25/2007 0930 -- 3.06 10.6 8.4 213 5.8 -- --

05/06/2008 1730 15.0 1.92 8.8 8.6 250 11.1 <.020 .026

08/19/2008 1630 28.0 9.23 8.3 8.3 220 15.2 <.020 .021

10/21/2008 0830 -5.0 3.68 8.7 7.8 236 6.8 -- --

A-Wck 03/06/2007 1535 11.0 .85 11.1 8.9 282 11.0 <.020 .02 

05/08/2007 1040 22.5 4.81 11.1 8.7 220 9.0 E.014 .02

07/12/2007 1000 -- 11 8.8 8.0 226 12.0 -- --

08/15/2007 1045 21.0 10.5 10.4 8.6 229 13.5 <.020 <.016

10/24/2007 1700 -- 3.0 11.2 9.1 230 9.5 -- --

05/07/2008 1345 14.5 2.04 16.8 8.7 264 8.9 <.020 .024

08/20/2008 0845 28.0 9.26 9.2 7.9 218 11.0 <.020 E.009

10/22/2008 1630 E-2.0 4.45 10.6 9.4 224 9.0 <.020 <.016

A-R6D 03/07/2007 0910 -3.0 1.54 10.5 8.3 279 4.0 <.020 .084

05/07/2007 0915 11.0 6.06 10.5 -- 225 7.0 <.020 .05

07/12/2007 1700 -- 10.9 10.3 8.9 223 16.5 -- --

08/16/2007 1230 26.0 10.7 10.3 8.8 230 15.5 <.020 <.016

10/25/2007 1700 -- 3.46 10.6 8.9 239 10.0 -- --

05/08/2008 1045 9.0 3.43 15.7 8.7 272 8.1 <.020 .099

08/20/2008 1500 19.0 9.46 11.3 9.2 225 15.5 <.020 <.016

10/22/2008 1400 1.0 4.5 14.1 9.1 227 7.6 <.020 E.011

A-R7 05/08/2008 1645 14.0 4.25 9.2 8.7 271 10.9 <.020 .051

08/21/2008 0845 17.0 10.4 9.2 8.1 245 10.8 <.020 <.016

10/22/2008 0900 –1.0 5.72 9.5 8.0 254 4.5 <.020 E.008

Table 3. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for surface-water samples from Fish Creek, Wyoming,

2007–08.

[oC, degrees C; m3/s, meter cubed per second; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25oC; E, estimated; <, less than; --, no data]
Water-Quality Characterizations 17

Site

number Date

Nitrate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Total 

nitrogen,1

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Total 

nitrogen,1

unfiltered 

(mg/L as N)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Total

phosphorus, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Total

phosphorus, 

unfiltered 

(mg/L as P)

N-15/N-14 

ratio in 

nitrate

(per mil)

O-18/O-16 

ratio in 

nitrate

(per mil)

A-R1U 05/10/2007 0.19 <0.002 0.30 0.70 0.016 0.014 0.19 2.35 –4.40

07/10/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/13/2007 .32 <.002 .39 .33 .012 .01 .024 5.84 –7.11

A-R1D 07/10/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/16/2007 .14 <.002 .34 .17 .035 .033 .044 9.77 –5.12

08/18/2008 .253 <.002 .47 .27 .047 .048 .050 -- --

10/23/2008 E.27 E.001 .37 .28 .065 .065 .067 -- --

A-RB 03/09/2007 .042 <.002 .08 .11 E.005 E.003 E.005 4.70 –5.52

05/08/2007 .115 <.002 .16 .20 E.006 E.004 .009 4.89 –7.36

07/11/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/15/2007 .017 <.002 .07 .08 .012 .015 .021 7.12 –5.59

10/22/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

05/06/2008 E.15 E.001 .42 .27 .007 E.005 .011 -- --

08/19/2008 -- -- .15 -- -- .020 -- --

10/20/2008 E.08 E.002 .22 .12 .009 .009 .012 -- --

A-R3D 03/07/2007 .04 <.002 .11 .15 .008 .009 .011 6.17 –4.94

05/09/2007 E.03 E.002 .09 .13 E.004 E.003 .013 5.60 –4.69

07/11/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/14/2007 <.016 <.002 .17 .09 .008 .009 .017 -- --

10/25/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

05/06/2008 .026 <.002 .19 .15 E.005 <.006 .010 -- --

08/19/2008 .021 <.002 .29 .12 E.003 .007 .013 -- --

10/21/2008 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

A-Wck 03/06/2007 E.02 E.001 .12 .12 E.006 .010 .012 -- --

05/08/2007 E.02 E.002 .07 .12 E.004 E.003 .008 -- --

07/12/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/15/2007 <.016 <.002 .28 .07 .007 .009 .014 -- --

10/24/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

05/07/2008 E.02 E.002 .14 .10 E.005 <.006 E.005 -- --

08/20/2008 E.01 E.001 .2 .10 E.005 E.006 .012 -- --

10/22/2008 <.016 <.002 E.10 E.07 E.006 E.004 E.006 -- --

A-R6D 03/07/2007 E.08 E.001 .21 .16 E.005 .007 .011 6.40 –5.18

05/07/2007 .05 .004 .10 .14 E.004 .008 .015 8.72 –2.63

07/12/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

08/16/2007 <.016 <.002 .07 .07 .007 .009 .013 -- --

10/25/2007 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

05/08/2008 E.10 E.002 .27 .19 E.006 <.006 .013 -- --

08/20/2008 <.016 <.002 .26 .16 .007 E.005 .011 -- --

10/22/2008 E.011 <.002 .15 E.06 E.007 E.004 E.005 -- --

A-R7 05/08/2008 E.05 E.001 .27 .14 .006 E.004 .008 -- --

08/21/2008 <.016 <.002 .09 E.06 .006 E.004 E.007 -- --

10/22/2008 E.008 <.002 .14 E.06 E.006 E.003 <.008 -- --

Table 3. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for surface-water samples from Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

2007–08.—Continued

[oC, degrees C; m3/s, meter cubed per second; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25oC; E, estimated; <, less than; --, no data]

1

nitrate + nitrite + ammonia + organic nitrogen.
18 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 4. Historical mean daily streamflow and mean daily streamflow for 2007 and 2008 at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, 

Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming. 

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

STREAMFLOW, IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND

Historical mean daily (water years 1995 

 through 2009)

2007 mean daily

2008 mean daily

Sampling event

MONTH

Figure 4. Historical mean daily streamflow and mean daily streamflow for 2007 and 2008 at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, 

Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming.
Water-Quality Characterizations 19

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

STREAMFLOW AT SNAKE RIVER, CUBIC METERS PER SECOND

STREAMFLOW AT FISH, CACHE, FLAT, AND GRANITE CREEKS, CUBIC METERS PER SECOND

Fish Creek (13016450, period of record 1994–2009)

Flat Creek (13018350, period of record 1989–96;

 1999–2009)

Cache Creek (13018300, period of record 1962–2009)

Granite Creek (13016305, period of record 1995–2009)

Snake River (13013650, period of record 1995–2009)

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC

MONTH

Figure 5. Annual peak streamflow at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, 

Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming,1994–2008.

Figure 6. Average mean daily streamflow at streamflow-gaging stations in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.

11.3

ANNUAL PEAK STREAMFLOW,

IN CUBIC METERS PER SECOND

17.0

22.7

28.3

34.0

39.6

1994 1996 1998 2000

DATE OF ANNUAL PEAK (CALENDAR YEAR)

2002 2004 2006 2008

Figure 5. Annual peak streamflow at streamflow-gaging station 13016450, 

Fish Creek at Wilson, Wyoming, 1994–2008. 
Table 4. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for groundwater samples from wells near Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08. [oC, degrees C; m, meter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; NGVD 29, National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929; E, estimated; <, less than; --, no data] Site number Date Time Air temperature (oC) Depth to water below land surface (m) Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) pH, unfiltered (standard unit) Specific conductance unfiltered (μS/cm) Water temperature (oC) Altitude of land surface, (meters above NGVD 29) A

d

(m

A-R1D-W1 05/10/2007 1145 -- 1.38 7.7 7.2 273 7.0 2,184 

08/16/2007 1915 -- .23 3.9 7.2 266 13.7 2,184 

05/04/2008 1615 14 1.58 10 7.2 257 3.8 2,184 

08/21/2008 1810 -- .26 3.0 6.9 265 13.9 2,184 

10/23/2008 1210 E5.0 .75 3.4 6.9 205 10.9 2,184 

A-R3D-W1 03/08/2007 1830 5 1.01 3.0 7.6 279 3.0 2,151 

05/09/2007 1230 21 .70 2.7 7.1 301 7.5 2,151 

08/13/2007 1245 29.5 .64 2.1 6.5 292 12.5 2,151 

05/07/2008 1615 15 .87 4.6 7.4 292 5.1 2,151 

08/21/2008 1330 17 .72 1.7 7.1 302 11.7 2,151 

10/23/2008 1150 E5.0 .83 2.4 7.2 256 8.0 2,151 

A-Wck-W1 03/08/2007 1600 -- .94 2.0 7.6 318 4.5 2,140 

05/08/2007 1245 22.5 .74 1.6 7.3 305 7.6 2,140 

08/16/2007 1530 -- .58 1.4 7.3 300 13.5 2,140 

05/07/2008 1430 14.5 .88 4.0 7.3 329 6.0 2,140 

08/21/2008 1500 17 .63 .8 7.1 313 12.8 2,140 

10/23/2008 1100 E5.0 .48 1.3 7.3 254 10.6 2,140 
Site

number Date

Nitrate, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Nitrite, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Orthophosphate, 

dissolved

 (mg/L as P)

Total phosphorus, 

dissolved 

(mg/L as P)

Total phosphorus, 

unfiltered, 

(mg/L as P)

Total nitrogen,1

dissolved 

(mg/L as N)

Total nitrogen,1

unfiltered 

(mg/L as N)

N-15/N-14 

in nitra

(per m

A-R1D-W1 05/10/2007 0.718 <.002 0.051 0.060 0.123 0.87 0.85 8.38 

08/16/2007 .328 <.002 .057 .062 .069 .50 .34 7.81 

05/04/2008 1.10 <.002 .036 .041 .046 1.27 1.17 -- 

08/21/2008 .336 <.002 .055 .055 .105 .47 .41 -- 

10/23/2008 .321 <.002 .044 .044 .046 .43 .32 -- 

A-R3D-W1 03/08/2007 .267 E.002 .020 .041 .207 .77 .74 6.89 

05/09/2007 .415 <.002 .012 .010 .011 .53 .48 10.03 

08/13/2007 .105 <.002 .017 .013 .024 .16 .13 6.31 

05/07/2008 .296 <.002 .018 .013 .038 .40 .39 -- 

08/21/2008 .109 <.002 .016 .013 .012 .27 .16 -- 

10/23/2008 .127 <.002 .014 .011 .011 .22 .12 -- 

A-Wck-W1 03/08/2007 .456 <.002 .036 .039 .045 .47 .47 8.05 

05/08/2007 .725 <.002 .047 .048 .049 .84 .79 7.35 

08/16/2007 .215 <.002 .049 .055 .056 .43 .24 10.54 

05/07/2008 1.42 <.002 .052 .048 .050 1.54 1.53 -- 

08/21/2008 .227 <.002 .045 .044 .043 .28 .24 -- 

10/23/2008 .357 <.002 .060 .047 .046 .49 .37 -- 

Table 4. Physical properties, nutrient concentrations, and nitrate isotope values for groundwater samples from wells near Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.—Continued[oC, degrees C; m, meter; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; NGVD 29, National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929; E, estimated; <, less than; --, no data]

1nitrate + nitrite + ammonia + organic nitrogen.
22 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

7

9

11

13

15

17

WATER TEMPERATURE, 

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

A–RB

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

200

210

220

230

240

250

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

pH, IN STANDARD UNITS

5

7

9

11

13

15

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

45

65

85

105

125

145

08/19/2008 0:00 08/20/2008 0:00

DATE AND TIME

08/21/2008 0:00 08/22/2008 0:00

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, 

PERCENT SATURATED 

Figure 7. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

August 2008. 

Figure 7. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

August 2008.
Water-Quality Characterizations 23

Table 5. Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphate in samples from Fish Creek (2007–08), Jackson Hole streams 

and rivers, and area groundwater.

[mg/L, milligram per liter; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorus; <, less than]

Site name (number)

Nitrate Orthophosphate

Number of 

samples

Average

concentration 

(mg/L as N)

Number of 

samples

Average

concentration 

(mg/L as P)

Surface-water samples from Fish Creek (2007–08)

A-R1U (433505110494001) 2 0.26 2 0.01

A-R1D (433438110495901) 3 .22 3 .05

A-RB (433302110504701) 5 .08 5 .01

A-R3D (433117110515101) 5 .02 5 .01

A-Wck (13016450) 6 .01 6 .01

A-R6D (432906110522601) 6 .04 6 .01

A-R7 (432748110515301) 3 .04 3 .01

Jackson Hole valley streams and rivers (2006)

Snake River at Moose (13013650) 87 0.02 84 0.01

Cache Creek (13018300) 118 .13 97 .02

Granite Creek (433655110494101 and 13016305)1 8 .05 8 .001

Lake Creek (433908110482201 and 433738110465301)1 8 .04 8 .001

Cottonwood Creek (13012800 and 13013000)1 7 .02 7 <.006

Taggert Creek (434222110454601 and 13012900)1 8 .11 8 <.006

Groundwater samples from Fish Creek area (2007–08)

A-R1D-W1 (433431110501101) 5 0.96 5 0.05

A-R3D-W1 (433122110514201) 6 .21 6 .02

A-Wck-W1 (433005110521801) 6 .58 6 .05

Groundwater samples in Teton County (1991–93)

West bank area wells2 14 0.36 14 0.01

1

Average concentrations are calculated from samples collected at two sites on the creek in 2006 as described in Clark and others (2007).

2

Average concentrations are calculated from samples collected during July 1991, 1992, and 1993 as part of the evallation of resources in Teton County (Nolan 

and Miller, 1995).
24 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 8. Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphate in samples from surface-water sites, Fish Creek, 2007–08. 

DISSOLVED NITRATE OR ORTHOPHOSPHATE CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER 

AS NITROGEN OR PHOSPHORUS

Nitrate

Orthophosphate

SURFACE-WATER SITE

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

A–R1U A–R1D A–RB A–R3D A–Wck A–R6D A–R7

Figure 8. Average concentrations of dissolved nitrate and orthophosphate in samples from surface-water sites, Fish Creek, 

Wyoming, 2007–08.
Water-Quality Characterizations 25

A–R1D

Surface-water sites

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

Groundwater sites

A–R1D–W1

A–R3D–W1

A–Wck–W1

B

Figure 9. Dissolved nitrate concentrations. A, Surface-water samples, and B, groundwater and selected surface-water 

samples, Fish Creek area, Wyoming, 2007–08.

01/18/2007 04/28/2007 08/06/2007 11/14/2007 02/22/2008 06/01/2008 09/09/2008 12/18/2008

DATE

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

A–R1U

Surface-water sites

EXPLANATION

A–R1D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

A

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

DISSOLVED NITRATE CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER AS NITROGEN

Figure 9. Dissolved nitrate concentrations. A, Surface-water samples and B, groundwater and selected surface-water 

samples, Fish Creek area, Wyoming, 2007–08.
26 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

A-Wck, respectively, had dissolved nitrate concentrations at 

least 10 times greater than concentrations in the corresponding 

surface-water samples (fig. 9B).

Concentrations of phosphorus species were analyzed in 

surface-water and groundwater samples collected during 2007–

08. Analytical results indicate that orthophosphate was the 

primary dissolved species of phosphorus present in all samples 

(tables 3 and 4). The average concentration of dissolved orthophosphate in surface-water samples was largest (0.05 mg/L as 

phosphorus [P]) in samples collected from the upstream site 

A-R1D near Teton Village (fig. 10A); samples from all other 

sites had an equal average concentration of 0.01 mg/L as P 

(table 5; fig. 8). Average dissolved orthophosphate concentrations for Fish Creek were similar to average concentrations in 

samples collected from two streams and rivers in the Jackson 

Hole valley (Snake River and Cache Creek) and were at least 

10 times greater than concentrations in samples from four other 

streams in the valley (Granite, Lake, Cottonwood, and Taggert 

Creeks; table 5) reported by Clark and others (2007). 

Average concentrations of dissolved orthophosphate in 

the groundwater were higher in samples from all three sites, 

A-R1D-W1, A-R3D-W1, and A-Wck-W1, than in samples 

from the west bank area wells (table 5). Median dissolved 

orthophosphate concentrations in samples from wells completed in the geologic units to the west of Fish Creek (fig. 3), 

which may recharge the groundwater in the Fish Creek 

alluvium, ranged from less than (<) 0.010 mg/L as P for the 

Cambrian- and Precambrian-age units to 0.08 mg/L as P for the 

Tensleep Sandstone (Nolan and Miller, 1995). 

Concentrations of dissolved orthophosphate in groundwater typically were greater than concentrations in the corresponding surface-water sites during the same sampling events 

(tables 3 and 4; fig. 10B). The groundwater/surface-water pair 

with the most similar dissolved orthophosphate concentrations 

were sites A-R1D and A-R1D-W1. The consistent similarity 

likely is due to the large groundwater recharge to the stream in 

the upstream part of Fish Creek. 

Isotopes of Nitrate

A nitrate molecule is composed of one nitrogen atom 

and three oxygen atoms. Isotopes of a particular element have 

the same number of protons in the atomic nucleus but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses 

(heavy or light isotopes). The relative abundance of the nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in nitrate can be precisely measured 

using mass spectrometry. Many chemical and physical processes can produce large variations in the relative abundance 

of nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in nitrate. In general terms, 

the oxygen isotopic composition of nitrate indicates how the 

nitrate was formed, whereas the nitrogen isotopic composition 

can help discern the sources of the nitrate (Clark and Fritz, 

1997; Kendall and McDonnell, 1998).

Stable isotopes of nitrate typically are reported using 

delta (δ), which compares the ratio between heavy and light 

isotopes of a sample to that of a reference standard. Delta 

values are expressed as a difference in parts per thousand or 

per mil, from values of a reference standard. In this report, 

δ15N (15N/14N) values are reported in per mil relative to atmospheric nitrogen (AIR), and δ18O (18O/16O) values are reported 

in per mil relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water 

(VSMOW). The value for δ is calculated using the following 

equation (Clark and Fritz, 1997):

δ (in per mil) = [(Rx/Rs) - 1] × 1,000 (1)

where:

Rx is the ratio of the heavy-to-light isotope of the sample, and 

Rs is the ratio of the heavy-to-light isotope of the applicable 

reference standard (AIR or VSMOW).

Eighteen samples were collected from Fish Creek and 

nearby groundwater for analyses of nitrogen and oxygen 

isotopes of nitrate (NO3

). One replicate samples was also 

collected and analyzed, and the RPD was 0.3 percent for 

δ15N [NO3

] and 26 percent for δ18O [NO3]. The δ18O [NO3] 

values from samples collected from Fish Creek and nearby 

groundwater (fig. 11) ranged from about –2.6 to –9.4. The 

δ15N [NO3

] values ranged from about 2.4 to 10.5.

During March and May of 2007, δ15N [NO3

] values and 

nitrate concentrations from groundwater samples generally 

were higher than values from surface-water samples (figs. 11 

and 12 ). Also noted during March and May is an increase in 

the δ15N [NO3

] values in the downstream direction. During 

August 2007, the δ15N [NO3

] values and nitrate concentrations 

had similar distributions.

Wastewater Chemicals

Sixty-one wastewater chemicals were analyzed in 

samples collected from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater 

in 2007 (table 19, in the “Supplemental Data” section). 

Additionally, samples of certified laboratory-grade, organicfree water were collected, processed, and analyzed as blank 

samples in the same manner for the same chemicals as the 

environmental samples. 

Twenty-one different chemicals were detected in the 

samples from Fish Creek. The majority of the detections were 

at very low concentrations; most detections were near the 

LRL and many were qualified as a detection confirmed, but 

not quantified. Seven chemicals (camphor, N,N-diethyl-metatoluamide (DEET), fluoranthene, isophorone, menthol, methyl 

salicylate, and phenanthrene) that were detected in at least 

one environmental sample had corresponding detections in 

blank samples; pyrene also was detected in a blank sample but 

not in any of the environmental samples. Because of the very 

low concentrations and the risk of contamination from many 

sources of these everyday chemicals, it can be difficult to interpret the results of chemical detections. During interpretation, 

it is helpful to note the number of detections in a sample, the 

groupings of types of chemicals, the concentrations of detections, and the detections of the chemical in blank samples. 
Water-Quality Characterizations 27

A–R1U

A–R1D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

Surface-water sites

EXPLANATION

B

Figure 10. Dissolved orthosphosphate concentrations. A, Surface-water samples, and B, groundwater and selected 

surface-water samples, Fish Creek area, Wyoming, 2007–08.

01/18/2007 04/28/2007 08/06/2007 11/14/2007 02/22/2008 06/01/2008 09/09/2008 12/18/2008

DATE

A

DISSOLVED ORTHOPHOSPHATE CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER AS PHOSPHORUS

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

A–R1D

Surface-water sites

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

Groundwater sites

A–R1D–W1

A–R3D–W1

A–Wck–W1

Figure 10. Dissolved orthophosphate concentrations. A, Surface-water samples, and B, groundwater and selected surfacewater samples, Fish Creek area, Wyoming, 2007–08.
28 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

B

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

DELTA 15N, IN PER MIL

C

Surface-water site

EXPLANATION

Groundwater site

A–R1U

A

A–RB

A–R3D–W1 A–R1D

A–R1D–W1

Wck–W1

Figure 11. Isotopic composition of nitrate in samples collected from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater. 

A, March 2007. B, May 2007. C, August 2007.

0

DELTA 18O, IN PER MIL

–10

–8

–6

–4

–2

0

DELTA 18O, IN PER MIL

–10

–8

–6

–4

–2

0

DELTA 18O, IN PER MIL

–10

–8

–6

–4

–2

A–RB A–R6D

A–R3D

A–R3D–W1

Wck–W1

A–R1U

A–RB

A–R3D

A–R6D

A–R3D–W1

Wck–W1

A–R1D–W1

Figure 11. Isotopic composition of nitrate in samples collected from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater. 

A, March 2007; B, May 2007; and C, August 2007.
Water-Quality Characterizations 29

Figure 12. Dissolved nitrate concentrations and isotopic composition of nitrate in samples collected from Fish Creek, and 

nearby groundwater. A, March 2007. B, May 2007. C, August 2007.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

DELTA 15N IN NITRATE, IN PER MIL

DISSOLVED NITRATE CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

B

A

A–RB

A–R3D

A–R3D–W1

A–R6D

A–Wck–W1

C

A–R1D–W1 A–Wck–W1

Surface-water site

Groundwater site

Downstream order of sites

A–R6D

A–R3D–W1

A–R1U

A–RB

A–R3D

A–R1D

A–R1D–W1 A–R1U

A–RB

A–R3D–W1

A–Wck–W1

Surface-water site

Groundwater site

Downstream order of sites

Surface-water site

Groundwater site

Downstream order of sites

Figure 12. Dissolved nitrate concentrations and isotopic composition of nitrate in samples collected from Fish Creek and 

nearby groundwater. A, March 2007; B, May 2007; and C, August 2007.
30 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Three samples had detections of wastewater chemicals 

that likely indicate anthropogenic activities affecting the 

water in and near Fish Creek. Two samples had detections 

of chemicals not detected in blank samples. A sample collected in August 2007 at site A-R1U had detections of four 

chemicals that likely would be found together from a similar 

water-use activity. The chemicals detected (caffeine, 3-methyl1H-indole, para-nonylphenol, and tributyl phosphate) are 

all likely to be found in household items (included in the 

detected chemicals are flavors and disinfectants) (table 10 

in “Supplemental Data”). The third sample likely to indicate 

anthropogenic activity affecting the water is the March 2007 

sample from site A-R3D-W1. Although this sample only had 

two detected chemicals (p-cresol and phenol) that were not 

detected in blank samples, phenol (a disinfectant) was detected 

at a concentration of 1.4 micrograms per liter (μg/L), which 

was 1 μg/L greater than the LRL and was interpreted as an 

indication of an anthropogenic effect. Samples from several 

other sites had detections of wastewater chemicals; however, 

because of the very small concentrations, the small number 

of related compounds detected, and the possibility of contamination in either the field or laboratory of these common 

chemicals, these detections were not considered to indicate the 

presence of anthropogenic chemicals in the surface water or 

groundwater.

Biological Community and Habitat 

Characterization

Biological samples (aquatic plants and macroinvertebrates) were collected and habitat characteristics were measured at surface-water sites to characterize the biological 

communities of Fish Creek. For the aquatic plants, community 

composition, productivity, and algal communities were characterized. For the macroinvertebrate communities, composition 

and traits were characterized. For habitat characterizations, 

riparian canopy and streambed substrate (pebble counts) were 

measured. Algal and macroinvertebrate taxonomy data are presented in terms of community composition and traits because 

the algal and macroinvertebrate communities act as integrators 

of environmental variables such as water quality over a longer 

time period than a water-quality sample or measurement collected at one point in time. 

Aquatic Plant Communities

When viewed from the shore or a bridge, Fish Creek 

commonly appeared to be bright green due to a green mat 

of aquatic plants on the bottom of the creek (fig. 13). The 

mat typically was composed of a mixture of macrophytes, 

macroalgae, microalgae, and moss.

Aquatic Plant Community Composition

The most common components of the aquatic plant community in Fish Creek were submergent macrophytes (large, 

rooted plants); macroalgae, classified as either Cladophora

or other macroalgae; and microalgae (fig. 14). Samples of 

the visually dominant macrophytes were collected during a 

few sampling events for taxonomic identification. A narrowleaved, grasslike macrophyte collected at site A-RB during 

May and August 2007 was identified as Potamogeton filiformis. 

Long-stemmed, leafy macrophytes collected from site A-R6D 

included Myriophyllum (probably M. sibiricum; water milfoil) 

in May and August 2007, and Ranunculus aquatilis (buttercup 

family) in August. The filamentous green alga Cladophora is 

shown as a macroalgae in figure 14 because of its abundance 

and habit of growing in long branched filaments (commonly 

20–30 cm long), whereas the category of other macroalgae 

includes species such as Nostoc, a blue-green algae that grows 

in ball or ear-shaped colonies. Aquatic moss (Bryophyta) and 

areas of unsuitable substrate generally composed a relatively 

small proportion of the aquatic plant community composition.

The composition of the aquatic plant community in Fish 

Creek appeared to shift in the downstream direction in 2007. 

On average, the proportion of macrophytes ranged from about 

1 percent at site A-R1U, the most upstream site, to 54 percent 

of the plant community at site A-R6D, the farthest downstream 

site sampled during 2007 (fig. 14). The downstream increase 

in macrophytes was accompanied by a downstream decrease 

in microalgae. The average proportion of microalgae ranged 

from 80 percent at site A-R1U to 24 percent at site A-R6D. The 

seasonal nature of the flow at sites A-R1U and A-R1D likely 

discourages the growth of longer-lived plants, such as macrophytes, moss, and Cladophora, that were observed in higher 

proportions at sites A-RB, A-R3, A-Wck, and A-R6D, which 

have perennial streamflow (fig. 14). The downstream pattern 

observed in 2007 was not repeated in 2008, perhaps due to 

environmental variables such as timing and volume of streamflow between years. 

The proportion of the macroalgae Cladophora in the 

aquatic plant community was relatively high at sites A-Wck 

and A-R3D in both 2007 and 2008 (fig. 14). Cladophora at site 

A-Wck made up an average of about 40 percent of the plant 

community in 2007 and 46 percent in 2008. At site A-R3D, 

Cladophora made up an average of 30 percent in 2007 and 

34 percent in 2008 of the plant community. 

On a seasonal basis, the proportion of Cladophora was 

relatively stable at site A-Wck in 2007, accounting for about 

40 percent of the plant observations during each of the five 

sampling events (fig. 15). In 2008, however, Cladophora

was virtually absent from site A-Wck in May and made up 

65–70 percent of the observations in August and October. This 

pattern was consistent at the other sites in 2008—Cladophora

was absent from the May surveys and increased later in the 

summer. At site A-R3D, for example, Cladophora was not 

recorded in May but made up 82 percent of the observations in 

August 2008. The causes for the differences in the proportion 
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 31

Site A–R6D, August 2008 Site A–R7, August 2008

Site A–R3D, August 2007 Site A–Wck, August 2007

Figure 13. Aquatic plant life in Fish Creek at sites A–R1D, A–RB, A–R3D, A–Wck, A–R6D, and A–R7, 2007 and 2008. (Photographs by 

Jerrod D. Wheeler.)

Site A–R1D, August 2007 Site A–RB, August 2007

Figure 13. Aquatic plant life in Fish Creek at sites A-R1D, A-RB, A-R3D, A-Wck, A-R6D, and A-R7, 2007 and 2008.
32 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 14. Average composition of aquatic plant communities by year, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

2007

2008

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

Unsuitable substrate

Microalgae

Other macroalgae

Cladophora (macroalgae)

Moss

Macrophytes

EXPLANATION

A–RB A–R3D A–Wck A–R6D A–R7

A–R1U A–R1D A–RB

SITE

SITE

A–R3D A–Wck A–R6D

Figure 14. Average composition of aquatic plant communities by year, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

RPS bucket used to determine aquatic plant communities. 

Photograph by Cheryl A. Eddy-Miller. 
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 33

of Cladophora between years are not known but could be 

related to the differences in timing and volume of streamflow 

between the years.

The relative abundance of macrophytes in the aquatic 

plant community generally increased from summer to fall at 

all of the sites with perennial flow during 2007 (fig. 15). For 

example, at sites A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D, the proportion 

of macrophytes increased from July through October, after 

spring runoff occurred in June. High flows during spring runoff presumably were able to break and dislodge macrophytes, 

but after spring runoff, the macrophytes were able to grow 

and become more common in the aquatic plant community. In 

2008, the proportion of macrophytes increased from summer 

to fall at site A-R6D but varied inconsistently at other sites 

(fig. 15). 

The seasonal increase in the proportion of macrophytes 

in 2007 generally corresponded with decreases in the proportion of microalgae and unsuitable substrate (fig. 15). The 

proportion of macrophytes was negatively correlated with the 

proportions of microalgae (r = –0.63, p = < 0.01) and unsuitable habitat (r = –0.40, p = 0.08). The negative correlations 

likely indicate the seasonal growth of macrophytes covered 

areas that would otherwise have been classified as microalgae 

or unsuitable substrate. 

True aquatic moss was relatively common at site A-R7, 

where moss composed as much as 36 percent of the aquatic 

plant community, and at site A-RB, where moss composed a 

smaller proportion of the community but was noted during 

nearly all of the sample visits. Mosses commonly are associated with small headwater streams and aerated waters with 

high concentrations of carbon dioxide (Hynes, 1970).

Aquatic Plant Community Production

Concentrations of dissolved oxygen in water were measured continuously on a diel basis for this study as presented 

in the “Water-Quality Properties” section and were used as an 

indicator of primary productivity of the aquatic plant community (Sorenson and others, 1999). Concentrations of dissolved 

oxygen and values of pH increased during the daylight hours 

(tables 11–18; example graph shown in fig. 16) as a result of 

photosynthesis by the algae, macrophytes, and moss present 

in the stream. The linear part of the dissolved-oxygen curve 

(fig. 16) was used to compute Pmax, the maximum rate of 

productivity, by using the technique of Sorenson and others 

(1999). The difference between the maximum and minimum 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations over the linear part was 

divided by the number of hours in the linear part, to obtain an 

average value of Pmax for each day, and the average Pmax values 

for each day were averaged for each sampling period (table 6). 

The value of Pmax is a relative measure of stream metabolism 

because the technique of Sorenson and others (1999) does not 

account for the effect of reaeration arising from differences 

in oxygen saturation between the stream and the atmosphere 

(Odum, 1956). The Pmax is offset by respiration of the aquatic 

community and decomposition of organic matter, which takes 

place 24 hours per day (Bott, 2006). 

Respiration can be measured using various techniques 

such as calculating the rate of decrease in dissolved-oxygen 

concentrations during the predawn hours (Peterson and others, 

2001). Respiration rates were not calculated for Fish Creek 

because the predawn concentrations of dissolved oxygen 

in Fish Creek generally increased instead of decreasing as 

expected, perhaps due to reaeration of the water across riffles.

Values of Pmax in Fish Creek during 2007–08 ranged from 

0.39 milligram per liter per hour (mg/L/hr) at site A-RB in 

May 2007, to 1.43 mg/L/hr at site A-R3D, also in May 2007 

(table 6). The values of Pmax listed by site and date in table 6 

were calculated by averaging Pmax from each of the two or 

three diel cycles available from each site in each sampling 

period. Considerable variability was noted among the sites 

and dates, although site A-R3D had the highest average of 

0.82 mg/L/hr, compared to an average of about 0.70 mg/L/hr 

at the other sites on Fish Creek (table 6). For comparison, values of Pmax in the Yellowstone River in Montana and Wyoming 

generally were less than 0.40 mg/L/hr, with the exception of 

one site associated with nuisance algal conditions where Pmax

reached 0.61 mg/L/hr (Peterson and others, 2001).

The rate of dissolved-oxygen production appeared to 

increase with progression of seasons in both 2007 and 2008. 

Average values of Pmax for the surface-water sites by sampling 

date generally increased from March to October 2007 and 

from May to October 2008 (fig. 17). The increase in productivity from spring to summer can be at least partially attributed 

to increasing water temperatures that accelerate biological 

processes, but water temperatures declined between August 

and October (see figs. 6, 30–32), indicating the influence of 

other, unknown factors that caused Pmax to reach a maximum 

in October of both years. Streamflow also declined between 

August and October in both years (fig. 4).

Algal Communities

Concentration data for chlorophyll-a, which is one of the 

primary photosynthetic pigments in algal cells (Graham and 

Wilcox, 2000), and ash-free dry mass (AFDM), which is a 

measure of organic matter including algae, bacteria, fungi, and 

other organisms, in algae samples collected during 2007–08 

are available in table 7 and on the Web (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010a). The algal taxonomic identification data were used 

to characterize algal community traits and are available on the 

Web (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010b). 

Algal Standing Crop

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a and AFDM, cell density, and cell biovoume are indicators of algal standing crop. 

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a tended to be higher at the 

sites with perennial flow than at sites with seasonal flow 

(table 7). Chlorophyll-a concentrations at the two sampling 

sites farthest upstream, sites A-R1U and A-R1D with seasonal 
34 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

Figure 15. Seasonal variation in aquatic plant community composition at sites on Fish Creek, 2007–08.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

MARCH MAY JULY

2007 2007

AUGUST OCTOBER MARCH MAY JULY AUGUST OCTOBER

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

Site A–R1U, 2007 Site A–R1D, 2007

Site A–RB, 2007 Site A–R3D, 2007

Site A–Wck, 2007 Site A–R6D, 2007

Unsuitable substrate

Microalgae

Other macroalgae

Cladophora (macroalgae)

Moss

Macrophytes

EXPLANATION

Figure 15. Seasonal variation in aquatic plant community composition at sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 35

Figure 15. Seasonal variation in aquatic plant community composition at sites on Fish Creek, 2007–08.—Continued

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

Site A–RB, 2008 Site A–R3D, 2008

Site A–Wck, 2008 Site A–R6D, 2008

Unsuitable substrate

Microalgae

Other macroalgae

Cladophora (macroalgae)

Moss

Macrophytes

EXPLANATION

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

Site A–R7, 2008

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL

2008

MAY AUGUST OCTOBER

MAY AUGUST OCTOBER

2008

Figure 15. Seasonal variation in aquatic plant community composition at sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.—Continued
36 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

10/20/2008 

12:00

10/21/2008 

0:00

10/21/2008 

12:00

10/22/2008 

0:00

10/22/2008 

12:00

10/23/2008 

0:00

10/23/2008 

12:00

10/24/2008 

0:00

DISSOLVED-OXYGEN CONCENTRATION, IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER, AND pH, IN STANDARD UNITS

pH

Dissolved-oxygen concentration

Linear part of curve used in Pmax (maximum 

 rate of productivity) calculation (Sorenson

 and others, 1999)

DATE AND TIME

Figure 16. Diel fluctuations in dissolved-oxygen concentration and pH in Fish Creek at Wilson (Site A–Wck), Wyoming, 

October 21–23, 2008. 

Diel fluctuations in dissolved-oxygen concentration and pH in Fish Creek at Wilson (Site A-Wck), Wyoming, 

October 21–23, 2008.

Table 6. Maximum rate of dissolved-oxygen production, Pmax, in millligrams per liter per hour, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08. 

[NA, not available or not applicable]

Site name March

2007

May

2007

July

2007

August

2007

October

2007

May

2008

August

2008

October

2008 Average by site

A-RB 1.06 0.39 0.58 0.77 1.1 NA 0.42 0.60 0.70

A-R3D .46 1.43 .78 .76 1.17 0.55 .69 .73 .82

A-WCK .58 NA .56 .94 .75 .76 .68 .76 .72

A-R6D .47 .53 NA .80 .74 .63 .72 .99 .70

A-R7 NA NA NA NA NA .50 .83 .66 .66

Average by date .64 .78 .64 .82 .94 .61 .67 .75 NA
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 37

flow, were highly variable but averaged less than 200 milligrams per square meter (mg/m2

) in 2007 (fig. 18). In contrast, 

chlorophyll-a concentrations at the sites with perennial flow, 

sites A-RB, A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D, averaged greater 

than 200 mg/m2. The highest average chlorophyll-a concentration in 2007 was at site A-R6D, which had an average 

of 341 mg/m2. The average chlorophyll-a concentrations 

tended to be slightly higher in 2008 than in 2007 at all sites, 

with the exception of site A-Wck, which had notably higher 

chlorophyll-a concentrations in 2008 than in 2007. The average chlorophyll-a concentration of 1,480 mg/m2

 at site A-Wck 

in 2008 (fig. 18) was influenced by an extremely high concentration in October (table 7). Although the concentration for the 

October sample from site A-Wck was confirmed by re-analysis 

at the laboratory, the value probably should be considered as 

an outlier. Concentrations of chlorophyll-a at site A-R7, which 

was sampled only in 2008, were most similar to those in the 

upper part of Fish Creek at site A-RB.

Average concentrations of chlorophyll-a were smallest in 

the spring months of March and May, and largest in October 

2007 (fig. 18). The chlorophyll-a concentrations during 2008 

also indicated a seasonal peak in October. The seasonal peaks 

of chlorophyll-a concentrations are similar to the seasonal 

peak of Pmax during October of 2007 and 2008 as described 

previously in the section “Aquatic Plant Community Production.” Although the seasonal peaks of chlorophyll-a concentrations and Pmax in Fish Creek during October seem late in the 

year, given that water temperatures were lower in October than 

August, other work in the Rocky Mountain region (Lohman 

and Priscu, 1992) also has indicated substantial activity of 

algae well into October. 

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a in Fish Creek consistently were high compared to values from other investigations. For example, in response to nuisance growths of 

Cladophora in the Clark Fork in Montana, local governments 

and industry agreed to voluntary upper limits of chlorophyll-a

at 100 mg/m2

 averaged over the growing season and a peak 

concentration of 150 mg/m2

 (Watson and others, 2000). 

Ninety percent of the chlorophyll-a concentrations from 

Fish Creek exceeded 100 mg/m2, and 75 percent exceeded 

150 mg/m2 (table 7). Almost all of the chlorophyll-a concentrations from Fish Creek were in the range of, or exceeded, the 

100- to 200-mg/m2

 range suggested as an indicator of nuisance algal conditions by the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (2000). 

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a in Fish Creek also were 

considerably higher than historical data from other streams 

in the area (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010a). The average 

chlorophyll-a concentration of two samples from the Snake 

River near Flagg Ranch (station 13010065) in 2002–04 was 

16 mg/m2

; the average chlorophyll-a concentration of two 

samples collected from the Snake River at Moose, Wyo. (station 13013650) in 1996–97 was 1.7 mg/m2

. A sample collected 

from the Salt River near Etna (station 13027500) in 1993 had 

a chlorophyll-a concentration of 1.1 mg/m2

. 

The AFDM concentrations in the algae samples were 

correlated with the chlorophyll-a concentrations (r = 0.87, 

p = < 0.01). The AFDM concentrations ranged from 9 grams 

per square meter (g/m2) at site A-R1U in May 2007 to 

662 g/m2

 at site A-Wck in October 2008 (table 7). During 

2007–08, AFDM concentrations generally were highest at 

site A-Wck, which had an average AFDM concentration of 

209 g/m2

. 

In 2007, algal density and biovolume generally peaked in 

July at all of the sites (table 7). Maximum densities exceeded 

10 million cells per square centimeter (cells/cm2

) at sites 

A-R3D and A-R6D in July 2007, and the densities were less 

than 2 million cells/cm2

 at those sites in March 2007 (table 7). 

Algal biovolume also peaked at sites A-R3D and A-R6D in 

July, at more than 6,000 cubic centimeters per square meter 

(cm3

/m2). Although algal density and biovolume were moderately correlated with each other (r = 0.70, p = < 0.01), they 

were not correlated with either chlorophyll-a or AFDM. Algal 

samples were collected in 2008 for taxonomic identification 

and enumeration, but those samples had not been analyzed as 

of the date of this report (2010).

Algal Community Composition

Samples for identification of algal taxonomy were collected in March, May, July, August, and October 2007 from 

the surface-water sites unless the sites were dry (table 2). A 

majority of the 199 algal taxa identified in the 2007 samples 

were diatoms (Bacillariophyta), composing an average of 

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

MARCH MAY JULY AUGUST OCTOBER

AVERAGE DISSOLVED-OXYGEN PRODUCTION, 

IN MILLIGRAMS PER LITER PER HOUR 

MONTH

2007

2008

Figure 17. Seasonal change in average values of maximum rate 

of dissolved-oxygen productivion, Pmax, at surface-water sites, 

Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08. 

Figure 17. Seasonal change in average values of maximum rate 

of dissolved-oxygen production, Pmax, at surface-water sites Fish 

Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.
38 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Table 7. Concentrations of chlorophyll-a and ash free dry mass, algal cell density, and algal cell biovolume, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

2007–08. 

[mg, milligrams; m2, square meter; g, grams; cm2, square centimeter; cm3, cubic centimeter; NA, not available]

Site

name

Sampling date

(month/day/year)

Chlorophyll-a

(mg/m2)

Ash-free dry mass

(g/m2)

Cell density

(cells/cm2)

Cell biovolume

(cm3/m2)

A-R1U 05/10/2007 12 9 157,890 3.9

A-R1U 07/10/2007 388 64 1,865,235 3.6

A-R1U 08/13/2007 79 26 432,186 2.9

A-R1D 07/10/2007 197 52 6,179,701 52.8

A-R1D 08/14/2007 12 21 624,115 1.6

A-RB 03/08/2007 126 70 535,432 2.4

A-RB 05/08/2007 47 39 1,159,700 2.9

A-RB 07/11/2007 220 103 3,106,384 8.5

A-RB 08/15/2007 247 99 1,608,764 180.9

A-RB 10/22/2007 432 168 1,550,684 55.7

A-RB 05/06/2008 206 63 NA NA

A-RB 08/19/2008 167 91 NA NA

A-RB 10/20/2008 284 57 NA NA

A-R3D 03/07/2007 170 70 640,515 5.0

A-R3D 05/09/2007 158 51 2,354,769 887.6

A-R3D 07/11/2007 197 230 10,737,673 7,568.2

A-R3D 08/14/2007 194 112 1,969,896 571.9

A-R3D 10/25/2007 382 123 6,498,746 33.1

A-R3D 05/07/2008 241 103 NA NA

A-R3D 08/19/2008 582 303 NA NA

A-R3D 10/21/2008 319 82 NA NA

A-Wck 03/06/2007 170 76 1,671,489 543.8

A-Wck 05/08/2007 178 65 8,836,243 198.6

A-Wck 07/12/2007 182 78 1,190,474 628.0

A-Wck 08/15/2007 109 46 2,768,297 307.2

A-Wck 10/24/2007 499 331 539,694 135.6

A-Wck 05/07/2008 242 94 NA NA

A-Wck 08/20/2008 644 322 NA NA

A-Wck 10/22/2008 3,540 662 NA NA

A-R6D 03/07/2007 137 47 1,819,143 471.6

A-R6D 05/07/2007 79 41 6,547,301 126.7

A-R6D 07/12/2007 274 172 10,256,649 6,408.9

A-R6D 08/16/2007 352 161 3,862,382 404.9

A-R6D 10/25/2007 863 227 1,591,140 19.4

A-R6D 05/08/2008 141 66 NA NA

A-R6D 08/20/2008 565 278 NA NA

A-R6D 10/22/2008 548 135 NA NA

A-R7 05/08/2008 375 146 NA NA

A-R7 08/21/2008 112 92 NA NA

A-R7 10/22/2008 365 131 NA NA
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 39

A–R1U A–R1D A–RB A–R3D A–Wck A–R6D

AVERAGE CHLOROPHYLL-a CONCENTRATION, 

IN MILLIGRAMS PER SQUARE METER 

AVERAGE CHLOROPHYLL-a CONCENTRATION, 

IN MILLIGRAMS PER SQUARE METER 

SAMPLING SITE

2007

SAMPLING SITE

2008

A–RB A–R3D A–Wck A–R6D A–R7

MARCH MAY JULY AUGUST OCTOBER

MONTH

2007

MAY AUGUST OCTOBER

MONTH

2008

Figure 18. Average chlorophyll-a concentrations by season and by sampling site, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

Figure 18. Average chlorophyll-a concentrations by season and by sampling site, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

87 percent of the total taxa richness by sample. Blue-green 

algae composed about 8 percent of the taxa richness, and 

green algae (Chlorophyta) composed about 4 percent of the 

taxa richness, on the average. In spite of having relatively few 

species, blue-green algae commonly were dominant in terms 

of density (average of 47 percent), and green algae commonly 

were dominant in terms of biovolume (average of 68 percent) 

at sites with perennial flow. 

The taxonomic composition of the algal communities at 

the sites with seasonal flow (sites A-R1U and A-R1D) was 

notably different from the composition at sites with perennial 

flow (sites A-RB, A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D). Nonmetric 

multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination showed two 

groups of sites with relatively similar taxonomic composition—one group composed of sites with seasonal flow and 

one group composed of sites with perennial flow (fig. 19A). 

Sites with seasonal flow contained an average of 31 algal 

taxa per sample, whereas sites with perennial flow contained 

an average of 53 taxa per sample. Differences in community 

structure between sites with seasonal and perennial flow are 

likely due to streamflow conditions that allow overwintering of algal communities at the sites with perennial flow, 

whereas sites with seasonal flow are dry throughout the winter, 

meaning algal communities need to reestablish themselves 

when streamflow resumes in the spring or early summer. The 

quality-control samples (splits) collected from site A-R1U in 

July and from site A-R6D in October plotted relatively close to 

the corresponding environmental samples (fig. 19), indicating 

relatively high similarity of the quality-control samples to the 

environmental samples. 

Predominant algal taxa, in terms of relative abundance, 

at site A-R1U were diatoms Encyonema subspecies (spp.) in 

May (35 percent of total density) and July (27 percent), green 

algae Ulothrix spp. in May (28 percent), blue-green algae 
40 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

B

B

B B

B

3

3

3

3

3

W

W

W

W

W

6

6

6

6 6

6QC

October

Site A–R6

Sites A–R3D and A–Wck

Site A–RB

3

B

W

6 6QC

3

6 6

6

3

W

6 B

3

W

W

B B

W

3

B

D

UQC

U

U

U

D

Figure 19. Similarities of algal communities depicted by nonmetric multi-dimensional scaling ordination, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007. 

A, among all sites. B, among sites with perennial flow.

Month

EXPLANATION

March

May

July

August

October

Site

U A–R1U

A–R1DD

A–RBB

A–R3D3

W A–Wck

A–R6D6

Quality-control

 sample at A–R1U

UQC

Quality-control

 sample at A–R6D

6QC

A

B

–1.5

–1

–0.5

NONMETRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AXIS 1

NONMETRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AXIS 2

0.5

0

1

1.5

NONMETRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AXIS 2

–2

–2 –1.5 1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Perennial flow Seasonal flow

–1.5

–1

–0.5

0.5

0

1

1.5

Figure 19. Similarities of algal communities depicted by nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007. 

A, among all sites, and B, among sites with perennial flow.
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 41

and May (24 percent), Leibleinia in July (19 percent) and 

August (16 percent), and Homoethrix and Tolypothrix in 

August (35 percent combined) and October (49 percent 

combined). The biovolume of the March sample from site 

A-R3D was dominated by the diatom Didymosphenia geminata (27 percent). This species is of particular interest because 

Didymosphenia is known for sometimes creating nuisance 

conditions in the United States and other areas of the world 

(http://www.epa.gov/region8/water/didymosphenia/). Didymosphenia also was identified in the samples from site A-RB in 

August and site A-R6D in March, at relatively low concentrations. The green algae Cladophora dominated the biovolume 

of the May, July, and August samples (98–99 percent) from site 

A-R3D; the diatoms Cocconeis and green algae Ulothrix dominated the biovolume in October. Cladophora was common in 

the aquatic plant community surveys described previously in 

this report and is well known for abundant growth and creating 

nuisance conditions in streams and lakes throughout the world 

(Whitton, 1970). 

The predominant blue-green algae at site A-Wck included 

several taxa, such as Heteroleibleinia, Leptolyngbya, Phormidium, and Tolypothrix, that were common at other sites on 

Fish Creek. The blue-green algae Nostoc predominated in May 

(relative abundance 93 percent). Nostoc grows as cushionlike clumps and is known as a nitrogen fixer that is capable of 

fixing atmospheric nitrogen as a source of nutrients (Hynes, 

1970). Tolypothrix and Calothrix (co-dominant at site A-R6D) 

also are known as nitrogen fixers, but the other species of 

blue-green algae common in Fish Creek are not known for 

nitrogen fixation (Porter, 2008). Tolypothrix was most abundant 

in August (75 percent) and October (20 percent). The biovolumes in all of the algal samples from site A-Wck were heavily 

dominated by Cladophora (96 to 99 percent). 

At site A-R6D, blue-green algae such as Heteroleibleinia, 

Chamaesiphon, Nostoc, Leptolyngbya, Leibleinia, Calothrix, 

and Phormidium were the most abundant algae. Biovolume of 

the March, May, July, and August samples was dominated by 

Cladophora (93 to 99 percent). Biovolume of the October sample from A-R6D was dominated by the green algae Mougeotia

(14 percent) and the diatom Cymbella mexicana (12 percent). 

Cymbella has a long, gelatinous stalk (Prescott, 1978) that can 

form mats superficially resembling the wooly brown-gray mats 

formed by Didymosphenia (M. Potapova, Academy of Natural 

Sciences Philadelphia, written commun., July 23, 2007).

Algal Community Traits

Algal community traits were calculated from genus or 

species-level autecological information (Porter, 2008) as 

potential indicators of nitrogen limitation, organic enrichment, 

sedimentation, and pH. Algal community traits for Fish Creek, 

based on relative abundance in 2007, are listed in table 8. 

Nitrogen-fixing algae were present and sometimes 

dominant in the algal communities of Fish Creek. Nitrogenfixing algae include diatoms in the family Rhopalodiaceae and 

blue-green algae that can fix atmospheric nitrogen as a nutrient 

Homoeothrix in July (24 percent) and August (15 percent), 

and blue-green algae Phormidium (26 percent) in August. 

Some of the same taxa also dominated in terms of biovolume in samples from site A-R1U, such as Ulothrix spp. in 

May (92 percent of total biovolume) and Encyonema spp. in 

July (36 percent). The July sample also contained the diatom 

Synedra, which constituted 23 percent of the biovolume. The 

green alga Spirogyra constituted 71 percent of the biovolume 

in the August sample from site A-R1U. 

Predominant algal taxa at site A-R1D were the diatoms 

Hydrurus foetidus (relative abundance of 77 percent) in 

July and Gomphonema (19 percent) in August. The August 

sample also contained a number of blue-green algae taxa—

Homoeothrix, Phormidium spp., and Leptolyngbya—that 

together made up 51 percent of the abundance. The biovolume of the July sample was dominated by Ulothrix spp. 

that constituted 80 percent of the total biovolume. The same 

three species of Ulothrix that dominated the biovolume of 

the July sample from site A-R1D also predominated in the 

May sample from site A-R1U. The biovolume of the August 

sample from site A-R1D was dominated by diatoms Synedra

(27 percent) and Gomphonema (21 percent). Hynes (1970) 

noted that Hydrurus, Ulothrix, and Phormidium typically are 

cold-water species. 

In order to better understand algal community composition, an NMDS ordination was performed using taxonomic 

data from only the sites with perennial flow (fig. 19B). That 

ordination indicated the algal communities had higher similarity by site than by date. For example, samples from site A-RB 

formed a group, indicating a stronger taxonomic similarity 

among samples collected in March through August at site 

A-RB than to samples from other sites. The samples from sites 

A-Wck and A-R3D formed a group, as did the samples from 

site A-R6D (fig. 19B). Samples from October tended to group 

together, an apparent exception to the pattern of higher similarity among samples from a given site. The similarity among 

algal communities in October might be a reflection of a shift in 

community composition in response to colder water and lower 

light intensity. 

Blue-green algae were the most abundant algae on all 

five sample dates during March to October 2007 at site A-RB. 

One or more species of Phormidium predominated in all of the 

samples at as much as 50 percent of the relative abundance; 

Leptolyngbya was a subdominant species in the March sample, 

and Homoeothrix was a subdominant species in the July and 

August samples. The biovolume in samples from site A-RB 

was dominated by diatoms early in the year; Gomphoneis

constituted 16 percent of the March sample and Encyonema

constituted 27 percent of the May sample. Green algae constituted the bulk of the biovolume later in the year; Ulothrix

dominated in July (69 percent), and Cladophora dominated in 

August and October (83 percent). 

Blue-green algae predominated in terms of relative 

abundance at site A-R3D, similar to their dominance at 

sites A-RB, A-Wck, and A-R6D. The dominant algae at site 

A-R3D included Phormidium tenue in March (11 percent) 
Site name Collection date Nitrogen fixation (all algae) Oxygen tolerance (diatoms) Orga

Nitrogen fixers (percent) Not nitrogen fixers (percent) Nitrogen fixation not classified (percent) High (>75 percent saturation) (percent) Moderately high (50–74 percent saturation) (percent) Low (<50 percent saturation) (percent) Unclassified (percent) Nitrogen autotrophs (percent) 

A-R1U 05/10/2007 0 100 0 10 56 2 32 66 

A-R1U 07/10/2007 0 100 0 12 28 3 57 35 

A-R1U 08/13/2007 0 99 1 24 17 0 59 40 

A-R1D 07/10/2007 0 100 0 36 18 1 45 52 

A-R1D 08/14/2007 0 97 3 65 17 0 18 82 

A-RB 03/08/2007 0 97 3 38 16 1 45 54 

A-RB 05/08/2007 1 99 0 29 35 1 35 65 

A-RB 07/11/2007 0 100 0 43 16 1 40 58 

A-RB 08/15/2007 0 100 0 44 17 1 38 60 

A-RB 10/22/2007 0 98 1 37 25 5 34 61 

A-R3D 03/07/2007 0 93 7 44 15 3 38 58 

A-R3D 05/09/2007 0 93 6 31 9 1 58 41 

A-R3D 07/11/2007 3 69 29 38 9 0 52 47 

A-R3D 08/14/2007 16 66 19 51 13 1 35 63 

A-R3D 10/25/2007 24 74 2 43 20 2 35 62 

A-Wck 03/06/2007 0 83 17 46 14 2 38 59 

A-Wck 05/08/2007 93 7 0 39 9 1 50 49 

A-Wck 07/12/2007 0 97 3 32 5 2 60 38 

A-Wck 08/15/2007 78 20 2 47 17 1 35 64 

A-Wck 10/24/2007 32 66 2 61 13 4 23 73 

A-R6D 03/07/2007 0 86 14 47 16 2 35 63 

A-R6D 05/07/2007 85 14 2 40 9 1 50 49 

A-R6D 07/12/2007 0 82 17 39 12 3 46 51 

A-R6D 08/16/2007 5 80 14 57 12 1 30 69 

A-R6D 10/25/2007 8 78 14 50 14 0 36 63 

Table 8. Algal community traits, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007. [Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. >, greater than; <, less than]
Site name Collection date

Pollution class1 (diatoms) Motility (all algae) Sediment (diatoms) pH 

Sensitive 

(percent)

Tolerant 

(percent)

Unclassified 

(percent)

Motile 

(percent)

Not motile 

(percent)

Increasers 

(percent)

Circumneutral 

(percent)

A

(

A-R1U 05/10/2007 68 17 15 11 89 6 75 

A-R1U 07/10/2007 29 38 32 14 85 3 80 

A-R1U 08/13/2007 41 16 43 35 65 4 77 

A-R1D 07/10/2007 53 18 29 7 93 16 19 

A-R1D 08/14/2007 34 3 63 31 67 7 22 

A-RB 03/08/2007 46 23 31 14 83 42 25 

A-RB 05/08/2007 61 7 32 28 72 29 51 

A-RB 07/11/2007 52 16 33 50 50 36 24 

A-RB 08/15/2007 56 17 26 54 46 36 24 

A-RB 10/22/2007 56 27 17 24 75 40 16 

A-R3D 03/07/2007 57 18 25 22 72 39 21 

A-R3D 05/09/2007 39 16 45 30 63 27 19 

A-R3D 07/11/2007 46 10 44 3 69 22 12 

A-R3D 08/14/2007 62 18 20 8 73 26 16 

A-R3D 10/25/2007 66 19 16 14 85 17 16 

A-Wck 03/06/2007 58 18 24 7 76 38 25 

A-Wck 05/08/2007 48 12 40 1 99 37 22 

A-Wck 07/12/2007 37 11 52 24 73 26 15 

A-Wck 08/15/2007 59 26 15 3 95 22 21 

A-Wck 10/24/2007 66 23 11 10 88 14 11 

A-R6D 03/07/2007 68 16 16 11 75 45 14 

A-R6D 05/07/2007 48 10 42 4 95 34 32 

A-R6D 07/12/2007 50 17 33 5 78 25 20 

A-R6D 08/16/2007 65 23 11 19 67 39 10 

A-R6D 10/25/2007 59 18 23 26 59 27 11 

Table 8. Algal community traits, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007.—Continued[Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding. >, greater than; <, less than]

1Based on classification by Bahls (1993).
44 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

MARCH MAY JULY AUGUST OCTOBER

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, IN PERCENT

A–R1U

A–R1D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

Site

MONTH

Figure 20. Relative abundance of nitrogen-fixing diatoms (Rhopalodiaceae) in algal communities of 

Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007. 

Figure 20. Relative 

abundance of nitrogen-fixing 

diatoms (Rhopalodiaceae) 

in algal communities of Fish 

Creek, Wyoming, 2007.

source and therefore have a competitive advantage when concentrations of nitrogen, a key nutrient for algae, in the water are 

low (Stevenson and others, 1996; Peterson and Grimm, 1992), 

or when ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus in water are low 

(Fairchild and others, 1985). The relative abundance of Rhopalodiaceae in Fish Creek generally increased seasonally and in 

the downstream direction (fig. 20). The maximum abundance 

of the Rhopalodiaceae occurred at sites A-R3D, A-Wck, and 

A-R6D in August and October 2007. The relative abundance 

of nitrogen fixers among all algae, including blue-green algae 

such as Nostoc, Calothrix, and Tolypothrix, was variable but 

tended to be highest at the same sites and dates as the Rhopalodiaceae (table 8). The variability in nitrogen fixers among all 

algae might be related to the colonial nature of the blue-green 

algae such as the cushion-shaped colonies of Nostoc.

Metrics for oxygen tolerance, organic nitrogen, and pollution class indicated relatively low organic enrichment in Fish 

Creek. Oxygen tolerance refers to the relative oxygenation of 

a stream such as one with relatively high amounts of organic 

enrichment (for example, sewage) and high biochemical oxygen demand, compared to a well-oxygenated stream with little 

organic enrichment (Porter, 2008; Van Dam and others, 1994). 

Diatoms associated with high dissolved-oxygen concentrations (greater than 75 percent saturation, table 8) and low 

organic enrichment generally predominated in Fish Creek, with 

smaller proportions of diatoms associated with moderate or low 

dissolved-oxygen concentrations. Metrics for organic nitrogen 

indicated the diatom communities were primarily nitrogen 

autotrophs that do not require high concentrations of organic 

nitrogen (Porter, 2008; Van Dam and others, 1994) (table 8). 

Nitrogen heterotrophs that are adapted to high concentrations 

of organic nitrogen, such as from sewage effluent, generally 

were uncommon in the diatom communities. Using pollution 

classes defined by Bahls (1993) for streams in Montana, the 

diatom communities in Fish Creek were predominantly sensitive species (average relative abundance of 53 percent), with 

smaller percentages of tolerant species (average of 17 percent). 

The remainder of the species was unclassified with regard to 

pollution class (table 8).

Algal metrics for motility and sediment increasers indicated species capable of responding to sedimentation were 

most abundant at site A-RB. Algal motility generally was 

highest at site A-RB and lowest at site A-Wck (table 8). The 

motility metric is the relative abundance of all algae, such as 

those in the genera Nitzchia and Navicula, that have the ability 

to move in water or on submerged surfaces and thereby avoid 

sedimentation (Porter, 2008). Greater proportions of motile 

species generally indicate that the site is subject to greater 

sedimentation than sites with smaller proportions. Sites A-R1U 

and A-R1D, which had manmade stream channels, had average 

motility values of 20 and 19 percent, respectively. Site A-RB 

represents the most upstream site with a natural channel but 

had the highest proportion of motile species (average of 34 percent motility) of any of the sites on Fish Creek. The average 

motility metric values from the other sites were 15 percent for 

site A-R3D; 9 percent for site A-Wck; and 13 percent for site 

A-R6D. The proportion of sediment increasers, or those diatom 

species that increase in relative abundance in response to 

increases in sedimentation (Teply and Bahls, 2007), was highest at site A-RB (table 8). The relative abundance of sediment 

increasers averaged 37 percent at site A-RB, compared to 26 

percent at site A-R3D, 28 percent at site A-Wck, and 34 percent 

at site A-R6D. The relative abundance of sediment increasers 

in the diatom community generally decreased with season, 

from March to October, at sites A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D. 

In contrast, values of the motility metric did not seem to have 

a seasonal pattern. The sediment increaser species from Teply 

and Bahls (2007) that occurred in highest proportions at site 
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 45

A-RB and other sites in Fish Creek were Navicula tripunctata, 

Nitzchia fonticola, and Staurosirella leptostauron. The source 

for the sedimentation at site A-RB indicated by the metrics 

is not known but might be related to the lower streamflow 

and smaller particle size in the pebble counts described in the 

“Streambed Substrate” section. 

Algal communities in Fish Creek indicated increasing pH optima in the downstream direction. At site A-R1U, 

75 to 80 percent of the diatom abundance was associated 

with circumneutral pH values near 7 (table 8). Sites farther 

downstream contained communities with higher percentages of alkaliphilic diatoms (pH generally greater than 7) and 

alkalibiontic diatoms (pH always greater than 7). A seasonal 

trend also was apparent; the alkalibiontic diatoms made up 

greater proportions of the community later in the season. For 

example the maximum proportions of alkalibiontic diatoms by 

site occurred in October at site A-Wck (21 percent) and site 

A-R6D (16 percent). 

Macroinvertebrate Communities

Samples for identification of macroinvertebrate taxonomy 

were collected in May and August of 2007 and 2008 from the 

surface-water sites unless the sites were dry (table 2). Macroinvertebrate taxonomy data are available on the Web (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 2010b). 

Macroinvertebrate Community Composition 

Similar to the algal communities, the macroinvertebrate 

taxa richness was lower at the sites with seasonal streamflow, sites A-R1U and A-R1D, near Teton Village, than at the 

sites farther downstream with perennial flow. Taxa richness 

(table 9) averaged 22 taxa per sample at site A-R1U (May and 

August 2007) and was 28 taxa at site A-R1D (August 2007), 

compared to average taxa richness of 38 to 50 taxa per sample 

at sites A-RB, A-R3D, A-Wck, A-R6D, and A-R7 in 2007–08. 

Macroinvertebrate taxa richness was lower at the sites with 

seasonal flow than at the sites with perennial flow, likely due 

to a loss of habitat from winter drying and reduction of food 

sources such as algae, other aquatic plants, and organic matter. 

Macroinvertebrate samples were not collected from the sites 

with seasonal flow in 2008; therefore, the following characterization includes macroinvertebrate data from only the sites 

with perennial flow for the sake of comparability.

The Diptera (true flies) composed about one-half of 

the macroinvertebrate taxa identified in Fish Creek (fig. 21). 

Within the Diptera order, the family Chironomidae (midges) 

predominated and averaged about 18 taxa per sample. The 

Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies), and 

Plecoptera (stoneflies), which are collectively known as the 

EPT, had smaller proportions of the overall community taxa 

richness than Diptera. The EPT were more common in May 

than August of both 2007 and 2008 (fig. 21 and table 9), indicating seasonal variation in community composition. Conversely, Diptera and noninsects had higher proportions of the 

community taxa richness in August than May of both years. 

Noninsects were composed mostly of various taxa of Oligochaeta (worms) but also included Arachnida (mites), Crustacea (such as scuds), Mollusca (snails and fingernail clams), 

Nematoda (nematodes), and Turbellaria (flatworms) (U.S. 

Geological Survey, 2010b). A few taxa of Coleoptera (beetles) 

and Hemiptera (true bugs) were identified in the samples and 

are shown as other insects in figure 21. Odonata (dragonflies 

and damselflies) were not identified in any of the samples. 

Seasonal variation in macroinvertebrate community composition in terms of density of the various taxa also occurred 

in conjunction with the seasonal variation in taxa richness. 

An NMDS ordination of the taxonomic data showed two 

groups of samples, the May samples and the August samples 

(fig. 22). The grouping by sample period indicated relatively 

high similarity among samples collected during May 2007 to 

those collected during May 2008, and high similarity among 

samples collected during August 2007 to those from August 

2008. The differences in the macroinvertebrate communities 

between May and August were due largely to differences in 

taxa richness and abundance of Ephemeroptera and Trichoptera compared to Diptera and noninsects. Macroinvertebrate 

communities of Fish Creek contained more Ephemeroptera 

and Trichoptera in May than in August during both 2007 and 

2008. Interannual variation was a smaller contributing factor 

as indicated by the general position of the 2007 samples near 

the top of the May and August groups and the position of 

the 2008 samples near the bottom of the groups in figure 22. 

Downstream changes in community composition also can be 

inferred from the position of samples from site A-RB (site 

farthest upstream) near the top of the May and August groups, 

and the position of site A-R7 (site farthest downstream) near 

the bottom of each group in figure 22. Communities at the 

intermediate sites A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D tended to be 

similar to each other within the May and August groups. 

Ephemeroptera (mayflies) accounted for about 

20–50 percent of the relative abundance of macroinvertebrates 

in the May 2007 and 2008 samples (fig. 23). The dominant 

taxa of Ephemeroptera in May were Baetis tricaudatus and 

Ephemerella (U.S. Geological Survey, 2010b). Several taxa 

of Ephemeroptera were identified in the May samples but 

not in August samples, including Ephemerella, Epeorus, and 

Cinygmula (U.S Geological Survey, 2010b). Some of the 

Ephemeroptera taxa present in May persisted into August, 

including Baetis tricaudatus, which composed 26 percent 

of the relative abundance at site A-R7 and 17 percent at site 

A-R6D in August. 

Plecoptera were uncommon in Fish Creek and generally 

were present in May but not August. The maximum abundance 

of Plecoptera occurred in May 2007, when Isoperla composed 

8 percent of the community at site A-RB. Trichoptera composed 11–22 percent of the macroinvertebrates in May and 

3–17 percent in August of 2007–08. The most common taxa 

of Trichoptera were Amiocentrus aspilus, particularly in May, 

Brachycentrus spp., and various genera of Hydropsychidae. 
Station number

Station name

Sample collection date 

(month/day/year)

Taxa richness

Density (numbers/m

2

)

Taxa relative abundance (in percent) Func

Total 

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

Plecoptera (stoneflies)

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Diptera (true flies)

Chironomidae (midges)

Non-insects

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

Plecoptera (stoneflies)

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Diptera (true flies)

Chironomidae (midges)

Non-insects

Predator taxa

Omnivore scraper taxa

433505110494001 A-R1U 05/10/2007 15 1 0 1 9 8 3 859 49 0 0 46 46 4 1 0 

433505110494001 A-R1U 08/13/2007 30 2 1 1 20 16 5 476 1 0 0 93 91 6 4 0 

433438110495901 A-R1D 08/14/2007 28 2 0 0 18 16 6 390 1 0 0 81 74 17 2 1 

433302110504701 A-RB 05/08/2007 35 6 2 11 11 9 3 448 23 8 21 46 46 1 4 0 

433302110504701 A-RB 08/15/2007 37 3 0 5 23 19 5 1363 1 0 3 81 78 16 3 2 

433302110504701 A-RB 05/06/2008 45 6 1 8 19 17 9 2040 23 1 22 48 47 4 5 1 

433302110504701 A-RB 08/19/2008 37 4 0 5 17 15 8 2306 3 0 3 89 88 3 4 1 

433117110515101 A-R3D 05/09/2007 48 7 3 13 19 15 5 252 51 1 14 33 31 1 9 1 

433117110515101 A-R3D 08/14/2007 35 1 1 5 21 18 5 538 2 0 10 79 74 8 6 2 

433117110515101 A-R3D 05/07/2008 50 6 2 11 23 19 6 3120 32 0 13 37 34 16 7 1 

433117110515101 A-R3D 08/19/2008 48 2 0 6 24 21 14 557 2 0 7 72 66 17 5 0 

13016450 A-Wck 05/08/2007 43 6 2 10 19 17 4 129 47 0 18 32 32 2 4 1 

13016450 A-Wck 08/15/2007 46 1 0 8 26 21 10 507 7 0 13 53 49 27 9 2 

13016450 A-Wck 05/07/2008 50 7 4 8 18 14 10 1123 41 1 13 32 29 11 9 0 

13016450 A-Wck 08/20/2008 54 3 0 6 27 24 14 302 8 0 3 57 55 29 5 2 

432906110522601 A-R6D 05/07/2007 50 7 3 11 19 16 6 300 40 4 13 37 36 2 9 1 

432906110522601 A-R6D 08/16/2007 46 2 0 6 26 23 8 845 7 0 6 74 66 11 5 3 

432906110522601 A-R6D 05/08/2008 46 6 2 7 20 17 9 945 41 0 18 29 26 8 5 0 

432906110522601 A-R6D 08/20/2008 48 3 0 7 21 19 13 750 18 0 5 63 61 12 5 0 

432748110515301 A-R7 05/08/2008 52 6 1 9 20 17 14 2560 19 0 11 41 38 21 8 0 

432748110515301 A-R7 08/21/2008 49 3 1 7 19 16 15 566 28 0 17 33 28 11 7 2 

Table 9. Macroinvertebrate community metrics, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007-08. [m2, meters squared]
Station number

Station name

Sample collection date

 (month/day/year)

Functional group relative abundance (in percent)

Tolerance score

Tolerance group relative abundance (in percent)

Predator taxa

Omnivore scraper taxa

Collector-gatherer taxa

Filterer-collector taxa

Scraper 

Shredder 

 Intolerant

 macroinvertebrates

 Moderately tolerant

macroinvertebrates

 Tolerant

 macroinvertebrates

433505110494001 A-R1U 05/10/2007 0 0 97 0 2 0 5.7 53 19 28

433505110494001 A-R1U 08/13/2007 1 0 87 2 10 0 5.5 35 49 16433438110495901 A-R1D 08/14/2007 1 0 85 6 7 0 6.0 3 82 15433302110504701 A-RB 05/08/2007 8 0 75 7 9 0 3.9 65 30 5433302110504701 A-RB 08/15/2007 1 1 83 3 2 8 4.8 23 39 38433302110504701 A-RB 05/06/2008 5 1 80 7 6 1 4.6 50 28 22433302110504701 A-RB 08/19/2008 1 0 92 1 2 3 5.0 32 44 24433117110515101 A-R3D 05/09/2007 2 0 81 11 3 1 3.8 77 19 4433117110515101 A-R3D 08/14/2007 3 1 56 25 0 9 4.8 26 50 23

433117110515101 A-R3D 05/07/2008 4 0 60 16 3 3 4.1 50 26 24433117110515101 A-R3D 08/19/2008 6 0 68 17 1 4 5.5 23 52 2513016450 A-Wck 05/08/2007 2 0 76 11 5 6 4.1 72 25 313016450 A-Wck 08/15/2007 4 1 41 26 1 12 5.3 26 35 3913016450 A-Wck 05/07/2008 10 0 68 13 5 3 4.2 64 19 17

13016450 A-Wck 08/20/2008 4 0 70 8 3 12 5.4 16 51 32432906110522601 A-R6D 05/07/2007 7 0 75 8 5 5 4.0 68 22 10432906110522601 A-R6D 08/16/2007 3 2 53 25 1 9 5.3 25 41 35432906110522601 A-R6D 05/08/2008 5 0 76 10 4 3 4.5 67 19 14432906110522601 A-R6D 08/20/2008 2 0 76 9 2 8 5.4 29 46 25

432748110515301 A-R7 05/08/2008 4 0 59 11 9 6 4.8 40 29 31

432748110515301 A-R7 08/21/2008 6 1 54 20 11 5 5.3 66 22 12

Table 9. Macroinvertebrate community metrics, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007-08.—Continued [m2, meters squared]
48 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

W

W

W

W

7

7

6

6

6

6

3

3

3 3

B

B B

B

Figure 22. Similarities of macroinvertebrate communities depicted by non-metric multidimensional scaling 

ordination for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.

Sampling date

A−R3D

A−R6D

A−R7

A−R6D

3

6

7

D

A−WckW

Sampling site

EXPLANATION

May 2007 and May 2008 August 2007 and 

August 2008

0

0.5

1

1.5

–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

May 2007

August 2007

May 2008

August 2008

–1.5

–1

–0.5

NONMETRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AXIS 1

NONMETRIC MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING AXIS 2

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

MAY 2007 AUGUST 2007 MAY 2008 AUGUST 2008 

TAXA RICHNESS

SAMPLING PERIOD

Noninsects

EXPLANATION

Coleoptera (other insects)

Diptera (true flies)

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Plecoptera (stoneflies)

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

Figure 21. Average taxa richness of 

macroinvertebrate communities by sampling 

period for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, 

Wyoming, 2007–08.

Figure 22. Similarities of macroinvertebrate communities depicted by nonmetric multidimensional scaling 

ordination for sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 49

Diptera were common in both May and August 2007–08 

but were more common in the August samples (fig. 23). 

Chironomidae composed 26–47 percent of the total macroinvertebrate abundance (average of 36 percent) in May, and 

28–88 percent (average of 63 percent) in August. The most 

common taxa of Chironomids were Cricotopus/Orthocladius, 

Pagastia, and Eukiefferiella in both May and August 

of 2007–08. 

Noninsects identified from Fish Creek included several 

species of Nais (Oligochaeta), which are aquatic counterparts 

to the terrestrial earthworm (Pennak, 1978). The Nais spp.

and other noninsects reached maximum relative abundance at 

site A-Wck, where noninsects composed 27 percent in August 

2007 and 29 percent in August 2008 (table 9; fig. 23). 

Generally, the EPT are considered indicators of favorable water quality, and their proportions decrease in response 

to increasing perturbation (Barbour and others, 1999). The 

proportion of organisms tolerant of degraded water quality, 

such as many of the Diptera and noninsects, is expected to 

increase with increasing perturbation (Barbour and others, 

1999). Although the seasonal change in macroinvertebrate 

community composition in Fish Creek indicates a shift toward 

more tolerant taxa later in the year, this change might be 

due to factors other than water quality, such as the change in 

algal communities. 

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Ephemeroptera (mayflies)

Plecoptera (stoneflies)

Trichoptera (caddisflies)

Other insects

Diptera (true flies)

Noninsect

August 2007

May 2007 May 2008

August 2008

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

EXPLANATION

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, IN PERCENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE, IN PERCENT

Figure 23. Relative abundance of macroinvertebrate taxonomic groups at sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08. 

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

Figure 23. Relative abundance of macroinvertebrate taxonomic groups at sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 2007–08.
50 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Macroinvertebrate Community Traits

Functional feeding group and tolerance of the macroinvertebrate communities were examined as traits or indicators of 

community dynamics. Functional feeding groups indicate feeding preferences on the basis of classifying macroinvertebrates 

into various groups such as collector-gatherers, scrapers, shredders, filterer-collectors, and predators (Barbour and others, 

1999). Tolerance represents relative sensitivity to perturbation 

from various stressors such as organic pollution and sedimentation (Barbour and others, 1999). 

Functional feeding groups of macroinvertebrate communities in Fish Creek shifted substantially with season in 

2007–08. Although most of the macroinvertebrates in Fish 

Creek were classified as collector-gatherers, the relative 

abundance of collector-gatherers, scrapers, and predators was 

notably higher in the May samples than the August samples 

(fig. 24). Macroinvertebrates in the collector-gatherer feeding group include the mayfly Baetis tricaudatus, for example, 

that was common in both May and August. The difference in 

relative abundance of scrapers between May and August was 

significant (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p<0.05). Scraper taxa that 

were common in the May samples but not August include the 

Ephemeroptera Epeorus and Cinygmula. The seasonal decrease 

in relative abundance of the macroinvertebrate scraper feeding 

group might be related to the seasonal change in aquatic plant 

communities. Merritt and Cummins (1996) describe scrapers as 

grazing scrapers on mineral and organic surfaces. The mineral 

surfaces in Fish Creek are the rock surfaces that were characterized as containing microalgae during the aquatic plant community surveys. The decrease in microalgae surfaces from May 

to August, as described previously in the “Aquatic Plant Community Composition” section of this report, might be a factor 

in the decrease of macroinvertebrate scrapers. The Plecoptera, 

such as Isoperla, which are predators, were most common in 

May and virtually absent during August, which helps explain 

the seasonal decrease in the predator feeding group in Fish 

Creek (fig. 24). 

Conversely, the relative abundance of the shredder and 

filterer-collector feeding groups was higher in August than in 

May (fig. 24). The difference in relative abundance of shredders between May and August was significant (Wilcoxon rank 

sum test [Helsel and Hirsch, 1992], p<0.05). An example of a 

macroinvertebrate taxon in the shredder feeding group is the 

Chironomid Cricotopus that was more common in August than 

in May. Merritt and Cummins (1996) describe Cricotopus as 

an inhabitant of vascular hydrophytes and algal mats. The seasonal increase in relative abundance of Cricotopus is consistent 

with the seasonal increase in macrophytes and Cladophora in 

Fish Creek that was described previously in the “Aquatic Plant 

Community Composition” section of this report. Examples of 

filterer-collector taxa that were more common in August than 

May include the Trichoptera Brachycentrus occidentalis and 

the blackfly larvae Simulium. 

Macroinvertebrate communities in Fish Creek had substantially higher tolerance scores in August than in May. The 

median tolerance score based on taxa richness in the samples 

was 4.1 in May and 5.3 in August (fig. 25). The tolerance 

scores were based on a range of 0–10, from least to most 

perturbation or organic enrichment (Hilsenhoff, 1987; Cuffney, 

2003). Tolerance scores also indicated a decrease in relative abundance of intolerant (score range of 0 to less than 4) 

macroinvertebrates from May to August (fig. 25). Concurrently, 

the relative abundance of moderately tolerant (range of 4 to 

less than 7), and tolerant (range of 7 to 10) macroinvertebrates 

increased from May to August. The differences in tolerance 

scores between May and August were significant at p<0.05 in 

a Wilcoxon rank-sum test for taxa richness and all three ranges 

of tolerance score. 

Habitat Characteristics 

Habitat characteristics of streambed substrate (pebble 

count) and riparian canopy were measured at the surfacewater sites with perennial flow in 2008. Streambed substrate 

data were collected twice, and riparian canopy data were 

collected once. 

Streambed Substrate

The streambed substrate was measured in May 2008, prior 

to the 2008 high flows, and in October 2008 (table 2). With the 

exception of the most upstream site on Fish Creek with perennial flow, site A-RB, the streambed substrate in Fish Creek 

contained primarily cobble in the size range of 64 to <128 

mm, and gravel in the size range of 32 to <64 mm, with a few 

boulders and some fine sediment (fig. 26). The streambed substrate at site A-RB was dominated by gravel in the size range 

of 8 to <64 mm. The differences in substrate size between site 

A-RB and the downstream sites on Fish Creek likely are due, 

at least partially, to the increased streamflow at sites farther 

downstream.

Comparison of substrate before and after the peak flow 

of 2008 showed little difference between the two time periods. 

One exception was site A-RB, which showed an increase in 

fines in October; however, this is likely due to a summer 2008 

landslide into the creek in Phillips Canyon, a tributary of Fish 

Creek, rather than a function of changing flow conditions in 

Fish Creek.

Riparian Canopy

Densiometer readings were recorded in October 2008 at 

sites A-RB, A-R3D, A-Wck, A-R6D, and A-R7 (table 2) as 

an indicator of riparian canopy cover and shading that might 

limit light availability for photosynthesis by the aquatic plant 

communities. The average riparian canopy cover ranged from 

0 percent at site A-R7 to 59 percent at site A-Wck (table 20). 

Site A-Wck had the highest amount of riparian canopy, but 

most of the stream channel still received full sunlight because 

of the width of the channel and the relatively short height of 

the riparian vegetation.
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 51

9 9 9 9

9 9

9 9

Figure 24. Relative abundance of functional feeding groups of macroinvertebrates at sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May and August, 2007–08. RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF PREDATORS, IN PERCENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SCRAPERS, IN PERCENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF COLLECTOR-GATHERERS, IN PERCENT

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF FILTERER-COLLECTORS, IN PERCENT RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF SHREDDERS, IN PERCENT

EXPLANATION

Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times 

 the interquartile range outside the quartile

AUGUST 2007

and 2008

MAY 2007

and 2008

0

2

4

6

8

10

0

2

4

6

8

10

40

50

60

70

80

90

10

15

20

25

0

4

8

12

0

5

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Outlier data value more than 1.5 times the 

 interquartile range outside the quartile

Interquartile 

 range

9 Number of samples

AUGUST 2007

and 2008

MAY 2007

and 2008

9 9

Figure 24. Relative abundance of functional feeding groups of macroinvertebrates at sites with perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May and August, 2007–08.
52 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

AUGUST 2007

and 2008

MAY 2007

and 2008

9 9 9 9

9 9

TOLERANCE SCORE, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF 

MODERATELY TOLERANT MACROINVERTEBRATES TOLERANCE SCORE, TAXA RICHNESS

TOLERANCE SCORE, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF 

TOLERANT MACROINVERTEBRATES

TOLERANCE SCORE, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF 

INTOLERANT MACROINVERTEBRATES

Figure 25. Tolerance scores for macroinvertebrate communities based on taxa richness and relative abundance for sites with

perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, May and August, 2007–08.

0

10

20

30

40

0

20

40

60

80

10

20

30

40

50

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

9 9

AUGUST 2007

and 2008

MAY 2007

and 2008

EXPLANATION

Data value less than or equal to 1.5 times 

 the interquartile range outside the quartile

75th percentile

Median

25th percentile

Outlier data value more than 1.5 times the 

 interquartile range outside the quartile

Interquartile 

 range

9 Number of samples

Figure 25. Tolerance scores for macroinvertebrate communities based on taxa richness and relative abundance for sites with 

perennial flow, Fish Creek, Wyoming, May and August, 2007–08.
Biological Community and Habitat Characterization 53

<2.0

<2.8<4.0

<5.6<8.0

<11.0

<16.0<22.6<32.0<45.0<64.0

<90.0

<128<180<256

>=256

PARTICLE SIZE, IN MILLIMETERS

<2.0

<2.8<4.0

<5.6

<8.0

<11.0

<16.0<22.6<32.0<45.0<64.0

<90.0

<128<180<256

>=256

PARTICLE SIZE, IN MILLIMETERS

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

DISTRIBUTION, IN PERCENT

Site A–RB, May 2008 Site A–RB, October 2008

Site A–R3D, May 2008 Site A–R3D, October 2008

Site A–Wck, May 2008 Site A–Wck, October 2008

Site A–R6D, May 2008 Site A–R6D, October 2008

Site A–R7, May 2008 Site A–R7, October 2008

Fines

Color indicates description of particle, 

 Potyondy and Bunte, 2002

EXPLANATION

Cobble < Less than

Gravel Boulder >= Greater than or equal to

Figure 26. Streambed substrate at five sites with perennial flow on Fish Creek, May and October, 2008
54 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Ecological Relations

Understanding relations among the organisms and their 

environment (ecology) is critical to understanding the dynamics of Fish Creek and planning for any potential measures 

to control the growth of aquatic plants in Fish Creek. The 

aquatic plants form the base of the food chain and affect the 

macroinvertebrate communities, which in turn affects the fish 

communities. Given that the cobble and large gravel substrates 

and clear water in Fish Creek provide an environment conducive to growth of aquatic plants, the link between aquatic 

plants and nutrients is examined in this section. The relations 

are focused on algae because of the availability of relevant 

literature, but macrophytes also function as primary producers 

in Fish Creek. 

Relations Between Algae and Nutrients

Aquatic criteria for algal nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) have not been determined for the State of Wyoming; 

therefore, nutrient criteria designed to minimize excessive 

algal growth, including Cladophora, on the Clark Fork in 

Montana (Watson and others, 2000) are used in this report 

for reference. All of the Fish Creek samples from the sites 

with perennial flow had total nitrogen concentrations (table 3) 

that were less than the unfiltered, total nitrogen criterion 

of 0.30 mg/L as N established for Clark Fork (Watson and 

others, 2000). Two samples from site A-R1U with seasonal 

flow had total nitrogen concentrations (unfiltered; 0.7 and 

0.33 mg/L as N) that exceeded the 0.30 mg/L nitrogen 

criterion (table 3). Almost all of the samples from sites on 

Fish Creek with perennial flow had total phosphorus concentrations (unfiltered) that were less than the unfiltered, total 

phosphorus criterion of 0.039 mg/L as P as an overall upper 

limit and less than the criterion of 0.020 mg/L as P as a lower 

limit where the specific goal was to discourage the growth 

of Cladophora as described in Watson and others (2000). All 

samples from sites A-R1U and A-R1D, and one sample from 

site A-RB exceeded the lower-limit criterion for Cladophora

(0.020 mg/L as P); one sample from site A-R1U and all of the 

samples from site A-R1D had unfiltered total phosphorus concentrations that exceeded the upper-limit criterion of 0.039 

mg/L as P (table 3). 

Although nutrient concentrations in Fish Creek generally 

were low, the standing crop of algae in Fish Creek was high 

compared to other streams in the region and was within the 

range of nuisance conditions (Stevenson and others, 1996; 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000; Watson and 

others, 2000). This apparent paradox has also been noted 

for other ecosystems (for example, Porter and others, 2001; 

Peterson and others, 2001) and can be explained by rapid 

consumption of nutrients by the aquatic community as soon 

as the nutrients

 are introduced to the system. Rapid consumption of nutrients 

might also be a factor in the lack of statistically significant 

correlations between nutrients (various forms of nitrogen and 

phosphorus) and algal standing crop (algal biovolume, algal 

cell density, and chlorophyll-a) in Fish Creek. 

Either nitrogen or phosphorus, or both have been shown 

to be the nutrient-limiting algal growth in various streams 

(Stevenson and others, 1996). Ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P) sometimes are used as an indicator of the limiting nutrient because algal cells utilize those 

nutrients in specific ratios. For example, Stevenson and others 

(1996) suggest ambient N:P ratios greater than 20:1 are considered P limited, less than 10:1 are N limited, and between 

10 and 20 to 1, the distinction is unclear. In the surface waters 

of Fish Creek, N:P ratios were less than 10:1 at all sites in late 

summer and fall (fig. 27) and greater than 10:1 at some sites 

during the spring. The N:P ratios in groundwater in the Fish 

Creek area (fig. 27) were similar to those in the surface water, 

in terms of both ratio values and seasonal variation. Groundwater is a likely source of nutrient loading to Fish Creek, 

based on substantial contributions of groundwater to Fish 

Creek (Eddy-Miller and others, 2009) and consistently higher 

concentrations of nutrients in the groundwater compared to 

the surface water. Additional analyses would be needed to 

quantify loading of nutrients from groundwater to surface 

water and determine the function of groundwater in the potential nitrogen limitation of algal growth in Fish Creek. 

Other investigations in the Rocky Mountain area such as 

Watson and others (2000) have described nutrient limitation 

to algal growth that indicated nitrogen and phosphorus were 

limiting at different times of the year in some river systems. 

Peterson and Porter (2001) described potential nitrogen limitation in the Yellowstone River in Montana. Also, N:P ratios 

in Fish Creek in late summer and fall were within the range 

used by Lohman and Priscu (1992) as an indicator of nitrogen 

limitation at stream sites in western Montana. The Federal 

Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (1998) noted 

phosphorus typically is the limiting nutrient in streams. 

The increase in nitrogen-fixing algae with season and in 

the downstream direction in Fish Creek might indicate that 

the nitrogen-fixing algae are using their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen to achieve a competitive advantage over 

other algae when nitrogen concentrations in water are low. 

Concentrations of nitrogen in water showed a seasonal fluctuation and tended to be lowest in late summer and fall, when 

algal standing crop and production were high, as contrasted 

with concentrations of phosphorus in water that tended to be 

stable throughout the sampling period. Additional sampling 

and analysis would be required to determine whether nitrogen, phosphorus, or both are the primary nutrients responsible 

for growth of algae in Fish Creek.
Ecological Relations 55

NITROGEN TO PHOSPHORUS RATIO

A–R1U

A–R1D

A–RB

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

EXPLANATION

DATE

Figure 27. Ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P). A, surface-water samples; and 

B, groundwater samples; Fish Creek area, Wyoming, 2007–08. 

A

0

5

10

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25

30

35

40

NITROGEN TO PHOSPHORUS RATIO

0

5

10

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20

25

30

35

40

01/18/2007 04/28/2007 08/06/2007 11/14/2007 02/22/2008 06/01/2008 09/09/2008 12/18/2008

B

EXPLANATION

A–R1D–W1

Site

Site

A–R3D–W1

A–Wck–W1

Figure 27. Ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P). A, surface-water samples, and B, 

groundwater samples, Fish Creek area, 2007–08.

Relations Between Aquatic Plants and Higher 

Trophic Levels

The aquatic plant communities in Fish Creek affect the 

macroinvertebrate and fish communities in various ways 

such as by providing food and shelter, as well as causing diel 

changes in dissolved-oxygen concentrations. In both 2007 and 

2008, macroinvertebrate communities shifted seasonally, with 

higher proportions of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera in May than in August, and higher proportions of Diptera 

and noninsects in August than May. The functional feeding 

groups and tolerance scores of the macroinvertebrate communities also shifted seasonally. For example, relative abundance 

of the scraper feeding mode was significantly higher in May 

than August, whereas the shredder feeding mode was significantly higher in August and May. The seasonal changes in 

macroinvertebrate communities were consistent with the seasonal increases in Cladophora and macrophytes in Fish Creek 

that affect food and shelter available to the macroinvertebrates. 

The macroinvertebrates, in turn, are an important food source 

for the fish community that is dominated by salmonids, such 

as the Snake River cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki spp.). 
56 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Summary

Fish Creek, a tributary to the Snake River, is about 

25 river kilometers long and is located in Teton County in 

western Wyoming near the town of Wilson. Nuisance growths 

of aquatic plants have been increasing in Fish Creek in recent 

years. To address this concern, the U.S. Geological Survey 

conducted a study in cooperation with the Teton Conservation 

District to characterize the water quality and biological communities in Fish Creek. Water-quality samples were collected 

for analyses of physical properties and water chemistry (nutrients, nitrate isotopes, and wastewater chemicals) between 

March 2007 and October 2008 from seven surface-water sites 

and three groundwater wells. During this same period, aquatic 

plant and macroinvertebrate samples were collected and habitat characteristics were measured at the surface-water sites.

The main objectives of this study were to (1) evaluate 

nutrient concentrations (that influence biological indicators 

of eutrophication) and potential sources of nutrients by using 

stable isotope analysis and other indicator chemicals (such 

as caffeine and disinfectants) that could provide evidence 

of anthropogenic sources, such as wastewater or septic tank 

contamination in Fish Creek and adjacent groundwater, and 

(2) characterize the algal, macrophyte, and macroinvertebrate 

communities and habitat of Fish Creek.

On the west side of the Snake River is an alluvial aquifer 

known locally as the west bank aquifer. Fish Creek’s streambed is incised into the sediments of the Snake River alluvium 

and intersect the water table of the west bank aquifer. Groundwater discharge contributes a substantial portion of the flow 

to Fish Creek, although the volume of water contributed from 

groundwater varies along the length of the creek.

Seven surface-water and three groundwater sites were 

selected for sampling on the basis of their location along the 

reach of Fish Creek from near the headwaters at Teton Village 

to a location about 2 kilometers from the confluence with the 

Snake River. Physical properties were determined in the field 

for all surface-water and groundwater sites during each visit. 

Streamflow was measured at surface-water sites, and waterlevel data were collected at groundwater sites. Water-quality 

samples from Fish Creek and nearby groundwater were collected for analyses of nutrients, nitrate isotopes, and wastewater chemicals, depending on the sampling schedule. Biological 

samples (aquatic plants and macroinvertebrates) were collected 

and streambed substrate and riparian canopy were measured at 

all surface-water sites. 

Nitrate was the dominant species of dissolved nitrogen 

present in all samples and was the only bioavailable species 

detected at concentrations greater than the laboratory reporting level in all surface-water samples. Average concentrations 

of dissolved nitrate in surface water were largest in samples 

collected from the two upstream sites with seasonal flow near 

Teton Village and decreased downstream with the smallest concentration at site A-Wck. Concentrations of dissolved nitrate in 

groundwater were consistently greater than concentrations in 

the corresponding surface-water sites during the same sampling 

event. Orthophosphate was the primary dissolved species of 

phosphorus present in all surface-water and groundwater samples. The average concentration of dissolved orthophosphate 

in surface water was largest (0.05 milligram per liter [mg/L] as 

phosphorus) in samples collected near Teton Village; samples 

from all other sites had equal average concentrations of 0.01 

mg/L as phosphorus. Concentrations of dissolved orthophosphate in groundwater typically were greater than concentrations in the corresponding surface-water sites during the same 

sampling event.

When viewed from the shore or a bridge, Fish Creek 

commonly appeared to be bright green due to a green mat of 

aquatic plants on the bottom of the creek. The mat typically 

was composed of a mixture of macrophytes, macroalgae, 

microalgae, and moss. The composition of the aquatic plant 

community in Fish Creek appeared to shift in the downstream 

direction in 2007. The downstream increase in macrophytes 

was accompanied by a downstream decrease in microalgae. 

The proportion of the macroalgae Cladophora in the aquatic 

plant community was relatively high at sites A-Wck and 

A-R3D in both 2007 and 2008. Cladophora at site A-Wck 

made up an average of about 40 percent of the plant community in 2007 and 46 percent in 2008. 

The relative abundance of macrophytes in the aquatic 

plant community generally increased from summer to fall at all 

of the sites with perennial flow during 2007 and at some of the 

sites during 2008. The seasonal increase in the proportion of 

macrophytes generally corresponded with decreases in the proportion of microalgae and unsuitable substrate, likely because 

the growth of macrophytes covered areas that would otherwise 

have been classified as microalgae or unsuitable substrate.

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a, which is one of the primary photosynthetic pigments in algal cells tended to be higher 

at the sites with perennial flow than at sites with seasonal 

flow. Chlorophyll-a concentrations at the two sampling sites 

farthest upstream, sites A-R1U and A-R1D with seasonal flow, 

were highly variable but averaged less than 200 milligrams 

per square meter (mg/m2) in 2007. In contrast, chlorophyll-a

concentrations at the sites with perennial flow, sites A-RB, 

A-R3D, A-Wck, and A-R6D, averaged greater than 200 mg/m2. 

Average concentrations of chlorophyll-a were smallest in the 

spring months of March and May and largest in October 2007. 

The chlorophyll-a concentrations during 2008 also indicated a 

seasonal peak in October. 

Concentrations of chlorophyll-a in Fish Creek consistently were high compared to values from other investigations. 

Almost all of the chlorophyll-a concentrations from Fish Creek 

were in the range of, or exceeded, the 100 to 200 mg/m2

 range 

suggested as an indicator of nuisance algal conditions by the 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Most of the 199 algal taxa identified in the 2007 samples 

were diatoms (Bacillariophyta), accounting for 87 percent of 

the total taxa richness by sample. In spite of having relatively 

few species, blue-green algae commonly were dominant in 

terms of density and green algae commonly were dominant in 
Summary 57

terms of biovolume at sites with perennial flow. The taxonomic 

composition of the algal communities at the sites with seasonal 

flow was notably different from the composition at sites with 

perennial flow. 

Algal community traits were calculated from genus or 

species-level autecological information as potential indicators of nitrogen limitation, organic enrichment, sedimentation, 

and pH. Nitrogen-fixing algae were present and sometimes 

dominant in the algal communities of Fish Creek. Nitrogenfixing algae include diatoms in the family Rhopalodiaceae and 

blue-green algae that can fix atmospheric nitrogen as a nutrient source and therefore have a competitive advantage when 

concentrations of nitrogen, a key nutrient for algae, in the water 

are low. Metrics for oxygen tolerance, organic nitrogen, and 

pollution class indicated relatively low organic enrichment in 

Fish Creek. 

Similar to the algal communities, the macroinvertebrate 

taxa richness was lower at the sites with seasonal streamflow, 

A-R1U and A-R1D, near Teton Village than at the sites farther 

downstream with perennial flow, likely due to the effects of 

drying during the winter and differences in the food sources 

(algae, other aquatic plants, and organic matter). The Diptera 

(true flies) made up about one-half of the macroinvertebrate 

taxa identified in Fish Creek. The Ephemeroptera (mayflies), 

Trichoptera (caddisflies), and Plecoptera (stoneflies), which are 

collectively known as the EPT, accounted for smaller proportions of the overall community taxa richness than Diptera and 

were more common in May than August of both 2007 and 

2008, indicating seasonal variation in community composition 

Generally, the EPT are considered indicators of favorable water 

quality, and their proportions decrease in response to increasing 

perturbation. The proportion of organisms tolerant of degraded 

water quality, such as many of the Diptera and noninsects, is 

expected to increase with increasing perturbation. Although the 

seasonal change in macroinvertebrate community composition 

in Fish Creek indicates a shift toward more tolerant taxa later 

in the year, this change might be due to factors other than water 

quality, such as the change in algal communities. 

In general, the streambed substrate consisted primarily of 

gravel and cobbles, with few boulders and some fine sediment. 

Riparian canopy measurements indicated minimal, if any, shading along the creek. The cobble and large gravel substrates and 

clear water in Fish Creek provide an environment conducive to 

growth of aquatic plants. 

Although nutrient concentrations in Fish Creek generally 

were low, the standing crop of algae in Fish Creek was high 

compared to other streams in the region, and was within the 

range of nuisance conditions. This apparent paradox has also 

been noted in other ecosystems and can be explained by rapid 

consumption of nutrients by the aquatic community as soon as 

the nutrients are introduced to the system. Rapid consumption 

of nutrients also might be a factor in the lack of statistically 

significant correlation between nutrients (various forms of 

nitrogen and phosphorus) and algal standing crop (algal biovolume, algal cell density, and chlorophyll-a concentrations) in 

Fish Creek. 

Ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus concentrations (N:P) 

sometimes are used as an indicator of the limiting nutrient 

because algal cells utilize those nutrients in specific ratios. 

Ambient N:P ratios greater than 20:1 are considered phosphorus limited, less than 10:1 are considered nitrogen limited, and 

between 10 and 20 to 1, the distinction is unclear. In the surface 

waters of Fish Creek, N:P ratios were less than 10:1 at all sites 

in late summer and fall and greater than 10:1 at some sites during the spring. The N:P ratios in groundwater in the Fish Creek 

area were similar to those in the surface water, in terms of both 

ratio values and seasonal variation. 

The increase in nitrogen-fixing algae with season and in 

the downstream direction in Fish Creek might indicate that the 

nitrogen-fixing algae are using their ability to fix atmospheric 

nitrogen to achieve a competitive advantage over other algae 

when nitrogen concentrations in water are low. Concentrations 

of nitrogen in water showed a seasonal fluctuation and tended 

to be lowest in late summer and fall, when algal standing crop 

and production were high, as contrasted with concentrations 

of phosphorus in water that tended to be stable throughout 

the sampling period. Additional sampling and analysis would 

be required to determine whether nitrogen, phosphorus, or 

both, are the primary nutrients causing the growth of algae in 

Fish Creek.

The aquatic plant communities in Fish Creek affect the 

macroinvertebrate and fish communities in various ways such 

as by providing food and shelter, and causing diel changes in 

dissolved oxygen. In both 2007 and 2008, macroinvertebrate 

communities shifted seasonally, with higher proportions of 

Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera in May than in 

August, and higher proportions of Diptera and noninsects in 

August than May. The functional feeding groups and tolerance 

scores of the macroinvertebrate communities also shifted seasonally. For example, relative abundance of the scraper feeding 

mode was significantly higher in May than August, whereas the 

shredder feeding mode was significantly higher in August and 

May. The seasonal changes in macroinvertebrate communities 

were consistent with the seasonal increases in Cladophora and 

macrophytes in Fish Creek that affect food and shelter available to the macroinvertebrates. The macroinvertebrates, in 

turn are an important food source for the fish community that 

is dominated by salmonids, such as the Snake River cutthroat 

trout (Oncorhynchus clarki spp.). 
58 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

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Supplemental Data
62 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

180

200

220

240

260

280

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

03/06/07 

0:00

03/07/07 

0:00

03/08/07 

0:00

DATE AND TIME

03/09/07 

0:00

03/10/07 

0:00

Figure 28. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

March 2007. 

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

A–RB

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

Figure 28. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, 

Wyoming, March 2007.
Supplemental Data 63

Figure 29. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May 2007. 

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

A–R1U

EXPLANATION

A–RB

A–R3D

A–R6D

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

DISSOLVED OXYGEN,

PERCENT SATURATED 

0

5

10

15

20

50

100

150

200

250

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

0

5

10

15

20

0

50

100

150

05/07/2007 

0:00

05/08/2007 

0:00

05/09/2007 

0:00

DATE AND TIME

05/10/2007 

0:00

05/11/2007 

0:00

Figure 29. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May 2007.
64 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 30. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

July 2007. 

WATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

A–R1U

EXPLANATION

A–R1D

A–RB A–R6D

A–R3D

A–Wck

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STANDARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

DISSOLVED OXYGEN,

PERCENT SATURATED 

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

120

170

220

270

6

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

5

7

9

11

13

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

07/10/2007 

0:00

07/11/2007 

0:00

07/12/2007 

0:00

07/13/2007 

0:00

DATE AND TIME

Figure 30. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

July 2007.
Supplemental Data 65

Figure 31. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

August 2007. 

DATE AND TIME

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

8

10

12

14

16

18

140

190

240

290

6

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

08/14/2007 

0:00

08/15/2007 

0:00

08/16/2007 

0:00

08/17/2007 

0:00

08/18/2007 

0:00

A–R1U

EXPLANATION

A–R1D

A–RB A–R6D

A–R3D

A–Wck

Figure 31. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

August 2007.
66 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 32. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

October 2007. 

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

DISSOLVED OXYGEN,

PERCENT SATURATED 

DATE AND TIME

A–RB

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

10/23/07 

0:00

10/24/07 

0:00

10/25/07 

0:00

10/26/07 

0:00

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

190

210

230

250

270

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

6

8

10

12

14

16

50

70

90

110

130

150

Figure 32. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

October 2007.
Supplemental Data 67

Figure 33. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May 2008. 

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

DISSOLVED OXYGEN,

PERCENT SATURATED 

DATE AND TIME

A–RB

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

5/6/08 

0:00

5/7/08 

0:00

5/8/08 

0:00

5/9/08 

0:00

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

220

240

260

280

300

320

6.5

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

7

12

17

22

45

65

85

105

125

145

165

Figure 33. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

May 2008
68 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Figure 34. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties for surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

October 2008. 

W

ATER TEMPERATURE,

IN DEGREES CELSIUS

SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE, IN 

MICROSIEMENS PER CENTIMETER pH, IN STAND

ARD UNITS

DISSOLVED OXYGEN, IN

MILLIGRAMS PER LITER

DISSOLVED OXYGEN,

PERCENT SATURATED 

DATE AND TIME

A–RB

EXPLANATION

A–R3D

A–Wck

A–R6D

A–R7

10/20/2008 

0:00

10/21/2008 

0:00

10/22/2008 

0:00

10/23/2008 

0:00

10/24/2008 

0:00

3

5

7

9

11

13

195

215

235

255

7

7.5

8

8.5

9

9.5

5

7

9

11

13

15

45

65

85

105

125

145

Figure 34. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, 

October 2008.
Supplemental Data 69

On CD–ROM in pocket at back of report:

Table 10. Chemicals analyzed in the wastewater compound schedule (Zaugg and others, 2002).

Table 11. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, March 2007.

Table 12. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, May 2007.

Table 13. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, July 2007.

Table 14. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, August 2007.

Table 15. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, October 2007.

Table 16. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, May 2008.

Table 17. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, August 2008.

Table 18. Continuously collected measurements of water-quality properties from surface-water 

sites on Fish Creek, Wyoming, October 2008.

Table 19. Concentrations of wastewater chemicals in surface-water, groundwater, and associated 

blank samples collected in the Fish Creek area, 2007.

Table 20. Densiometer readings from three cross sections at each surface-water site, 

October 2008.
70 Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08

Publishing support provided by

Denver Publishing Service Center

For more information concerning this publication, contact

Director, Wyoming Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

2617 East Lincolnway, Suite B

Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001

(307) 778-2931

Or visit the Wyoming Water Science Center Web site at:

http://wy.water.usgs.gov
Back cover

Background: The Teton Range as seen from Teton Point turnout on U.S. Highway 26/89, Wyoming, March 9, 2007.

 Photograph by Cheryl Eddy-Miller, U.S. Geological Survey.

Upper inset: Fish Creek near the point where perennial flow begins. Photograph by Jerrod D. Wheeler.

Lower left inset: Installation of monitoring wells. Photograph by Daniel J. Leemon.

Lower center inset: Recording results of RPS data collection site A-Wck. Photograph by Jerrod D. Wheeler.

Lower right inset: Collecting an algae sample using the cylindrical delimiter and brush. Photograph by Jerrod D. Wheeler.
Eddy-Miller and others—Characterization of Water Quality and Biological Communities, Fish Creek, Teton County, Wyoming, 2007–08—SIR 2010–5188

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