## June 2012 EPA/600/R

- 10/076C



# Integrated Science Assessment for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants

(Third External Review Draft)

National Center for Environmental Assessment

- RTP Division Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Triangle Park, NC

# DISCLAIMER

This document is the third external review dr aft for review purposes only and does not

constitute U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote iii June 2012 

# TA BLE OF CONTENTS

DISCLAIMER

________________________________ ________________________________ __ ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

________________________________ __________________________ iii

OZONE PROJECT TEAM

________________________________ _____________________ xxvii

AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTOR S, AND REVIEWERS

________________________________ ___ xxx

CLEAN AIR SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE O ZONE NAAQS REVIEW PA NEL

_____ xxxvi

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVI ATIONS

________________________________ ___________ xxxviii

PREAMBLE

________________________________ ________________________________ __ liv

Figure I Illustration of the key steps in the process of the review of National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

________________________________ ________ lv Figure II Illustration of processes for literature search and study selection used for development of ISAs.

_______________________________________________ lvi Figure III Characterization of the general process of ISA development.

_________________ lx
Table I Aspects to aid in judging causality

____________________________________ lxviii
Table II Weight of evidence for causal determination

_____________________________ lxxi

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ lxxvii



## LEGISLATIVE AND HIST ORICAL BACKGROUND

________________________________ lxxviii

Table III Summary of primary and secondary NAAQS promulgated for ozone during the period 1971

- 2008

________________________________________ lxxx

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ lxxxiv



## 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

________________________________ _____________________ 1

- 1

Introduction and Purpose

________________________________________________________________________ 1

- 1 Scope and Methods

________________________________________________________________ ____________ 1

- 1

Ambient Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ ___________________________________ 1

- 2 Human Exposure to Ozone

______________________________________________________________________ 1

- 3 Dosimetry and Modes of Action

________________________________ ___________________________________ 1

- 4 Integration of Ozone Health Effects

________________________________________________________________ 1

- 4

Table 1

- 1 Summary of ozone causal determinations by exposure duration and health outcome

____________________________________________________ 1

- 5 Respiratory Effects

________________________________________________________________ _________ 1

- 5 Mortality Effects

________________________________________________________________ ___________ 1

- 7 Populations Potentially at Increased Risk

________________________________ _______________________ 1

- 7 Integration of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

________________________________ __________________ 1

- 7

Table 1

- 2 Summary of ozone causal determination for welfare effects

_________________ 1

- 8 Visible Foliar Injury

________________________________________________________________ _________ 1

- 9 Growth, Productivity, Carbon Storage and Agriculture

______________________________________________ 1

- 9 Water Cycling

________________________________________________________________ ____________ 1

- 10
Below Ground Processes

________________________________ ___________________________________ 1

- 10 Community Composition

________________________________________________________________ ___ 1

- 10 Ozone Exposure

- Response Relationships

______________________________________________________ 1

- 11 The Role of Tropospheric Ozone in Climate Change and UV

- B Effects

___________________________________ 1

- 11 Radiative Forcing and Climate Change

________________________________ ________________________ 1

- 11
UV

- B Effects

_____________________________________________________________________________ 1

- 12

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote iv June 2012 Table 1

- 3 Summary of ozone causal determination for climate change and UV

- B effects.

_________________________________________________________ 1

- 13

Conclusion

__________________________________________________________________________________ 1

- 13



## 2 INTEGRATIVE SUMMAR Y

________________________________ ____________________ 2

- 1

2.1 ISA Development and Scope

________________________________________________________________ 2

- 2

2.2 Atmospheric Chemistry and Ambient Concentrations

_____________________________________________ 2

- 5

2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Processes

_______________________________________________________ 2

- 5 Figure 2

- 1 Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone.

_____________________________________________ 2

- 6

2.2.2 Atmospheric Modeling of Background Ozone Concentrations

__________________________________ 2

- 7
Table 2

- 1 Comparison of seasonal mean MDA8 ozone concentrations simulated by the GEOS

- Chem and CAMx base case models for 2006, with measurements at CASTNET sites.

____________________________________ 2

- 8 Figure 2

- 2 Mean daily average 8

- hour ozone concentrations in surface air, for spring and summer 2006.

_________________________________________________ 2

- 9
2.2.3 Monitoring

_________________________________________________________________________ 2

- 11

2.2.4 Ambient Concentrations

______________________________________________________________ 2

- 11

2.3 Human Exposure

________________________________________________________________________ 2

- 13

2.4 Dosimetry and Mode of Action

______________________________________________________________ 2

- 15

2.5 Integration of Ozone Health Effects

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 18

2.5.1 Conclusions from Previous Ozone AQCDs

________________________________ _______________ 2

- 18
2.5.2 Summary of Causal Determinations

_____________________________________________________ 2

- 19
Table 2

- 2 Summary of evidence from epidemiologic, controlled human exposure, and animal toxicological studies on the health effects associated with short

- and long

- term exposure to ozone.

_______________________________ 2

- 23
2.5.3 Integrated Synthesis of Evidence for Health Effects

________________________________ ________ 2

- 26
2.5.4 Policy Relevant Considerations

________________________________________________________ 2

- 32
2.5.4.1 Populations Potentially at Increased Risk

_________________________________________ 2

- 32
2.5.4.2 Exposure Metrics in Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________ ________ 2

- 33
2.5.4.3 Lag Structure in Epidemiologic Studies

___________________________________________ 2

- 34
2.5.4.4 Ozone Concentration

- Response Relationship

______________________________________ 2

- 35
2.5.4.5 Regional Heterogeneity in Risk Estimates

_________________________________________ 2

- 36

2.6 Integration of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

____________________________________________ 2

- 37

2.6. 1 Visible Foliar Injury

__________________________________________________________________ 2

- 38 Figure 2

- 3 An illustrative diagram of the major pathway through which ozone enters leaves and the majo r endpoints that ozone may affect in plants and ecosystems.

________________________________ _____________________ 2

- 39
Table 2

- 3 Summary of ozone causal determinations for vegetation and ecosystem effects.

________________________________ _________________________ 2

- 40
2.6.2 Growth, Productivity, Carbon Storage and Agriculture

________________________________ _______ 2

- 41
2.6.2.1 Natural Ecosystems

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 41
2.6.2.2 Agricult ural Crops

____________________________________________________________ 2

- 43
2.6.3 Water Cycling

________________________________________________________________ ______ 2

- 44
2.6.4 Below

- Ground Processes

_____________________________________________________________ 2

- 44
2.6.5 Community Composition

_____________________________________________________________ 2

- 45

2. 6.6 Policy Relevant Considerations

________________________________________________________ 2

- 46
2.6.6.1 Air Quality Indices

___________________________________________________________ 2

- 46
2.6.6.2 Exposure

- Response

________________________________ __________________________ 2

- 48

2.7 The Role of Tropospheric Ozone in Climate Change and UV

- B Effects

______________________________ 2

- 49

2.7.1 Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas

________________________________ _______________ 2

- 49 Figure 2

- 4 Schematic illustrating the effe cts of tropospheric ozone on climate; including the relationship between precursor emissions, tropospheric

ozone abundance, radiative forcing, climate response, and climate impacts.

________________________________________________________ 2

- 50

2.7.2 Tropospheric Ozone and UV

- B related effects

_____________________________________________ 2

- 50
2.7.3 Tropospheric Ozone and UV

- B Related Effects

________________________________ ____________ 2

- 51

2.8 Summary of Causal Determinations for Health Effects and Welfare Effects

___________________________ 2

- 51

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote v June 2012 Table 2

- 4 Summary of ozone causal determinations by exposure duration and health outcome.

__________________________________________________ 2

- 52
Table 2

- 5 Summary of ozone causal determination for welfare effects.

_______________ 2

- 53
Table 2

- 6 Summary of ozone causal determination for climate and UV

- B effects.

_______ 2

- 53

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 2

- 54



## 3 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTR Y AND AMBIENT CONCEN TRATIONS

___________________ 3

- 1

3.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 3

- 1

3.2 Physical and Chemical Processes

________________________________ ____________________________ 3

- 1 Figure 3

- 1 Schematic overview of photochemical processes influencing stratospheric and tropospheric ozone.

_____________________________________________ 3

- 3
3.2.1 Sources of Precursors Involved in Ozone Formation

_________________________________________ 3

- 5 Figure 3

- 2 Estimated anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursors for 2005.

___________ 3

- 6
3.2.2 Gas Phase Reactions Leading to Ozone Formation

________________________________________ 3

- 10
3.2.3 Multiphase Processes

________________________________ _______________________________ 3

- 15
3.2.3.1 Indoor Air

________________________________ __________________________________ 3

- 17
3.2.4 Temper ature and Chemical Precursor Relationships

________________________________ ________ 3

- 18 Figure 3

- 3 Measured concentrations of ozone and NO Z

.

___________________________ 3

- 22

3.3 Atmospheric Modeling

________________________________________________________________ ____ 3

- 23 Figure 3

- 4 Sample Community Multi

- scale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling domains.

______ 3

- 24 Figure 3

- 5 Main components of a comprehensive atmo spheric chemistry modeling system, such as the U.S. EPA’s Community Multi

- scale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system.

__________________________________________ 3

- 25
3.3.1 Glob al Scale CTMs

_________________________________________________________________ 3

- 29 Figure 3

- 6 Comparison of global chemical

- transport model (CTM) predictions of maximum daily 8

- h avg ozone concen trations and multi

- model mean with monthly averaged CASTNET observations in the Intermountain West and Southeast regions of the U.S.

________________________________ _______ 3

- 30

3.4 Background Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ __________________________ 3

- 32 Figure 3

- 7 Schematic overview of contributions to North American background concentrations of ozone.

___________________________________________ 3

- 33
3.4.1 Contributions from Natural Sources

_____________________________________________________ 3

- 33
3.4.1.1 Contributions from the Stratosphere

_____________________________________________ 3

- 33
3.4.1.2 Contributions from Other Natural Sources

_________________________________________ 3

- 35
3.4.2 Contributions from Anthropogenic Emissions

_____________________________________________ 3

- 37 Figure 3

- 8 Time series of daily maximum 8

- h avg (MDA8) ozone concentrations (ppm) measured at Trinidad Head, CA, from April 18, 2002 through December 31, 2009.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 40
3.4.3 Estimating Background Concentrations

__________________________________________________ 3

- 42
3.4.3.1 Updated GEOS

- Chem Model Estimates of Background Concentrations

_________________ 3

- 43 Figure 3

- 9 Mean MDA8 ozone concentrations in surface air for spring and summer 2006 calculated by GEOS

- Chem for the base case (Base), U.S. background (USB), and NA background (NAB).

_________________________ 3

- 44 Figure 3

- 10 Spring and summer mean Canadian and Mexican (CM) contributions to MDA8 ozone determined as the difference between the U.S. background and NA background.

______________________________________________ 3

- 46 Figure 3

- 11 MDA8 ozone concentrations for spring (March

- May) and summer (June

August) 2006 simulated by GEOS

- Chem vs. measured by the ensemble of CASTNET sites in the Intermountain West, Northeast, Great Lakes, and Southeast.

________________________________ ___________________ 3

- 47 Figure 3

- 12 Frequency distributions of MDA8 ozone concentrat ions in March

- August 2006 for the ensemble of low

- altitude (<1,500 meters) and high

- altitude CASTNET sites (>1,500 meters) in the U.S.

____________________________ 3

- 50
3.4.3.2 Using Other Models to Estimate Background Concentrations

__________________________ 3

- 50 Figure 3

- 13 Mean MDA8 ozone concentrations in surfac e air during spring and summer 2006 (top) calculated by GEOS

- Chem/CAMx for the base case (Base, top) and NA background (NAB, bottom).

_________________________ 3

- 52

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote vi June 2012 Figure 3

- 14 Monthly average MDA8 ozone concentrations observed (Obs) and predicted for the base case and NA background (NAB) by GEOS

- Chem (GC) and GEOS

- Chem/CAMx (CX) at CASTNET sites above 1,500 meters elevation (upper panel) and CASTNET sites below 1,500 meters elevation (lower panel).

_________________________________ 3

- 53 Figure 3

- 15 Annual 4th highest MDA8 ozone predicted by GEOS

- Chem (0.5° × 0.667°) for the base case (Base) with corresponding U.S. background (USB) and NA background (NAB) MDA8 ozone for the same days in 2006.

________________________________ ____________________ 3

- 58 Figure 3

- 16 Annual 4th highest MDA8 ozone predicted by CAMx for the base case (Base) and corresponding NA background (NAB) MDA8 ozone for the same days in 2006.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 59
Table 3

- 1 Comparison of seasonal mean MDA8 ozone concentrations simulated by the GEOS

- Chem and CAMx base case models for 2006, with measurements at CASTNET sites.

___________________________________ 3

- 61
Table 3

- 2 Comparison of annual 4th

- highest MDA8 ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites in 2006 with MDA8 ozone concentrations simulated by the GEOS

- Chem and CAM x base case models.

_________________________ 3

- 63

3.5 Monitoring

________________________________ ______________________________________________ 3

- 64

3.5.1 Routine Monitoring Techniques

________________________________________________________ 3

- 64
3.5.2 Precision and Bias

________________________________ __________________________________ 3

- 67
Table 3

- 3 Summary of ozone monitors meeting 40 CFR Part 58, Appendix A Precision and Bias Goals

___________________________________________ 3

- 68 Figure 3

- 17 Box plots of precision data by year (2005

- 2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single

- point QC check data to AQS.

___________________________ 3

- 69 Figure 3

- 18 Box plots of percent

- difference data by year (2005

- 2009) for all ozone monitors reporting single

- point QC chec k data to AQS.

___________________ 3

- 69
3.5.2.1 Precision from Co

- located UV Ozone Monitors in Missouri

____________________________ 3

- 70 Figure 3

- 19 Box plots of RPD data by year for the co

- located ozone monitors at two sites in Missouri from 2006

- 2009.

____________________________________ 3

- 70 Figure 3

- 20 Box plots of RPD data by year for all U.S. ozone sites reporting single

point QC check data to AQS from 2005

- 2009.

__________________________ 3

- 71
3.5.3 Performance Specifications

________________________________ ___________________________ 3

- 71
Table 3

- 4 Performance specifications for ozone based in 40 CFR Part 53

_____________ 3

- 72
3.5.4 Monitor Calibration

________________________________________________________________ __ 3

- 72
3.5.5 Other Monitoring Techniques

__________________________________________________________ 3

- 73
3.5.5.1 Portable UV Ozone Monitors

___________________________________________________ 3

- 73
3.5.5.2 NO

- based Chemiluminescence Monitors

________________________________ __________ 3

- 74
3.5.5.3 Passive Air Sampling Devices and Sensors

________________________________ _______ 3

- 74
3.5.5.4 Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometry

________________________________ _______ 3

- 75
3.5.5.5 Satellite Remote Sensing

______________________________________________________ 3

- 76
3.5.6 Ambient Ozone Network Design

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 77
3.5.6.1 Monitor Siting Requirements

___________________________________________________ 3

- 77 Figure 3

- 21 U.S. ozone sites reporting data to AQS in 2010.

_________________________ 3

- 79 Figure 3

- 22 U.S. Rural NCore, CASTNET and NPS POMS ozone sites in 2010.

_________ 3

- 81
3.5.6.2 Probe/Inlet Siti ng Requirements

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 82

3.6 Ambient Concentrations

___________________________________________________________________ 3

- 82

3.6.1 Measurement Units, Metrics, and Averaging Times

________________________________ _________ 3

- 83 Figure 3

- 23 Distribution in nation

- wide year

- round site

- level correlations between daily ozone metrics including 24

- h avg, 1

- h daily max and 8

- h daily max using AQS data, 2007

- 2009.

_____________________________________________ 3

- 85
3.6.2 Spatial Variability

________________________________ ___________________________________ 3

- 86
3.6.2.1 Urban

- Focused Variability

_____________________________________________________ 3

- 86 Figure 3

- 24 Required ozone monitoring time periods (ozone season) identified by monitoring site.

___________________________________________________ 3

- 86
Table 3

- 5 Summary of ozone data sets originating from AQS

_______________________ 3

- 87 Figure 3

- 25 Location of the 457 ozone monitors meeting the year

- round data set completeness criterion for all 3 years between 2007 and 2 009.

_____________ 3

- 88 Figure 3

- 26 Location of the 1,064 ozone monitors meeting the warm

- season data set completeness criteria for all 3 years be tween 2007 and 2009.

______________ 3

- 88

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote vii June 2012 Table 3

- 6 Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the
year

- round data set.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 90
Table 3

- 7 Nationwide distributions of ozone concentrations (ppb) from the warm

season data set.

________________________________ __________________ 3

- 91
Table 3

- 8 Seasonally stratified distributions of 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the year

- round data set (2007

- 2009).

_________________________ 3

- 93 Figure 3

- 27 Highest monitor (by county) 3

- year avg (2007

- 2009) of the 8

- h daily max ozone concentration based on the year

- round data set (top map) with seasonal stratification (bottom 4 maps).

_______________________________ 3

- 94 Figure 3

- 28 Highest monitor (by county) 3

- year avg (2007

- 2009) of the 8

- h daily max

ozone conc entration based on the warm

- season data set (top map) with annual stratification (bottom 3 maps).

_________________________________ 3

- 95
Table 3

- 9 Focus cities used in this and previous assessments

______________________ 3

- 98
Table 3

- 10 City

- specific distributions of 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations (ppb) from the wa rm

- season data set (2007

- 2009).

__________________________ 3

- 100 Figure 3

- 29 Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 101 Figure 3

- 30 Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population
grav ity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 101 Figure 3

- 31 Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, popula tion gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 102 Figure 3

- 32 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily m ax ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 104 Figure 3

- 33 Site infor mation, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 104 Figure 3

- 34 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 105 Figure 3

- 35 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CS A.

_______________________________________ 3

- 107 Figure 3

- 36 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

_______________________________________ 3

- 108 Figure 3

- 37 Pair

- wise monitor correlations expressed as a histogram (t op), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

__________________________________ 3

- 109 Figure 3

- 38 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 110 Figure 3

- 39 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

________________________________ _________________ 3

- 111 Figure 3

- 40 Pair

- wise monitor COD expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

____________________________________________ 3

- 112 Figure 3

- 41 Terrain map showing the location of two nearby AQS ozone monitoring sites (red dots) along the western edge of the Los A ngeles CSA. Site AL is near shore, 3 meters above sea level, while Site AK is in an agricultural valley surrounded by mountains, 262 meters above sea level.

_____________ 3

- 114 Figure 3

- 42 Terrain map showing the location of four AQS ozone monitoring sites (red dots) located in or near the city limits in the center of the Boston CSA. Site characteristics range from Site A near downtown at 6 meters above sea level to Site D in a forested area on Blue Hill at 192 meters above sea level.

______________________________________________________ 3

- 115
3.6.2.2 Rural

- Focused Variability an d Ground

- Level Vertical Gradients

_______________________ 3

- 117
Table 3

- 11 Rural focus areas.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 118 Figure 3

- 43 Rural focus area site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion cri teria within the rural focus areas.

__________________________ 3

- 119 Figure 3

- 44 Terrain map showing the location of five AQS ozone monitoring sites (green/bla ck stars) in Great Smoky Mountain National Park, NC

- TN (SMNP).

_______________________________________________________ 3

- 121

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote viii June 2012 Figure 3

- 45 Pair

- wise monitor correlations (left) and coeffici ents of divergence (COD, right) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot vs. distance between monitors (bottom) for Great Smoky Mountain National Park, NC

- TN (SMNP).

_____________________________________ 3

- 122 Figure 3

- 46 Terrain map showing the location of the AQS ozone monitoring site in Rocky Mountain National Park, CO (black/green star) and the Denver CSA (red dots) along with ozone moni toring sites used in the Brodin et al. (2010) study (blue circles).

_________________________________________ 3

- 123 Figure 3

- 47 Terrain map showing the location of two AQS ozone monitoring sites (black/green stars) in Sequoia National Park, CA.

_______________________ 3

- 124
3.6.3 Temporal Variability

________________________________________________________________ 3

- 125
3.6.3.1 Multiyear Trends

____________________________________________________________ 3

- 125 Figure 3

- 48 National 8

- h daily max ozone trend and distribution across 870 U.S. ozone monitors, 1998

- 2010 (annual 4th highest 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations in ppm).

___________________________________________ 3

- 126 Figure 3

- 49 National 1

- h daily max ozone trend and distribution across 875 U.S. ozone monitors, 1998

- 2010 (annual second highest 1

- h daily max ozone concentrations in ppm).

___________________________________________ 3

- 127 Figure 3

- 50 Trend in 8

- h daily max ozone by region, 1998

- 2010 (ann ual 4th highest 8

- h daily max ozone concentrations in ppm).

____________________________ 3

- 128 Figure 3

- 51 Trend in 1

- h daily max ozone by region, 1998

- 2010 (ann ual second highest 1

- h daily max ozone concentrations in ppm).

____________________ 3

- 129 Figure 3

- 52 Individual monitor 8

- h daily max ozone design valu es displayed A) for the 2008

- 2010 period and B) as the change since the 2001

- 2003 period.

_______ 3

- 130 Figure 3

- 53 Individual monitor 1

- h d aily max ozone design values displayed A) for the 2008

- 2010 period and B) as the change since the 2001

- 2003 period.

_______ 3

- 131
3.6.3.2 Ho urly Variations

___________________________________________________________ 3

- 134 Figure 3

- 54 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for Atlanta, Boston and Los Angeles between 2007 and 2009.

__________________________________________ 3

- 135 Figure 3

- 55 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for six rural focus areas between 2007 and 2009.

_________________________________________________________ 3

- 138
3.6.4 Associations with Co

- pollutants

________________________________ _______________________ 3

- 139 Figure 3

- 56 Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8

- h daily max ozone from the year

- round data set with co

- located 24

- h avg CO, SO 2 , NO 2 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 from AQS, 2007

- 2009.

_______________________ 3

- 141 Figure 3

- 57 Distribution of Pearson correlation coefficients for comparison of 8

- h daily max ozone from the warm

- season (May

- Sept) data set with co

- located 24

- h avg CO, SO 2 , NO 2 , PM 10 and PM 2.5 from AQS, 2007

- 2009.

___________ 3

- 142

3.7 Chapter Summary

______________________________________________________________________ 3

- 143

3.7.1 Physical and Chemical Processes

_____________________________________________________ 3

- 143
3.7.2 Atmospheric Modeling

________________________________ ______________________________ 3

- 144
3.7.3 Background Concentrations

__________________________________________________________ 3

- 145
3.7.4 Monitoring

________________________________________________________________________ 3

- 148
3.7.5 Ambient Concentrations

_____________________________________________________________ 3

- 149

3.8 Supplemental Information on Ozone Model Predictions

_________________________________________ 3

- 151 Figure 3

- 58 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Northeast with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case during March

- August, 2006.

_________________ 3

- 152 Figure 3

- 59 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Southeast with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case during March

- August, 2006.

_________________ 3

- 153 Figure 3

- 60 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Upper Midwest with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and for the North American background case during March

- A ugust, 2006.

____________ 3

- 153 Figure 3

- 61 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at fo ur CASTNET sites in the Intermountain West with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case during March

- August, 2006.

_________ 3

- 154

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote ix June 2012 Figure 3

- 62 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the Intermountain West with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and the North American backg round case during March

- August, 2006.

_________ 3

- 154 Figure 3

- 63 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour
average oz one concentrations at four CASTNET sites in the West with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case during March

- August, 2006.

_________________________ 3

- 155 Figure 3

- 64 Comparison of time series of measurements of daily maximum 8

- hour average ozone concentrations at three CASTNET sites and the Trinidad Head site in California with GEOS

- Chem predictions for the base case and the North American background case during March

- August, 2006.

______ 3

- 155 Figu re 3

- 65 Comparison of daily maximum 8

- h average ozone predicted using GEOS

Chem at 0.5° × 0.667° (and 2° × 2.5° resolution; left figure only) with measurements at Mount Bachelor, OR (left); and at Trinidad Head, CA (right) from March to August 2006.

________________________________ __ 3

- 156 Figure 3

- 66 Comparison of monthly mean (± 1 standard deviation) ozone calculated GEOS

- Chem (in red) with ozonesondes (in black) at T rinidad Head, CA (top) and Boulder, CO (bottom) during April and August 2006.

_____________ 3

- 156 Figure 3

- 67 A deep stratospheric ozone intrusion over California on May 28

- 29, 2010.

___ 3

- 157 Figure 3

- 68 A deep stratospheric ozone intrusion over California on June 7

- 12, 2010.

____ 3

- 158 Figure 3

- 69 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites (black) in the Northeast and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resolution (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolution (blue) for May

- August 2006.

______________ 3

- 159 Figure 3

- 70 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites (black) in the Southeast and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resolution (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolutio n (blue) for May

- August 2006.

______________ 3

- 160 Figure 3

- 71 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations meas ured at CASTNET sites (black) in the Central U.S. and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resolution (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolution (blue) for May

- August 2006.

______________ 3

- 161 Figure 3

- 72 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites (black) in the Northern Rockies and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resoluti on (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolution (blue) for May

- August 2006.

_____ 3

- 162 Figure 3

- 73 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites (black) in the Southern Rockies and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resolution (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolution (blue) for May

- August 2006.

_____ 3

- 163 Figure 3

- 74 Box plots showing maximum, interquartile range and minimum ozone concentrations measured at CASTNET sites (black) in the West and predictions from GEOS

- Chem at ~50 × 50 km resolution (green) and CAMx at 12 × 12 km resolution (blue) for May

- August 2006.

______________ 3

- 164 Figure 3

- 75 Da ily maximum 8

- hour average (MDA8) ozone in surface air at Gothic, CO for March through August 2006.

_________________________________ 3

- 165

3.9 Supplemental Figures o f Observed Ambient Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ 3

- 165

3.9.1 Ozone Monitor Maps for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ __________ 3

- 165 Figure 3

- 76 Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 166 Figure 3

- 77 Map of the Baltimore CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 166 Figure 3

- 78 Map of the Birmingham CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 167 Figure 3

- 79 Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 167 Figure 3

- 80 Map of the Chicago CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 168 Figure 3

- 81 Map of the Dallas CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadwa ys.

______________________ 3

- 168 Figure 3

- 82 Map of the Denver CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 169 Figure 3

- 83 Map of the Detroit CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and m ajor roadways.

______________________ 3

- 169

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote x June 2012 Figure 3

- 84 Map of the Houston CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 170 Figure 3

- 85 Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, ur ban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 170 Figure 3

- 86 Map of the Minneapolis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity c enters, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 171 Figure 3

- 87 Map of the New York CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 171 Figure 3

- 88 Map of the Philadelphia CSA including ozone monitor locations,
p opulation gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 172 Figure 3

- 89 Map of the Phoenix CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 172 Figure 3

- 90 Map of the Pittsburgh CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 173 Figure 3

- 91 Map of the Salt Lake City CSA incl uding ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 173 Figure 3

- 92 Map of the San Antonio CBSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 174 Figure 3

- 93 Map of the S an Francisco CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

_____________ 3

- 174 Figure 3

- 94 Map of the Seattle CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 175 Figure 3

- 95 Map of the St. Louis CSA including ozone monitor locations, population gravity centers, urban areas, and major roadways.

______________________ 3

- 175
3.9.2 Ozone Concentration Box Plots for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ _ 3

- 176 Figure 3

- 96 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Atlanta CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 176 Figure 3

- 97 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the war m

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Baltimore CSA.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 177 Figure 3

- 98 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Birmingham CSA.

_____________________________________________ 3

- 177 Figure 3

- 99 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Boston CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 178 Figure 3

- 100 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Chicago CSA.

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 178 Figure 3

- 101 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Dallas CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 179 Figure 3

- 102 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the wa rm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Denver CSA.

________________________________ ________________ 3

- 179 Figure 3

- 103 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Detroit CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 180 Figure 3

- 104 Sit e information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Houston CSA.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 180 Figure 3

- 105 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Los Angeles CSA.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 181 Figure 3

- 106 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Minneapolis CSA.

________________________________ _____________ 3

- 182 Figure 3

- 107 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- seaso n data set inclusion criteria within the New York CSA.

______________________________________________ 3

- 182 Figure 3

- 108 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Philadelphia CSA.

________________________________ ____________ 3

- 183

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xi June 2012 Figure 3

- 109 Sit e information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Phoenix CBSA.

______________________________________________ 3

- 183 Figure 3

- 110 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Pittsburgh CSA.

______________________________________________ 3

- 184 Figure 3

- 111 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Salt Lake City CSA.

___________________________________________ 3

- 184 Figure 3

- 112 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the San Antonio CBSA.

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 185 Figure 3

- 113 Site information, statistics and box pl ots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the San Francisco CSA.

________________________________ ___________ 3

- 185 Figure 3

- 114 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the Seattle CSA.

_________________________________________________ 3

- 186 Figure 3

- 115 Site information, statistics and box plots for 8

- h daily max ozone from AQS monitors meeting the warm

- season data set inclusion criteria within the St. Louis CSA.

_______________________________________________ 3

- 186
3.9.3 Ozone Concentration Relationships for the Urban Focus Cities

______________________________ 3

- 187 Figure 3

- 116 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between

mon itors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 187 Figure 3

- 117 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top) , contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 188 Figure 3

- 118 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 189 Figure 3

- 119 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 190 Figure 3

- 120 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatte r plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 191 Figure 3

- 121 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA.

________________________________ 3

- 192 Figure 3

- 122 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Denver CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 193 Figure 3

- 123 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (botto m) for the Detroit CSA.

________________________________ 3

- 194 Figure 3

- 124 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour ma trix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 195 Figure 3

- 125 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 196 Figure 3

- 126 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 197 Figure 3

- 127 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versu s distance between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 198 Figure 3

- 128 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expres sed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA.

___________________________ 3

- 199 Figure 3

- 129 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Phoenix CBSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 200

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xii June 2012 Figure 3

- 130 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA.

_____________________________ 3

- 201 Figure 3

- 131 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA.

__________________________ 3

- 202 Figure 3

- 132 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA.

__________________________ 3

- 203 Figure 3

- 133 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA.

_________________________ 3

- 204 Figure 3

- 134 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatte r plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA.

_______________________________ 3

- 205 Figure 3

- 135 Pair

- wise monitor correlation coefficients (R) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.

______________________________ 3

- 206 Figure 3

- 136 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Atlanta CSA.

________________________ 3

- 207 Figure 3

- 137 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monito rs (bottom) for the Baltimore CSA.

______________________ 3

- 208 Figure 3

- 138 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (t op), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Birmingham CSA.

____________________ 3

- 209 Figure 3

- 139 P air

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Boston CSA.

________________________ 3

- 210 Figure 3

- 140 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Chicago CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 211 Figure 3

- 141 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and s catter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Dallas CSA.

_________________________ 3

- 212 Figure 3

- 142 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Denver CSA.

________________________ 3

- 213 Figure 3

- 143 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Detroit CSA.

________________________ 3

- 214 Figure 3

- 144 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance betw een monitors (bottom) for the Houston CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 215 Figure 3

- 145 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Los Angeles CSA.

____________________ 3

- 216 Figure 3

- 146 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Minneapolis CSA.

____________________ 3

- 217 Figure 3

- 147 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the New York CSA.

______________________ 3

- 218 Figure 3

- 148 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour m atrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Philadelphia CSA.

____________________ 3

- 219 Figure 3

- 149 Pair

- wise mon itor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Phoenix CBSA.

______________________ 3

- 220 Figure 3

- 150 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Pittsburgh CSA.

_____________________ 3

- 2 21

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xiii June 2012 Figure 3

- 151 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and sca tter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the Salt Lake City CSA.

__________________ 3

- 222 Figure 3

- 152 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Antonio CBSA.

___________________ 3

- 223 Figure 3

- 153 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the San Francisco CSA.

__________________ 3

- 224 Figure 3

- 154 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus d istance between monitors (bottom) for the Seattle CSA.

________________________ 3

- 225 Figure 3

- 155 Pair

- wise monitor coefficient of divergence (COD) expressed as a histogram (top), contour matrix (middle) and scatter plot versus distance between monitors (bottom) for the St. Louis CSA.

_______________________ 3

- 226
3.9.4 Hourly Variations in Ozone for the Urban Focus Cities

________________________________ _____ 3

- 227 Figure 3

- 156 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

___________________________________________ 3

- 227 Figure 3

- 157 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data se t for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

___________________________________________ 3

- 228 Figure 3

- 158 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

___________________________________________ 3

- 229 Figure 3

- 159 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs/CBSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the week day/weekend comparison (right half).

____________________________ 3

- 230 Figure 3

- 160 Diel patterns in 1

- h avg ozone for select CSAs/CBSAs between 2007 and 2009 using the year

- round data set for the cold month/warm month comparison (left half) and the warm

- season data set for the weekday/weekend comparison (right half).

____________________________ 3

- 231

References

________________________________ ________________________________ _________________ 3

- 232



## 4 EXPOSURE TO AMBIENT OZONE

________________________________ _____________ 4

- 1

4.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 4

- 1

4.2 General Exposure Concepts

________________________________________________________________ 4

- 1

4. 3 Exposure Measurement

________________________________ ________________________________ ____ 4

- 4

4.3.1 Personal Monitoring Techniques

________________________________ ________________________ 4

- 4
4.3.2 Indoor

- Outdoor Concentration Relationships

________________________________ _______________ 4

- 5
Table 4

- 1 Relationships between indoor and outdoor ozone concentration

_____________ 4

- 6
4.3.3 Personal

- Ambient Concentration Relationships

________________________________ _____________ 4

- 9 Figure 4

- 1 Variation in hourly perso nal and ambient concentrations of ozone and PM 2.5 in various microenvironments during daytime hours.

_________________ 4

- 10
Table 4

- 2 Correlations bet ween personal and ambient ozone concentration.

___________ 4

- 13
Table 4

- 3 Ratios of personal to ambient ozone concentration.

______________________ 4

- 15
4.3.4 Co

- exposure to Other Pollutants and Environmental Stressors

________________________________ 4

- 17
4.3.4.1 Personal Exposure to Ozone and Copollutants

________________________________ _____ 4

- 17
4.3. 4.2 Near

- Road Exposure to Ozone and Copollutants

________________________________ ___ 4

- 19 Figure 4

- 2 Correlations between 1

- week concentrations of ozone and copollutants measured near roadways.

__________________________________________ 4

- 20
4.3.4.3 Indoor Exposure to Ozone and Copollutants

________________________________ _______ 4

- 20

4.4 Exposure

- Related Metrics

________________________________________________________________ _ 4

- 21

4.4.1 Ac tivity Patterns

____________________________________________________________________ 4

- 21
Table 4

- 4 Mean fraction of time spent in outdoor locations by various age groups in the NHAPS study

________________________________ _________________ 4

- 22
Table 4

- 5 Mean ventilation rates (L/min) at different activity levels for different age
groups.

________________________________ _________________________ 4

- 23

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xiv June 2012 Figure 4

- 3 Distribution of time that NHAPS respondents spent in ten microenvironments based on smoothed 1

- min diary data.

_________________ 4

- 24

4.4.2 Ozone Averting Behavior

_____________________________________________________________ 4

- 25

4.4. 3 Population Proximity to Fixed

- Site Ozone Monitors

_________________________________________ 4

- 27 Figure 4

- 4 Map of the Atlanta CSA including ozone monitor locations and ma jor roadways with respect to census block group population density estimates for 2009.

________________________________________________ 4

- 29 Figure 4

- 5 Map of the Boston CSA including ozone monitor locations and major roadways with respect to census block group population density estimates for 2009.

________________________________________________ 4

- 30 Figure 4

- 6 Map of the Los Angeles CSA including ozone monitor locations and major roadways with respect to census block group population density estimates for 2009.

________________________________________________ 4

- 31
Table 4

- 6 Fraction of the 2009 population living within a specified distance of an ozone monitor in selected U.S. cities.

_________________________________ 4

- 34

4.5 Exposure Modeling

________________________________________________________________ _______ 4

- 35

Table 4

- 7 Characteristics of exposure modeling approaches.

_______________________ 4

- 36
4.5.1 Concentration Surface Modeling

________________________________ _______________________ 4

- 36
4.5.2 Residential Air Exchange Rate Modeling

_________________________________________________ 4

- 39
4.5.3 Microenvironment

- Based Models

________________________________ _______________________ 4

- 40

4.6 Implications for Epidemiologic Studies

________________________________________________________ 4

- 43

4.6.1 Non

- Ambient Ozone Exposure

_________________________________________________________ 4

- 44
4.6.2 Spatial and Temporal Variability

________________________________________________________ 4

- 44
4.6.2.1 Spatial Variability

____________________________________________________________ 4

- 44
4.6.2.2 Seasonality

_________________________________________________________________ 4

- 47
4.6.3 Exposure Duration

________________________________________________________________ __ 4

- 48
4.6.3.1 Short

- Term Exposure

_________________________________________________________ 4

- 48
4.6.3.2 Long

- Term Exposure

_________________________________________________________ 4

- 49
4.6.4 Exposure to Copollutants and Ozone Reaction Products

____________________________________ 4

- 50
4.6.5 Averting Behavior

___________________________________________________________________ 4

- 51 Figure 4

- 7 Adjusted asthma hospital admissions by age on lagged ozone by alert status, ages 5

- 19.

________________________________ _________________ 4

- 52 Figure 4

- 8 Adjusted asthma hospital admissions by age on lagged ozone by alert status, ages 20

- 64.

________________________________________________ 4

- 53
4.6.6 Exposure Estimation Methods in Epidemiologic Studies

_____________________________________ 4

- 53

4.7 Summary and Conclusions

________________________________________________________________ _ 4

- 54

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 4

- 58



## 5 DOSIMETRY AND MODE O F ACTION

________________________________ __________ 5

- 1

5.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 5

- 1 Figure 5

- 1 Sch ematic of the ozone exposure and response pathway. Ozone transport follows a path from exposure concentration, to inhaled dose, to net dose, to the local tissue dose. Chapter 5 discusses the concepts of dose and modes of action that result in the health ef fects discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.

________________________________ __________________ 5

- 2

5.2 Human and Animal Ozone Dosimetry

_________________________________________________________ 5

- 2

5.2.1 Introduction

_________________________________________________________________________ 5

- 2 Figure 5

- 2 Representation of respiratory tract regions in humans.

_____________________ 5

- 3 Figure 5

- 3 Structure of lower airways with progression from the large airways to the alveolus.

_________________________________________________________ 5

- 5
5.2.2 Ozone Uptake

________________________________________________________________ _______ 5

- 6
Table 5

- 1 Human respiratory tract uptake efficiency data

___________________________ 5

- 7
5.2.2.1 Gas Transport Principles

________________________________ _______________________ 5

- 8
5.2.2.2 Target Sites for Ozone Dose

____________________________________________________ 5

- 9
5.2.2.3 Upper Respiratory Tract Ozone Removal and Dose

_________________________________ 5

- 10
5.2.2.4 Lower Respiratory Tract Ozone Uptake and Dose

________________________________ __ 5

- 12 Figure 5

- 4 Total ozone uptake efficiency as a function of breathing frequency at a constant minute ventilation of 30 L/min.

________________________________ 5

- 13
5.2.2.5 Mode of Breathing

___________________________________________________________ 5

- 14

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xv June 2012 5.2.2.6 Interindividual Variability in Dose

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 15
5.2.2.7 Physical Activity

_____________________________________________________________ 5

- 16
Table 5

- 2 General adult human inhalation rates by activity levels.

___________________ 5

- 17 Figure 5

- 5 Modeled effect of exercise on tissue dose of the LRT.

____________________ 5

- 18
5.2.2.8 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 5

- 19
5.2.3 Ozone Reactions and Reaction Products

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 20 Figure 5

- 6 Schematic overview of ozone interaction with PUFA in ELF and lung cells.

___________________________________________________________ 5

- 21
5.2.3.1 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 5

- 28 Figure 5

- 7 Details of the ozone interaction with the airway ELF to form secondary oxidation products.

________________________________________________ 5

- 29

5.3 Possible Pathways/Modes of Action

________________________________ __________________________ 5

- 29

5.3.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________________ 5

- 29
5.3.2 Activation of Neural Reflexes

__________________________________________________________ 5

- 30
5.3.3 Initiation of inflammation

______________________________________________________________ 5

- 34
5.3.4 Alteration of Epithelial Barrier Function

________________________________ __________________ 5

- 40
5.3.5 Sensitization of Bronchial Smooth Muscle

________________________________ ________________ 5

- 42
5.3.6 Modification of Innate/Adaptive Immune System Responses

_________________________________ 5

- 45
5.3.7 Airways Remodeling

_________________________________________________________________ 5

- 49
5.3.8 Systemic Inflammation and Oxidative/Nitrosative Stress

________________________________ _____ 5

- 50
5.3.9 Impaired Alveolar

- Arterial Oxygen Transfer

________________________________ _______________ 5

- 52
5.3.10 Summary

_________________________________________________________________________ 5

- 52 Figure 5

- 8 The modes of action/possible pathways underlying the health effects resulting from inhalation exposure to ozone.

____________________________ 5

- 53

5.4 Interindividua l Variability in Response

________________________________________________________ 5

- 56

5.4.1 Dosimetric Considerations

________________________________ ____________________________ 5

- 57
5.4.2 Mechanistic Considerations

________________________________ ___________________________ 5

- 58
5.4.2.1 Gene

- environment Interactions

________________________________ _________________ 5

- 58
5.4.2.2 Pre

- existing Diseases and Conditions

________________________________ ____________ 5

- 62
5.4.2.3 Nutritional Status

____________________________________________________________ 5

- 67
5.4.2.4 Lifestage

___________________________________________________________________ 5

- 68
5.4.2.5 Attenuation of Responses

_____________________________________________________ 5

- 71
5.4.2.6 Co

- exposures with Particulate Matter

____________________________________________ 5

- 73
5.4.2.7 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 5

- 74 Figure 5

- 9 Some factors, illustrated in yellow, that likely contribute to the interindividual variability in responses resulting from inhalation of ozone.

______ 5

- 75

5.5 Species Homology and Interspecies Sensitivity

________________________________ _________________ 5

- 75

5.5.1 Interspecies Dosimetry

_______________________________________________________________ 5

- 76 Figure 5

- 10 Humans and animals are similar in the regional pattern o f ozone tissue dose distribution.

________________________________ _________________ 5

- 78 Figure 5

- 11 Oxygen

- 18 incorporation into different fractions of BALF from humans and rats ex posed to 0.4 and 2.0 ppm 18 O 3
.

_____________________________ 5

- 80
5.5.2 Interspecies Homology of Response

________________________________ ____________________ 5

- 81
5.5.3 Summary

_________________________________________________________________________ 5

- 84

5.6 Chapter Summary

_______________________________________________________________________ 5

- 84

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 5

- 86



## 6 INTEGRATED HEALTH EF FECTS OF SHORT

- TERM OZONE EXPOSURE

_____________ 6

- 1

6.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 6

- 1

6.2 Respirator y Effects

________________________________________________________________ ________ 6

- 1

6.2.1 Lung Function

________________________________________________________________ _______ 6

- 3
6.2.1.1 Controlled Human Exposure

____________________________________________________ 6

- 3
Table 6

- 1 Activity levels used in controlled exposures of healthy young adults to

ozone.

________________________________ __________________________ 6

- 7 Figure 6

- 1 Cross

- study comparison of mean ozone

- induced FEV 1 decrements following 6.6 hours of e xposure to ozone.

_______________________________ 6

- 8

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xvi June 2012 Figure 6

- 2 Frequency distributions of FEV 1 decrements observed by Schelegle et al. (2009) in young healthy adu lts (16 F, 15 M) following 6.6

- hour exposures to ozone or filtered air.

_____________________________________________ 6

- 17
6.2.1.2 Epidemiology

_______________________________________________________________ 6

- 27
Table 6

- 2 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies of lung function in populations with increased outdoor exposures.

___________ 6

- 29 Figure 6

- 3 Changes in FEV 1 (mL) or PEF (mL/sec) in association with ambient ozone concentrations among children attending summer camp.

_____________ 6

- 32
Table 6

- 3 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 3.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 33 Figure 6

- 4 Percent change in FEV 1 in association with ambient ozone concentrations among adults exercising outdoors.

________________________________ ___ 6

- 35
Table 6

- 4 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 4 plus results from studies in children exercising outdoors.

_________ 6

- 36 Figure 6

- 5 Percent change in FEV 1 or FEV 1 /FVC in association with ambient ozone concentrations among outdoor workers.

_______________________________ 6

- 39
Table 6

- 5 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 5.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 40
Table 6

- 6 Associations between ambient ozone concentration and FEV 1 decrements in different ranges of ambient ozone concentrations.

___________ 6

- 41
Table 6

- 7 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies of lung function in children with asthma.

_________________________ 6

- 42 Figure 6

- 6 Percent change in FEV 1 in association with ambient ozone concentrations among children with asthma.

________________________________________ 6

- 44
Table 6

- 8 Characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 6, of FEV 1 or FVC in children with asthma.

_____________________________ 6

- 45 Figure 6

- 7 Percent change in PEF or FEF 25

- 75% in association with ambient ozone concentrations among children with asthma.

____________________________ 6

- 46
Table 6

- 9 Characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 7, of PEF or FEF 25

- 75% in children with asthma.

__________________________ 6

- 47
Table 6

- 10 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies of lung function in adults with respiratory disease.

_________________ 6

- 54
Table 6

- 11 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of ozone in epidemiologic studies of lung function in populations not restricted to individuals with asthma.

________________________________________________________ 6

- 56 Figure 6

- 8 Percent change in FEV 1 or FVC in association with ambient ozone concentrations in studies o f children in the general population.

_____________ 6

- 58
Table 6

- 12 Characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 8, of lung function in children.

_______________________________________ 6

- 59
Table 6

- 13 Associations between ambient ozone concentration and lung function in studies of adul ts.

________________________________ _________________ 6

- 61 Figure 6

- 9 Comparison of ozone

- associated changes in lung function in single

- and

co

- pollutant models.

_______________________________________________ 6

- 65
Table 6

- 14 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 9.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 66
6.2.1.3 Toxicology: Lung Function

_____________________________________________________ 6

- 70
6.2.2 Airway Hyperresponsiveness

__________________________________________________________ 6

- 71
6.2.2.1 Controlled Human Exposures

________________________________ __________________ 6

- 71
6.2.2.2 Toxicology: Airway Hyperresponsiveness

_________________________________________ 6

- 73
6.2.3 Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury and Oxidative Stress

________________________________ _______ 6

- 74
6.2.3.1 Controlled Human Exposures

________________________________ __________________ 6

- 75
6.2.3.2 Epidemiology

_______________________________________________________________ 6

- 81
Table 6

- 15 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in studies of biological markers of pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress.

__________________ 6

- 83 Figure 6

- 10 Percent change in exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) in association with ambient ozone concentrations in populations with and without asthma.

______________ 6

- 84
Table 6

- 16 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented in Figure 6

- 10.

_____________________________________________________ 6

- 85
Table 6

- 17 Associations between short

- term ambient ozone exposure and biological markers of pulmonary inflammation and oxidative stress.

__________________ 6

- 86
6.2.3.3 Toxicology: Inflammation and Injury

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 95
Ta ble 6

- 18 Morphometric observations in non

- human primates after acute ozone
exposure.

_______________________________________________________ 6

- 98

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xvii June 2012 6.2.4 Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use

________________________________ _____________ 6

- 100
6.2.4.1 Children with Asthma

________________________________________________________ 6

- 102
Table 6

- 19 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies of respiratory symptoms, medication use, and activity levels in children with asthma.

________________________________ ____________________ 6

- 103 Figure 6

- 11 Associations between ambient ozone concentrations and respiratory symptoms in children with asthma.

__________________________________ 6

- 105
Table 6

- 20 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 11.

____________________________________________________ 6

- 106 Figure 6

- 12 Associations between ambient ozone concentrations and asthma medication use.

________________________________ _________________ 6

- 110
Table 6

- 21 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies presented in Figure 6

- 12.

____________________________________________________ 6

- 111
6.2.4.2 Adults with Respiratory Disease

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 113
Table 6

- 22 Mean an d upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies of respiratory symptoms and medication use in adults with respiratory disease .

_______________________________________________________ 6

- 114
6.2.4.3 Populations not Restricted to Individuals with Asthma

_______________________________ 6

- 115
Table 6

- 23 Mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in epidemiologic studies of respiratory symptoms in populations not restricted to individuals with asthma.

_______________________________________________________ 6

- 116 Figu re 6

- 13 Associations between ambient ozone concentrations and respiratory symptoms in children in the general population.

________________________ 6

- 117
Tabl e 6

- 24 Additional characteristics and quantitative data for studies represented inFigure 6

- 13.

___________________________________________________ 6

- 118
6.2.4.4 Confounding in Epidemi ologic Studies of Respiratory Symptoms and Medication Use

_____ 6

- 119
Table 6

- 25 Associations between ambient ozone concentrations and respiratory symptoms in single

- and co

- pollutant models.

__________________________ 6

- 121
6.2.4.5 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Respiratory Symptoms and Asthma Medication Use

_ 6

- 121
6.2.5 Lung Host Defenses

________________________________________________________________ 6

- 123
6.2.5.1 Mucociliary Clearance

_______________________________________________________ 6

- 123
6.2.5.2 Alveolobronchiolar Transport Mechanism

________________________________________ 6

- 124
6.2.5.3 Alveolar Macrophages

_______________________________________________________ 6

- 125
6.2.5.4 Infection and Adaptive Immunity

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 126
6.2.5.5 Summary of Lung Host Defenses

______________________________________________ 6

- 129
6.2.6 Allergic and Asthma

- Related Responses

________________________________________________ 6

- 130
6.2.7 Hospital Admissions, Emergency Department Visits, and Physicians Vis its

_____________________ 6

- 132
6.2.7.1 Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD

____________________________________ 6

- 132
Table 6

- 26 Mean and upper percentile concentrations of respiratory

- related hospital admission and emergency department (ED) visit studies evaluated

_________ 6

- 134
6.2.7.2 Hospital Admission Studies

___________________________________________________ 6

- 136 Figure 6

- 14 Percent increase in respiratory hospital admissions from natural spline models with 8 df/yr for a 40 ppb increase in 1

- h max ozone concentrations for each location of the APHENA study.

__________________ 6

- 140
Table 6

- 27 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 14.

________________________ 6

- 141 Figure 6

- 15 Estimated relative risks (RRs) of asthma hospital admissions for 8

- h max ozone concentrations at lag 0

- 1 allowing for possible nonlinear relationships using natural splines.

__________________________________ 6

- 148
6.2.7.3 Emergency Department Visit Studies

________________________________ ___________ 6

- 149 Figure 6

- 16 Risk ratio for respiratory ED visits and different ozone exposure metrics in Atlanta from 1993

- 2004.

___________________________________________ 6

- 151 Figure 6

- 17 Loess C

- R estimates and twice

- standard error estimates from generalized additive models for associations between 8

- h max 3

- day average ozone concentrations and ED visits for pediatric asthma.

__________ 6

- 154
6.2.7.4 Outpatient and Physician Visit Studies

__________________________________________ 6

- 156
6.2.7.5 Summary

________________________________ _________________________________ 6

- 157 Figure 6

- 18 Percent increa se in respiratory

- related hospital admission and ED visits in studies that presented all

- year and/or seasonal results.

__________________ 6

- 158
Table 6

- 28 Corresponding Effect Estimates for Figure 6

- 18.

________________________ 6

- 159 Figure 6

- 19 Percent increase in respiratory

- related hospital admis sions and ED visits for studies that presented single and copollutant model results.

____________ 6

- 161
Table 6

- 29 Corresponding effect estimate s for Figure 6

- 19.

________________________ 6

- 162

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xviii June 2012 6.2.8 Respiratory Mortality

________________________________________________________________ 6

- 163
6.2.9 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 164

6.3 Cardiovascular Effects

________________________________________________________________ ___ 6

- 171

6. 3.1 Controlled Human Exposure

_________________________________________________________ 6

- 171
6.3.2 Epidemiology

________________________________________________________________ _____ 6

- 173
6.3.2.1 Arrhythmia

________________________________________________________________ 6

- 173
Table 6

- 30 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of arrhythmias.

________________________________ ____________________ 6

- 174
6.3.2.2 Heart Rate/Heart Rate Variability

________________________________ _______________ 6

- 176
Table 6

- 31 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of heart rate variability.

__________________________________________________ 6

- 177
6.3.2.3 Stroke

________________________________________________________________ ____ 6

- 180 Figure 6

- 20 Odds ratio (95% confidence interval) f or ischemic stroke by quintiles of
ozone exposure

. _________________________________________________ 6

- 182
6.3.2.4 Biomarkers

________________________________________________________________ 6

- 182
Table 6

- 32 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of biomarkers.

________________________________ ____________________ 6

- 183
6.3.2.5 Myocardial Infarction (MI)

_____________________________________________________ 6

- 188
6.3.2.6 Blood Pressure

_____________________________________________________________ 6

- 189
Table 6

- 33 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of blood
pressure.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 190
6.3.2.7 Hospital Admissions and Emergency Department Visits

_____________________________ 6

- 191
Table 6

- 34 Characterization of ozone concentrations (in ppb) from studies of hospital admissions and ED visits.

_________________________________________ 6

- 192 Figure 6

- 21 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for over all cardiovascular ED visits or hospital admissions.

________________________ 6

- 198
Table 6

- 35 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for overall cardiovascular ED visits or hospital admissions in studies presented inFigure 6

- 21.

___________________________________________________ 6

- 199 Figure 6

- 22 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or hospita l admissions.

_________________ 6

- 201
Table 6

- 36 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for congestive heart failure ED visits or hospital admissions for studies in Figure 6

- 22

.

____________________________________________________ 6

- 202 Figure 6

- 23 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for ischemic heart disease, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and angina pectoris ED visits or hospital admissions.

____________________ 6

- 203
Table 6

- 37 Effect estimate (95% CI) per incremen t ppb increase in ozone for ischemic heart disease, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, and angina pectoris Evisits or hospital admissions for studies presented in Figure 6

- 23.

__________________________________________________ 6

- 204 Figure 6

- 24 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or hospital admissions.

____________________________________ 6

- 205
Table 6

- 38 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for stroke ED visits or hospital admissions for studies presented in Figure 6

- 24.

_______ 6

- 206 Figure 6

- 25 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or hospital admissions.

_____________ 6

- 207
Table 6

- 39 Effect estimate (95% CI) per increment ppb increase in ozone for arrhythmia and dysrhythmia ED visits or hospital admissions for studies presented in Figure 6

- 25.

__________________________________________ 6

- 208
6.3.2.8 Cardiovascular Mortality

________________________________ ______________________ 6

- 208
6.3.2.9 Summary of Epidemiologic Studies

_____________________________________________ 6

- 209
6.3.3 Toxicology: Cardiovascular Effects

____________________________________________________ 6

- 210
Table 6

- 40 Characterization of study details for Section 6.3.3.

______________________ 6

- 216
6.3.4 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 217

6.4 Cent ral Nervous System Effects

____________________________________________________________ 6

- 219

Table 6

- 41 Central nervous system and behavioral effects of short

- term ozone exposure in rats

_________________________________________________ 6

- 224
6.4.1 Neuroendocrine Effects

_____________________________________________________________ 6

- 225
6.4.2 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 226

6.5 Effects on Other Organ Systems

________________________________ ___________________________ 6

- 227

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xix June 2012 6.5.1 Effects on the Liver and Xenobiotic Metabolism

__________________________________________ 6

- 227
6.5.2 Effects on Cutaneous and Ocular Tissues

_______________________________________________ 6

- 228

6.6 Mortality

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 6

- 228

6.6.1 Summary of Findings from 2006 Ozone AQCD

________________________________ ___________ 6

- 228
6.6.2 Associations of Mortality and Short

- Term Ozone Exposure

________________________________ __ 6

- 229 Figure 6

- 26 Summary of mortality risk estimates for short

- term ozone exposure and all

- cause (nonaccidental) mortality from all

- year and summer season analyses

.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 230
Table 6

- 42 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 26.

________________________ 6

- 231
Table 6

- 43 Range of mean and upper percentile ozone concentrations in previous and recent multicity studies.

________________________________ ________ 6

- 232
6.6.2.1 Confounding

_______________________________________________________________ 6

- 233
Table 6

- 44 Correlations be tween PM and ozone by season and region.

______________ 6

- 235 Figure 6

- 27 Scatter plots of ozone mortality risk estimates with versus without adju stment for PM 10 in NMMAPS cities.

_______________________________ 6

- 236 Figure 6

- 28 Community

- specific ozone

- mortality risk estimates for nonaccidental mortality per 10 ppb increase in same

- day 24

- h average summertime ozone concentrations in single

- pollutant models and copollutant models with sulfate.

____________________________________________________ 6

- 238 Figure 6

- 29 Percent increase in all

- cause (nonaccidental) and cause

- specific mortality from natural spline models with 8 df/yr from the APHENA study for single

and copollutant models.

___________________________________________ 6

- 240
Table 6

- 45 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 29.

________________________ 6

- 241
Table 6

- 46 Sensitivity of ozone risk estimates per 10 μg/m 3 increase in 24

- h average ozone concentrations at lag 0

- 1 to alternative methods for adjustment of

se asonal trend, for all

- cause mortality using Berkey MLE and TLNISE Hierarchical Models.

________________________________ ______________ 6

- 244
6.6.2.2 Effect Modification

__________________________________________________________ 6

- 244
Table 6

- 47 Additional percent change in ozone

- related mortality for individual

- level characteristics.

__________________________________________________ 6

- 246 Figure 6

- 30 Ozone mortality risk estimates and community

- specific characteristics, U.S., 1987

- 2000.

________________________________________________ 6

- 249
Table 6

- 48 Percent change in all

- cause mortality, for all ages, associated with a 40ppb increase in 1

- h max ozone concentrations at Lag 0

– 1 at the 25th and 75th percentile of the center

- specific distribution of selected effect modifiers.

______________________________________________________ 6

- 250
Table 6

- 49 Percentage increase in daily mortality for a 10 ppb increase in 24

- h average ozone conc entrations during the previous week by geographic region in the U.S., 1987

- 2000.

____________________________ 6

- 251 Figure 6

- 31 Community

- specific Bayesian ozon e

- mortality risk estimates in 98 U.S. communities.

___________________________________________________ 6

- 252 Figure 6

- 32 Map of spatially dependent ozone

- mortality coefficients for 8

- h max ozone concentrations using summer data.

____________________________ 6

- 252
6.6.2.3 Interaction

________________________________ _________________________________ 6

- 253
6.6.2.4 Evaluation of the Ozone

- Mortality C

- R Relationship and Related Issues

________________ 6

- 254
Table 6

- 50 Estimated effect of a 10 ppb increase in 8

- h max ozone concentrations on mortality during the summer months for single

- day and distributed lag models.

________________________________ ________________________ 6

- 256 Figure 6

- 33 Estimated combined smooth distributed lag for 48 U.S. cities during the summer months.

________________________________ ________________ 6

- 257
Table 6

- 51 Estimated percent increase in cause

- specific mortality (and 95% CIs) for a 10

- μg/m 3 increase in maximum 8

- hour ozone during June

- August.

________ 6

- 258 Figure 6

- 34 Estimated combined smooth distributed lag in 21 European cities during the summer (June

- August) months.

__________________________________ 6

- 260
Table 6

- 52 Percent excess all

- cause mortality per 10 ppb increase in daily 8

- h max ozone on the same day, by season, month, and age groups.

______________ 6

- 261 Figure 6

- 35 Estimated combined C

- R curve for nonaccidental mortality and 24

- hour average ozone concentrations at lag 0

- 1 using the nonlinear (spline) model.

__________________________________________________ 6

- 264
6.6.2.5 Associations of Cause

- Specific Mortality and Short

- term Ozone Exposure

______________ 6

- 267 Figure 6

- 36 Percent increase in cause

- specific mortality.

___________________________ 6

- 268
Table 6

- 53 Corresponding effect estimates for Figure 6

- 36.

________________________ 6

- 269
6.6.3 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ___________________ 6

- 270

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xx June 2012 6.7 Overall Summary

_______________________________________________________________________ 6

- 273

Table 6

- 54 Summary of causal determinations for short

- term exposures to ozone.

______ 6

- 274

References

________________________________ ________________________________ _________________ 6

- 275



## 7 INTEGRATED HEALTH EFFECTS OF LO NG

- TERM OZONE EXPOSURE

______________ 7

- 1

7.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 7

- 1

7.2 Respiratory Effects

________________________________________________________________ ________ 7

- 2

7.2.1 Asthma

____________________________________________________________________________ 7

- 3

7.2.1.1 New Onset Asthma

________________________________ ___________________________ 7

- 3
Fi gure 7

- 1 Interaction of heme

- oxygenase genetic variants and O 3 level on the Hazard Ratio (HR) of new

- onset asthma in the 12 Children’s Health Study communities.

_____________________________________________________ 7

- 8

7.2.1.2 Prevalence of Asthma and Asthma Symptoms

______________________________________ 7

- 9 Figure 7

- 2 Ozone modifies the effect of TNF GG genotype on bronchitic symptoms among children with asthma in the CHS.

_______________________________ 7

- 12

7.2.2 Asthma Hospital Admissions and ED Visits

________________________________ _______________ 7

- 15 Figure 7

- 3 Ozone

- asthma concentration

- response relationship using the mean concentration during the entire follow

- up period for firs t asthma hospital admission.

________________________________ ______________________ 7

- 18
7.2.3 Pulmonary Structure and Function

________________________________ ______________________ 7

- 18
7.2.3.1 Pulmonary Structure and Function: Evidence from Epidemiology Studies

________________ 7

- 18
7.2.3.2 Pulmonary Structure and Function: Evidence from Toxicological Studies and Nonhuman Primate Asthma Models

______________________________________________________________ 7

- 22
Table 7

- 1 Respiratory effects in nonhuman primates and rodents resulting from long

- term ozone exposure

__________________________________________ 7

- 28

7.2.4 Pulmonary Inflammation, Injury, and Oxidative Stress

_______________________________________ 7

- 29
7.2.5 Alle rgic Responses

________________________________ __________________________________ 7

- 32
7.2.6 Host Defense

________________________________________________________________ ______ 7

- 33

7.2.7 Respiratory Mortality

_________________________________________________________________ 7

- 34

7. 2.8 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 34
Table 7

- 2 Summary of selected key new studies examining annual ozone exposure and respirat ory health effects

________________________________________ 7

- 36
Table 7

- 3 Studies providing evidence concerning potential confounding by PM for available endpoints.

_______________________________________________ 7

- 38

7.3 Cardiovascular Effects

________________________________________________________________ ____ 7

- 39

7.3.1 Cardiovascular Disease

______________________________________________________________ 7

- 39

7. 3.1.1 Cardiovascular Epidemiology

___________________________________________________ 7

- 39
7.3.1.2 Cardiovascular Toxicology

_____________________________________________________ 7

- 41
Table 7

- 3 Characterization of Study Details for Section 7.3.1.2.

_____________________ 7

- 43
7.3.2 Cardiovascular Mortality

______________________________________________________________ 7

- 43
7.3.3 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 43

7.4 Reproductive and Developmental Effects

_____________________________________________________ 7

- 44

7.4.1 Effects on Sperm

________________________________ ___________________________________ 7

- 46

7.4.2 Effects on Reproduction

______________________________________________________________ 7

- 48
7.4.3 Birth Weight

_______________________________________________________________________ 7

- 49 Figure 7

- 4 Birthweight deficit by decile of 24

- h avg ozone concentration averaged over the entire pregnancy compared with the decile group with the lowest
ozone exposure.

________________________________ __________________ 7

- 50
Table 7

- 4 Brief Summary of Epidemiologic Studies of Birth Weight.

__________________ 7

- 52

7.4.4 Preterm Birth

________________________________________________________________ ______ 7

- 54
Table 7

- 5 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of PTB

__________________________ 7

- 58
7.4.5 Fetal Growth

_______________________________________________________________________ 7

- 59
Table 7

- 6 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of fetal growth.

___________________ 7

- 62
7.4.6 Postnatal Growth

________________________________ ___________________________________ 7

- 62

7.4.7 Birth Defects

_______________________________________________________________________ 7

- 63
Table 7

- 7 Brief summary of epidemiologic studies of birth defects

___________________ 7

- 66
7.4.8 Developmental Respiratory Effects

_____________________________________________________ 7

- 66
7.4.9 Developmental Central Nervous System Effects

___________________________________________ 7

- 71

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxi June 2012 7.4.9.1 Laterality

___________________________________________________________________ 7

- 71
7.4.9.2 Brain Morphology and Neurochemical Changes

________________________________ ____ 7

- 71
7.4.9.3 Neurobehavioral Outcomes

____________________________________________________ 7

- 72
7.4.9.4 Sleep Aberrations after Developmental Ozone Exposure

_____________________________ 7

- 73
7.4.10 Early Life Mortality

________________________________________________________________ __ 7

- 73
7.4.10.1 Stillbirth

________________________________________________________________ ____ 7

- 74
7.4.10.2 Infant Mortality, Less than 1 Year

________________________________ _______________ 7

- 74
7.4.10.3 Neonatal Mortality, Less than 1 Month

____________________________________________ 7

- 74
7.4.10.4 Postneonatal Mortality, 1 Month to 1 Year

_________________________________________ 7

- 75
7.4.10.5 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

_________________________________________________ 7

- 76
Table 7

- 8 Brief summary of infant mortality studies.

______________________________ 7

- 77
Table 7

- 9 Summary of key reproductive and developmental toxicological studies.

_______ 7

- 78

7.4.11 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 79

7.5 Central Nervous System Effects

_____________________________________________________________ 7

- 81

7.5.1 Effects on the Brain and Behavior

________________________________ ______________________ 7

- 81
Table 7

- 10 Central nervous system effects of long

- term ozone exposure in rats.

_________ 7

- 84
7.5.2 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 84

7.6 Carcinogenic and Genotoxic Potential of Ozone

________________________________________________ 7

- 85

7.6.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________________ 7

- 85
7.6.2 Lung Cancer Incidence and Mortality

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 87
7.6.3 DNA Damage

________________________________________________________________ ______ 7

- 88
7.6.4 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 90

7.7 Mortality

________________________________________________________________ _______________ 7

- 90 Figure 7

- 5 Adjusted ozone

- mortality relative risk estimates (95% CI) by time period of analysis per subj ect

- weighted mean ozone concentration in the Cancer Prevention Study II by the American Cancer Society.

_____________________ 7

- 92
Table 7

- 11 Relative ri sk (and 95% CI) of death attributable to a 10

- ppb change in the ambient ozone concentration.

_______________________________________ 7

- 95

7.7.1 Summary and Causal Determination

________________________________ ____________________ 7

- 95

7.8 Overall Summary

________________________________________________________________________ 7

- 97

Table 7

- 12 Summary of causal determinations for long

- term exposures to ozone.

________ 7

- 97

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 7

- 98



## 8 POPULATIONS POTENTIA LLY AT INCREASED RIS K FOR OZONE

- RELATED HEALTH EFFECTS

________________________________ ________________________________ _ 8

- 1

Table 8

- 1 Classification of Evidence for Potential At

- Risk Factors.

____________________ 8

- 3

8.1 Genetic Factors

________________________________________________________________ __________ 8

- 3

Table 8

- 2 Summaries of results from epidemiologic and controlled human

e xposures studies of modification by genetic variants.

_____________________ 8

- 5

8.2 Preexisting Disease/Conditions

______________________________________________________________ 8

- 9

Table 8

- 3 Prevalence of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes among adults by age and region in the U.S.

_____________________ 8

- 10
8.2.1 Influenza/Infections

_________________________________________________________________ 8

- 10
8.2. 2 Asthma

___________________________________________________________________________ 8

- 11
Table 8

- 4 Prevalence of asthma by age in the U.S.

_______________________________ 8

- 11
8.2.3 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

__________________________________________ 8

- 14
8.2.4 Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)

________________________________________________________ 8

- 15
8.2.5 Diabetes

________________________________________________________________ __________ 8

- 17
8.2.6 Hyperthyroidism

________________________________ ____________________________________ 8

- 17

8.3 Sociodemographic Factors

________________________________________________________________ _ 8

- 17

8.3.1 Lifestage

________________________________________________________________ __________ 8

- 17
8.3.1.1 Children

___________________________________________________________________ 8

- 18
8.3.1.2 Older Adults

________________________________________________________________ 8

- 21
8.3.2 Sex

________________________________ ______________________________________________ 8

- 24
8.3.3 Socioeconomic Status

_______________________________________________________________ 8

- 27
8.3.4 Race/Ethnicity

________________________________________________________________ ______ 8

- 29

8.4 Behavi oral and Other Factors

_______________________________________________________________ 8

- 31

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxii June 2012 8.4.1 Diet

________________________________ ______________________________________________ 8

- 31
8.4.2 Obesity

___________________________________________________________________________ 8

- 32
8.4.3 Smoking

________________________________________________________________ __________ 8

- 34
8.4.4 Outdoor Workers

________________________________________________________________ ___ 8

- 35
8.4.5 Ai r Conditioning Use

_________________________________________________________________ 8

- 35

8.5 Summary

______________________________________________________________________________ 8

- 36

Table 8

- 5 Summary of evidence for potential increased risk of ozone

- related health effects.

________________________________ _________________________ 8

- 37

References

________________________________ ________________________________ __________________ 8

- 39



## 9 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT S: OZONE EFFECTS ON VEGETATION AND ECOSY STEMS 9

- 1

9.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ ______________ 9

- 1 Figure 9

- 1 An illustrative diagram of the major pathway through which ozone enters plants and the major endpoints that ozone may affect in plants and ecosystems.

________________________________ ______________________ 9

- 3

9.2 Experimental Exposure Methodologies

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 3

9.2.1 Introduction

_________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 3
9.2.2 “Indoor,” Controlled Environment, and Greenhouse Chambers

________________________________ _ 9

- 4
9.2.3 Field Chambers

________________________________ _____________________________________ 9

- 4
9.2.4 Plume and FACE

- Type Systems

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 6
9.2.5 Ambient Gradients

________________________________ ___________________________________ 9

- 8
9.2.6 Comparative Studies

_________________________________________________________________ 9

- 9

9.3 Me chanisms Governing Vegetation Response to Ozone

________________________________ __________ 9

- 10

9.3.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 10
9.3.2 Ozone Uptake into the Leaf

________________________________ ___________________________ 9

- 12
9.3.2.1 Changes in Stomatal Function

________________________________ __________________ 9

- 13 Figure 9

- 2 The microarchitecture of a dicot leaf.

__________________________________ 9

- 15 Figure 9

- 3 Possible reactions of ozone within water.

______________________________ 9

- 16 Figure 9

- 4 The Crigee mechanism of ozone attack of a double bond.

_________________ 9

- 16
9.3.3 Cellular to Systemic Responses

________________________________________________________ 9

- 17
9.3.3.1 Ozone Detection and Signal Transduction

_________________________________________ 9

- 17
9.3.3.2 Gene and Protein Expression Changes in Response to Ozone

________________________ 9

- 18 Figure 9

- 5 Composite diagram of major themes in the temporal evolution of the genetic response to ozone stress.

____________________________________ 9

- 23
9.3.3.3 Role of Phytohormones in Plant Response to Ozone

________________________________ 9

- 24 Figure 9

- 6 The oxidative cell death cycle.

_______________________________________ 9

- 26
9.3.4 Detoxification

________________________________________________________________ ______ 9

- 27
9.3.4.1 Ov erview of Ozone

- induced Defense Mechanisms

__________________________________ 9

- 27
9.3.4.2 Role of Antioxidants in Plant Defense Responses

___________________________________ 9

- 27
9.3.5 Effects on Primary and Secondary Metabolism

________________________________ ____________ 9

- 30
9.3.5.1 Light and Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis

________________________________ _______ 9

- 30
9.3.5.2 Respiration and Dark Respiration

_______________________________________________ 9

- 33
9.3.5.3 Secondary Metabolism

________________________________________________________ 9

- 34
9.3.6 Summary

_________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 36

9.4 Nature of Effects on Vegetation and Ecosystems

_______________________________________________ 9

- 39

9.4.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 39
9.4.1.1 Ecos ystem Scale, Function, and Structure

________________________________________ 9

- 39
9.4.1.2 Ecosystem Services

__________________________________________________________ 9

- 40
9.4.2 Visible Foliar Injury and Biomonitoring

________________________________ ___________________ 9

- 41
9.4.2.1 Biomonitoring

_______________________________________________________________ 9

- 43
9.4.2.2 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 45
9.4.3 Growth, Productivity and Carbon Storage in Natural Ecosystems

______________________________ 9

- 46
9.4.3.1 Plant Growth and Biomass Allocation

____________________________________________ 9

- 46
9.4.3.2 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 50
9.4.3.3 Reproduction

_______________________________________________________________ 9

- 50
Table 9

- 1 Ozone effects on plant reproductive processes

__________________________ 9

- 52
9.4.3.4 Ecosystem Productivity and Carbon Sequestration

__________________________________ 9

- 52

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxiii June 2012 Table 9

- 2 Comparison of models used to simul ate the ecological consequences of
ozone exposure.

________________________________ __________________ 9

- 54
9.4.3.5 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 58
Table 9

- 3 Modeled effects of ozone on primary production, C exchange, and C sequestration.

______________________________________________ 9

- 60
9.4.4 Crop Yield and Quality in Agricultural Systems

________________________________ ____________ 9

- 60
9.4.4.1 Yield

________________________________________________________________ ______ 9

- 61
9.4.4.2 Crop Quality

________________________________________________________________ 9

- 66
9.4.4.3 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 67
Table 9

- 4 Summary of recent studies of ozone effects on crops (exclusive of growth and yield).

_______________________________________________________ 9

- 69
Table 9

- 5 Modeled effects of ozone on crop yield loss at regional and global scales

_____ 9

- 72
9.4.5 Water Cycling

________________________________________________________________ ______ 9

- 72 Figure 9

- 7 The potential effects of ozone exposure on water cycling.

_________________ 9

- 73
9.4.5.1 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 76
9.4.6 Below

- Ground Processes

_____________________________________________________________ 9

- 76
Fi gure 9

- 8 Conceptual diagram showing where ozone alters C, water and nutrient flow in a tree

- soil system, including transfer between biotic and abiotic components below ground that influence soil physical and chemical properties.

______________________________________________________ 9

- 77
9.4.6.1 Litter Carbon Chemistry, Litter Nutrient and Their Ecosystem Budgets

___________________ 9

- 78
Table 9

- 6 The effect of elevated ozone on leaf/litter nutrient concentrations.

___________ 9

- 79
9.4.6.2 Decomposer Metabolism and Litter Decomposition

__________________________________ 9

- 79
9.4.6.3 Soil Respiration and Carbon Format ion

________________________________ ___________ 9

- 80
Table 9

- 7 The temporal variation of ecosystem responses to ozone exposure at Aspen FACE site

________________________________ _________________ 9

- 81
9.4.6.4 Nutrient Cycling

_____________________________________________________________ 9

- 83
9. 4.6.5 Dissolved Organic Carbon and Biogenic Trace Gases Emission

_______________________ 9

- 84
9.4.6.6 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 85
9.4.7 Community Composition

_____________________________________________________________ 9

- 86
9. 4.7.1 Forest

________________________________________________________________ _____ 9

- 86
9.4.7.2 Grassland and Agricultural Land

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 87
9.4.7.3 Microbes

___________________________________________________________________ 9

- 88
9.4.7.4 Summary

________________________________ __________________________________ 9

- 89
9.4.8 Factors that Modify Functional and Growth Response

______________________________________ 9

- 90
9.4.8.1 Genetics

___________________________________________________________________ 9

- 91
9.4.8.2 Environmental Biological Factors

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 91
9.4.8.3 Physical Factors

_____________________________________________________________ 9

- 92
9.4.8.4 Interactions with other Pollutants

________________________________________________ 9

- 93
Table 9

- 8 Response of plants to the interactive effects of elevated ozone exposure and nitrogen enrichment.

___________________________________________ 9

- 94
9.4.9 Insects and Other Wildlife

________________________________ ____________________________ 9

- 97
9.4.9.1 Insects

________________________________________________________________ ____ 9

- 97
9.4.9.2 Wildlife

________________________________________________________________ ___ 9

- 100
9.4.9.3 Indirect Effects on Wildlife

____________________________________________________ 9

- 101
9.4.9.4 Summary

________________________________ _________________________________ 9

- 104

9.5 Effects

- Based Air Quality Exposure Indices and Dose Modeling

________________________________ ___ 9

- 104

9.5.1 Introduction

_______________________________________________________________________ 9

- 104
9.5.2 Description of Exposure Indices Available in the Literature

________________________________ __ 9

- 105 Figure 9

- 9 Diagrammatic representation of several exposure indices illustrating how they weight concentration and accumulate exposure.

____________________ 9

- 107
9.5.3 Important Components of Exposure Indices

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 112
9.5.3.1 Role of Concentration

________________________________________________________ 9

- 112 Figure 9

- 10 Trends in May to September: 12

- hour SUM06, Peak 1

- hour ozone concentration and number of daily exceedances of 95 ppb for the Crestline site in 1963 to 1999; in relation to trends in mean daily maximum temperature for Crestline and daily reactive organic gases (ROG) and oxides of nitrogen (NO X ) for San Bernardino County.

___________ 9

- 114

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxiv June 2012 Figure 9

- 11 The number of hourly average concentrations between 50 and 89 ppb for the period 1980

- 2000 for the Crestline, San Bernardino County, CA, monitoring site.

__________________________________________________ 9

- 115
9.5.3.2 Diurnal and Seasonal Exposure

________________________________________________ 9

- 115 Figure 9

- 12 Diurnal (a) conductance through boundary layer and stomata (gbs), (b) ozone concentration, and leaf

- level stomatal ozone flux (Fst0l) in control plots from mid

- June through August in (c) 2004 and (d) 2005 in the Aspen FACE experiment.

_______________________________________________ 9

- 118 Figure 9

- 13 Maximum 3

- month, 12

- h W126 plotted against maximum 6

- month, 12

- h W126.

________________________________ _____________________ 9

- 120
9.5.4 Ozone Uptake/Dose Modeling for Vegetation

____________________________________________ 9

- 121
9.5.5 Summary

________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 123

9.6 Ozone Exposu re

- Plant Response Relationships

_______________________________________________ 9

- 125

9.6.1 Introduction

_______________________________________________________________________ 9

- 125
9.6.2 Estimates of Crop Yield Loss and Tree Seedling Biomass Loss in the 1996 and 2006 Ozone AQCDs 9

- 128 Figure 9

- 14 Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 34 NCLAN crop experiments.

____ 9

- 130 Figure 9

- 15 Quantiles of predicted relative yield loss for 4 crop species in NCLAN experiments.

________________________________ ____________________ 9

- 131 Figure 9

- 16 Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 49 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments.

_______________________________________ 9

- 132 Figure 9

- 17 Quantiles of predicted relative biomass loss for 4 tree species in NHEERL/WED experiments.

_______________________________________ 9

- 133
Table 9

- 9 Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species.

_____________________________________________ 9

- 134
Table 9

- 10 Ozone exposures at which 10 and 20% yield loss is predicted for 50 and 75% of crop species (Droughted versus Watered conditions).

_____________ 9

- 134
Table 9

- 11 Ozone exposur es at which 10 and 20% biomass loss is predicted for 50 and 75%of tree species.

___________________________________________ 9

- 135
9.6.3 Validation of 1996 and 2006 Ozone AQCD M odels and Methodology Using the 90 day 12

- h W126 and Current FACE Data

________________________________________________________________ 9

- 135
9.6.3.1 Comparison of NCLAN

- Based Prediction and SoyFA CE Data

________________________ 9

- 137
Table 9

- 12 Comparison between change in yield observed in the SoyFACE experiment between elevated and ambient ozone, and change predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NCLAN.

_______________________________________________________ 9

- 138
Table 9

- 13 Comparison between yi eld observed in the SoyFACE experiment and yield predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NCLAN.

______________________________________________ 9

- 138 Figure 9

- 18 Comparison of yield observed in SoyFACE experiment in a given year with yield predicted by the median composite function based on NCLAN.

____ 9

- 139 Figure 9

- 19 Comparison of composite functions for the quartiles of 7 curves for 7 genotypes of soybean grown in the SoyFACE experiment, and for the quartiles of 11 curves for 5 genotypes of soybean grown in the NCLAN project.

________________________________ ________________________ 9

- 140
9.6.3.2 Comparison of NHEERL/WED

- Based Prediction of Tree Biomass Response and Aspen FACE Data

_____________________________________________________________________ 9

- 141
Table 9

- 14 Comparison between change in above

- ground biomass elevated and ambient ozone in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year, and change predicted at the same values of ozone by the median composite function for NHEERL/WED.

_______________________________________________ 9

- 1 42
Table 9

- 15 Comparison between above

- ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED.

___________________________________ 9

- 142 Figure 9

- 20 Co mparison between above

- ground biomass observed in Aspen FACE experiment in 6 year and biomass predicted by the median composite function based on NHEERL/WED.

___________________________________ 9

- 143
9.6.3.3 Exposure

- Response in a Gradient Study

_________________________________________ 9

- 144 Figure 9

- 21 Above

- ground biomass for one genotyp e of cottonwood grown in seven locations for one season in 3 years.

__________________________________ 9

- 145
9.6.3.4 Meta

- analyses of growth and yield studies

_______________________________________ 9

- 146
Table 9

- 16 Meta

- analyses of growth or yield studies published since 2005.

____________ 9

- 146
9.6.3.5 Additional exposure

- response data

________________________________ _____________ 9

- 148
9.6.4 Summary

________________________________________________________________________ 9

- 148

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxv June 2012 Table 9

- 17 Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth and yield of agricultural crops

.

________________________________ ________________ 9

- 149
Table 9

- 18 Summary of studies of effects of ozone exposure on growth of natural vegetation.

________________________________ _____________________ 9

- 153

9.7 Summary and Conclusions

________________________________________________________________ 9

- 155

Table 9

- 19 Summary of ozone causal determinations for vegetation and ecosystem effects

________________________________ _________________________ 9

- 156

References

________________________________ ________________________________ _________________ 9

- 157



## 10 THE ROLE OF TROPOSPH ERIC OZONE IN CLIMAT E CHANGE AND UV

- B EFFECTS

__ 10

- 1

10.1 Introduction

________________________________________________________________ _____________ 10

- 1

10.2 Physics of the Earth’s Radiation Budget

________________________________ ______________________ 10

- 1 Figure 10

- 1 Diagram of the factors that determine human exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

_______________________________________________________ 10

- 3

10.3 Effects of Tropos pheric Ozone on Climate

_____________________________________________________ 10

- 4

10.3.1 Background

________________________________________________________________ _______ 10

- 4
10.3.2 Climate Change Evidence and the Influence of Tropospheric Ozone

___________________________ 10

- 5
10.3.2.1 Climate Change in the Recent Past

________________________________ ______________ 10

- 5
10.3.2.2 Projections of Future Climate Chang e

____________________________________________ 10

- 5
10.3.2.3 Metrics of Potential Climate Change

_____________________________________________ 10

- 6
10.3.2.4 Tropospheric Ozone as a Greenhouse Gas

________________________________ _______ 10

- 7 Figure 10

- 2 Schematic illustrating the effects of tropospheric ozone on climate.

__________ 10

- 9 Figure 10

- 3 Global average radiative forcing (RF) estimates and uncertainty ranges in 2005 for anthropogenic CO 2 , CH 4 , ozone and other important agents and mechanisms.

___________________________________________________ 10

- 10
10.3.3 Factors that Influence the Effect of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate

___________________________ 10

- 10
10.3.3.1 Trends in the Concentration of Tropospheric Ozone

________________________________ 10

- 11
10.3.3.2 The Effect of Surface Albedo on Ozone Radiative Forcing

___________________________ 10

- 13
10.3.3.3 The Effect of Vertical Distribution on Ozone Radiative Forcing

________________________ 10

- 14
10.3.3.4 Feedback Factors that Alter the Climate Response to Changes in Ozone Radiative Forcing

_ 10

- 14
10.3.3.5 Indirect Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on the Carbon Cycle

_________________________ 10

- 16
10.3.4 Competing Effects of Ozone Precursors on Climate

_______________________________________ 10

- 16 Figure 10

- 4 Components of radiative forcing for emissions of principal gases, aerosols, aerosol precursors, and other changes.

_______________________ 10

- 18
10.3.5 Calculating Radiative Forcing and Climate Response to Past Trends in Tropospheric Ozone

_______ 10

- 19 Figure 10

- 5 Ensemble average 1900

- 2000 radiative forcing and surface temperature trends ( oC per century) in response to tropospheric ozone changes.

________ 10

- 20
10.3.6 Calculating Radiative Forcing and Climate Response to Future Trends in Tropospheric Ozone

_____ 10

- 20
10.3.6.1 Emissions of Anthropogenic Ozone Precursors Across the 21st Century

________________ 10

- 21
10.3.6.2 Impact of 21st Century Trends in Emissions on Tropospheric Ozone

___________________ 10

- 22
Tabl e 10

- 1 2000

- 2030 changes in anthropogenic emissions, and CH 4 and tropospheric ozone concentrations, and the associated tropospheric ozone forcing for three scenarios.

________________________________ ___ 10

- 23
10.3.6.3 Impact of 21st Century Climate on Tropospheric Ozone

_____________________________ 10

- 23
10.3.6.4 Radiative Forcing and Climate Response from 21st Century Trends in Tropospheric Ozone

_ 10

- 24 Figure 10

- 6 Global mean radiative forcing estimates calculated by a set of models for the 2000

- 2100 change in tropospheric ozone.

__________________________ 10

- 25

10.4 UV

- B Related Effects and Tropospheric Ozone

________________________________________________ 10

- 26

10.4.1 Background

________________________________________________________________ ______ 10

- 26
10.4.2 Human Exposure and Susceptibility to Ultraviolet Radiation

________________________________ _ 10

- 26
10.4.3 Human Health Effects due to UV

- B Radiation

____________________________________________ 10

- 27
10.4.4 Ecosystem and Materials Damage Ef fects Due to UV

- B Radiation

____________________________ 10

- 28
10.4.5 UV

- B Related Effects Associated with Changes in Tropospheric Ozone Concentrations

___________ 10

- 30

10.5 Summary and Causal Determinations

_______________________________________________________ 10

- 31

10.5.1 Summary of the Effects of Tropospheric Ozone on Climate

________________________________ _ 10

- 31
10.5.2 Summary of UV

- B Related Effects on Human Health, Ecosystems, and Materials Relating to Changes in Tropospheric Ozone Concentrations

________________________________ ___________________ 10

- 33
10.5.3 Summary of Ozone Causal Determinations

________________________________ ______________ 10

- 33

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxvi June 2012 Table 10

- 2 Summary of ozone caus al determinations for climate and UV

- B effects.

_____ 1 0

- 33

References

________________________________ ________________________________ _________________ 10

- 34

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxvii June 2012 

# OZONE PROJECT TEAM

Executive Direction
Dr. John Vandenberg (Director)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment

- RTP Division, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Pr otection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Debra Walsh (Deputy Director)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment

RTP Division, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Mary Ross (Bra nch Chief)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Scientific Staff

Dr. James Brown (O 3 

## Team Leader)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Of fice of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Christal Bowman

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Barbara Buckley

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Ye Cao

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Allen Davis

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Jean

- Jacques Dubois

— National Center for Environmental Assessm ent, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Steven J. Dutton

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Jeffrey Herrick

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Erin Hines

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Doug Johns

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxviii June 2012 Dr. Dennis Kotchmar

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Meredith Lassiter

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and D evelopment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Lingli Liu

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agen cy, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Thomas Long

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Thomas Luben

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Qingyu Meng

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Env ironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Kristopher Novak

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Molini Patel

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Envir onmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Joseph P. Pinto

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Joann Rice

— Office of Air Quali ty Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Jason Sacks

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Lisa Vinikoor

- Imler

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxix June 2012 Technical Support Staff

Mr. Kenneth J. Breito

– Senior Env ironmental Employment Program, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Gerald Gurevich

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of
R esearch and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Ryan Jones

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Ellen Lorang

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. J. Sawyer Lucy

– Student Services Authority, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Off ice of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Deborah Wales

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Richard N. Wilson

– National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Barbara Wright

— Senior Environmental Employment Program, National Center fo r Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxx June 2012 

# AUTHORS, CONTRIBUTOR S, AND REVIEWERS

Authors

Dr. James Brown (O 3 

## Team Leader)

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Off ice of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Christal Bowman

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Barbara Buckley

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Ye Cao

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for
E nvironmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Maggie Clark

— Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO

Dr. Jea n

- Jacques Dubois

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Steven J. Dutton

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and De velopment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Arlene M. Fiore

— Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Columbia University and Lamont

- Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY
Dr. Kelly Gillespie

— Donald Danforth Pla nt Science Center, St. Louis, MO
Dr. Terry Gordon

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY

Dr. Barron Henderson

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Exposure Research Lab, Office of Researc h and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Jeffrey Herrick

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. E rin Hines

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Kazuhiko Ito

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxe do, NY
Dr. Doug Johns

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxi June 2012 Dr. Dennis Kotchmar

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research an d Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Meredith Lassiter

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Lin gli Liu

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Thomas Long

— Natio nal Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Thomas Luben

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmen tal Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Loretta J. Mickley

— School of Engineering & Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
Dr. Kristopher Novak

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Elizabeth Oesterling Owens

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Molini Patel

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Jennifer Peel

— Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences, Colorado State Universi ty, Fort Collins, CO
Dr. Joseph Pinto

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Edward Postlethwait

— Department of Environmental Health Sciences, S chool of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL

Ms. Joann Rice

— on detail to the National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, from the Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of A ir and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Jason Sacks

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. George Thurston

— Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, NY

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxii June 2012 Dr. Lisa Vinikoor

- Imler

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tria ngle Park, NC

Dr. Cosima Wiese

— Department of Biology, Misericordia University, Dallas, PA

Contributors

Mr. Brian Adams

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Env ironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Halil Cakir

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangl e Park, NC

Mr. Allen Davis

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Mark Evangelista

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air a nd Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Jay Haney

— ICF International, San Rafael, CA
Dr. E. Henry Lee

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR
Dr. Meiyun Lin

— Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences Program, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ
Dr. Qingyu Meng

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Postdoctoral Research Fellow to National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. David Mintz

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Tom Myers

— ICF International, San Rafael, CA

Dr. Michelle Oakes

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Mr. Jacob T. Oberman

— Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE), Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin

- Madison, Madison, WI

Mr. Mark Schmidt

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. E nvironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Kaylyn Siporin

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Tr iangle Park, NC
Dr. Huiquin Wang

— School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxiii June 2012 Mr. Benjamin Wells

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Trian gle Park, NC

Ms. Adrien Wilkie

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Ms. Brianna Young

— Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Lin Zhang

— School of Engineering and Applied Science, Harvard Univers ity, Cambridge, MA

Reviewers

Dr. Christian Andersen

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, OR

Ms. Lea Anderson

— Office of General Counsel, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washing ton, D.C.
Dr. Susan Anenberg

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

Dr. Robert Arnts

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agen cy, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. John Balmes

— Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco and School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA

Dr. Lisa Baxter

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research an d Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Souad Benromdhane

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Fitzgerald Booker

— USDA

- ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC

Dr. Michael Breen

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Philip Bromberg

— School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
Dr. Kent Burkey

— USDA

- ARS Plant Science Research Unit, Raleigh, NC

Dr. David DeMarini

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protect ion Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Russ Dickerson

— Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD

Mr. Patrick Dolwick

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmen tal Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxiv June 2012 Dr. Aimen Farraj

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Arlene Fiore

— NOAA/Geo physical Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ

Dr. Ian Gilmour

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Stephen Graham

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Tara Greaver

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Gary Hatch

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Bryan Hubbel

— Office of Air Quality Pla nning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Kristin Isaacs

— National Exposure Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Scott Jenkins

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Karl Jensen

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, O ffice of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Urmila Kodavanti

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Petros Koutrakis

— Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
Mr. John Langstaff

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Christopher Lau

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Mr. Gary Lear

— Office of Administrati on and Policy, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Dr. Morton Lippmann

— Nelson Institute of Environmental Medicine, New York University, Tuxedo, NY

Dr. Karen Martin

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Connie Meacham

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxv June 2012 Mr. David Mintz

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. Pradeep Rajan

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S

. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. John Rogers

— National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Vicki Sand iford

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Ms. Susan Stone

— Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air and Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. John Vandenberg

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
Dr. James G. Wagner

— Department of Pathobiol ogy and Diagnostic Investigation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI

Ms. Debra Walsh

— National Center for Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC

Dr. Jason West

— Department of Environmental Sciences & Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxvi June 2012 

# CLEAN AIR SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE O ZONE NAAQS REVIEW PANEL

Chair of the Environmental Protection Agency’s Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee

Dr. Jo nathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA

Chair of the Ozone Review Panel
Dr. Jonathan M. Samet*, Department of Preventive Medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and Director of the Institute for Global Health at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA

Members
Dr. George A. Allen*, Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM), B oston, MA
Professor Ed Avol, Department of Preventive Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
Dr. John Bailar, The National Academies, Washington, D.C.

Dr. Michelle Bell, School of Forestry & Environmental Stud ies, Yale University, New Haven, CT
Dr. Joseph D. Brain*, Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA
Dr. David Chock, Independent Consultant, Bloomfield Hills, MI

Dr. Ana Diez

- Roux*, Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health; Ann Arbor, MI
Dr. William Michael Foster, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC
Dr. H. Christopher Frey*, Department of Civil, Co nstruction and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
Dr. Judith Graham, Independent Consultant, Pittsboro, NC
Dr. David A. Grantz, College of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Air Pollution Research Center, University of California Riverside, Parlier, CA
Dr. Jack Harkema, Center for Integrated Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI
Dr. Daniel Jacob, Atmospheric Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Harvard University, Camb ridge, MA
Dr. Steven Kleeberger, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxvii June 2012 Dr. Frederick J. Miller, Independent Consultant, Cary, NC
Dr. Howard Neufeld, Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC
Dr. Armistead (Ted) Russell*, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA
Dr. Helen Suh*, Environmental Health, National Opinion Research Corporation (NORC) at the University of Chicago, West Newton, MA
Dr. James Ultman, Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Dr. Sverre Vedal, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Community Medic ine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
Dr. Kathleen Weathers*, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
Dr. Peter Woodbury, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca,
NY
* Members of the statutory Clean Air Scientific A dvisory Committee (CASAC) appointed by the EPA Administrator

Science Advisory Board Staff
Dr. Holly Stallworth, Designated Federal Officer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mail Code 1400R, 1300 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC, 20004, Phone: 202

- 564

- 2073, Email: stallworth.holly@epa.gov

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxviii June 2012 

# ACRONYMS AND ABBREVI ATIONS

129 mouse strain (129S1/SvlmJ)

α alpha, ambient exposure factor

α

- ATD alpha 1

- antitrypsin deficiency

α

- SMA alpha

- smooth muscle actin

α

- tocopherol alpha

- tocopherol

α

- TOH alpha tocopherol

a air exchange rate of the microenvironment

A2 climate scenario in IPCC

AADT annual average daily traffic

A1B climate scenario in IPCC

ABA abscisic acid

ABI abscisic acid insensitive

A1c glycosylated hemoglobi n blood
test

Ach acetylcholine

ACM (Harvard University) Atmospheric Chemistry Modeling (Group)

ACS American Cancer Society

ACS

- CPSII ACS Cancer Prevention Study II

ADC arginine decarboxylase

ADSP Adirondack State Park, NY

AER air exchange rate

AH 2 ascorbic acid; ascorbate

AHR airway(s) hyperresponsiveness, airway(s) hyperreactivity

AhR aryl hydrocarbon receptor

AHSMOG (California Seventh Day) Adventist Heath and Smog (Study)

AI alveolar interstitial AIC(s) Akaike’s information criterion

AIRS Aerometric Information Retrieval System; Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (instrument)

A/J mouse strain

Ala

- 9Val genotype associated with Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene

AM alveolar macrophage(s)

ANF atrial natriuretic factor

AOT20 seaso nal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 20 ppb, minus the threshold value of 20 ppb

AOT30 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 30 ppb, minus the threshold value of 30 ppb

AOT40 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 40 ppb, minus the threshold value of 40 ppb AOT60 seasonal sum of the difference between an hourly concentration at the threshold value of 60 ppb, minus the threshold value of 60 ppb

AOTx family of cumulative, cutoff concentration

- based exposure indices

AP activated protein A2p climate scenario in IPCC (preliminary version of A2)

APEX Air Pollutants Exposure (model) APHEA(2) Air Pollution on Health: a European Approach (study)

APHENA Air Pollution and Health: A European and North American Approach ApoB apolipoprotein B ApoE apolipoprotein E

APX ascorbate peroxidase

aq aqueous form: (aq)O 3 AQCD Air Quality Criteria Document
AQI Air Quality Index
AQS (U.S. EPA) Air Quality System (database)

AR acoustic rhinometry

AR4 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) from the IPCC

AR5 Fi fth Assessment Report (AR5) from the IPCC

ARG arginase variants (ex., ARG1, ARG2, ARG1h4)

ARIC Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities

ARIES (Atlanta) Aerosol Research and Inhalation Epidemiology Study

atm atmosphere

ATP adenosine triphosphate

ATPase a denosine triphosphatase; adenosine triphosphate synthase

ATS American Thoracic Society

avg average
AVHRR advanced very high resolution radiometer β beta, beta coefficient; regression coefficient; standardized coefficient; shape parameter; scale paramet er
B boron

B1 climate scenario in IPCC

B6 mouse strain (C57BL/6J)

BAL bronchoalveolar lavage

BALB/c mouse strain

BALF bronchoalveolar lavage fluid

bb bronchials

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xxxix June 2012 BB bronchial airways

BC black carbon

B cells bone

- marrow

- derived lymphocytes; B lymphocytes

B6C3F1 mouse strain

BDNF brain

- derived neurotrophic factor

BEAS

- 2B human bronchial epithelial cell line

BEIS Biogenic Emissions Inventory System

BELD Biogenic Emissions Landcover Database

BIPM Interna tional Bureau of Weights and Measures

BM basement membrane

BMI body mass index

BNP β

- type natriuretic peptide

BP blood pressure

BPD biparietal diameter bpm breaths per minute

Br bromine

BRFSS Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System

BS b lack smoke

BSA bovine serum albumin; body surface area Bsp, BSP black smoke particles
Bt, BT, bt Bacillus thuringiensis ; bacterium proteins used in pesticides (or genetically engineered plants produce Bt toxin)

BTEX family of compounds (benzene, toluen e, ethylbenzene, and xylene)

BW body weight

C carbon; concentration; (Vitamin C, ascorbate)

oC degrees Celsius

13 C carbon

- 13 isotope

C3 mouse strain (C3H/HEJ)

C3 plants that use only the Calvin cycle for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air

C4 plants that use the Hatch

- Slack cycle for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air

C16:0 palmitic acid (saturated fatty acid)

C18:1 unsaturated fatty acid

Ca calcium

C a ambient concentration [Ca] calcium concentration

Ca 2+ calcium ion

CA Canada (ICD

- 10

- CA)

CAA Clean Air Act

CALINE4 California line source dispersion model for predicting air pollutant concentrations near roadways

CAM plants that use crassulacean acid metabolism for fixing the carbon dioxide from the air CAMP Childhood Asthma Manageme nt Program

CAMx Comprehensive Air Quality Model, with extensions

CAN Canada CAP(s) concentrated ambient particles

CAR centriacinar region

CASAC Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee

CASTNET Clean Air Status and Trends Network

CAT catalase

CB carbo n black; CMAQ mechanisms (ex., CB04, CB05, CB06)

C57BL/6 mouse strain

C57BL/6J mouse strain

CBSA core

- based statistical area

C/C carbon of total carbon

CCSP Clara cell secretory protein

CD cluster of differentiation (various receptors on T

- cells: CD8+, CD44, etc.); criteria document (see AQCD)

CD

- 1 mouse strain

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CF charcoal

- filtered; carbon filtered air

CF2 twice

- filtered air (particulate filter and activated charcoal filter)

C

- fibers afferent, sl ow, unmylenated nerves innervating the respiratory system

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CGRP calcitonin gene

- related peptide

CH 3 methyl group

CH 4 methane

C 2 H 2 acetylene

C 2 H 4 ethylene

C3H mouse strain (C3H/HEJ or C3H/OuJ)

C 3 H 6 propylene

CHAD Consol idated Human Activity Database

CH 3 Br methyl bromide

CH 3 - CHO acetaldehyde

CH 3 Cl methyl chloride

CH 3 - CO acetyl radical(s)

CHD coronary heart disease

CHF congestive heart failure

C 2 H 5 – H ethane

C3H/HeJ mouse strain

CH 3 I methyl iodide

CHIP Effects of Ele vated Carbon Dioxide and Ozone on Potato Tuber Quality in the European Multiple Site Experiment

CH 3 O 2 • methyl peroxy (radical)

CH 3 OOH acetic acid; methyl hydroperoxide

CHS Child Health Study

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xl June 2012 CI confidence interval(s)

C j airborne O 3 concentration at microenvironment j

Cl chlorine

Cl − chlorine ion

Cl 2 chlorine gas

CLE Current Legislation (climate scenario in IPCC)

CLM chemiluminescence method

ClNO 2 nitryl chloride

cm centimeter(s)

cm2 square centimeters

CM Clinical Modification (ICD

- 9

- CM)
CMAQ Community Multi

- scale Air Quality modeling system

CN constant atmospheric nitrogen deposition (in PnET

- CN ecosystem model)

CNA continental North America

CNS central nervous system

CO carbon monoxide; Cardiac output

CO 2 carbon dioxide

COD coefficient of divergence; coefficient of determination

Col

- 0 (Arabidopsis ecotype) Columbia

- 0
COP Conference of Parties (to the UNFCCC)

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

COX

- 2 cyclooxygenase 2 enzyme

C

- R concentration

- response
CRA Centro di r icerca per la cerealicoltura (CRA) [The Centre for Cereal Research]

– Unit 5: The Research Unit for Cropping Systems in Dry Environments in Bari, Italy (water

- stressed conditions)

CRP C

- reactive protein

CS corticosteroid

CSA cross

- sectional area; combined statistical area csb, Csb cockayne syndrome (cb) gene/protein group A

CSF colony

- stimulating factor

CST central standard time

CSTR continuous stirred tank reactor

CSV comma

- separated values (a spreadsheet format)

CT computer tomography CTM(s) chemical transport model(s)

cum avg cumulative average

CUOt The cumulative stomatal uptake of O 3 , using a constant O 3 uptake rate threshold (t) of nmol/m 2 /sec CV, C.V. coefficient of variation

cv, c.v. cultivar

CVD cardiovasc ular disease CXC chemokine family of cytokines, with highly conserved motif:cys

xxx

- cys (CXC) amino acid group

CXCR2 CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2)

CXR Chest (x

- ray) radiograph(s) CyS protein cysteines Cys

- LT cysteinyl leukotrienes (LTC 4 , LTD 4 , LTE 4 )

c yt cytosolic

- free
Δ, δ delta, difference; change

ΔFEV 1 change in FEV 1 ΔV D change in dead space volume of the respiratory tract

2

- D two

- dimensional

3

- D three

- dimensional

DAHPS 3

- deoxy

- D

- arabino

- heptulosonat

7

- phosphate synthase

DBP diastolic blood pressu re DC(s) dendritic cell(s)

DDM direct decoupled method DEP(s) diesel exhaust particle(s)

df degrees of freedom

DGGE denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

DHA dehydroascorbate

DHAR dehydroascorbate reductase

DHBA 2,3

- dihydroxybenzoic acid

DLEM Dynamic Land Ecosystem Model

dm 3 cubic decimeter(s)

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

DOAS differential optical absorption spectroscopy
DOC dissolved organic carbon

DR type of human leukocyte antigens (HLA

- DR)

dt Portion of time

- period spent in microenvironment j

DTH delayed

- type hypersensitivity

DU Dobson unit(s)

DW dry weight

E embryonic day (ex., E15, E16, etc); [Vitamin] E

E a exposure to pollutant of ambient origin

EBC exhaled breath condensate (fluid)

EC elemental carbon

ECE endothelin converting enzyme(s) [i.e., ECE

- 1]

ECG electrocardiogram

ECOPHYS physiological process modeling to predict the response of aspen forest ecosystems ( modeling growth and envi ronmental stress in Populus)

ED emergency department; embryonic day (ex., ED5, ED20)

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xli June 2012 EGEA (The) Epidemiology (study on) Genetics and Environment of Asthma, (adults and children with asthma)

EGEA2 follow

- up study on EGEA (adults with asthma only)

EHC

- 93 amb ient PM reference sample (urban dust [air particles] collected in Ottawa Canada)

ELF extracellular lining fluid

EMI (U.S. EPA) Exposure Model for Individuals

E na exposure to pollutant of nonambient origin

ENA

- 78 epithelial cell

- derived neutrophil

activat ing peptide 78

eNO exhaled nitric oxide

eNOS endothelial nitric oxide synthase

ENVISAT (EAS) Earth Observation satellite

EOTCP European Open Top Chamber Programme

EP epithelial cells

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

EPIC European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition

ER emergency room
ESA European Space Agency

ET extrathoracic; endothelin (i.e., ET

- 1)

ET 1 anterior nasal passages within the extrathoracic (ET) region

ET 2 oral airway and posterior nasal
passa ges within the extrathoracic (ET) region

ETS environmental tobacco smoke

EU European Union

EUS eastern U.S.

Ф Phi; calculated efficiency

ФPSII

- max maximum photochemical effective quantum yield of PSII

f Fraction of the relevant time period

F female

F344 Fischer 344 (rat strain)

F2a 8

- isoprostane (major F2 prostaglandin [8 iso

- PGF2a])

FA filtered air

FACE free

- air−CO 2 enrichment (system)

FACES Fresno Asthmatic Children’s Environment Study

f B frequency of breathing

FC fibrocartilaginous coat

FEF f orced expiratory flow

FEF 25

- 75 forced expiratory flow between the times at which 25% and 75% of the vital capacity is reached

FEFx forced expiratory flow after (x)% vital capacity (e.g., after 25, 50, or 75% vital capacity) FEM Federal equivalent method

FeNO exhaled nitric oxide fraction

FEV 1 forced expiratory volume in 1 second

FHM (USDA Forest Service) Forest Health Monitoring Program

FIA (USDA Forest Service) Forest Inventory and Analysis Program

F inf infiltration factor

F inf, i infiltration factor for indoor environment (i)

FLAG Federal land managers’ air quality related values workgroup

F LRT fractional uptake efficiency of the lower respiratory tract (LRT)

F nose fractional uptake efficiency via nasal absorption

F o fraction of time spent in outd oor microenvironments

FPM Forest Pest Management

FR Federal Register

FRAP ferric reducing ability of plasma

FRC functional residual capacity

FRM Federal reference method

F RT fractional uptake efficiency of the respiratory tract (RT)

Fst0 1 flux cut of f threshold

F URT fractional uptake efficiency of the upper respiratory tract (URT)

FVC forced vital capacity

Fv/Fm a ratio: a measure of the maximum efficiency of Photosystem II

FVI fruits and vegetables index

γ gamma

γ

- TOH gamma

- tocopherol g, kg, mg, μg, ng, pg gram(s), kilogram(s), milligram(s), microgram(s), nanogram(s), picogram(s)

G granulocyte; guanosine

g gram(s); gaseous form: (g)O 3 GAM generalized additive model(s)

g bs conductance through boundary layer and stomata

GCLC (glutathione genetic variant) glutamate

- cysteine ligase catalytic subunit

GCLM (glutathione genetic variant) glutamate

- cysteine ligase modifier subunit

G

- CSF granulocyte colony

- stimulating factor (receptor)

GD gestational day

GEE generalized estimating equations

GEOS (NASA) Goddard Earth Observing System model

GEOS5 GEOS version 5

GEOS

- Chem GEOS

- Chemistry (tropospheric model)

GFAP glial fibrillary acidic protein

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xlii June 2012 GH growth hormone

GHG greenhouse gas GLM(s) generalized linear model(s)

GMAO (NASA) Global M odeling and Assimilation Office

GM

- CSF granulocyte macrophage colony

stimulating factor

GOME (ESA) Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (spectrometer)

GOMOS Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars (ESA ENVISAT spectrometer measuring long

- term trends in O 3 )

G6P glucose

- 6

- phosphate

G6PD glucose

- 6

- phosphate dehydrogenase

GPP gross primary production

G

- proteins GTPases

GPT gas phase titration

GR glutathione reductase

GSH glutathione; reduced glutathione

GSO 3 − /GSO 3 2− guanine sulfonates

GSR glutathione reductase

GSS glutathione synthetase

GSSG glutathione disulfide

GST glutathione S

- transferase

GSTM1 glutathione S

- transferase polymorphism M1 genotypes (GSTM1

- null,

- GSTM1

- sufficient)

GSTP1 glutathione S

- transferase polymorphism P1 genotypes

GTP guanosine triphosphate

GTPases G

- proteins/enzymes

GWP global warming potential

GxE gene

- environmental interaction

h hour(s) h/day hour(s) per day
H; H+; H• atomic hydrogen, hydrogen ion; hydrogen radical

3 H radiolabeled hydrogen; tritium

H 2 molecular hydrogen

ha hectare

HA hyaluronic acid, hospital admission HA(s) hospital admission(s)

Hb hemoglobin

HbA1c glycosylated hemoglobin (blood test) HC(s) hydrocarbon(s) HCFC(s) hydrochlorofluorocarbon(s)

HCHO formaldehyde

H 2 CO formaldehyde

HCO• formyl (radical)

H DM house dust mite

2HDM second

- highest daily maximum

HDMA house dust mite allergen

3 He non

- radioactive isotope of helium HeJ O 3 - resistant C3H mouse strain (C3H/HeJ)

HEPA high efficiency particle air (filter)

HERO Health and Environmental Research Onlin e, NCEA Database System

12

- HETE 12

- Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid

HF (HRV signal) high

- frequency
power
HFCs hydrofluorocarbons Hg mercury
HHP

- C9 1

- hydroxy

- 1

- hydroperoxynonane

HIST histamine

HLA human leukocyte antigen

HLA

- DR human leukocyte antigen receptor genes
HMOX Heme oxygenase

HMOX

- 1 heme

- oxygenase

- 1 (polymorphism)

HNE 4

- hydroxynonenal

HNO 2 nitrous acid

HNO 3 nitric acid

HNO 4 pernitric acid

HO hydroxyl; heme oxygenase

HO• hydroxyl radical

HO

- 1 heme oxygenase 1

HO 2 • hydroperoxyl; hydroper oxy radical; protonated superoxide

HO 3 • protonated ozone radical

H 2 O water

H 2 O 2 hydrogen peroxide

H 3 O + hydronium ion

HOCH 2 OOH hydroxymethylhydroperoxide

HONO nitrous acid

HO 2 NO 2 peroxynitric acid

HOONO pernitrous acid

HOX hydrogen radical(s)

hPa hectopascal

HPLC high

- pressure liquid chromatography

HPOT 13

- hydroperoxide linolenic acid

HR heart rate, hazard ratio

HR max maximum heart rate

HRP horseradish peroxidase

HRV heart rate variability

HSC Houston Ship Channel (Texas)

hs

- CRP high

- sensitivity C

- reactive protein

H 2 SO 4 sulfuric acid

HSP high speed pellet (after centrifuge spin)

HSP70 heat shock protein 70

HSS high speed supernatant (after centrifuge spin)

5

- HT 5

- hydroxytryptamine

hv Energy per photon of electromagnetic energy at frequency v

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xliii June 2012 HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

Hz hertz

I iodine

IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer

IAS interalveolar septum

IBM individual

- based model or modeling

IC inspiratory capacity; intracloud (lightning flash)

ICAM

- 1 intercellular adhesion molecule 1

ICARTT International Consortium for Atmospheric Research on Transport and Transformation

ICAS Inner City Asthma Study

ICC intraclass correlation coefficient

ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator(s); Internati onal Classification of Diseases

ICD

- 9 International Classification of Disease 9th revision

ICD

- 10 International Classification of Disease 10th revision

ICEM Indoor Chemistry and Exposure Model

ICNIRP International Commission on Non

- ionizing Radiation P rotection

ICP Forests International Cooperative Programme on Assessment of Air Pollution Effects on Forests

ICU Intensive Care Unit

ICVE ischemic cerebrovascular events

IDW inverse

- distance

- weighted

IFN interferon (e.g., IFN

- ())

IFN

- γ interferon

- gamma Ig immunoglobulin (e.g., IgE) IgA immunoglobulin A IgE immunoglobulin E

IGF

- 1 insulin

- like growth factor 1 IgG immunoglobulin G IgM immunoglobulin M

IHD ischemic heart disease

IL interleukin (e.g., IL

- 2, IL

- 4, IL

- 6, IL

- 8, etc.)

IL

- 1β interleukin

- 1 β

Ile isoleucine

i.m. intramuscular (route)

IMPACT Interactive Modeling Project for Atmospheric Chemistry and Transport

IMPROVE Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environment

IN intranasal

INF interferon

inh inhalation

iNKT invariant (type I ) natural killer T

- cell

iNOS inducible nitric oxide synthase INRA National agronomical research institute (INRA) in Thiverval

Grignon. France (adequately

watered conditions)

INTRASTAND a stand

- level model designed for hourly, daily and annual integration of forest carbon and water cycle fluxes

I/O indoor

- outdoor ratio

IOM Institute of Medicine i.p. intraperitoneal (route)

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

IPCC

- A2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2nd Assessment Report

IPCC

- AR4 I ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 4th Assessment Report

IPCC

- AR5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 5th Assessment Report
IPCC

- TAR Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report

IPMMI International Photolysis Frequency Measurement and Modeling Inter

comparison
IQR interquartile range

IR infrared

I/R ischemia

- reperfusion

IRIS Integrated Risk Information System

IRP Integrated Review Plan for the Ozone National Ambient Air Quality Stan dards

ISA Integrated Science Assessment

ISCCP International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project

ISO International Standards Organization

8

- iso

- PGF 8

- isoprostane

IT intratracheal

IU International Units

IUGR intrauterine growth restriction

i.v. intrave nous (route)

IVF in vitro fertilization j Microenvironment

JA jasmonic acid

Jmax maximum rate of electron transport (for regeneration of RuBP)

JNK jun N

- terminal kinase

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory

κ kappa

κB kappa B

k dissociation rate; root:shoo t allometric coefficient; rate of O 3 loss in the microenvironment

K potassium

K + potassium ion

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xliv June 2012 K a intrinsic mass transfer coefficient/parameter

KC keratinocyte

- derived chemokine kg kilogram

K g mass transfer coefficient for gas phase

kHz kilohertz

kJ kilojoules

Kl mass transfer coefficient for liquid phase

km kilometer

KM particle optical reflectance

KML keyhole markup language

KMZ zipped KML computer language

KO knockout

Kr reaction rate constant

KROFEX Krauzberg Ozone Fumigation Experiment
L, dL, mL, μL Liter, deciLiter, milliLiter, microLiter

L0 Lag (e.x., Lag 0, Lag 1, etc.)

LAI leaf area index

LBL Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

LBLX Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory model including airflow from natural ventilation Lb(s) pound(s)

LBW low birth weight

LC 50 median lethal concentration

LCL lower 95th% confidence limit

LDH lactate dehydrogenase

LDL low

- density lipoprotein ; lower detectable level

LF (HRV signal) low

- frequency power

LFHFR low frequency/high frequency (ratio)

LFT lower free tro posphere

LI labeling index

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging (remote sensing system)

LIF laser

- induced fluorescence

LINKAGES individual

- based model of forest succession

LIS lateral intercellular space

LLJ low

- level jet

L/min liters per minute

Ln Natural logarithm

LnRMSSD natural log of RMSSD; measure of HRV

lnSDNN natural log of the standard deviation of NN intervals in

an EKG

LOAEL lowest observed adverse effect level

LOD limit of detection

LOEL lowest

- observed

- effect level

LOESS locally we ighted scatterplot smoothing

LOP lipid ozonation products LOSU level of scientific understanding

LOWESS locally weighted scatter plot smoother

LOX

- 1 Lipoxygenase; lectin

- like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor

- 1
LPS lipopolysaccharide

LRS lowe r respiratory symptoms

LRT lower respiratory tract; lower airways; Long range transport

LST local standard time

LT leukotriene (e.g., LTB4 , LTC 4, LTD4 , LTE4); local time

LT

- α lymphotoxin

- α
LTA lymphotoxin

- alpha

LUR land use regression

LVEDD left ventricular chamber dimensions at end diastole

LVEDP left ventricular end diastolic
pressure
LWC liquid water content

μ mu, micro

μeq microequivalent

μg microgram μg/m 3 micrograms per cubic meter

μm micrometer, micron

m, cm, μm, nm meter(s), centimeter(s), micrometer/[micron](s), nanometer(s)

M male M, mM, μM, nM, pM Molar, milliMolar, microMolar, nanoMolar, picoMolar

m 2 square meters

m3 cubic meters

M# Month (M1 Month1; M2 Month2; M3 Month3; M4 Month4)

M2 type of muscarinic rece ptor

M7 7

- hour seasonal mean

M12 12

- hour seasonal mean of O 3

ma moving average

mAOT modified accumulated exposure over threshold

MAP mitogen

- activated protein; mean arterial pressure

MAPK mitogen

- activated protein kinase(s), MAP kinase
MAQSIP Multisc ale Air Quality Simulation Platform (model)

MARAT Mid

- Atlantic Regional Assessment Team

MARCO Macrophage receptor with collagenous structure

max maximum

MBL marine boundary layer

MCA minimum cross

- sectional area

MCCP Mountain Cloud Chemistry Program Mch; MCh methacholine

MCM master chemical mechanism

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xlv June 2012 MCP

- 1 monocyte chemotactic protein 1

MDA malondialdehyde

MDAR monodehydroascorbate reductase

MDI Mediterranean diet index

MDL minimum detection level

MED minimal erythema dose

MEF 50% maximal midexpiratory flow at 50% of forced vital capacity

MEGAN model of emissions of gases and aerosols from nature

MeJA methyl jasmonate

MENTOR Modeling Environment for Total Risk Studies

METs metabolic equivalent unit(s) [of work]

MFR Maximum Feasi ble Reduction Mg magnesium

MGDG monogalactosyl diacylglycerol mg/m 3 milligrams per cubic meter

MHC major histocompatibility complex

mi mile(s)

MI myocardial infarction, “heart attack”

MIESR matrix isolation electron spin resonance (spectroscopy)

min minute; minimum

MIP macrophage inflammatory protein

MIP

- 2 macrophage inflammatory protein 2

mL milliliter

mL/min milliliter(s) per minute

MLN mediastinal lymph node

Mm megameter

mm millimeter(s)

MM Mt. Mt. Mitchell site

MM5 National Center for Atm ospheric Research/Penn State Mesoscale Model (version 5)

MMAD mass median aerodynamic diameter; mass median aerodynamic density

MMEF maximal midexpiratory flow mmHg millimeters of mercury

MMMD mean maximum mixing height depth

MMP

- 2 matrix metalloprotei nase

- 2

MMP

- 3 matrix metalloproteinase

- 3

MMP

- 9 metalloproteinase

- 9
MMSP Mount Mitchell State Park, NC

Mn manganese
M/N pooled data from mouth and nasal
exposure
MnSOD Manganese superoxide dismutase

mo month(s) MOA(s) mode(s) of Action

MOBILE (U.S. EPA) mobile vehicle emission factor model (on

- road vehicles) MOBILE6 vehicle emissions modeling software version 6; replaced by MOVES

MODNR Missouri Department of Natural Resources

MONICA Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease

MoOx molybdenum oxides

MOSES Met Office Surface Exchange Scheme

MOVES Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator (replaced MOBILE6; for estimating emissions from cars, trucks, and motorcycles

MOZAIC Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapor by Airbus In

- Service Aircra ft

MOZART Model for Ozone and Related chemical Tracers

MPAN peroxymethacryloyl nitrate;
peroxy

- methacrylic nitric anhydride

MPO myeloperoxidase
MQL Minimum quantification limit

MRI magnetic resonance imaging; Midwest Research Institute; Meteorological Research Institute

mRNA messenger RNA

ms millisecond(s)

MS mass spectrometry; Mt. Moosilauke site

MSA Metropolitan Statistical Area; methane sulfonic acid

MSL mean sea level

MS/MS tandem mass spectrometry

MT million ton(s); metric ton(s)
MT, Mt me tallothionein

MT1 mitochondria

MTBE methyl

- tertiary

- butyl ether

mtDNA mitochondrial DNA

Mtn mountain

MW molecular weight MyD88 myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88
n, N number; number of observations

N nitrogen; North; nasal exposure by natural breathing

15 N nitrogen

- 15, stable isotope of nitrogen

N 2 molecular nitrogen; nonreactive nitrogen

Na sodium

NA noradrenaline; North American NA; N/A not available; not applicable

Na + sodium ion
NAAQS Nationa l Ambient Air Quality Standards

NAD nicotinamide adenine nucleotide

NADH reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xlvi June 2012 NADP National Atmospheric Deposition Program

NADPH reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleo tide phosphate

NADPH

- CR reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

- cytochrome c reductase

NaE sodium erythorbate

NAG N

- acetyl

- glucosaminidase

Na

- K

- ATPase sodium

- potassium

- dependent adenosine triphosphatase

NAMS National Ambient Monitoring St ations

NAPAP National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program

NAPBN National Air Pollution Background Network

NARE North Atlantic Regional Experiment

NARSTO North American Regional Strategy for Tropospheric Ozone

NAS National Academy of Sciences; Normat ive Aging Study

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NBS National Bureau of Standards

NBTH 3

- methyl

- 2

- benzothiazolinone acetone azine

NCEA National Center for Environmental Assessment

NCEA

- RTP NCEA Division in Research Triangle Park, NC

NCHS National Center for Health Statistics

NCICAS National Cooperative Inner

- City Asthma Study

NCLAN National Crop Loss Assessment Network

NCore National Core multi

- pollutant monitoring network

NC

- R resistant clones of white clover

NC

- S sensitive clo nes of white clover
ND; n.d. not detectable; not detected;

no data

2ndHDM second

- highest daily maximum

NDF neutral detergent fiber

NEE net ecosystem CO 2 exchange

NEI National Emissions Inventory

NEM National Ambient Air Quality Standards Exposure Model

NEP Net Ecosystem Production

NERL National Exposure Research Laboratory

NESCAUM Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management

NF National Forest; non

- filtered air

NF

- κB nuclear factor kappa B

ng nanogram(s)

NGF nerve growth factor

NH northern hemisphere NH 3 ammonia

NH 4 + ammonium ion

NH 4 HSO 4 ammonium bisulfate (NH 4 ) 2 HSO 4 ammonium sulfate

NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

NHANES III National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III

NHAPS National Human Activity Pattern Survey

NHEERL (U.S. EPA) National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory

NHIS National Health Interview Survey (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ammonium sulfate

NIH Nati onal Institutes of Health

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

NK natural killer cells; neurokinin

NKT natural killer T

- cells

NL nasal lavage

NLF nasal lavage fluid

NM National Monument NMHC(s) nonmethane hydrocarbon(s)

NMMAPS Nationa l Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study NMOC(s) nonmethane organic compound(s)

NMVOCs nonmethane volatile organic compounds

NN normal

- to

- normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS complex in the EKG

NNK 4

- (N

- nitrosomethylamino)

- 1

- (3

- pyrid yl)

- 1

- butanone

nNOS neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS)

NO nitric oxide

·NO nitric oxide concentration (interpunct NO)

NO 2 nitrogen dioxide

NO 3 ; NO 3 • nitrate, nitrate radical

NO 3 − nitrate, nitrate ion

N 2 O nitrous oxide

N 2 O 5 dinitrogen pentoxide

N OAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAEL no observed adverse effect level

NOS nitric oxide synthase (types, NOS

- 1, NOS

- 2, NOS

- 3)

NO X nitrogen oxides, oxides of nitrogen (NO + NO 2 )

NO Y sum of NO X and NO Z ; odd nitrogen species; total oxidized nitrogen

NO Z sum of all inorganic and organic reaction products of NO X (HONO, HNO 3 , HNO 4 , organic nitrates, particulate nitrate, nitro

- PAHs, etc.)

NP National Park

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– Do Not Cite or Quote xlvii June 2012 NPP net primary production

NPS National Park Serv ice, U.S. Department of the Interior
NQO1 NAD(P)H

- quinone oxidoreductase (genotype)
NQO1wt NAD(P)H

- quinone oxidoreductase wild type (genotype)

NR not reported

Nr reactive nitrogen

NRC National Research Council

Nrf

- 2 nuclear factor erythroid 2

- related factor 2

Nrf2

- ARE NF

- e2

- related factor 2

- antioxidant response element NS; n.s. non significa nt; non

- smoker; national seashore; natural spline

NSAID non

- steroidal anti

- inflammatory agent
NSBR nonspecific bronchial responsiveness

NSF National Science Fo undation

NTE nasal turbinate epithelial (cells)

NTN National Trends Network

NTP National Toxicology Program

NTRMs NIST Traceable Reference Materials

NTS nucleus of the solitary tract (in brainstem)

NWR national wildlife refuge

NWS National Weather S ervice

NZW New Zealand white (rabbit)

O oxygen; horizon forest floor

18 O oxygen

- 18, stable isotope of
oxygen
O 2 molecular oxygen

O 2 − superoxide

O 2 • superoxide radical

1 O 2 singlet oxygen

O 3 ozone

18 O 3 (oxygen

- 18 labeled) ozone

O 3 * electronically excited ozone
OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards

OAR Office of Air and Radiation

OBMs observationally based methods

OC organic carbon

OD outer diameter; optical density O( 1 D) electronically excited oxygen atom OH, OH• hydroxyl group, hydroxyl radical

8

- OHdG 8

- hydroxy

- 2 ́

- deoxyguanosine

OLS ordinary least squares

OMI Ozone Monitoring Instrument

ON Ontario

ONOO − peroxynitrate ion O( 3 P) ground

- state oxygen atom
OPE ozone production efficiency OPECs Outdoor Plant Envi ronment Chambers

OR odds ratio

ORD Office of Research and Development

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OTC open

- top chamber

OuJ O 3 - sensitive C3H mouse strain (C3H/OuJ)

OVA ovalbumin

OX odd oxygen species; total oxidants OxComp oxid ative capacity of the atmosphere

oz ounce(s)

P pressure in atmospheres; plants grown in pots; phosphorus; penetration fraction of O 3 into the microenvironment; pulmonary region

p probability value

P450 cytochrome P450 p53 cell cycle protein gene

P90 90th percentile of the absolute difference in concentrations

PACF partial autocorrelation function of the model residuals

PAD peripheral arterial disease; pollutant

- applied dose

PAF platelet

- activating factor; paroxysmal atrial fibrillation PAH(s) poly cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon(s)

PAI

- 1 plasminogen activator fibrinogen inhibitor

- 1

PAL phenylalanine ammonia lyase

PAMS Photochemical Assessment Monitoring Stations network

PAN peroxyacetyl nitrate

PaO 2 arterial oxygen pressure

PAPA Public Health and Ai r Pollution in Asia

PAR photosynthetically active radiation; proximal alveolar region

P atm Pressure in atmospheres

p

- ATP para

- acetamidophenol

Pb Lead

PBL planetary boundary layer; peripheral blood lymphocytes

PBM population

- based model or modeling

PB N C

- phenyl N

- tert

- butyl nitrone

PBPK physiologically based pharmacokinetic (model)

PBS phosphate buffered saline

PC phosphatidylchloline

PC 20 provocative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 second

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xlviii June 2012 PC 20 FEV 1 provo vative concentration that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PC 50 provocative concentration that produces a 50% decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 second

PCA principal component analysis

PC

- ALF 1

- palmitoyl

- 2

- (9

- oxonononoyl)

- sn

glycero

- 3

- phosphocholine

PCD programmed cell death

PCl picryl chloride pCNEM Canadian version of National Ambient Air Quality Standards Exposure Model

PCO 2 Average partial pressure of O 2 in lung capillaries pCO 2 partia l pressure of carbon dioxide

PCR polymerase chain reaction

PCR

- DGGE PCR

– denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis

PD pregnancy day

PD 20 provocative dose that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PD 20 FEV 1 provocative dose that produces a 20% decrease in FEV 1 PD 100 provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in sRAW

PD 100 S Raw provocative dose that produces a 100% increase in S Raw PDI pain on deep inspiration

PE postexposure

, phosphatidylethanolamine

PEF peak expiratory flow

PEF 0.75 peak expiratory flow i n 0.75 second

PEFR peak expiratory flow rate

PEFT time to peak flow

PEG

- CAT polyethylene glycol

- catalase

PEG

- SOD polyethylene glycol

- superoxide dismutase PEM(s) personal exposure monitor(s)

Penh enhanced pause

PEPc phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase

P FD photosynthetic flux density

PFT pulmonary function test

pg picogram(s)

PG prostaglandin (e.g., PGE2 ,PGF2); phosphatidylglycerol

6PGD 6

- phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

PGE2 prostaglandin E2

PGF2α prostaglandin F2

- alpha

PGHS

- 2 prostaglandin endoperoxide G/H synthase 2

PGP protein gene product (e.g., PGP9.5)

PGSM Plant Growth Stress Model pH relative acidity; Log of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration

PHA phytohemagglutinin A

PI phosphatidylinositol; probability interval; posterior interval

PIF peak inspiratory flow

PiZZ respiratory phenotype

PK pharmacokinetics pKa dissociation constant

PLFA phospholipid fatty acid

PM particulate matter

PM X Particulate matter of a specific size range not defined for regula tory use. Usually X refers to the 50% cut point, the aerodynamic diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles. The collection efficiency, given by a penetration curve, increases for particles with smaller dia meters and decreases for particles with larger diameters. The definition of PM X is sometimes abbreviated as “particles with a nominal aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to X μm” although X is usually a 50% cut point.

PM 2.5 In general terms, particulat e matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 μm; a measurement of fine particles in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50% cut

- point of 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50% cut point diameter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) and a penetration curve as measured by a reference method based on Appendix L of 40 CFR Part 50 and designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53, by an equivalent method designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53, or by an approved regional method designated in accordance with Appendix C of 40 CFR Part 58.

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote xlix June 2012 PM 10 In general terms, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 10 μm; a measurement of th oracic particles (i.e., that subset of inhalable particles thought small enough to penetrate beyond the larynx into the thoracic region of the respiratory tract) in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50%
cut

- point of 10 ± 0.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50% cut point diameter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) and a penetration curve as measured by a reference method based on Appendix J of 40 CFR Part 50 and designated in accordance w ith 40 CFR Part 53 or by an equivalent method designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53.

PM 10

- 2.5 In general terms, particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 10 μm and greater than a nominal 2.5 μm; a measurement of thoracic coarse particulate matter or the coarse fraction of PM 10 in regulatory terms, particles with an upper 50% cut

- point of 10 μm aerodynamic diameter and a lower 50% cut

- point of 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter (the 50% cut point diameter is the diameter at which the sampler collects 50% of the particles and rejects 50% of the particles) as measured by a reference method based on Appendix O of 40 CFR Part 50 and designated in accordance with 40 CFR Part 53 or by an equivalent method designated in accordan ce with 40 CFR Part 53.

PM 10C The PM 10

- 2.5 concentration of PM 10

- 2.5 measured by the 40 CFR Part 50 Appendix O reference method which consists of currently operated, co

- located low

- volume (16.7 Lpm) PM 10 and PM 2.5 reference method samplers. p38MAPK p38 mit ogen

- activated protein kinase(s)

PM

- CAMx Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions and with particulate matter chemistry PMN(s) polymorphonuclear leukocyte(s)

PMT photomultiplier tube

PND post natal day pNEM probabilistic National Exposure Model

PnET Photosynthetic EvapoTranspiration model

PNN proportion of interval differences of successive normal

- beat intervals in EKG PNN50 proportion of interval differences of successive normal

- beat intervals greater than 50 ms in EKG

PO 2 partial pressure of oxygen

POC particulate organic carbon

POD peroxidase polyADPR poly(adenosinediphosphate

ribose)

POMS Portable Ozone Monitoring Systems ppb parts per billion ppb

- h parts per billion per hour ppbv parts per billion by volume pphm parts per hundred million

ppm parts per million

ppm

- h parts per million hours; weighted concentration values based on hourly concentrations: usually summed over a certain number of hours, day(s), months, and/or

season.

ppmv parts per million by volume

PPN peroxypropiony l nitrate; peroxypropionic nitric anhydride

PPPs power plant plumes
ppt parts per trillion
pptv parts per trillion by volume
PQH2 plastoquinone

PR pathogenesis

- related (protein)

PR

- 1 promoter region 1

PRB policy

- relevant background preproET

- 1 pre

- protein form of ET

- 1 mRNA

PRYL predicted relative yield (biomass) loss

PS penalized spline

PS paradoxical sleep

PS II Photosystem II: enzyme that uses light to obtain electrons from water (for photosynthesis).

PSA picryl sulfonic acid

PSC polar strato spheric clouds

PTB preterm birth

PTR

- MS proton

- transfer

- reaction mass spectroscopy PU, PUL pulmonary PUFA(s) polyunsaturated fatty acid(s)

PV potential vorticity

PVCD peripheral vascular and cerebrovascular disease

PVD peripheral vascular disease

PVOCs photochemical volatile organic compounds

PWM pokeweed mitogen

PWTES (left ventricular) posterior wall thickness at end systole

Pxase peroxidase
QA Quality Assurance
QC quality control

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote l June 2012 QCE quasi continuous exercise qNP non

- photochemical quenchin g

q NP non

- photochemical quenching qP photochemical quenching
QRS A complex of three distinct electrocardiogram waves which represent the beginning of ventricular contraction
QT interval measure of the time interval between the start of the Q wave and t he end of the T wave in the heart’s electrical cycle
QTc corrected QT interval

r Pearson correlation coefficient
R, r correlation coefficient

r 2 correlation coefficient

R 2 multiple regression correlation coefficient

R 2 , r 2 coefficient of determination

RACM Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism

RADM Regional Acid Deposition Model

rALP recombinant antileukoprotease

RAMS Regional Atmospheric Modeling System

RANTES regulated upon activation, normal T

- cell expressed and s ecreted (cells)

Raw airway resistance

RB respiratory bronchiole RBC(s) red blood cell(s); erythrocyte(s)

rbcL Rubisco large subunit

rbcS Rubisco small subunit R′CO acyl acyl carrier protein R’C(O)

– O 2 acyl peroxy

rcd1 Arabidopsis mutant radical induced cell death

RCD3 rod

- cone dysplasia 3

RCP Representative Concentration Pathways

RDBMS Relational Database Management Systems

Re Reynolds number

REHEX Regional Human Exposure Model

RER rough endoplasmic reticulum; Res piratory exchange ratio

RF radiative forcing

RGR relative growth rate

RH relative humidity

RIOPA Relationship of Indoor, Outdoor, and Personal Air (study)

RL total pulmonary resistance

RLKs receptor

- like/Pelle kinase group

RMNP Rocky Mountain Natio nal Park, Colorado

RMR resting metabolic rate

rMSSD root mean squared differences between adjacent normal

- to

normal heartbeat intervals Rn nasal resistance

RNA ribonucleic acid

RO 2 organic peroxyl; organic peroxy

ROG reactive organic gases

ROI react ive oxygen intermediate/superoxide anion

RONO 2 organic nitrate

ROOH organic peroxides

ROONO 2 , RO 2 NO 2 peroxy nitrate

ROS reactive oxygen species

RPD relative percent difference

RR normal

- to

- normal (NN or RR) time interval between each QRS complex in the EKG; risk ratio; relative risk; respiratory rate

RRMS relatively remote monitoring sites

RT respiratory tract

RT transepithelial resistance

RTLF respiratory tract lining fluid

R uBisCO; Rubisco ribulose

- 1,5

- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase

RuBP ribulose bisphosphate

σ sigma, standard deviation

σg sigma

- g; (geometric standard deviation)

s second

S Short; smoker; sulfur; South

s.c. subcutaneous (route)

SA salicylic acid

SA B Science Advisory Board

SAC Staphylococcus aureus Cowan 1 strain

SAG21 senescence
SAI Systems Applications International

S

- allele short

- allele

SAMD S

- adenosyl methionine decarboxylase

SaO 2 oxygen saturation of arterial blood

SAPALDIA Study of Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults

SAPRC Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate; Statewide Air Pollution Research Center, University of California, Riverside

SAR systemic acquired resistance

SAROAD Storage and Retrieval of Aerometric Data (U.S. EPA centralized database; superseded by Aerometric Information Retrieval System [AIRS]) SAWgrp small airway function group

SBNF San Bernardino National Forest, California

SBP systolic blood pressure

SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectrometer

SC stratum corneum
Sc scandium

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote li June 2012 SCAQS Southern California Air Quality Study SCE(s) sister chromatid exchange(s)

SD standard deviation; Sprague

- Dawley rat

SDNN standard deviation normal

- to

normal (NN or RR) ti me interval between each QRS complex in the EKG

SE standard error

SEBAS Social Environment and Biomarkers of Aging Study

sec second

Sess. session

SEM simultaneously extracted metal; standard error of the mean; scanning electron microscopy

SENP Sequoia National Park, California

SES socioeconomic status

SF San Francisco Bay Area

SF6 sulfur hexafluoride (tracer gas)

SGA small for gestational age

sRaw specific airway conductance

SH Shenandoah National Park site

SHEDS Stochastic Human Exposure and Dos e Simulation

SHEN Shenandoah National Park

sICAM

- 1 soluble intercellular adhesion molecule

SIDS sudden infant death syndrome

SIGMOID sigmoid weighted summed concentration

SINIC Simple Nitrogen Cycle model

SIP State Implementation Plan

SIPK salicylic acid (SA) induced protein kinase

SK shikimate kinase

SLA specific leaf area

SLAC1 (protein) slow anion channel associated 1

SLAMS State and Local Air Monitoring Stations

SM smooth muscle

SMD soil moisture deficit

SME soybean oil methyl ester

SMNP Great Smoky Mountain National Park (North Carolina and Tennessee)

SMOKE Spare

- Matrix Operator Kernel Emissions

S N normalized slope of the alveolar plateau
SNAAQS Secondary National Ambient Air Quality Standards SNP(s) single

- nucleotide polymorphism

SO 2 sulfur dioxide

SO 4 2− sulfate

SOC soil organic carbon

SOD superoxide dismutase SOS Southern Oxidant Study

SO X sulfur oxides SoyFACE Soybean Free Air gas Concentration Enrichment (Facility)

SP surfactant protein (e.g., SPA, SPD); substance P

SP

- A s urfactant protein

- A

SPF specific pathogen free

SPMs special purpose monitors

SP

- NK substance P

– neurokinin receptor complex
sRaw, specific airway resistance

SRBC sheep red blood cell

SRES Special Report on Emissions Scenarios

SRM standard reference method

SRP standard reference photometers

SSCP single

- strand conformation polymorphism

129S1/SvlmJ mouse strain

STE stratosphere

- troposphere exchange

STEP Stratospheric

Tropospheric

- exchange Project

STN speciation trends network

sTNFR1 soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor 1
STP standard temperature and
pressure
STPD standard temperature and pressure, dry

STRF Spatio

- Temporal Random Field (theory) subscript i Index of indoor microenvironments subscript o Index of outdoor microenvironments

sub script o,i Index of outdoor microenvironments adjacent to a given indoor microenvironment i

SUM00 sum of all hourly average concentrations

SUM06 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations ≥ 0.06 ppm
SUM07 seasonal sum of all hourly average
concent rations ≥ 0.07 ppm
SUM08 seasonal sum of all hourly average concentrations ≥ 0.08 ppm
SURE Sulfate Regional Experiment Program

SVE supraventricular ectopy

S

- W square

- wave
SWS slow wave sleep

SZA solar zenith angle

τ tau, photochemical lifetime;
atmos pheric lifetime

t t

- test statistical value; t statistic

T time; duration of exposure

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote lii June 2012 T

- cell(s) T lymphocyte(s), thymus

dependent lymphocytes

T1 first trimester

T2 second trimester

T 3 triiodothyronine

T3 third trimester

T 4 thyroxine

TAR IPCC Third Assessment Report

TAR WGI IPCC Third Assessment Report of Working Group I

TB tracheobronchial; terminal bronchioles; tuberculosis

TBA thiobarbituric acid

TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substances

TC total carbon

99m Tc Technetium

- 99m

T

- cells T

- lymphocytes, Thymus

- derived lymphocytes

99m Tc

- DTPA 99mTc

diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid

Tco core temperature
TDLAS Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectrometer

Te expiratory time

TEM transmission electron microscopy; Terrestrial Ecosystem M odel

TES Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer
TexAQS Texas Air Quality Field Study Tg teragram(s)

TGF transforming growth factor TGF β transforming growth factor beta

Th T helper cell type

Th2 T helper cell type 2

THC Total hydrocarbon content tHcy total homocysteine

Ti inspiratory time

Ti titanium

TIA transient ischemic attack

TIMP

- 2 tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloprotease

- 2
TiO 2 titanium dioxide

TLC total lung capacity

TLNISE two

- level normal independent sampling estimation

Tlr Toll

- like receptor gene

TLR Toll

- like receptor protein (ex., TLR2, TLR4)

TMPO tetramethylphrrolise 1

- oxide

TNC total nonstructural carbohydrate

TNF tumor necrosis factor (e.g., TNF

- α)

TNF

- 308 tumor necrosis factor genotype

TNF

- α tumor necrosis factor alpha

TN FR tumor necrosis factor receptor TOMS Total Ozone Mapping/Monitoring Satellite; total ozone mapping spectrometer
TOPSE Tropospheric Ozone Production About the Spring Equinox

tPA tissue plasminogen activator

TPLIF two

- photon laser

- induced fluorescence

TRAMP TexAQS

- II Radical and Aerosol Measurement Project

TREGRO Tree Growth Model

TRIFFID Top

- down Representation of Interactive Foliage and Flora Including Dynamics

TRIM Total Risk Integrated Methodology (model) TRIM.Expo Total Risk Integrated Methodo logy Exposure Event (model)

TRP transient receptor potential (ion channel[s], ex., TRP

- A1, TRP

- V1, TRP

- M8)

TSH thyroid stimulating hormone

TSP total suspended particles

TTFMS two

- tone frequency

- modulated spectroscopy

TWA time

- weighted average

TX thro mboxane (e.g., TXB 2 )

TXB 2 thromboxane B2

UA uric acid; u rate

UAM Urban Airshed Model

UCL upper 95th% confidence limit

UDGT UDP

- galactose

- 1,2,

- diacylglycerol galactosyltransferase

UDP uridine diphosphate

U.K. United Kingdom

UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

U

- O epioxides formed from uric acid

U

- O 2 − peroxides formed from uric acid

U

- O 3 − ozonides formed from u ric acid

URI upper respiratory infection

URS upper respiratory symptoms

URT upper respiratory tract; upper airways

U.S. United States (of America) USC; U.S.C. U.S. Code

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

USFS U.S. Forest Service

USGCRP U.S. Global Change Research Program

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

UV ultraviolet radiation

UV

- A ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 320 to 400 nm

# Draft

– Do Not Cite or Quote liii June 2012 UV

- B ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 280 to 320 nm

UV

- C ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths of 200 to 280 nm
UV

- DIAL Ultraviolet Differential Absorption Lidar

V vanadium V, mV, μV volt, millivolt, microvolt

VA alveolar ventilation

Val valine

VC vital capacity

VCAM vascular cell adhesion molecule

V d deposition rate, deposition velocity (cm/sec)

V D volu me of the anatomic or physiological dead space

V ̇ E ventilation rate; minute ventilation; ventilatory volume

VEGF vascular endothelial growth factor

V ̇ E max maximum minute ventilation

Vmax maximum velocity

Vmax 25% maximum expiratory flow at 25% of the vital capacity

Vmax 50% maximum expiratory flow at 50% of the vital capacity

Vmax 75% maximum expiratory flow at 75% of the vital capacity

VMD volume median diameter

Vn nasal volume

VO 2 oxygen consumption

VO 2 max ma ximum volume per time, of oxygen (maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake or aerobic capacity) VOC(s) volatile organic compound(s)

VP volumetric penetration

VP 50% volume at which 50% of an inhaled bolus is absorbed

VPD vapor pressure deficit; Vehicles per day; Ventricular premature depolarization

VT tidal volume

VTB terminal bronchiole region volume

VTmax maximum tidal volume

VUA volume of the upper airways

vWF von Willebrand factor

W width; wilderness; week(s)

W126 cumulative integrate d exposure index with a sigmoidal weighting function

W95 cumulative integrated exposure index with a sigmoidal weighting function

WBC white blood cell

WBGT wet bulb globe temperature

wc sigmoidal weighting of hourly O 3 concentration

WCB warm conveyor belt WED (U.S. EPA NHEERL) Western Ecology Division
WF, WFM White Face Mountain site

WHI Women’s Health Initiative

WHO World Health Organization

W/m 2 , W m - 2 watts per square meter
WMO World Meteorological Organization

WMO/UNEP World Meteorological Organization/United Nations Environment Program

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting model

Ws Wassilewskija Arabidopsis ecotype

WS wood smoke

WT wild type; White Top Mountain site

wt % percent by weight

WUS western U.S.

w/v weigh t per volume

Y three parameter Weibull model

yr year
Z Airway generation

ZAPS Zonal Air Pollution System

ZELIG a forest succession simulation model

Zn zinc