DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

OFF ICE OF JUSTICE PROGRAMS

BJA NI J OJJDP BJS OVC

U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

1999 National

Report Series

Juvenile Justice Bulletin

Shay Bilchik, Administrator

DECEMBER 1999

Minorities

in the Juvenile

Justice System

As the

Nation

moves into

the 21st

century, the

reduction

of juvenile

crime, violence, and

victimization

constitutes one of

the most crucial challenges of the new millennium. To meet that

challenge, reliable information is essential. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National

Report offers a comprehensive

overview of these pervasive problems

and the response of the juvenile justice

system. The National Report brings

together statistics from a variety of sources

on a wide array of topics, presenting the

information in clear, nontechnical text

enhanced by more than 350 easy-to-read

tables, graphs, and maps.

This Bulletin series is designed to give readers

quick, focused access to some of the most critical

findings from the wealth of data in the National Report.

Each Bulletin in the series highlights selected themes

at the forefront of juvenile justice policymaking and

extracts relevant National Report sections (including

selected graphs and tables).

Administrator’s Message

Minority juveniles are overrepresented in the juvenile

justice system, including secure confinement facilities.

This overrepresentation is likely a result of a number

of complex factors that command our full attention in

order to address the roots of the problem.

National statistics on the racial and ethnic makeup of

juvenile offenders from arrest, court processing, and

confinement that are presented in this Bulletin paint

a compelling picture that raises some fundamental

questions: Why is the number of minority youth in

the juvenile justice system so out of proportion to

their representation in the general population? Is the

juvenile justice system equipped to provide prevention

services, appropriate interventions, and alternatives

to secure confinement for all juvenile offenders?

The most recent statistics available reveal significant

racial and ethnic disparity in the confinement of

juvenile offenders. In 1997, minorities made up about

one-third of the juvenile population nationwide but

accounted for nearly two-thirds of the detained and

committed population in secure juvenile facilities. For

black juveniles, the disparities were most evident.

While black juveniles ages 10 to 17 made up about

15% of the juvenile population, they accounted for

26% of juveniles arrested and 45% of delinquency

cases involving detention. About one-third of adjudicated

cases involved black youth, yet 40% of juveniles in

secure residential placements were black. These are

numbers that cannot be ignored.

Since 1988, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention (JJDP) Act has required States that receive

Formula Grants program funding to determine whether

the proportion of juvenile minorities in confinement

exceeds their proportion of the population and, if so,

to develop corrective strategies. In 1992, Congress

strengthened the national commitment to addressing

disproportionate confinement of minority youth in

secure facilities by elevating this issue to a “core

requirement” of the JJDP Act. OJJDP, in partnership

with State Formula Grants program agencies, has

taken the lead in building a constituency for change

at the national, State, and local levels to develop

solutions to disproportionate minority confinement.

Disproportionate minority confinement sends a signal

that we need to take a closer look at how our society

treats minority children, not just those who become

offenders. Providing all youth with an equal opportunity to learn, thrive, and achieve at every stage of

their lives is the best guarantee of a safe and prosperous future for our Nation.

Shay Bilchik

Administrator
2 1999 National Report Series

Disproportionate minority confinement often stems

from disparity at early stages of case processing

Black juveniles are overrepresented at all stages of the juvenile

justice system, compared with their proportion in the population

■ Nationally, for most stages of juvenile justice system processing, the black

proportion was smaller in 1996/97 than in 1990/91.

Sources: Authors’ analysis of Bureau of the Census’ Estimates of the population of States

by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: 1990–1997 [machine-readable data files] for 1991

and 1997, Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Crime Victimization Survey [machinereadable data files] for 1991 and 1996, FBI’s Crime in the United States reports for 1991

and 1997, OJJDP’s Juvenile court statistics reports for 1991 and 1996, OJJDP’s Children

in Custody Census of public and private juvenile detention, correctional, and shelter

facilities 1990/91 [machine-readable data file], and OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in

Residential Placement 1997 [machine-readable data file].

Cases judicially waived

 to criminal court

Juveniles in residential placement

Delinquency cases resulting

 in residential placement

Adjudicated delinquency cases

Petitioned delinquency cases

Delinquency cases involving detention

Delinquency cases in juvenile court

Juvenile arrests for

 Violent Crime Index offenses

All juvenile arrests

Violent juvenile offenders

 reported by victims

U.S. population ages 10–17

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Percent involving black juveniles

52%

46%

46%

40%

43%

36%

36%

32%

37%

33%

41%

45%

32%

30%

49%

44%

26%

26%

39%

39%

15%

15%

1990/91

1996/97

Federal requirements focus

attention on disproportionate

minority confinement

Under the “disproportionate minority confinement” requirement in the

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention Act, States must determine whether the proportion of

minorities in confinement exceeds

their proportion in the population.

If such overrepresentation is found,

States must demonstrate efforts to

reduce it.

Overrepresentation, disparity,

and discrimination have different

meanings

Overrepresentation refers to a situation in which a larger proportion of

a particular group is present at various stages within the juvenile justice system (such as intake, detention, adjudication, and disposition)

than would be expected based on

their proportion in the general

population.

Disparity means that the probability of receiving a particular outcome (for example, being detained

in a short-term facility vs. not being

detained) differs for different

groups. Disparity may in turn lead

to overrepresentation.

Discrimination occurs if and when juvenile justice system decisionmakers

treat one group of juveniles differently

from another group of juveniles based

wholly, or in part, on their gender, racial, and/or ethnic status.

Neither overrepresentation nor

disparity necessarily implies

discrimination

One possible explanation for disparity and overrepresentation is, of

course, discrimination. This line of

reasoning suggests that because of

discrimination on the part of justice

system decisionmakers, minority

youth face higher probabilities of

being arrested by the police, referred

to court intake, held in short-term

detention, petitioned for formal processing, adjudicated delinquent, and

confined in a secure juvenile facility.

Thus, differential actions throughout

the justice system may account for

minority overrepresentation.

Overrepresentation of black juveniles

occurs at all stages of the juvenile

justice system. In 1996–97, while

26% of juveniles arrested were black,

they made up 45% of cases involving

detention. Thirty-two percent of adjudicated cases involved black youth,

yet 40% of juveniles in residential

placement are black. Even recognizing the overrepresentation of black juveniles involved in violent crimes reported by victims (39%), they still

accounted for a disproportionate

share of juvenile arrests for violent

crime (44%) and confinement (45%).
December 1999 3

Disparity and overrepresentation,

however, can result from factors

other than discrimination. Factors

relating to the nature and volume of

crime committed by minority youth

may explain disproportionate minority confinement. This line of reasoning suggests that if minority

youth commit proportionately more

crime than white youth, are involved in more serious incidents,

and have more extensive criminal

histories, they will be overrepresented in secure facilities, even if no

discrimination by system decisionmakers occurred. Thus, minority

youth may be overrepresented

within the juvenile justice system

because of behavioral and legal

factors.

In any given jurisdiction, either or

both of these causes of disparity

may be operating. Detailed data

analysis is necessary to build a

strong case for one or the other

causal scenario. On a national level,

such detailed analysis is not possible with the data that are available.

For example, national data use

broad offense categories—such as

robbery, which includes both felony

and nonfelony robberies. More severe outcomes would be expected

for juveniles charged with felony

robbery. Disparity in decisions regarding transfer to criminal court

would result if one group of offenders had a higher proportion of felony robberies than another group

(since transfer provisions are often

limited to felony offenses). The national data, however, do not support

analysis that controls for offense at

the felony/nonfelony level of detail.

Similarly, although prior criminal

record is the basis for many justice

system decisions, criminal history

data are not available nationally.

Thus, at the national level, questions regarding the causes of observed disparity and overrepresentation remain unanswered.

There is substantial evidence of

widespread disparity in juvenile

case processing

While research findings are not

completely consistent, data available for most jurisdictions across

the country show that minority

(especially black) youth are overrepresented within the juvenile

justice system, particularly in

secure facilities. These data further suggest that minority youth

are more likely to be placed in

public secure facilities, while white

youth are more likely to be housed

in private facilities or diverted

from the juvenile justice system.

Some research also suggests that

differences in the offending rates

of white and minority youth cannot explain the minority overrepresentation in arrest, conviction, and

incarceration counts.

Further, there is substantial evidence that minority youth are often

treated differently from majority

youth within the juvenile justice

system. In a review by Pope and

Feyerherm of existing research

literature, approximately two-thirds

of the studies examined showed

that racial and/or ethnic status did

influence decisionmaking within

the juvenile justice system. Since

that review, a rather large body of

research has accumulated across

numerous geographic regions that

reinforces these earlier findings.

Thus, existing research suggests

that race/ethnicity does make a

difference in juvenile justice decisions in some jurisdictions at least

some of the time.

Because juvenile justice systems are

fragmented and administered at the

local level, racial/ethnic differences

exist in some jurisdictions but not

in others. One would not expect research findings to be consistent,

given variation across timeframes

and regions.

Racial/ethnic differences occur

at various decision points within

the juvenile justice system

Pope and Feyerherm found that

when racial/ethnic effects do occur,

they can be found at any stage of

processing within the juvenile justice system. Across numerous jurisdictions, however, a substantial

body of research suggests that disparity is most pronounced at the beginning stages. The greatest disparity between majority and minority

youth court processing outcomes

occurs at intake and detention decision points. Existing research also

suggests that when racial/ethnic differences are found, they tend to accumulate as youth are processed

through the justice system.

Pope and Feyerherm found that research reveals substantial variation

across rural, suburban, and urban

areas. Correspondingly, the concept

of “justice by geography” introduced by Feld suggests that there

are marked differences in outcome

depending on the jurisdiction in

which the youth is processed. For

example, cases in urban jurisdictions are more likely to receive severe outcomes at various stages of

processing than are cases in nonurban areas. Because minority

populations are concentrated in

urban areas, this effect may work

to the disadvantage of minority

youth and result in greater

overrepresentation.
4 1999 National Report Series

Overall minority proportion of juveniles in custody

D.C.

0% to 31%

31% to 50%

50% to 75%

75% to 100%

Not calculated

■ Nationally, minorities accounted for 34% of the juvenile

population in 1997.

■ Minorities accounted for 67% of juveniles committed to

public facilities nationwide—a proportion nearly twice their

proportion of the juvenile population.

■ Minorities accounted for 62% of juveniles detained

nationwide.

■ Minority proportions were somewhat lower for youth committed to private facilities than to public facilities.

■ In seven States, the minority proportion of the total population of juveniles in residential placement was 75% or

greater: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Louisiana, New

Jersey, New Mexico, and Texas (map).

*State where the offense occurred.

– Too few juveniles in category to calculate a reliable percentage.

Note: U.S. total includes 3,401 juveniles in private facilities for whom State of offense was not reported. Minorities include blacks, Hispanics,

American Indians, Asians, and Pacific Islanders. The juvenile population is the number of juveniles ages 0–17.

Source: Authors’ analysis of OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement 1997 [machine-readable data file].

In nearly all States, a disproportionate number of minorities were in residential placement in 1997

Minority proportion Minority proportion

1997 1997

Juvenile Committed Juvenile Committed

State* population Public Private Detained State* population Public Private Detained

U.S. total 34% 67% 55% 62% Missouri 18% 40% 34% 64%

Alabama 35 69 58 60 Montana 13 29 19 –

Alaska 35 47 67 57 Nebraska 14 40 45 44

Arizona 43 63 45 56 Nevada 35 50 – 39

Arkansas 25 62 56 67 New Hampshire 4 12 12 –

California 59 81 70 70 New Jersey 37 88 – 79

Colorado 28 56 56 51 New Mexico 62 81 – 82

Connecticut 26 83 59 77 New York 41 87 51 81

Delaware 31 75 79 77 North Carolina 33 68 36 60

Dist. of Columbia 87 100 – 100 North Dakota 11 – 29 31

Florida 40 58 63 64 Ohio 18 49 38 51

Georgia 40 70 68 70 Oklahoma 26 49 51 60

Hawaii 76 89 – – Oregon 16 29 28 23

Idaho 13 25 12 4 Pennsylvania 18 63 66 51

Illinois 36 70 52 78 Rhode Island 18 63 38 49

Indiana 14 41 31 38 South Carolina 40 69 58 67

Iowa 7 42 23 27 South Dakota 17 43 – 46

Kansas 17 52 32 49 Tennessee 24 52 52 51

Kentucky 11 40 24 38 Texas 53 78 73 77

Louisiana 44 81 74 76 Utah 12 34 33 28

Maine 3 5 – 7 Vermont 3 – – –

Maryland 40 68 75 73 Virginia 32 64 63 66

Massachusetts 22 64 59 60 Washington 21 41 44 41

Michigan 23 56 57 61 West Virginia 5 28 27 26

Minnesota 12 46 42 59 Wisconsin 15 60 39 36

Mississippi 47 70 – 62 Wyoming 12 27 15 –
December 1999 5

A new self-report survey

documents delinquent and

deviant behaviors of youth

The first wave of the 1997 National

Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97)

interviewed a nationally representative sample of 9,000 youth who

were between the ages of 12 and 16

at year-end 1996. The survey asked

youth to report whether they had

engaged in a variety of deviant and

delinquent behaviors. Plans are to

interview members of this cohort

every 2 years to track changes in

delinquent and criminal activity

over the life course.

Less than one-tenth (8%) of

youth ages 12–16 said they had

ever been arrested

Of the 8% of youth who had ever

been arrested, a substantial

proportion (40%, or 3% of all youth)

reported two or more arrests.

The proportion of youth ever

arrested varied significantly by

race and ethnicity for males but

not for females

White males (9%) were less likely to

have ever been arrested than black

males (13%) or Hispanic males

(12%). Further, a greater proportion

of black males (7%) and Hispanic

males (6%) than white males (4%)

were arrested more than once.

Equal proportions of white (5%),

black (6%), and Hispanic (7%) females had ever been arrested. In addition, white (2%), black (2%), and

Hispanic (3%) females were equally

likely to have been arrested more

than once.

Recent participation (i.e., within the last 12 months or 30 days prior

to the interview) in delinquent and deviant acts varied by race and

ethnicity for males and females

Males ages 12–16 Females ages 12–16

Behavior White Black Hispanic White Black Hispanic

Smoked cigarettes

Last 30 days 22% 14% 19% 23% 9% 15%

Drank alcohol

Last 30 days 23 13 22 23 13 20

Before or during school

or work in last 30 days 6 4 6 4 3 6

Used marijuana

Last 30 days 10 9 9 9 5 9

Before or during school

or work in last 30 days 4 4 5 3 2 3

Carried a handgun

Last 12 months 10 8 8 2 2 2

Last 30 days 5 5 4 1 1 1

To school in last 30 days < 1 1 1 0 0 < 1

Had sex

Last 12 months* 17 38 26 20 26 19

Belonged to a gang

Last 12 months 2 6 5 1 2 2

Destroyed property

Last 12 months 21 18 17 11 10 11

Stole something worth

over $50

Last 12 months 7 7 8 3 4 4

Committed assault

Last 12 months 15 21 13 7 12 10

■ Black males and females were significantly less likely to drink or smoke cigarettes in the month preceding the interview than their white and Hispanic

peers.

■ Among youth age 14 and older, a greater proportion of black males and females had sex in the 12 months before the survey than either white or Hispanic males and females.

■ In the year preceding the interview, white males were less likely to have

been in a gang than black and Hispanic males but more likely to have carried

a gun.

■ The proportion of youth who used marijuana in the last 30 days was the

same for white, black, and Hispanic males, while black females were less

likely to have used marijuana in the last month than their white and Hispanic

peers.

*Only youth 14 and older were asked about their sexual activity.

Note: The white and black racial categories do not include youth of Hispanic ethnicity. Hispanic youth can be of any race.

Source: Authors’ analysis of the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 [machine-readable data file].

Self-reported delinquent and deviant behaviors of

youth varied by race and ethnicity
6 1999 National Report Series

Percent of total juvenile arrests

1997 juvenile Ages American

Most serious offense charged arrest estimates Female 16–17 White Black Indian Asian

Total 2,838,300 26% 48% 71% 26% 1% 2%

Violent Crime Index 123,400 16 51 53 44 1 2

Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter 2,500 6 74 40 58 0 2

Forcible rape 5,500 2 45 56 42 1 1

Robbery 39,500 9 54 42 55 1 2

Aggravated assault 75,900 21 49 60 38 1 1

Property Crime Index 701,500 28 41 70 27 1 2

Burglary 131,000 10 43 73 24 1 2

Larceny-theft 493,900 34 40 70 26 1 2

Motor vehicle theft 66,600 16 51 59 37 2 2

Arson 10,000 11 20 79 19 1 1

Nonindex

Other assaults 241,800 29 41 63 34 1 1

Forgery and counterfeiting 8,500 39 75 77 20 1 2

Fraud 11,300 35 71 69 29 1 1

Embezzlement 1,400 45 88 63 34 1 2

Stolen property (buying, receiving, possessing) 39,500 13 54 60 37 1 2

Vandalism 136,500 12 38 80 17 1 1

Weapons (carrying, possessing, etc.) 52,200 9 51 64 33 1 2

Prostitution and commercialized vice 1,400 56 70 60 39 1 1

Sex offenses (except forcible rape and prostitution) 18,500 9 33 70 28 1 1

Drug abuse violations 220,700 13 66 64 34 1 1

Gambling 2,600 3 69 10 89 0 1

Offenses against family and children 10,200 37 45 76 20 1 2

Driving under the influence 19,600 17 93 91 6 2 1

Liquor laws 158,500 30 74 90 5 3 1

Drunkenness 24,100 17 72 89 9 2 1

Disorderly conduct 215,100 26 46 64 34 1 1

Vagrancy 3,100 15 56 68 31 1 0

All other offenses (except traffic) 468,000 24 53 72 25 1 2

Suspicion 1,600 23 60 60 39 0 1

Curfew and loitering law violations 182,700 31 48 75 23 1 1

Runaways 196,100 58 33 77 18 1 4

U.S. population ages 10–17 30,640,000 49 25 79 15 1 4

■ The racial composition of the juvenile population in 1997 was approximately 80% white, 15% black, and 5% other races,

with most juveniles of Hispanic ethnicity being classified as white. In 1997, in contrast to the proportions in the general

population, 53% of juvenile arrests for violent crimes involved white youth and 44% involved black youth. In contrast to

their proportion in the general population, black youth were involved in more than half of the arrests for gambling (89%),

murder (58%), and robbery (55%).

Notes: FBI Uniform Crime Report data do not distinguish the ethnic group Hispanic; Hispanics may be of any race. In 1997, 91% of Hispanics ages 10–17 were classified racially as white. Detail may not add to totals because of rounding.

Source: Authors’ analyses of data presented in the FBI’s Crime in the United States 1997. National estimates of juvenile arrests were developed using FBI estimates of total arrests and juvenile arrest proportions in reporting sample.

Juvenile arrests disproportionately involved

minorities

Black youth accounted for 15% of the juvenile population in 1997 but 26% of all juvenile arrests and 44%

of arrests for violent offenses
December 1999 7

In 1996, black juveniles were referred to juvenile

court at a rate more than double that for whites

The offense profiles of white

caseloads and black caseloads

differ

Caseloads of black juveniles contained a greater proportion of person offenses than did caseloads of

white juveniles and those of other

races. Property offense cases accounted for the largest proportion

of cases for all racial groups, although among black juveniles, property cases accounted for fewer than

half of the cases processed in 1996.

For all races, drug offense cases accounted for the smallest proportion

of the 1996 caseload.

Most serious Other

offense White Black races

1996

Total 100% 100% 100%

Person 19 27 20

Property 53 42 57

Drugs 10 11 6

Public order 18 20 17

1987

Total 100% 100% 100%

Person 13 24 14

Property 63 53 66

Drugs 6 7 5

Public order 18 15 16

Caseload offense profiles for 1996

differed from offense profiles for

1987 for all racial groups. Regardless of race, the proportion of cases

involving person offenses was

greater in 1996 than in 1987. Among

black juveniles, person offenses increased 3 percentage points. Among

white juveniles and those of other

races, person offenses increased 6

percentage points.

Black juveniles were involved in a disproportionate number of

delinquency cases in 1996

Most serious offense White Black Other races Total

Total

Delinquency cases 66% 30% 4% 100%

Person 59 38 4 100

Property 70 26 4 100

Drugs 65 33 3 100

Public order 64 32 4 100

Male

Delinquency cases 66 31 4 100

Person 60 37 4 100

Property 70 26 4 100

Drugs 62 36 2 100

Public order 64 32 3 100

Female

Delinquency cases 67 29 4 100

Person 57 39 4 100

Property 71 24 5 100

Drugs 81 15 3 100

Public order 64 33 4 100

Juvenile population 80% 15% 5% 100%

■ Overall, the level of racial disparity did not change substantially between the

stages of arrest and juvenile court intake.

■ Although two-thirds of delinquency cases involve white youth, black youth

were overrepresented in the delinquency caseload, given their proportion of

the juvenile population (age 10 through upper age).

■ The overrepresentation of black juveniles was greatest for cases involving

person offenses.

■ Among females, the racial distribution of drug cases was similar to the racial

distribution of the juvenile population.

■ Overrepresentation of blacks was somewhat greater in 1996 than in 1987. In

1987, black youth accounted for 27% of delinquency cases overall, 40% of

person offense cases, 24% of property offense cases, 31% of drug offense

cases, and 24% of public order offense cases.

Note: Detail may not total 100% because of rounding. Nearly all juveniles of Hispanic

ethnicity are included in the white racial category.

Source: Authors’ adaptation of Stahl et al.’s Juvenile court statistics 1996.
8 1999 National Report Series

From 1987 through 1996, case rates increased for all racial groups in all offense categories; rates for

black juveniles remain well above those for whites and for those of other races

Source: Authors’ analysis of NCJJ’s National Juvenile Court Data Archive: Juvenile court case records 1987–1996 [machine-readable data

files].

■ Between 1987 and 1996, the public order case rates for

whites and other races were less than half the rates for

blacks.

■ The increase in the public order case rate between 1987

and 1996 was substantially greater for black juveniles

(94%) than for white juveniles (26%) or juveniles of other

races (52%).

■ Between 1988 and 1991, the drug case rate remained

virtually unchanged for black juveniles, but dropped 36%

for white juveniles and 23% for those of other races.

■ All racial groups had large increases in drug case rates

between 1991 and 1996: 116% for whites, 132% for

blacks, and 167% for youth of other races.

■ From 1987 through 1996, the property offense case

rates for whites and other races were about half the

rates for blacks.

■ For all racial groups, property offense case rates were at

their peak in the early 1990’s. The subsequent decline

for black juveniles (8%) and white juveniles (6%) was

similar.

■ Each year between 1987 and 1996, the person offense

case rate for black juveniles was more than three times

the rates for white juveniles and those of other races, although the gap narrowed over the years.

■ The rate for black juveniles increased 69%, compared

with 86% for white juveniles and 107% for those of other

races.

Person offense case rates Property offense case rates

Drug offense case rates Public order offense case rates

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Cases per 1,000 juveniles ages 10–upper age

Black

Other race

White

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Cases per 1,000 juveniles ages 10–upper age

Black

Other race

White

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Cases per 1,000 juveniles ages 10–upper age

Black

Other race

White

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

5

10

15

20

25

Cases per 1,000 juveniles ages 10–upper age

Black

Other race

White
December 1999 9

White youth were least likely to

be detained

Secure detention was nearly twice

as likely in 1996 for cases involving

black youth as for cases involving

whites, even after controlling for

offense. Detention was least likely

for cases involving white youth

charged with property crimes.

Detention was most likely for cases

involving black youth charged with

drug offenses.

Percent of cases

that involved

detention in 1996

Most serious Other

offense White Black races

Delinquency 14% 27% 18%

Person 19 28 26

Property 11 22 15

Drugs 14 40 19

Public order 17 29 17

For blacks, growth in detained

cases outpaced growth in

delinquency cases overall

For black youth, the relative increase in the number of delinquency

cases involving detention was

greater than the relative increase in

delinquency cases overall. For white

juveniles and juveniles of other

races, growth in the overall delinquency caseload was greater than

growth in the detention caseload.

Percent change

1987–1996

All Detained

Race cases cases

All races 49% 38%

White 39 18

Black 68 71

Other races 103 50

■ For white juveniles, the number of delinquency cases involving detention increased 18% from 1987 to 1996. For black juveniles, the increase was 71%.

For youth of other races, the increase was 50%.

Source: Authors’ analysis of NCJJ’s National Juvenile Court Data Archive: Juvenile court

case records 1987–1996 [machine-readable data files].

For black juveniles, the relative increase in the number of cases

involving detention was nearly four times the increase for whites

Compared with 1987, the use of detention in delinquency cases in

1996 remained about the same for black juveniles but declined for

white juveniles and juveniles of other races

Source: Authors’ analysis of NCJJ’s National Juvenile Court Data Archive: Juvenile court

case records 1987–1996 [machine-readable data files].

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Percent of delinquency cases that involved detention

Black

Other race

White

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

Delinquency cases that involved detention

White

Other race

Black

White juveniles were less likely to be detained than

black juveniles and juveniles of other races
10 1999 National Report Series

Black youth were overrepresented

in detention caseloads in 1996

As a result of their greater probability of detention in 1996, black youth

were overrepresented in the detention caseload, compared with their

proportions in the overall delinquency caseload. While black youth

made up 30% of all delinquency

cases processed in 1996, they were

involved in 45% of detained cases.

This overrepresentation was greatest

for drug offenses: blacks accounted

for 33% of all drug cases processed,

but 59% of drug cases detained.

Percent of cases

that involved black

juveniles in 1996

Most serious All Detained

offense cases cases

Delinquency 30% 45%

Person 38 46

Property 26 40

Drugs 33 59

Public order 32 45

In all offense categories, youth of

other races made up less than 5% of

all cases processed and of those involving detention.

Black juveniles accounted for a greater share of delinquency cases

involving detention in 1996 than in 1987

■ In 1987, blacks accounted for 36% of the detention caseload; by 1995, their

proportion had increased to 45%, where it remained in 1996. Juveniles of

other races remained at 4% of the detention caseload throughout the period

from 1987 through 1996.

Source: Authors’ analysis of NCJJ’s National Juvenile Court Data Archive: Juvenile court

case records 1987–1996 [machine-readable data files].

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

White Black Other

Race proportion of delinquency cases that involved detention

Disproportionate minority confinement is a priority issue for OJJDP

The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency

Prevention Act of 1974, as amended

(the Act), establishes four custodyrelated requirements. One of these

core requirements is the “disproportionate confinement of minority

youth” requirement (1992), which

specifies that States determine the

existence and extent of the problem

in their State and demonstrate

efforts to reduce it where it exists.

States must agree to comply with

requirements to receive Formula

Grants under the Act’s provisions.

This includes submitting plans outlining their strategy for meeting these

requirements. Noncompliance with

the core requirements results in the

loss of 25% of the State’s annual

Formula Grants program allocation.

As of 1998, 55 of 57 eligible States

and territories are participating in the

Formula Grants program. The vast

majority are in compliance with the

core requirements. (For more information on the disproportionate minority confinement requirement and

other core requirements, see page

88 of Juvenile Offenders and Victims:

1999 National Report.)
December 1999 11

Minorities accounted for 7 in 10 youth held in

custody for a violent offense

Non-Hispanic black juveniles account for 55% of juveniles in

residential placement for robbery but only 30% of juveniles in

residential placement for a status offense

Percent of juvenile offenders in

residential placement on October 29, 1997

Most serious American

offense Total White Black Hispanic Indian Asian

Total juveniles in

residential placement 100% 37% 40% 18% 2% 2%

Delinquency 100 36 41 19 1 2

Person 100 31 43 21 1 3

Criminal homicide 100 19 44 30 2 5

Sexual assault 100 51 33 12 2 1

Robbery 100 16 55 24 1 3

Aggravated assault 100 26 41 26 2 4

Simple assault 100 41 38 16 2 2

Other person 100 41 40 15 1 2

Property 100 43 35 17 2 2

Burglary 100 46 32 18 2 2

Theft 100 45 37 15 1 1

Auto theft 100 36 38 20 2 3

Arson 100 52 29 17 1 1

Other property 100 42 38 16 1 2

Drug 100 23 56 19 1 1

Trafficking 100 14 64 21 <1 1

Other drug 100 26 54 18 1 1

Public order 100 38 38 20 2 2

Weapons 100 24 45 27 1 3

Other public order 100 48 33 15 2 2

Technical violation 100 40 37 19 2 1

Violent Crime Index* 100 27 45 23 1 3

Property Crime Index** 100 43 35 17 2 2

Status offense 100 59 30 7 2 1

■ Non-Hispanic black juveniles accounted for more than 6 in 10 juveniles in

residential placement for drug trafficking and more than 5 in 10 in residential

placement for other drug offenses.

■ Non-Hispanic white juveniles accounted for the majority of juveniles in residential placement for sexual assault, arson, and status offenses.

Note: Race proportions do not include persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not total

100% because of rounding.

*Includes criminal homicide, sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault.

**Includes burglary, theft, auto theft, and arson.

Source: Authors’ analysis of OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement 1997

[machine-readable data file].

More than 6 in 10 juveniles in

residential placement were

minority youth

In 1997, two-thirds of all juveniles in

custody in public facilities were minorities as were just over half of all

juveniles in private facilities.

Percent of juveniles in

residential placement

Race/ on October 29, 1997

ethnicity Total Public Private

Total 100% 100% 100%

White 37 34 46

Minority 63 66 54

Black 40 40 39

Hispanic 18 21 11

Amer. Indian 2 1 2

Asian 2 2 2

The racial/ethnic profile of

juveniles held in 1997 is similar to

the profile of those held in 1995

Data from the 1995 Children in Custody census show race proportions

similar to those derived from the

CJRP data.

Percent of

juveniles in custody

Race/ on February 15, 1995

ethnicity Total Public Private

Total 100% 100% 100%

White 37 32 53

Minority 63 68 47

Black 40 43 34

Hispanic 19 21 10

Amer. Indian 2 1 2

Asian 2 3 1

In 1995, more than two-thirds of all juveniles in custody in public facilities

were minorities as were just under

half of all juveniles in private facilities.
12 1999 National Report Series

Fewer than 3 in 10 non-Hispanic white juveniles were placed for a

person offense, compared with nearly 4 in 10 Hispanic juveniles

and non-Hispanic black juveniles

Percent of juvenile offenders in

residential placement on October 29, 1997

Most serious American

offense Total White Black Hispanic Indian Asian

Total juveniles in

residential placement 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Delinquency 93 90 95 97 91 97

Person 33 28 36 38 32 45

Criminal homicide 2 1 2 3 2 5

Sexual assault 5 7 4 4 5 2

Robbery 9 4 12 12 6 15

Aggravated assault 9 6 9 13 10 16

Simple assault 6 7 6 5 8 5

Other person 2 2 2 2 1 2

Property 30 35 27 28 32 32

Burglary 12 14 10 12 13 13

Theft 7 8 6 5 6 4

Auto theft 6 6 6 7 8 10

Arson 1 1 1 1 1 1

Other property 4 5 4 4 3 4

Drug 9 5 12 9 4 4

Trafficking 3 1 5 3 0 1

Other drug 6 4 7 6 4 3

Public order 9 9 9 10 9 9

Weapons 4 3 4 6 3 5

Other public order 5 7 5 4 7 4

Technical violation 12 13 11 12 14 8

Violent Crime Index* 25 18 28 31 23 38

Property Crime Index** 26 30 22 24 29 28

Status offense 7 10 5 3 9 3

■ Robbery was the most serious offense for a greater proportion of black, Hispanic, and Asian juveniles than white or American Indian juveniles in residential placement.

■ Drug offenses were the most serious offense for a greater proportion of

black juveniles than other juveniles in residential placement.

Note: Race proportions do not include persons of Hispanic ethnicity. Detail may not add to

totals because of rounding.

*Includes criminal homicide, sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault.

**Includes burglary, theft, auto theft, and arson.

Source: Authors’ analysis of OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement 1997

[machine-readable data file].

Half of females in residential

placement were minorities

Minorities were somewhat less disproportionate in the female custody

population than in the male custody

population.

Percent of juveniles in

residential placement

Race/ on October 29, 1997

ethnicity Total Male Female

Total 100% 100% 100%

White 37 36 49

Minority 63 64 51

Black 40 41 33

Hispanic 18 19 13

Amer. Indian 2 1 2

Asian 2 2 1

Females accounted for a slightly

greater proportion of white than

minority youth in custody

The female proportion of juveniles

in residential placement varied by

race and ethnicity. Females accounted

for 18% of nonminority white juveniles in residential placement. Among

minorities overall, females accounted

for 11% of juveniles in residential

placement; however, the female

proportion was 21% for American

Indians and only 9% for Hispanics

and Asians.

Percent of juveniles in

residential placement

Race/ on October 29, 1997

ethnicity Total Male Female

Total 100% 86% 14%

White 100 82 18

Minority 100 89 11

Black 100 89 11

Hispanic 100 91 9

Amer. Indian 100 79 21

Asian 100 91 9
December 1999 13

On the 1997 census day, minority offenders had been

in residential placement longer than other juveniles

Juveniles in residential placement

Information on length of stay is key

to understanding the justice system’s

handling of juveniles in residential

placement. The Census of Juveniles

in Residential Placement (CJRP), first

conducted in October 1997, captures

information on the number of days

since admission for each juvenile in

residential placement up until the

date of the census. The CJRP looks

both at juveniles detained while

awaiting adjudication or disposition

and committed juveniles (those adjudicated, disposed, and placed in

the facility). While the data cannot

determine complete length of stay,

the CJRP does provide an overall

profile of the time juveniles had

been in the facility at the time of the

census—a 1-day snapshot of time in

the facility. The CJRP also collects

individual-level data regarding juveniles in facilities, providing juvenile

justice policymakers with a more

complete look at who is in the

facilities and how long they have

been detained or committed.

Minorities had been in facilities

longer than nonminority whites

Among committed juveniles, minorities had been in the facility an average of 193 days. In comparison,

committed nonminority whites had

been in the facility an average of 174

days—2 weeks less. A similar pattern

was found among detained juveniles.

Detained minority juveniles had been

in the facility an average of 1 week

longer than nonminority whites (43

days vs. 36 days).

Demographic differences in time

in the facility reflect differences

in offense profiles

Juveniles held for violent offenses

had been in placement longer on

average than other juveniles. Overall,

committed delinquents had been in

the facility an average of just over 6

months (186 days). Juveniles committed for Violent Crime Index offenses, in comparison, had been in the

facility an average of nearly 9 months

(266 days). Findings were similar for

detained juveniles.

A closer look at the 1997 CJRP finding that minority youth had been in

placement longer than their nonminority white counterparts indicates

this finding is attributable to differences in offense profiles: minorities

had larger proportions of person

offenders, particularly violent person

offenders, in their population. Within

individual offense categories, demographic differences in time in the

facility were negligible.

Half of committed minority juveniles had been in the facility at least 17 weeks—half of committed whites

had been held at least 15 weeks

■ Among committed juveniles, 37% of minority juveniles had been in the facility at least 180 days, compared with 33% of

nonminority white juveniles.

■ Among the detained population, 36% of minority juveniles had been in the facility at least 30 days, compared with 29% of

nonminority white juveniles.

Source: Authors’ analysis of OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement 1997 [machine-readable data file].

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Percent of residents remaining in placement

Minority

White

Days since admission

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Percent of residents remaining in placement

Minority

White

Days since admission

Committed Detained
14 1999 National Report Series

Nationally, custody rates for black juveniles were

substantially higher than rates for other groups

For every 100,000 non-Hispanic black juveniles in the population, 1,018 were in a residential placement

facility on October 29, 1997—for Hispanics the rate was 515, and for non-Hispanic whites it was 204

Custody rate (per 100,000) Custody rate (per 100,000)

American American

State* White Black Hispanic Indian Asian State* White Black Hispanic Indian Asian

U.S. total 204 1,018 515 525 203 Missouri 168 741 241 43 69

Alabama 202 650 285 130 96 Montana 221 – 768 524 –

Alaska 289 1,055 372 734 352 Nebraska 234 1,754 716 1,417 177

Arizona 244 975 515 214 74 Nevada 382 942 448 1,250 297

Arkansas 106 533 111 0 45 New Hampshire 143 – 479 0 266

California 299 1,819 654 548 268 New Jersey 71 1,007 405 246 18

Colorado 238 1,397 705 617 206 New Mexico 169 905 498 220 251

Connecticut 160 2,225 1,276 – 90 New York 152 886 394 603 53

Delaware 132 1,195 582 0 0 North Carolina 108 435 32 140 97

Dist. Of Columbia 0 855 204 0 0 North Dakota 261 – 391 1,203 0

Florida 243 980 203 108 109 Ohio 205 1,105 404 315 83

Georgia 240 952 129 61 121 Oklahoma 123 688 214 282 59

Hawaii 65 212 74 – 120 Oregon 326 1,505 681 1,046 267

Idaho 139 – 160 330 236 Pennsylvania 137 1,348 929 – 148

Illinois 127 943 240 459 39 Rhode Island 220 1,799 1,287 – 592

Indiana 268 1,168 521 58 53 South Carolina 238 753 0 0 30

Iowa 239 2,250 736 1,700 243 South Dakota 356 – 2,401 1,204 –

Kansas 249 1,767 596 604 475 Tennessee 226 843 415 209 133

Kentucky 174 967 78 – 100 Texas 155 853 383 203 94

Louisiana 231 1,140 157 119 300 Utah 188 1,400 713 693 561

Maine 210 – 198 – 265 Vermont 66 – – 0 0

Maryland 123 592 263 115 46 Virginia 204 997 355 230 174

Massachusetts 96 804 582 79 224 Washington 246 1,592 520 787 201

Michigan 205 1,171 406 293 305 West Virginia 156 1,230 511 – –

Minnesota 155 1,676 515 1,690 417 Wisconsin 206 1,756 801 448 668

Mississippi 129 319 336 60 283 Wyoming 454 – 846 1,243 –

Custody rate for black juveniles Custody rate for Hispanic juveniles

*State where the offense occurred. – Too few juveniles in the population to calculate a reliable rate.

Note: The custody rate is the number of juveniles in residential placement per 100,000 juveniles ages 10 through the upper age of original juvenile court jurisdiction in each State. U.S. total includes 3,401 juveniles in private facilities for whom State of offense was not reported. Race

rates do not include persons of Hispanic ethnicity.

Source: Authors’ analysis of OJJDP’s Census of Juveniles in Residential Placement 1997 [machine-readable data file] and Bureau of the

Census’ Estimates of the population of States by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin: 1990–1997 [machine-readable data files].

D.C.

0 to 500

500 to 975

975 to 1,500

1,500 or more

Not calculated

D.C.

0 to 300

300 to 500

500 to 700

700 or more

Not calculated
December 1999 15

Males, 17-year-olds, minorities, and person offenders

predominate among youth sent to adult prisons

Youth under age 18 accounted for

2% of new court commitments to

State adult prisons

Thirty-six States (containing 81% of

the 1996 U.S. population ages 10–17)

contributed data for 1992–1996 to

the National Corrections Reporting

Program (NCRP). These States reported approximately 5,600 new

court commitments to their adult

prison systems involving youth under 18. These youth accounted for

nearly 2% of all new court commitments. Nearly 3 in 4 of these youth

were 17 years old at admission.

States with an upper age of juvenile

jurisdiction below 17 accounted for

half of all under-18 admissions.

The under-18 proportion of new

admissions varied by offense

Under-18 youth accounted for 4% of

new admissions for person offenses,

7% of new admissions for robbery,

5% of those for murder, and 3% of

those for aggravated assault and

weapons offenses. For all other offense categories, the under-18 proportion was 2% or less.

New court commitments to State prison:

Most serious Under-18

offense proportion

All offenses 2%

Person 4

Murder 5

Sexual assault 1

Robbery 7

Aggravated assault 3

Property 2

Burglary 2

Larceny-theft 1

Motor vehicle theft 2

Arson 2

Drugs 1

Trafficking 1

Public order 1

Weapons 3

Note: General offense categories include

offenses not detailed.

More than three-quarters of youth

newly admitted to State prison

were minorities

Minorities made up a greater proportion of new court commitments involving youth under age 18 than of

those involving older offenders.

Blacks accounted for the largest proportion of new prison admissions for

both age groups.

New court commitments to State prison:

Age at admission

Under 18 or

Race/ethnicity 18 older

Total 100% 100%

White, not Hispanic 23 35

Minority 77 65

Black 60 46

Hispanic 15 18

American Indian 1 1

Asian 1 <1

The minority proportion of new admissions varied by offense category.

Drug offenses had the greatest proportion of minority admissions for

both age groups.

New court commitments to State prison:

Age at admission

Most serious offense Under 18 or

Race/ethnicity 18 older

Person 100% 100%

White, not Hispanic 17 35

Minority 83 65

Property 100% 100%

White, not Hispanic 46 46

Minority 54 54

Drugs 100% 100%

White, not Hispanic 5 22

Minority 95 78

Public order 100% 100%

White, not Hispanic 28 47

Minority 72 53

In the 36 States that reported data, under-18 prison admissions

decreased 10% from 1995 to 1996

Source: Authors’ analysis of the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ National Corrections Reporting Program 1992–1996 [machine-readable data files].

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

Youth under age 18 newly admitted
NCJ 179007

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PERMIT NO. G–91

U.S. Department of Justice

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Bulletin

Points of view or opinions expressed in this document are those of the

authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies

of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of Justice.

Sources

Information for this Bulletin was taken/adapted

from chapters 3, 5, 6, and 7 of Juvenile Offenders

and Victims: 1999 National Report. For full listings

of sources for these chapters, see pages 84, 140,

183, and 213 of the National Report.

Resources

Answers to frequently asked questions about juvenile

justice statistics as well as periodic updates of data

presented in Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999

National Report are available on the Internet in the

OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book, which can be accessed

through the OJJDP home page at www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org

through the JJ Facts & Figures prompt.

For information on OJJDP

initiatives related to the reduction

of juvenile crime, violence, and

victimization, contact the Juvenile

Justice Clearinghouse (JJC) at

www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org or call 800–638–8736.

Acknowledgments

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National

Report, from which this Bulletin is drawn, was

prepared by the National Center for Juvenile Justice

(NCJJ). The authors are Howard N. Snyder and

Melissa Sickmund. The National Report benefited

from the assistance of many individuals in addition

to the authors, including staff at NCJJ, the Office of

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and

the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the

Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the

National Institute of Justice, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

How To Get Your Free Copy

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report

(NCJ 178257) is available online from the OJJDP Web

site (www.ojjdp.ncjrs.org) under the JJ Facts & Figures

section and the Publications section or can be ordered

from OJJDP’s Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse. Send an

e-mail to puborder@ncjrs.org; call 800–638–8736 (select

option 2); or write to the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse, P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000. Be

sure to ask for NCJ 178257.