This guide is designed to help prepare you for deployment to 

culturally complex environments and successfully achieve 

mission objectives. The 

fundamental information it 

contains will help you 

understand the decisive

cultural dimension of your 

assigned location and gain 

necessary skills to achieve 

mission success. The 

guide consists of two parts: 

Part 1: Introduces 

“Culture General,” the foundational knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any global environment – Southeast Asia

in particular.

Part 2: Presents “Culture Specific” information on the 

Philippines, focusing on unique cultural features of Filipino

society. This section is designed to complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase 

your knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at 

https://wwwmil.maxwell.af.mil/afclc or contact AFCLC’s Region 

Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

The Philippines Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more 

effectively interact with 

members of that culture.

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups 

enact or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their 

own food for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

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CULTURE 
although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

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CULTURE 
of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are 

not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

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CULTURE 
the North Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea (Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei). As early as 

150 BC, the scattered communities on the mainland traded 

with and paid tribute to the dominating kingdoms of China and 

India. China maintained a presence in Vietnam for over 1000 

years, while’s India’s influence was felt mainly as its inhabitants 

spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam across the region. 

Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient empire, the Khmer, 

ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 AD from its center 

at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings expanded across the

mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from India united the 

Indonesian archipelago.

China began to halt its 

expeditions to the region 

in mid-15th century, just 

as European nations 

began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in the region was short-lived.

Observing their success, the Dutch and English moved into the 

area as well. The Europeans sought to acquire trade routes 

and territories, and from the 17th through the 19th centuries the 

Dutch worked to consolidate their power in today’s Indonesia, 

the Spanish their control of the Philippines, the English their 

hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French their control 

over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the beginning of the 

20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was controlled by 

colonial powers; only Thailand remained independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain 

its independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In 

Vietnam, communist rebels battled and defeated the French 

but then engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in 

Cambodia ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, 

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CULTURE 
during whose reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people 

died. A few years after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a 

dictator took control in a coup and ruled for 32 years before 

resigning in 1998. Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute 

power has ruled Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, 

Southeast Asia has largely enjoyed renewed stability. Both 

Thailand and Malaysia now have an affluent, educated middle 

class; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam are well on the road to 

recovery from decades of conflict; and even Burma has 

recently held elections and initiated reform to a civilian 

democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where 

people were nomadic or 

semi-nomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base 

allowed the development of more elaborate and permanent 

governing structures. These early states, though, often found it 

difficult to extend their authority into the remote highlands, 

where small tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some 

groups lived permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

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CULTURE 
activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to 

the political system. They are typically from the country’s 

dominant class, which is often comprised of members of a 

particular ethnic group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are 

somewhat ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the 

Philippines and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many 

countries also have minority communities of ethnic Chinese 

and Indians. So-called hill tribes, minority groups with distinct 

ethnic and linguistic identities, are found in Burma, Laos, 

Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose 

goal is to promote economic and political cooperation among 

its members, including the creation of a free trade community 

by 2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is 

a crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

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CULTURE 
preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, 

which means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, 

or were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder 

and lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many 

areas today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, 

and many Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice 

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to 

Islam. Today, although there remain only small communities of 

Hindus in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and 

hierarchy remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, 

although their beliefs and 

practices may also include 

some animist and Hindu 

traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a complex belief system emphasizing 

stability, consensus, hierarchy, and authority that still 

influences ideas of social harmony across the region.

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

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CULTURE 
with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste 

system. The largest population of Muslims in the world, 

approximately 234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim 

minority communities in Thailand and the Philippines have 

historically suffered economic and political marginalization.

Christianity was introduced to the region by European 

colonizers beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts 

of Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called 

“fictive kin”).

Family life is very important 

to Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices 

as a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each 

other economically and socially and the rhythms of family and 

village life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle.

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women 

have fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and 

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CULTURE 
many households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 

generations of extended family but are mostly nuclear families.

Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp ruralurban divide in economic and educational opportunities that 

results in stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural 

villages, extended families may remain intact whose activities 

revolve around agricultural production, while in urban centers 

the household is usually much smaller and family structures 

are much more diverse.

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and 

females, while gender is a more flexible 

concept that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked 

preference for sons over daughters.

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CULTURE 
Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less 

pay than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities 

for women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to 

work beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to 

work as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of 

food in the region and represent a significant share of the 

agricultural labor force. They are particularly involved in 

harvesting rice, tea production, and working on rubber and fruit 

plantations. Women generally have access to education and 

training, and in Thailand and the Philippines there are actually 

more post-secondary female graduates than males.

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most 

liberal in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and 

there have been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation 

to protect sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast 

Asia homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. 

Malaysia criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and 

in Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally.

Southeast Asia is 

linguistically very 

diverse; of the 

approximately 6000 

languages spoken in the 

world today, about 1000 of them are found in Southeast Asia. 

Many of the ancient indigenous languages that were present in 

the region have become extinct as a result of war, cultural and 

economic domination, and small population size.

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The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai 

(such as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including 

highland languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to 

these 3 groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, 

most of the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia 

belong to the Austronesian family, a group of languages 

originating from southern China and Taiwan.

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 

20th century primarily promoted and used their own languages

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school and 

allowed ethnic Chinese 

and Indians to attend 

school in their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed their 

own writing systems 

based on scripts from 

India and China. Today, 

Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Filipino, like English 

and most western European languages, use the Latin alphabet, 

while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and Cambodian use writing 

systems derived from ancient Indian scripts.

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia.

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CULTURE 
7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and 

institutions from beyond the region. This willingness is evident 

in the history of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and 

Muslim traders and migrants from India and beyond brought 

their own traditions of education to the region, and local 

Southeast Asian communities adopted these curricula and 

educational methods to 

their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing 

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide educational opportunities, they 

were largely confined to members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through 

which they articulated their arguments for independence.

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

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CULTURE 
their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region.

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, in most Southeast Asian cultures establishing and 

maintaining relationships within the group can take precedence 

over accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.”

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in 

Southeast Asia, and new contacts are often best made through 

a high status third party who knows both parties well. Only after 

the establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also 

mean entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

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CULTURE 

NERAL
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of 

Buddha are found in many countries. Similarly, across 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and 

architecture intermingle with examples of Hindu and local 

animist traditions.

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a 

revival after some 

forms came close to 

extinction during the 

wars and conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace 

back to the ancient kingdoms of the region and often include 

dancers dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient 

forms of shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are 

manipulated against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in 

several countries.

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and 

Bersilat combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay 

Thai, Pencak Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s 

Mixed Martial Art fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote 

regional cooperation and understanding.

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

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and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat 

pork or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 

15% of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a 

major problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in 

reaching Southeast Asia 

but turned into a major 

cause of death 

throughout the 1980s 

and 1990s. Since then, 

due to successful HIV 

prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence 

rates have been similar to those of the US. Access to clean 

water has increased in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos 

half of the population still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

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challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice 

and slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival 

of Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an 

important center of trade well before European presence.

With European expansion into the area came the introduction 

of plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as 

the entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. 

Today, all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and 

plantation – are still practiced in the region and all have caused 

serious ecological damage such as massive deforestation and 

an increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a 

dramatic industrialization process with growth rates exceeding 

even those of developed 

nations. Explosive growth 

in exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, 

and petroleum lead to 

double-digit economic 

growth, greatly increasing

local GDPs. Though 

roughly 1/3 of the 

population currently lives 

below the poverty line, 

regional economies have grown and now supply both skilled 

and semi-skilled workers to other countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

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in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are 

ranked among the poorest 

countries in the world.

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India

and China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, 

and navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, 

mining, and an export-based economy during the colonial 

period placed Southeast Asia on its current technological path.

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” 

Southeast Asia is often seen as the site of economic 

competition between China and the US and between India and 

Japan. Despite lingering mistrust of China because of several 

unresolved maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian 

nations welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total 

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Filipino society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Historical Overview

The Philippines is an archipelago comprising over 7000 islands

of which only 460 are larger than 1 square mile. Located in 

Southeast Asia about 100 miles south of Taiwan and to the 

east of Malaysia and Indonesia, the islands were first settled 

tens of thousands of years ago. Diverse local cultures and 

languages developed over many years, and later, migrants and 

colonizers from Malaysia, China, Spain, and the US settled the 

islands. Today’s cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity in the 

archipelago is the result of the dynamic mixture of local and 

foreign influences.

Early History

Fossil remains indicate that humans migrated to the Philippines 

beginning about 50,000 years ago. Popular belief is that most 

Filipinos are descended from migrants from Indonesia and 

Malaysia who came to the islands in waves over several 

centuries. On the contrary, recent archeological, linguistic, and 

genetic evidence suggests that 

migrants from Taiwan settled the 

Philippines before moving on to 

Indonesia and Malaysia.

Another popular belief is the idea 

that the Negritos, an indigenous 

minority group, are descended 

from these earliest migrants (see 

Political and Social Relations). Consequently, they are 

sometimes referred to as the “aborigines” of the Philippines, a 

label that may not be accurate.

Regardless of their origins, early inhabitants of the islands 

traveled among the islands by boat and formed barangays (a 

word that is used today to refer to a unit of political 

administration like “municipality” or “city” and is derived from 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH

HISTORY &

MYTH
the word for “boat”) led by datus (chiefs). The barangays were 

autonomous and were culturally, linguistically, and religiously 

diverse. 

Some of the early barangays developed into sophisticated 

networks of settlements that may have been influenced by the 

Hindu empires of Java and Sumatra. Significant settlements

included the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu in the central part 

of the archipelago. Archaeological evidence indicates many 

communities traded with China and other regions in Asia.

Islamic Sultanates

A number of Islamic sultanates were also established as trade 

routes in the region which connected the Philippines with the 

Arab world. The most notable included the Sultanate of Sulu in 

Jolo and the Sultanate of Maguidanao, founded by Shariff 

Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Malaysia in 1475. After the

sultanates were established, Islam spread through the 

archipelago (see Religion and Spirituality).

Spanish Period 

Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan

(pictured) who was in the service of the 

Spanish Crown, launched from Spain in 

August 1519 with a fleet of 5 ships in 

search of a westward route to the “Spice”

Islands of Indonesia. He arrived in Brazil 

in December, then 

passed through the 

Strait of Magellan 

at the tip of South America and entered 

the Pacific Ocean in November 1520.

On March 16, 1521 Magellan’s crew

became the first Europeans to record 

their sighting of the Philippine islands, 

landing on the island of Homonhon 

before continuing on through the 

archipelago. When the explorers

reached the island of Cebu on April 27, 

armed conflict between the Europeans and local inhabitants led 

by Lapu-Lapu erupted, resulting in the death of Magellan. His 

crew retreated and continued their journey westward, 

HISTORY &

MYTH
eventually becoming the first to circumnavigate the globe, 

arriving back in Spain in 1522.

The Spanish sent several other expeditions to the islands 

between 1522 and 1543. They were determined to colonize the 

archipelago so that they could participate in the lucrative spice 

trade, further Spain’s commerce and missionary contacts with 

China and Japan, and convert the Filipinos to Christianity. Ruy 

Lopez de Villalobos, the commander of the fourth expedition, 

named the islands Las Islas Filipinas in 1543 in honor of 

Spanish King Phillip II. 

Legazpi: In 1564 King Phillip II appointed Miguel Lopez de 

Legazpi the first royal governor of the Philippines and sent him 

from his post in Mexico to pacify the islands. His fleet landed 

on Cebu in 1565 where Legazpi and his men defeated the local 

ruler, forcing him to sign an agreement that made every Filipino 

answerable to Spanish law. When the agreement proved to be 

unenforceable, since the archipelago was comprised of

autonomous settlements, Legazpi set out to conquer each. 

In 1571 Legazpi vanquished the Muslim ruler of a prosperous

trade city in Manila Bay and established Manila as the capital 

of the colony. Due to its excellent harbor and proximity to 

productive rice fields, Manila quickly became the center of 

Spanish civil, military, religious, and commercial activity in the 

islands and a significant port for international trade in the 

region.

Galleon Trade: Because there were

no spices or precious metals in the 

islands, the colony was not initially 

profitable. Income was derived mainly 

from Manila’s harbor and the islands’ 

location on trade routes. Almost all 

state, private, and church capital came 

to be invested in the galleon trade, 

which was named after the large ships 

(pictured), owned by Spaniards.

These ships usually were manned by 

Filipinos that transported Chinese 

textiles and porcelain and Mexican silver between Manila and

HISTORY &

MYTH
Acapulco, Mexico. The galleon trade opened commerce 

between East and West and brought many Chinese to Manila 

to develop commercial enterprises. The Spanish colonial 

authorities restricted the Chinese to certain areas, and

consequently, there were periodic outbursts of violence 

between the two groups during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Friarocracy: Missionary priests and friars accompanied

Legazpi’s 1565 expedition and in the following years, 

Augustinian, Dominican, and Franciscan friars established 

parishes throughout the islands (see Religion and Spirituality). 

To ease their conversion efforts, the friars forced the populace 

into settlements and became de facto representatives of the 

Spanish colonial government. These friars supervised town 

affairs and eventually assuming responsibility for the political, 

economic, and social administrative functions of towns in a 

system that came to be criticized as a “friarocracy.” A similar 

system of Spanish colonization was instituted in the Americas.

The Catholic clergy retained a strong presence through the 

following centuries of Spanish rule. Conversion efforts focused 

on lowland and coastal populations and as a result, many 

upland tribal peoples and members of Muslim communities 

(whom the Spanish called Moros or Moors) retained their 

religious affiliations (see Religion and Spirituality). Upland 

communities for the most part were 

exempted from draft labor, taxation, 

education, and health measures.

The religious orders became the largest 

landholders by the 18th century, and the 

income from these holdings allowed some 

friars (pictured) to live in palatial estates. 

But the autonomy of the Spanish friars 

eventually led to their downfall. They 

refused to respect the authority of the 

bishops and ignored church policy to turn 

over parishes to locally trained priests. By 

the end of the 19th century, the friars’ misuse of authority 

coupled with their racist contempt for the indigenous people 

and neglect of their parishioners helped fan anti-Spanish 

sentiment.

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Philippine Revolution

A series of revolts occurred in the 19th century in response to 

these growing frustrations. In 1872, for example, Filipino 

dockworkers and soldiers rose up and killed their Spanish 

officers in Cavite. A short time later, three Filipino priests 

seeking equality with Spanish priests were executed near 

Manila, generating outrage and fueling the growth of a national 

consciousness.

European educated Filipinos known

as ilustrados led subsequent 

independence efforts. Jose Rizal, a 

physician and scholar, criticized

colonial rule and the friars’ beliefs 

concerning Filipino racial inferiority in 

the widely-read novel Noli Me 

Tangere in 1886. In 1892 he

organized a moderate reform 

movement called Liga Filipina that 

sought self-government through 

peaceful institutional reform. 

Although Rizal (pictured) never 

formally endorsed revolution, the friars feared sedition, banned 

his books, and convinced the Spanish authorities to arrest and 

exile him to Mindanao.

Rizal’s Liga Filipina collapsed after his arrest, although its 

influence continued when former member Andres Bonifacio 

established a secret militant society, the Katipunan, or KKK

which was led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Supported by a network of 

clandestine provincial councils, 30,000 members of the KKK 

initiated an armed struggle for independence against the 

Spanish in August 1896.

Despite his disavowal of violent revolution, Rizal was found 

guilty of treason before a military court and executed in 

December 1896. The rebels had few initial successes against 

the Spanish, although Rizal’s death spurred them to continue 

the fight. After 18 months of intense bloodshed and in-fighting 

within the KKK, the Spanish and the KKK negotiated an 

armistice, and rebel leader Aguinaldo retreated into exile in 

Hong Kong in 1897.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Philippine-American War

In December 1898, after the Spanish-American War, the US 

and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris which resulted in Spain 

ceding Cuba to the US and allowed the US to purchase Guam, 

Puerto Rico, and the Philippines for $20 million. The US 

Congress disagreed over whether to grant full independence to 

the Philippines or retain control of the archipelago in order to 

promote American economic, territorial, and cultural objectives

in the region. Because they had long held the hope that the US 

would support them in their cause of independence from Spain, 

the Filipinos were disheartened by this indecision and 

approved the Malolos Constitution in January 1899, declaring

the Philippines an independent republic and ex-rebel leader 

Aguinaldo its first President.

The American public was deeply divided over the issue, and 

US President McKinley’s subsequent decision to annex the 

Philippines was very controversial. At the time of annexation, 

when the country became a formal territory of the US,

American soldiers controlled the capital of Manila, while

Aguinaldo’s forces occupied a stronghold just outside of the 

capital. When two Filipino soldiers crossed the American lines 

in February 1899, a shootout followed by skirmishes resulted in 

the formal declaration of war by 

the Filipinos on June 2, 1899.

The Philippine-American War 

(pictured) lasted 3 years and

resulted in the death of 4,234 

American and over 20,000 Filipino 

combatants before US President 

Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed a 

general amnesty and conflict end

in July 1902. As many as 200,000 

Filipino civilians also died during 

this period from violence, famine, and disease. Thereafter,

minor uprisings and insurrections against American rule 

continued periodically in the following years.

American Era

In the war’s aftermath, Americans followed a policy of 

“benevolent assimilation” in the archipelago. To promote 

HISTORY &

MYTH
stability, prosperity, and democracy, and further its economic 

interests in the region, the US introduced reform and 

development programs for the government, educational

system, and infrastructure. Hundreds of American teachers 

were sent to the Philippines to provide instruction and to 

spread American ideals and culture (see Learning and 

Knowledge). Bridges, roads, and sewer systems were 

constructed, sanitation projects improved healthcare in rural 

areas, and trade with the 

US increased. (Pictured: 

Caricature from an 1899 

magazine showing Uncle 

Sam lecturing children 

wearing sashes identifying 

them as the Philippines, 

Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and 

Cuba.)

During this time, the desire for independence remained strong 

in the islands, and the idea of Philippine independence 

increasingly gained support among the American public. In 

1907, the Philippines convened its first elected assembly, and 

in 1916 the US Congress formally committed the US to 

Philippine independence. In 1934 the Philippine Independence 

Act established a Commonwealth government and laid out a 

10-year transition plan to full independence. 

World War II 

Before the transition plan to independence could be completed, 

World War II began. Japanese bombers struck Cavite and 

Clark US military bases in the Philippines on December 8, 

1941, shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor. On December 

22, Japanese forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and advanced 

across central Luzon, occupying Manila by January 2, 1942. 

This invasion drove the allied Filipino and US soldiers to the 

Bataan peninsula located opposite Manila. General Douglas 

MacArthur, the American general in charge of US forces, was 

forced to retreat to Australia but vowed to return.

Following MacArthur’s retreat, 76,000 soldiers (66,000 of them 

Filipino) surrendered to the Japanese on the Bataan peninsula.

The Japanese then forced the soldiers to march 75 miles to 

HISTORY &

MYTH
prison camps located at San 

Fernando. During this Bataan 

Death March (pictured), about 

10,000 Filipino and 650 

American men died, and an

additional 25,000 died after they 

reached prison camps.

Japanese Occupation: From 

1942 to 1945, the Japanese 

occupied the Philippines. Although many of the Philippine’s 

political elite served under the Japanese during the occupation, 

several anti-Japanese underground and guerrilla organizations 

controlled parts of the islands despite brutal repression by the 

Japanese.

MacArthur’s allied forces returned to the Philippines in October 

1944 and engaged the Japanese in the bloodiest campaign of 

the Pacific war. In February 1945, American forces drove the 

Japanese across Luzon and recaptured Manila. By July 1945, 

MacArthur declared victory but the Japanese did not formally 

surrender until September 1945. Over one million Filipinos died 

during the war, and Manila sustained extensive damage. 

Independence

At the end of the war, tensions between Filipino elites, who had

collaborated in large numbers with the Japanese, and nonelites, who had primarily supported the guerilla resistance, 

continued. The wartime roles of politicians in supporting either 

the Japanese or the Americans became of central concern, 

especially as the Philippines moved toward full independence. 

Although controversial to many, Manuel Roxas, a pre-war 

politician who had maintained contact with the Allies during the 

war, was elected the independent country’s first President in 

1946. The US continued to maintain a strong presence after 

the war, operating a naval base at Subic Bay and Clark Air 

Force Base outside Manila. 

During this period, a Communist-inspired insurgency known as 

the Hukbalahap or “Huk” rebellion began to mount a large 

offensive. Capitalizing upon unrest among the peasant 

population, the rebellion had begun initially as a political 

HISTORY &

MYTH
movement in Luzon in the 1930s and had resisted the 

Japanese during World War II. Roxas and his successors,

assisted by US military advisors, devoted significant resources

to putting down the insurrection and finally crushed the 

movement in 1953.

The Marcos Era 

Ferdinand Marcos (pictured), then a widely popular politician, 

was elected President in 1965 and became the first Philippine 

President to serve multiple terms. During his first term, Marcos 

instituted public works projects that 

improved the country’s roads, bridges, 

schools, and health centers. His 

charismatic wife, Imelda, initiated

popular social welfare and cultural 

projects, and this period was marked by 

widespread optimism.

When Marcos was elected to a second 

term in 1969, economic growth had 

slowed, resulting in rising poverty and 

inflation. Furthermore, to defeat his rival;

Marcos used violence, vote-buying, and 

other illegal practices. Reported on by a vocal free press, these 

conditions caused unrest and sparked protests which Marcos

answered with violence and military force. The US continued to 

support Marcos despite his dictatorial practices because he 

helped to repress the New People’s Army (NPA), an armed 

wing of the Philippine Communist Party that is still active today 

(see Political and Social Relations). 

Marcos declared martial law in 1972 citing threats posed by the 

NPA and leftist student groups. Under martial law, Marcos 

imposed a curfew, suspended Congress, banned international 

travel, and assumed control of the media. Thousands of antigovernment agitators and political rivals were imprisoned in 

military camps, including opposition leader Senator Benigno 

“Ninoy” Aquino. As the economy continued to weaken, Marcos 

lifted martial law in 1981 in a move intended to silence protest. 

He was re-elected President in 1981 in an election that was 

devoid of real competition, and his next term was similarly 

marked by wastefulness and corruption.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Assassination of Aquino: By 1980, opposition leader 

Benigno Aquino had been imprisoned for 7 years when he was

released so that he could seek medical treatment in the US. 

Upon attempting to return to the Philippines in 1983, Aquino

was assassinated at the Manila International Airport. This event

would spur the rapid growth of the first Epifanio de los Santos 

Avenue (EDSA I) or People Power 

Revolution, a movement which 

included millions of Filipinos of 

diverse socioeconomic and 

professional backgrounds opposed to 

the Marcos regime (Photo: Monument 

to Senator Benigno Aquino in Manila).

Widespread political unrest forced

Marcos to call for a special election in 

1986, a year before his term was to 

end. Corazon “Cory” Aquino, the 

widow of Benigno Aquino, ran as an 

opposition candidate backed by the Archbishop of Manila. Her 

participation inspired a record number of citizens to vote, and 

while the official election count declared Marcos the winner, 

poll watchers and ballot box guards protested that the count 

was fraudulent and declared Aquino the victor.

When Marcos still refused to admit defeat, hundreds of 

thousands of protestors heeding the call from opposition 

leaders and the Archbishop filled Manila, surrounding and 

threatening to storm the presidential palace. The Filipino 

military withdrew its support of Marcos, and US President 

Reagan offered Marcos safe haven, which he accepted, and 

Corazon Aquino became the Philippines’ new President.

The Return of Democracy 

President Aquino: There was great optimism for her

presidency, but Aquino was largely unable to improve the 

economy, initiate land reform, or bring the military fully under 

her control.

During her tenure, the US removed its forces from its bases on 

the islands, abandoning Clark Air Base after the eruption of Mt. 

Pinatubo in 1991 and then withdrawing from Subic Bay Naval 

HISTORY &

MYTH
Base when the Philippine government declined to renew its 

lease in 1992. 

President Ramos: Fidel Ramos was elected President in 

1992. His government focused on improving the electrical 

infrastructure and the industrial sector, and he also liberalized 

the banking system and traveled extensively to improve the 

image of the Philippines abroad. When Ramos left office in 

1998 high poverty and crime rates plagued the nation.

President Estrada: Joseph “Erap” Estrada was elected in 

1998 in a landslide victory on a platform that emphasized food 

security, housing, jobs, and education. However, within a year 

his popularity had sharply declined due to allegations of 

cronyism and corruption. The economy floundered as a result 

of his mismanagement and rampant favoritism.

In 2000, an investigation revealed that Estrada had earned 

$500 million in illegal gambling. These and other findings 

compelled Congress to impeach Estrada on charges of bribery, 

graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust, and violation of the 

Constitution. Outrage over these events spurred over half a 

million people to protest in a second successful People Power

or EDSA II protest (see Political and Social Relations). Cabinet 

members and the military withdrew their support, and Estrada 

was escorted out of the presidential palace by the Armed 

Forces Chief of Staff in January 2001.

President Macapagal-Arroyo: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, 

Estrada’s Vice President and daughter of a former less 

prominent President, was then 

sworn in to finish Estrada’s 

term. She was elected to a full 

term in 2004 but was also later 

accused of cronyism, 

extrajudicial killings, torture,

illegal arrests, and corruption.

President Benigno Aquino III:

In 2010 Benigno “Noynoy” Aquino III (pictured with Adm. 

Patrick Walsh) was elected President with 42% of the popular 

vote, defeating former President Estrada. The son of beloved 

former President Aquino, he was encouraged to run after his 

HISTORY &

MYTH
The Origin of Man

According to Tagalog lore, when the world began it 

contained only sea and sky. One day a bird, tired 

of having no place to rest, agitated the sea until it 

threw its waters into the sky. In order to restrain 

the sea, the sky showered islands upon the sea 

until its waters could only run back and forth 

between the islands and could not rise. 

The sea then ordered the bird to rest on a rock 

and to stop tormenting the sea. As the bird was 

resting, a bamboo shoot struck its legs. The bird 

angrily pecked the bamboo and the first man 

(Malakas, meaning powerful) sprung from one 

node of the shoot and the first woman (Maganda, 

meaning beautiful) sprung from another node. The 

gods granted permission to the first couple to have 

offspring, and they soon had many children of 

various races. All of humanity is said to have 

descended from this first family. 

This and other myths, legends, folktales, riddles 

and proverbs are examples of an extensive oral 

tradition found throughout the archipelago. Some 

of this oral folklore includes themes and topics 

similar to the Hindu epics of South Asia, 

demonstrating the historical connections among 

and between ethnic groups across the region. 

Oftentimes told to entertain, oral literature also 

reinforces values and perpetuates traditions.

mother’s death in 2009. Aquino’s presidency has been marked 

by his efforts to fight corruption and by his support of liberal 

social programs (see Sex and Gender). This information was 

current as of May 2012.

HISTORY &

MYTH
Official Name

Republic of the Philippines

Republika ng Pilipinas

Political Borders

The Philippine archipelago has a 

coastline of about 14,000 miles along 

the South China Sea to the west, the 

Philippine Sea in the Pacific Ocean to 

the east, the Celebes Sea and Sulu 

Sea to the south, and the Luzon 

Strait and Bashi Channel to the north.

Note: In the Philippines, the South 

China Sea is often referred to as the 

West Philippine Sea.

Capital

Manila

Demographics

The Philippines’ population of 93

million, which makes it the 12th most populous country in the 

world, is growing by about 1.9%-per-year. Of the almost 2000 

inhabited islands, the Philippines’ 11 major islands are divided 

into 3 main groups: Luzon in the North, the central Visayas, 

and Mindanao in the South. Luzon is the largest island and is 

home to half the country’s population and to the nation’s capital 

and largest metropolis, Manila, 

with about 12 million inhabitants.

Flag

The Philippine flag consists of a 

white triangle with a sun and 

stars on the hoist side and two 

equal horizontal bands of blue and red on the fly side. The 

eight rays emitting from the sun represent the provinces that 

fought for independence from Spain, while the stars represent 

the country’s three main regions: Luzon, the Visayas, and 

Mindanao. White represents equality, the blue field symbolizes 

peace and justice, and the red field stands for courage.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

The Republic of the Philippines consists of 7,107 islands that 

cover about 780,000 sq mi in the South China Sea (or West 

Philippine Sea) and Pacific Ocean, stretching about 1100 mi 

north-to-south and 650 mi east-to-west. The islands’ total land 

area is about 115,000 sq mi or about the area of Arizona. 

Although some islands were formed from coral reefs, most 

were formed as the result of volcanic activity. Topographical

features include forested mountainous interiors surrounded by 

flat lowlands and expansive coastal plains. Elevations range 

from sea level on the coasts to 9,698 ft at Mount Apo on 

Mindanao Island. 

Climate

Due to its proximity to the the equator, temperatures are fairly 

constant, ranging between 85°F and 100°F. There are two 

monsoon seasons: the northeast monsoon (amihan) occurs 

from November to April and the southwest monsoon (habagat) 

occurs from May to October, delivering between 38 and 160 

inches of rain annually, depending on location. Manila’s 

average annual rainfall is 80 inches.

Environmental Challenges

Because of its unprotected location in the open ocean, the 

Philippines experiences significant severe weather. Typically, 5 

to 9 Asian cyclonic storms or typhoons hit the islands each year

and the effects of wind, and rain can be devastating. For 

example, 1200 people 

died in flooding and 

mudslides after a storm in 

2011. 

Another environmental 

challenge comes from the 

archipelago’s placement 

across three major 

tectonic plates. Although 

most do not cause significant damage, earthquakes are 

frequent in the region and accompanying tsunamis are also 

threatening. The archipelago is also home to approximately 20 

active volcanos that occasionally erupt, destroying villages and 

farmland and displacing entire populations.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Government

Asia’s first democracy, the Philippines is a constitutionally 

established republic with executive, legislative, and judicial 

branches. There are 5 levels of administrative divisions: 

regions, provinces, chartered cities, municipalities, and political 

units known as barangays (see History and Myth). As of 2012, 

metropolitan Manila is itself a region containing 16 cities, 1 

municipality, and 1705 barangays. Created in 1990, the 

Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM), composed 

of the predominantly Muslim provinces on the island of 

Mindanao, has its own singlebody legislature and is in some 

respects self-governing (Photo: 

Manila City Hall).

Executive Branch

The Filipino President is

elected by popular vote to 

serve one 6-year term. The President is head-of-government, 

chief-of-state, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. He

selects cabinet and public ministers and is responsible for 

appointing field grade and higher military officers, 

ambassadors, and members of the Supreme Court.

Legislative Branch

The Philippines has a two-body legislature or Kongreso

composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 

Senators may serve no more than two 6-year terms, while 

representatives may serve no more than three 3-year terms. 

The current Congress includes:

• 23 directly-elected senators

• 249 district-elected representatives

• 36 presidentially-appointed minority representatives

No single political party holds a majority. Instead, parties form 

coalitions to create majority and minority blocs. Party loyalty is 

rare and switching between parties is common. Major political 

parties include the Liberal Party (LP), of which former President 

Aquino was a member, and the Lakas-Kampi Christian Muslim 

Democrats (Lakas-CMD) led by former President MacapagalArroyo. Ten other parties, coalitions, and interest groups are 

represented as well.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

The Filipino legal system is 

based on the US judicial 

system but also incorporates

common, Islamic, and 

customary law. Different 

levels of courts include a 15-

member Supreme Court

(pictured), 12 regional courts, 

circuit courts and local 

metropolitan courts. A nation-wide district court system based 

on Islamic customary law (adat) has also been established 

which tries cases involving family matters such as marriage, 

divorce, and inheritance (see Religion and Myth). 

Political Climate

The political landscape of the Philippines is constantly 

changing. Voter-participation rates are high, and close 

elections are common as there are usually numerous 

candidates for each office. Regardless of party, the country’s 

political leaders have often changed laws and regulations to 

give themselves, their families, and their business associates 

an advantage. There have been frequent coup attempts, 

sometimes led from within the military.

Mass political movements have also been influential in recent 

decades. EDSA I (Epifanio de los Santos Avenue), the first 

People Power nonviolent movement, helped to end the Marcos 

dictatorship in 1986, and a second successful People Power

march, EDSA II, helped to remove corrupt Estrada midway 

through his presidency (see History and Myth). The Filipino 

Catholic church played a large role in both EDSA I and II and 

continues to influence politics (see History and Myth and

Religion and Spirituality).

Despite this history of peaceful populist movements, there has 

been a recent increase in media attention to politically 

motivated murders, intimidation and violence, including acts 

committed by local officials and police. These acts, plus the 

rampant corruption throughout the government, have resulted 

in general distrust among the Philippine people of their political 

leaders and government representatives.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Defense

The National Defense Act of 1935 officially established the 

Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), and its status as an allvolunteer force was confirmed by the 1987 constitution. Begun 

as an internal security force, the AFP’s primary mission shifted 

to national defense with the end of US basing rights in 1992. 

Government and military leaders have frequently been at odds 

through the country’s history, and there have been numerous 

attempts at military coups over the years. In order to prevent 

the President from developing regional militias for his own 

goals, the AFP presently follows a recruitment policy that 

dictates the number of military posts for each province. The 

AFP currently has a total of 125,000 active duty personnel 

across all branches with approximately 130,000 reservists. The 

current focus is peacekeeping and counterterrorism on 

Mindanao and neighboring islands (see “Security Issues”

below). The AFP began an arms modernization project in the 

mid-1990s, although lack of funding and antiquated equipment 

still plagues all branches. 

Army: The Army has 80,000 soldiers organized in 10 light 

infantry divisions, a special 

operations command, 5

engineering battalions, 1 artillery 

regiment, 1 presidential security 

group, and 3 light-reaction 

companies. Light armor includes 

several small tanks and personnel 

carriers.

Navy: There are currently over 

21,000 naval personnel including approximately 7,000 Marines 

in the Marine Corps, an elite field combatant command of the 

Navy. Naval operations as recently as 2012 have been focused

on the disputed territory of the Spratly Islands in the South 

China Sea, in addition to counterterrorism missions in the 

South. 

Air Force: The Air Force was created concurrently with the 

Army and is a primarily transport and training-based Air Force 

with few attack aircraft. The almost 16,000 airmen are divided 

between 5 major commands.

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RELATIONS
National Police: Although previously part of the Army, the

Philippine National Police (PNP) with its 115,000 personnel is 

currently administered by the Department of Interior and local 

government. The PNP’s primary responsibility is internal 

security; however the army contests the PNP’s role in 

counterterrorism efforts. The PNP has been accused of human 

rights violations, extortion, kidnapping, and dereliction of duties;

therefore, the PNP enjoys little public support.

Paramilitary Groups: Ongoing internal violence has stretched

the already undersupplied military, prompting the government 

to provide some support to citizen paramilitaries. There are an 

estimated 40,000–82,000 members in over 100 private armed 

groups which include Civilian 

Volunteer Organizations (CVOs), 

police auxiliary units, and the 

Citizens’ Armed Forces 

Geographical Units (CAFGU).

Security Issues

The Philippines remains a longterm center for global human trafficking and sex trade despite 

attempts to eradicate these illicit activities. The exportation of 

marijuana and hashish as well as the domestic use of 

amphetamines has challenged the government in recent years. 

The larger threat to country’s safety and security is the ongoing 

violence among government forces, paramilitary organizations, 

terrorist and insurgent groups, and vigilantes. Terrorist and 

insurgent activity has become increasingly frequent in the 

Philippines since 2000, and recent attacks, kidnappings, and 

killings have been attributed to groups such as the New 

People's Army (NPA) and two Muslim separatist movements: 

Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) and the Abu Sayyaf 

Group (ASG). The AFP has recently put in place its Internal 

Peace and Security Plan (IPSP) which emphasizes the 

protection of human rights and civil liberties in fulfilling the 

government’s national security agenda.

NPA: The NPA is the armed wing of the Communist Party of 

the Philippines and was established in 1969 with the primary 

goal of creating a communist state (see History and Myth).

There are active branches in rural areas in Luzon, the Visayas, 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS 
and Mindanao. The NPA has weakened since the 1980s yet it 

continues to instigate violence across the country, sometimes 

launching guerilla attacks on the AFP and PNP and kidnapping 

for ransom. The government retaliates through its military and 

police forces as well as citizen 

paramilitary and vigilante groups

(Photo: Philippine Marines during a 

training exercise).

Muslim Separatist Movements

MILF: Muslim separatist groups have 

been active since the 1960s. Groups such as the MILF have 

their roots in the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), an 

organization formed to seek full independence for Mindanao 

and its Muslim population (see Religion and Spirituality). 

The MILF separated from the MNLF in 1987 following the 

latter’s acceptance of an autonomy agreement for Mindanao. 

The MILF officially disavows terrorism, however connections to 

international terrorist groups are suspected. After peace talks

between the MILF and the government failed, violence has 

increased especially since 2007. Tensions mounted and in late 

2011, the AFP launched a major air strike on MILF-controlled 

areas after several years without a major offensive. Despite this 

violence, both sides claim to be strongly committed to peace, 

and the government is actively striving for a negotiated political 

settlement in its IPSP.

ASG: Founded by several ex-MNLF members, ASG is a 

loosely affiliated network of smaller groups with charismatic 

leaders. With an estimated 200 to 500 members, the ASG aims

to establish an Islamic state using kidnapping, extortion, and 

bombings to collect and raise funds. ASG is based in the 

islands south of Mindanao including Basilan and Tawi-Tawi but

is particularly active in Sulu. The ASG has partnered with 

regional and global terrorist groups such as the Jemaah 

Islamiyah and Al Qaeda to obtain training and weaponry. The 

ASG is a major target of US intervention as it is considered 

responsible for much of the violence in the Philippines. The 

IPSP calls for the defeat of the ASG and all other terrorist 

groups.

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POLITICAL & 

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Diplomatic Relations: The Philippines conducts diplomatic 

relations with nearby countries primarily within the framework of

the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) which

facilitates military and economic cooperation among the 

Philippines, Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,

Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. The Philippines 

has been a member of the United Nations (UN) since 1945 and 

has participated in a variety of UN-sponsored peacekeeping 

missions. 

The Philippine National Volunteer Service Coordinating Agency 

oversees the work of international volunteer agencies from 

many nations including the US, Australia, Japan, several 

ASEAN countries, China, the UK, the EU, and several Persian 

Gulf and Middle Eastern countries.

US-Philippines Relations: Although some Filipinos resent the 

US’s long history of control and influence in the islands (see 

History and Myth), the US remains the Philippines’ most 

important ally, providing essential military and counterterrorism 

support.

During President Cory Aquino’s administration, the Filipino 

legislature rescinded the US’s basing rights in 1992 (see 

History and Myth), but in 1998 the two countries put in place a

Visiting Forces Agreement under the 

Mutual Defense Treaty. Since then, 

the US has conducted ship visits to 

Philippine ports, maintained an 

advisory presence, and the two 

nations presently hold yearly joint

military exercises (Photo: Former 

President Macapagal-Arroyo with 

Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in 

2009).

The US is one of the Philippines’

most significant donors, providing aid 

through several channels (see Economics and Resources).

The US also participates in a variety of cultural exchange 

programs with the Philippines, such as sponsoring American 

Fulbright scholars and sending Peace Corps volunteers.

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RELATIONS
Ethnic Relations

Almost 90% of the residents of the Philippines are so-called 

“lowland” Filipinos of Malay descent, and to differentiate 

themselves, these Filipinos may choose to emphasize their 

geographic origin, the language they speak, or their religious 

affiliation. In addition to this majority population, there are also 

approximately 100 indigenous minority 

groups, some Muslim and some 

Christian, whose members have 

historically suffered discrimination and 

in recent decades have clashed with the 

government over human rights abuses 

and land rights.

Due to the country’s location on 

important trade routes and its history of 

colonization (see History and Myth), 

many Filipinos have Chinese, South 

Asians, Japanese, Spanish, Pacific 

islanders, and Americans in their family trees. Today, ChineseFilipinos make up the most significant minority group, although

there are also large migrant communities of Vietnamese, 

Taiwanese, Indians, Japanese, Koreans, Europeans, and 

Americans in the islands.

Malay/Lowland Culture: The so-called “lowland” Filipinos

contains between 80 and 175 ethnolinguistic divisions (see 

Language and Communication). The most numerous

ethnicities are Tagalog (28% of the population), Cebuano

(13%), Ilocano (9%), Bisaya (8%), Hiligaynon Ilonggo (7.5%), 

Bikol (6%), and Waray (3.4%). Despite linguistic differences, 

these groups are bound together by similar cultural and social 

values. 

Although the majority are Christian, about 4% of this population

identify themselves as Muslim and live primarily on the islands 

of Mindanao, Sulu, and Basilan. Muslim Filipinos share many 

cultural and religious features with neighboring Malaysians and 

Indonesians. Demographically, they were the majority in 

Mindanao prior to the resettlement of land-poor Filipinos from 

Luzon and the Visayas after independence in 1946 (see 

History and Myth). This demographic shift has caused ongoing 

interethnic strife in certain parts of Mindanao.

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Indigenous Minority Groups: The Philippines’ ethnic minority 

groups make up between 6 - 10% of the population and are 

usually divided into following main groupings: the Mangyan 

peoples of the Visayas, the Negrito and the Igorot of Luzon, 

and the Lumad and so-called Moro (moor) populations of 

Mindanao. Often referred to, perhaps incorrectly, as the 

aborigines of the Philippines, the Negrito include the Aeta, Ati, 

Agta, and Dumagat peoples. The Igorot include several 

mountain-dwelling groups such as the Apayao, Kalinga, 

Benguet, Bontoc, and Tingguian or Itneg groups. One group, 

the Ifugao, are famously recognized as the creators of the rice 

terraces in Banaue. Finally, the term Lumad is used to describe 

the non-Muslim groups of Mindanao, such as the Bukidnon, 

Bagobo, Mandaya, and Mansaka. The Muslim groups of 

Mindanao include the Badjao, Maguindanao, Maranao, 

Tausug, and the Samal (see Religion and Spirituality) (Photo: 

Woman at the 2000-yearold Banaue rice terraces

located in Ifugao province).

These highland groups, 

often referred to as 

mountain tribes, generally 

resisted western influence 

during centuries of 

colonization and have 

retained many of their 

traditional practices and beliefs (see Religion and Spirituality

and Aesthetics and Recreation). Historically, colonial 

authorities and the majority population considered these people 

to be racially and culturally inferior and therefore subjected

them to injustice and abuse. Today these groups benefit from 

laws that mandate governmental protection of their lands and 

cultural support programs.

Chinese: Since they began arriving to the islands in large 

numbers around the era of the galleon trade in the 17th and 

18th centuries (see History and Myth), Chinese and ChineseFilipino mestizos (people who trace both heritages) have 

dominated commerce and, to a lesser extent, politics in the 

islands. Some Chinese-Filipino communities have their own 

schools to maintain Chinese language proficiency and culture.

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
Social Relations

Because the Philippines has a long history of contact with other 

cultures, the country tends to appeal to a variety of foreign 

nationals. Many Filipinos speak English, and the dominant 

religion, dress, architecture, music, and sport preferences (see 

Aesthetics and Recreation) may seem just like home to some 

foreign visitors. Yet, there are certain Filipino social values 

such as hiya (shame), amor propio (self-esteem), and 

paggalang (respect for authority and one’s elders) which may 

result in unusual Filipino behavior as perceived by foreign 

nationals (see Language and Communication). 

Generally, these shared values help to define what is socially 

acceptable and are meant to ensure broad conformity to norms

of behavior to which all community members are expected to 

strictly adhere (see Language and Communication for a 

description of Filipino communication style). These norms 

center on supporting social cohesion and avoiding 

disagreement and conflict. For most Filipinos, the maintenance 

of smooth, reciprocal, and conflict-free relationships is 

paramount. Similarly, socializing is central to life and often 

takes precedence over work obligations. Isolation from others 

is seen as asocial, and those who do segregate themselves 

are often the brunt of social gossip.

Filipinos consider hospitality to guests an important social 

obligation and seek to actively incorporate them into the work 

or social group. Foreign nationals should attempt to conform to 

social norms, particularly subtlety, self-control, and moderation

thereby avoiding any tendencies to stare, become angry, or 

short-tempered. Similarly, they should not expect to receive 

direct answers to their questions (see Language and 

Communication). Conforming to norms that uphold Filipinos 

sense of civility and self-worth 

can result in long and loyal 

friendships.

Social Stratification

The gap between rich and poor 

in the Philippines remains wide

and has even grown since 

independence. Although many 

poor people live in rural areas, 

POLITICAL & 

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RELATIONS
there are also large concentrations of them in the cities. 

Whether rural or urban, poverty disproportionally impacts 

women, children, and members of indigenous minority groups.

In addition to his financial situation, a Filipino’s social status is 

defined by a complex combination of several different factors 

including age, skin color (with lighter being more desirable), his 

family’s social position, and his associations with government 

officials, wealthy friends, and community leaders. Most Filipinos 

view education as their best opportunity for bettering their 

economic and social standing (see Learning and Knowledge).

Indicators of Social Status: Community members with high 

social status will seek to affiliate with still higher-status

individuals by requesting their sponsorship for family weddings 

and baptisms (see “Kumpadre-Kumadre” in Family and 

Kinship). Other indicators of social status include the purchase 

and conspicuous use of consumer goods, including a family car

and travel abroad. Darker-skinned people may experience 

discrimination and abuse and may be seen as inferior to lighterskinned people. Additionally, women, children, members of 

indigenous minorities and non-Christian groups may also face 

discrimination and marginalization.

Visiting

The art of hosting visitors is a significant aspect of 

Filipino culture. Upon receiving an invitation, it is 

customary to refuse twice before accepting the offer in 

order to verify that it was extended as a sincere 

gesture rather than a perceived obligation. Although 

an arrival time usually is set, it is considered polite for 

the guest to arrive 15 to 30 minutes late. Guests of 

status may arrive even later. Generally, arriving on 

time suggests an overeager or greedy visitor. Upon 

arriving, visitors should knock and say “Tao po” or “a 

person is here, sir/madam.” Guests may be asked to 

remove their shoes within the home and are typically 

entertained in the living room. When departing, guests 

should always take formal leave of their host.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Since the Filipino constitution guarantees religious freedom,

consequently, the government observes both Christian and 

Muslim religious days as national holidays. The Philippines is 

the only predominantly Christian country in Asia where 90% of 

the population identifies

themselves as Christian. Of 

those, about 83% self- identify

as Catholic. Islam is the

largest minority religion, with 5-

7% of the population

identifying themselves as 

Muslim (Photo: San Agustin, 

the oldest church in Manila, 

built in 1607).

Despite being predominantly

Catholic, the Philippines 

remain religiously diverse: 

home-grown Catholic and 

Protestant churches enjoy

increasing membership, and some people are known to 

incorporate aspects of Christianity or Islam with elements of 

their traditional belief systems. 

The influence of religion and religious leaders on political 

processes has been strong since the arrival of the Spanish 

friars in the 16th century (see History and Myth). Filipino clergy 

actively supported the independence movement in the 19th

century, and the Catholic leadership openly criticized the 

Marcos regime in the 1980s. Despite official separation of 

church and state, political leaders today continue to seek the 

support of religious leaders.

Traditional Beliefs

Traditional religious beliefs and practices in the archipelago 

varied by ethnic group, but most involved animism, or the belief 

that spirits inhabit the natural world in the sky, water, rocks, 

and forests and provide humans with required resources such 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Aswang

Some Filipinos trace the cause of unfortunate events 

such as illness, miscarriages, and even death to a 

special class of malevolent sprits known as aswang. 

Usually a nocturnal creature, an aswang is believed 

to appear as a vampire or ghoul and attack the sick, 

pregnant women, and people outdoors alone at night.

Albulario

Among some of the indigenous mountain tribes (see 

Political and Social Relations), a shaman or healer 

known as an albulario may be consulted to perform 

the required ceremony of appeasement to a spirit who 

has caused misfortune. Urban, educated Filipinos 

may also speak of evil spirits and carry an amulet or 

talisman for protection.

as food, rain, and sunshine. Some groups constructed figurines

to represent these or other spirits, such as the spirits of 

deceased ancestors. Additionally, many groups believed in the 

dominion of one powerful deity who was remote and 

inaccessible but was surrounded by lesser gods. 

Generally, people believed that these spirits and gods could 

affect the events of daily life and required appeasement in the 

form of offerings. There were both benevolent spirits who could 

provide good luck and malevolent spirits who could cause 

sickness or misfortune.

Among many indigenous groups, healers or shamans used 

rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices, and herbal preparations to heal 

the sick, to assist those suffering misfortune, and to relieve 

those plagued by bothersome spirits (see Sustenance and 

Health).

Many aspects of traditional beliefs continue to be important for 

many Filipinos today, even those who identify as Christian or 

Muslim. They perceive a close relationship between the 

supernatural and daily life that affects their view of the world 

around them and shapes their personal relationships.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

Introduction of Christianity to the Philippines

The Spanish considered conversion to Christianity a symbol of 

allegiance to their authority, and Catholic clergy were regular 

members of expeditions to Asia and the New World during the 

16th and 17th centuries (see History and Myth). When explorer 

Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in 1521, most 

Philippine communities were small and decentralized, which 

facilitated the successful Spanish conversion efforts among the 

lowland groups. Only the communities in the isolated highlands 

(see “Indigenous Minority Groups” in Political and Social 

Relations) and the Muslim sultanates in the Sulu archipelago 

and Mindanao (see History and Myth) largely withstood the 

Spanish efforts and successfully avoided conversion and 

colonization.

The Spanish enacted resettlement policies that concentrated 

the population in particular areas and then conducted mass 

baptisms. They systematically destroyed indigenous holy 

places and statues and other representations of indigenous 

sprits and gods. Initially, the indigenous people had difficulty 

reconciling their own belief systems with those introduced by

the Spanish missionaries. Eventually, they agreeably blended

the two practices to

formulate a modified 

approach (Photo: Our Lady 

of the Abandoned Parish in 

Marikina City).

“Folk”Catholicism

Catholicism in contemporary

Philippine society is marked 

by diversity. There are some 

congregations that strictly 

follow doctrine from Rome, while others incorporate aspects of 

Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism into their worship.

Most Filipinos tend to practice a form of “folk” Catholicism – a 

hybrid of Roman Catholic and indigenous beliefs and practices. 

For example, many Filipinos believe in the miraculous power of 

statues and images, a belief that is connected to the traditional

belief in the spirits of ancestors and the power of ritualistic

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
offerings. Other traditions, such as the re-enactments of the 

crucifixion of Christ in San Fernando are very popular although

frowned upon by church leadership.

El Shaddai: In 1984 Brother “Mike” Velarde founded the lay 

Catholic group El Shaddai, a charismatic populist movement 

whose services include speaking in tongues and sermons that 

teach the “prosperity gospel.” This doctrinal approach promotes

the idea that God wants individuals to prosper, and therefore,

upward economic mobility is God’s reward to the faithful. The 

group currently has about 8 million members primarily from the 

Philippines’ poorest communities.

Protestantism

American missionaries first introduced Protestant 

denominations to the islands when the Philippines was under

US administration (see History and Myth). Currently, less than 

5% of the population are members of Protestant denominations

such as Seventh-Day Adventists, United Church of Christ, 

United Methodist, the Episcopal Church, Assemblies of God, 

the Mormons, and Philippine Baptists. The two most significant 

indigenous Christian churches are the Philippine Independent 

Church and the Iglesia ni Christo. 

Iglesia Filipina Independiente (IFI): The IFI or Philippine 

Independent Church, was founded by a former Catholic priest, 

Father Aglipay, during the Philippine independence movement 

in the late 19th century in response to Spanish prejudice 

against Filipino priests (see History and Myth). Today, the 

church is associated with the American Episcopal Church and 

has 7 to 10 million members.

Iglesia ni Cristo (INC): The 

INC or Church of Christ has 

about 2 million members. 

This Bible-based, antiCatholic church was founded 

in 1914 by Felix Manalo who 

rejected the worship of 

images and veneration of 

saints which he oserved in Philippine Catholic services. The 

church’s elaborate buildings and distinctive spires are seen

throughout the country (Photo: INC church in Manila).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Islam

Introduction of Islam to the Philippines

Islam spread north to the Philippines from Indonesia and 

Malaysia beginning in the 14th century, when the Sultanate of 

Sulu introduced the religion to the islands (see History and 

Myth). By the time the Spanish arrived in 1521, Islam was

firmly established on the islands of Mindanao and Sulu and had 

spread to Cebu and Luzon. The Muslim population largely 

resisted the colonization and conversion efforts of the Spanish

and through the following years, Islam in the archipelago 

changed as its practitioners adapted it to traditional beliefs and 

practices.

Islam Today

Residence Patterns

Most Muslim Filipinos continue 

to reside on Mindanao and 

nearby islands as part of the 

Autonomous Region of Muslim 

Mindanao (ARMM, see 

Political and Social Relations). 

Additionally, substantial 

numbers have resettled in the urban centers of Manila and 

Cebu in recent years. Most Filipino Muslims are members of 

the Maguindanao, Maranao, Tausug, Badjao, and the Samal

indigenous minority groups (see Political and Social Relations). 

Muslim Filipinos inhabit some of the islands’ most 

impoverished areas, and there are ongoing charges of cultural 

and economic discrimination against Muslim Filipinos (Photo: 

The Islamic Center in Marawi City on Mindanao).

Muslim Practices: Muslim Filipinos follow the basic tenets of 

Islam, although like many Catholics, their religion has also 

incorporated aspects of indigenous beliefs and practices. For 

example, some Muslims may present offerings to spirits known 

as diwata, and many of them wear amulets to dispel ill fortune.

Most Muslim Filipinos belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, 

although there are also a small number of Shi’a Muslims.

Sunni, which is the world’s largest grouping, are distinguished 

by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the Muslim community

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
(Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, members of the Shi’a 

sect believe the Muslim leader should be a direct descendant 

of the Prophet Muhammad.

The Code of Muslim Personal Law recognizes Shari’a (Islamic) 

law as part of Philippine national law, although it only pertains 

in civil, not criminal matters and only to Muslims. Due to a lack 

of qualified applicants, many judgeships in Shari’a courts 

remain vacant. 

Human Rights Initiatives: In 2010, the government 

established a cabinet-level commission to promote the rights of 

Muslim Filipinos and support the implementation of economic, 

educational, cultural, and infrastructure programs for their

communities. Recently, the Filipino government has provided 

financial support to madaris or Islamic schools which provides 

for a unified curriculum and integration into the national 

education system (see Learning and Knowledge).

Religion and Politics

Most politicians seek the endorsement of religious leaders

when they are running for office. For example, President 

“Noynoy” Aquino has sought the support of televangelist Apollo 

Quiboloy of the Kingdom of Jesus Christ Church.

Because religious leaders are 

highly regarded in Filipino 

society, politicians often make

decisions which align with the

local religious community so as 

to maintain its support.

Because of their overt power in 

the political process, outspoken 

clergy have become targets for

extrajudicial killings committed for political ends (Photo: 

Magellan’s Cross in a Cebu city chapel).

Muslims and Christians inhabiting Mindanao continue to 

disagree over who should rightfully control the island (see 

Political and Social Relations). Some Christian inhabitants

resent the government’s support of Muslim governance of parts 

of the island, while some Muslim inhabitants dislike the 

Christian encroachment on their historical territory.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Serving as the basic unit of social organization in the 

Philippines, the extended family consists of parents, their 

children, grandparents, unmarried or widowed aunts and

uncles, and cousins. Filipino families play a central role in the 

lives of their members and 

serve as the individual’s 

primary source of identity, 

social status, political 

affiliation, and financial 

success. Both Christian and 

Muslim Filipinos trace their 

descent bilaterally through 

both their parents. 

Traditionally, families unite around the mother, who is expected 

to take responsibility for most decisions and everyday matters 

in the domestic sphere, but respect the father as ultimate 

household authority.

Family Structure and Residence

The extended family unit ideally lives together in one home, 

contributing to the family’s integral role in Filipino social life. As 

a reflection of the close relationships between extended family

members, adults often refer to their sibling’s children as their 

own and distant relatives as cousins. In addition, it is common 

for single women past marrying age to support a brother’s or 

sister’s child as though they were their own. 

Grandmothers, mothers, and daughters work together to serve 

as the key decision-makers on issues that affect family or home 

life, and it is common for women to maintain their closest 

relationships with other women in their extended family. 

Unemployed relatives often assume greater portions of 

domestic responsibilities in the home, and it is common for 

young adults in urban areas to reside at home while in college.

Relationships with neighbors are also important, and Filipinos 

willingly help each other when asked. Filipinos will assist their 

neighbors on a range of issues, such as providing financial 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP
loans, paying poor children for assistance in the home, and 

offering food during times of need. 

Rural Areas: In rural areas, one family residence typically 

includes several members of an extended family. 

Consequently, housing frequently consists of a cluster of 

closely built huts or houses on 

one plot of land. Filipinos 

typically use locally available 

materials such as bamboo 

and nipa palm to construct 

houses having raised floors on 

wooden piles, high-pitched

metal or palm frond roofs, and 

walls made of bamboo or 

other wood. These rural houses are often divided into one 

communal room that contains a wood-burning stove for 

cooking and one or two multi-purpose rooms for sleeping, 

eating, and visiting. 

Urban Areas: Family units are often smaller in urban areas, 

and although members of an extended family may live in one 

home, typically fewer members reside together than in rural 

areas. Residences in urban areas often have concrete 

foundations and wooden or brick walls and several rooms 

including a living room, kitchen, bathrooms, and bedrooms. In 

some instances, the structures may be constructed of less 

durable materials such as plywood or cardboard.

Dating

Many features of traditional Filipino dating continue to be 

practiced today. Although the family’s influence in choosing 

marriage partners has lessened over the years, older female 

relatives still encourage courtship between partners they deem 

suitable. Because of close familial bonds, Filipino couples tend 

to continue to seek their family’s approval of potential mates. 

Young Filipino women are strongly encouraged to display

modesty and disinterest in male suitors. Although boys and 

girls are permitted to mix during their adolescent years, adults 

often are exceptionally mindful of their interactions. These

traditional dating practices are changing with the rapid spread 

of mobile phones having texting and instant messaging 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
capabilities, which allow for communication between couples

that is beyond their families’ oversight.

Still widely practiced in the Philippines, the engagement

tradition pamanhikan dictates that a man and his family must 

bring gifts to the home of his potential bride in order to 

persuade her family to support the union. Long engagements 

of five years or more remain common practice, and it remains 

rare for an unmarried couple to live together prior to marriage.

Marriage

Marriage in the Philippines is considered an important step in 

the maturation process, and most Filipinos marry before age

30. Because men are expected to produce children as a sign of 

manhood, newly married couples often have children quickly. 

Of note, it is not considered 

abnormal or shameful for a woman 

to remain unmarried (see “Family 

Structure and Residence”). 

Filipinos traditionally tended to 

exhibit a strong preference to marry 

within their social groups, preferring

mates from their home towns and 

from their faith. Among Muslim 

Filipinos, parents sometimes 

arrange their children’s marriages 

and may opt to marry under Filipino or Islamic law (see Political 

and Social Relations). Inter-faith couples must marry under 

Filipino law.

Weddings: Most Christian weddings occur in a church. The

bridegroom’s family typically pays for the wedding, although it 

is becoming more common for the bride’s family to share the 

cost. After marrying, the couple may move in with either set of 

parents in order to save money for their own living quarters.

Divorce: Largely due to the significant influence of the Roman 

Catholic Church, the Philippines is one of only two countries 

that outlaws divorce – the other is Vatican City. Once legal, 

divorce was banned in the 1949 Civil Code, but in recent years, 

support has rallied around a bill to legalize divorce again. This

legislation has been staunchly opposed by the Catholic Church 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
as “anti-family.” Church-based annulments are possible only in 

extreme cases such as physical abuse or forced religious 

conversion. Of note, Muslim Filipinos who have married under 

Islamic law may also divorce under that law.

Children

Parents and daughters all take 

part in raising children, 

although the grandparents 

often assume significant

responsibility for childcare

within the extended family 

unit. When the grandparents 

do not live with the extended family, parents who work outside 

of the home often send their younger children to live with their 

grandparents. 

Rites-of-Passage

The following rites-of-passage ceremonies mark life’s various 

stages.

Birth: The birth of a baby is viewed as cause for celebration,

and a couple’s first child is considered a hallmark occasion. 

While some families prefer to have male offspring, females are 

also appreciated for their expected contributions to the 

household, which typically begin at an early age. 

Having several offspring is a great source of pride for the

parents. This norm along with the Catholic Church’s 

disapproval of birth control (see Sex and Gender), has resulted 

in the country having one of the world’s highest birth rates. 

To deescalate the Philippines’ rapid population growth (see 

Political and Social Relations), in 1985 the government issued 

a recommendation that families have no more than 2 children 

at least 3 years apart. Governmental and social measures have 

helped to lower the fertility rate from 4.3 children-per-woman in 

1990 to approximately 3 children-per-woman in 2009. Recently, 

efforts by Congress to pass controversial family-planning 

legislation have been largely opposed by the Catholic Church.

Puberty: At puberty, many young Filipino boys and girls join 

cliques known as barkada which serve as their primary social 

bonds outside of the family. Youth in barkada are expected to 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
forgo personal aspirations for the collective betterment of the 

group, and the relationships formed between members often 

last throughout adulthood. Wealthier families may mark their 

daughters’ transition to adulthood when she turns 18 with a 

large, formal celebration.

Death and Funerals: Funerals for Christian Filipinos usually 

begin with a 24-hour wake in the home of the deceased that 

may last for several days. During the wake, friends and family 

mourn the loss of their loved one, participate in prayer services,

and share food and drink. In addition to expressing their 

condolences, friends and family members may contribute a 

monetary gift to help defray the costs of the funeral.

After the wake, the casketed body is transported in a 

procession to the cemetery for burial. Mourners’ clothing is 

usually black, although some may choose to wear white and 

signify their mourning with a black pin which some mourners

wear for 6 or more weeks after the funeral. On anniversaries of 

the death, the family usually visits the cemetery, often leaving 

the deceased’s favorite dish or drink at the gravesite. 

Muslim Filipinos typically follow Islamic tradition in bathing and 

shrouding the body, then burying the body without a casket 

facing easterly towards the Ka’aba (Islam’s most sacred site) in 

Mecca. Customary rituals vary by locale and ethnic group.

Kumpadre-Kumadre System

There are three major rites-of-passage that occur 

regularly in most Christian Filipino families: baptism, 

confirmation, and marriage. All three rituals involve the 

Kumpadre-Kumadre System, loosely translated as 

godparenthood or sponsorship. Adults from outside the 

family sponsor an individual being baptized, confirmed 

in the church, or married. The number of sponsors for

a couple’s marriage is often regarded as a sign of 

status and correlates to the future success of the 

union. Similarly, sponsors typically provide religious 

instruction and some economic support to the 

members. Sponsorship is considered useful in 

establishing multiple extended-family connections.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

The Philippines is one of only a few countries having an explicit 

gender equality provision in its Constitution, and women have 

achieved significant professional, political, and academic 

positions since its independence in 1946. Despite these

advances, patriarchal views remain common in the workplace

(see Family and Kinship) and many Filipino women continue to 

be the victims of domestic violence.

Gender Roles and Work

While women comprise about 38% of the total Filipino 

workforce, in recent years a large number of them have moved 

abroad to work as laborers or domestic assistants. Filipino 

women are traditionally responsible for childcare and managing 

the home and family finances (see Family and Kinship). As an

indication of the woman’s role as financial manager, a groom 

typically will give his

bride a symbolic coin 

during the wedding 

ceremony as s symbol 

of that role. 

Rural: In rural areas, a 

woman’s duties to her 

husband, children, and 

home are usually

viewed as her most 

important responsibilities. While men control most agricultural 

work, women often work together with men to cultivate rice and 

harvest crops. 

Urban: Employment opportunities for women tend to be more 

favorable in urban than rural areas and many women migrate 

to urban areas looking for work. Urban women are engaged in 

a variety of professions such as teachers, clerks, storekeepers, 

lawyers, doctors, and nurses. In contemporary Filipino society, 

women commonly rise to top-level positions. In fact, a recent 

United Nations survey indicates that the Philippines is one of 

few countries where women hold a nearly equal number of 

senior management positions as men.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Education 

Filipino men and women generally enjoy equal access to 

education. Coeducational public schooling has become 

increasingly available since World War II, contributing to 

greater interaction between the genders. On the whole, the 

dropout rate is higher for boys than girls, and girls have 

outperformed boys in national achievement tests. 

Approximately 67% of girls, compared to 52% of boys, 

complete secondary school, and women outnumber men in 

post-graduate programs. 

Gender and Politics

The Philippines granted women the right 

to vote in 1937 and since then, women 

have been relatively well represented in 

government. Two women have served 

as the country’s President, and today 

women hold 3 of 12 elected positions in 

the Senate, approximately 15% of seats 

in Congress, and 25% of governmental 

ministerial positions. Women also hold 

just over 25% of judiciary positions. The

National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women serves as 

a permanent women’s advisory committee to the President. 

Gender and the Law

The 1987 Constitution contains an equal rights clause 

specifically protecting the rights of women. Since the 1990s, 

the government has made substantial effort to promote gender 

equality, including an initiative mandating all government 

agencies to allocate at least 5% of their budgets to the 

advancement of woman’s issues. Women also enjoy equal 

rights of inheritance with their husbands and male siblings. 

Despite these positive legal protections, women remain 

restricted by the prohibition on legal divorce (see Family and

Kinship).

Gender-Based Violence

Domestic violence and rape are the most common forms of 

sexual and gender-based violence. Because sexual relations in 

the home are considered a private matter, it is difficult to 

estimate the exact prevalence of abuse. While annually 

SEX &

GENDER
thousands of Filipino women do report physical or verbal abuse 

from their husbands, a notable 15% of young adults agree that 

a husband is justified in thrashing his wife. Several major 

articles of legislation have been passed to protect women and 

children from sexual and gender-based violence, including the 

Rape Victim Assistance and Protection Act of 1998, which 

required the establishment of rape 

crisis centers in every city, and the 

Anti-Violence Against Women and 

Their Children Act of 2004. 

Procreation

Procreation is highly valued in 

Filipino communities (see Family 

and Kinship). Particularly in rural 

areas, masculinity is closely tied to 

the number of children a man 

fathers. Similarly, among poorer families the average woman 

has 6 children, as opposed to the wealthier woman who

produces an average of 2 children.

Because of the continuing influence of the Catholic Church in 

policy debates (see Family and Kinship), abortion continues to 

be outlawed, forcing about 500,000 women to undergo illegal 

abortions each year. Additionally, contraceptive use continues 

to be a relatively low 50%, with rates among uneducated 

women as low as 18%. 

Homosexuality

Traditionally, most Filipinos disapprove of homosexuality, and 

homosexuals are not permitted in the Filipino military. In recent

years, however, homosexuality has become more accepted as

a gay movement has been gaining some political traction.

Consequently, non-stereotypical homosexual characters have 

become a regular part of television and movie entertainment.

In 2009, the Philippines Electoral Commission refused a group 

of homosexuals the right to register as a political party, quoting 

verses from the Bible and the Qur’an as grounds for classifying 

them as immoral. Because there is an official separation of 

church and state in the country’s Constitution (see Religion and 

Spirituality), this denial was widely condemned.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

The Philippines is linguistically diverse, with approximately 170

languages spoken throughout the islands. Most Filipinos use 

their native language as their primary means of communication,

and speak one or both of the country’s two official languages, 

English and Filipino, as a second or third language for business 

or educational purposes.

Ethnic Languages

The indigenous languages 

found in the Philippines 

belong to the MalayoPolynesian language family. 

They are related to 

Indonesian and Malay by 

having similar grammar and 

linguistic roots, although few are mutually intelligible. Since 

there is a wide geographical distribution of languages in the 

Philippines, it is common for a language to be spoken in more 

than one area. Most of the islands’ 93 million inhabitants speak

dialects that belong to 8 groups: Tagalog (23% of the 

population), Cebuano (or Visayan) (17%), Ilocano (7.5%), 

Hiligaynon (6%), Bicolano (5%), Waray-Waray (2.7%),

Pampangan (2%), and Pangasinan (1%).

Filipino

After Manila became the capital in the 16th century (see History

and Myth), its regional language, Tagalog, gained importance 

as a lingua franca and in 1939 was chosen as the official 

language. Eventually, it became the most widely spoken 

language in the country. The language was renamed “Pilipino” 

20 years later in the attempt to differentiate the official 

language from its native source and avoid the appearance of 

favoring one indigenous language over another. In 1987 it was 

renamed again as “Filipino.” Today, Filipino is still sometimes 

referred to as “Tagalog” and shares much of the grammar and 

pronunciation of the Tagalog language, although it is more 

flexible in its grammar and syntax. It also contains vocabulary 

from other indigenous languages as well as Spanish and 

English, and it reflects some Chinese and Hindi influences.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Filipino English Pronunciation

The “f” sound is difficult to pronounce for some native 

Tagalog speakers so they often substitute a “p” sound, 

for example pronouncing “Pilipino” for “Filipino.”

Filipinos also typically pronounce their vowels 

differently than Americans. Short “i” and long “e”

sounds are indistinguishable for many so “big” will 

sound like “beeg.” Many Filipinos emphasize what 

American speakers would regard as the “wrong” 

syllable, saying for example, ca-TE-go-ry instead of 

CA-te-go-ry.

English

American settlers brought English to the Philippines in 1898 

(see History and Myth), which is used as a second or third 

language by almost half of the population. Since 1974,

government policy has favored Filipino over English in schools, 

business, and government; although English continues to be 

used/ in all arenas and is widely viewed as a means to achieve 

social and economic advancement.

Despite its American roots, Filipino English is a distinct dialect 

which clearly reveals the influences of the islands’ indigenous 

languages. Filipinos are proud of their distinctive accent and 

speech patterns. Many Filipinos switch between English and 

Filipino within conversations or even within sentences, resulting 

in a mixture known as Taglish. This habit, combined with 

pronunciation and vocabulary differences to American English,

may make understanding Filipino English difficult.

Communication Overview

The seeming ease of most interaction and false sense of 

similarity to American culture can cause foreign nationals to 

overlook significantly unique dimensions of Filipino culture.

Communicating competently in the Philippines requires not 

only knowledge of English, Filipino, or any of the other major

languages, but also the ability to interact effectively using those 

languages. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used 

properly, these forms of 

communication ensure that 

statements are interpreted as 

the speaker intends (Photo: 

President Aquino with US Navy 

captain.)

Communication Style

Filipinos strive to make all 

communication pleasant, harmonious, and polite. The term

pakikisama implies compliance for the benefit of harmony and

describes a typical Filipino social inclination to avoid conflict, 

promote agreement, and place the needs of the group before 

individual needs. To preserve this ideal, Filipinos rarely voice 

disagreement or refuse requests in public. As a result, the 

simple word “yes” becomes not so simple: it can imply “yes,”

“maybe,” “not sure,” “perhaps,” or even “no.” 

This type of behavior should not be interpreted as insincerity. 

Indeed, Filipinos consider themselves sincere when they fulfill

obligations and are true to societal expectations to conform to 

certain social standards. Consequently, it is acceptable in their 

society to say “yes” even when they do not agree in order to be 

respectful and non-confrontational. Attentiveness to tone of 

voice and nonverbal cues like facial expressions and gestures 

is key to determining the true intention behind the words.

In addition, Filipinos often use humor, teasing, and nonverbal 

cues to communicate their message while still preserving 

harmony. Generally, speaking loudly communicates arrogance, 

selfishness, lack of concern for the relationship and impatience.

Conversely, speaking in gentle tones makes one appear 

refined, confident, and capable. If foreign nationals find it 

difficult to understand a Filipino, they should tactfully reframe 

their request for information in a non-offensive manner.

Conflict Avoidance: Filipinos have such a strong aversion to 

conflict that they prefer to circumvent it in all situations. The 

concept of constructive criticism is not viewed positively. If it is 

necessary to approach an issue critically, it is best to do so 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
privately. Individual criticism in the presence of a person’s 

peers could result in a loss of face, which is a serious insult. If 

embarrassing or contentious topics need to be discussed, or if 

a person feels he must refuse a request or contradict another, 

a Filipino may choose to use an intermediary to communicate 

the message so as to avoid a socially awkward situation.

Greetings

Filipino culture values social pleasantries, and it is important to 

greet everyone. Younger Filipinos in urban areas may greet 

older adult strangers as mama (for men) or ale (for women), 

adult acquaintances as tita (aunt) or tito (uncle), and the

elderly as lola (grandmother) or lolo (grandfather). Many rural 

Filipinos communicate respect to elders by taking the elder’s 

hand or fist and placing it on their own forehead while saying 

the appropriate greeting and 

asking for their hand, mano po. 

Filipino men may greet one 

another with a brief handshake, 

sometimes placing the free 

hand on top of the handshake 

for emphasis, although verbal 

greetings are also acceptable. Because some members of the 

opposite sex may prefer not to touch or shake hands in public 

(see Time and Space), male foreign nationals should wait for 

females to initiate a handshake. Some Filipino women, 

especially Muslim women, may decline a handshake and

simply greet others with a smile and nod.

Titles: Filipinos are respectful of status and typically use both 

personal (“sir” or “ma’am”) and professional (“Professor” or 

“Major”) titles to convey respect. Generally, Filipinos consider it 

a social imperative to acknowledge other people’s needs for 

self-esteem. Consequently, a wife may be addressed using her

husband’s title (such as “Mrs. Mayor”), while people without 

titles are often respectfully addressed as “boss” or “manager,”

and even a beggar is spoken to as po (“sir/madam”). Within the 

military, title inflation is common and members wanting to 

elevate status may address a colleague with a higher rank than 

his actual one. Foreign nationals are advised to neither correct 

nor participate in this sort of ritual. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
First Names and Nicknames: Among people of equal status, 

first names are commonly used although peers in professional 

settings oftentimes address each other by titles. Childhood 

nicknames commonly persist into adulthood as terms of 

endearment and expressions of social intimacy. 

Gestures

As is common in most societies, 

Filipinos use nonverbal gestures 

and hand movements to enhance 

communication. Filipinos indicate 

direction by pointing with their lips 

or moving their eyes, rather than 

pointing with their hands. To

beckon someone, a Filipino faces

his palm down and scoops his fingers in. Raising an eyebrow 

can mean agreement or it can be a friendly greeting.

Filipinos tend to use less eye contact than Americans, and 

staring is considered rude or a direct challenge. A wide open 

mouth or nodding once can communicate misunderstanding or 

uncertainty. Foreign nationals should never stand with hands 

on hips as it is a stance of aggression. Similarly, waving an

index finger, pointing at someone, and raising the middle finger

are all considered rude. Generally, a smile is always 

appreciated and can help reinforce praise or to soften criticism.

Conversational Topics

Some conversational topics may seem intrusive or personal to 

foreign nationals, although Filipinos believe such topics help 

build rapport and maintain relationships. Almost everyone 

discusses basketball (see Aesthetics and Recreation) and 

politics. Although foreign nationals are encouraged to take part 

in these discussions, they should avoid critical comments about 

the Philippines or its people. Outsiders should withhold 

judgment on sensitive topics, particularly as they pertain to 

Philippine society. In all situations, a foreign national should 

avoid debating contentious subjects with a host national.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil/resources/index.aspx for

language training resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English Filipino

Do you speak English? Marunong ba kayong Mag-Ingles?

How are you? (formal) Kumusta po kayo?

I am fine Mabuti po naman.

What’s up?/Where are you 

going? Saan po kayo pupunta ?

Nothing much Wala naman.

Please come in Tuloy po kayo

Good morning (formal) Magandang umaga po

Good afternoon (formal) Magandang hapon po

Good evening (formal) Magandang gabi po

See you/”we are going home” Sige po, uuwi na po kami

Please Pakiusap lang po

Thank you/Thank you very 

much Salamat po/Maraming salamat po

You’re welcome Wala pong anuman

Yes/no (formal) Opo/hindi po

OK OK

Sorry Sori po

What is your name? Ano po ang pangalan nila?

My name is ___ Ako po si (name)/Si (name) po ako

Goodbye Sige po

Let’s meet later Magkita tayo mamaya

Just a minute Sandali lang po

Who? Sino po

What? Ano po?

When? Kelan po?

Where? Saan po?

Why? Bakit po?

How much? Magkano?

Where is the ...? Saan ang...?

I don’t know Hindi ko po alam

left Kaliwa po

right Kanan po

straight ahead deretso

delicious Masarap po

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 92.6% 

• Male: 92.5%

• Female: 92.7% (2000 census)

Traditional Education

Although traditional educational 

methods varied across groups, the 

universal purpose of education was 

to help young people adapt to their 

physical and social contexts by 

perpetuating values, beliefs, and 

skills. Parents and community elders modeled cultural values 

as they taught children about practical life skills, focusing on 

community well-being and respect for the natural world. 

Traditionally, family histories, general knowledge, and technical 

expertise were transmitted through the generations via epic 

stories, parables, and songs. Tagalog speakers had been 

using a writing system called Baybayin to record information 

on palm fronds, bamboo, and tree bark for at least a century 

when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century and continued to 

use the script up through the 19th century (Photo: Ifugao 

sculpture).

Introduction of Formal Education

Formal education began as traders and missionaries spread 

Islam to the Philippines from Indonesia and Malaysia beginning 

in the 14th century (see Religion and Spirituality). By the time 

the Spanish arrived in 1521, Islam was firmly established on 

Mindanao and Sulu and had spread to the northern island of 

Luzon. In Muslim communities, clerics provided instruction in

Arabic and the Qur’an for small groups of male students. 

Education in the Spanish Colony

An important aspect of the Spanish colonizers’ attempts at 

large-scale conversion of the populace to Catholicism (see 

Religion and Spirituality) was religious education. In general, 

the friars substituted the peoples’ own myths, rituals, and 

songs with Catholic stories of the saints, the story of Christ’s 

crucifixion, baptism and other rituals, and liturgical music. For 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
most of the Spanish colonial period, the clergy did not attempt 

to teach the indigenous people to 

speak Spanish. Instead, the friars 

learned the local languages so they 

could speak with the people, but

continued to perform Mass in Latin.

In 1593, the first book published in 

the Philippines, the Doctrina 

Christiana (pictured), contained a 

Catholic catechism printed in both 

Spanish Gothic letters and Tagalog 

characters.

In 1863 an educational decree 

called for the establishment of 

schools in every parish, officially introducing compulsory 

primary education. However, shortages in funds and teachers 

resulted in urban areas being resourced ahead of rural areas. 

Consequently, in Manila several educational institutions were 

established early, including many secondary schools. 

Attendance at institutions of learning beyond primary school 

was largely restricted to the offspring of Spanish colonists and 

a few elite mestizos (people of mixed Chinese and Filipino 

descent, see History and Myth).

By the late 19th century, the growing class of mestizos and 

elite Filipinos who had prospered from the galleon trade (see 

History and Myth) could afford to send their sons to seek 

further education in Manila and even in Europe. Additionally, 

middle-class Filipino families began to engage private tutors or 

send both their sons and daughters to the growing number of 

private schools. In this way, an educated, non-Spanish class 

emerged whose members had access to new ideas and came 

to be instrumental in the 19th-century Philippine rebellion 

against Spain (see History and Myth).

Education under US Administration

Formal education in the Philippines became more accessible to

the general population after the Philippines came under US

administration in 1898 (see History and Myth). The 1901 

Philippine Commission established a centralized Department of 

Public Instruction that launched a secular and free public 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
school system modeled after the American system. Still, full 

enrollment and regular attendance at the primary level 

remained difficult for students from rural areas, particularly 

poorer families who often kept 

children home as an additional 

source of labor (Photo: Filipino 

schoolgirls with their teacher).

The new educational program

established schools and 

teacher training colleges

across the country. English 

became the language of 

instruction and vocational trades such as printing and 

telegraphy the focus of instruction which required teachers with 

specialized knowledge. Thus, the Philippine Commission also 

authorized the appointment of American teachers to schools 

across the provinces. The initial group of 540 teachers, who 

came to be known as the “Thomasites” for the transport ship 

that brought them, arrived in 1901. 

The curriculum’s emphasis on the English language and

American values aligned with the broader American policy of 

“benevolent assimilation” (see History and Myth). This policy

was meant to erase Spanish colonial influence and firmly 

establish US authority. Moreover, with over 170 different 

languages in the islands (see Language and Communication), 

instruction in a foreign language was intended to ease 

competition among ethnic groups. After 24 years under this 

system, a study revealed low student achievement, inadequate 

textbooks, untrained teachers, and high failure rates.

From Commonwealth to Independence 

As the US was preparing the country for independence in the 

1930s (see History and Myth), the government again turned to 

educational reform, creating the National Council on Education, 

designating Filipino as an official language (see Language and 

Communication), and emphasizing adult education. World War 

II interrupted these efforts, and during the Japanese occupation

(see History and Myth), the curriculum was adjusted again to 

include the study of Filipino culture. This action was part of a 

broader effort to foster pan-Asian identity and improve cultural 

and political relations between Japan and the Philippines. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education Today 

Filipinos consider education as an avenue to social and 

economic improvement. Since tuition often accounts for large 

portions of a family’s budget, parents often make severe 

sacrifices to provide educational opportunities for their children. 

Generally, the public education 

system continues to suffer from 

insufficient funding, ill-equipped 

classrooms, and a lack of 

qualified teachers, especially in 

rural areas.

Today, 6 years of primary and 4 

years of secondary education 

are free, while only primary 

education is compulsory. About 85% of eligible children attend 

primary school, although only 62% attend secondary school. 

This drop is due to a lack of public secondary schools and the 

tendency for poor students in both urban and rural areas to 

drop out so they that can work to augment family income. 

Attendance numbers at all levels are even lower in some 

conflict-prone provinces on Mindanao.

As the only Asian country with a 10-year basic education 

program, the Philippines launched its “K-12” program in 2012, 

proposing the addition of 2 years of “senior high school” and 1 

year of kindergarten.

Primary: Public schools offer a curriculum that includes 

English, Filipino, science and health, math (taught in English),

Makabayan (“Values Education”), and civics (taught in 

Filipino). Indigenous languages are used as supplementary 

languages, primarily in the lower grades. 

Secondary: Students typically enter secondary school, widely 

referred to as “high school,” after 6 years of primary school and 

when they are around 12 or 13 years old. They graduate after 4 

years at the age of 16 or 17. 

Tertiary: About 1/5 of the 16-21 year-old population enrolls in 

education beyond secondary school. There is a wide variety of 

vocational schools, colleges, and universities; and for many the 

primary language of instruction is English.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Many of these institutions have prestigious histories. Manila’s 

oldest university, the University of Santo Tomas founded in 

1610, is older than Harvard, the US’s oldest university. 

Religious Instruction: Although the national curriculum does 

not include religious instruction, there is a tradition of promoting 

moral education in the Philippines, and in that spirit, the 

government has allowed religious groups to provide voluntary 

moral values lessons during school hours. Additionally, the 

government permits some religious instruction in public schools 

with parents’ consent as long as there is no cost to the 

government.

About 14% of the student population on Mindanao attends 

madaris or Islamic schools (singular: madrasah). There are 3 

types of madaris: the traditional or weekend madrasah in 

which instruction is basically religious; the developmental or 

formal madrasah which provides instruction in non-religious 

subjects but does not use the national curriculum; and the 

standard private madrasah which is accredited by the 

government and uses the national curriculum. Additionally, 

there are over 400 public elementary schools nationwide which

implement some madrasah lessons in, for example, Arabic 

language instruction and Islamic values.

Indigenous Schools: 

Over the last decades,

some tribal leaders 

have attempted to 

address the loss of 

traditional knowledge 

and culture through 

indigenous schools that 

provide culturally 

responsive education. 

Alongside the formal 

curriculum, indigenous schools teach cultural history, traditional 

songs, dances, legends, and rituals in both English and 

indigenous languages. The Department of Education’s

Response to Indigenous Peoples and Muslim Education 

(PRIME) Program also seeks to bring indigenous learning 

topics and methods into the classroom (Photo: High school 

classroom in Mangingisda).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Filipino society is relationship-oriented, valuing pakikisama or 

harmonious interpersonal interactions (see Language and 

Communication) over time efficiency. Business transactions 

tend to move at a leisurely pace, prompting some to say that 

the country runs on “Filipino time.” In business and social 

interactions, Filipinos tend to be gregarious and polite. 

Time and Work

The work week for office 

employees in the Philippines 

extends from Monday-Friday, 

8:00am-5:00pm, with an hour 

break for lunch. Employees of 

manufacturing companies 

may also work on Saturday 

mornings. Commercial banking hours are Monday-Friday from 

9:00am-3:00pm, and shopping malls are usually open from 

10:00am-9:30pm daily. Philippine time is 8 hours ahead of the 

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 12 hours ahead of the US

Eastern Standard Time (EST).

Punctuality: Filipinos have a more relaxed sense of 

punctuality than Americans. While it is expected that business 

meetings and medical appointments will begin on time, traffic 

jams and inclement weather frequently delay these by 15-30 

minutes. Punctuality is even more relaxed in social contexts, 

where gatherings typically begin an hour late and arriving on 

time can be considered rude. However, expectations for foreign 

nationals are more rigid, as they should be consistently 

punctual and demonstrate patience if Filipinos are tardy.

Efficiency: Filipinos typically place less emphasis on efficiency 

than Americans. Service at restaurants tends to be slower than 

in the US, and work deadlines are frequently missed. Asking 

someone to accomplish a task within a few days can be 

perceived as aggressive, especially in rural areas. 

Negotiations: Filipinos prefer to build relationships through a 

series of informal meetings during meals or entertainment 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
before conducting formal business. Once formal negotiations 

begin, they are usually slow and low-key. Communication is 

indirect, facts are diplomatically presented, and Filipinos try to 

remain calm and courteous at all times (see Language and 

Communication). 

Personal Space

Filipinos are physically reserved when interacting with those of 

higher social status, requiring about 3 feet of interpersonal 

space. This is more than most Americans are accustomed to, 

although this space decreases with familiarity so that family 

and friends tend to stand closer together.

Touching: Filipinos use a considerable amount of social 

touching while interacting. In professional settings, the 

individual with the higher social status will initiate the contact.

Physical contact between people of the opposite sex may be 

unacceptable for some Filipinos, especially among Muslims. 

Consequently, some women may choose not to shake hands 

with men (see Language and Communication).

National Public Holidays in 2012

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• January 23: Chinese New Year

• February 25: EDSA (People Power) Day

• April 5: Holy Thursday

• April 6: Good Friday

• April 9: Day of Valor

• May 1: Labor Day

• June 12: Independence Day

• August 19: End of Ramadan (Eid’l Fitr)

• August 21: Aquino Day

• August 27: National Heroes’ Day 

• October 26: Festival of Sacrifice (Eid’l Adha)

• November 1: All Saints’ Day

• November 30: Bonifacio Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 30: Rizal Day

• December 31: New Year’s Eve

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

The clothing, games, music, and artwork of the Philippines 

reflect the combined influences of the region’s indigenous

cultures as well as those of the islands’ occupiers including

Spain, Japan, and the US (see History and Myth).

Dress

Filipinos commonly wear Western clothing, although traditional 

attire is still donned for ceremonies, festivals, and important

meetings. While dress is generally casual, Filipinos place great 

value on a clean and neat appearance. 

Men: The traditional formal garment for men is the barong 

tagalong, a very thin and transparent shirt often made from 

pina (pineapple fibers) in the past, but more often made from 

banana or synthetic fibers today. 

Typically long and worn untucked

with a plain white undershirt, the 

barong is often decorated with 

intricate embroidery (pictured, 

courtesy of Wikimedia).

The most common informal outfit

for men is a polo or similar 

lightweight cotton shirt paired with

pants or shorts. This type of casual 

attire is usually acceptable even in 

the workplace since the 

temperature and humidity are high

year-round. When more formal 

dress is appropriate, full business suits usually are required

only in air conditioned offices. 

Women: The traditional formal female garment is the terno, 

although in modern times, it is rarely worn other than for

cultural events. It consists of a blouse and skirt that are joined 

at the waist to form a single garment. The fitted bodice has 

stiffened and flared sleeves at the shoulders known as butterfly 

sleeves. Modern Filipino women tend to dress casually but 

relatively conservatively. Close-fitting shorts, low necklines, and 

short skirts are uncommon. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

Filipinos are family-oriented and enjoy spending their free time 

socializing with relatives and friends. They also enjoy shopping 

and going to the movies and sporting events.

Basketball: American professional basketball is very popular, 

as is the Philippine Basketball Association, which is Asia’s first 

basketball league founded in 1975. Most every barangay

(village) and school has a

basketball court. 

Sabong (Cockfighting):

Although some Filipinos and 

even the Catholic Church 

disapprove, cockfights are a 

national pastime and have been 

a popular spectator sport since 

Spanish colonial times. Fights 

are usually held on Sunday afternoons, although 3-day 

tournaments are often performed during village fiestas. The 

owner of the fighting rooster, the sabungero, or his handler 

attaches metal spurs to his bird’s legs just above the foot and 

places the bird in a special arena or cock-pit to fight another. 

The contest continues until one of the cocks is unable to 

continue fighting or due to injury runs away. 

Other Sports: Boxing has regained tremendous popularity as 

a spectator sport and has earned the Philippines most of its 

Olympic medals. Other popular sports include billiards, 

baseball, volleyball, soccer, swimming, and track and field. 

Games: Conceptually similar to the card game rummy,

Mahjong, an ancient Chinese game played with decorative 

tiles, is very popular especially among women.

Music and Dance

Music and dance are integral parts of Filipino culture and

incorporate Asian, Spanish, and American genres. Music 

education and performance begin at an early age. 

Traditional Music: Indigenous Philippine music is closely tied 

to the musical traditions of Southeast Asia. Most of the forms 

are performed in connection with significant events such as

rites-of-passage, key agricultural activities, healing, and 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
combat. When performed in public, the music is often 

accompanied by dance.

Philippine folk music developed from several roots: music from 

Spain introduced by colonists, Catholic liturgical music, and 

older pre-colonial indigenous music as mentioned above. 

Examples of folk music can most often be heard at religious 

ceremonies and festivals during Lent and Christmas.

Modern Music: Since the 19th century, Filipino composers 

have written works in traditional Western forms such as 

chamber music and opera. In the 20th century, composers and 

performers immersed themselves in contemporary styles such 

as jazz, country, rock, and rap. Choral music continues to be

very popular and can be found in many contexts including 

church, government, and business.

In the 1970’s, Pinoy or Filipino rock, served as a means of 

expression in the tumultuous political climate (see History and 

Myth). Its blues-influenced music created awareness of the 

socio-political condition of Filipinos and re-awakened national 

pride. While American and British pop music influenced the 

sound, musicians developed a distinctly Filipino style, often 

writing lyrics in Tagalog (see Language and Communication). 

Like the other genres, Filipino rock continues to evolve and is

very popular today.

Dance: Philippine dance also shows the influence of

indigenous, traditional European, and more modern styles. 

Many different professional dance troupes perform ballet, 

modern dance, and folk 

dance. The most popular 

indigenous dance, and 

considered the national dance 

of the Philippines, is the 

tinikling (pictured). Inspired 

by a bird called the “tinikling,” 

the steps of this dance are an 

imitation of the movements of 

the tinikling as it hops among grass stems and tries to escape 

the traps set by farmers. In the tinikling, dancers exhibit grace 

and skill by stepping effortlessly between bamboo poles that 

are knocked against each other with increasing speed.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Theater

Theater has long served as a medium of expression of political, 

social, and religious themes. During the colonial period, the 

Spanish used the performance arts to introduce the Catholic 

religion and support their conversion efforts (see Religion and 

Spirituality and Learning and Knowledge). During the 

independence movement in the late 19th century, theatrical

works included distinctly Filipino themes that critiqued Spanish, 

and later American, political domination. Today, themes are 

both nationalistic and reflective of daily life.

Literature

Because the Spanish did not force the Filipinos to learn and 

speak Spanish, the islands’ oral literary traditions, especially 

poetry, remained largely unaffected by Spanish influence. As 

more middle-class Filipinos acquired education and learned 

Spanish in the 19th century (see Learning and Knowledge), 

they began to produce literary works that were instrumental in 

the country’s independence movement (see History and Myth). 

Considered a national hero, José Rizal wrote novels critical of 

the ruling Spaniards that had strong nationalistic and 

revolutionary messages. Later, as the effects of American 

control of the educational system were felt (see Learning and 

Knowledge), Filipinos began to write in English, although 

publications in several local languages were still popular in 

several regions. Recently, there has been continued interest in 

all types of writing – literature, newspapers, magazines, and 

comic books – in Filipino and other indigenous languages. 

Arts and Crafts

Indigenous groups produce a variety of arts and crafts. These 

include intricate textiles made of homegrown cotton, banana, or 

pineapple thread for wear or display; massive wooden religious 

statues, furniture pieces; 

basketry and mats of rattan, 

nito, and pandan fiber; and 

artisanal metalwork 

ornaments, ceremonial 

objects, and weaponry 

(Photo: Kalinga boys in 

traditional textiles perform a 

dance).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dining Customs

Food plays a central role in the maintenance of relationships in 

the Philippines. While dining customs vary by region, families 

commonly share meals, often bowing their heads in thanks and 

saying Kain na tayo, “Let’s eat.” When present, guests are 

served first and are expected to eat heartily to show their

appreciation. Since food is central to Filipino hospitality, it is 

considered rude not to accept food when it is offered.

Filipinos eat three meals-per-day and may consume two or 

more merienda, or snacks, between meals. While many

Filipinos eat holding a fork in their left hand and spoon in their 

right, in some rural areas and traditional restaurants especially 

in Muslim areas, Filipinos use their right hand to consume food 

that may be served on a banana leaf.

Typical Meals: The typical Filipino breakfast consists of garlic 

rice and fried egg, sausage, cured pork, fried milkfish, and juice 

or coffee. Lunch and dinner cuisine is varied and reflects 

Spanish, Chinese, Malay, and American influences.

Staples: The Filipino diet is carbohydrate rich, and Filipinos 

usually eat rice at every meal. They also use it to make 

porridge, various desserts, and wine. Pansit, or stir-fried 

noodles (pictured), may be served in addition to rice. Other 

popular noodle varieties include the thicker, ribbon-like canton

as well as the translucent bean-based vermicelli, sotanghon. 

Vegetables are an integral part of the diet, often mixed with 

meat or offered as a side 

dish. Soy, vinegar, coconut,

chili, ginger, onion, garlic, and 

tamarind are the primary 

spices that form the basis of 

many types of dipping

sauces. 

Fish: Fish serves as the 

primary source of protein in the Filipino diet and is readily 

available in this island country. Popular fish dishes include 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
bangus (milkfish), often served fried accompanied by a dipping 

sauce of vinegar and garlic. Tilapia and lapu-lapu (grouper)

are common in many fish dishes as is galunggong (round 

scad or jackfish) in provincial areas. Shrimp, prawns, and 

clams are also common in the Filipino diet, as are various types 

of dried and pickled fish.

Red Meat: Pork, chicken, and beef are the main red meats in 

the Filipino diet and tend to be salted or marinated then 

stewed, fried, grilled, or roasted. In rural areas water buffalo, 

duck, deer, and wild boar are other common forms of protein,

and field rats, dogs, bats, snakes, and insects such as beetles,

locusts, woodworms, and ant eggs may also be eaten.

One of the most popular meat dishes is adobo, which is 

considered by some to be the unofficial national dish. It is 

made by stewing chicken or pork in vinegar and garlic. Another 

popular dish is sinigang, made by boiling meat or seafood in a 

sour tamarind-flavored soup. Kinilaw is a popular finger food 

made by marinating raw meat or fish in vinegar and lime juice.

Beverages: Carbonated soft drinks, fresh buko (coconut 

juice), iced tea, and pineapple juice are commonly consumed 

with meals. Filipinos drink alcoholic beverages such as locally 

brewed San Miguel beer or rum in social settings. Tuba, a 

young wine, and lambanog, a clear and potent distilled liquor, 

are both made from nipa palm or coconut. Other popular 

alcoholic drinks include tappuy,

a rice beer fermented by 

mountain peoples in hefty 

Chinese heirloom jars, and basi

made from boiling and 

fermenting sugar cane juice.

Special occasions: Every 

community celebrates a fiesta on 

the feast day of its patron saint. 

During these festivals, lechon (roast pig, pictured), is often

served with goat-meat stew, stir-fried pork liver, and a variety of 

sweet rice cakes such as sticky biko, broiled bibingka, and 

steamed puto. Other specialty deserts include halo-halo

(crushed ice served with sweetened milk, fruit, beans, and 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Balút

A uniquely Filipino dish is balút, a half formed duck 

embryo complete with beak and feathers that is 

considered to have health-inducing properties. Balút is 

typically served hard boiled. The proper way to eat 

balút is to tap the broad base of the egg with a spoon, 

break the delicate membrane, then sip the liquid. One 

should then continue to break the shell to expose the 

yolk and embryo. These pieces are either swallowed 

whole or separated on a plate and salted before they 

are consumed.

treacle which is an uncrystallized syrup produced in refining 

sugar), cassava or yucca cake, and flan.

Health Overview

The Philippines’ infant mortality rate has dropped significantly 

in the last decades, from 42 per 1000 births in 1990 to an 

estimated 19 in 2012, better than many countries but still worse 

than the Southeast Asian regional average. Life expectancy is 

67 years for men and 73 years for women, also lower than the 

respective averages of 72 and 77 years for the region. While 

improvements in healthcare have been achieved in recent 

years, the country is still challenged by vast regional and

socioeconomic disparities.

Modern Healthcare System: The modern healthcare system 

in the Philippines is a dual system consisting of a decentralized 

public sector that provides free care and a private sector. 

Severe budget deficits have caused the government to 

decrease public expenditures allocated to healthcare since the 

1990s. In 2008, public health expenditures equaled 3.8% of 

GDP, which is less than the 5% recommended by the World 

Health Organization. The reduction in public funding is 

generating an increased reliance on the private sector. Out-ofpocket spending currently accounts for half of all healthcare 

spending and is on the rise.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
The Philippine healthcare system is also challenged by the 

inequitable distribution of providers. Currently, 70% of 

providers are employed in the 

private sector, which serves 

30% of the population. The 

country is also experiencing a 

provider shortage. Although the 

Philippines has excellent 

medical training institutions, 

most professionals do not 

remain in-country to work. The 

country is instead the world’s leading exporter of nurses and 

the second leading exporter of physicians (Photo: Village 

clinic).

Traditional Medicine: Traditional medicine is defined as the 

knowledge, skill, and practice of holistic healthcare based on 

indigenous theories, beliefs, and experiences that have been 

passed through generations. Generally, it is a type of nonstandard health care that involves varied levels of training and 

effectiveness. Filipino traditional healers usually instruct their 

patients on preparations of herbal concentrations, poultices, 

and other preparations. An estimated 57% of Filipinos seek 

care from traditional practitioners. In 2001, there were 250,000 

such practitioners or 1 for every 300 people. Many Filipinos use 

a combination of traditional and modern medicine, relying on 

traditional medicine when there is no other immediate cure. 

Many of these traditional medical beliefs and practices are 

rooted in traditional animistic beliefs according to which 

malevolent spirits can be the cause of illness (see Religion and 

Spirituality). The Filipino government is seeking to establish a 

regulatory body for traditional medicine and has already 

established specific regulations on herbal medicine.

Health challenges

Similar to other developing countries, the Philippines is facing 

the double burden of high rates of both communicable and 

non-communicable diseases.

Communicable diseases: Communicable diseases such as 

acute respiratory infection, pneumonia, and diarrhea are 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
prevalent in the Philippines. In fact, communicable diseases 

constitute 7 of the top 10 most prevalent diseases. Of these, 

tuberculosis presents the greatest challenges. While prevention 

and management of tuberculosis has improved, it is a leading 

cause of death, and the country has the 9th highest incidence 

of the disease in the world. Parasitic communicable diseases 

such as malaria, dengue fever, and filariasis are also common, 

especially in rural areas.

The Philippines has suffered from a number of communicable 

disease outbreaks in recent years. In 2009, an influenza 

outbreak resulted in 32 deaths. In the same year, over 5,300

cases of leptospirosis (an infection that occurs when water has 

been contaminated with animal urine) were reported after two 

typhoons struck near Manila. In January 2010, the country 

experienced a national measles outbreak resulting in over 

10,000 cases. These outbreaks demonstrate that the Philippine 

population is very susceptible to the rapid transmission of 

communicable diseases.

Non-Communicable Diseases: Mortality and morbidity rates 

for non-communicable diseases have been increasing steadily 

since the 1970s. Cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic 

respiratory diseases, and diabetes remain within the top 10 

causes of death. Diseases of the heart and vascular system 

are the leading causes of mortality, accounting for nearly 31% 

of all deaths. Factors contributing to high rates of noncommunicable disease include 

tobacco use, unhealthy diet, 

physical inactivity, and alcohol use.

Accidents: Traffic accidents also

serve as a public health concern

and are the leading cause of injury 

or death. In 2006, the World Health 

Organization reported that there 

were 1,185 traffic-related deaths 

and 5,870 traffic related injuries. 

President Aquino joined a UNsponsored initiative and declared 2011-2020 the Decade of 

Action for Road Safety, setting as a national priority the 

reduction of accident-related fatalities in the country.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

A newly industrialized nation, the Philippines’ emerging 

economy has sustained steady growth since 2003 and is

predicted to become the world’s 16th largest economy by 2050. 

Unlike many countries in the region, the Philippines withstood 

the recession in 2009 due to high rates of domestic 

consumption. Since that time, the economy has grown steadily

– its gross domestic product 

(GDP) increased by 7.3% in 

2010 and by 4% in 2011 (Photo: 

Cebu City).

Despite its recent growth, the 

Philippines still faces a number 

of economic challenges. At 

nearly 27%, the country’s poverty rate is much higher than 

neighboring Indonesia’s 13% and Malaysia’s 4% rates, and its

per capita GDP of $4,100 places the Philippines in the bottom 

third of all countries worldwide. Income distribution is 

inequitable, with the wealthiest 10% of the population claiming

31% of the annual income while the poorest 10% claim just 

2.4%. These challenges, as well as high unemployment and 

emigration rates, have hampered more rapid economic growth.

Services

Services – including community, social, financial, business, 

domestic, trade, and transportation activities – accounted for 

54% of GDP in 2011, making it the largest sector of the Filipino

economy. This sector has expanded rapidly since the 1990s

especially in the areas of telecommunications, business 

outsourcing, and financial services. Over 52% of the workforce 

is currently employed in this sector.

Tourism: In 2011, nearly 4 million tourists visited the 

Philippines, an 11% increase over the previous year. Popular

sites include its beaches and National Marine Park, the Puerto 

Princesa Subterranean River National Park, the Banaue rice 

terraces in Ifugao (see picture in Political and Social Relations), 

and its many Spanish colonial churches and other buildings. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Most tourists come from South Korea, the US, and Japan and

just over 10% of the labor force is employed in the tourism 

industry. The Philippines receives far fewer tourists than its 

Southeast Asian neighbors due to the higher costs of tourism 

services and insufficient air access.

Industry

Industry which includes construction, manufacturing, mining, 

and utilities accounts for 33% of GDP in 2011 and employed

15% of the labor force. Unlike other Southeast Asian 

economies whose industrial sectors expanded before their 

service sectors, the recent growth of the Philippine service 

sector was not preceded by a process of industrialization.

Manufacturing: The Philippines’ most important manufactured 

products include electronics, garments, footwear, 

pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and processed foods.

Mining: The Philippines has an estimated 58 billion tons of 

mineral reserves worth $840 billion including deposits of 

chromite, copper, gold, nickel, coal, cobalt, gypsum, iron, and 

sulfur. While production of minerals declined from 30% of GDP 

in the 1970s to 1% in 2003, a Supreme Court ruling allowing for 

foreign ownership of mining operations in 2004 has generated

over $700 million in foreign investment since then. It is 

projected that this sector will continue to grow in order to meet 

the rising mineral demands of 

China, Japan, and India. 

Agriculture

Agriculture which includes crops,

livestock, fishing, and timber

contributed 12% of GDP in 2011, 

making it the country’s smallest 

economic sector even though it

accounts for 33% of Filipino jobs. Major products include 

sugarcane, coconuts, rice (pictured), corn, bananas, 

pineapples, mangoes, pork, eggs, beef, and fish. In recent 

years, the agricultural sector has been affected by typhoons 

and drought. Rapid deforestation has significantly disrupted the 

timber industry and has caused the Philippines to transition 

from being the world’s leading exporter of tropical hardwoods in 

the 1970s to a net importer of forest products in the 1990s. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Money

The Filipino currency is the 

peso (PHP) (pictured), which 

is subdivided into 100 

centavos or cents. The peso 

is issued in 8 banknotes (PHP 

5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 

and 1000) and in 7 coins (1, 5, 10, and 25 centavos and PHP 

1, 5, and 10). While the exchange rate of the peso fluctuates, it 

has been relatively stable in recent years, dipping to 40 pesos 

per US$ in 2008 and rising to 53 pesos per US$ in 2005. As of 

mid-2012, the rate had hovered around 43 pesos per US$ for 

over a year.

Foreign Trade

External trade in goods has experienced a rapid growth in 

recent years, increasing by over 30% from 2009 to 2010. This 

growth includes a 27% increase in the total number of imports, 

which were worth $69 billion by 2011. These goods primarily 

included electronic products, mineral fuels, machinery and 

transport equipment, iron and steel, textile fabrics, grains, 

chemicals, and plastics purchased from Japan (14%), China 

(14%), the US (10%), Singapore (9%), Thailand (7%), South 

Korea (6%), and Indonesia (4%).

Exports increased by 34% between 2009 and 2010 and were 

worth $54 billion in 2011. Exported goods included 

semiconductors, electronic products, transport equipment, 

garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, 

and fruit sold to China (19%), the US (13%), Singapore (13%), 

Japan (13%), Hong Kong (8%), Germany (4%), and South 

Korea (4%).

Remittances

The country has experienced a large inflow of money in the 

form of remittances in recent years from the 9 million Filipinos 

living in 180 countries throughout the world. Total remittance 

inflows in 2011 reached over $21 billion, a 7% increase over 

2010, and accounted for nearly 12% of GDP. In 2011, the

Philippines was the fourth largest recipient of remittances in the 

world and as of 2010 had the largest number of remittances as 

a percentage of GDP in Asia.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Although the Philippines’ physical infrastructure is in need of 

improvements, transportation services for both people and 

goods remain both affordable and widely available. Similarly,

the telecommunications system continues to grow and improve.

Transportation

Vehicles: Although many 

middle-class Filipinos own 

cars, others rely upon 

public transportation to 

navigate the Philippines’ 

busy roadways. Buses and 

taxis are widely available, 

and jeepneys (a cross 

between a jeep and a bus)

are particularly popular for 

both local and longdistance trips. Tricycles (motorcycles with sidecars) and 

pedicabs (bicycles with sidecars) are the preferred mode of 

transportation in areas where narrow streets and routes make it 

difficult or illegal for buses and jeepneys to operate.

Roadways: The Philippines has about 132,500 miles of 

roadways, of which approximately 25% are paved. The primary 

hub of the road system is Metro Manila, an urban area that 

spans Manila and 16 adjacent municipalities. Large parts of the 

road system are generally in poor condition due to 

underinvestment and mismanagement of resources.

Railways: The Philippine National Railways (PNR) is a stateowned corporation which controls close to 620 miles of 

railways. The PNR includes two commuter rail systems on 

Luzon and the “Bicol Express,” a long-distance route between 

Metro Manila and the city of Naga in southeast Luzon. The 

Bicol Express runs a limited schedule, operating once in the 

early morning and once in the late afternoon. Although the 

Philippine rail system is in poor condition due to underfunding 

and neglect, the government is currently formulating plans to 

revitalize the rail network by privatizing the PNR.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Waterways and Ports: Waterways and ports are heavily 

utilized in the Philippines for both commercial transport and 

personal travel. There are over 2,450 ports in the country, and 

most are small. The state-owned Philippine Ports Authority 

both regulates private ports and operates the largest public 

ports. Manila is home to the two largest ports in the Philippines: 

the South Harbor (used for international cargo) and the North 

harbor (used for domestic traffic). Ferries and “fastcrafts” (fuelefficient, passenger-carrying catamarans) are widely available 

and are commonly used for travel between islands.

Airways: The Philippines has over 250 airports, of which 85 

have paved runways. The busiest airport is Manila’s Ninoy 

Aquino International 

Airport. Domestic air 

travel is available, 

affordable, and widely 

used to travel quickly 

over the vast distances 

that separate the many 

islands which form the 

archipelago.

Philippine Airlines 

(PAL), the country’s national airline, is the country’s oldest 

airline. PAL provides service to over 20 domestic and 30

international cities. A variety of other domestic airlines compete 

with PAL in the local market, including South East Asian 

Airlines (SEAir) and Cebu Pacific Air, both of which service

remote parts of the archipelago. Many international airlines 

including British Airways, Emirates, and Lufthansa also provide 

service to destinations around the world from Manila.

Energy

Slightly less than 90% of Filipinos had access to electricity in 

2009, with greater access among urban dwellers than rural 

dwellers. Many of the millions of Filipinos without access to 

electricity rely heavily on propane gas and wood fuel to meet 

their energy needs. Although access to electricity increased 

rapidly in the first decade of the 21st century, the Philippines 

currently has the most expensive electricity in Asia. This may 

be partly due to the fact that the state does not subsidize the 

private firms supplying the electricity.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media and Telecommunications

Radio and TV: In 2008 there were close to 300 television 

broadcast stations and nearly 875 cable networks in the 

Philippines. Although 13.5 million households have televisions, 

there are only about 1.6 million cable and satellite subscribers. 

Comprising over 50% of total programming, entertainment 

shows are typically broadcast in Filipino. Public affairs 

programs, talk shows, and documentaries are sometimes also

broadcast in English.

The Philippines is also home to over 1,000 radio stations, 

which broadcast many types of music as well as educational 

and community development programming. Since radio 

continues to serve as a primary means of obtaining news for 

the average Filipino, the penetration rate for radio remains

higher than that for television.

Print Media: Print media growth has been relatively stagnant in 

recent years. There are currently 8 national newspapers, down 

from a high of 22 in 1986. There are about 410 local 

newspapers, of which most are English weeklies and monthlies 

in tabloid format. All newspapers are limited in circulation.

Telephones: Although 

only about half of Filipino

towns and cities have 

fixed-line telephone 

service, the country’s 

mobile telephone market 

has expanded rapidly in 

recent years. Mobile 

penetration has increased 

from 6 million subscribers in 2000 to nearly 75 million 

subscribers in early 2009. Similarly, the Philippines has one of 

the world’s highest rates of text messaging. 

Internet: The Philippines has a low rate (10%) of personal 

computer ownership making internet cafés popular. The 

Internet sector is well-positioned for growth as the market is 

deregulated and the government continues to support IT 

development (Photo: US Navy officer assembles satellite for 

Internet and telephone service at Philippine medical center).

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

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