1

Center for the Study of 

National Reconnaissance

JANUARY 2011
2

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) produces 

this almanac to celebrate the history, achievements and evolution of the 

reconnaissance discipline — from individuals who forged its beginnings to 

those who further shaped the vision to meet the changing threats to national 

security during the past 50 years. This publication reveals the founding of 

the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) and its continued prosperity as a 

leading intelligence organization today. The CSNR believes you will find this 

almanac informative, engaging, and practical. 

We have identified important dates in the history of reconnaissance and, to 

provide context, other key events in national security, technology, and space 

exploration. Through this historical compilation, the CSNR seeks to offer you 

an opportunity to increase your understanding of national reconnaissance 

and to develop an appreciation for the contributions of the many engineers, 

scientists, and other risk-takers whose efforts and achievements paved the way 

for space-based reconnaissance systems.

The CSNR undertakes projects such as this almanac as an enabler of NRO 

goals and objectives. We believe having an appreciation for our national 

reconnaissance heritage can inspire today’s workforce to continue contributing 

innovations that fulfill the current mission of the NRO. The NRO will 

continue a 50-year tradition of innovation as it adjusts to the challenges of 

the 21st century.

Robert A. McDonald, Ph.D.

Director, Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

Business Plans and Operations

Foreword
 3

p NROL-22.
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Reconnaissance refers to the conduct of an exploratory survey to gather 

information. Since their beginnings on Earth, both animals and humans 

have used their senses to acquire data from a distance for daily survival — to 

locate food, take shelter, or avoid danger. Over time, humans have learned 

techniques and developed technologies to extend their innate information 

gathering capabilities. Early examples of expanded human reconnaissance 

include: animal tracking; making use of natural or man-made observation 

posts; and using faster or higher endurance transportation to increase speed 

and expand range for scouting activities.

Early military forces used reconnaissance to gather information about the 

location, force size, activities, and resources of enemies or potential adversaries. 

Reconnaissance methods became more sophisticated as technologies evolved. 

During the Civil War, both the Union and Confederacy used manned 

balloons as platforms for aerial reconnaissance of the battlefield and enemy 

territory. With the invention of photography in the early 19th century, aerial 

observation platforms could collect, retain, and share more accurate and 

complete information without reliance on human observation and memory.

p Left: Grab. Middle: Eisenhower with the Corona capsule. Right: Professor Thaddeus Lowe’s 

reconnaissance balloon used during the American Civil War provided one of the first instances of 

aerial reconnaissance.

The Concept and Origins of Reconnaissance
5

At the beginning of the 20th century, advancements in photography 

along with invention of the airplane greatly improved the military’s ability 

to conduct aerial reconnaissance. World War I served as a proving ground 

for these extended range, higher quality information collection platforms. 

Information gleaned by U.S. reconnaissance activities generally flowed 

to tactical commanders in the field, either directly or through military 

intelligence components.

The use of reconnaissance for non-military purposes also began to evolve 

in the early 20th century. Balloons and kites collected information about the 

weather and about natural disasters, such as the San Francisco earthquake on 

18 April 1906.

As technology advanced, humans began to utilize more of the 

electromagnetic spectrum with such inventions as radio, radar, and sonar. 

Scientists developed instruments to intercept the signals transmitted by these 

devices and to exploit information from the intercepted data: the direction 

from which the signal originated, the type of signal, or its content. During 

World War II, aerial and electronic reconnaissance provided both sides with 

significant military intelligence.

The Cold War created a new reconnaissance challenge for the U.S. 

To obtain information about its strategic rival behind the Iron Curtain 

with its vast area of denied territory, initially the U.S. relied on strategic 

reconnaissance flights over the periphery of the Union of Soviet Socialist 

Republics (U.S.S.R.) using military aircraft such as the RB-47E, as well 

as ground-based electronic intercept stations. These methods had limited 

success. Eventually, the U.S. turned to the high-altitude U-2 aircraft to 

overfly and collect photography of the U.S.S.R. However, following the 

shootdown of a U-2 over the U.S.S.R. on 1 May 1960, the U.S. turned to a 

new method of reconnaissance to achieve its intelligence objectives.

Emergence of the space age brought about new reconnaissance capabilities. 

The early 20th century vision and genius of Robert Goddard, called “the father 

of modern rocket propulsion,” pioneered the concept of placing objects in 

space. For nearly fifty years, scientists built on Goddard’s ideas. The U.S. had 

an active civilian and military space program. The first successful U.S. satellite 

launch occurred on 31 January 1958 when the Army Ballistic Missile agency 

used a modified Redstone rocket to send Explorer 1 into orbit. Thirteen 

months later, following the 21 January 1959 on-pad failure of the first Corona 
6

vehicle, the U.S. Air Force (USAF) launched the Discoverer I, the first object 

intended for a polar orbit. The Discoverer series became the “scientific cover” 

under which the Corona program developed. 

The U.S. launch successes, together with the termination of U-2 airborne 

surveillance operations over the U.S.S.R., fueled the U.S. vision for a space 

reconnaissance program. In June 1960, the U.S. Navy (USN) launched the 

first successful reconnaissance satellite, a Sigint vehicle developed by the Naval 

Research Laboratory (NRL). The Galactic Radiation and Background (Grab), 

was designed to collect Soviet electronic intelligence and orbited for several 

months. Two months later, the CIA and USAF succeeded with their jointly 

managed Corona program when the first photo reconnaissance film was 

returned and recovered from space. The summer successes of 1960 signaled 

the beginning of space reconnaissance. 

To further enhance space reconnaissance, President Eisenhower 

transferred the Air Force’s photoreconnaissance Samos satellite project to 

the newly established Air Force Office of Missile and Satellite Systems (SAF/

MSS) on 31 August 1960. Air Force Under Secretary, Joseph V. Charyk, led 

the office and reported to the Secretary of Defense. A year later, the Kennedy 

administration established the National Reconnaissance Program (NRP), 

placing all reconnaissance satellite and airborne overflight activities into the 

program. The SAF/MSS was absorbed by a new organization when on 6 

September 1961, the CIA and DoD signed a charter that formed the highly 

secretive, covert National Reconnaissance Office to manage the NRP. 

Since then, NRO reconnaissance satellites have collected valuable imagery 

and signals intelligence for U.S. decision makers. The focus of the organization 

has transitioned and expanded over its last fifty years from monitoring Cold 

War adversaries to providing timely information to the warfighter, situational 

awareness for first responders, and treaty enforcement across the globe. Space 

has become the location of choice from which nations, organizations, and 

industry can conduct long-range reconnaissance of the Earth’s surface for 

both military and civil applications. 

Today, the NRO continues its job of launching and operating the nation’s 

reconnaissance satellites to gather information that will reduce the unknown, 

protect vital national interests, and support human survival. Continued 

advancements in technology have provided information about the activities, 

resources, and meteorological and hydrographic data from around the globe. 
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p NROL-05
8

National Reconnaissance and 

Space Exploration Timeline

July 14, 1914

U.S. government issued 

patent to Dr. Robert 

Goddard for liquid-fueled 

rocket design, laying 

the foundation for future 

spaceflights.

July 26, 1947

President Truman signed 

the National Security 

Act, establishing the U.S. 

Air Force as a separate 

service and forming 

the CIA, the National 

Security Council, and 

DoD. 

November 24, 1954

President Eisenhower 

approved the U-2 

concept and appointed 

the CIA to manage its 

development. 

October 4, 1957

U.S.S.R. launched 

Sputnik 1, the first 

artificial, earth-orbiting 

satellite and setting the 

“international precedence 

for freedom of space.”

September 6, 1961

DoD and CIA 

established the National 

Reconnaissance Office 

to oversee the National 

Reconnaissance 

Program. May 26, 1972

Information gathered from 

Corona’s last mission, 

permitting the U.S. 

to conclude the initial 

signing of the Strategic 

Arms Limitation Treaty.

July 20, 1969

U.S. astronauts Neil 

Armstrong and Buzz 

Aldrin became the first to 

walk on the moon.

November 20, 1965

CIA’s A-12 supersonic 

reconnaissance aircraft 

made its final validation 

flight, setting speed and 

altitude records of Mach 

3.29 and 90,000 feet.

N A T I O N A L R E C O N N A I S S A N C E A N D 
9

June 22, 1960

The Naval Research 

Lab and USAF 

launched an Elint 

satellite (Grab), the first 

U.S. reconnaissance 

satellite.

October 1, 1958

The National Aeronautics 

and Space Act created the 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA).

August 18, 1960

USAF C-119 recovered 

Discoverer XIV’s film 

capsule, containing the 

first reconnaissance 

photos from space.

April 12, 1981

The first space shuttle 

was launched from Cape 

Canaveral.

October 15, 2008

NRO declassified the fact 

of domestic NRO Mission 

Ground Stations and 

NRO presence at specific 

overseas locations.

February 28, 1958

President Eisenhower 

endorsed the film 

recovery satellite program 

(to be known as Corona) 

for photoreconnaissance.

October 1, 1974

NRO Program D was 

abolished, transferring 

responsibility for U-2, 

A-12, and SR-71 to the 

U.S. Air Force.

September 18, 1992

The existence of the NRO 

was publicly acknowledged 

in an official release from 

the Department of Defense.

S P A C E E X P L O R A T I O N T I M E L I N E

May 1, 1960

Gary Powers’ U-2 

reconnaissance plane 

was shot down by Soviet 

missiles near Syerdlovsk, 

U.S.S.R.
10

The establishment of the NRO on 6 September 1961 and its early management 

structure intended to build upon the early collaboration between the USAF 

and the CIA. At its beginning, the NRO was jointly directed by USAF and 

CIA officials, with both reporting to the Director of Central Intelligence and 

the Secretary of Defense. This union provided both challenges and triumphs 

for the early pioneers of the organization who operated in the highly secretive, 

covert organization. Less than six months of being named NRO co-director, 

Richard Bissell stepped down. DoD and CIA retained as sole director 

Joseph Charyk who continued to also serve as Under Secretary of the Air 

Force. There was no deputy director until March 1963 when a third charter 

established that the NRO would be led by a DoD appointed director and a 

CIA appointed deputy. 

From the very beginning, there has been a long-standing relationship 

between the Air Force, the CIA, and the U.S. Navy (USN). The early NRO had 

a small headquarters staff that operated from Room 4C1000 at the Pentagon. 

The Director and Deputy Director of the NRO supervised four alphadesignated program offices. Program A managed the U.S. Air Force satellite 

reconnaissance efforts. Program B oversaw the CIA satellite reconnaissance 

program. Program C operated the U.S. Navy satellite reconnaissance program. 

p Left: In the beginning, the NRO was quite literally an office in the Pentagon. It managed all the 

disparate programs out of the Pentagon Suite 4C1000. Right: The NRO Headquarters located in 

Chantilly, Virginia.

The NRO – Its Early Years
11

Program D consisted of aerial 

reconnaissance platforms like the 

U-2, A-12, and SR-71.

On 1 October 1974, the NRO 

abolished Program D, transferring 

control of the program’s aerial 

reconnaissance assets to the 

Department of the Air Force. 

On 31 December 1992, the NRO 

disestablished the remaining three 

alpha-designated program offices 

and replaced them with functional 

directorates and program offices 

(e.g., imagery intelligence, signals 

intelligence, communications, and 

space launch). To facilitate this 

reorganization, the NRO relocated 

its various program activities, initially 

consolidating them at interim 

facilities in the Northern Virginia 

area. In 1996, the NRO opened a 

permanent, integrated headquarters 

facility at the Westfields Business 

Park in Chantilly, Virginia.

Four years before moving into 

its new Westfields headquarters complex, the NRO began the process of 

transforming from a secret organization to an acknowledged agency of the 

Department of Defense. In an 18 September 1992 press release, the existence 

of the NRO was publicly acknowledged.

Some of the formerly classified activities of the NRO became public 

when President Clinton authorized the Director of Central Intelligence to 

declassify two programs. Corona, the first imagery reconnaissance satellite 

was declassified in 1995. Grab, the first Sigint-reconnaissance satellite was 

declassified in 1998. These programs, and succeeding NRO programs, have 

provided U.S. leadership with reliable intelligence in support of national 

security. Early in the NRO’s history, President Lyndon Johnson recognized 

p Top: Corona, the first imagery reconnaissance 

satellite. Bottom: Grab was the first Sigintreconnaissance satellite.
12

the value of the NRO’s overhead reconnaissance systems when, in 1967, while 

speaking about the U.S. space program, he said: “We’ve spent between 35 and 

40 billion dollars on space. But if nothing else had come from that program 

except the knowledge that we get from our satellite photography, it would be 

worth ten times to us what the whole program cost. Because tonight, I know 

how many missiles the enemy has that I would not know (otherwise).”1

In recent decades, the NRO has been introduced to more challenges 

as the world has become more globalized. The Internet and international 

transportation networks have interconnected countries and persons around 

the globe, making monitoring the world an increasingly difficult task. No 

event speaks to this challenge more than that of the terrorist attacks inside 

the U.S. on September 11, 2001 — or 9/11. With the U.S. troop deployment 

response to 9/11, NRO leaders realized the immediate need to provide more 

tactical support to the warfighter. In a 2003 address to the National Space 

Symposium, DNRO Peter Teets summarized, “In the late 1950s, it was a 

rare combination of new threats, events, and circumstances that encouraged 

unprecedented innovation in defense and intelligence technologies. The 

results - realization of highly capable space systems to meet critical national 

security needs - were beyond expectation. We are, again, at the brink of another 

national need for transformation via space capabilities, in the face of a new 

threat to our homeland. Through innovation, integration, and perspiration, 

we’ll deliver that new potential.”

As the NRO approaches its 50th anniversary, it is recognized not only for 

its significant historical accomplishments, but also for the transformational 

intelligence collection systems that help ensure continued “vigilance from 

above.” It has transitioned from operating reconnaissance systems whose 

primary mission was to collect strategic military, political, and economic 

information about its principal Cold War adversary, the U.S.S.R., to a new and 

emerging mission. Today this mission includes developing information about 

emerging threats that are more diverse and widely dispersed. International 

terrorists, drug traffickers, and non-state actors intent on proliferation 

of weapons of mass destruction, have become critical NRO missions. By 

developing highly accurate military targeting data, supporting international 

peacekeeping and humanitarian relief operations, and assessing the impact 

of natural disasters, the NRO continues to provide the nation with vigilance 

from above. 

1 See R. A. McDonald, (1999). “NRO’s Satellite Imaging Reconnaissance: Moving from the Cold War Threat to PostCold War Challenges,” Defense Intelligence Journal, 8-1, 66.
13

p NROL-26
14

Dr. Richard M. Bissell, Jr.

6 Sep 1961 – 28 Feb 1962 

(Co-Director)

Dr. Robert J. Hermann

8 Oct 1979 – 2 Aug 1981

Dr. John L. McLucas

17 Mar 1969 – 20 Dec 1973

Dr. Joseph V. Charyk

6 Sep 1961 – 28 Feb 1962 

(Co-Director)

29 Feb 1962 – 1 Mar 1963

Mr. James W. Plummer

21 Dec 1973 – 28 Jun 1976

Dr. Alexander H. Flax

1 Oct 1965 – 17 Mar 1969

Dr. Hans M. Mark

3 Aug 1977 – 8 Oct 1979

Dr. Brockway McMillan

1 Mar 1963 – 1 Oct 1965

Mr. Thomas C. Reed

9 Aug 1976 – 7 Apr 1977

Directors of National Reconnaissance
15

Dr. Donald M. Kerr

26 Jul 2005 – 04 Oct 2007

Mr. Peter B. Teets

13 Dec 2001 – 25 Mar 2005

Mr. Keith R. Hall

28 Mar 1997 – 13 Dec 2001

Mr. Scott F. Large

19 Oct 2007 – 18 Apr 2009

Mr. Edward C. Aldridge, Jr.

3 Aug 1981 – 16 Dec 1988

Mr. Jeffrey K. Harris

9 May 1994 – 26 Feb 1996

Mr. Martin C. Faga

28 Sep 1989 – 5 Mar 1993

Gen. Bruce A. Carlson (Ret)

12 Jun 2009 – Present

The technology that we are 

pursuing inside the National 

Reconnaissance Office is 

absolutely leading edge. 

We partner with the finest 

universities, the most advanced 

companies and other government 

agencies ... to develop that 

technology.”

Gen. Bruce A. Carlson (Ret)

GEOINT Symposium 2009
16

1862

May 31: Professor Thaddeus Lowe 

conducted aerial reconnaissance 

from a balloon during Battle of 

Fair Oaks in Virginia.

1903

Dec. 17: Orville and Wilbur 

Wright demonstrated first flight of 

powered, heavier-than-air aircraft at 

Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.

1906

Apr. 18: San Francisco earthquake 

devastation photographed with 

George Lawrence’s “Captive 

Airship” comprised of a kite “train” 

with an attached camera.

1909

Apr. 24: A news photographer, 

flying with Wilbur Wright in Italy, 

took first motion pictures from an 

airplane in flight.

Aug. 2: The U.S. Army accepted 

its first Wright Brothers airplane, 

making it the first airplane put 

into service by any government.

1914

Jul. 7: Robert Goddard obtained 

patents for multi-staged and liquidfueled rocket designs. 

1915

Mar. 3: The U.S. government 

formed the National Advisory 

Committee for Aeronautics 

(NACA), regarded as the 

predecessor to NASA.

Key Events in the Exploration of Space 

and the Evolution of Space-Based Reconnaissance

p Top: Professor Thaddeus Lowe conducted 

aerial reconnaissance from a balloon during 

Battle of Fair Oaks in Virginia. Bottom: 

Robert Goddard obtained patents for liquidfueled and multi-staged rocket designs.
17

1918

Oct. 2: The U.S. successfully flighttested the Kettering Bug, the first 

pilotless aircraft, in Dayton, Ohio.

1943

Apr. 19: RAF photo interpreter 

Constance Babington Smith 

identified the V-1 pulse-jet weapon 

in an aerial reconnaissance photo 

take of test facility at Peenemunde, 

Germany.

1945

Mar. 19: The German V-2 program 

was abandoned, leaving rocket 

technology for capture by Allied 

forces.

1946

Apr. 16: The U.S. Army first 

launched captured German V-2 

rocket at White Sands, New 

Mexico during missile testing.

May 2: RAND report, “Preliminary 

Design of Experimental WorldCircling Spaceship” affirmed 

feasibility of launching space 

satellites.

1947

Jul. 26: President Truman signed the 

National Security Act, establishing 

the U.S. Air Force as a separate 

service and forming the CIA, the 

National Security Council (NSC) 

and the DoD.

1950

Oct. 9: The U.S. Air Force 

established Project Gopher for 

development of a polyethylene 

high-altitude reconnaissance 

balloon.

1952

Jul. 5: The U.S. Air Force directed 

Strategic Air Command (SAC) to 

modify B-47B bomber to perform 

photoreconnaissance missions; the 

first mission took place in October. 

Oct. 15: The first Presidentially 

authorized overflight of the 

U.S.S.R. took place with B-47B 

aircraft, acquiring photographs of 

northeastern Siberian air bases.

Nov. 2: The CIA established a photo 

interpretation unit within its Office 

of Research and Reports.

1954

Mar. 1: RAND issued “Feed back

Report” recommending the USAF

develop a surveillance satellite 

program.
18

May 8: The USAF used a RB-47E 

to conduct photoreconnaissance 

in extreme northwestern Soviet 

Union.

Jul. 1: The USAF established the 

Western Development Division, 

considered the birthplace of U.S. 

missile and satellite development, 

in Inglewood, California.

Nov. 24: President Eisenhower 

approved the U-2 concept and 

appointed the CIA to manage its 

development.

Dec. 9: The CIA signed contract to 

develop U-2, termed the “biggest 

intelligence bargain in history.”

1955

Apr. 18: Two Soviet MiGs shot down 

a US RB-47E reconnaissance aircraft 

near Chukotskiy Peninsula.

p Top: U-2 spy plane used for overflights of 

the U.S.S.R. Bottom: Genetrix approved by 

President Eisenhower to fly at high-altitudes 

as a camera-carrying balloon above the 

altitude of jet fighters, propelled by the eastto-west jet stream. Project Genetrix helped 

to close the sizable intelligence gap on the 

interior regions of the U.S.S.R.
19

May 26: NSC’s first space policy 

declared a U.S. satellite, built as 

part of International Geophysical 

Year objectives, would be for 

“peaceful uses of space” that would 

test the international principle of 

“freedom of space.”

Jul. 21: Soviets rejected President 

Eisenhower’s Open Skies 

proposal at Geneva, providing 

impetus for U-2 operations and 

missions over U.S.S.R.

Aug. 4: U-2 prototype flew its 

first test flight, just eight months 

after its contract was signed with 

Lockheed.

1956

Jan. 10: Genetrix camera carrying 

balloons began a series of 516 releases 

over the next month, collecting 

intelligence over denied areas.

Jun. 26: RAND issued “Physical 

Recovery of Satellite Payloads” 

report recommending substituting 

film recovery for electronic 

scanning and readout in orbit.

Jul. 4: Hervey Stockman piloted 

the first U-2 overflight over 

denied Soviet airspace, flying over 

Leningrad; Soviet radar detected 

the flight.

p Before the U-2 was shot down in 1960, the 

U.S. already developed a replacement for the 

U-2 aircraft under the OXCART and SR-71 

programs. 
20

Jul. 10: Soviet officials protested 

American U-2 violation of 

Soviet airspace resulting in 

President Eisenhower temporarily 

suspending the Soviet overflights.

Oct. 29: The USAF awarded 

contract to Lockheed for the 

WS-117L program, an outgrowth 

of RAND studies and the only 

reconnaissance satellite effort at 

that time in the U.S. 

Nov. 27: Requirement clearly 

defining an effort for a 

reconnaissance satellite 

system emerged from the WS117L; Pentagon approved the 

operational requirement four 

months later.

1957

Mar. 6: Merton Davies conceived a 

“hot idea” for attaching a spin-pan 

camera to a satellite after discussions 

with Fairchild Camera employee, 

Frederic Wilcox.

May 15: The U.S.S.R. launched R-7 

ICBM, giving Soviet Union the 

lead in space race.

Oct. 4: U.S.S.R. launched 

Sputnik-1, the first artificial, 

earth-orbiting satellite and setting 

the “international precedence for 

freedom of space.”

Dec. 6: The U.S. Navy’s Vanguard, 

anticipated as the first satellite to 

launch in the Western world in 

response to Sputnik, exploded two 

feet above launch pad.

Dec. 17: The U.S. successfully 

launched first Atlas ICBM, 

eventually leading to its use for 

payloads in space.

1958

Jan. 31: The U.S. Army’s Jupiter-C 

launch vehicle placed Explorer I, 

America’s first satellite, into orbit.

Feb. 28: President Eisenhower 

endorsed film recovery 

satellite program for satellite 

photoreconnaissance.

Mar. 10: WS-117L’s secret film 

recovery satellite Program IIA 

was renamed “Project Corona.”

Aug. 19: National Intelligence 

Estimate (NIE) on Soviet strength 

contributed to a “missile gap” 

question that lingered until Sept. 

1961 when publication of NIE-11-

8/1-61, based on Corona imagery, 

confirmed that Soviet missile 

production lagged far behind 

originally forecast figures.
21

Oct. 1: National Aeronautics and 

Space Act established NASA as 

U.S. civilian space agency.

Dec. 3: Press release provided 

cover for the secret CIA’s Corona 

program, disassociated it from the 

Air Force WS-117L program, and 

attributed development and future 

launches to the Discoverer series 

for scientific exploration until the 

program was declassified.

1959

Jan. 2: The U.S.S.R. launched 

Luna 1, first Soviet attempt to 

reach the moon. Instead it passed 

within 5,995 km of the moon’s 

surface two days later and went 

into orbit around the Sun.

Jan. 21: First Corona launch failed.

Aug. 7: U.S. Explorer VI 

transmitted the first image of the 

Earth from space using a television 

scanner.

Aug. 24: President Eisenhower 

approved the Grab Elint satellite 

reconnaissance program.

1960

Apr. 1: U.S. launched TIROS, the 

first experimental meteorological 

satellite, with weather imaging 

capability that would later support 

Corona.

p Top: The Soviet’s Sputnik-1 was the first 

artificial, Earth-orbiting satellite in space. 

Bottom: Propelled by the quest for intelligence 

on Soviet activity, the Naval Research 

Laboratory’s Grab was orbited 500 miles above 

Earth to collect signals emanating from groundbased radar antennas.
22

Apr. 13: The U.S. Navy successfully 

launched and orbited Transit 1B, 

the first navigation satellite.

May 1: Soviets used SA-2 surfaceto-air missile (SAM) to shoot 

down Francis Gary Powers’ 

U-2 reconnaissance plane near 

Sverdlovsk, U.S.S.R.

May 24: Midas II, a U.S. early 

warning satellite, launched but 

transmission failed after two days.

Jun. 22: U.S. Naval Research 

Laboratory and USAF launched 

Elint satellite, Grab, the first U.S. 

reconnaissance satellite.

Aug. 10: U.S. launched Discoverer 

XIII, the first successful diagnostic 

flight in Corona series.

Aug. 11: The USN team retrieved 

Discoverer XIII’s recovery capsule 

containing an American flag, the 

first recovery of a man-made object 

from orbit.

Aug. 19: A USAF C-119 caught 

Discoverer XIV’s recovery capsule 

in mid-air; it contained first 

reconnaissance photographs from 

space.

Aug. 20: The U.S.S.R. made its first 

successful space recovery, Vostok 

prototype (Sputnik V), all animals 

and plants aboard survived the 

flight.

Aug. 25: The National Security 

Council assigned responsibility 

for Samos satellite reconnaissance 

program to SECAF.

Aug. 31: SECAF established 

Samos Project Office on West 

Coast and Office of Missiles and 

Satellite Systems (SAF/MSS) in 

Washington D.C. to direct Project 

Samos; both were predecessor 

organizations of the NRO.

Dec. 7: USAF launched Corona 

Mission 9013, the first successful 

mission with KH-2 camera.

1961

Feb. 1: The USAF successfully 

launched a three-stage, solid fuel 

Minuteman ICBM.

Apr. 12: Soviet Air Force 

Lieutenant Yuri Gagarin became 

first human in space.

May 5: LCDR Alan Shepard 

became first American in space 

during a brief sub-orbital flight.

Aug. 30: USAF launched Corona 

Mission 9023, the first mission 

with a KH-3 camera.
23

Sept. 6: DoD and CIA established 

the National Reconnaissance 

Office (NRO) to oversee the 

National Reconnaissance Program.

1962

Feb. 20: Lt. Col. John Glenn, Jr. 

became the first U.S. astronaut 

to orbit the Earth, circling three 

times in a span of five hours.

Apr. 26: U.S.S.R. launched Zenit-2 

under designator Kosmos 4, the 

first Soviet photoreconnaissance 

test satellite to orbit; it failed to 

return satisfactory images.

Apr. 30: CIA’s A-12, a high-altitude, 

supersonic “Blackbird” aircraft 

intended as a follow-on to the U-2, 

made its first official test flight.

Jul. 17: Robert White piloted the 

U.S. X-15 to lower reaches of 

space; first winged aircraft to reach 

stratosphere.

Jul. 23: DNRO Joseph Charyk 

organized the NRO into Program 

A (Air Force), Program B (CIA), 

Program C (Navy), and Program D 

(aircraft).

Jul. 28: The U.S.S.R. launched 

Zenit-2 (Kosmos 7) which orbited 

for 10 days and provided Soviets 

with the first clear photoreconnaissance images from space.

p C-119 catching the Corona recovery vehicle. 

Corona was a technological marvel that 

scientists and engineers developed beyond 

expectations. The Corona saw several firsts: 

first recovery of an object in space, first midair 

recovery of an object sent into space, and first 

intelligence photograph of a target imaged from 

space.
24

Aug. 23: NRO launched first 

successful Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program (DMSP) satellite.

Aug. 29: U-2 imagery revealed SA-2 

and surface-to-air missile sites 

under construction in Cuba.

Oct. 14: U.S. U-2 reconnaissance 

aircraft acquired imagery of Soviet 

SS-4 medium-range ballistic missiles 

at San Cristobol, Cuba.

Oct. 22: After disclosing to leaders 

of Britain, France, Germany, and 

Canada reconnaissance photos of 

Soviet nuclear-capable missiles in 

Cuba, President Kennedy televised 

to the American people that 

“closest surveillance” of the island 

yielded “unmistakable evidence of 

offensive missile sites.”

Oct. 28: Soviet officials ordered 

removal of nuclear-capable missiles 

from Cuba. 

Dec. 13: NRO successfully 

launched second signals 

reconnaissance satellite, Poppy 1.

p U-2 reconnaissance photo of a Soviet SA-2 

surface-to-air missile (SAM) deployment site 

captured prior to the events of the Cuban 

Missile Crisis in 1962. 
25

1963

Jun. 16: Soviet Valentina Tereshkova 

became first woman to orbit Earth; 

aboard Vostok 6, she orbited Earth 

48 times in a three-day flight.

1964 

Dec. 22: The SR-71, the USAF’s 

“Blackbird,” a slightly larger and 

heavier version of the CIA’s A-12, 

made its first official test flight.

1965

Nov. 20: The CIA’s A-12 made 

its final validation flight, setting 

speed and altitude records of 

Mach 3.29 and 90,000 feet.

1966

Jan. 7: Lockheed delivered first

SR-71 aircraft to SAC.

Aug. 23: NASA’s Lunar Orbiter 

1 satellite took first pictures of 

Earth from the moon using Samos 

camera.

1967

Jun. 26: The U.S.S.R. launched 

Kosmos-189, the first Soviet Elint 

satellite, but it failed to orbit.

1969

Jul. 20: U.S. astronauts Neil 

Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became 

the first to walk on the moon.

1970

Apr. 24: China joined U.S., 

U.S.S.R., France, and Japan to 

establish a satellite reconnaissance 

program with the DFH-1 launch.

Nov. 6: The USAF launched 

Defense Support Program (DSP) 

satellite, the first operational 

missile warning satellite.

1972

May 25: NRO launched 

Mission 1117, the final Corona 

photoreconnaissance satellite.

1973

Dec. 17: DoD approved Global 

Positioning System (GPS) 

development.

1974

Oct. 1: NRO and CIA abolished 

Program D, transferring 

responsibilities for U-2, A-12, and 

the SR-71 to the USAF.

1977

Jan. 16: FBI arrested Christopher 

Boyce, who (with Andrew Daulton 

Lee) sold secrets about a Sigint 

satellite reconnaissance system 

to the Soviet Union. Both were 

convicted in federal court in the 

spring of 1977.
26

1978

Feb. 22: The USAF launched 

first GPS Block 1 constellation 

satellite.

Oct. 1: President Carter publicly 

acknowledged the use of 

photoreconnaissance satellites for 

treaty monitoring.

1981

Apr. 12: The first Space Shuttle was 

launched from Cape Canaveral. 

1982

Sept. 1: The USAF activated 

Space Command to consolidate 

operational space activities.

1983

Jun. 18: Astronaut Sally Ride 

became the first U.S. woman in 

space when she flew aboard the 

Space Shuttle Challenger.

1984

Aug. 11: Jane’s Defense Weekly 

published classified photo of first 

Soviet aircraft carrier.

1986

Jan. 28: Space Shuttle Challenger 

exploded just after liftoff, killing 

all seven crew members.

Aug. 7: U.S. Court sentenced Bruce 

Ott to 25 years for his attempt to 

sell classified information on SR-71 

“Blackbird.”

Oct. 27: U.S. charged Allen 

John Davies with attempting to 

pass classified reconnaissance 

technology to Soviets. He was 

sentenced to five years in August 

1987.

1989

Nov. 9: Berlin Wall collapsed.

1990

Jan. 25: U.S. Air Force retired the 

SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft 

from SAC service in ceremonies at 

Beale AFB, California.

1991

Dec. 25: The Soviet Union collapsed 

with the resignation of General 

Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.

1992

Mar. 24: U.S. and 23 other 

nations signed the Open Skies 

treaty, allowing unarmed aerialreconnaissance missions by 

signatory nations.

Sept. 18:The DoD officially 

acknowledged existence of the 

NRO.
27

1995

Feb. 24: President Clinton 

declassified Corona imagery. 

Jul. 17: The first GPS satellite 

constellation became fully 

operational.

1996

Dec. 18: The first NRO launch 

is declassified with public 

acknowledgment that the Titan IV 

carried an NRO satellite into space.

1997

Mar. 1: The NRO declassified certain 

offices, personnel, and sites involved 

in space launch and approved 

releasing, for some launches, the fact 

that they carry NRO satellites. 

1998

Jun. 17: As part of its 75th 

anniversary celebration, the Naval 

Research Laboratory announced 

DCI George Tenet’s declassification 

of limited information about the 

Grab satellite. 

p Aerial view of the NRO Headquarters. The 

NRO is publicly acknowledged by the DoD 

in 1992 as needs to centralize all operations 

and management into one location made it 

necessary to come “out of the shadows.” In 

1994, construction began on the Westfields 

Complex, which now serves as the NRO 

headquarters.
28

2000

Oct. 25: DCI George Tenet approved 

declassification of imagery acquired 

by KH-7 and KH-9 cameras.

2001

Sept. 11: Using commercial aircraft 

in a suicide attack, Al Qaeda 

terrorists destroyed two World 

Trade Center towers, damaged the 

Pentagon, and highjacked a fourth 

plane that passengers downed in 

Pennsylvania.

Oct. 7: Operation Enduring 

Freedom began in Afghanistan.

2002

Sept. 20: National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (then called 

NIMA) formally transferred 

imagery acquired by KH-7 and 

KH-9 cameras to National 

Archives.

2003

Feb. 1: Space Shuttle Columbia 

(Mission STS-107) suffered 

catastrophic failure 15 minutes 

before touchdown at Kennedy 

Space Center; the seven crew 

members died.

Feb. 5: Secretary of State 

Colin Powell used satellite 

reconnaissance imagery at U.N. 

Security Council to contend 

that Iraq failed to comply with 

disarmament obligations.

Mar. 19: Operation Iraqi Freedom 

began.

2004

May 11: DCI George Tenet 

approved Poppy declassification.

Dec. 17: President George W. 

Bush signed the Intelligence 

Reform and Terrorist Prevention 

Act creating the position of 

Director of National Intelligence.

p The Pentagon after the attack on 9/11/2001.
29

2005

Apr. 21: Ambassador John D. 

Negroponte sworn in as the first 

Director of National Intelligence. 

2006

Jul. 5: North Korea conducted seven 

missile tests, including the longrange Taepo-Dong 2 missile that 

failed shortly after launch.

2007

Jan. 11: China successfully carried 

out its first test of an antisatellite 

weapon, shooting down an aging 

Chinese weather satellite.

2008

Feb. 20: U.S. Navy successfully 

shot down an errant NRO satellite 

carrying toxic hydrazine fuel.

May 25: Phoenix Lander, a robotic 

spacecraft, descended onto Mars’ 

northern polar region where it 

later confirmed that water, in the 

form of ice, exists on Mars. 

Jun. 9: NRO declassified the fact of 

radar satellite reconnaissance. 

Oct. 15: NRO declassified the fact 

of domestic Mission Ground 

Stations and NRO presence at 

RAF Menwith Hill, UK and the 

Joint Defence Facility Pine Gap 

near Alice Springs, Australia.

2009

Jan. 17: NRO launched a payload 

for the first time aboard a Delta IV 

heavy launch vehicle.

2010

Apr. 15: President Obama 

presented the administration’s 

proposal to cancel NASA’s moonmission program, Constellation.
30

p NROL-30
31

William O. Baker, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1980

Shaped the course of signals 

intelligence, communications, and 

encryption/decryption technologies 

as scientific counselor to NSA, 

CIA, USN, and NRO. As a “Land 

Panel” member, helped pave the 

way for the first near-real-time 

reconnaissance satellite system. 

Merton E. Davies

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1948–1975

Invented the Spin-Pan camera and 

collaborated in the film recovery 

satellite proposal for Corona. Davies 

later served on NRO and other 

advisory panels that established 

reconnaissance requirements. 

Sidney D. Drell

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1960–2000

Achieved recognition in the area of 

reconnaissance for his contributions 

in various areas of physics, from ballistic missile launches to photographing the Earth from space. 

Richard L. Garwin, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1957–2000

Served as a key scientific advisor to 

NRO’s Program B, and established 

standards and found solutions for 

electromechanical design of modern 

long-life spacecraft. 

Amrom H. Katz

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1941–1976

Co-directed a project on peacetime 

overflight reconnaissance, and 

co-proposed film-recovery satellites. 

This proposal was eventually 

established as the Corona Project. 

James R. Killian, Jr., Ph.D. 

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1973

Chaired the Technological 

Capabilities Panel for President 

Eisenhower that recommended 

building the U-2 aircraft and 

reconnaissance satellites. He was 

subsequently involved in shaping 

the agreements between the 

Department of Defense and CIA 

that structured the NRO.

Founders of National Reconnaissance

“These scientists, engineers, and innovators — through their technical 

expertise — shaped the emerging discipline of national reconnaissance and 

provided the confidence for creating the NRO in 1960-61.” 

Keith Hall, Former DNRO
32

Edwin H. Land

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1952–1980

Invented instant photography and 

founded the Polaroid company. 

Later served on the Technological 

Capabilities Panel for assessing 

technical capabilities supporting 

intelligence collection, subsequently chairing the “Land Panel” 

for reconnaissance capabilities. He 

advocated for early reconnaissance 

programs like U-2 and Corona 

and played a vital role in advising 

President Nixon on capabilities of 

Electro-Optical Imagery (EOI). 

Frank W. Lehan

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1965–1975

Was instrumental in the decision to 

proceed with an important signals 

intelligence satellite system, and 

contributed to the reflector designs 

for that system.

William J. Perry, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1955–1997

Chaired the “Perry Panel” that 

advised NRO’s Program B on 

all overhead signals intelligence 

collection systems. He later served 

as Under Secretary of Defense for 

Research and Engineering and 

Secretary of Defense.

Edward M. Purcell, Ph.D.

Service to National 

Reconnaissance: 1950–1965

Worked on all early overhead 

reconnaissance projects (including 

U-2, A-12/SR-71) that operated 

at extreme altitudes. His most 

significant contribution used new 

materials and methods to ensure 

these vehicles, if not invisible to 

radar, were hard to observe with 

radar.

p Founders of National Reconnaissance 

plaque.
33

Class of 2000

James G. Baker, Ph.D.

Pioneered the use of computer 

algorithms to model lens design 

and developed U-2 camera lenses.

C. Lee Battle, Jr., Colonel, USAF

Originated and applied the 

principles of “Battle’s Laws” 

to successfully guide day-to-day 

management of Corona.

John T. Bennett 

Developed innovative system designs 

for signals intelligence spacecraft 

that advanced the nation’s national 

reconnaissance capabilities.

John W. Browning, Colonel, USAF 

Pioneered a new and powerful 

signals intelligence capability and 

dramatically enhanced signals 

intelligence collection.

Jon H. Bryson, Colonel, USAF 

Directed the development, 

acquisition and operation of an 

on-orbit satellite system that helped 

reduce signals intelligence data 

processing and dissemination times.

A. Roy Burks 

Successfully conquered technical 

challenges dealing with Corona 

and effectively managed the vital 

relationship among government, 

military and contractor employees.

Pioneers of National Reconnaissance

A Pioneer of national reconnaissance is an individual who made a lasting and significant contribution that changed the direction or scope of the 

discipline of national reconnaissance. Each year, the National Reconnaissance Office honors a select group of individuals as Pioneers of National 

Reconnaissance.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, Class of 2000
34

Frank S. Buzard, Colonel, USAF 

Led Corona’s system integration 

and operations, ensuring the 

program stayed on track. Managed 

Corona’s follow-on program.

Cornelius W. “Connie” Chambers 

Provided the cornerstone design 

for the vehicle protective measures 

during the early development of 

space reconnaissance technologies. 

John O. Copley, Colonel, USAF 

Pioneered improvements in payload 

design and ground data processing 

and exploitation of signals 

intelligence satellites.

Robert H. Crotser 

Wrote cost and schedule 

management handbook, still used 

today, to deliver Program B’s 

electro-optical imaging satellite on 

time and under budget.

John J. Crowley 

Established an enduring 

partnership between NRO’s CIA 

and USAF elements, and advanced 

development on four successful 

satellite programs.

James C. de Broekert 

Major contributor to the successful 

development of the first low-earthorbiting electronic intelligence 

systems.

Gary S. Geyer, Colonel, USAF

Pioneered near real time delivery of 

products to military and civil users 

with his work in signals intelligence 

collection, data processing, and 

dissemination.

Thomas O. Haig, Colonel, USAF 

Directed the program that developed 

the National Reconnaissance Office 

meteorological satellite system 

significantly increasing the quantity 

of cloud-free pictures.

Frederick H. Kaufman 

Produced two important Sigint 

satellites, to include the first 

communications cross-link system 

in space, as director of a team for 

Program B.

Robert J. Kohler 

Developed unique imaging 

techniques and introduced 

photographic edge measurement 

and sharpening tools for evaluating 

and enhancing overhead imagery.

Ellis E. Lapin 

Contributed to the on-orbit reliability 

of the NRO’s satellite imagery 

reconnaissance systems by managing 

the design and development of the 

spacecraft and hardware.

Lloyd K. Lauderdale, Ph.D. 

Program Manager for the CIA 

Program B team that developed an 

advanced signals intelligence satellite 

from concept through first launch. 
35

Richard S. Leghorn, Colonel, USAF

Major contributor to Corona 

camera development and cofounder and first president of 

Itek Corp. that built the first U.S. 

space camera. He is often credited 

with originating the “Open Skies” 

concept.

Walter J. Levison 

Designed the cameras for the 

Genetrix balloon and Corona satellite 

photoreconnaissance programs.

Howard O. Lorenzen 

Early advocate of signals 

intelligence satellites, he directed 

the development of Grab, the 

nation’s first such program at the 

Naval Research Laboratory.

Francis J. Madden 

Directed the design and production 

of the Corona cameras and helped 

solve technical problems that 

threatened the camera in space. 

James T. Mannen, Colonel, USAF

Introduced procedures that improved 

target tasking and significantly 

increased ground resolution and onorbit system reliability.

Paul W. Mayhew, Ph.D. 

Helped lead the development of 

the payload electronic, mechanical, 

and radio frequency elements, from 

concept to verified designs.

Reid D. Mayo 

Conceived and designed the nation’s 

first operational space-bound 

reconnaissance system — the Grab 

signals intelligence satellite.

James E. Morgan 

Developed the target tasking and 

data dissemination architectures for 

key programmatic systems. 

Mark N. Morton 

Directed the General Electric team 

that developed, tested, and built 

the Corona reentry vehicle and its 

successful recovery sequence. 

Alden V. Munson, Jr. 

Introduced and developed an 

automatic, operational electronic 

intelligence collection and data 

processing system that directly 

supported U.S. military in the field.

Charles L. Murphy, Colonel, USAF 

First Field Technical Director at 

the Corona Advanced Projects 

Integration Facility, a crucial link 

between Corona operations and the 

Intelligence Community. 

Frederic C.E. “Fritz” Oder, 

Colonel, USAF 

Directed the first U.S. satellite 

reconnaissance enterprise, the 

WS-117L Program, a significant 

contribution to early military and 

national reconnaissance satellites. 
36

John Parangosky 

Forged government and contractor 

team successes and the overall 

technical success of the Corona 

program with his strong team 

building skills.

Julius P. “Val” Peline, Ph.D. 

Served as a Lockheed system test 

director and program manager for 

a key imaging intelligence satellite 

program.

Robert M. Powell 

Devised a novel payload-pointing 

mechanism that greatly extended 

the lifetime of satellites in orbit.

Edward H. Reese 

Led the architecture and 

development of the ground data 

system for Electro-Optical Imaging 

processing and added subsequent 

improvements used today.

Osmond J. “Ozzie” Ritland, 

Major General, USAF

Managed service infrastructure for 

early overflights of the U.S.S.R. 

as the USAF manager for the U-2 

program, and later supported 

Corona as Vice Commander of 

the Air Force’s Air Research and 

Development Command’s Western 

Development Division.

Lee W. Roberts, Colonel, USAF 

Directed improvements in an 

important Program A satellite 

reconnaissance effort that produced 

high-resolution imagery of earth’s 

surface.

Charles R. “Charlie” Roth 

CIA manager in Program B for 

government/industry team that 

produced the first electro-optical 

reconnaissance satellite system.

Robert W. Roy, Colonel, USAF

Oversaw launches at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base, managed the 

construction of launch pads, and 

established launch requirements and 

procedures that became standards. 

Charles P. Spoelhof 

Directed efforts that helped 

revolutionize film recovery with the 

application of thin-based Mylar film 

in NRO camera systems. He also 

served as optical engineer for U-2, 

A-12, and Samos camera design.

Forrest H. Stieg 

CIA engineer and spacecraft 

operational specialist in Program 

B, devised a process for selecting an 

optimum orbit that balanced signals 

collection with vehicle longevity. 

Marvin S. Stone, Ph.D. 

Revolutionized overhead Sigint 

collection with innovative electronic 

and radio frequency technologies while 

serving as a payload systems engineer 

and project manager for Program B. 
37

Don F. Tang 

Established a “collection scale” 

for determining which signals 

could be collected at a reasonable 

cost, setting the stage for the 

development of all future Sigint 

systems.

Albert D. “Bud” Wheelon, Ph.D.

Served as the first CIA Deputy 

Director of Science and Technology 

and was responsible for U-2 

overflights, the development of 

the Oxcart A-12, and three major 

satellite reconnaissance systems.

Peter G. Wilhelm

Invented new devices and 

techniques that contributed to 

increased capabilities and improved 

performance on early signals 

intelligence satellites.

Roy H. Worthington, Colonel, 

USAF

Directed the integration and launch 

of some 200 satellites from the 

Western Test Range. He supervised 

new factory-to-launch procedures 

for moving satellites from R&D to 

operations. 

Robert W. Yundt, Colonel, USAF

Directed Program A’s Signals 

Intelligence Project Office and 

developed a low altitude multipurpose Sigint satellite that 

became vital to the NRO’s early 

efforts in Elint collection.
38

Class of 2001

Donald L. Cromer, Lt. General, 

USAF (Ret) 

Directed the design, development, and 

acquisition of a new imaging satellite 

system that became a critical part of 

U.S. national reconnaissance. 

A.J. “Tony” Iorillo 

Conceived a new concept in 

spacecraft control and operations, 

which contributed to successful 

near-real-time optical imaging, with 

data relayed directly from space to a 

ground processing system. 

Vincent S. Rose 

Designed the first Elint payload used 

in Sigint reconnaissance satellites, 

allowing receivers to collect radar 

emissions across broad frequency 

ranges.

John Walton 

Served as a key architect and leader 

in the successful operation of earth 

and space-based program elements.

Class of 2002

Vance D. Coffman, Ph.D.

Led the development of a new 

satellite attitude control capability 

that provided major improvements 

in satellite-collected images. 

Lee M. Hammarstrom 

Developed satellite, ground station, 

and processing improvements that 

enhanced the accuracy, timeliness, 

and volume of Elint products. He 

later led the NRO’s Technology 

Office and served as NRO Chief 

Scientist. 

Robert L. Paulson, Colonel, 

USAF (Ret) 

Served as a dynamic manager in 

the imaging intelligence arena, 

directing his team through the 

design, development, and testing of 

its satellite systems.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2002

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2001
39

Class of 2003

Carl L. Ferdensi, Jr.

Pioneered improvements in 

telemetry processing for foreign 

instrumentation signals intelligence 

(Fisint) data, aiding decisions on 

Soviet military capabilities. 

David Raspet, Colonel, USAF

Pioneered advanced methods of 

integrating spacecraft into launch 

vehicles, ensuring sustained operation 

of reconnaissance satellites.

James W. Stoner, Ph.D. 

Pioneered techniques for near-realtime processing of Elint signals and 

developed capabilities to process 

large volumes of data.

Charles C. Tevis 

Instrumental in the founding of 

the Defense Special Missile and 

Astronautics Center (DEFSMAC) 

as a centralized facility for all-source 

information and analysis, where 

he served as inaugural director of 

DEFSMAC under appointment by 

SECDEF. 

Class of 2004

M. Sam Araki 

Pioneered the development of 

the world’s first stabilized space 

platform, Agena, which the NRO 

used for the Corona and other 

satellites. 

Harvey Cohen, Lt Colonel, 

USAF (Ret) 

Pioneered innovative National 

Reconnaissance Office security 

practices and procedures that 

helped keep NRO’s collection 

system covert during the Cold War.

Robert G. Kaemmerer 

Pioneered the development of 

the most sophisticated family of 

intelligence satellite systems during 

the Cold War. 

James W. McAnally 

Championed development of a new 

imagery satellite reconnaissance 

system used during the Cold War 

to the present, supporting a wide 

range of operations.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2004

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2003
40

Class of 2005

Robert Eisenhauer 

Pioneered techniques that changed 

wide-area Sigint reconnaissance 

technology and dramatically 

improved the accuracy and 

dissemination timeliness of satellite 

intelligence products.

Roger C. Marsh 

Applied analytical and management 

skills to construct a secure facility and 

widely-dispersed operation into the 

present NRO headquarters. 

Wayne L. Proffitt 

Pioneered the design of the 

mechanism that enabled satellites 

to point their communications 

dishes at relay satellites and 

maintain continuous contact while 

still imaging.

Edward A. Miller, Ph.D. 

Developed the first man-made object 

to be recovered from earth orbit–the 

recovery vehicle for Corona.

Class of 2006

Ingard M. Clausen 

Pioneering efforts laid the 

groundwork for the Corona 

system’s ability to endure the 

harsh environment of space and 

withstand the heat of reentry into 

the Earth’s atmosphere.

Fred V. Hellrich 

Developed innovations that 

provided revolutionary 

improvement in the productivity, 

accuracy, and timeliness of 

electronic intelligence product. 

David L. Klinger, Ph.D. 

Successful in developing and deploying 

a new technology that substantially 

enhanced the ability of the NRO to 

collect overhead intelligence.

Jane A. Wood 

Pioneered the development of a 

budget and accounting system that 

accurately tracked expenditures for 

complex satellite programs.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2005

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2006
41

Class of 2007

Paul G. Kaminski, Ph.D. 

Pioneered the development of a 

new type of reconnaissance satellite 

system and introduced innovative 

tools for analysts to exploit

information from this complex 

system.

Sun Yet Wong

Pioneered new technologies 

that improved the effectiveness 

of satellite systems. Developed 

STARDYNE, which enabled the 

NRO to analyze complex spacecraft 

and special payloads. 

Class of 2008

Raymond E. Anderson, 

Colonel, USAF (Ret) 

Pioneered the use of solid-state 

recorders in reconnaissance 

satellites to extend their operational 

life spans.

Howard G. Brotherton 

Pioneered advances in momentum 

management and developed 

techniques that advanced the state 

of automation for critical satellite 

missions.

Hilliard W. Paige, Sr. 

Pioneered the concept of using 

ICBM reentry technology for the 

recovery of reconnaissance film 

capsules from space, which proved 

instrumental in the successful 

development of the Corona 

recovery system.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2007

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance, 

Class of 2008
42

Class of 2009

James P. Campbell, Ph.D.

Provided technical excellence and 

leadership in conception through 

deployment of a new, innovative 

imaging reconnaissance capability - 

to include a ground and spacecraft 

- that demonstrated unprecedented 

extended operational life.

Lacy G. Cook 

Demonstrated technical ingenuity 

in developing and applying a 

unique technology that enabled 

a new capability to fit into the 

limited space of an existing NRO 

satellite and resulted in providing 

unprecedented information to 

national policy makers.

Michael F. Maguire 

Pioneered and pushed the state 

of the art for one of the last 

film-based NRO reconnaissance 

systems, resulting in a national 

reconnaissance space constellation 

with greater reliability and 

operational longevity. 

Class of 2010

Robert H. Dumais

Pioneered intelligence utility of 

a new capability for an imaging 

satellite system that led to improved 

quality imagery products from 

space.

Jack A. Gibbs, Brigadier General,

USAF (Ret) 

Proved the effective use of highaltitude airborne reconnaissance 

for denied area intelligence 

collection during the Cold War 

through application of innovative 

engineering on U-2 operations 

and assessment for lower radar 

“detectability.”

Richard J. Randazzo, Colonel,

USAF (Ret) 

Improved satisfaction of mission 

requirements and increased 

coverage of high priority targets 

through his introduction and 

application of new operational 

techniques for NRO imaging 

systems.

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2009

p Pioneers of National Reconnaissance,

Class of 2010
43

This is a partial list of unclassified space launches from 1959 until 2009. The list 

has been verified by the Office of Space Launch at the NRO.

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

02/28/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

04/13/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

06/03/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Failure —

06/25/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

08/13/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/19/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/07/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/20/59 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

02/04/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

02/19/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Failure — —

04/15/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/22/60 Grab/

Dyno 1

Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

Sigint Success Success Failure

06/29/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Failure —

08/10/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/18/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/13/60 Corona Thor-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/11/60 Samos 1 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

10/26/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

11/12/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure Failure

Table of Selected NRO Launches
44

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

11/30/60 Grab/Dyno Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

Sigint Failure — —

12/07/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/20/60 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

01/31/61 Samos 2 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg 

Air Force Base

Imint Success Failure — 

02/17/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/18/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

03/30/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

04/08/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/08/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint — Failure —

06/16/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/29/61 Grab/

Dyno 2

Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

Sigint Success Success Success

07/07/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/21/61 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

08/03/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure

08/30/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/09/61 Samos 3 Atlas-Agena A Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

09/12/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/17/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure Failure

10/13/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/23/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

11/05/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/15/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
45

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

11/22/61 Samos 4 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

12/12/61 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/22/61 Samos 5 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

01/13/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure

01/24/62 Poppy 1 Thor-Able Star Cape 

Canaveral Air 

Station

Sigint Failure — —

02/27/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/07/62 Samos 6 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

04/18/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

04/26/62 Poppy 2 Scout Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Failure — —

04/26/62 Samos 7 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

04/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/15/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/30/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/02/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/17/62 Samos 8 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/23/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/18/62 Samos 9 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/21/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/28/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/02/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/05/62 Samos 10 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
46

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

08/29/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/01/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/17/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/29/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/09/62 Argon Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/26/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Success Success Success

11/05/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/11/62 Samos 11 Atlas-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/24/62 Corona Thor-Agena B Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/04/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/13/62 Poppy 3 Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

12/14/62 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

01/07/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/28/63 Corona Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

03/18/63 Lanyard Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

04/01/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

04/26/63 Argon Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

05/18/63 Lanyard Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/12/63 Corona Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/15/63 Poppy 4 Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

06/27/63 Corona Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
47

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

07/18/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/31/63 Lanyard Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/25/63 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/29/63 Argon Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/23/63 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/29/63 Argon Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/09/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

11/27/63 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/21/63 Corona Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

01/11/64 Poppy 5 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

02/15/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/24/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Failure —

04/27/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/04/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/13/64 Argon Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/19/64 Corona J1 ThrustAugmented 

Thor-Agena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/10/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/05/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
48

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

08/21/64 Argon Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/14/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/05/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/17/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/02/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/18/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/19/64 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

01/15/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/25/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/08/65 Poppy 6 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

03/25/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

04/29/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/18/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/09/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/19/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/17/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/02/65 Corona Thor-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

N/A Failure — —

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
49

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

09/22/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/05/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

10/28/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/09/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/24/65 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/02/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/09/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

04/07/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/03/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

05/24/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/21/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/09/66 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/20/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/08/66 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

01/14/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/22/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/30/67 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
50

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

05/09/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/31/67 Poppy 7 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

06/16/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/07/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/15/67 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/02/67 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/09/67 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

01/24/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/14/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/01/68 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

06/20/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

08/07/68 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/18/68 Corona J1 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/03/68 Corona J3 Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/12/68 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/05/69 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
51

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LAUNCH VEHICLE SITE MISSION LAUNCH VEHICLE

UPPER 

STAGE MISSION

03/19/69 Corona J1 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/02/69 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/24/69 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/22/69 Corona J1 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/30/69 Poppy 8 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

12/04/69 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

03/04/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/20/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

07/23/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

11/18/70 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

02/17/71 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Failure — —

03/24/71 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

09/10/71 Corona J3 Long Tank Thrust 

Augmented ThorAgena D

Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

12/14/71 Poppy 9 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Sigint Success Success Success

04/19/72 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

05/25/72 Corona J3 Thorad-Agena D Vandenberg Air 

Force Base

Imint Success Success Success

Table of Selected NRO Launches (cont.)
52

Except for the declassified programs (Corona, Grab, and Poppy) all launches 

between 1972 and 1996 were classified. After 1996, the fact that the rockets 

launched carried NRO payloads was unclassified, but the satellites remain 

classified.

LAUNCH 

DATE PROGRAM LV TYPE SITE INT

12/20/96 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

10/23/97 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

11/07/97 (Classified) Titan IV Centaur Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

01/29/98 (Classified) Atlas IIA Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

05/08/98 (Classified) Titan IV Centaur Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

08/12/98 (Classified) Titan IV Centaur Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

10/03/98 (Classified) Taurus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

08/17/00 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

12/06/00 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

05/18/01 (Classified) Delta II Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

09/08/01 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

10/05/01 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

09/09/03 (Classified) Titan IV Centaur Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

12/02/03 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

08/31/04 (Classified) Atlas IIAS Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

02/03/05 (Classified) Atlas III Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

04/29/05 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

10/19/05 (Classified) Titan IV Nus Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

06/27/06 (Classified) Delta IV (4,2) Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

12/14/06 (Classified) Delta II Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

6/15/07 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

12/10/07 (Classified) Atlas V Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

3/13/08 (Classified) Atlas V Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

1/17/09 (Classified) Delta IV-H Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)

9/20/10 (Classified) Atlas V 501 Vandenberg Air Force Base (Classified)

11/21/10 (Classified) Delta IV-H Cape Canaveral Air Station (Classified)
53

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Welzenbach, D. E. (1986, Spring). “Observation Balloons and 

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Wheelon, A. D. (1997, February). “Corona: The First Reconnaissance 

Satellites.” Physics Today, 50:2.

Wheelon, A. D. & Graybeal, S.N. (1961, Fall). “Intelligence for the Space 

Race.” Sudies in Intelligence, 5.
57

AFBMD Air Force Ballistic Missile Division

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DCI Director of Central Intelligence

DEFSMAC Defense Special Mission and Aerospace Center

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DNRO Director, National Reconnaissance Office

DoD Department of Defense

DSP Defense Support Program

ELINT Electronic Intelligence 

EOI Electro Optical Imaging

FISINT Foreign Instrumentation Signals Intelligence

GPS Global Positioning System

GRAB Galactic Radiation and Background Satellite

HPSCI House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IMINT Imagery Intelligence

KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti 

(Soviet State Security Committee)

MIDAS Missile Detection and Alarm System

NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NGA National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

NIE National Intelligence Estimate

Acronyms
58

NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency

NPIC National Photographic Interpretation Center

NRP National Reconnaissance Program

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NSC National Security Council

OGO Orbiting Geophysical Observatory

OMSS Office of Missile and Satellite Systems

RAF Royal Air Force

SAC Strategic Air Command

SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

SAM Surface-to-Air Missile

SecAF Secretary of the Air Force

SecDef Secretary of Defense

SIGINT Signals Intelligence

SLV Space Launch Vehicle

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations

USAF United States Air Force

USN United States Navy

USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

WADC Wright Air Development Center

WDD Western Development Division (United States Air Force)

Acronyms (cont.)
59

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) is the research, 

historical, and analytical center in Business Plans and Operations (BPO). 

CSNR products and activities help define and explain the policy and doctrine 

of national reconnaissance. CSNR functions are intended to support the 

NRO’s strategic goals to execute space reconnaissance, transform sources and 

methods, and partner in delivering vital intelligence.

Vision

The vision in the Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance is to have 

a mission-oriented influence on NRO decisionmaking by sharing the CSNR’s 

research-based insight into the discipline of national reconnaissance. 

Mission

The primary mission is to advance and shape the Intelligence Community’s 

understanding of the discipline, practice, and history of national 

reconnaissance. Our objective is to ensure that NRO leadership has the 

analytical framework and historical context to make effective policy and 

programmatic decisions. We focus on social science and historical research, 

with a goal to enable the NRO to meet its mission objectives. The CSNR 

reports to the Deputy Director, Business Plans and Operations.

Functions

CSNR is organized into three business areas:

1. Research, Studies, and Analysis;

2. Recognition, Exhibits, and Outreach; and

3. Historical Documentation and Research.

The purpose of these functional business areas is to help inform and educate those 

involved with national reconnaissance and to assist NRO program managers in 

building and operating an integrated architecture that will be responsive to current 

and future needs of the U.S. national security community.

Contact Us

National Reconnaissance Office

BPO/CSNR

14675 Lee Road

Chantilly, VA 20151-1715

(703) 488-4733

csnr@nro.mil

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance
60

Research and Production Team

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance is proud to publish the 

National Reconnaissance Almanac on behalf of the National Reconnaissance 

Office. We would like to give special thanks to Media Services Center for their 

outstanding customer support and the members of the CSNR research team 

for their important contributions.

Research

Shelly Cornwell, Sharon Moreno, Jack Munson, Kelly Owen, Kimberly 

Theriault, Ginny Field and Faye Grubbs.

Editing

Emily Campbell, Noel McCormack, Patrick Widlake, Karen Early and 

Lindsay Kooiman.

Design and Production

NRO Media Services Center.

Photos

Courtesy of CSNR Reference Collection Center, NRO Media Services 

Center, NRO Visual Design, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, NASA, National Park 

Service and the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Naval Research 

Laboratory, Eastman Kodak Corp., and (former) National Photographic 

Interpretation Center.

Acknowledgements

JANUARY 2011