U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

OCS EIS/EA 

BOEM 2014-001 

Atlantic OCS 

Proposed Geological and Geophysical Activities 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas 

Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement 

Volume II: Appendix A 

 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

OCS EIS/EA 

BOEM 2014-001 

Atlantic OCS 

Proposed Geological and Geophysical Activities 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas 

Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement 

Volume II: Appendix A 

Author 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Prepared under 

GSA Task Order No. M11PD00013 

by 

CSA Ocean Sciences Inc. 

8502 SW Kansas Avenue 

Stuart, Florida 34997 

Cover Photo (Ship) – courtesy WesternGeco 

Cover Photo (Whales) – courtesy National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Ocean Service 

Published by 

New Orleans

February 2014 

Table of Contents iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Page

SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................xliii

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................... xlvii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................... li 

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1-3

1.1. Background.............................................................................................................................. 1-3

1.2. Programmatic Approach to the NEPA Process........................................................................ 1-4

1.3. Objectives and Scope............................................................................................................... 1-6

1.3.1. Objectives.................................................................................................................. 1-6

1.3.2. Area of Interest.......................................................................................................... 1-6

1.3.3. Types of G&G Activities Analyzed .......................................................................... 1-7

1.4. Purpose of and Need for the Proposed Action......................................................................... 1-7

1.4.1. Background ............................................................................................................... 1-7

1.4.2. Purpose and Need...................................................................................................... 1-8

1.5. Cooperating Agencies.............................................................................................................. 1-9

1.6. Regulatory Framework .......................................................................................................... 1-10

1.6.1. Rule Changes for Reorganization of Title 30: Bureau of Safety and 

Environmental Enforcement and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management............... 1-10

1.6.2. Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act ......................................................................... 1-11

1.6.3. National Environmental Policy Act ........................................................................ 1-12

1.6.4. Executive Order 12114: Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal 

Actions .................................................................................................................... 1-12

1.6.5. Coastal Zone Management Act ............................................................................... 1-12

1.6.6. Endangered Species Act.......................................................................................... 1-13

1.6.7. Marine Mammal Protection Act.............................................................................. 1-14

1.6.8. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act............................ 1-14

1.6.9. Clean Air Act .......................................................................................................... 1-15

1.6.10. Clean Water Act...................................................................................................... 1-16

1.6.11. National Historic Preservation Act.......................................................................... 1-16

1.6.12. Migratory Bird Treaty Act ...................................................................................... 1-17

1.6.13. Executive Order 13547: Stewardship of the Ocean, Our Coasts, and the 

Great Lakes ............................................................................................................. 1-17

1.6.14. Rivers and Harbors Act ........................................................................................... 1-18

1.6.15. National Marine Sanctuaries Act ............................................................................ 1-18

1.6.16. Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act ................................................. 1-19

1.6.17. Executive Order 13175: Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal 

Governments ........................................................................................................... 1-19

1.6.18. State Permitting ....................................................................................................... 1-20

1.6.19. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act ........................................................................ 1-20

1.6.20. Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef Protection...................................................... 1-21

1.6.21. Executive Order 13158: Marine Protected Areas................................................... 1-21

1.6.22. Executive Order 12898: Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice 

in Minority Populations and Low Income Populations........................................... 1-21
iv Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

1.7. Environmental Review Process ............................................................................................. 1-22

1.7.1. Scoping.................................................................................................................... 1-22

1.7.2. Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement ........................................... 1-22

1.7.3. Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement ........................................... 1-23

1.7.4. Record of Decision.................................................................................................. 1-23

1.7.5. Subsequent Actions Required Before Permits or Authorizations May Be 

Issued....................................................................................................................... 1-23

1.7.6 Adaptive Management ............................................................................................ 1-26

1.7.7. New Information ..................................................................................................... 1-28

2. ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION .......................................................... 2-3

2.1. Alternative A – The Proposed Action...................................................................................... 2-3

2.1.1. Description ................................................................................................................ 2-3

2.1.2. Mitigation Measures.................................................................................................. 2-3

2.1.2.1. Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance .................................................... 2-4

2.1.2.2. Guidance for Marine Debris Awareness.................................................. 2-6

2.1.2.3. Avoidance of Sensitive Seafloor Resources............................................. 2-6

2.1.2.3.1. Avoidance and Reporting Requirements for Historic 

and Prehistoric Sites.............................................................. 2-6

2.1.2.3.2. Avoidance Requirements for Sensitive Benthic 

Communities ......................................................................... 2-7

2.1.2.4. Guidance for Activities in or Near National Marine Sanctuaries ............ 2-7

2.1.2.5. Guidance for Military and NASA Coordination...................................... 2-8

2.1.3. Survey Protocols ....................................................................................................... 2-9

2.1.3.1. Seismic Airgun Surveys........................................................................... 2-9

2.1.3.1.1. Time-Area Closures for Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 2-9

2.1.3.1.2. Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol ........................................... 2-9

2.1.3.2. HRG Surveys ......................................................................................... 2-12

2.1.3.2.1. HRG Survey Time-Area Closure ........................................ 2-12

2.1.3.2.2. HRG Survey Protocol.......................................................... 2-13

2.1.4. Summary of Impacts for Alternative A................................................................... 2-15

2.1.4.1. Impacts on Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.2.1) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-15

2.1.4.2. Impacts on Marine Mammals (Chapter 4.2.2) for Alternative A........... 2-16

2.1.4.3. Impacts on Sea Turtles (Chapter 4.2.3) for Alternative A ..................... 2-23

2.1.4.4. Impacts on Marine and Coastal Birds (Chapter 4.2.4) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-26

2.1.4.5. Impacts on Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat 

(Chapter 4.2.5) for Alternative A........................................................... 2-27

2.1.4.6. Impacts on Threatened or Endangered Fish Species 

(Chapter 4.2.6) for Alternative A........................................................... 2-28

2.1.4.7. Impacts on Commercial Fisheries (Chapter 4.2.7) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-30

2.1.4.8. Impacts on Recreational Fisheries (Chapter 4.2.8) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-31

2.1.4.9. Impacts on Recreational Resources (Chapter 4.2.9) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-31

2.1.4.10. Impacts on Archaeological Resources (Chapter 4.2.10) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-32

2.1.4.11. Impacts on Marine Protected Areas (Chapter 4.2.11) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-33

2.1.4.12. Impacts on Other Marine Uses (Chapter 4.2.12) for Alternative A....... 2-33

2.1.4.13. Impacts on Human Resources and Land Use (Chapter 4.2.13) for 

Alternative A.......................................................................................... 2-34
Table of Contents v 

2.2. Alternative B – Additional Time-Area Closures, Geographic Separation of 

Simultaneous Seismic Airgun Surveys, and Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................ 2-35

2.2.1. Description .............................................................................................................. 2-35

2.2.2. Mitigation Measures................................................................................................ 2-35

2.2.2.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic Right Whales for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-36

2.2.2.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles offshore Brevard 

County, Florida for Alternative B.......................................................... 2-37

2.2.2.3. Geographic Separation between Simultaneous Seismic Airgun 

Surveys for Alternative B....................................................................... 2-37

2.2.2.4. Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol with Required Use of Passive 

Acoustic Monitoring for Alternative B.................................................. 2-38

2.2.2.5. HRG Survey Protocol with Required Use of Monitoring 

Technologies during Nighttime Operations or if Operations 

Continue During Periods of Reduced Visibility for Alternative B ........ 2-38

2.2.3. Summary of Impacts for Alternative B ................................................................... 2-38

2.2.3.1. Impacts on Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.3.1) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-39

2.2.3.2. Impacts on Marine Mammals (Chapter 4.3.2) for Alternative B........... 2-39

2.2.3.3. Impacts on Sea Turtles (Chapter 4.3.3) for Alternative B...................... 2-41

2.2.3.4. Impacts on Marine and Coastal Birds (Chapter 4.3.4) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-42

2.2.3.5. Impacts on Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat 

(Chapter 4.3.5) for Alternative B........................................................... 2-42

2.2.3.6. Impacts on Threatened or Endangered Fish Species 

(Chapter 4.3.6) for Alternative B........................................................... 2-43

2.2.3.7. Impacts on Commercial Fisheries (Chapter 4.3.7) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-43

2.2.3.8. Impacts on Recreational Fisheries (Chapter 4.3.8) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-44

2.2.3.9. Impacts on Recreational Resources (Chapter 4.3.9) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-44

2.2.3.10. Impacts on Archaeological Resources (Chapter 4.3.10) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-45

2.2.3.11. Impacts on Marine Protected Areas (Chapter 4.3.11) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-45

2.2.3.12. Impacts on Other Marine Uses (Chapter 4.3.12) for Alternative B ....... 2-46

2.2.3.13. Impacts on Human Resources and Land Use (Chapter 4.3.13) for 

Alternative B.......................................................................................... 2-46

2.3. Alternative C – No Action for Oil and Gas, Status Quo for Renewable Energy and 

Marine Minerals G&G Activity............................................................................................. 2-47

2.3.1. Description .............................................................................................................. 2-47

2.3.2. Mitigation Measures for Alternative C.................................................................... 2-47

2.3.3. Summary of Impacts for Alternative C ................................................................... 2-48

2.3.3.1. Impacts on Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.4.1) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-48

2.3.3.2. Impacts on Marine Mammals (Chapter 4.4.2) for Alternative C........... 2-48

2.3.3.3. Impacts on Sea Turtles (Chapter 4.4.3) for Alternative C...................... 2-50

2.3.3.4. Impacts on Marine and Coastal Birds (Chapter 4.4.4) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-50

2.3.3.5. Impacts on Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat 

(Chapter 4.4.5) for Alternative C........................................................... 2-51

2.3.3.6. Impacts on Threatened or Endangered Fish Species 

(Chapter 4.4.6) for Alternative C........................................................... 2-51

2.3.3.7. Impacts on Commercial Fisheries (Chapter 4.4.7) 

for Alternative C .................................................................................... 2-52
vi Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

2.3.3.8. Impacts on Recreational Fisheries (Chapter 4.4.8) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-52

2.3.3.9. Impacts on Recreational Resources (Chapter 4.4.9) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-52

2.3.3.10. Impacts on Archaeological Resources (Chapter 4.4.10) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-53

2.3.3.11. Impacts on Marine Protected Areas (Chapter 4.4.11) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-53

2.3.3.12. Impacts on Other Marine Uses (Chapter 4.4.12) for Alternative C ....... 2-54

2.3.3.13. Impacts on Human Resources and Land Use (Chapter 4.4.13) for 

Alternative C.......................................................................................... 2-54

2.4. Issues...................................................................................................................................... 2-55

2.4.1. Issues to be Analyzed.............................................................................................. 2-55

2.4.2. Issues Considered but Not Analyzed....................................................................... 2-56

2.5. Alternatives Considered but Not Analyzed............................................................................ 2-56

2.5.1. Limit Authorizing G&G Activities to Renewable Energy and Marine 

Minerals................................................................................................................... 2-56

2.5.2. Expand Permitted G&G Activities into the North Atlantic Planning Area............. 2-57

2.5.3. Reprocess Existing G&G Data................................................................................ 2-57

2.5.4. Delay the Permitting Process .................................................................................. 2-58

2.5.5. Consolidate and Coordinate Surveys ...................................................................... 2-58

2.5.6. Require Non-Airgun Acoustic Sources................................................................... 2-59

2.5.6.1. Marine Vibroseis (Vibrators)................................................................. 2-59

2.5.6.1.1. Hydraulic............................................................................. 2-60

2.5.6.1.2. Electric ................................................................................ 2-60

2.5.6.2. Low-Frequency Acoustic Source (patented) (LACS)............................ 2-61

2.5.6.3. Deep-Towed Acoustics/Geophysics System (DTAGS)......................... 2-62

2.5.6.4. Low-Frequency Passive Seismic Methods for Exploration ................... 2-63

2.5.6.5. Low-Impact Seismic Array (LISA) ....................................................... 2-64

2.5.6.6. Fiber Optic Receivers............................................................................. 2-64

2.5.6.7. Airgun Modifications to Lessen Impacts............................................... 2-64

2.5.6.7.1. Airgun Silencers.................................................................. 2-64

2.5.6.7.2. Bubble Curtains................................................................... 2-65

2.5.6.7.3. E-Source Airgun.................................................................. 2-65

2.5.6.8. Evaluation .............................................................................................. 2-65

2.6. Comparison of Impacts by Alternative .................................................................................. 2-66

2.7. Preferred Alternative (Alternative B–Additional Time-Area Closures, Required Use of 

Passive Acoustic Monitoring, and Separation of Simultaneous Airgun Surveys)................. 2-67

2.7.1. Description .............................................................................................................. 2-68

2.7.2. Statutory and Missions Requirements..................................................................... 2-69

2.7.3. Comments Received................................................................................................ 2-69

2.7.4. Factors Considered to Determine Preferred Alternative ......................................... 2-70

2.7.5. Selection Rationale.................................................................................................. 2-70

2.7.6. Cost Increase Associated with the Implementation of Additional Mitigation 

Measures for 2D Seismic Airgun Surveys.............................................................. 2-71

2.7.7. New Information and Adaptive Management ......................................................... 2-71

3. G&G ACTIVITIES AND PROPOSED ACTION SCENARIO.......................................................... 3-3

3.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 3-3

3.2. Oil and Gas G&G Surveys....................................................................................................... 3-3

3.2.1. Background and Jurisdiction..................................................................................... 3-4

3.2.2. Types of Surveys....................................................................................................... 3-5

3.2.2.1. Deep Penetration Seismic Surveys........................................................... 3-5

3.2.2.1.1. 2D Seismic Exploration Surveys........................................... 3-6

3.2.2.1.2. 3D Seismic Exploration Surveys........................................... 3-6

3.2.2.1.3. Wide Azimuth and Related Multi-Vessel Surveys................ 3-7
Table of Contents vii

3.2.2.1.4. Nodes and Ocean Bottom Cable Surveys.............................. 3-7

3.2.2.1.5. Vertical Cable Surveys.......................................................... 3-8

3.2.2.1.6. 4D (Time-Lapse) Surveys..................................................... 3-8

3.2.2.1.7. Vertical Seismic Profile Surveys........................................... 3-8

3.2.2.2. High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys.................................................... 3-9

3.2.2.3. Electromagnetic Surveys........................................................................ 3-10

3.2.2.3.1. Controlled Source Electromagnetic Surveys....................... 3-10

3.2.2.3.2. Magnetotelluric Surveys ..................................................... 3-10

3.2.2.4. Deep Stratigraphic and Shallow Test Drilling ....................................... 3-11

3.2.2.5. Bottom Sampling ................................................................................... 3-11

3.2.2.6. Passive Remote-Sensing Surveys .......................................................... 3-12

3.2.2.6.1. Gravity Surveys................................................................... 3-12

3.2.2.6.2. Gravity Gradiometry ........................................................... 3-12

3.2.2.6.3. Marine Magnetic Surveys ................................................... 3-12

3.2.2.6.4. Radar Imaging..................................................................... 3-12

3.2.2.6.5. Aeromagnetic Surveys ........................................................ 3-13

3.2.3. Proposed Action Scenario ....................................................................................... 3-13

3.2.3.1. Areas Considered for Oil and Gas Exploration...................................... 3-13

3.2.3.2. Projected Activity Levels....................................................................... 3-13

3.3. Renewable Energy G&G Surveys for Site Assessment and Characterization....................... 3-14

3.3.1. Background and Jurisdiction................................................................................... 3-14

3.3.2. Types of Surveys..................................................................................................... 3-15

3.3.2.1. High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys.................................................. 3-16

3.3.2.2. Geotechnical Surveys............................................................................. 3-17

3.3.2.2.1. Cone Penetrometer Tests..................................................... 3-18

3.3.2.2.2. Geologic Coring .................................................................. 3-18

3.3.2.2.3. Grab Sampling..................................................................... 3-19

3.3.2.3. Bottom-Founded Monitoring Buoy Deployments ................................. 3-19

3.3.3. Proposed Action Scenario ....................................................................................... 3-19

3.3.3.1. Areas Considered for Renewable Energy Projects ................................ 3-19

3.3.3.1.1. Mid-Atlantic Planning Area ................................................ 3-20

3.3.3.1.2. South Atlantic Planning Area.............................................. 3-20

3.3.3.1.3. Atlantic Wind Connection Transmission Cable.................. 3-20

3.3.3.2. Projected Activity Levels....................................................................... 3-21

3.4. Marine Minerals G&G Surveys............................................................................................. 3-21

3.4.1. Background and Jurisdiction................................................................................... 3-21

3.4.2. Types of Surveys..................................................................................................... 3-23

3.4.2.1. High Resolution Geophysical Surveys................................................... 3-23

3.4.2.1.1. Prospecting and Prelease Geophysical Surveys.................. 3-23

3.4.2.1.2. On-Lease Geophysical Surveys........................................... 3-24

3.4.2.2. Geotechnical Surveys............................................................................. 3-24

3.4.3. Proposed Action Scenario ....................................................................................... 3-24

3.4.3.1. Areas Considered for Marine Minerals Projects.................................... 3-24

3.4.3.2. Projected Activity Levels....................................................................... 3-25

3.4.3.2.1. High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys ............................... 3-25

3.4.3.2.2. Geotechnical Surveys.......................................................... 3-26

3.5. Proposed Action Scenario Summary and Impact-Producing Factors.................................... 3-26

3.5.1. Impact-Producing Factors for Routine Activities.................................................... 3-26

3.5.1.1. Active Acoustic Sound Sources............................................................. 3-26

3.5.1.1.1. Airguns................................................................................ 3-26

3.5.1.1.2. Electromechanical Sources.................................................. 3-27

3.5.1.2. Vessel and Equipment Noise ................................................................. 3-28

3.5.1.2.1. Vessel Noise........................................................................ 3-28

3.5.1.2.2. Equipment Noise Including Drilling Noise......................... 3-29
viii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

3.5.1.3. Vessel Traffic......................................................................................... 3-29

3.5.1.3.1. Surveys for Oil and Gas Exploration .................................. 3-30

3.5.1.3.2. Renewable Energy Surveys................................................. 3-30

3.5.1.3.3. Marine Minerals Surveys.................................................... 3-30

3.5.1.4. Aircraft Traffic and Noise...................................................................... 3-31

3.5.1.5. Vessel Exclusion Zones......................................................................... 3-32

3.5.1.6. Vessel Wastes ........................................................................................ 3-32

3.5.1.7. Trash and Debris.................................................................................... 3-32

3.5.1.8. Seafloor Disturbance.............................................................................. 3-33

3.5.1.8.1. Bottom Sampling Activities................................................ 3-34

3.5.1.8.2. Placement of Anchors, Nodes, Cables, and Sensors........... 3-34

3.5.1.8.3. COST Wells and Shallow Test Drilling .............................. 3-34

3.5.1.8.4. Bottom-Founded Meteorological Buoys............................. 3-35

3.5.1.9. Drilling Discharges................................................................................ 3-35

3.5.1.10. Onshore Support Activities.................................................................... 3-36

3.5.2. Impact-Producing Factors for Accidental Events.................................................... 3-37

3.5.2.1. Accidental Fuel Spills............................................................................ 3-37

3.6. Cumulative Activities Scenario ............................................................................................. 3-37

3.6.1. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development............................................................. 3-38

3.6.2. Renewable Energy Development ............................................................................ 3-38

3.6.3. Marine Minerals Use ............................................................................................... 3-39

3.6.4. Geosequestration ..................................................................................................... 3-40

3.6.5. Liquefied Natural Gas Terminals............................................................................ 3-41

3.6.6. Commercial and Recreational Fishing .................................................................... 3-41

3.6.7. Military Range Complexes and Civilian Space Program Use................................. 3-41

3.6.8. Shipping and Marine Transportation....................................................................... 3-49

3.6.9. Dredged Material Disposal...................................................................................... 3-49

3.6.10. Climate Change ....................................................................................................... 3-50

3.6.11. Cumulative Noise in the Sea ................................................................................... 3-51

3.6.12. New Cable Infrastructure ........................................................................................ 3-52

3.6.13. Cumulative Vessel Activity Levels......................................................................... 3-52

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE AFFECTED RESOURCES AND IMPACT ANALYSIS ......................... 4-3

4.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 4-3

4.1.1. Preliminary Screening of Activities and Affected Resources................................... 4-3

4.1.1.1. Activity Screening.................................................................................... 4-4

4.1.1.2. Resource Screening.................................................................................. 4-4

4.1.2. Impact Levels and Impact Significance Criteria ....................................................... 4-5

4.1.3. Impact-Producing Factors ......................................................................................... 4-6

4.1.4. Other Considerations................................................................................................. 4-6

4.1.4.1. Analysis and Incomplete or Unavailable Information ............................. 4-6

4.1.4.2. Space-Use Conflicts................................................................................. 4-7

4.2. Alternative A – The Proposed Action...................................................................................... 4-8

4.2.1. Benthic Communities................................................................................................ 4-9

4.2.1.1. Description of the Affected Environment ................................................ 4-9

4.2.1.1.1. Regional Overview.............................................................. 4-10

4.2.1.1.2. Sensitive Benthic Communities .......................................... 4-12

4.2.1.1.3. Artificial Reefs.................................................................... 4-16

4.2.1.2. Impacts of Routine Activities................................................................. 4-16

4.2.1.2.1. Significance Criteria............................................................ 4-16

4.2.1.2.2. Evaluation............................................................................ 4-17

4.2.1.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills.......................................................... 4-23

4.2.1.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................... 4-23
Table of Contents ix

4.2.2. Marine Mammals .................................................................................................... 4-27

4.2.2.1. Description of the Affected Environment .............................................. 4-27

4.2.2.1.1. Threatened and Endangered Species................................... 4-27

4.2.2.1.2. Nonlisted Marine Mammals................................................ 4-34

4.2.2.2. Impacts of Routine Activities................................................................. 4-48

4.2.2.2.1. Significance Criteria............................................................ 4-48

4.2.2.2.2. Evaluation............................................................................ 4-56

4.2.2.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills.......................................................... 4-72

4.2.2.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................... 4-72

4.2.3. Sea Turtles............................................................................................................... 4-77

4.2.3.1. Description of the Affected Environment .............................................. 4-77

4.2.3.1.1. Loggerhead Turtle ............................................................... 4-78

4.2.3.1.2. Green Turtle ........................................................................ 4-81

4.2.3.1.3. Hawksbill Turtle.................................................................. 4-83

4.2.3.1.4. Kemp’s Ridley Turtle.......................................................... 4-85

4.2.3.1.5. Leatherback Turtle .............................................................. 4-86

4.2.3.1.6. Summary of Sea Turtle Hearing Capabilities...................... 4-88

4.2.3.2. Impacts of Routine Activities................................................................. 4-90

4.2.3.2.1. Significance Criteria............................................................ 4-90

4.2.3.2.2. Evaluation............................................................................ 4-90

4.2.3.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills.......................................................... 4-97

4.2.3.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................... 4-98

4.2.4. Marine and Coastal Birds...................................................................................... 4-101

4.2.4.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-101

4.2.4.1.1. Threatened and Endangered Species................................. 4-101

4.2.4.1.2. Candidate Species ............................................................. 4-103

4.2.4.1.3. Other Marine and Coastal Birds........................................ 4-104

4.2.4.1.4. Migration........................................................................... 4-105

4.2.4.1.5. Bird Conservation Regions and Birds of Conservation 

Concern ............................................................................. 4-105

4.2.4.1.6. Important Bird Areas......................................................... 4-106

4.2.4.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-106

4.2.4.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-106

4.2.4.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-107

4.2.4.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-114

4.2.4.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-115

4.2.5. Fisheries Resources and Essential Fish Habitat .................................................... 4-119

4.2.5.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-119

4.2.5.1.1. Fish Resources................................................................... 4-119

4.2.5.1.2. Ichthyoplankton................................................................. 4-124

4.2.5.1.3. Essential Fish Habitat and Managed Species.................... 4-125

4.2.5.1.4. Summary of Fish and Invertebrate Hearing 

Capabilities........................................................................ 4-128

4.2.5.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-131

4.2.5.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-131

4.2.5.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-132

4.2.5.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-136

4.2.5.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-136

4.2.6. Threatened and Endangered Fish Species............................................................. 4-139

4.2.6.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-139

4.2.6.1.1. Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinata) .............................. 4-140

4.2.6.1.2. Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) .................. 4-141

4.2.6.1.3. Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) ...... 4-142

4.2.6.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-142

4.2.6.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-143

4.2.6.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-143
x Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

4.2.6.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-147

4.2.6.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-147

4.2.7. Commercial Fisheries............................................................................................ 4-151

4.2.7.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-151

4.2.7.1.1. Commercial Landings....................................................... 4-152

4.2.7.1.2. Commercial Fishing Gears................................................ 4-152

4.2.7.1.3. Commercial Fishing Locations and Seasons..................... 4-154

4.2.7.1.4. Time and Area Closures and Gear Restrictions ................ 4-157

4.2.7.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-157

4.2.7.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-157

4.2.7.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-158

4.2.7.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-162

4.2.7.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-163

4.2.8. Recreational Fisheries ........................................................................................... 4-165

4.2.8.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-165

4.2.8.1.1. Recreational Fishing Effort ............................................... 4-166

4.2.8.1.2. Recreational Fishing Locations......................................... 4-166

4.2.8.1.3. Recreational Catch Characteristics.................................... 4-167

4.2.8.1.4. Recreational Fishing Tournaments.................................... 4-167

4.2.8.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-167

4.2.8.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-168

4.2.8.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-168

4.2.8.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-170

4.2.8.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-171

4.2.9. Recreational Resources ......................................................................................... 4-173

4.2.9.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-173

4.2.9.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-174

4.2.9.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-175

4.2.9.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-175

4.2.9.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-176

4.2.9.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-177

4.2.10. Archaeological Resources..................................................................................... 4-179

4.2.10.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-179

4.2.10.1.1. Historic Shipwrecks .......................................................... 4-179

4.2.10.1.2. Prehistoric Resources........................................................ 4-180

4.2.10.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-181

4.2.10.2.1. Significance Criteria .......................................................... 4-181

4.2.10.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-182

4.2.10.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-183

4.2.10.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-183

4.2.11. Marine Protected Areas......................................................................................... 4-185

4.2.11.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-185

4.2.11.1.1. National Marine Sanctuaries............................................. 4-186

4.2.11.1.2. Deepwater Marine Protected Areas................................... 4-186

4.2.11.1.3. Other Federal Fishery Management Areas........................ 4-188

4.2.11.1.4. Coastal Marine Protected Areas........................................ 4-188

4.2.11.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-189

4.2.11.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-189

4.2.11.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-189

4.2.11.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-196

4.2.11.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-196

4.2.12. Other Marine Uses ................................................................................................ 4-201

4.2.12.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-201

4.2.12.1.1. Shipping and Marine Transportation................................. 4-201

4.2.12.1.2. Military Range Complexes and Civilian Space 

Program Use...................................................................... 4-202
Table of Contents xi

4.2.12.1.3. Sand and Gravel Mining ................................................... 4-203

4.2.12.1.4. Renewable Energy Development ...................................... 4-203

4.2.12.1.5. Ocean Dredged Material Disposal Sites............................ 4-204

4.2.12.1.6. Oil and Gas Exploration.................................................... 4-204

4.2.12.1.7. Communication and Research Activities from 

Bottom-Founded Structures .............................................. 4-205

4.2.12.1.8. Known Sea Bottom Obstructions...................................... 4-206

4.2.12.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-206

4.2.12.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-206

4.2.12.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-207

4.2.12.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-213

4.2.12.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-214

4.2.13. Human Resources and Land Use........................................................................... 4-217

4.2.13.1. Description of the Affected Environment ............................................ 4-217

4.2.13.1.1. Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure ................................. 4-217

4.2.13.1.2. Demographics.................................................................... 4-219

4.2.13.1.3. Economic Factors.............................................................. 4-219

4.2.13.1.4. Environmental Justice ....................................................... 4-220

4.2.13.2. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-220

4.2.13.2.1. Significance Criteria.......................................................... 4-221

4.2.13.2.2. Evaluation.......................................................................... 4-221

4.2.13.3. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-223

4.2.13.4. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-223

4.3. Alternative B – The Proposed Action with Additional Mitigation ...................................... 4-224

4.3.1. Benthic Communities............................................................................................ 4-225

4.3.1.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-225

4.3.1.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-225

4.3.1.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-225

4.3.1.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-226

4.3.1.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-226

4.3.1.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-227

4.3.1.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-227

4.3.2. Marine Mammals .................................................................................................. 4-228

4.3.2.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-228

4.3.2.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-228

4.3.2.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-229

4.3.2.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-229

4.3.2.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-230

4.3.2.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-231

4.3.2.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-231

4.3.3. Sea Turtles............................................................................................................. 4-232

4.3.3.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-232

4.3.3.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-232

4.3.3.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-233

4.3.3.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-234

4.3.3.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-235

4.3.3.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-235

4.3.3.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-236

4.3.4. Marine and Coastal Birds...................................................................................... 4-237

4.3.4.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-237

4.3.4.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-237

4.3.4.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-238
xii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

4.3.4.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-238

4.3.4.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-239

4.3.4.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-239

4.3.4.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-240

4.3.5. Fisheries Resources and Essential Fish Habitat .................................................... 4-240

4.3.5.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-240

4.3.5.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-240

4.3.5.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-241

4.3.5.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-241

4.3.5.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-242

4.3.5.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-242

4.3.5.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-243

4.3.6. Threatened and Endangered Fish Species............................................................. 4-244

4.3.6.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-244

4.3.6.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-244

4.3.6.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-244

4.3.6.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-245

4.3.6.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-246

4.3.6.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-246

4.3.6.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-246

4.3.7. Commercial Fisheries............................................................................................ 4-247

4.3.7.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-247

4.3.7.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-247

4.3.7.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-249

4.3.7.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-249

4.3.7.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-250

4.3.7.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-250

4.3.7.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-251

4.3.8. Recreational Fisheries ........................................................................................... 4-252

4.3.8.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-252

4.3.8.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-252

4.3.8.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-253

4.3.8.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-253

4.3.8.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-254

4.3.8.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-254

4.3.8.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-255

4.3.9. Recreational Resources ......................................................................................... 4-256

4.3.9.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-256

4.3.9.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-256

4.3.9.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-256

4.3.9.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-257

4.3.9.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-257

4.3.9.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-258

4.3.9.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-258

4.3.10. Archaeological Resources..................................................................................... 4-259

4.3.10.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-259

4.3.10.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-259

4.3.10.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-259

4.3.10.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-259

4.3.10.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-260
Table of Contents xiii

4.3.10.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-260

4.3.10.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-260

4.3.11. Marine Protected Areas......................................................................................... 4-261

4.3.11.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-261

4.3.11.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-261

4.3.11.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-262

4.3.11.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-263

4.3.11.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-263

4.3.11.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-263

4.3.11.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-264

4.3.12. Other Marine Uses ................................................................................................ 4-264

4.3.12.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-265

4.3.12.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-265

4.3.12.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-265

4.3.12.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-266

4.3.12.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-266

4.3.12.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-267

4.3.12.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-267

4.3.13. Human Resources and Land Use........................................................................... 4-268

4.3.13.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-268

4.3.13.1.1. Expanded Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic 

Right Whales..................................................................... 4-268

4.3.13.1.2. Time-Area Closure for Nesting Sea Turtles...................... 4-269

4.3.13.1.3. Limits on Concurrent Seismic Airgun Surveys................. 4-269

4.3.13.1.4. Use of Passive Acoustic Monitoring................................. 4-269

4.3.13.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-270

4.3.13.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-270

4.4. Alternative C – No Action for Oil and Gas G&G Activity, Status Quo for Renewable 

Energy and Marine Minerals G&G Activity........................................................................ 4-271

4.4.1. Benthic Communities............................................................................................ 4-272

4.4.1.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-272

4.4.1.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-273

4.4.1.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-273

4.4.2. Marine Mammals .................................................................................................. 4-274

4.4.2.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-274

4.4.2.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-275

4.4.2.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-275

4.4.3. Sea Turtles............................................................................................................. 4-276

4.4.3.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-276

4.4.3.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-277

4.4.3.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-278

4.4.4. Marine and Coastal Birds...................................................................................... 4-278

4.4.4.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-279

4.4.4.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-281

4.4.4.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-282

4.4.5. Fisheries Resources and Essential Fish Habitat .................................................... 4-282

4.4.5.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-282

4.4.5.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-284

4.4.5.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-284

4.4.6. Threatened and Endangered Fish Species............................................................. 4-285

4.4.6.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-285

4.4.6.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-286

4.4.6.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-286
xiv Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

4.4.7. Commercial Fisheries............................................................................................ 4-287

4.4.7.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-287

4.4.7.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-288

4.4.7.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-288

4.4.8. Recreational Fisheries ........................................................................................... 4-288

4.4.8.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-289

4.4.8.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-289

4.4.8.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-290

4.4.9. Recreational Resources ......................................................................................... 4-290

4.4.9.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-290

4.4.9.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-291

4.4.9.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-291

4.4.10. Archaeological Resources..................................................................................... 4-291

4.4.10.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-291

4.4.10.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-292

4.4.10.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-292

4.4.11. Marine Protected Areas......................................................................................... 4-292

4.4.11.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-293

4.4.11.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-295

4.4.11.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-295

4.4.12. Other Marine Uses ................................................................................................ 4-296

4.4.12.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-296

4.4.12.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-297

4.4.12.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-297

4.4.13. Human Resources and Land Use........................................................................... 4-297

4.4.13.1. Impacts of Routine Activities............................................................... 4-298

4.4.13.2. Impacts of Accidental Fuel Spills........................................................ 4-298

4.4.13.3. Cumulative Impacts ............................................................................. 4-298

4.5. Other NEPA Considerations................................................................................................ 4-298

4.5.1. Unavoidable Adverse Impacts of the Proposed Action......................................... 4-298

4.5.2. Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources..................................... 4-299

4.5.3. Relationship Between Short-term Uses of the Environment and the 

Maintenance and Enhancement of Long-term Productivity.................................. 4-299

5. CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ..................................................................................... 5-3

5.1. Development of the Proposed Action ...................................................................................... 5-3

5.2. Notice of Intent to Prepare a Programmatic EIS...................................................................... 5-3

5.3. Development of the Draft Programmatic EIS.......................................................................... 5-3

5.3.1. Comments Received During Scoping ....................................................................... 5-4

5.3.2. Cooperating Agency.................................................................................................. 5-4

5.4. Distribution of the Draft Programmatic EIS for Review and Comment.................................. 5-6

5.5. Public Hearings........................................................................................................................ 5-7

5.6. Development of the Final Programmatic EIS .......................................................................... 5-8

5.6.1. Major Differences Between the Draft and Final Programmatic EISs....................... 5-8

5.6.2. Letters of Comment on the Draft Programmatic EIS................................................ 5-8

5.6.2.1. General Comment Categories.................................................................. 5-9

5.6.2.1.1. Statements of Opinion........................................................... 5-9

5.6.2.1.2. Regulatory Process Comments.............................................. 5-9

5.6.2.1.3. Alternative Analysis Methodology Comments................... 5-10

5.6.2.1.4. Resource Area Comments................................................... 5-10

5.6.2.1.5. Mitigation Measure Comments........................................... 5-10

5.6.2.2. General Response to Comments ............................................................ 5-10

5.6.3. Distribution of the Final Programmatic EIS............................................................ 5-11

5.7. Consultations.......................................................................................................................... 5-14

5.7.1. Coastal Zone Management Act ............................................................................... 5-14

5.7.2. Endangered Species Act.......................................................................................... 5-15
Table of Contents xv

5.7.3. Marine Mammal Protection Act.............................................................................. 5-16

5.7.4. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act............................ 5-16

5.7.5. National Historic Preservation Act.......................................................................... 5-17

5.7.6. National Marine Sanctuaries Act ............................................................................ 5-17

5.7.7. Department of Defense/National Aeronautics and Space Administration .............. 5-18

5.7.8. Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments........................... 5-18

6. REFERENCES CITED........................................................................................................................ 6-3

7. PREPARERS ....................................................................................................................................... 7-3

7.1. BOEM Preparers and Reviewers ............................................................................................. 7-3

7.2. Contractor Preparers ................................................................................................................ 7-4

8. GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................ 8-3

FIGURES......................................................................................................................................... Figures-3 

TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... Tables-3 

KEYWORD INDEX................................................................................................................... Keywords-3 
xvi Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Volume II

Page

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. xvii

LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................................... xxi

APPENDIX A. SECTION 7 CONSULTATION UNDER THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT...... A-1 

Volume III

Page

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. xvii

LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................................... xxi

APPENDIX B. STATE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS....................................... B-1 

APPENDIX C. EXISTING REGULATIONS, PROTECTIVE MEASURES, AND MITIGATION ... C-1 

APPENDIX D. ACOUSTIC MODELING REPORT ............................................................................ D-1 

APPENDIX E. ACOUSTIC MODELING AND MARINE MAMMAL INCIDENTAL TAKE 

METHODOLOGY, ANALYSIS, AND RESULTS ..................................................... E-1 

APPENDIX F. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS .................................................. F-1 

APPENDIX G. RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 

PROGRAM, ATLANTIC REGION, 2006 TO PRESENT........................................... G-1 

APPENDIX H. MARINE MAMMAL HEARING AND SENSITIVITY TO ACOUSTIC 

IMPACTS ..................................................................................................................... H-1 

APPENDIX I. SEA TURTLE HEARING AND SENSITIVITY TO ACOUSTIC IMPACTS ............ I-1 

APPENDIX J. FISH HEARING AND SENSITIVITY TO ACOUSTIC IMPACTS............................ J-1 

APPENDIX K. COOPERATING AGENCY......................................................................................... K-1 

APPENDIX L. PUBLIC COMMENTS ON THE DRAFT PROGRAMMATIC EIS........................... L-1 

APPENDIX M. SUMMARY OF PENDING ACTIONS AND CHANGES......................................... M-1 
List of Figures xvii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1-1. Area of Interest for the Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS. .....................................Figures-3

Figure 1-2. Primary Steps in the NEPA Process for the Programmatic EIS..............................Figures-4

Figure 2-1. Summary of Speed Restrictions and Locations for Vessel Operators to 

Comply with the Right Whale Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR § 224.105). ..........Figures-5

Figure 2-2. Time-Area Closures under Alternative A................................................................Figures-6

Figure 2-3. Time-Area Closures under Alternative B................................................................Figures-7

Figure 2-4. Time-Area Closures Offshore Brevard County under Alternative B. .....................Figures-8

Figure 2-5. Location of 2D Seismic Lines Shot within the Area of Interest in the 1970’s 

and 1980’s. ..............................................................................................................Figures-9

Figure 2-6. Flow Chart Summarizing HRG Survey Protocol Requirements under 

Alternative A. ........................................................................................................Figures-10

Figure 2-7. Flow Chart Summarizing HRG Survey Protocol Requirements under 

Alternative B. ........................................................................................................Figures-11

Figure 3-1. Simple Illustration of a Marine Seismic Survey Using Streamers. .......................Figures-12

Figure 3-2. Illustration of the Difference between 2D and 3D Streamer Survey 

Coverage................................................................................................................Figures-12

Figure 4-1. Area of Interest for the Proposed Action...............................................................Figures-13

Figure 4-2. Seafloor Features along the Mid- and South Atlantic Continental Margin. ..........Figures-14

Figure 4-3. Distribution of Hard/Live Bottom Habitats and Collected Coral Locations 

in the Area of Interest............................................................................................Figures-15

Figure 4-4. Locations of Habitat Areas of Particular Concern (HAPCs) Designated by 

the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, New England Fishery 

Management Council, and NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service.................Figures-16

Figure 4-5. Location of the Blake Ridge Diapir Site Studied by Van Dover et al. (2003) ......Figures-17

Figure 4-6. Artificial Reefs in the Area of Interest. ................................................................. Figures-18

Figure 4-7. North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat and U.S. Seasonal Management 

Areas (50 CFR § 224.105).....................................................................................Figures-19

Figure 4-8. North Atlantic Right Whale Seasonal Distribution and Habitat Use ....................Figures-20

Figure 4-9. Distribution of Fin Whale Sightings from NEFSC and SEFSC Shipboard 

and Aerial Surveys during the Summers of 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 

and 2007 ................................................................................................................Figures-21

Figure 4-10. Distribution of Humpback Whale Sightings from NEFSC and SEFSC 

Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during the Summers of 1998, 1999, 2002, 

2004, 2006, and 2007 ............................................................................................Figures-22

Figure 4-11. Distribution of Sei Whale Sightings from NEFSC and SEFSC Shipboard 

and Aerial Surveys during the Summers of 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, 

and 2007 ................................................................................................................Figures-23

Figure 4-12. Distribution of Sperm Whale Sightings from NEFSC and SEFSC Shipboard 

and Aerial Surveys during the Summer in 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, and 2006.....Figures-24
xviii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure 4-13. Florida Manatee Critical Habitat (50 CFR § 17.95)..............................................Figures-25

Figure 4-14. Densities of Sea Turtle Nests Reported for Individual Counties within the 

Area of Interest for the 2010 Nesting Season........................................................Figures-26

Figure 4-15. Location of the Four Recovery Units for the Loggerhead Turtle in the U.S.........Figures-27

Figure 4-16. Estimated Annual Number of Loggerhead Nests in the Southeastern U.S., 

Bahamas (including Cay Sal Bank), Cuba, and Mexico, 2001-2008 ....................Figures-27

Figure 4-17. Atlantic Flyway Migratory Routes........................................................................Figures-28

Figure 4-18. Location of Critical Habitat for the Smalltooth Sawfish.......................................Figures-29

Figure 4-19. Locations of All Smalltooth Sawfish Sightings Recorded, 1999-2009.................Figures-30

Figure 4-20. Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) for the Atlantic Sturgeon ..........................Figures-31

Figure 4-21. Commercial Landings and Value by Month within the Area of Interest 

in 2012...................................................................................................................Figures-32

Figure 4-22. Commercial Landings and Value by Gear Type within the Area of Interest 

in 2012...................................................................................................................Figures-32

Figure 4-23. Locations of Selected Seasonal and/or Area Closures to Commercial 

Fishing in Federal Waters Offshore the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic 

States .....................................................................................................................Figures-33

Figure 4-24. Regulated Trap/Pot Areas under the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction 

Plan........................................................................................................................Figures-34

Figure 4-25. Regulated Gillnet Areas under the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction 

Plan........................................................................................................................Figures-34

Figure 4-26. Numbers of Recreational Angler Trips by Individual States within the Area 

of Interest from 2008 through 2012.......................................................................Figures-35

Figure 4-27. Numbers of Recreational Angler Trips by Month within the Area of Interest 

from 2008 through 2012........................................................................................Figures-35

Figure 4-28. Numbers of Recreational Angler Trips (stacked) by Fishing Location in the 

Mid-Atlantic States (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia) and South Atlantic 

States (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Florida East Coast) 

from 2008 through 2012........................................................................................Figures-36

Figure 4-29. Numbers and Types of Fishes Landed by Recreational Anglers in the 

Mid-Atlantic States (Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia) from 2008 through 

2012.......................................................................................................................Figures-36

Figure 4-30. Numbers and Types of Fishes Landed by Recreational Anglers in the South 

Atlantic States (North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Florida 

East Coast) from 2008 through 2012.....................................................................Figures-37

Figure 4-31. Shipwrecks and Obstructions in the Area of Interest. ...........................................Figures-38

Figure 4-32. Model Showing Location of Paleochannels within the Georgia Bight .................Figures-39

Figure 4-33. Marine Protected Areas along Coastal and Nearshore Waters of MidAtlantic and South Atlantic States.........................................................................Figures-40

Figure 4-34. Deepwater Marine Protected Areas Designated by the South Atlantic 

Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) ..............................................................Figures-41

Figure 4-35. State-Designated Marine Protected Areas along the Mid-Atlantic and 

South Atlantic Coasts............................................................................................Figures-42
List of Figures xix

Figure 4-36. Aids to Navigation, Shipping Lanes, Precaution Areas, Fairways, and 

Traffic Separation Schemes along the Atlantic Coast ...........................................Figures-43

Figure 4-37. Military Use, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-

Restricted, and Ordnance Disposal Areas along the Atlantic Coast......................Figures-44

Figure 4-38. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Coasts................................................................Figures-45

Figure 4-38a. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the 

Mid-Atlantic Coast. ...............................................................................................Figures-46

Figure 4-38b. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the South 

Atlantic Coast. .......................................................................................................Figures-47

Figure 4-38c. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the Florida 

Coast......................................................................................................................Figures-48

Figure 4-39. Identified Offshore Wind Planning Areas (inclusive of actual leased areas 

and/or wind energy areas) along the Mid-Atlantic Coast......................................Figures-49

Figure 4-40. Ocean Dredged Material Disposal Sites along the Mid-Atlantic and South 

Atlantic Coasts.......................................................................................................Figures-50

Figure 4-41. Locations of the 51 Wells Drilled on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf 

(OCS) between 1975 and 1984 (also shown is the location of the proposed 

OCS oil and gas Lease Sale 220 area offshore Virginia [lease sale was 

canceled on July 28, 2010])...................................................................................Figures-51

Figure 4-42. Location of U.S. Navy Research Towers in the Georgia Bight that are Part 

of the South Atlantic Bight Synoptic Offshore Observational Network 

(SABSOON) Operated by Skidaway Institute of Oceanography..........................Figures-52

Figure 4-43. Existing Submarine Cables Located in the Area of Interest..................................Figures-53

Figure 5-1. State-by-State Distribution Showing the Origin of Scoping Comments 

(primarily those submitted April 2 – May 17, 2010).............................................Figures-54

List of Tables xxi

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table S-1. Summary of Mitigation Measures Included in Alternatives A and B....................................xli

Table 1-1. Major Federal Laws and Regulations Applicable to the Proposed Action..................Tables-3 

Table 1-2. BOEM G&G Permits Requiring Consistency Review under 15 CFR part 930, 

subpart D for Approved State Coastal Zone Management Programs..........................Tables-5 

Table 2-1. Summary of Mitigation Measures Included in Alternatives A and B..........................Tables-6 

Table 2-2. Applicability of Mitigation Measures to G&G Survey Types under Alternative A....Tables-9 

Table 2-3. Observer Requirements for G&G Survey Types....................................................... Tables-10

Table 2-4. Comparison of Impact Levels for Alternatives A, B, and C......................................Tables-11

Table 2-5. Applicability of Time-Area Closures and Other Mitigation to G&G Survey 

Types under Alternative B ......................................................................................... Tables-14

Table 2-6. Time-Area Closure Summary.................................................................................... Tables-16

Table 2-7. Estimated Protected Species Observer (PSO) and Passive Acoustic Monitoring 

(PAM) costs for Proposed Atlantic 2D Surveys........................................................ Tables-17

Table 3-1. Types of G&G Activities Included in This Programmatic EIS ................................. Tables-18

Table 3-2. Program Area, G&G Activity, Permitting Authority, and Typical NEPA Action ....Tables-19

Table 3-3. Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration in the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020...................................Tables-20

Table 3-4. Projected Levels of Miscellaneous G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration 

in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 

2012-2020.................................................................................................................. Tables-21

Table 3-5. Locations and Areas for Renewable Energy Site Characterization and 

Assessment Activities Offshore the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning 

Areas.......................................................................................................................... Tables-22

Table 3-6. Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Renewable Energy Site Characterization 

and Assessment in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 

2012-2020.................................................................................................................. Tables-23

Table 3-7. Projected Levels of High-Resolution Geophysical (HRG) Surveys for OCS Sand 

Borrow Projects in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 

2012-2020.................................................................................................................. Tables-24

Table 3-8. Projected Levels of Geotechnical Surveys for Outer Continental Shelf Sand 

Borrow Projects in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 

2012-2020.................................................................................................................. Tables-25

Table 3-9. Scenario Elements for Proposed G&G Activities in the Mid-Atlantic and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020.......................................................................... Tables-26

Table 3-10. Impact-Producing Factors.......................................................................................... Tables-28

Table 3-11. Characteristics of Active Acoustic Sound Sources Included in the Proposed 

Action ........................................................................................................................ Tables-29

Table 3-12. Summary of Annual Navy Exercises within and Adjacent to the AOI .....................Tables-30

Table 3-13. Summary of Vessel Activity in the Area or Interest, by Activity Type.....................Tables-32
xxii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Table 4-1. Impact-Producing Factors for G&G Activities.......................................................... Tables-33

Table 4-2. Preliminary Screening of Potential Impacts (Leopold Matrix)..................................Tables-35

Table 4-3. Sources for G&G Impact-Producing Factors............................................................. Tables-36

Table 4-4. Marine Mammals Potentially Occurring in the Area of Interest ...............................Tables-37

Table 4-5. Designated U.S. and Canadian Seasonal Management Areas for the North 

Atlantic Right Whale ................................................................................................. Tables-39

Table 4-6. Functional Marine Mammal Hearing Groups, Associated Auditory Bandwidths, 

and Marine Mammal Species Present in the Area of Interest....................................Tables-39

Table 4-7. Existing and Proposed Injury and Behavior Exposure Criteria for Cetaceans and 

Pinnipeds Exposed to Pulsed Sounds ........................................................................ Tables-40

Table 4-8. Summary of Radial Distances to the 160-dB and 180-dB (rms) Isopleths from a 

Single Pulse for Various Equipment.......................................................................... Tables-41

Table 4-9. Annual Level A Take Estimates from Seismic Airgun Sources Using Southall 

et al. (2007) Criteria for Marine Mammal Species during the Project Period 

(2012-2020) ............................................................................................................... Tables-42

Table 4-10. Annual Level A Takes Estimates from Seismic Airgun Sources Using 180-dB 

Criteria for Marine Mammal Species during the Project Period (2012-2020) ..........Tables-43

Table 4-11. Annual Level B Take Estimates (160-dB criteria) from Airgun Surveys for 

Marine Mammal Species during the Project Period (2012-2020) .............................Tables-44

Table 4-12. Annual Level A Take Estimates from All Non-Airgun High-Resolution 

Geophysical Surveys Using Southall et al. (2007) Criteria for Marine Mammal 

Species during the Project Period (2012-2020)......................................................... Tables-45

Table 4-13. Annual Level A Take Estimates from All Non-Airgun High-Resolution 

Geophysical Surveys Using 180-dB Criteria for Marine Mammal Species 

during the Project Period (2012-2020) ...................................................................... Tables-46

Table 4-14. Annual Level B Take Estimates from All Non-Airgun High-Resolution 

Geophysical Surveys Using 160-dB Criteria for Marine Mammal Species 

during the Project Period (2012-2020) ...................................................................... Tables-47

Table 4-15. Comparison of Take Estimates from Acoustic Sources, without Mitigation ............Tables-48

Table 4-16. Sea Turtles Occurring in the Area of Interest ............................................................ Tables-50

Table 4-17. Families of Seabirds, Waterfowl, and Shorebirds Occurring in the Area of 

Interest ....................................................................................................................... Tables-51

Table 4-18. Important Bird Areas within Offshore, Nearshore, and Coastal Habitats Within 

and Adjacent to the Area of Interest .......................................................................... Tables-53

Table 4-19. Plant, Invertebrate, and Fish Species and Species Groups Broadly Associated 

with Demersal and Pelagic Habitats in the Area of Interest Managed by the South 

Atlantic Fishery Management Council, Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management 

Council, New England Fishery Management Council, and/or Highly Migratory 

Species Office of the National Marine Fisheries Service .......................................... Tables-54

Table 4-20. Hard Bottom Species with Essential Fish Habitat Identified within the Area of 

Interest ....................................................................................................................... Tables-55

Table 4-21. Soft Bottom Species and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat Identified 

within the Area of Interest ......................................................................................... Tables-57

Table 4-22. Coastal Pelagic Species and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat Identified 

within the Area of Interest ......................................................................................... Tables-61
List of Tables xxiii

Table 4-23. Small Coastal Shark Species and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat 

Identified within the Area of Interest......................................................................... Tables-63

Table 4-24. Large Coastal Shark Species and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat 

Identified within the Area of Interest......................................................................... Tables-64

Table 4-25. Highly Migratory Fishes and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat Identified 

within the Area of Interest ......................................................................................... Tables-67

Table 4-26. Pelagic Shark Species and Life Stages with Essential Fish Habitat Identified 

within the Area of Interest ......................................................................................... Tables-69

Table 4-27. Summary of Marine Fish Hearing Sensitivity ........................................................... Tables-70

Table 4-28. Commercial Landings within the Area of Interest during 2008-2012.......................Tables-71

Table 4-29. Important Commercial Species for Each State Occurring within the Area of 

Interest during 2006-2009.......................................................................................... Tables-71

Table 4-30. Commercial Fishing Landings and Value for Each State within the Area of 

Interest during 2012................................................................................................... Tables-72

Table 4-31. Seasonal and/or Area Closures to Commercial Fishing in Federal Waters 

Offshore the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic States................................................ Tables-73

Table 4-32. Partial List of Recreational Fishing Tournaments within the Area of Interest ..........Tables-75

Table 4-33. Selected Parks, Seashores, Recreation Areas, and Wildlife Refuges along the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Coasts.................................................................... Tables-76

Table 4-34. Types of Recreational Activities by Location in the Area of Interest and along 

the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Coasts.............................................................. Tables-77

Table 4-35. Economic Contribution of Marine-Based Tourism and Recreation to State 

Economies in 2008 .................................................................................................... Tables-78

Table 4-36. Economic Contribution of Leisure and Hospitality to Coastal Economies in 2008 ..Tables-78

Table 4-37. Summary of Federal, Partnership, Federal Fishery Management, and State 

Designated Marine Protected Areas Listed in the National System of Marine 

Protected Areas.......................................................................................................... Tables-79

Table 4-38. Population of the Metropolitan Statistical Areas Associated with Five Atlantic 

Coast Ports in 2000 and 2010 .................................................................................... Tables-83

Table 4-39. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the Metropolitan Statistical Areas 

Associated with Five Atlantic Coast Ports in 2010 ................................................... Tables-83

Table 4-40. Labor Force and Unemployment in the Metropolitan Statistical Areas 

Associated with Five Atlantic Coast Ports in January 2011......................................Tables-83

Table 4-41. Minority Presence in Metropolitan Statistical Areas Associated with Five 

Atlantic Coast Ports in 2010, Compared with State and National Averages.............Tables-84

Table 4-42. Low-Income Presence in Metropolitan Statistical Areas Associated with Five 

Atlantic Coast Ports in 2009, Compared with State and National Averages.............Tables-85

Table 4-43. Minority Presence in Fishing Communities in 2000 in States Adjacent to the 

Area of Interest .......................................................................................................... Tables-86

Table 4-44. Low-Income Presence in Fishing Communities in States Adjacent to the Area 

of Interest in 2000...................................................................................................... Tables-87

Table 5-1. Major Changes to the Programmatic EIS .................................................................. Tables-88

Table 5-2. National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) Consultation Requirements and the 

Applicable Programmatic EIS Chapters.................................................................... Tables-90

APPENDIX A 

 

SECTION 7 CONSULTATION UNDER THE 

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT

Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... A-1 

BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ A-5 

RESPONSE LETTER FROM FWS ..................................................................................................... A-229 

BOEM NON-AIR GUN, HIGH-RESOLUTION GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN NORTH 

ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE CRITICAL HABITAT, SEASONAL MANAGEMENT AREAS, 

AND DYNAMIC MANAGEMENT AREAS IN THE MID-ATLANTIC AND SOUTH 

ATLANTIC PLANNING AREAS OF THE OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF ................................ A-233 

BIOLOGICAL OPINION FROM NMFS ............................................................................................. A-253 

LIST OF TABLES 

Page 

Table A-1. Summary of Differences between the Final Programmatic Environmental Impact 

Statement and the Biological Assessment Submitted to the National Marine 

Fisheries Service .................................................................................................................. A-2 

Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-1 

INTRODUCTION 

To initiate formal consultation under Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, a Federal agency must 

submit a Biological Assessment (BA) containing a determination of whether an action is likely to 

adversely affect listed species to the appropriate agency having jurisdiction over those species. The 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) submitted a BA for the proposed action to the National 

Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). The BA was made 

available to the public on BOEM’s geological and geophysical (G&G) Programmatic Environmental 

Impact Statement (EIS) website on May 24, 2012 (http://www.boem.gov/Oil-and-Gas-Energy-Program/

GOMR/GandG.aspx). 

The BA included in this appendix is the final version submitted to NMFS and FWS to begin 

consultations. Because of differences in the Section 7 consultation schedule and the Programmatic EIS 

schedule, the BA was not included in the Draft Programmatic EIS. 

Consultation with FWS was concluded upon receipt of a letter of concurrence from FWS stating the 

proposed G&G exploration activities would have no effect on or would not be likely to adversely affect 

federally listed species or designated critical habitat. The letter of concurrence from FWS is included in 

this appendix. As part of consultation with NMFS, BOEM provided additional information regarding 

non-airgun, high-resolution geophysical (HRG) surveys that explained BOEM’s strategy to mitigate or 

avoid adverse impacts to North Atlantic right whales (NARW) in Seasonal Management Area (SMAs) 

and critical habitat, which is provided in this appendix. Consultation with NMFS concluded when NMFS 

issued its determination regarding impacts to listed species in a Biological Opinion (BO), which includes 

its recommendations/modifications to the proposed action, terms and conditions, and protective measures. 

The BO is also included in this appendix. 

Revisions have been made to the Final Programmatic EIS resulting in differences between the text of 

the BA and that of the Final Programmatic EIS. The agencies are aware of those differences and have 

taken them into account in developing or reevaluating their responses. Table A-1 summarizes the 

differences between the Final Programmatic EIS and the BA submitted to initiate consultation and 

included in this appendix. 
Table A-1 Summary of Differences between the Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement and the Biological Assessme

to the National Marine Fisheries Service Topic Change 

P

Alternatives • Identified Preferred Alternative. Includes comparative analysis of alternatives considered and differences in mitigation measures between alternatives. • Minor changes to Alternatives A and B, focusing on mitigation as described below. • Updated information on non-airgun acoustic sources. • Added analysis of costs associated with implementation of seismic survey mitigation measures. • Added an adaptive management discussion to address a flexible decision-making process for the assessment of future actions. N

AS

Mitigation • Mitigation measures have been reorganized and revised to match the terms and conditions of the Biological Opinion (BO) from the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). • Time-area closures for the North Atlantic right whale (NARW) have been modified to include Dynamic Management Areas (DMAs) and would align with any future changes in critical habitat or Seasonal Management Area (SMA) boundaries. • Surveys authorized outside of NARW critical habitat, SMAs, or DMAs shall operate at distances such that received levels at the boundaries of these areas shall not exceed Level B harassment as determined by field verification or modeling. • Vessel strike avoidance guidelines revised and expanded to comply with the terms and conditions of the NMFS BO. • The time-area closures for NARW have been revised. No seismic airguns would be allowed within NARW critical habitat, SMAs, or DMAs during certain periods. High-resolution geophysical surveys would be allowed within NARW critical habitat for sources operating above 30 kHz between November 15 and April 15. • Expanded the discussion of marine sanctuaries and avoidance of sensitive benthic communities. • Clarification to delphinid shutdown exception when dolphins approach the survey vessel or equipment. C

a

Affected Environment • Updated current status of Atlantic sturgeon and the petition status for the blueback herring, alewife, and white marlin, as well as petitions for listing scalloped hammerhead shark and dusky shark. • Added information on existing submarine cables in the Area of Interest (AOI). • Added information about the vocalization capabilities of marine mammals. • Expanded the discussion of underwater sound. • Updated the commercial fish landings data. CImpacts • Added consideration of particle motion impacts for fishes, benthic communities, and marine mammals. • Impacts to resources have been fully reevaluated as a result of changes to mitigation. Levels of impact remain largely unchanged, minor changes did occur for the following resources: sea turtles, fisheries and essential fish habitat, commercial fisheries, recreational fisheries, and marine protected areas. • Expanded the discussion of other analyses of impacts to marine mammals. CCumulative Impacts Expanded the cumulative activity scenario and cumulative impact analysis to better address the following: Navy activities; commercial shipping; submarine cable infrastructure; and cumulative noise in the sea. C
Table A-1. Summary of Differences between the Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement and the Biological Assessmen

National Marine Fisheries Service (continued). Topic Change 

P

Consultation • A number of other Federal laws and regulations are applicable to activities and operations on the Outer Continental Shelf. For the Coastal Zone Management Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Essential Fish Habitat (Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act), National Historic Preservation Act, and National Marine Sanctuaries Act, this Programmatic EIS provides framework for subsequent environmental documents; consultation has not taken place at this stage under these acts, but it will occur, as necessary, for future site-specific geological and geophysical (G&G) activities. 

• Text added to clarify the applicability of laws and regulations and future actions necessary to address 

site-s

pecific G&G activities.

C

Role of the Corps of Engineers 

The role of the Corps of Engineers has been clarified to explain their jurisdiction geographically as well as under 

particular applicable laws such as the Clean Water Act and the Rivers and Harbors Act.

C

Military and 

National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA) Coordination 

Text added to ensure that the 

potential conflicts between G&G surveys and activities of the military an

d

NASA are avoided.

CA

Cable Avoidance Added description of the location of undersea cable infrastructure within the AOI and potential 

impact-producing factors.

C

Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-5 

BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

 

Atlantic OCS 

Proposed Geological and Geophysical Activities 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas 

Biological Assessment

U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management New Orleans 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region May 2012
A-ii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. A-vi

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. A-vii

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. A-viii

1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... A-1

1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. A-1

1.2. Purpose and Need ................................................................................................................... A-1

2. Project Description ............................................................................................................................ A-3

2.1. Geographic Location ............................................................................................................... A-3

2.1.1. Area of Interest for the Draft Programmatic EIS ..................................................... A-3

2.1.2. Biological Assessment Area ..................................................................................... A-3

2.2. Proposed Action ...................................................................................................................... A-4

2.2.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. A-4

2.2.2. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Surveys ................................................ A-4

2.2.3. Renewable Energy Site Characterization Surveys ................................................. A-13

2.2.4. Marine Minerals Surveys ....................................................................................... A-22

3. Species and Critical Habitat Descriptions ....................................................................................... A-27

3.1. Marine Mammals .................................................................................................................. A-27

3.1.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ A-27

3.1.2. North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) ................................................ A-29

3.1.3. Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) .................................................................... A-33

3.1.4. Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) ....................................................................... A-34

3.1.5. Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis) ........................................................................ A-35

3.1.6. Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) ....................................................... A-37

3.1.7. Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) ............................................................... A-39

3.1.8. Florida Manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) ................................................. A-41

3.2. Sea Turtles ............................................................................................................................ A-45

3.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ A-45

3.2.2. Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) ............................................................... A-47

3.2.3. Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) ....................................................................... A-51

3.2.4. Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) .................................................... A-53

3.2.5. Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) .................................................. A-54

3.2.6. Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) ................................................... A-55

3.2.7. Sea Turtle Hearing Capabilities ............................................................................. A-57

3.3. Birds ...................................................................................................................................... A-58

3.3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ A-58

3.3.2. Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) ............................................................................. A-59

3.3.3. Bermuda Petrel (Pterodroma cahow) ..................................................................... A-59

3.3.4. Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) ...................................................................... A-60

3.3.5. Red Knot (Calidris canutus) .................................................................................. A-61

3.4. Fishes .................................................................................................................................... A-62

3.4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................ A-62
Biological Assessment A-iii 

3.4.2. Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinata) ................................................................... A-62

3.4.3. Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) ....................................................... A-64

3.4.4. Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) ........................................... A-67

3.4.5. Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) ........................................................................... A-69

3.4.6. Blueback Herring (Alosa aestivalis) ....................................................................... A-70

3.4.7. Fish Hearing Capabilities ....................................................................................... A-70

4. Environmental Baseline .................................................................................................................. A-71

4.1. Factors Affecting Species within the Biological Assessment Area ...................................... A-71

4.1.1. Shipping and Marine Transportation ...................................................................... A-72

4.1.2. Commercial and Recreational Fishing ................................................................... A-72

4.1.3. Military Range Complexes and Civilian Space Program Use ................................ A-73

4.1.4. Sand and Gravel Mining and Beach Restoration ................................................... A-75

4.1.5. Renewable Energy Development ........................................................................... A-75

4.1.6. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development ............................................................ A-75

4.1.7. Liquefied Natural Gas Import Terminals ............................................................... A-76

4.1.8. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal .............................................................. A-76

4.1.9. Coastal Development ............................................................................................. A-78

4.2. Mitigation and Conservation Measures Contributing to the Environmental Baseline .......... A-78

4.2.1. Marine Mammals ................................................................................................... A-78

4.2.2. Sea Turtles .............................................................................................................. A-80

4.2.3. Birds ....................................................................................................................... A-81

4.2.4. Fishes ...................................................................................................................... A-81

5. Effects of the Action ....................................................................................................................... A-82

5.1. Scenario Summary and Impact-Producing Factors ............................................................... A-82

5.1.1. Relevant Impact-Producing Factors ....................................................................... A-82

5.1.2. Impact-Producing Factors Not Considered Further ............................................... A-87

5.2. Active Acoustic Sound Sources ............................................................................................ A-88

5.2.1. Effects on Marine Mammals .................................................................................. A-91

5.2.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-103

5.2.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-107

5.2.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-107

5.3. Vessel and Equipment Noise .............................................................................................. A-112

5.3.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-113

5.3.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-114

5.3.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-115

5.3.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-115

5.4. Vessel Traffic ...................................................................................................................... A-116

5.4.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-117

5.4.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-118

5.4.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-119

5.4.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-119

5.5. Aircraft Traffic and Noise ................................................................................................... A-120

5.5.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-120

5.5.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-121

5.5.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-122

5.5.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-123

5.6. Trash and Debris ................................................................................................................. A-123

5.6.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-123
A-iv Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS 

5.6.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-124

5.6.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-125

5.6.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-125

5.7. Seafloor Disturbance ........................................................................................................... A-126

5.7.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-128

5.7.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-128

5.7.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-128

5.7.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-128

5.8. Drilling Discharges ............................................................................................................. A-129

5.8.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-130

5.8.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-130

5.8.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-130

5.8.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-130

5.9. Accidental Fuel Spills ......................................................................................................... A-131

5.9.1. Effects on Marine Mammals ................................................................................ A-131

5.9.2. Effects on Sea Turtles ........................................................................................... A-132

5.9.3. Effects on Birds .................................................................................................... A-133

5.9.4. Effects on Fishes .................................................................................................. A-133

5.10. Cumulative Effects .............................................................................................................. A-134

5.10.1. Cumulative Activity Scenario .............................................................................. A-134

5.10.2. Cumulative Effects on Listed Marine Mammals .................................................. A-138

5.10.3. Cumulative Effects on Listed Sea Turtles ............................................................ A-139

5.10.4. Cumulative Effects on Listed Birds ..................................................................... A-140

5.10.5. Cumulative Effects on Listed Fishes .................................................................... A-140

6. Effects Determination for Listed Species and Designated Critical Habitats ................................. A-141

6.1. Marine Mammals ................................................................................................................ A-141

6.1.1. North Atlantic Right Whale ................................................................................. A-141

6.1.2. Blue Whale ........................................................................................................... A-145

6.1.3. Fin Whale ............................................................................................................. A-146

6.1.4. Sei Whale ............................................................................................................. A-147

6.1.5. Humpback Whale ................................................................................................. A-148

6.1.6. Sperm Whale ........................................................................................................ A-148

6.1.7. Florida Manatee .................................................................................................... A-149

6.2. Sea Turtles .......................................................................................................................... A-150

6.2.1. Loggerhead Turtle ................................................................................................ A-150

6.2.2. Green Turtle ......................................................................................................... A-151

6.2.3. Hawksbill Turtle ................................................................................................... A-151

6.2.4. Kemp’s Ridley Turtle ........................................................................................... A-152

6.2.5. Leatherback Turtle ............................................................................................... A-153

6.3. Birds .................................................................................................................................... A-154

6.3.1. Roseate Tern ......................................................................................................... A-154

6.3.2. Bermuda Petrel ..................................................................................................... A-154

6.3.3. Piping Plover ........................................................................................................ A-155

6.3.4. Red Knot .............................................................................................................. A-155

6.4. Fishes .................................................................................................................................. A-156

6.4.1. Smalltooth Sawfish .............................................................................................. A-156

6.4.2. Shortnose Sturgeon .............................................................................................. A-156

6.4.3. Atlantic Sturgeon .................................................................................................. A-157

6.4.4. Alewife ................................................................................................................. A-158
Biological Assessment A-v 

6.4.5. Blueback Herring ................................................................................................. A-158

7. Mitigation, Monitoring, and Reporting Requirements for Listed Species .................................... A-159

7.1. Protective Measures for Listed Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles .................................... A-159

7.1.1. Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic Right Whales .......................................... A-159

7.1.2. Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol .......................................................................... A-160

7.1.3. HRG Survey Protocol (Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Sites) .............. A-165

7.1.4. Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance................................................................. A-169

7.1.5. Guidance for Marine Debris Awareness .............................................................. A-170

7.2. Protective Measures for Listed Birds .................................................................................. A-170

7.3. Protective Measures for Listed Fishes ................................................................................ A-170

8. References ..................................................................................................................................... A-171

9. List of Contacts Made and Preparers ............................................................................................ A-204

9.1. Contacts ............................................................................................................................... A-204

9.2. Preparers ............................................................................................................................. A-204

Attachment: Draft Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol ............................................................................. A-205
A-vi Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Page 

Figure A-1. Biological Assessment Area for the Proposed Action ........................................................ A-2

Figure A-2. Identified Potential Wind Energy Facility Project Areas and Limited Leases for 

Wind Resource Assessment along the Mid-Atlantic Coast .............................................. A-15

Figure A-3. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the Mid-Atlantic 

and South Atlantic Coasts ................................................................................................. A-23

Figure A-4. North Atlantic Right Whale Seasonal Distribution and Habitat Use ................................ A-30

Figure A-5. North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat and Seasonal Management Areas .............. A-32

Figure A-6. Distribution of Fin Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during Summer 

1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2007 .......................................................................... A-36

Figure A-7. Distribution of Sei Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during 

Summer 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2007 ........................................................... A-38

Figure A-8. Distribution of Humpback Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science 

Center and Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys 

during Summer 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2007 ................................................ A-40

Figure A-9. Distribution of Sperm Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center 

and Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during 

Summer 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, and 2006. .................................................................... A-42

Figure A-10. Florida Manatee Critical Habitat ....................................................................................... A-43

Figure A-11. Densities of Sea Turtle Nests Reported for Individual Counties inshore of the 

Biological Assessment Area for the 2010 Nesting Season ............................................... A-48

Figure A-12. Estimated Annual Number of Loggerhead Nests in the Southeastern U.S., The 

Bahamas (Including Cay Sal Bank), Cuba, and Mexico from 2001-2008 ........................ A-50

Figure A-13. Location of the Four Recovery Units for the Loggerhead Turtle in the U.S. ................... A-50

Figure A-14. Locations of Winter and Summer Congregations of Piping Plovers ................................ A-61

Figure A-15. Location of Critical Habitat for the Smalltooth Sawfish ................................................... A-63

Figure A-16. Locations of All Smalltooth Sawfish Sightings Recorded from 1999-2009 ..................... A-65

Figure A-17. Locations of Distinct Population Segments for the Shortnose Sturgeon .......................... A-66

Figure A-18. Locations of Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) for the Atlantic Sturgeon 

(From: Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team, 2007) ..................................................... A-68

Figure A-19. Military Use, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-Restricted, 

and Ordnance Disposal Areas along the Atlantic Coast ................................................... A-74

Figure A-20. Ocean Dredged Material Disposal Sites along the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic 

Coasts ................................................................................................................................ A-77

Figure A-21. Summary of Speed Restrictions and Locations for Vessel Operators to Comply 

with the Right Whale Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105) ...................................... A-79

Figure A-22. Measured or Estimated Functional Hearing Ranges for Different Marine 

Vertebrate Groups Shown Relative to Various Human Noise Sources ............................ A-92

Figure A-23. Time-Area Closures Included in the Proposed Action.................................................... A-144 
Biological Assessment A-vii 

LIST OF TABLES 

Page 

Table A-1. Types of G&G Activities Included in the Proposed Action ................................................ A-5

Table A-2. Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration in the Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 ....................................................................... A-12

Table A-3. Projected Levels of Miscellaneous G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration in 

the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 ................................................. A-13

Table A-4. Locations and Areas for Renewable Energy Site Characterization and Assessment 

Activities in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas ................................................ A-20

Table A-5. Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Renewable Energy Site Characterization 

and Assessment in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 .................. A-22

Table A-6. Projected Levels of High-Resolution Geophysical (HRG) Surveys for OCS Sand 

Borrow Projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 .................. A-26

Table A-7. Projected Levels of Geotechnical Surveys for OCS Sand Borrow Projects in the 

Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 ....................................................... A-27

Table A-8. Listed and Candidate Species Considered in this Biological Assessment ........................ A-28

Table A-9. Designated U.S. and Canadian Seasonal Management Areas for the North Atlantic 

Right Whale ...................................................................................................................... A-33

Table A-10. Sea Turtles Occurring in the Biological Assessment Area ............................................... A-46

Table A-11. Scenario Elements for Proposed G&G Activities in the Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas, 2012-2020 ............................................................................................... A-84

Table A-12. Impact-Producing Factors Relevant to the ESA-Listed Species in this Analysis ............. A-86

Table A-13. Preliminary Screening of Potential Impacts on Listed Species and Their Critical 

Habitats ............................................................................................................................. A-87

Table A-14. Characteristics of Representative Active Acoustic Sound Sources Included in the 

Proposed Action ................................................................................................................ A-89

Table A-15. Summary of Radial Distances to the 160- and 180-dB (rms) Isopleths 

from a Single Pulse for Various Equipment ..................................................................... A-90

Table A-16. Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to All Active 

Acoustic Sound Sources in the Proposed Action, Including Both Seismic Airgun 

Surveys and Non-Airgun Surveys ..................................................................................... A-98

Table A-17. Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to Seismic 

Airgun Surveys Included in the Proposed Action ............................................................. A-99

Table A-18. Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to 

Non-Airgun High Resolution Geophysical Surveys included in the Proposed 

Action .............................................................................................................................. A-100

Table A-19. Sources of Impact-Producing Factors in the Proposed Action and Cumulative 

Activity Scenario............................................................................................................. A-138

Table A-20. Summary of Effects Determinations for Listed Species and Critical Habitat ................. A-143 
A-viii Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS 

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

μPa micropascal(s) 

μs microsecond(s) 

2D two-dimensional 

3D three-dimensional 

4D four-dimensional 

ABR auditory brainstem response 

ac acre(s) 

AEP auditory evoked potential 

AIM Acoustic Integration Model 

ALWTRP Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan 

AOI Area of Interest 

ASMFC Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission 

AUV autonomous underwater vehicle 

BA Biological Assessment 

bbl barrel(s) 

BOEM Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

BOEMRE Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement 

BSEE Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement 

CEQ Council on Environmental Quality 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

cm centimeter(s) 

COE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

COP Construction and Operations Plan 

COST Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test 

CPT cone penetrometer test 

CSEM controlled source electromagnetic 

dB decibel(s) 

DOD Department of Defense 

DPS distinct population segment 

EA Environmental Assessment 

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone 

EIS Environmental Impact Statement 

ESA Endangered Species Act 

FAA Federal Aviation Administration 

FAZ full azimuth 

FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 

ft feet 

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

G&G geological and geophysical 

gal gallon(s) 

GAP General Activities Plan 

GPS global positioning system 

ha hectare(s) 

HESS High Energy Seismic Survey 

hr hour(s) 

HRG high-resolution geophysical 

Hz hertz 

IAGC International Association of Geophysical Contractors 

in. inch(es) 

IPF impact-producing factor 

ISSMGE International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 

JNCC Joint Nature Conservation Committee 
Biological Assessment A-ix 

kg kilogram(s) 

km kilometer(s) 

kn knot(s) 

L liter(s) 

lb pound(s) 

LFA low frequency active 

LNG liquefied natural gas 

m meter(s) 

MARAD Maritime Administration 

MHK marine hydrokinetic 

MHW Mean High Water 

mi mile(s) 

min minute(s) 

ml milliliters 

MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act 

MMS Minerals Management Service 

ms millisecond(s) 

MSD marine sanitation device 

MT magnetotelluric 

MW megawatt(s) 

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NDBC National Data Buoy Center 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service 

nmi nautical mile(s) 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

NRC National Research Council 

NRDC National Resources Defense Council 

NRU Northern Recovery Unit 

NSF National Science Foundation 

NTL Notice to Lessees and Operators 

NWP Nationwide Permit 

NWR National Wildlife Refuge 

OCS Outer Continental Shelf 

OCSLA Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 

ODMDS ocean dredged material disposal site 

OPAREA Operating Area 

PAM passive acoustic monitoring 

PBR Potential Biological Removal 

PCPT piezocone penetration test 

PFRU Peninsular Florida Recovery Unit 

P.L. Public Law 

ppm parts per million 

PTS permanent threshold shift 

rms root-mean-square 

ROD Record of Decision 

ROV remotely operated vehicle 

s second(s) 

SAFMC South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 

SAP Site Assessment Plan 

SBF synthetic-based fluid 

SCDNR South Carolina Department of Natural Resources 

SEL sound exposure level 

SMA Seasonal Management Area 
A-x Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS 

SPL sound pressure level 

SURTASS Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System 

TED turtle excluder device 

TTS temporary threshold shift 

U.S.C. United States Code 

USCG U.S. Coast Guard 

USDHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security 

USDOC U.S. Department of Commerce 

USDOI U.S. Department of the Interior 

USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation 

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

USGS U.S. Geological Survey 

VACAPES Virginia Capes 

VSP vertical seismic profiling 

WAZ wide azimuth 

WBF water-based fluid 

WEA wind energy area 

WFF Wallops Flight Facility 
Biological Assessment A-1

1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1. BACKGROUND

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is proposing to authorize geological and 

geophysical (G&G) activities in support of its oil and gas, renewable energy, and marine minerals 

programs in Federal waters of the Mid- and South Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). The BOEM 

has prepared a Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to evaluate the potential 

environmental impacts of the proposed action and alternatives in accordance with the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) (42 United States Code [U.S.C. 4321] et seq.) as implemented by 

Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations (40 Code of Federal Regulations 

[CFR] 1500-1508). This Biological Assessment (BA) was prepared by BOEM in accordance with 

Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 (ESA, Public Law [P.L.] 93-205), which requires 

that all Federal agencies ensure that any action they authorize, fund, or carry out will not jeopardize the 

continued existence of any threatened or endangered species (i.e., listed species) or result in the 

destruction or adverse modification of any critical habitat of such species (50 CFR 402). 

The BOEM is the lead agency on this BA because it has the jurisdiction to authorize G&G activities 

on the OCS. The BOEM manages the exploration and development of the nation's offshore resources. It 

seeks to appropriately balance economic development, energy independence, and environmental 

protection through oil and gas leases, renewable energy development, and environmental reviews and 

studies. This BA is also being submitted on behalf of the Bureau of Safety and Environmental 

Enforcement (BSEE)1

, which promotes safety, protects the environment, and conserves resources 

offshore through vigorous regulatory oversight and enforcement. The BSEE does not have jurisdiction to 

authorize G&G activities on the OCS, but is responsible for ensuring compliance with mitigation 

measures and would review all protected species observer reports for compliance. 

This BA applies only to G&G activities that would be conducted in the Mid-Atlantic and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas, which are under BOEM jurisdiction. Because the Area of Interest (AOI) for the 

Programmatic EIS includes adjacent State waters (outside of estuaries) and waters beyond the Exclusive 

Economic Zone (EEZ) extending to 350 nautical miles (nmi) (648 kilometers [km] or 403 miles [mi]) 

from shore (Figure A-1), the BA discusses some G&G activities that could occur outside the two OCS 

planning areas. However, to the extent practicable, the BA identifies and focuses on G&G activities that 

would occur in Federal waters under BOEM’s jurisdiction. Activities in State waters, which represent 

about 1 percent of the AOI, could require authorization by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) 

under its Nationwide Permits (NWP) program; the COE declined servings as a cooperating agency in 

preparing the Draft Programmatic EIS and was not involved in preparing this BA. Waters seaward of the 

two OCS planning areas are not within BOEM’s jurisdiction, and G&G activities there would not require 

authorization from any Federal agency, although the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s 

(NOAA’s) National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), Permits and Conservation Division has permitting 

authority for incidental takes of marine mammals associated with those activities under Section 101(a)(5) 

of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA). 

1.2. PURPOSE AND NEED

The purpose of the proposed action is to gather state-of-the-art data about the ocean bottom and 

subsurface. These data, collected through G&G surveys, would provide information about the location 

and extent of oil and gas reserves, bottom conditions for oil and gas or renewable energy installations, and 

marine minerals off the Atlantic coast of the U.S. State-of-the-art G&G data and information are required 

for business decisions in furtherance of prospecting for OCS oil and gas in an orderly manner, assessing 

 

1

 On October 1, 2011, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) was 

replaced by the BOEM and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) as part of a major 

reorganization. Corresponding to this reorganization, on October 18, 2011 (Federal Register, 2011a) the Code of 

Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 30 was reorganized. Regulations that are to be administered by BSEE remain in 

Title 30 CFR Chapter II under that Agency’s name (30 CFR 250), and the regulations that are to be administered by 

BOEM were moved into a new Title 30 CFR Chapter V under BOEM’s name (30 CFR 550). 
A-2 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

sites for renewable energy facilities, or using marine mineral resources in the Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas (Figure A-1). The G&G surveys acquired during the period when Atlantic oil and gas 

leasing took place in the 1970’s and 1980’s have been eclipsed by newer instrumentation and technology 

that make seismic data of that era inadequate for business decisions to lease and develop these OCS lands 

or to evaluate the environmental impacts of potential leasing and development. 

Figure A-1. Biological Assessment Area for the Proposed Action. The Biological Assessment Area 

consists of the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas. 
Biological Assessment A-3

The need for the proposed action is to use the information obtained by the G&G surveys to make 

informed business decisions regarding oil and gas reserves, engineering decisions regarding the 

construction of renewable energy projects, and informed estimates regarding the composition and volume 

of marine mineral resources. This information would also be used to ensure the proper use and 

conservation of OCS energy resources and the receipt of fair market value for the leasing of public lands. 

The purpose of the BA is to evaluate the potential effects (both direct and indirect) of the proposed 

action on listed species and designated critical habitat and determine whether any such species or habitats 

are likely to be adversely affected by the action (50 CFR 402.12). The BA will be used by BOEM, 

BSEE, NMFS and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to consult under Section 7(a)(2) of the ESA. 

2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION 

2.1. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

2.1.1. Area of Interest for the Draft Programmatic EIS 

The AOI for the Draft Programmatic EIS (Figure A-1) includes U.S. Atlantic waters from the mouth 

of Delaware Bay to just south of Cape Canaveral, Florida, and from the shoreline (excluding estuaries) to 

648 km (350 nmi) from shore. It includes a portion of the Mid-Atlantic Bight, which extends from 

Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina; and all of the South Atlantic Bight, which extends from 

Cape Hatteras to Cape Canaveral, Florida. 

The northern (38°51’ N) and southern (28° N) limits of the AOI are based on the boundaries of the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas. The seaward limit of 648 km (350 nmi) from shore is 

based on the maximum constraint line for the extended continental shelf under Article 76 of the United 

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Task Force, 2010). Along 

most of the Atlantic coast where the shoreline consists of barrier islands and beaches, the shoreward 

boundary is the Mean High Water (MHW) line. A straight line was drawn across inlets and the mouths of 

estuaries and embayments. 

The size of the AOI is 854,779 km2

 (330,032 mi2), and the two OCS planning areas account for 

79 percent of the total area. The area within State waters is 9,174 km2

 (3,452 mi2), or about 1 percent of 

the AOI. Waters beyond the outer boundaries of the two planning areas represent an area of 168,898 km2

(65,211 mi2

), or 20 percent of the AOI. Water depth within the AOI ranges from 0-5,629 meters (m) 

(0-18,468 feet [ft]). 

2.1.2. Biological Assessment Area 

This BA Area consists of the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area (456,818 km2 or 176,378 mi2) and South 

Atlantic Planning Area (219,890 km2

 or 84,900 mi2). Together these account for 79 percent of the AOI 

analyzed in the Draft Programmatic EIS. The two planning areas do not include any waters under State 

jurisdiction. On the Atlantic coast, State jurisdiction extends 3 nmi (5.6 km) from shore. 

The types of G&G activities that BOEM is proposing to authorize are organized within three broad 

program areas: oil and gas exploration and development, renewable energy development, and marine 

mineral activities. The geographic locations of activities with the three program areas is summarized as 

follows: 

 Oil and gas exploration and development – these G&G surveys are the most 

extensive activities in the proposed action and are expected to occur almost 

exclusively within the two OCS planning areas under BOEM jurisdiction. 

 Renewable energy development – these surveys are expected to occur within both 

Federal and State waters less than 100 m (328 ft) deep (U.S. Department of the 

Interior [USDOI], Minerals Management Service [MMS], 2007a). This represents an 

area of 132,167 km2

 (51,029 mi2), or about 15 percent of the AOI. Approximately 

93 percent of the area within the 100-m (328-ft) isobath is in Federal waters under 

BOEM jurisdiction. 
A-4 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

 Marine mineral activities (e.g., sand and gravel mining) – these activities are 

expected to occur in both Federal and State waters less than 30 m (98 ft) deep. This 

represents an area of 76,330 km2

 (29,471 mi2), or about 9 percent of the AOI. 

Approximately 88 percent of the area within the 30-m (328-ft) isobath is in Federal 

waters under BOEM jurisdiction. 

2.2. PROPOSED ACTION

2.2.1. Introduction 

A variety of G&G techniques are used to characterize the shallow and deep structure of the shelf, 

slope, and deepwater ocean environments. G&G surveys are conducted to (1) obtain data for 

hydrocarbon exploration and production, (2) aid in siting renewable energy structures, (3) locate potential 

sand and gravel resources, (4) identify possible seafloor or shallow depth geologic hazards, and (5) locate 

potential archaeological resources and potential hard bottom habitats for avoidance. The selection of a 

specific technique or suite of techniques is driven by data needs and the target of interest. The G&G 

activities evaluated as part of this BA are described in this section, and their applicability to the three 

program areas (oil and gas, renewable energy, and marine minerals) are summarized in Table A-1. The 

activities include the following: 

 various types of deep penetration seismic airgun surveys used almost exclusively for 

oil and gas exploration; 

 other types of surveys and sampling activities used only in support of oil and gas 

exploration, including electromagnetic surveys, deep stratigraphic and shallow test 

drilling, and various remote sensing methods; 

 high-resolution geophysical (HRG) surveys used in all three program areas to detect 

geohazards, archaeological resources, and certain types of benthic communities; and 

 geological and geotechnical bottom sampling used in all three program areas to 

assess the suitability of seafloor sediments for supporting structures (e.g., platforms, 

pipelines, cables, wind turbines) or to evaluate the quantity and quality of sand for 

beach nourishment projects. 

The following sections describe the types of G&G activities that BOEM is proposing to authorize 

under the proposed action within the three broad program areas (oil and gas exploration and development, 

renewable energy development, and marine minerals). Mitigation and monitoring measures included in 

the proposed action are discussed in Section 7. Additional details of the equipment and activity levels in 

the proposed action scenario are presented as part of the impact analysis in Section 5. 

2.2.2. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Surveys 

2.2.2.1. Types of G&G Surveys 

The oil and gas industry conducts a variety of G&G activities, both pre-lease and post-lease. Typical 

pre-lease activities include deep penetration seismic airgun surveys to explore and evaluate deep geologic 

formations. Two-dimensional (2D) seismic airgun surveys usually are designed to cover thousands of 

square miles or entire geologic basins as a means to geologically screen large areas. Three-dimensional 

(3D) surveys can consist of several hundred OCS blocks and provide much better resolution to evaluate 

hydrocarbon potential in smaller areas or specific prospects. Other pre-lease surveys include largely 

passive data gathering methods such as electromagnetic, gravity, and magnetic surveys, as well as remote 

sensing surveys from aircraft and satellites. 
Biological Assessment A-5

Table A-1 

 

Types of G&G Activities Included in the Proposed Action 

Survey Type 

Applicable Program Areas 

Oil and Purpose(s) 

Gas

Renewable 

Energy

Marine 

Minerals

Deep Penetration Seismic Surveys

Evaluate subsurface geological 

formations to assess potential 

hydrocarbon reservoirs and optimally 

site exploration and development 

wells. 4D surveys are used to 

monitor reservoirs over time during 

production. 

2D Seismic Exploration Surveys X xa -- 

3D Seismic Exploration Surveys X xa -- 

Wide Azimuth Surveys X -- -- 

Nodes and Bottom Cable Surveys X -- -- 

Vertical Cable Surveys X -- -- 

4D (Time-Lapse) Surveys X -- -- 

Vertical Seismic Profile Surveys X -- -- 

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys Assess shallow hazards, 

archaeological resources, and benthic 

habitats. 

With single airgun as seismic source X -- -- 

With boomer or chirp subbottom profiler 

as seismic source -- X X 

Electromagnetic Surveys Help distinguish economic 

hydrocarbon accumulations from 

other scenarios by using 

electromagnetic signals to develop a 

conductivity/resistivity profile of the 

seafloor. 

Controlled Source Electromagnetic 

Surveys 

X -- -- 

Magnetotelluric Surveys X -- -- 

Deep Stratigraphic and Shallow Test Drilling COST wells evaluate stratigraphy and 

hydrocarbon potential without drilling 

directly into oil and gas bearing 

strata. Shallow test drilling is 

conducted to place test equipment 

into a borehole to evaluate gas 

hydrates or other properties.

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test 

(COST) Wells X -- -- 

Shallow Test Drilling X -- -- 

Bottom Sampling

Collect surface and near-surface 

sediment samples to assess seafloor 

properties for siting structures such as 

platforms, pipelines, or cables. 

Cone Penetrometer Tests X X X 

Vibracoring X X X 

Geologic Coring X X X 

Grab Sampling X X X 

Remote Sensing Gravity and magnetic surveys are 

used to assess structure and 

sedimentary properties of subsurface 

horizons. Aeromagnetic surveys 

evaluate deep crustal structure, salt 

related structure, and 

intra-sedimentary anomalies. 

Gravity Surveys X -- -- 

Gravity Gradiometry X -- -- 

Marine Magnetic Surveys X -- -- 

Aeromagnetic Surveys X -- -- 

a The renewable energy scenario includes the possibility that a deep penetration (2D or 3D) seismic survey would be conducted 

to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration. However, a single seismic survey for carbon sequestration is not 

analyzed separately. It is assumed that such a survey would be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun survey for

oil and gas exploration. Because of the large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys included in the oil and gas scenario

and the likelihood that some of those surveys may not be conducted due to overlapping coverage, a single survey for carbon 

sequestration would not change the effects at a programmatic level. 
A-6 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Post-lease activities conducted by operators can include additional seismic airgun surveys, HRG 

surveys, and bottom sampling (including stratigraphic wells, shallow test wells, and geotechnical 

sampling). Examples of post-lease seismic airgun surveys include vertical seismic profiling (VSP) with 

geophone receivers placed in a wellbore, and four-dimensional (4D) (time-lapse) surveys to monitor 

reservoirs during production. The HRG surveys are conducted on leases and along pipeline routes to 

evaluate the potential for geohazards, archaeological resources, and certain types of benthic communities. 

Geotechnical sampling is conducted to assess seafloor conditions with respect to siting facilities such as 

platforms and pipelines. 

Categories of G&G activities conducted for oil and gas exploration are described below. 

Deep Penetration Seismic Airgun Surveys 

Deep penetration seismic airgun surveys are conducted by industry to obtain data on geological 

formations down to several thousand meters below the seafloor. During these surveys, a survey vessel 

tows an array of airguns that emit acoustic energy pulses into the seafloor. Acoustic characteristics of 

airgun arrays are discussed as part of the impact analysis in Section 5.2. The acoustic signals reflect (or 

refract) off subsurface layers having acoustic impedance contrast and are recorded by hydrophones that 

are towed on streamers behind the ship or positioned on the seafloor as autonomous nodes or cables, or in 

rare instances spaced at various depths in vertically positioned cables. Data from these surveys can be 

used to assess potential hydrocarbon reservoirs and help to optimally locate exploration and development 

wells, thus maximizing extraction and production from a reservoir. 

The 2D and 3D streamer surveys are the most extensive types of seismic survey included in the 

proposed action. A 2D dataset is acquired by using wider line spacing and is used to identify regional 

structural geology and to link known productive areas over large geographic areas. In contrast, 3D 

seismic data enable industry to identify, with greater precision, where the most economical prospects may 

be located. The 3D technology is also used to identify previously overlooked hydrocarbon-bearing zones 

and new productive horizons. However, because 3D modeling requires much denser data coverage 

(i.e., closer line spacing) than 2D seismic surveys, areas already covered using 2D techniques may be 

resurveyed. Further, 3D surveys may be repeated over producing fields to characterize production 

reservoirs. These 4D, or time-lapse 3D, surveys are used predominantly to evaluate post-reservoir 

variance over time as a reservoir monitoring tool. 

2D Seismic Exploration Surveys. The 2D seismic exploration surveys are conducted by 

geophysical contractors either on a proprietary or speculative basis. Speculative surveys are generally 

conducted over large multi-block areas and can be sold to numerous clients to recover costs, whereas 

proprietary surveys usually cover only a few blocks for an individual client that will have exclusive use of 

the data. Although the number of 2D surveys is small compared to 3D surveys, they are important as the 

2D surveys can cover a larger area in less detail, resulting in a lower cost per area covered. Each 

geophysical contractor has a proprietary method of data acquisition that may vary depending on their 

seismic target and data processing capabilities. This makes each contractor’s data set unique and does not 

lend itself to combining with other surveys. 

Ships conducting 2D surveys are typically 60-90 m (200-300 ft) long and tow a single source array 

100-200 m (328-656 ft) behind the ship and about 5-10 m (16-33 ft) below the sea surface. The source 

array typically consists of three subarrays of six or seven airguns each and measures approximately 

12.5-18 m (41-60 ft) long and 16-36 m (52-118 ft) wide. Following behind the source array by 

100-200 m (328-656 ft) is a single streamer approximately 5-10 km (2.7-5.4 nmi) long. The ship tows 

this apparatus at a speed of about 4.5-6 knots (kn) (8.3-11 km/hour [hr]). About every 16 seconds (s) 

(i.e., a distance of 37.5 m [123 ft] for a vessel traveling at 4.5 kn [8.3 km/hr]), the airgun array is fired; the 

actual time between firings varies depending on ship speed. 

While surveying, the ship travels down a track for 12-20 hr (i.e., a distance of 100-166 km 

[54-90 nmi] for a vessel traveling at 4.5 kn [8.3 km/hr]), depending on the size of the survey area. Upon 

reaching the end of the track, the ship takes 2-3 hr to turn around and start down another track. The 

spacing between tracks is usually on the order of 2 km (1.1 nmi). This procedure takes place day and 

night and may continue for days, weeks, or months, depending on the size of the survey area. 
Biological Assessment A-7

3D Seismic Exploration Surveys. As with 2D surveys, almost all 3D seismic exploration surveys 

are conducted by geophysical contractors as speculative or multi-client surveys conducted over large, 

multi-block areas. Proprietary surveys are also conducted over only a few blocks. Conventional, 

single-vessel 3D surveys are also referred to as narrow azimuth 3D surveys. 

Ships conducting 3D surveys are generally 80-90 m (262-295 ft) long, or slightly larger than those 

used in 2D surveys since they are towing more equipment. These ships typically tow two source arrays 

aligned in parallel with one another 100-200 m (328-656 ft) behind them. The two source arrays are 

identical to each other and are the same as those used in the 2D surveys described previously. Following 

another 100-200 m (328-656 ft) behind the dual source arrays are 6-12 streamer cables 3-8 km 

(1.6-4.3 nmi) long and spread out over a breadth of 600-1,500 m (1,969-4,922 ft). 

The survey ship tows the apparatus at a speed of 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr). About every 16 s (i.e., a distance 

of 37.5 m [123 ft] for a vessel traveling at 4.5 kn [8.3 km/hr]), one of the dual airgun arrays is fired; the 

other array is fired 16 s later. To achieve the desired spacing, the time between firings varies depending 

on ship speed. While surveying, the ship travels down a track for 12-20 hr (i.e., a distance of 100-166 km 

[54-90 nmi] at 4.5 kn [8.3 km/hr]), depending on the size of the survey area. Upon reaching the end of 

the track, the ship takes 2-3 hr to turn around and start down another track. This procedure takes place 

day and night and may continue for days, weeks, or months, depending on the size of the survey area. 

Wide Azimuth and Related Multi-Vessel Surveys. In single-vessel 3D surveys, only a limited 

subset of the reflected wave field can be recorded because of the narrow range of source-receiver 

azimuths. New methods such as wide azimuth (WAZ), rich azimuth, multi-azimuth, and wide azimuth 

towed-streamer acquisition have emerged in the last few years to improve the data resolution problems 

inherent in traditional marine seismic surveys. These new methods provide seismic data with better 

illumination, higher signal-to-noise ratio, and improved resolution. 

Wide, rich, and multi-azimuth acquisition configurations involve multiple vessels operating 

concurrently in a variety of source vessel-to-acquisitional vessel geometries. Several source vessels 

(usually two to four) are used in coordination with single or dual receiver vessels either in a parallel or 

rectangular arrangement with a 1,200-m (3,937 ft) vessel spacing to maximize the azimuthal quality of 

the data acquired. It is not uncommon to have sources also deployed from the receiver vessels in addition 

to source-only vessels; this improves the signal-to-noise ratio, helps illuminate complex geology in 

sub-salt areas, and provides natural attenuation of multiple reflections from the water surface. 

Full azimuth (FAZ) or coil surveys are a further refinement of the WAZ acquisition of subsalt data 

and are a proprietary acquisitional technique developed by WesternGeco (Schlumberger). These surveys 

can consist of a single source/receiver arrangement or a multi-vessel operation with multiple sources, with 

seismic data being acquired while the vessels follow a circular to spiral path. This method was initially 

developed as a single-vessel alternative to WAZ surveys but has evolved into a multi-vessel technology. 

Nodes and Ocean Bottom Cable Surveys. Ocean bottom cable surveys were originally designed to 

enable seismic surveys in congested areas, such as producing fields with their many platforms and 

production facilities. New technology has also allowed for autonomous receiving units (nodes) to be 

deployed by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). These surveys have been found to be useful for 

obtaining four-component (4C) data (seismic pressure, as well as vertical and two horizontal motions of 

the water bottom, or seafloor), yielding more information about the fluids and rock characteristics in the 

subsurface. With standard hydrophones, these surveys can be conducted to about 183 m (600 ft), but with 

newer technology can be conducted at water depths of up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) or more. 

Autonomous nodes and ocean bottom cable surveys require the use of multiple ships (usually two 

ships for cable layout/pickup, one ship for recording, one ship for shooting, and two smaller utility boats). 

These ships are generally smaller than those used in streamer operations, and the utility boats can be very 

small. Operations begin by deploying the nodes in equally spaced grids by means of an ROV or by 

dropping cables off the back of the layout boat. Cable length is typically 4.2 km (2.3 nmi) but can be up 

to 12 km (6.5 nmi). Groups of seismic detectors (usually hydrophones and vertical motion geophones) 

are attached to the nodes and cable in intervals of 25-50 m (82-164 ft). Multiple nodes and cables are laid 

parallel to each other with a 50-m (164-ft) interval between cables. When the node or cable is in place, a 

ship towing a dual airgun array passes between the cables, firing every 25 m (82 ft). Sometimes a faster 

source ship speed of 6 kn (11 km/hr) instead of the normal 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr) speed is used, with an 

increase in time between airgun firings. 

After a source line is acquired, the source ship takes about 10-15 minutes (min) to turn around and 

pass down between the next two nodes or cables. When a node or cable is no longer needed to record 
A-8 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

seismic data, it is retrieved by the ROV or cable pickup ship and moved to the next recording position. A 

particular node or cable can lay on the bottom anywhere from 2 hr to several days, depending on 

operation conditions. In some cases, nodes or cables may be left on the bottom for future 4D (time-lapse) 

surveys (see below). 

Vertical Cable Surveys. Vertical cable surveys, although uncommon, are similar to ocean bottom 

cable surveys in that the receivers are deployed and then acoustic data are output by a source vessel. 

However, they are substantially different from ocean-bottom surveys in that the receivers are located at 

several locations along a vertical cable that is anchored to the ocean bottom. 

These surveys can be conducted in water depths up to about 2,500 m (8,200 ft). Two identically 

configured boats are used during a vertical cable survey. Both boats are used initially to place the cables. 

During the survey, one boat is used as a source boat and the other to recover and redeploy the cables. The 

vertical cables are deployed on two overlapping grids. On each grid, vertical cables are deployed every 

2 km (1.1 nmi). One grid is staggered relative to the other such that any one vertical cable is no more 

than 1.4 km (0.75 nmi) from its closest neighbor. Normally, 28 or 32 vertical cables are deployed at a 

time. 

At the bottom of each vertical cable is an anchor composed of 680 kilograms (kg) (1,500 pounds [lb]) 

of steel. The active section of the cable is 375 m (1,230 ft) long and contains 16 specially constructed 

hydrophones spaced 25 m (82 ft) apart. At the top are buoyant floats to keep the cable as vertical as 

possible. Once the cables are in place, the source boat begins shooting in such a way that each vertical 

cable receives shots at a distance of 5 km (2.7 nmi) in all directions. This is accomplished by traveling 

down lines parallel to the grid of vertical cables. Once the shooting boat shoots a line 1 km (0.54 nmi) 

beyond the first row of vertical cables, that row is recovered and redeployed. Cables may be left in place 

for hours or days, depending on the size of the survey area and operating conditions. Vessel speed is 

normally 4-5 kn (7.4-9.3 km/hr). The dual airgun array is the same as normally used in 3D streamer 

surveys. 

4D (Time-Lapse) Surveys. The 3D surveys may be repeated over oil and/or gas producing fields to 

characterize production reservoirs. These 4D or time-lapse surveys are becoming more frequent as the 

technology for analyzing the data is developed. The purpose of 4D surveys is to monitor the depletion of 

the reservoir and locate zones of bypassed production in an already discovered oil or gas field. A 

time-lapse survey requires repeated surveys with highly accurate navigation to ensure the same 

subsurface points are measured on each survey. Time-lapse surveys are usually repeated every 6 months 

to a year, but occasionally the repeat interval can be as short as 4 months. 

Time-lapse surveys can use either seismic streamer cables or ocean-bottom cables to house the 

seismic detectors. In either case, the procedure closely resembles those described previously for 3D and 

ocean-bottom cable surveys. The main difference is in the size of the survey area. Since the oil or gas 

field already has been located, the survey area is much smaller and survey time is much shorter. An 

average survey takes 2-4 weeks and can cover 20 km2

 (5.8 nmi2). Although the technique initially used 

streamer cables, the difficulty in locating sensors with suitable precision led to the use of bottom cables, 

then to fixed bottom cables. When fixed bottom cables are used, the survey time, after the first survey, is 

much shorter since all that has to be done is connect the fixed bottom cable to the recording instruments 

and start shooting. 

Vertical Seismic Profile Surveys. Vertical seismic profiling is a technique carried out by placing 

geophone receivers down a borehole at different depths, and with an external acoustic source near the 

wellbore (zero-offset VSP) or on a vessel at different distances from the wellbore (walk-away VSP). 

These surveys are used to obtain information about the nature of the seismic signal, as well as more 

information about the geology surrounding the vertical array of sensors. The VSP data can be 

cross-correlated with ship-towed seismic survey datasets to refine identification of lithologic changes and 

the content of formation fluids. Zero-offset and walk-away VSP surveys are common during the 

development and production phases of activity. 

In all VSP surveys, sensors are lowered down a borehole before production tubing is placed in the 

wellbore or the well is abandoned. The sensors lowered down the borehole can be connected together in 

strings of 16-36 receivers spaced from 15-150 m (49-492 ft) apart, depending on the survey objective and 

other variables. After lowering the sensor string to the lowest portion of the borehole to be surveyed, the 

sensors are temporarily clamped to the side of the wellbore and seismic signals are recorded. 

Subsequently, the sensors are repositioned and the next set of seismic signals recorded. Seismic sources 

used in VSP surveys are the same as those used in conventional seismic airgun surveys. Zero offset 
Biological Assessment A-9

surveys are conducted using a small-volume, single airgun suspended by a crane located on the deck of 

the drilling rig. 

Walk-away surveys utilize a workboat with only four to eight airguns. The same airgun arrays used 

for conventional 2D and 3D surveys are used for 3D VSP surveys. These airgun arrays can vary from 

1,000-5,000 in.3

, depending upon the depth of the objective. Typical airgun array depths are 7-10 m 

(23-33 ft) below the surface. One method used to provide 3D coverage is for the source vessel to travel in 

a spiral track. The source vessel begins the spiral track at a distance of 200 m (656 ft) from the borehole 

and keeps the distance between spirals equal to the number of arrays times the array separation. First, one 

airgun array fires, then 12-14 s later the other airgun array fires. At a typical vessel speed of 4.5-5 kn 

(8.3-9.3 km/hr), the distance between firings is between 28 and 36 m (92 and 118 ft). The source vessel 

continues on the spiral path out to a distance of up to 9 km (4.9 nmi). If the borehole sensor string needs 

to be raised to another level, the whole procedure is repeated. 

Survey duration depends on the type of survey, objectives, cost of the drilling rig, and equipment 

used. A zero-offset or walk-away survey can take less than a day. By comparison, a 3D survey may 

require up to 10 days to complete; however, 30 percent of that time may be with the airguns in standby 

mode. 

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

The HRG surveys are conducted by industry to investigate the shallow subsurface for geohazards and 

soil conditions in one or more lease blocks, as well as to identify potential benthic biological communities 

(or habitats) and archaeological resources in compliance with 30 CFR 550.201, 30 CFR 550.207, 30 CFR 

550.194, and 30 CFR 250.1007. The data are used for initial site evaluation for drilling rig emplacement 

and for platform or pipeline design and emplacement. The HRG survey and report outputs are guided by 

Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) 2008-G05 (Shallow Hazards Program) (USDOI, MMS, 2008a) 

and NTL 2005-G07 (Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports) (USDOI, MMS, 2005). 

The HRG surveys for oil and gas exploration use several tools including airgun(s), side-scan sonar, 

magnetometers, shallow and medium penetration subbottom profilers, and single or multibeam depth 

sounders. All of the tools for both hazards and archaeological surveys are typically run during the same 

deployment. However, for areas in water depths greater than 200 m (656 ft), BOEM may allow operators 

to substitute previously collected 3D seismic reflection data for shallow or medium penetration subbottom 

profiler data (although not for pipeline pre-installation surveys). A typical HRG operation for an oil and 

gas exploration site consists of a ship towing an airgun about 25 m (82 ft) behind the ship and a 600-m 

(1,969-ft) streamer cable with a tail buoy. The ship travels at 3-3.5 kn (5.6-6.5 km/hr), and the airgun is 

fired every 7-8 s (or about every 12.5 m [41 ft]). The other acoustic sources typically are operated 

concurrently with the airgun array. Typical surveys cover one lease block, which is usually 4.8 km (3 mi 

or 2.6 nmi) on a side. The BOEM has identified all blocks in the Atlantic OCS as having a high 

probability for the presence of historic archaeological resources (i.e., shipwrecks) and requires surveys 

using a 30-m (98-ft) line spacing. Including line turns, the time to survey one block is about 36 hr; 

however, streamer and airgun deployment and other operations add to the total survey time. 

3D high-resolution surveys using ships towing multiple streamer cables have become commonplace. 

Since multiple streamers are towed, the ships tend to be slightly larger (47 m vs. 37 m [154 ft vs. 121 ft]). 

Up to six streamers 100-200 m (328-656 ft) long are used with a tri-cluster of airguns. With this system, 

66 lines are necessary per block, which take about 5 days to collect. 

For post-lease engineering studies involving the placement of production facilities and pipelines in 

deep water, HRG surveys are often conducted with autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) equipped 

with a multibeam depth sounder, side-scan sonar, and a chirp subbottom profiler. Geophysical 

contractors have been using AUVs since about 2000 to make detailed maps of the seafloor before they 

start building subsea infrastructure. 

Electromagnetic Surveys 

Electromagnetic surveys are often used in conjunction with seismic airgun surveys to help delineate 

potential oil and gas reservoirs. Many geological processes in the crust and upper mantle of the seafloor 

involve the interaction of fluid phases with surrounding rock. The conductivities of hydrothermal phases 

are different from those of host rock, and collectively they offer distinct profiles of electrical 
A-10 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

conductivity/resistivity, depending on the specific geological process involved. There are two practical 

electromagnetic techniques applicable to oil and gas exploration: controlled source electromagnetic 

(CSEM) surveys and magnetotelluric (MT) surveys. The CSEM technique, sometimes referred to as 

seabed logging, induces very low frequency (typically less than 2 hertz [Hz]) electromagnetic signals into 

the upper layers of the seafloor via a towed dipole. The signals are propagated laterally to an array of 

receivers kilometers away. The MT surveys are passive measurement of the earth’s electromagnetic 

fields; in this technique, no electrical currents are induced into the earth, but the receiver device detects 

the natural electrical and magnetic fields present in the earth. 

Deep Stratigraphic and Shallow Test Drilling 

Drilling of deep stratigraphic and shallow test wells is typically an off-lease activity, especially in 

frontier areas, or can be carried out on a leased block if it does not interfere with the leaseholder's 

activities. These activities may occur infrequently in the BA Area during the time period of the 

Programmatic EIS. As defined by 30 CFR 551.1, a deep stratigraphic test well must penetrate at least 

152 m (500 ft) into the seafloor; otherwise, it is classified as shallow test drilling. 

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) wells typically are drilled to obtain information 

about regional stratigraphy, reservoir beds, and hydrocarbon potential. These wells are drilled away from 

any potential petroleum-bearing feature to minimize the chance of encountering oil or gas. The data are 

used to evaluate structural interpretations from geophysical surveys, determine the age of sediments 

drilled, and estimate the potential for hydrocarbon accumulation and for determining the presence, 

absence, or quality of gas hydrate deposits. Drilling would be done by conventional, rotary drilling 

equipment from a drilling rig; the selection of a moored versus dynamically positioned drilling rig would 

depend on water depth, site-specific seafloor conditions, and rig availability. Shallow test wells are 

drilled post-lease to allow operators to place wireline testing equipment into a borehole to evaluate 

subsurface properties such as the presence of gas hydrates. Drilling would be done by conventional, 

rotary drilling equipment from a drilling barge or boat. It is likely that at least in the South Atlantic 

Planning Area, in the Blake Plateau region, there will be some interest in a test program for gas hydrates 

within the proposed action scenario period. These wells could be considered either COST wells or 

shallow test drilling, depending on the penetration depth. 

Bottom Sampling 

Coring or grab sampling methods typically are used to obtain sediment samples for geological and/or 

geotechnical analyses. Geotechnical sampling and testing are used in engineering studies for placement 

of structures such as platforms and pipelines. Usually, a program of bottom sampling and shallow coring 

is conducted simultaneously using a small marine drilling vessel. 

“Deep” geologic cores are obtained by standard rotary coring. The cores obtained by this method 

vary in diameter from 3-20 centimeters (cm) (1-8 inches [in.]) and can penetrate several hundred meters 

beneath the seafloor. Other methods used during geotechnical surveys include vibracorers, gravity corers, 

piston corers, box corers, and jet probes (Fugro, 2003; International Society for Soil Mechanics and 

Geotechnical Engineering [ISSMGE], 2005). Bottom sampling involves devices that penetrate only a few 

centimeters to several meters below the seafloor. Samples of surficial sediments are typically obtained by 

dropping a piston core or gravity core (“dart”), essentially a weighted tube, to the ocean floor and 

recovering it with an attached wire line. Grab samplers are one of the most common methods of 

retrieving sediment samples from the seabed. A grab sampler is a device that collects a sample of the 

topmost layers of the seabed by bringing two steel clamshells together and cutting a bite from the soil. 

Passive Remote Sensing Surveys 

Remote sensing surveys use passive detection methods that do not involve a high-energy sound 

source. Gravity, gravity gradiometry, and marine magnetic surveys are remote sensing surveys typically 

conducted from ships. Aeromagnetic surveys are conducted by fixed wing aircraft and look for deep 

crustal structure, salt-related structure, and intra-sedimentary anomalies. Radar imaging is done by 

satellite and used to detect oil slicks on the sea surface; because BOEM does not permit nor approve radar 

imaging surveys, this method is not discussed further. 
Biological Assessment A-11

Gravity Surveys. Marine gravity data can be collected with instruments on the seafloor, in 

boreholes, or in helicopters, but usually on ships. In some cases, the data are collected during a seismic 

survey. However, the preferred method has been to use dedicated ships (about 50 m [164 ft] long) in 

order to acquire more precise data. With the advent of global positioning system (GPS) navigation and 

larger, more stable seismic ships, it is now possible to achieve the same order of accuracy with meters 

placed in seismic ships as in dedicated ships. Data grids for gravity surveys range from 1.6 by 8 km to 

9.7 by 32 km (0.9 by 4.3 nmi to 5.2 by 17 nmi). Helicopters also may be used to collect gravity data, but 

such surveys are rare because of the logistics required to keep the craft in the air for extended periods far 

from shore. No helicopter surveys are assumed to occur in the Proposed Action scenario. 

Gravity Gradiometry. Measuring the earth's gravity gradient is now possible with the release of 

Department of Defense (DOD) technology. The instrument is housed in a box located on a 60-m (197-ft) 

survey ship or fixed-wing aircraft. In shallow water, ships survey a 0.25- by 1-km (0.13- by 0.54-nmi) 

grid, and in deep water, a 1- by 2-km (0.54- by 1.08-nmi) grid is used. Typically, a 20-block area is 

selected for survey, and a ship traveling at 11 kn (20 km/hr) can complete a survey in about 2 days. 

Gravity gradiometry surveys are also conducted with fixed-wing aircraft that fly at a speed of about 

100 kn (185 km/hr) and altitudes of 80-100 m (262-328 ft) (DiFrancesco et al., 2009). No gravity 

gradiometry surveys are included in the Proposed Action scenario; if such a survey were conducted from 

an aircraft, it would be similar to an aeromagnetic survey (which is discussed below and included in the 

Proposed Action scenario). 

Marine Magnetic Surveys. Marine magnetic surveys measure the earth's magnetic field for the 

purpose of determining structure and sedimentary properties of subsurface horizons. Magnetic surveys 

are also conducted to detect shipwrecks. These surveys are usually conducted in conjunction with a 

seismic survey, allowing the navigation information to be used for both surveys. The development of 

low-power digital sensors has allowed the sensor package to be towed behind the seismic source array, 

which has greatly improved operational efficiency of magnetic surveys. The sensor is housed in a 

cylindrical package measuring approximately 1 m (3 ft) long and 15-20 cm (6-8 in.) in diameter and 

weighing about 14 kg (31 lb). The electronics package inside the case contains about 1 liter (L) 

(0.3 gallons [gal]) of chemically inert nontoxic fluid. The sensor is towed behind one of the subarrays of 

the seismic source array at distances of 50, 100, or 150 m (164, 328, or 492 ft) behind the array, although 

the 100-m distance is the most common. The sensor is typically towed at a depth of 3 m (10 ft) and 

makes use of depth devices mounted on the cable to maintain a constant depth. In magnetic surveys for 

archaeological resources, the instrument is towed 6 m (20 ft) above the seafloor. 

Aeromagnetic Surveys. Aeromagnetic surveys are conducted to look for deep crustal structure, 

salt-related structure, and intra-sedimentary anomalies. The surveys are flown by fixed-wing aircraft 

flying at speeds of about 250 km/hr (135 kn) (Reeves, 2005). Based on aeromagnetic datasets posted by 

Fugro Gravity and Magnetic Services (2012) for the northern Gulf of Mexico, most offshore 

aeromagnetic surveys are flown at altitudes between 61-152 m (200-500 ft) and collect 

15,000-60,000 line km (9,320-37,282 line mi) of data. Line spacing varies depending on the objectives, 

but typical grids are 0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. A broad scale survey may be flown at higher altitudes 

(e.g., 305 m [1,000 ft]) and use wider line spacing (e.g., 4 by 12 mi or 8 by 24 mi). The magnetic field is 

measured by either a proton precision or cesium vapor magnetometer mounted in a “stinger” projection 

from the tail of the aircraft (Reeves, 2005). On occasion, two magnetometers are used to measure not 

only the total magnetic field but also the vertical gradient of the field. 

2.2.2.2. Geographic Scope of G&G Activities 

The G&G activities for oil and gas exploration could occur anywhere within the Mid- and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas. The potential geographic scope is indicated by the nine applications for seismic 

airgun surveying in the Atlantic that have been received and posted to BOEM’s website at 

http://www.boem.gov/Oil-and-Gas-Energy-Program/GOMR/GandG.aspx. The proposed survey areas 

collectively encompass most of the BA Area, with considerable overlap. 
A-12 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

2.2.2.3. Projected Activity Levels 

Projected activity levels over the time period analyzed in the Programmatic EIS are shown in 

Tables A-2 and A-3. To construct a scenario for oil and gas exploration, BOEM had to make some 

assumptions for how the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas would be administered as Federal lands, 

and if oil and gas exploration is to be allowed. The current applications for seismic airgun surveying in 

the Atlantic were reviewed to separate those portions of proposed surveys that cover the Mid- and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas. Seismic operators were contacted to determine if they still wished to pursue 

seismic surveying if restricted to only the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas. The BOEM assumes 

that there will be no lease sale in these planning areas until at least 2018. The earliest that an oil and gas 

lease sale can take place is 2018, and only if these planning areas are included as part of the BOEM’s 

2018-2023 5-year leasing program. Leasing in these planning areas is not included in the Proposed OCS 

Leasing Program for 2012-2017, which was released in November 2011 (USDOI, BOEM, 2011a). 

Table A-2 

 

Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 

2012-2020 

Year 

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area South Atlantic Planning Area 

2D 

(km)

3D 

(blocks)a

WAZ 

(blocks)b HRG 

(line km)

VSP 

(line km)

CSEM 

(line km)

2D 

(km)

3D 

(blocks)a

WAZ 

(blocks)b HRG 

(line km)

VSP 

(line km)

CSEM 

(line km)

2012 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

2013 83,400 0 0 0 0 0 28,450 0 0 0 0 0 

2014 160,950 0 0 0 0 0 56,900 0 0 0 0 0 

2015 12,875 0 0 0 0 0 8,050 0 0 0 0 0 

2016 64,375 400 0 0 0 3,220 48,300 300 0 0 0 1,600 

2017 41,800 200 0 0 0 16,100 38,624 200 0 3,220 0 8,050 

2018 16,100 200 100 3,220 0 32,200 32,200 200 100 32,200 0 9,650 

2019 16,100 200 100 16,100 160 16,100 8,050 200 200 16,100 320 320 

2020 800 300 200 64,375 320 32,200 800 300 200 40,250 480 320 

TOTAL 396,400 1,300 400 83,695 480 99,820 221,374 1,200 500 91,770 800 19,940

Abbreviations: 2D = two-dimensional; 3D = three-dimensional; CSEM = controlled source electromagnetic; 

HRG = high-resolution geophysical; VSP = vertical seismic profile; WAZ = wide azimuth. a

 3D surveys include ocean bottom cable and nodal surveys, vertical cable surveys, and 4D (time-lapse) surveys. Typically, 

one OCS block is 9 mi2

 (23.3 km2, 2,331 ha, or 5,760 ac). b

 WAZ estimates include coil shooting (exclusive to WesternGeco). 

Authorization of pre-lease seismic airgun surveys can theoretically take place as soon as BOEM 

completes the NEPA evaluation and if it publishes a Record of Decision (ROD) to authorize G&G 

activities in these areas. Operation under BOEM authorization, however, will be dependent on the 

permittee obtaining any additional needed authorizations (i.e., MMPA). The 3D estimates shown in 

Table A-2 include ocean bottom cable and nodal surveys, vertical cable surveys, and 4D nodal projects, 

and the WAZ estimates also include coil shooting (exclusive to WesternGeco). 

Table A-3 provides general activity levels for MT surveys; gravity and magnetic surveys; 

aeromagnetic surveys; COST wells; shallow test drilling; and bottom sampling, but with no breakdown 

by year or planning area. Activity estimates were not developed for satellite radar imaging as BOEM 

does not permit or approve these surveys and they are considered de minimis activities. 
Biological Assessment A-13

Table A-3 

 

Projected Levels of Miscellaneous G&G Activities for Oil and Gas Exploration in the Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas, 2012-2020 

Survey Type Number of Sampling Events Notes 

Magnetotelluric Surveys 0-2 surveys Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey, or 

<9 OCS blocks; 1-6 months per survey

Gravity and Magnetic Surveys 

(remote sensing) 0-5 surveys 

Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey; 

4-12 months per survey. Data typically acquired 

during seismic surveys (i.e., from ships)

Aeromagnetic Surveys 

(remote sensing) 0-2 surveys Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey; 1-3 months per survey

Continental Offshore 

Stratigraphic Test (COST) Wells 0-3 wells Penetration >150 m (500 ft). Requires an 

Environmental Assessment 

Shallow Test Drilling 0-5 wells Penetration <150 m (500 ft) 

Bottom Sampling 50-300 samples Mainly surficial and near-surface sediments; 

penetration <30 m (98 ft) 

2.2.3. Renewable Energy Site Characterization Surveys 

It is expected that G&G surveys would be conducted in support of renewable energy development in 

the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas within the 2012-2020 time period covered by the 

Programmatic EIS. Under the renewable energy program (30 CFR 585), the need for G&G surveys in 

support of site characterization and foundation studies are part of a developer’s planning to secure a 

commercial competitive or non-competitive lease on the OCS for renewable energy facilities. Thus, the 

decision to offer an OCS lease is an actualizing step for G&G activities. The competitive lease process is 

set forth at 30 CFR 585.210 through 585.225, and the non-competitive process is set forth at 30 CFR 

585.230 through 585.232, and was slightly modified by a recent rulemaking on May 16, 2011 (Federal 

Register, 2011b). Most wind energy facilities on the Atlantic OCS will probably track the competitive 

process. 

There are several OCS plans that are part of the renewable energy program, the approval of any of 

which could result in G&G activities. A staged decision-making process takes place for a commercial 

development, such as a wind energy facility: (1) BOEM’s planning and analysis; (2) lease issuance; 

(3) approval of a Site Assessment Plan (SAP); and (4) approval of a Construction and Operations Plan 

(COP). A General Activities Plan (GAP) is processed for rights-of-way under a similar staged approval 

process for installation of electrical cable in the seabed or for substations supporting an OCS wind energy 

facility on unleased OCS land or across land leased to a third party. 

A NEPA evaluation is part of the approval process for OCS plans under the renewable energy 

program. A proposed action at a specific location, tool type, and intensity of G&G activity are subjected 

to evaluation, which may be an Environmental Assessment (EA) or an EIS. Other 

consultations/authorizations are also potentially required under additional environmental laws (i.e., 

MMPA. 

A commercial lease gives the lessee the exclusive right to subsequently seek BOEM approval for the 

development of the leasehold. A lease does not grant the lessee the right to construct any facilities; rather, 

the lease grants the right to use the leased area to actualize plans that must be approved by BOEM before 

the lessee can move on to the next stage of the process (30 CFR 585.600 and 585.601). With the 

submission of a SAP, the lessee proposes characterizing activities for the wind resource by constructing a 

meteorological tower or installing meteorological buoys on the leasehold (30 CFR 585.605 through 

585.618). The lessee’s SAP must be approved by BOEM before it conducts these “site assessment” 

activities on the lease. The BOEM may approve, approve with modification, or disapprove a lessee’s 

SAP (30 CFR 585.613). A lessee may proceed directly to the fourth stage, COP submittal, if no site 

assessment activities are needed to support a COP submittal. In the current operating environment, this 

scenario is anticipated to occur in only a few exceptional cases. With the submission of a COP, which is 

a detailed plan for constructing and operating a wind energy facility on the lease, the lessee must also 

submit information characterizing the areal extent of the site and the seabed foundation conditions that 

includes the detailed plan for constructing and operating a wind energy facility on the lease 
A-14 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

(30 CFR 585.620 through 585.638). The BOEM approval of a COP is a precondition to the construction 

of any wind energy facility on the OCS (30 CFR 585.628). The BOEM may approve, approve with 

modification, or disapprove a lessee’s COP (30 CFR 585.628). 

The regulations also require that a lessee provide the results of G&G surveys with its COP, including 

a shallow hazards survey (30 CFR 585.626 (a)(1)), geological survey (30 CFR 585.616(a)(2)), 

geotechnical survey (30 CFR 585.626(a)(4)), and an archaeological resource survey 

(30 CFR 585.626(a)(5)). Although BOEM does not issue permits or approvals for these site 

characterization activities, BOEM will not consider approving a lessee’s COP if the required survey 

information is not included. Guidance packages report acceptable instrumentation, survey design 

parameters, and the report outputs that allow BOEM decisions to be made (USDOI, BOEM, 2011b). 

Wind energy facilities are currently the only type of renewable energy facility contemplated in the 

Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas although there is potential for additional renewable energy 

project proposals within the life of this proposed action. The BOEM has received only one plan for a 

marine hydrokinetic (MHK) project proposal in the Atlantic, but it is located in the Straits of Florida 

Planning Area, outside the scope of the Programmatic EIS. Specific locations of G&G surveys for 

renewable energy sites are not known at this time. However, for this programmatic analysis, the general 

areas for renewable energy projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2012-2020 have 

been estimated in terms of numbers of OCS lease blocks offshore the states of Delaware, Maryland, 

Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The distance from shore for a wind 

facility is generally defined at the outward limit of its economic viability, currently about 46 km (25 nmi) 

from shore or 100 m (328 ft) water depth. The BOEM has published Requests for Interest for specific 

wind energy areas (WEAs) offshore Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia; locations are shown in Figure A2. In May 2011, North Carolina completed a screening exercise to yield candidate areas of OCS lease 

blocks meeting their criteria for wind facility development. The BOEM has not published Requests for 

Interest for the states adjacent to the South Atlantic Planning Area (South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida), 

but activity levels have been estimated for this analysis. Also, the scenario takes into account the Atlantic 

Wind Connection, a submarine electricity transmission cable proposed to be installed offshore the 

Atlantic coast from New Jersey, offshore New York City, to Virginia, offshore Norfolk, to facilitate wind 

energy development. 

2.2.3.1. Types of G&G Surveys 

Two general types of G&G site characterization surveys are expected to be conducted in support of 

renewable energy development: HRG surveys and geotechnical surveys. The HRG surveys are conducted 

to obtain information about subseafloor conditions, shallow hazards, archaeological resources, and 

sensitive benthic habitats. Typical equipment used in HRG surveys includes single beam or multibeam 

depth sounders, magnetometers, side-scan sonars, and shallow and medium penetration subbottom 

profilers. Geotechnical surveys, which involve seafloor-disturbing activities such as cone penetrometer 

tests (CPTs), geologic coring, and grab sampling, are conducted to obtain information about surface and 

subsurface geological and geotechnical properties. Information from both survey types is taken into 

consideration during siting, design, construction, and operation of renewable energy facilities. 

Another activity conducted as part of site characterization is the deployment of bottom-founded 

monitoring buoys in a lease area. The buoys typically would include current meters and other equipment 

to monitor oceanographic conditions and marine life. The information collected can be used to evaluate 

the potential for sediment erosion, aid in the design of renewable energy facilities, and provide baseline 

environmental information for the lease area. 

Under certain conditions, BOEM may encourage the use of additional instrumentations and methods 

such as divers, remote or manned submersibles, video cameras on ROVs, and additional geophysical 

survey lines. Once an operator submits a SAP, GAP, or COP, BOEM will review the geophysical survey 

and any other information available to determine the possible presence of sensitive benthic habitats. 

These include areas where information suggests the presence of exposed hard bottoms of high, moderate, 

or low relief; hard bottoms covered by thin, ephemeral sand layers; seagrass patches; or algal beds. A 

survey that includes benthic grab samples and photodocumentation to delineate areas of sensitive benthic 

habitats may be recommended by BOEM where such features are known to occur or are suspected from 

previously conducted studies or surveys, or in areas where data are inadequate. Biological surveys are not 

part of the analysis in the Programmatic EIS. 
Biological Assessment A-15

Figure A-2. Identified Potential Wind Energy Facility Project Areas and Limited Leases for Wind 

Resource Assessment along the Mid-Atlantic Coast. Source: USDOI, BOEM (2012a). 
A-16 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

The renewable energy scenario includes the possibility that a deep penetration (2D or 3D) seismic airgun 

survey would be conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration. However, a single 

seismic airgun survey for carbon sequestration is not analyzed separately. It is assumed that such a 

survey would be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun survey for oil and gas exploration. 

Because of the large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys included in the oil and gas scenario and 

the likelihood that some of those surveys may not be conducted due to overlapping coverage, a single 

survey for carbon sequestration would not change the effects at a programmatic level. 

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

Lessees must submit the results of site characterization surveys with their SAP (30 CFR 585.610 and 

585.611) and COP (30 CFR 585.626 and 585.627). The purpose of the HRG survey would be to acquire 

geophysical shallow hazards data and information pertaining to the presence or absence of archaeological 

resources, and to conduct bathymetric charting. The HRG data are collected by lessees to provide 

information on subseafloor conditions, shallow hazards, archaeological resources, and sensitive benthic 

habitats in a lease area and along transmission cable corridors. The scope of investigation should be 

sufficient to reliably cover any portion of the site that would be affected by the renewable energy 

installation including the maximum area of potential effect encompassing all seafloor/bottom-disturbing 

activities. The maximum area includes, but is not limited to, the footprint of all seafloor/bottomdisturbing activities (including the areas in which installation vessels, barge anchorages, and/or 

appurtenances may be placed) associated with construction, installation, inspection, maintenance, or 

removal of structures and/or transmission cables. 

Equipment typically used in HRG surveys for renewable energy includes single beam or multibeam 

depth sounders, magnetometers, side-scan sonars, and shallow or medium penetration subbottom 

profilers. The BOEM does not anticipate that airguns would be necessary for renewable energy site 

assessment activities. Typical equipment is summarized below; see Chapter 3.5 of the Programmatic 

EIS for additional information, including sound source levels. 

 Depth Sounders: The depth sounder system should record with a sweep appropriate 

to the range of water depths expected in the survey area. The BOEM encourages use 

of a multibeam bathymetry system, particularly in areas characterized by complex 

topography or fragile habitats. 

 Magnetometers: Magnetometer survey techniques should be capable of detecting 

and aiding the identification of ferrous, ferric, or other objects having a distinct 

magnetic signature. The magnetometer sensor should be towed as near as possible to 

the seafloor but should not exceed an altitude of greater than 6 m (20 ft) above the 

seafloor. The sensor should be towed in a manner that minimizes interference from 

the vessel hull and other survey instruments. The magnetometer sensitivity should be 

1 gamma or less, and the background noise level should not exceed a total of 

3 gammas peak-to-peak. 

 Side-Scan Sonars: Recording should be of optimal quality (good resolution, minimal 

distortion) resulting in displays automatically corrected for slant range, lay-back, and 

vessel speed. The operator should use a digital dual-frequency side-scan sonar 

system with preferred frequencies of 445 and 900 kHz and no less than 100 and 

500 kHz to record continuous planimetric images of the seafloor. The recorded data 

should be used to construct a mosaic to provide a true plan view that provides 

100 percent coverage of the area of potential effect. The side-scan sonar sensor 

should be towed at a distance above the seafloor that is 10-20 percent of the range of 

the instrument. 

 Shallow and Medium Penetration Subbottom Profilers: A high-resolution chirp 

subbottom profiler is typically used to delineate near-surface geologic strata and 

features. The BOEM recommends that the subbottom profiler system be capable of 

achieving a vertical bed separation resolution of at least 0.3 m (1 ft) in the uppermost 

15 m (49 ft) below the seafloor. The medium penetration boomer profiler system 

must be capable of penetrating greater than 10 m (33 ft) beyond any potential 

foundation depth, and the vertical resolution must be less than 6 m (20 ft). 
Biological Assessment A-17

The HRG surveys are conducted from specialized survey vessels fitted with equipment for deploying 

and handling geophysical systems. In nearshore waters, the surveys would be conducted by a single, 

small (<23-30 m [75-98 ft]) vessel moving at <5 kn (9.3 km/hr). Typically, a survey would be completed 

in 3-5 days, and depending on the location, the vessel may return to its shore base daily. Sites in deeper 

water may require larger vessels that operate 24 hr per day and can remain at sea for weeks. Survey 

vessels follow precise, pre-plotted lines so that the desired coverage of the seafloor is achieved. An 

integrated navigational system keeps track of the position and depth of the towed survey equipment. 

The BOEM recommends that the geophysical survey grid(s) for project structures and surrounding 

area for bathymetric charting, shallow hazards assessments, and archaeological resources assessments be 

oriented with respect to bathymetry, shallow geologic structure, and renewable energy structure locations 

whenever possible. The grid pattern for each survey should cover the maximum area of potential effect 

for all anticipated physical disturbances. Specific grid requirements are as follows: 

 line spacing for all geophysical data for shallow hazards assessments (on side-scan 

sonar/all subbottom profilers) should not exceed 150 m (492 ft) throughout the area. 

 line spacing for all geophysical data for archaeological resources assessments 

(on magnetometer, side-scan sonar, chirp subbottom profiler) should not exceed 30 m 

(98 ft) throughout the area. The BOEM may require higher resolution surveys where 

necessary to ensure that site-specific actions comply with the National Historic 

Preservation Act. 

 line spacing for bathymetric charting using multibeam technique or side-scan sonar 

mosaic construction should be suitable for the water depths encountered and provide 

both full coverage of the seabed plus suitable overlap and resolution of small discrete 

targets of 0.5-1.0 m (1.5-3 ft) in diameter. 

 all track lines should run generally parallel to each other. Tie-lines running 

perpendicular to the track lines should not exceed a line spacing of 150 m (492 ft) 

throughout the survey area. 

In addition, the geophysical survey grid for proposed transmission cable route(s) should include a 

minimum 300-m (984-ft) wide corridor centered on the transmission cable location(s). Line spacing 

should be identical to that noted above. 

Geotechnical Surveys 

Geotechnical surveys are conducted to obtain information about surface and subsurface geological 

and geotechnical properties. This information is used to aid in siting, design, construction, and operation 

of renewable energy facilities. Geotechnical surveys involve seafloor-disturbing activities such as CPTs, 

geologic coring, and grab sampling. Sediment sampling and testing locations for geotechnical surveys are 

guided by the geophysical data and maps generated during HRG surveys. 

The principal purposes of geotechnical surveys are to (1) assess the suitability of shallow foundation 

soils to support renewable energy structure(s) or associated transmission cable(s) under extreme 

operational and environmental conditions that might be encountered; and (2) document soil characteristics 

necessary for design and installation of all structures and transmission cables. The results reveal the 

stratigraphic and geoengineering properties of the sediment that may affect the foundations or anchoring 

systems for the project. Specific uses of geotechnical data are to 

 analyze in situ and laboratory soil test data to estimate foundation soil response to 

maximum anticipated static and dynamic loads; 

 determine embedment depth and predict susceptibility of the foundation to 

liquefaction and scour phenomena; 

 characterize liquefaction potential, specifically in the context of regional seismicity; 

 evaluate the potential for seafloor erosion and scour in the context of empirically 

derived current velocity data for the project area; and 

 integrate the results of the geotechnical and shallow hazards investigations to provide 

a comprehensive analysis of foundation stability for the site. 
A-18 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

The BOEM recommends that the results of in situ testing, boring, and/or sampling be analyzed at 

each foundation location and at every kilometer of the transmission cable route to shore to examine all 

important sediment and rock strata to determine its strength classification, deformation properties, and 

dynamic characteristics. Sampling should include a minimum of one “deep” geologic coring (with soil 

sampling and testing) at each edge of the project area and within the project area as needed to determine 

the vertical and lateral variation in seabed conditions and to provide the relevant geotechnical data 

required for design. To be considered a “geologic coring,” the core depth should be at least 10 m (33 ft) 

deeper than the design penetration of the foundation piles. For areas with highly variable subsea soil 

conditions, it may be appropriate to obtain a much higher number of deep borings than the minimum 

described in 30 CFR 585.626(a)(4)(iii), and it may be necessary to obtain one at each turbine foundation 

location to adequately characterize the stratigraphic and geoengineering properties for each foundation 

design. 

Geotechnical surveys for renewable energy sites are expected to be conducted from a small barge or 

ship approximately 20 m (65 ft) in length. A typical survey duration would be 3 days or less. The spatial 

scale of sampling and testing activities would range from a minimum of 1/16 of a lease block 

(approximately 260 hectares [ha] or 640 acres [ac]) to multiple lease blocks and is assumed to include 

cable route(s) to shore. The area of seabed disturbed by individual sampling events (e.g., collection of a 

core or grab sample) is estimated to range from 1-10 m2

 (11-108 ft2). Some operational platforms require 

anchoring for brief periods using small anchors; however, approximately 50 percent of deployments for 

this sampling work could involve a boat having dynamic positioning capability. Consequently, not all 

geological sampling necessarily includes bottom disturbance by anchoring. Jack-up barges and spudded 

work barges are seldom used. 

Cone Penetrometer Tests. The CPT is a widely used in situ test for marine engineering applications 

(Fugro, 2003; ISSMGE, 2005). It is used to obtain information on soil type and stratification as well as 

shear strength in clays and relative density and friction angles in sand. The CPT provides an empirical 

assessment of seabed soils based on the resistance of the soil to a cone-tipped probe, or penetrometer, as it 

is pushed into the seabed at a constant rate of penetration (about 2 cm/s [0.8 in./s]). Standard cones have 

a tip angle of 60° and a cross-sectional area between 5 and 20 cm2

 (0.8 and 3 in.2). Electrical strain 

gauges within the cone assembly measure the resistance on the cone tip and friction on a sleeve behind 

the tip. In a piezocone penetration test (PCPT), an additional parameter, soil pore water pressure, is 

measured via a porous element in the cone face or at the shoulder between cone tip and friction sleeve. 

Data are transmitted in realtime to the surface support vessel for recording and analysis. 

Geologic Coring. During geotechnical surveys for renewable energy facilities, core samples are 

collected to characterize the geotechnical properties of surface and subsurface sediments. The BOEM 

requires that this sampling include a minimum of one “deep” geologic coring (with soil sampling and 

testing) at each edge of a project area and within a project area as needed to determine the vertical and 

lateral variation in seabed conditions and to provide the relevant geotechnical data required for design of 

renewable energy facilities. To be considered a geologic coring, the core depth should be at least 10 m 

(33 ft) deeper than the design penetration of the foundation piles. Geologic cores are obtained by 

standard rotary coring. Rotary corers are designed as double or triple tube devices where the innermost 

tube acts as a core liner, the middle tube, if present, acts as a holder, and the rotating outer tube carries the 

hollow drill bit. As the bit cuts down through the soils and rock, the core created passes into the liner in a 

relatively undisturbed state (Fugro, 2003; ISSMGE, 2005). The cores obtained by this method vary in 

diameter from 3-20 cm and can penetrate several hundred meters beneath the seafloor. 

Other methods may be used during geotechnical surveys, including vibracorers, gravity corers, piston 

corers, box corers, and jet probes (Fugro, 2003; ISSMGE, 2005). These methods are not specifically 

analyzed here, but the extent of seafloor disturbance would be similar to that for geologic coring. 

Grab Sampling. Grab samplers are one of the most common methods of retrieving sediment 

samples from the seabed. A grab sampler is a device that collects a sample of the topmost layers of the 

seabed and benthic biota by bringing two steel clamshells together and cutting a bite from the soil. The 

grab sampler consists of two steel clamshells on a single or double pivot. The shells are brought together 

either by a powerful spring or powered hydraulic rams operated from the support vessel. The grab is 

lowered to the seabed and activated, either automatically or by remote control. The shells swivel together 

in a cutting action and by so doing remove a section of seabed. The sample is recovered to the ship for 

examination. Geotechnical investigations normally require large samples and favor the bigger hydraulic 

clamshell grab. These systems can retrieve samples of 0.35 m3

 (12.4 ft3) or 700 kg (1,543 lb). A typical 
Biological Assessment A-19

hydraulic grab sampler will weigh about half a tonne and can operate in water depths down to 200 m 

(656 ft). Typical sampling rates are between three and four grabs per hour. 

Bottom-Founded Monitoring Buoy Deployments 

While a meteorological tower has been the traditional device for characterizing wind conditions, 

several companies have expressed interest in installing meteorological buoys instead (USDOI, BOEM, 

2012a). This Programmatic EIS assumes that lessees would choose to install buoys instead of 

meteorological towers. These meteorological buoys would be anchored at fixed locations and regularly 

collect observations from many different atmospheric and oceanographic sensors. The scenario does not 

preclude the use of meteorological towers. Rather, it recognizes that experience to date has shown that 

operators facing the costs of installing, operating, and decommissioning a meteorological tower have 

selected against this method for buoys that have near-equivalent capability for obtaining the same data as 

towers. 

Meteorological buoys can vary in height, hull type, and anchoring method. The NOAA has 

successfully used discus-shaped and boat-shaped hull buoys for weather data collection for many years; 

these are the buoy types that would most likely be adapted for offshore wind data collection. A large 

discus buoy has a circular hull that ranges between 10 and 12 m (33 and 39 ft) in diameter and is designed 

for many years of service (U.S. Department of Commerce [USDOC], National Data Buoy Center 

[NDBC], 2011). The boat-shaped hull buoy (known as the “NOMAD”) is an aluminum-hulled, 

boat-shaped buoy that provides long-term survivability in severe seas (USDOC, NDBC, 2011). The 

largest meteorological buoys anticipated in this scenario would be similar to one proposed offshore New 

Jersey by Garden State Offshore Energy, which was a 30-m (100-ft) long spar-type buoy just over 2 m (6 

ft) in diameter (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). 

2.2.3.2. Geographic Scope of G&G Activities 

The general area proposed for site assessment activities for renewable energy projects in the Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2012-2020 will be a portion of the OCS offshore Delaware, 

Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Estimated areal extent of the 

OCS blocks where renewable energy activities may occur offshore each state is summarized in 

Table A-4. The distance from shore for a wind facility is generally defined at the outward limit of its 

economic viability, currently about 25 nmi (46.3 km) from shore or 100 m (328 ft) water depth. This is 

generally far enough offshore to minimize interactions with birds and visibility from shore. 

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area 

In the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area, BOEM published Requests for Interest for WEAs offshore 

Delaware (Federal Register, 2010a), Maryland (Federal Register, 2010b), and Virginia 

(Federal Register, 2011b). In January 2012, BOEM issued a final EA for these areas that included 

changes to the extent of the Maryland and Virginia WEAs (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). The revised WEAs 

are the ones included in the Programmatic EIS. 

The proposed Delaware WEA rests between the incoming and outgoing shipping routes for Delaware 

Bay and is made up of 11 whole OCS blocks and 16 partial blocks. The closest point to shore is 18.5 km 

(10 nmi) due east from Rehoboth Beach, Delaware. The area is approximately 122 nmi2

 (103,323 ac or 

41,813 ha). 

The Maryland WEA is defined as 9 whole OCS blocks and 11 partial blocks. The western and 

eastern boundaries of the WEA are located approximately 18.5 and 50 km (10 and 27 nmi), respectively, 

from Ocean City, Maryland. The area is approximately 94 nmi2

 (79,706 ac or 32,256 ha). 

The Virginia WEA consists of 22 whole OCS blocks and 4 partial blocks. The western and eastern 

boundaries of the area are approximately 33.4 and 68.5 km (18 and 37 nmi), respectively, from Virginia 

Beach, Virginia. The area is approximately 164 nmi2

 (138,788 ac or 56,165 ha). 
A-20 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Table A-4 

 

Locations and Areas for Renewable Energy Site Characterization and Assessment Activities in the Mid- and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas 

State Areaa OCS Block 

Equivalents Description 

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area 

Delaware 

122 nmi2

103,323 ac 

41,813 ha 

18 

The Delaware area rests between the incoming and outgoing 

shipping routes for Delaware Bay and is made up of 

11 whole OCS blocks and 16 partial blocks. The closest 

point to shore is approximately 10 nmi from Rehoboth 

Beach, DE. 

Maryland 

94 nmi2

 

79,706 ac 

32,256 ha 

14 

The Maryland area is defined as 9 whole OCS blocks and 

11 partial blocks. The western edge of the WEA is located 

approximately 10 nmi from the Ocean City, MD, coast and 

the eastern edge is approximately 27 nmi from the Ocean 

City, MD, coast.

Virginia 

164 nmi2

 

138,788 ac 

or 56,165 ha 

24 

The Virginia area consists of 22 whole OCS blocks and 

4 partial blocks. The western edge of the area is 

approximately 18 nmi from Virginia Beach, and the eastern 

edge is approximately 37 nmi from Virginia Beach. 

North Carolina 

510 nmi2

432,002 ac 

174,825 ha 

75 

In May 2011, North Carolina completed a screening exercise 

to yield a candidate area of 500 OCS lease blocks meeting 

their criteria for wind facility development. It was a 

screening exercise for potential environmental suitability and 

not an area proposed for wind development at this time. It is 

the expert judgment of BOEM staff that all 500 lease blocks 

would not be proposed for leasing, or actually leased to 

begin site assessment activities within the period covered by 

the Programmatic EIS. A more likely number is that 

75 lease blocks will eventually be assessed beginning in late 

2012 or early 2013.

South Atlantic Planning Area 

South Carolina 

204 nmi2

172,800 ac 

69,930 ha 

30 Estimated 30 lease blocks. 

Georgia 

204 nmi2

172,800 ac 

69,930 ha 

30 Estimated 30 lease blocks. 

Florida 

204 nmi2

172,800 ac 

69,930 ha 

30 Estimated 30 lease blocks. 

Atlantic Wind Connection Transmission Cable 

New Jersey, 

Delaware, 

Maryland, 

Virginia 

0.23 nmi2

198 ac 

80 ha 

-- Proposed transmission cable extending from southern New 

Jersey to Virginia. 

a

 Areal extents for Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia are based on Wind Energy Areas designated offshore these states. For the 

other states, the area is based on the total number of OCS block equivalents, multiplied by an area of 2,331 ha (5,760 ac) per 

lease block. Calculations for the Atlantic Wind Connection transmission cable are based on a length of 1,320 km (820 mi) and 

a right-of-way width of 61 m (200 ft). 
Biological Assessment A-21

In May 2011, North Carolina completed a screening exercise to yield a candidate area of 500 OCS 

lease blocks meeting their criteria for wind facility development (Thrive in North Carolina, 2011). The 

screening exercise was to determine potential environmental suitability, and the area is not proposed for 

wind development at this time. It is the expert judgment of BOEM staff that all 500 blocks would not be 

proposed for leasing or actually leased to begin site assessment activities within the period covered by the 

Programmatic EIS. Based upon continuing conversations between the State and Federal partners, a more 

likely number is 75 blocks that will eventually be assessed beginning in late 2012 or early 2013. Based 

on this assumption, the area would be approximately 510 nmi2

 (432,002 ac or 174,825 ha). 

South Atlantic Planning Area 

For the states adjacent to the South Atlantic Planning Area (South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida), 

BOEM has not published Requests for Interest, and there is no other specific information to estimate the 

activity level in these areas. For this analysis, the activity level has been estimated at 30 lease blocks 

offshore each of these states. The BOEM has received one plan for an MHK project proposal in the 

Atlantic, but it is located in the Straits of Florida Planning Area, outside the scope of the Programmatic 

EIS. It is difficult at this time to estimate the quantity and placement of MHK devices on a commercial 

scale within a lease block there. 

Atlantic Wind Connection Transmission Cable 

Atlantic Grid Holdings LLC has proposed to develop a high-voltage direct current transmission cable 

offshore the Atlantic coast running from northern New Jersey to Virginia in five phases (Atlantic Wind 

Connection, 2011a,b). The company has requested a right-of-way that is approximately 1,320 km 

(820 mi) in length, with as many as a dozen offshore platforms (substations). Under BOEM’s 

regulations, a right-of-way is 61 m (200 ft) in width, though the developer may elect to perform surveys 

on a somewhat wider area to facilitate rerouting should obstructions in the right-of-way be discovered. 

About 90 percent of the right-of-way is in Federal waters. Although some of the right-of-way is outside 

the BA Area, for this analysis the entire length is assumed to be within the BA Area. 

2.2.3.3. Projected Activity Levels 

Table A-5 summarizes the projected activity levels for G&G activities associated with renewable 

energy development from 2012-2020. 

To estimate HRG activity levels, BOEM assumed that geophysical surveys for shallow hazards and 

archaeological resources would be conducted at the same time using the finer line spacing required for 

archaeological resource assessment (30 m [98 ft]). Tie-lines would be run perpendicular to the track lines 

at a line spacing of 150 m (492 ft), which would result in 925 km (575 mi [500 nmi]) of HRG surveys per 

OCS block. It would take approximately 150 hr to survey one OCS block. In addition, a 16-km (10-mi) 

cable route to shore was assumed for each state, with a 300-m (984-ft) wide survey corridor requiring 

about 8 km (5 mi) or 1 hr of surveys per mile of cable. This assumption (1 hr per mile of cable) is also 

used for the Atlantic Wind Connection submarine transmission cable. In order to survey an entire 

renewable energy area and potential cable route, HRG surveys would have to be conducted by multiple 

vessels and/or over multiple years and potential cable routes. 

The number of bottom sampling/testing locations for geotechnical surveys was estimated by 

assuming that a sample would be collected at every potential turbine location. Spacing between wind 

turbines is typically determined on a case-by-case basis to minimize wake effect and is based on turbine 

size and rotor diameter. Offshore Denmark, a spacing of seven rotor diameters between units has been 

used. In the U.S., the Cape Wind project proposed a spacing of 6 by 9 rotor diameters. In some 

land-based settings, turbines are separated from each other by as much as 10 rotor diameters. Based on 

this range in spacing for a 3.6-megawatt (MW) (110-m rotor diameter) turbine and a 5-MW (130-m rotor 

diameter) turbine, it would be possible to place 14-45 turbines in one OCS block. The sampling numbers 

in Table A-5 are based on the assumption that a bottom sample would be collected at every potential 

turbine location in a WEA, at a density of 14-45 turbines per block. In addition, the Atlantic Wind 

Connection has proposed up to 12 transmission substations along the transmission line, and it is estimated 

that one or two bottom samples would be collected at each substation. 
A-22 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Table A-5 

 

Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Renewable Energy Site Characterization and Assessment in the Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 

Renewable 

Energy Area 

OCS 

Block 

Equivalents 

HRG Surveysa

(max km/hours)

Geotechnical Surveysb Bottomfounded 

Monitoring 

Buoys 

(min-max)

CPT Timing 

(min-max) 

Geologic 

Coring 

(min-max) 

Grab 

Samples 

(min-max) 

Delaware 18 16,730/2,710 252–810 252–810 252–810 1–2 2012-2016

Maryland 14 13,030/2,110 196–630 196–630 196–630 1–6 2012-2017

Virginia 24 22,280/3,610 336–1,080 336–1,080 336–1,080 1–6 2012-2017

North Carolina 75 69,455/11,260 1,050–3,375 1,050–3,375 1,050–3,375 1–6 2012-2017

Mid-Atlantic 

Subtotal 131 121,495/19,690 1,834–5,895 1,834–5,895 1,834–5,895 4–20 2012-2017

South Carolina 30 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2012-2017

Georgia 30 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2013-2018

Florida 30 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2013-2018

South Atlantic 

Subtotal 90 83,490/13,530 1,260–4,050 1,260–4,050 1,260–4,050 3–18 2012-2018

Atlantic 

Connection 

Transmission 

Cable

-- 6,600/820 12–24 12-24 12–24 -- 2012-2020

TOTAL 221 211,585/34,040 3,106–9,969 3,106–9,969 3,106–9,969 7–38 2012-2020

Abbreviations: HRG = high-resolution geophysical; CPT = cone penetrometer test. a

 HRG survey effort per block was assumed to be 925 km (500 nmi), requiring 150 hr to complete. Added 80 km (43 nmi) and 

10 hr for surveying one transmission cable route for each state. For the Atlantic Wind Connection transmission cable, the 

proposed route length of 1,320 km (820 mi) was multiplied by 5 km per kilometer of route. b

 Geotechnical survey effort was estimated to be 14-45 sampling locations per block based on the potential range of wind 

turbine densities per block (assuming one sampling location per turbine location). For the Atlantic Wind Connection 

transmission cable, assumed up to 12 substations with one or two sampling locations per substation. 

2.2.4. Marine Minerals Surveys 

Some G&G activities in support of marine mineral uses are expected to occur in the BA Area during 

the 2012-2020 time period. It should be noted that prospecting for and use of sand or gravel in State 

waters is under jurisdiction of the COE, and G&G surveys are permitted under their NWP Program. 

Surveys in State waters are not included in this BA. Exact G&G survey locations and durations are not 

known at this time. However, sand source areas (borrow areas) are typically located in water depths 

between 10 and 30 m (33 and 98 ft). The cost for transporting sand to shore for beach nourishment or 

coastal restoration is relatively expensive, so coastal planners first use resources in areas closest to shore. 

Much of the G&G survey activity is expected to occur within existing borrow sites offshore the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic states (see Figure A-3 for locations). 

2.2.4.1. Types of G&G Surveys 

Two general types of G&G surveys are expected to be conducted in support of marine mineral uses: 

HRG surveys and geotechnical surveys. The HRG surveys are conducted to obtain information about 

subseafloor conditions, shallow hazards, archaeological resources, and sensitive benthic habitats. Typical 

equipment used in HRG surveys includes single beam or multibeam depth sounders, magnetometers, 

side-scan sonars, and shallow or medium penetration subbottom profilers. Geotechnical surveys involve 

seafloor-disturbing activities such as vibracoring, geologic coring, and grab sampling, which are 

conducted to evaluate the quality of mineral resources for their intended use. 
Biological Assessment A-23

Figure A-3. Outer Continental Shelf Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas along the Mid-Atlantic and South 

Atlantic Coasts. 
A-24 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

Prospecting and Pre-Lease Geophysical Surveys. The HRG surveys are undertaken to identify 

OCS sand resources and any environmental resources, cultural resources, and shallow hazards that may 

exist in potential borrow areas. These surveys are comparable to those undertaken for renewable energy 

site characterization. Typical survey deployments may involve single beam or multibeam depth sounders, 

side-scan sonar, a magnetometer, and subbottom profilers (chirp or boomer). Rarely, marine resistivity 

systems (involving a towed current emitter and an array of receivers) may also be deployed. Geophysical 

survey equipment is typically deployed from a single relatively small (<20-30 m [65-98 ft]) vessel 

moving at <5 kn (9.3 km/hr). Survey areas over prospective borrow sites (3-10 km2

 [300-1,000 ha or 

741-2,471 ac]) or reconnaissance areas (on the order of 1-3 OCS blocks) are small in comparison to areas 

for oil and gas and renewable energy site characterization, and these surveys are generally completed in 

1-5 operational days. 

Prospecting HRG surveys are reconnaissance in nature and generally performed over larger areas to 

identify sand bodies and characterize the shallow geological framework and surficial geology of potential 

sand resources. These initial surveys are used to ascertain if sand or gravel resources are of a certain 

quality (sediment type) and quantity to warrant further exploration and may be conducted at line spacing 

between 150 and 600 m (492 and 1,969 ft). During the reconnaissance phase, limited geotechnical 

sampling often occurs along seismic lines and is used to validate geophysical data interpretations. 

In comparison, pre-lease (or design-level) HRG surveys are often performed once a relatively smaller 

area (or areas) is (are) identified as promising borrow area target(s). Pre-lease/design HRG surveys 

provide information on seafloor/subseafloor conditions, shallow hazards, archaeological resources, and 

sensitive benthic habitats. These HRG data may be used to prepare a dredging plan to efficiently and 

economically obtain the needed sand volumes while minimizing adverse environmental impacts. 

Depending on the quality of the initial reconnaissance geophysical data, these data may also be used to 

refine the borrow area and/or determine horizontal and vertical continuity of sedimentary units (in which 

case, the survey may be subject to BOEM authorization). These surveys may be conducted at 15-50 m 

(49-164 ft) line spacing. 

On-Lease Geophysical Surveys. On-lease HRG surveys are typically performed at the borrow area, 

or a sub-area of the borrow area, prior to and at specified intervals after dredging. A typical area for these 

surveys would be 1 mi2

 (259 ha or 640 ac). These surveys are used by BOEM to monitor the location and 

volumes of sand dredging, ensure observance of exclusion zones, and monitor the morphologic evolution 

of sand bodies and borrow pits. The most frequent geophysical surveys are bathymetric surveys; if 

sensitive cultural or benthic resources are in the immediate vicinity of dredging and cannot be avoided, 

side-scan sonar may also be deployed. Since survey areas are relatively small, on-lease geophysical 

surveys are generally completed in 1-2 days. 

Geotechnical Surveys 

Geological sampling, most commonly by means of vibracoring, geologic (rotary) coring, and/or grab 

sampling, is carried out to characterize the volume (footprint and thickness) and quality of a prospective 

sand body or lens. Geotechnical sampling is most frequently done in connection with reconnaissance 

geophysical surveying. Of these techniques, vibracoring is the most likely technique used to define the 

thickness and lateral extent of OCS sand bodies. Other sampling methods such as piston or box coring 

and jet probes are also used as part of geotechnical surveys but are not specifically analyzed here; the 

extent of seafloor disturbance would be similar to that of the other sediment sampling methods. 

Vibracoring generally is performed with a 7-cm (2.8-in.) diameter core barrel mounted on a platform 

or tripod support assembly and can penetrate sediments in the upper 15 m (50 ft). To penetrate dense 

sands and gravels, or to reach deeper into stiff clays, the corer’s barrel is vibrated, facilitating its 

penetration into the soil (Fugro, 2003; ISSMGE, 2005). A typical vibracore survey will obtain 

15-25 cores, approximately 6 m (20 ft) deep in a 1 mi2

 (640-ac or 259-ha) area. 

Geologic coring (standard rotary coring) varies in diameter from 3-20 cm (1.2-7.9 in.) and can 

penetrate several hundred meters beneath the seafloor. Because of the significantly greater expense, only 

one to two geologic cores would typically be drilled in a 1-mi2

 (640-ac or 259-ha) area. Methods have 

been described previously in Section 2.2.3.1. Grab sampling penetrates from a few inches to a few feet 
Biological Assessment A-25

below the seafloor and typically involves 30-40 grabs in the area of interest. Methods have been 

described previously in Section 2.2.3.1. 

Nearly all geotechnical sampling occurs from either relatively small- to medium-sized stationed 

vessels approximately 20 m (65 ft) in length or from work barges towed into place. A typical survey 

duration would be 3 days or less. The area of seabed disturbed by individual sampling events 

(e.g., collection of a core or grab sample) is estimated to range between 1 and 10 m2

 (11 and 108 ft2). 

Some operational platforms require anchoring for brief periods with small anchors; however, 

approximately 50 percent of deployments for this sampling work could involve a boat having dynamic 

positioning capability. Consequently, not all geological sampling necessarily includes bottom disturbance 

by anchoring. Jack-up barges and spudded work barges are seldom used. 

2.2.4.2. Geographic Scope of G&G Surveys 

The general area where prospecting, pre-lease site assessment, and on-lease G&G surveys in the 

Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas will likely occur from 2012-2020 is in water depths between 

10 and 30 m (33 and 98 ft) offshore Delaware south to Florida. Georgia is excluded because the State has 

never had an agreement with BOEM for joint study of OCS marine minerals resources and has never 

requested a non-competitive lease to use them onshore. Current technology in the U.S. hopper and 

cutterhead dredging fleet effectively limits dredging to less than 30-m (98-ft) water depths. Moreover, 

the cost for transporting sand located in offshore sand shoals and banks to shore is relatively expensive, 

ensuring coastal planners first use resources in areas closest to shore. 

Many OCS usable sand bodies are already known and have been surveyed (USDOI, BOEM, 2011c) 

and/or used previously. (See Figure A-3 for a map of existing borrow sites.) When existing sites are 

reused in the future, additional G&G surveying usually is not required, but may be conducted on a 

case-by-case basis if needed to detect archaeological resources and other bottom obstructions and to 

sample the area to see if it can provide the quantity and quality of sand required. Some projects are likely 

to draw from existing borrow sites over and over again, whereas others may use new areas yet to be 

drawn from. For this analysis, specific G&G survey locations are not identified. However, based on past 

usage, a few existing borrow sites such as Sandbridge Shoal offshore Virginia and the Canaveral Shoals 

and Jacksonville borrow sites offshore Florida are likely to be reused, perhaps accounting for 

40-50 percent of future projects. 

2.2.4.3. Projected Activity Levels 

The Marine Minerals Program has identified beach nourishment and coastal restoration projects that 

are most likely to require use of OCS sand resources over the next 10 years. Estimated survey levels are 

summarized in Table A-6 (for HRG surveys) and Table A-7 (for geotechnical surveys). The proposed 

activity scenario is based on an examination of past trends in OCS G&G and leasing activity and 

anticipated OCS leasing requests, as well as projections of other possible uses as existing borrow areas 

are nearing depletion. Note that most of G&G prospecting and pre-lease/design surveys have already 

been completed for most projects. 
Table A-6 Projected Levels of High-Resolution Geophysical (HRG) Surveys for OCS Sand Borrow Projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic Pla

Year Project State Cycle Volume (cubic yd) Depth (m) Distance Offshore (km) Prospecting HRGa

(line km)

Pre-Lease HRGa

(line km)

(lower 

bound)

(upper 

bound)

(lower 

bound)

(upper 

bound)

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area

2012-2013 

Wallops Island VA 3,200,000 9-24 18-20 0 0 0 0 

Fort Story/Dam Neck VA 1,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 

Sandbridge VA 2,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 

2014-2016 

Rehoboth/Dewey DE 360,000 9-20 5 26 642 47 235 

Bethany/S. Bethany DE 480,000 9-20 5 34 856 63 313 

Atlantic Coast of Maryland MD 800,000 12-16 12-16 0 0 104 522 

Wallops Island VA 806,000 9-24 18-20 0 0 0 0 

Sandbridge VA 2,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 

West Onslow/North Topsail NC 866,000 13-15 6-9 0 0 0 0 

Bogue Banks NC 500,000 13-15 3-5 0 0 65 327 

2017-2020 

Rehoboth/Dewey DE 360,000 9-20 4.8 0 0 0 0 

Bethany/S. Bethany DE 480,000 9-20 4.8 0 0 0 0 

Atlantic Coast of Maryland MD 800,000 12-16 12-16 0 0 0 0 

Surf City/North Topsail NC 2,640,000 12-15 5-8 0 0 0 0 

Wrightsville Beach NC 800,000 N/A N/A 34 856 104 522 

South Atlantic Planning Area

2012-2013 Patrick Air Force Base FL 310,000 3-14 3-8 0 0 0 0 2014-2016 

Grand Strand SC 2,300,000 7-13 4-7 0 0 0 0 

Brevard County North Reach FL 516,000 3-14 3-8 0 0 0 0 

Brevard County Mid-Reach FL 900,000 3-15 3-8 0 0 0 0 

Brevard County South Reach FL 850,000 3-16 3-8 0 0 0 0 

2017-2020 

Folly Beach SC 2,000,000 12-14 5 0 0 261 1306 

Duval County FL 1,500,000 14-19 10-11 0 0 0 0 

St. Johns FL N/A N/A 3-6 N/A N/A N/A N/A 

Flagler FL N/A N/A 3-5 N/A N/A N/A N/A 

TOTAL 

2012-2020 

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area 17,092,000 94 2,354 383 1,919 

South Atlantic Planning Area 8,376,000 0 0 261 1,306 

Unknown Projects in Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas 8,000,000 N/A N/A 34 856 209 1,045 

Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas 33,468,000 128 3,210 853 4,270 

N/A = Not available. a Prospecting and pre-lease HRG involves the use of subbottom profiler, side-scan sonar, bathymetry (depth sounders), and magnetometer. b On-lease typically involves only a bathymetry (depth sounders). 
Biological Assessment A-27 

Table A-7 

 

Projected Levels of Geotechnical Surveys for OCS Sand Borrow Projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning 

Areas, 2012-2020 

Type of Geotechnical 

Sampling

Number of 

Deployments

Number of Samples 

Per Deployment Number of Samples 

Vibracoring 6-24 15-25 90-600 

Geologic coring 1-4 1-2 1-8 

Grab sampling 2-8 30-40 60-320 

3. SPECIES AND CRITICAL HABITAT DESCRIPTIONS 

Several species that are listed as endangered or threatened under the ESA may be affected by the 

proposed action (Table A-8). Under the ESA, a species is considered endangered if it is “in danger of 

extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” A species is considered threatened if it “is 

likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant 

portion of its range” (15 U.S.C. 1532). Species currently listed as endangered or threatened include seven 

marine mammals, five sea turtles, three birds, and three fishes. 

This analysis also includes two “candidate” fish species (alewife and blueback herring) and one 

“candidate” bird species (red knot). A candidate species is any species that is undergoing a status review 

that has been announced in a Federal Register notice (USDOC, NMFS, 2011a). 

Critical habitat has been designated within or near the BA Area for two listed marine mammal 

species: the North Atlantic right whale and the Florida manatee. North Atlantic right whale critical 

habitat includes areas north of the BA Area (Cape Cod Bay and along the Great South Channel) and along 

a segment of nearshore waters within the BA Area off Georgia and northeast Florida (Section 3.1.2.3). 

Florida manatee critical habitat adjacent to the BA Area includes select inshore waterways and 

embayments along the northeast Florida coast (Section 3.1.8.3). Critical habitat for one listed bird 

species, the piping plover, has been designated along the coasts of North Carolina, South Carolina, 

Georgia, and Florida. There are no critical habitats in the BA Area or surrounding areas for listed sea 

turtle or fish species. 

3.1. MARINE MAMMALS

3.1.1. Introduction 

In the waters of the BA Area, there are 38 species of marine mammals representing three taxonomic 

orders: Cetacea (baleen whales, toothed whales, dolphins, and porpoises), Sirenia (manatee), and 

Carnivora (true seals) (Waring et al., 2010). All marine mammals are protected under the MMPA. Seven 

species known to occur within the BA Area are further protected under the ESA (USDOC, NMFS, 

2011b). These include five baleen whales (North Atlantic right whale, blue whale, fin whale, sei whale, 

and humpback whale), one toothed whale (sperm whale), and the Florida subspecies of the West Indian 

manatee (Waring et al., 2010; USDOC, NMFS, 2011b). 

The following sections provide a brief description of each listed marine mammal species, including 

its current status, distribution, and behavior. Marine mammal species are further identified by the MMPA 

stock present within the BA Area and the status of the stock. The MMPA defines the term stock as a 

group of marine mammals of the same species or smaller taxa in a common spatial arrangement that 

interbreed when mature (50 CFR 216.3). The text and Table A-8 also indicate the functional hearing 

group for each marine mammal species, based on Southall et al. (2007). Marine mammal hearing is 

discussed further in Section 3.1.9. 
Table A-8 Listed and Candidate Species Considered in this Biological Assessment Common Name Species MMPA Stock (and Stock Status)1 ESA Status2 Critical Habitat in or Near the BA Area 

MARINE MAMMALS Order Cetacea 

Suborder Mysticeti (Baleen Whales)

North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis Western Atlantic (S) E Yes (Fig. A-5) Blue whale 

Balaenoptera musculus Western North Atlantic (S) E None 

Fin whale 

Balaenoptera physalus Western North Atlantic (S) E None 

Sei whale 

Balaenoptera borealis Nova Scotia (S) E None 

Humpback whale 

Megaptera novaeangliae Gulf of Maine (S) E None 

Suborder Odontoceti (Toothed Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises)

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus North Atlantic (S) E None 

Order Sirenia 

West Indian 

manatee (Florida subspecies) Trichechus manatus latirostris Florida (S) E Yes (Fig. A-10) 

SEA TURTLES

Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta Not applicable

T5 None 

Green turtle Chelonia mydas Not applicable T/E7 None Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Not applicable

E None 

Kemp’s ridley turtle 

Lepidochelys kempii Not applicable

E None 

Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea Not applicable E None 

BIRDS

Roseate tern Sterna dougallii Not applicable E None Bermuda petrel Pterodroma cahow Not applicable

E None 

Piping plover Charadrius melodus Not applicable

T None 

Red knot Calidris canutus Not applicable

C None 

FISHES

Smalltooth sawfish Pristis pectinata Not applicable E None Shortnose sturgeon 

Acipenser brevirostrum Not applicable

E None 

Atlantic sturgeon 

Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus Not applicable E/T8 None 

Alewife 

Alosa 

pseudoharengus Not applicable

C None 

Blueback herring Alosa aestivalis Not applicable

C None 

1 MMPA = Marine Mammal Protection Act (S = strategic stock). 2 ESA = Endangered Species Act (E = endangered; T = threatened; C = candidate). 3 Functional marine mammal hearing groups and specific auditory ranges (Adapted from Southall et al. 2007). L = Low-Frequency Cetacean (7 Hz-22 kHz)

(150 Hz-160 kHz); H = High-Frequency Cetacean (200 Hz-180 kHz); P = Pinniped In Water (75 Hz-75 kHz). 4 Manatee hearing is not addressed by Southall et al. (2007). Based on review of marine mammal hearing, manatee hearing is similar to that of phocid pinnipeds except 

5 The Northwest Atlantic Distinct Population Segment (DPS) of the loggerhead turtle is currently listed as threatened (Federal Register, 2011c). 6 Hearing capabilities of sea turtles are not well documented. Sea turtles appear to be low frequency specialists, with best hearing projected to occur within the frequen7 The green turtle is threatened, except for the Florida breeding population, which is endangered (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c). 8 Five DPSs of Atlantic sturgeon have been listed under the ESA (Federal Register, 2012b,c). The New York Bight, Chesapeake Bay, Carolina, and South Atlantic D

could be represented within the BA area. The Gulf of Maine DPS is listed as threatened and is not likely to be present in the BA area. 

Sources: Southall et al. (2007); Waring et al. (2010). 
Biological Assessment A-29

3.1.2. North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) 

3.1.2.1. Species Overview 

The North Atlantic right whale is the only member of the family Balaenidae found in North Atlantic 

waters. It is medium in size when compared to other baleen whale species, with adult size ranging from 

14-17 m (45-55 ft) (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). Females are larger than males. Right whales may be 

distinguished from other baleen whale species by their black color and stocky body; large head size with a 

strongly bowed lower jaw; thickened, light-colored patches of epidermis called callosities; the absence of 

a dorsal fin; and short, broad, paddle-shaped flippers (Jefferson et al., 2008). 

The North Atlantic right whale is usually found within waters of the western North Atlantic between 

20° and 60° N latitude. Generally, individual right whales undergo seasonal coastal migrations from 

summer feeding grounds off eastern Canada and the U.S. northeast coast to winter calving grounds off the 

U.S. southeast coast (Figure A-4). Recent sightings data also show that a few North Atlantic right 

whales range as far as Newfoundland, the Labrador Basin, and southeast of Greenland (Waring et al., 

2010). Research results suggest the existence of six major congregation areas for North Atlantic right 

whales: the coastal waters of the southeastern U.S., the Great South Channel, Georges Bank/Gulf of 

Maine, Cape Cod and Massachusetts Bays, the Bay of Fundy, and the Scotian Shelf (Waring et al., 2010). 

Movements of individuals within and between these congregation areas are extensive, and data show 

distant excursions, including into deep water off the continental shelf (Mate et al., 1997; Baumgartner and 

Mate, 2005). 

North Atlantic right whales are usually observed in groups of less than 12 individuals, and most often 

as single individuals or pairs. Larger groups may be observed in feeding or breeding areas (Jefferson et 

al., 2008). Right whales feed on zooplankton (e.g., calanoid copepods) generally by skimming through 

concentrated patches of prey at or below the sea surface. Grouping of individual right whales within their 

congregation areas is likely to be a function of acceptable prey distribution, since right whales must locate 

and exploit extremely dense patches of zooplankton to feed efficiently (Mayo and Marx, 1990). These 

dense zooplankton patches are likely a primary characteristic of the spring, summer, and fall right whale 

habitats (Kenney et al., 1986, 1995). 

The typical reproductive cycle in mature female right whales is 3 years between births. The age at 

sexual maturity is estimated at 9 or 10 years, and gestation length is about 12 months; calves nurse for 

almost 12 months. 

Threats to the North Atlantic right whale population within the BA Area include commercial fishing 

interactions, vessel strikes, underwater noise, habitat degradation, and predators (USDOC, NMFS, 2005; 

Waring et al., 2010). Ship collisions and fishing gear entanglements are the most common anthropogenic 

causes of mortality in western North Atlantic right whales, judging from observations of stranded animals 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2005). 

Of 45 confirmed deaths of western North Atlantic right whales between 1970 and 1999, 16 are known 

to have been caused by ship strikes, and two additional collisions were judged as possibly fatal (Knowlton 

and Kraus, 2001). There were two known ship strike right whale deaths in 2001, one in 2002, one in 

2003, and two in 2004 (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). According to Waring et al. (2010), for the period 2004 

through 2008, the minimum rate of annual mortality and serious injury to right whales from ship strikes 

averaged 2.0 per year. 

Kraus (1990) estimated that 57 percent of right whales in the western North Atlantic bear scars and 

injuries indicating fishing gear entanglement; the figure was revised to 61.6 percent by more recent 

analysis (Hamilton et al., 1998). Sources of interaction mainly lie with gillnets, lobster pots, seine nets, 

and fish weirs, which, with the exception of gillnet fisheries, are largely not monitored (USDOC, NMFS, 

2005). According to Waring et al. (2010), for the period 2004 through 2008, the minimum rate of annual 

mortality and serious injury to right whales due to fishery entanglement averaged 0.8 per year. 

The North Atlantic right whale is considered to fall within the low-frequency cetacean functional 

hearing group (Southall et al., 2007). 
A-30 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-4. North Atlantic Right Whale Seasonal Distribution and Habitat Use. Source: NMFS 

Southeast Regional Office, St. Petersburg, Florida (http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov). 
Biological Assessment A-31

3.1.2.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The North Atlantic right whale is considered one of the most critically endangered whales (Jefferson 

et al., 2008). It is listed as endangered under the ESA, and the western Atlantic stock is classified as 

strategic because the average annual human-related mortality and serious injury exceeds the Potential 

Biological Removal (PBR) level (Waring et al., 2010). The minimum population size is estimated at 

approximately 361 individuals (Waring et al., 2010). 

North Atlantic right whales undergo seasonal coastal migrations from summer feeding grounds off 

eastern Canada and the U.S. northeast coast to winter calving grounds off the U.S. southeast coast 

(Figure A-4). The winter calving grounds and a segment of the migratory corridor are located within the 

BA Area. Most calving takes place in shallow coastal waters offshore Georgia and Florida between 

December and March (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). Some mother-calf pairs may use the area from Cape Fear, 

North Carolina, to South Carolina as a wintering/calving area as well (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). Although 

the main feeding grounds are located offshore Canada and the northeastern U.S., right whales may also 

feed, at least opportunistically, while migrating. Waters offshore the Mid-Atlantic states have not been 

considered to include “high use” areas, yet the whales clearly move through these waters regularly. The 

seasonal movements of the North Atlantic right whale among congregation areas and within the BA Area 

are still poorly understood. Data suggest that not all reproductively active females return to calving and 

nursery grounds each year, and additional wintering and summering grounds may exist in unsurveyed 

locations of the western North Atlantic (Waring et al., 2010). 

3.1.2.3. Critical Habitat 

In 1994, three critical habitats for the North Atlantic right whale were designated by NMFS along the 

eastern coast of the U.S. (Federal Register, 1994). These include Cape Cod Bay/Massachusetts Bay, the 

Great South Channel, and selected areas off the southeastern U.S. (Figure A-5). In 2009, NMFS received 

a petition to expand the critical habitat to include the U.S. waters of the entire Gulf of Maine, and the 

agency is continuing its ongoing rulemaking process for revisions to the critical habitat rule (Federal 

Register, 2010c; M. Minton, NMFS Northeast Regional Office, pers. comm. to S. Viada, CSA 

International, Inc., April 3, 2012). The NMFS has also initiated a 5-year status review of North Atlantic 

and North Pacific right whales (Federal Register, 2012a). 

In addition to critical habitat, Seasonal Management Areas (SMAs) for right whales have been 

designated to reduce ship strikes (Figure A-5). All vessels greater than 19.8 m (65 ft) in overall length 

must operate at speeds of 10 kn or less within these areas during specific time periods (Table A-9) 

(USDOC, NOAA, 2011). 
A-32 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-5. North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat and Seasonal Management Areas. Source: 

50 CFR 224.105. 
Biological Assessment A-33

Table A-9 

 

Designated U.S. and Canadian Seasonal Management Areas for the North Atlantic Right Whale 

Regional Area Individual Areas Concerns Period of Activity 

Northeast U.S. Seasonal 

Management Areas 

Cape Cod Bay Feeding Area January 1–May 15

Off Race Point Feeding Area March 1–April 30

Great South Channel Feeding Area April 1–July 31

Mid-Atlantic U.S. Seasonal 

Management Areas 

Block Island Sound Migratory Route and 

Calving Grounds

November 1–April 30 

Ports of New York/ 

New Jersey 

Entrance to Delaware Bay

Entrance to Chesapeake Bay

Ports of Morehead City and 

Beaufort, NC 

Wilmington, NC to 

Brunswick, GA 

Southeast U.S. Seasonal 

Management Area Central GA to northeast FL Calving and Nursery 

Grounds November 15–April 15 

Grand Manan Basin Critical 

Habitat Area 

New Brunswick and 

Nova Scotia, Canada Feeding Area 

June–December Roseway Basin Critical 

Habitat Area South of Nova Scotia, Canada Feeding Area 

3.1.3. Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) 

3.1.3.1. Species Overview 

The blue whale is the largest cetacean, although its size range overlaps with that of fin and sei whales. 

The northern hemisphere subspecies (B. m. musculus) is known to occur within the BA Area. Most adults 

of this subspecies are 23-27 m (75-90 ft) in length. The blue whale, other balaenopterid whales, and the 

humpback whale are constituents of the rorqual baleen whale group. Species within this group possess a 

number of modifications of the cervico-thoracic region that enable them to engulf large volumes of water 

to filter for prey. The most conspicuous of these modifications is a series of longitudinal folds or 

corrugations of skin running from below the mouth back toward the navel (Lambertsen, 1983). 

Blue whales are usually observed alone or in pairs (Jefferson et al., 2008). Scattered aggregations 

may develop on prime feeding grounds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence offshore Canada. Their diet consists 

primarily of krill (euphausiids), and their depth distribution is usually associated with feeding (Sears, 

2002). Blue whales reach sexual maturity at 5-15 years, and mating in the northern hemisphere occurs in 

late fall and throughout the winter, although no specific breeding ground has been discovered (Sears, 

2002). In general, the blue whale’s range and seasonal distribution is governed by the availability of prey 

and open water for feeding (USDOC, NMFS, 1998a). 

Threats for North Atlantic blue whales are poorly known but may include ship strikes, pollution, 

entanglement in fishing gear, and long-term changes in climate (which could affect the abundance of their 

prey) (USDOC, NMFS, 1998a). There are no recent confirmed records of mortality or serious injury to 

blue whales in the BA Area. However, in March 1998 a dead 20-m (66-ft) male blue whale was brought 

into Rhode Island waters on the bow of a tanker. The cause of death was determined to be ship strike. At 

least one blue whale found dead in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in recent years apparently died from the 

effects of entanglement in fishing gear (USDOC, NMFS, 1998a). The lack of more evidence that blue 

whales become entrapped or entangled in fishing gear in the western North Atlantic may be due to 

incomplete reporting. In addition, the large size of the animals makes it more likely that blue whales will 

break through nets or carry gear away with them. In the latter case, undetected mortality may result from 
A-34 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

starvation due to interference with feeding, as sometimes occurs in humpback and North Atlantic right 

whales. 

Blue whales are categorized within the low-frequency cetacean functional hearing group 

(7 Hz-22 kHz) (Southall et al., 2007). 

3.1.3.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The blue whale is considered by the NMFS as an occasional visitor in U.S. Atlantic EEZ waters, 

which may represent the current southern limit of its feeding range (Waring et al., 2010). In the western 

North Atlantic Ocean, the blue whale’s range extends from the Arctic to Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 

although it is frequently sighted off eastern Canada (e.g., Newfoundland) (Waring et al., 2010). Yochem 

and Leatherwood (1985) report an occurrence of this species as far south as Florida and the Gulf of 

Mexico, although sightings within these areas and the BA Area are considered uncommon or rare. 

The northern hemisphere subspecies of the blue whale is listed as an endangered species. Animals in 

the western North Atlantic are placed within the Western North Atlantic stock, which is classified as 

strategic because the species is listed as endangered under the ESA (Waring et al., 2010). The NMFS has 

not developed a stock size estimate for the Western North Atlantic blue whale stock (Waring et al., 2010). 

Currently, the number of blue whales in the North Atlantic Ocean is estimated at approximately 

1,000 individuals (International Whaling Commission, 2011a). 

3.1.3.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for blue whales within the western North Atlantic, including 

waters of the BA Area. 

3.1.4. Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) 

3.1.4.1. Species Overview 

The fin whale is the second largest species of whale (USDOC, NMFS, 2010a). Some authors 

recognize separate northern and southern hemisphere subspecies, although this designation is not widely 

accepted (Jefferson et al., 2008). Adult fin whales in the northern hemisphere may reach a length of 

approximately 24 m (80 ft). 

Fin whales are observed singly or in groups of 2-7 individuals. In the North Atlantic, fin whales are 

often seen in large mixed-species feeding aggregations including humpback whales, minke whales, and 

Atlantic white-sided dolphins (Jefferson et al., 2008). Fin whales feed on zooplankton (euphausiids and 

copepods); small schooling fishes such as capelin, herring, mackerel, sandlance, and blue whiting; and 

squids (Jefferson et al., 2008). The USDOC, NMFS (2010a) reports summer feeding grounds mostly 

between 41°20' and 51°00' N latitude (shore to 1,829 m [6,000 ft]). Fin whale mating and births occur in 

the winter (November-March), with reproductive activity peaking in December and January. Hain et al. 

(1992) suggested that calving takes place during October to January in latitudes of the U.S. Mid-Atlantic 

region. 

Fin whales are categorized within the low-frequency cetacean functional hearing group 

(Southall et al., 2007). 

3.1.4.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The fin whale is found primarily within temperate and polar latitudes (Figure A-6). Seasonal 

migration patterns within its range remain undetermined (Waring et al., 2010). The fin whale was, 

however, the most common whale species sighted in northwest Atlantic waters from Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina, to Maine during surveys conducted from 1978 through 1982, with fin whales representing 

46 percent of all sightings (USDOC, NMFS, 2010a; Waring et al., 2010). 

Fin whales off the eastern U.S. and eastern Canada are believed to constitute a single stock (Western 

North Atlantic stock) under the present International Whaling Commission scheme (Waring et al., 2010). 

The species is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The Western North Atlantic stock is 
Biological Assessment A-35

classified as strategic because of its listing under the ESA. The current estimated population size of this 

stock is 3,985 individuals (Waring et al., 2010). 

3.1.4.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the fin whale (USDOC, NMFS, 2010a). 

3.1.5. Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis) 

3.1.5.1. Species Description and Status 

The sei whale is the third largest whale (following the blue and fin whales), with adult lengths 

ranging from 16-20 m (52-66 ft). It is very similar in appearance to fin and Bryde’s whales. 

There are two suggested sei whale stocks within the northwest Atlantic: the Nova Scotia stock and 

the Labrador Sea stock. Differentation of these two stocks is problematic, but Waring et al. (2010) 

provisionally adopted the Nova Scotia stock definition to represent all sei whales within the BA Area 

(Waring et al., 2010). The range of the Nova Scotia stock includes the continental shelf waters of the 

northeastern U.S. and extends northeastward to south of Newfoundland. 

The sei whale is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The Nova Scotia stock is classified as 

strategic because of its listing under the ESA. 
A-36 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-6. Distribution of Fin Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and Southeast 

Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during Summer 1998, 1999, 2002, 

2004, 2006, and 2007. Isobaths are the 100-m (328-ft), 1,000-m (3,280-ft), and 4,000-m 

(13,124-ft) Depth Contours. Source: Waring et al. (2010). 
Biological Assessment A-37

Sei whales are largely planktivorous, feeding primarily on euphausiids and copepods, but they will 

feed on small schooling fishes as well (Jefferson et al., 2008; Waring et al., 2010). Similar to right 

whales, they generally skim copepods, though they will lunge and gulp on occasion like other rorqual 

species. Groups of two to five individuals are most commonly seen. Calving occurs in midwinter within 

the low latitude portions of the species’ range (Jefferson et al., 2008). Specific breeding and calving areas 

have not been identified. 

Sei whales are categorized within the low-frequency cetacean functional hearing group (Southall et 

al., 2007). 

3.1.5.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The sei whale is a cosmopolitan and highly migratory species that is found from temperate to 

subpolar regions, but it appears to be more restricted to mid-latitude temperate zones than other rorquals 

(Balaenoptera and Megaptera novaeangliae) (Reeves et al., 2002; Shirihai and Jarrett, 2006; Jefferson et 

al., 2008). Sei whales are commonly sighted off Nova Scotia, the Gulf of Maine, and Georges Bank in 

spring and summer (Waring et al., 2010). Data suggest a major portion of the Nova Scotia stock is 

centered in waters north of the BA Area, at least during the feeding season (Waring et al., 2010). Within 

this range, the sei whale is often found near the continental shelf edge region. This general offshore 

pattern of sei whale distribution is disrupted during episodic incursions into more shallow and inshore 

waters (Figure A-7). There is no current population estimate of sei whales in the western North Atlantic 

Ocean, though survey data suggest that the Nova Scotia stock size is around 386 individuals (Waring et 

al., 2010). 

3.1.5.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the sei whale (Waring et al., 2010). 

3.1.6. Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) 

3.1.6.1. Species Overview 

The humpback whale is medium in size, and adults range from 15-18 m (50-60 ft) in length. The 

body is more robust than other rorqual whales, and they are distinguished from all other large whale 

species by their long flippers, which are approximately one-third the length of the body. 

Distinct geographic forms of humpback whales are not widely recognized, though genetic evidence 

suggests there are several subspecies (e.g., North Atlantic, Southern Hemisphere, and North Pacific 

subspecies) (USDOC, NMFS, 1991; Waring et al., 2010). In 2000, the NMFS Atlantic Stock Assessment 

Team reclassified western North Atlantic humpback whales as a separate and discrete management stock 

(Gulf of Maine stock) (Waring et al., 2010). The current population estimate of the Gulf of Maine stock 

is 847 individuals (Waring et al., 2010). 

The humpback whale is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The Gulf of Maine stock is 

classified as strategic because of its listing under the ESA. 

Humpback whales feed on krill and small schooling fishes (Jefferson et al., 2008). In New England 

waters, humpback whales prey upon herring, sand lance, and euphausiids (Paquet et al., 1997). 

Humpback whales use unique behaviors, such as bubble nets, bubble clouds, and flickering their flukes 

and flippers, to herd and capture prey (USDOC, NMFS, 1991). They are also one of the few species of 

baleen whales to utilize cooperative feeding techniques. The age at sexual maturity is between 4 and 

6 years (USDOC, NMFS, 1991), and the gestation length is 11 months; calves are nursed for 

6-10 months. 

Humpback whales are categorized within the low-frequency cetacean functional hearing group 

(Southall et al., 2007). 
A-38 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-7. Distribution of Sei Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and Southeast 

Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during Summer 1998, 1999, 2002, 

2004, 2006, and 2007. Isobaths are the 100-m (328-ft), 1,000-m (3,280-ft), and 4,000-m 

(13,124-ft) Depth Contours. Source: Waring et al. (2010). 
Biological Assessment A-39

3.1.6.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The humpback whale is a cosmopolitan species that may be found from the equator to subpolar 

latitudes (less common in the Arctic). Some individuals are found year-around at certain locations 

(e.g., Gulf of Maine), while others display highly migratory patterns. Humpback whales are generally 

found within continental shelf areas and oceanic islands. Most humpback whales in the western North 

Atlantic Ocean migrate to the West Indies (e.g., Dominican Republic) to mate; however, some whales do 

not make the annual winter migration (Waring et al., 2010). Sightings data show that humpback whales 

traverse coastal waters of the southeastern U.S., including the BA Area (Waring et al., 2010) 

(Figure A-8). 

Swingle et al. (1993) and Barco et al. (2002) reported humpback sightings off Delaware Bay and 

Chesapeake Bay during the winter, which suggests the Mid-Atlantic region may also serve as wintering 

grounds for some Atlantic humpback whales. This region has also been suggested as an important area 

for juvenile humpbacks (Wiley et al., 1995). 

3.1.6.3. Critical Habitat 

No critical habitat has been designated for the humpback whale. 

3.1.7. Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 

3.1.7.1. Species Overview 

The sperm whale is the largest toothed cetacean, with adult lengths ranging from 12-18 m (40-60 ft). 

They are also the most sexually dimorphic whale in body length and weight (Whitehead, 2002). The 

most distinctive feature of the sperm whale is a massive and specialized nasal complex. 

Sperm whales within the northern Atlantic are classified in one stock (North Atlantic stock). It 

remains unresolved whether the northwestern Atlantic population is discrete from the northeastern 

Atlantic population (Waring et al., 2010). The current population estimate of the North Atlantic stock is 

4,804 individuals (Waring et al., 2010). 

The sperm whale is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The Northern Atlantic stock is 

classified as strategic because of its listing under the ESA. 

Sperm whales are cosmopolitan in their distribution, ranging from tropical latitudes to pack ice edges 

in both hemispheres (Jefferson et al., 2008). Generally, only male sperm whales venture to the extreme 

low latitudes. Sperm whales are usually found in medium to large “family unit” groups of 20-30 females 

and their young. Young males leave their natal unit group at an age of 4-21 years and form loose 

aggregations called “bachelor schools” with other males of approximately the same age. Older males are 

usually solitary (Whitehead, 2002). Sperm whales feed primarily on cephalopods (squids and octopuses) 

and demersal and mesopelagic fishes (Whitehead, 2002; Jefferson et al., 2008; USDOC, NMFS, 2010b). 

The age at sexual maturity is much older than for most whales; age of sexual maturity is between 

7-13 years for females and in the twenties for males (USDOC, NMFS, 2010b). Their gestation length is 

between 12-15 months, and lactation extends almost 2 years. The lifespan has been estimated to be 

60 years or more (Rice, 1989). 

Sperm whales are categorized within the mid-frequency cetacean functional hearing group (Southall 

et al., 2007). 
A-40 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-8. Distribution of Humpback Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during Summer 1998, 

1999, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2007. Isobaths are the 100-m (328-ft), 1,000-m (3,280-ft), and 

4,000-m (13,124-ft) Depth Contours. Source: Waring et al. (2010). 
Biological Assessment A-41

3.1.7.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

In the western North Atlantic, there appears to be a distinct seasonal distribution pattern (Waring et 

al., 2010). In winter, sperm whales concentrate east and northeast of Cape Hatteras. In spring, the 

distribution center moves northward to waters east of Delaware and Virginia but spreads throughout the 

central portion of the Mid-Atlantic Bight to the southern portion of Georges Bank. In summer, the 

distribution also includes continental slope and shelf waters as far as southern New England 

(Figure A-9). In the fall, sperm whale occurrence on the continental shelf and shelf edge is highest in the 

Mid-Atlantic Bight. 

According to Waring et al. (2010), the current sperm whale population estimate for the western North 

Atlantic (U.S. east coast) is 4,804 individuals. This estimate includes 2,697 individuals for the northern 

U.S. Atlantic and 2,197 individuals for the southern U.S. Atlantic. 

3.1.7.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no critical habitat for the sperm whale (USDOC, NMFS, 2010b). 

3.1.8. Florida Manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) 

3.1.8.1. Species Overview 

The Florida subspecies of the West Indian manatee is the only sirenian that occurs along the eastern 

coast of the U.S. The average adult West Indian manatee ranges from 3-4 m (10-13 ft) in length and 

between 362 and 544 kg (800 and 1,200 lb) in weight (USDOI, FWS, 2001, 2007). 

The Florida manatee is currently listed as endangered under the ESA and a “strategic stock” under the 

MMPA. The species is also protected under the Florida Manatee Sanctuary Act. The majority of the 

Atlantic population of the Florida manatee is located in eastern Florida and southern Georgia (Waring et 

al., 2010) and managed within four distinct regional management units: Atlantic Coast (northeast Florida 

to the Florida Keys), Upper St. Johns River (St. Johns River, south of Palakta), Northwest (Florida 

Panhandle to Hernando County), and Southwest (Pasco County to Monroe County) (USDOI, FWS, 2001, 

2007). The Atlantic Coast unit is the most relevant to the BA Area. 

Manatees are herbivorous, feeding on a wide array of aquatic (freshwater and marine) plants such as 

water hyacinths and marine seagrasses. They generally prefer shallow seagrass beds, especially areas 

with access to deep channels. Preferred coastal and riverine habitats (e.g., near the mouths of coastal 

rivers) are also used for resting, mating, and calving (USDOI, FWS, 2001, 2007). 

Manatee hearing is discussed in Section 3.1.9.3. The data suggest that manatees have hearing 

capabilities that are generally similar to phocid pinnipeds, with functional hearing between about 250 Hz 

and ~90 kHz. 

3.1.8.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Within the northwestern Atlantic, manatees occur in coastal marine, brackish, and freshwater areas 

from Florida to Virginia, with occasional extralimital sightings as far north as Rhode Island (Jefferson et 

al., 2008). Because they have little tolerance for cold, they are generally restricted to inland and coastal 

waters of peninsular Florida during the winter, where they shelter in or near sources of warm water 

(springs, industrial effluents, and other warm-water sites) (Waring et al., 2010). The Atlantic Coast 

regional management unit is the most relevant to the BA Area. The best population estimate of Florida 

manatees is 3,802 individuals (Waring et al., 2010). 

3.1.8.3. Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat was designated for the Florida manatee on September 24, 1976 (Federal Register, 

1976) and includes inland waterways in four northeastern Florida coastal counties (Brevard, Duval, 

St. Johns, and Nassau) adjacent to the BA Area (Figure A-10). 
A-42 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-9. Distribution of Sperm Whale Sightings from Northeast Fisheries Science Center and 

Southeast Fisheries Science Center Shipboard and Aerial Surveys during Summer 1998, 

1999, 2002, 2004, and 2006. Isobaths are the 100-m (328-ft), 1,000-m (3,280-ft), and 

4,000-m (13,124-ft) Depth Contours. Source: Waring et al. (2010). 
Biological Assessment A-43

Figure A-10. Florida Manatee Critical Habitat. Source: 50 CFR 17.95. 
A-44 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

3.1.9. Marine Mammal Hearing Capabilities 

Hearing has been measured using behavioral and/or electrophysiological methods in about a quarter 

of the known marine mammal species, although with a disproportional representation of species 

commonly found in captivity, and some entire groups (e.g., mysticete cetaceans) remain untested. For a 

detailed review, see Southall et al. (2007); key findings obtained since then are discussed in Appendix H

of the Draft Programmatic EIS and summarized below. Hearing sensitivity is generally quantified by 

determining the quietest possible sound that is detectable by an animal (either via a behavioral response or 

by quantifying an electrical response) on some signal presentations. By testing such responses across a 

range of test frequencies, a measure of the animal’s overall hearing capability (typically called an 

“audiogram”) may be obtained. 

3.1.9.1. Hearing in Mysticete Cetaceans 

Because of the lack of captive subjects and logistical challenges of bringing experimental subjects 

into the laboratory, direct measurements of mysticete hearing are unavailable, although there was an 

unsuccessful attempt to directly measure hearing in a stranded gray whale calf by Ridgway and Carder 

(2001). Consequently, hearing in mysticetes is estimated based on other means such as vocalizations 

(Wartzok and Ketten, 1999), anatomy (Houser et al., 2001; Parks et al., 2007), behavioral responses to 

sound (Frankel, 2005; Reichmuth, 2007), and nominal natural background noise conditions in the likely 

frequency ranges of hearing (Clark and Ellison, 2004). 

The combined information from these and other sources strongly suggests that mysticetes are likely 

most sensitive to sound from perhaps tens of hertz to ~10 kHz. However, humpback whales 

(Megaptera novaeangliae) produce sounds with harmonics extending above 24 kHz (Au et al., 2006), and 

Ketten et al. (2007) suggested, based on anatomical data, that some mysticetes could hear frequencies up 

to 30 kHz. Southall et al. (2007) estimated the lower and upper frequencies for functional hearing in 

mysticetes, collectively, to be 7 Hz and 22 kHz, respectively, but based on the above information this may 

be a slight underestimate on the high-frequency cutoff. Nevertheless, there appears to be little doubt that 

mysticetes operate primarily in the very low and low frequency ranges. 

3.1.9.2. Hearing in Odontocete Cetaceans 

Because of the presence of specialized, high-frequency biosonar and lower frequency communication 

systems in odontocete cetaceans, it is almost certain that they hear over an extremely wide frequency 

range, spanning some 12 octaves in some species. Hearing has been directly measured in controlled 

conditions for over a dozen odontocete species with either behavioral or electrophysiological techniques. 

Southall et al. (2007) reviewed the available literature and (like Wartzok and Ketten, 1999) identified two 

functional hearing groups within the odontocetes, which they referred to as mid-frequency cetaceans 

(with functional hearing between 150 Hz and 160 kHz) and high-frequency specialists (functional hearing 

estimated between 200 Hz and 180 kHz). Subsequent to the Southall et al. (2007) publication, additional 

data have been obtained on several species that had been previously tested (such as harbor porpoise) and 

measurements or anatomical modeling results have been obtained for several new species – 

e.g., Cuvier’s beaked whales (Cranford et al., 2008a,b) and false killer whales (Montie et al., 2011) 

suggesting that these additional species have basic hearing ranges and functional capabilities similar to 

those of other cetaceans. These and other studies have contributed to an increased understanding of 

hearing in odontocete cetaceans, but they are fundamentally consistent with the Southall et al. (2007) 

assessment for these species in terms of the broad range and high-frequency extension of functional 

hearing in odontocete cetaceans. 

3.1.9.3. Hearing in Pinnipeds and Manatees 

There are no listed pinnipeds occurring in the BA Area. Pinnipeds are amphibious mammals and 

have functional hearing both above and below the water, although they have broader functional hearing 

ranges in water (see Kastak and Schusterman, 1998 for a discussion). Direct measurements of hearing 

using behavioral and electrophysiological methods have been obtained in nearly 10 different species 

(Southall et al., 2007; Mulsow and Reichmuth, 2010). Southall et al. (2007) estimated functional hearing 

across all pinnipeds as extending between 75 Hz and 75 kHz under water and between 75 Hz and 30 kHz 
Biological Assessment A-45

in air. However, they also noted that, as in the odontocete cetaceans, there appears to be a segregation in 

functional hearing within pinniped taxa, with phocids (seals lacking external ear pinnae that are less 

mobile on land, such as harbor seals) extending to much higher frequencies, especially in water, than 

otariids (seal lions and fur seals that have distinct external ear pinnae and are more agile on land). This 

would be a logical additional segregation in terms of functional hearing within marine mammals. 

Hearing has also been tested both in terms of absolute and masked hearing capabilities in manatees 

(Gerstein et al., 1999; Mann et al., 2005). The combined data suggest that manatees have hearing 

capabilities that are generally similar to phocid pinnipeds except perhaps at the lowest frequencies, with 

functional hearing between about 250 Hz and ~90 kHz. Behavioral tests suggest that best sensitivities are 

from 6-20 kHz (Gerstein et al., 1999) or 8-32 kHz (Bauer et al., 2010). Based on these data, the 

extrapolation of pinniped data to manatees, where information is lacking, would seem reasonable. 

3.1.9.4. Functional Hearing Groups 

Southall et al. (2007) recognized five functional hearing groups of marine mammals: 

 Low-frequency cetaceans (7 Hz-22 kHz); 

 Mid-frequency cetaceans (150 Hz-160 kHz); 

 High-frequency cetaceans (200 Hz-180 kHz); 

 Pinnipeds in water (75 Hz-75 kHz); and 

 Pinnipeds in air (75 Hz-30 kHz). 

As shown in Table A-8, all of the listed mysticete whales in the BA Area are in the low-frequency 

hearing group, and the sperm whale is in the mid-frequency group. As noted above, the hearing of the 

Florida manatee is considered similar to that of pinnipeds in water. 

3.2. SEA TURTLES

3.2.1. Introduction 

Five sea turtle species occur in the BA area (Table A-10): loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), green 

turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Kemp's ridley turtle (Lepidochelys 

kempii), and leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). The leatherback is the only extant member of the 

family Dermochelyidae, whereas the other four turtles are members of the family Cheloniidae. 

Loggerhead, leatherback, and green turtles are more commonly found within the BA Area at certain 

periods (nesting season) and life stages. Kemp’s ridley and particularly hawksbill turtles are less common 

within the BA Area. Green, leatherback, and loggerhead turtles use coastal beaches within the BA Area 

as primary nesting sites, with the main nesting beaches in southeast Florida. However, loggerhead turtles 

also nest as far north as Virginia. 

All sea turtles are protected under the ESA. Because sea turtles use terrestrial and marine 

environments at different life stages, the FWS and NMFS share jurisdiction over sea turtles under the 

ESA. The FWS has jurisdiction over nesting beaches, and NMFS has jurisdiction in the marine 

environment. The hawksbill, Kemp's ridley, and leatherback turtles are listed under the ESA as 

endangered. The green turtle is listed as threatened, except for the Florida breeding population, which is 

endangered (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c). The Northwest Atlantic population of the loggerhead turtle is 

currently listed as threatened (Federal Register, 2011c; USDOC, NMFS, 2011d). 

The FWS and NMFS have designated critical habitat for the green, hawksbill, and leatherback turtles 

(Table A-10), but there is no critical habitat within or adjacent to the BA Area. On February 17, 2010, 

FWS and NMFS were jointly petitioned to designate critical habitat for Kemp's ridley sea turtles for 

nesting beaches along the Texas coast and marine habitats in the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean 

(WildEarth Guardians, 2010). The NMFS is currently reviewing the petition. 
Table A-10 Sea Turtles Occurring in the Biological Assessment Area Common Name Scientific Name Status1 Occurrence in Area of Interest Life Stage Primary Nesting Sites States with Nesting Reported in Biological Assessment Area 

Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta T2 DE–FL All Florida beaches: Brevard, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Palm Beach, and Broward Counties VA, NC, SC, GA, FL NonGreen turtle Chelonia mydas E, T3 DE–FL All Florida beaches: Brevard, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Palm Beach, and Broward Counties NC, SC, GA, FL Cule

Rico Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata E DE–FL (uncommon north of FL) All Mexican beaches: Yucatán Peninsula; Caribbean Beaches: Puerto Rico (Culebra, Mona, and Vieques Islands), Barbados -- Mon

CuleRicoCuleResPlaywateislanMon

Kemp’s ridley turtle Lepidochelys kempii E DE–FL Juveniles and Adults Mexican beaches: Tamauli

pas and Veracruz NC, SC, FL Non

Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea E DE–FL All Florida beaches (southeast coast) NC, SC, GA, FL 

U.Sstrip SanSt. Cadja

1 Status: E = endangered (E); T = threatened. 2 The Northwest Atlantic Distinct Population Segment of the loggerhead turtle is currently listed as threatened (Federal Register, 2011c). 3 The green turtle is threatened, except for the Florida breeding population, which is endangered (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c). 
Biological Assessment A-47

Important marine habitats for sea turtles in and near the BA Area include nesting beaches, estuaries 

and embayments, nearshore hard substrate areas, and the Gulf Stream. Within the BA Area, sea turtle 

nesting occurs on sandy beaches from Virginia to Florida, as can be seen in the relative distribution and 

densities of sea turtle nests reported from individual counties within the BA Area for the 2010 nesting 

season (Figure A-11). Most sea turtle species move geographically, either seasonally or between nesting 

activities. Turtles may move seasonally into foraging habitats through migration corridors and to nesting 

beaches. The size of “resident” foraging habitats appears to vary with species and location. Studies 

suggest that resident foraging area size in the western North Atlantic decreases in a north-to-south 

gradient, possibly due to increasing available food resources and decreasing width of the continental shelf 

(Griffin, 2002). 

Nesting beaches within the BA Area are subject to periodic impacts from tropical cyclones (including 

hurricanes and tropical storms). Studies suggest that tropical cyclones are a significant factor in observed 

sea turtle nesting declines (van Houtan and Bass, 2007). It is anticipated that the frequency of these storm 

events is likely to increase with changes in global climate (Webster et al., 2005; Pike and Stiner, 2007). 

Generally, storm-induced impacts to nesting beaches include beach flooding and the displacement of 

large volumes of sand (Pike and Stiner, 2007). Sea turtle eggs lose and gain water quickly depending on 

nest conditions, and nests exposed to seawater may be lost due to inhibited oxygen exchange or rapid 

water loss to saline seawater (Packard, 1999). Displacement of sand during storm events may expose and 

destroy established nests or may alter beach morphology to where it is not suitable for nesting habitat. 

Factors that may affect nesting success during storm seasons include the distance of the nest from shore 

and/or the nest depth, and nesting season. 

Embayments such as Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay provide important foraging and 

developmental habitat for sea turtles (Musick, 1988; Coles, 1999; Spotila et al., 2000). Exposed hard 

substrate in shallow nearshore areas off eastern Florida provide important foraging and developmental 

habitats for cheloniid sea turtles, particularly juveniles and subadults (CSA International, Inc., 2009). The 

Gulf Stream is a key oceanographic feature that is utilized by sea turtles for various purposes, such as 

migration (Hoffman and Fritts, 1982). Sargassum mats that form in convergence zones associated with 

the Gulf Stream provide shelter and foraging habitat for hatchling and post-hatchling sea turtles (Carr and 

Meylan, 1980; South Atlantic Fishery Management Council [SAFMC], 2002). 

Hearing capabilities of sea turtles are not well documented. Sea turtles appear to be low frequency 

specialists, with best hearing projected to occur within the frequency range of 50-1,000 Hz. 

See Section 3.2.7 for further information on sea turtle hearing. 

Existing Federal and State measures to reduce anthropogenic impacts on sea turtles are considered 

part of the environmental baseline and are discussed in Section 4.2.2. 

3.2.2. Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) 

3.2.2.1. Species Overview 

The loggerhead turtle is the largest hard-shelled turtle. The typical adult carapace length is 

85-100 cm, and most mature individuals weigh approximately 135 kg (Ernst et al., 1994). The carapace, 

when viewed from above, is elongated and heart- or shield-shaped (Márquez-M, 1990). The color of 

adults is reddish brown above, and many of the overlying scutes are tinged with yellow. The underside is 

orange to creamy yellow (Ernst et al., 1994). 

The loggerhead is a circumglobal species that is found from tropical to temperate regions. They 

range through the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans from Alaska, eastern Russia, Newfoundland, and 

Norway south to Chile, Australia, and South Africa (Ernst et al., 1994). In the Atlantic Ocean, the 

loggerhead turtle is reported from Newfoundland, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and along the 

east coast of the U.S. Loggerhead turtles, like other sea turtles, are highly migratory, making various 

seasonal and annual migrations (Godley et al., 2003). Moncada et al. (2010) reported that it is common 

for loggerhead turtles to make extended transoceanic journeys and then later return to specific nesting 

beaches. 

Loggerhead turtles use three different types of habitats throughout their life: terrestrial (beaches), 

neritic (nearshore waters), and oceanic (open ocean) (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). They 

are carnivores, feeding primarily on mollusks and crustaceans (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 

2008). 
A-48 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-11. Densities of Sea Turtle Nests Reported for Individual Counties inshore of the Biological 

Assessment Area for the 2010 Nesting Season. Sources: http://www.seaturtle.org/nestdb/ 

(NC, SC, and GA); http://myfwc.com/research/wildlife/sea-turtles/nesting/ (FL). 
Biological Assessment A-49

The southeast U.S. coast is among the most important areas in the world for loggerhead nesting. The 

east Florida coast is the most important area (Figure A-12). The USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS 

(2008) report that about 80 percent of loggerhead nesting in this region occurs in six Florida counties 

(Brevard, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Palm Beach, and Broward). Loggerhead turtle nesting in the 

western North Atlantic is from April to September, with peak nesting occurring in June and July 

(Weishampel et al., 2006). Age at sexual maturity is late in life at around 35 years of age, and breeding 

adult females nest, on average, every 2.5-3.7 years. Clutch size is between 100 and 126 eggs, and 

incubation is between 42 and 75 days. The mean number of nests is 3-5.5 per breeding season, with 

internesting intervals ranging from 12-15 days (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). 

Immediately after loggerhead turtle hatchlings emerge from the nest, they actively swim offshore into 

oceanic areas of local convergence zones and major gyre systems, often characterized by accumulations 

of floating Sargassum. The duration of this oceanic post-hatchling-juvenile stage is variable, but 

generally ranges between 7 and 12 years (Bolten and Witherington, 2003). Afterward, oceanic juveniles 

actively migrate to nearshore (neritic) developmental habitats. 

Overall, the population structure of the loggerhead turtle is complex and challenging to evaluate 

(Bolten and Witherington, 2003). According to the Loggerhead Biological Review Team, there are nine 

significant populations of loggerhead turtles, termed distinct population segments (DPSs) (Conant et al., 

2009). The Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS occurs in an area bounded by 60o N latitude to the north and 

the equator to the south, with 40o W longitude as the eastern boundary. The NMFS has also identified 

five recovery units (nesting subpopulations) within the Northwest Atlantic DPS (USDOC, NMFS and 

USDOI, FWS, 2008) of which four occur in the southeastern U.S. and Gulf of Mexico (Figure A-13). 

Two of these recovery units are within the BA Area: the Northern Recovery Unit (NRU), extending from 

the Florida-Georgia border through southern Virginia (the northern extent of the nesting range), and the 

Peninsular Florida Recovery Unit (PFRU), extending south from the Florida-Georgia border through 

Pinellas County on the west coast of Florida, excluding the islands west of Key West, Florida. 

The loggerhead turtle nesting season extends from May 1 to October 31. The total number of 

loggerhead nests per year in the U.S. over the last decade has been estimated at between 47,000 and 

90,000 (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). The current recovery plan reported that the number 

of nests in the NRU averaged 5,215 nests annually during 1989 through 2008, and the nesting trend 

declined 1.3 percent. In the PFRU, the number of nests averaged 64,513 nests annually during 1989 

through 2007, and the nesting trend declined 1.6 percent. 

Similar to most sea turtle populations, the loggerhead turtle is severely depleted; however, the 

population is probably the most stable population of any sea turtle. To date, projections indicated that the 

Northwest Atlantic loggerhead turtle population was slightly declining but expected to recover in the next 

50-150 years (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). The South Carolina Department of Natural 

Resources (SCDNR, 2005a) recently reported that juvenile loggerheads were more abundant now in 

South Carolina coastal waters than they were in the 1970’s. Most of the nests in South Carolina were 

reported near Georgetown (44.5 percent), Charleston (26.4 percent), and Beaufort (21.9 percent). Even 

so, the population is still at risk of extinction given the current continuing threats (Conant et al., 2009). 

In March 2010, NMFS and FWS proposed to list the Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS of loggerhead 

turtles as endangered (Federal Register, 2010d). The final rule, listing this DPS as threatened, was filed 

on September 16, 2011 (Federal Register, 2011c). 

Information about daily movement and dive behaviors of loggerheads in the open ocean is limited, 

but new technology has allowed researchers to recently study this type of behavior in the turtles’ natural 

environment (Sobin, 2008). Houghton et al. (2000) recorded observations of loggerhead turtles around 

the Greek Island of Kefalonia and discovered that these individuals made frequent shorter-duration dives 

than previously reported. On average, four loggerhead turtles made 96 dives over 29 days, with dive 

durations ranging from 1-5 min. Off Hawaii, four turtles (two loggerhead turtles and two olive ridley 

turtles) were monitored to evaluate their dive depth distributions to understand how mitigation measures 

could be implemented for longline fisheries. Based on the research, Polovina et al. (2003) found that 

there were diurnal and species differences in the dive profiles. Overall, the researchers found that all 

turtles spent more time at the surface and dove deeper during the day than at night. Loggerhead turtles 

spent 40 percent of their time at or near the surface and at less than 100-m (328-ft) depths; most 

(70 percent) of the dives were no deeper than 5 m (16.4 ft). The deepest dive recorded for one of the 

loggerhead turtles was 178 m (584 ft). Loggerhead diving behavior off Japan was shown to be somewhat 

size-dependent (Hatase et al., 2007). In southwest Florida, Sobin (2008) reported that loggerhead turtles 

spent more time near the surface in the morning (08:00-12:00 h) than in the evening, which was different 

than previous studies. 
A-50 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-12. Estimated Annual Number of Loggerhead Nests in the Southeastern U.S., The Bahamas 

(Including Cay Sal Bank), Cuba, and Mexico from 2001-2008. Source: USDOC, NMFS 

and USDOI, FWS (2008). 

Figure A-13. Location of the Four Recovery Units for the Loggerhead Turtle in the U.S. 

NRU = Northern Recovery Unit, PFRU = Peninsular Florida Recovery Unit, DTRU = Dry 

Tortugas Recovery Unit, NGMRU = Northern Gulf of Mexico Recovery Unit. Source: 

USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS (2008). 
Biological Assessment A-51

3.2.2.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Loggerhead turtles are likely to be the most common sea turtle species in the BA Area. Based on 

nesting information, loggerhead turtle nests are primarily located in five of the seven states in the BA 

Area: Florida (91 percent), South Carolina (6.5 percent), Georgia (1.5 percent), North Carolina 

(1 percent), and Virginia (<1 percent). The NRU is the second largest subpopulation in the U.S., and 

South Carolina represents about 65 percent of those nests (SCDNR, 2005a). In Florida, Brevard County 

is located within the BA Area, while Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Palm Beach, and Broward Counties 

are south of the BA Area. Within this region south of the BA Area, there is a 20-mi (32.2-km) section of 

coastline from Melbourne Beach to Wabasso Beach that comprises the Archie Carr National Wildlife 

Refuge (NWR), which has been identified as the most important nesting area for loggerhead turtles in the 

western hemisphere (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008); this stretch of coastline borders the BA 

Area (see Figure A-11). The Archie Carr NWR is critical to the recovery and survival of loggerhead 

turtles; it has been estimated that 25 percent of all loggerhead nesting in the U.S. occurs there. Nesting 

densities within the Archie Carr NWR have been estimated at 625 nests per km (1,000 nests per mile). 

Neritic juvenile loggerhead turtles are likely to occupy shallow water developmental habitats in 

nearshore areas of the BA Area. Some neritic juveniles make seasonal foraging migrations into nearshore 

waters and embayments within temperate latitudes as far north as New York. To avoid cold temperatures, 

most juvenile loggerheads move into waters south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, by January (Musick 

and Limpus, 1997). 

3.2.2.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the loggerhead turtle within the BA Area. 

3.2.3. Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) 

3.2.3.1. Species Overview 

The green turtle is the largest cheloniid sea turtle; adults can reach 0.91 m (3 ft) in carapace length 

and range between 136 and 159 kg (300 and 350 lb) in mass. The carapace shape is depressed and oval in 

shape when viewed from above (Márquez-M, 1990). The head is small and blunt. The carapace color 

ranges from pale to very dark and from plain color to radiated stripes or blotches of yellow, brown, and 

greenish tones. The underside ranges from white to dirty white or yellowish white (Márquez-M, 1990). 

The green turtle is a circumglobal species that is found in the Mediterranean Sea and Pacific, Indian, 

and Atlantic Oceans (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1991, 2007a). The green turtle can be found in 

tropical and subtropical waters between 30° N and 30° S latitude, and, to a lesser extent, in temperate 

waters (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a). Similar to other sea turtles, satellite tagging data 

indicate that green turtles display highly migratory behavior, making vast seasonal and annual 

transoceanic migrations (Godley et al., 2003, 2008, 2010). 

Breeding populations in Florida and on the Pacific coast of Mexico are listed as endangered under the 

ESA, whereas the remaining populations are listed as threatened. The Florida breeding population is 

listed by the State of Florida as endangered (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c). The green turtle is considered 

severely depleted in comparison to its estimated historical levels (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 

2007a). Currently, there is no reliable green turtle population estimate, but inferences have been 

attempted using age-based survivability models and nesting data (Bjorndal et al., 2003). Nesting data 

indicate that between 200 and 1,100 females nest annually on continental U.S. beaches (within the BA 

Area). The recent 5-year status review (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a) reported that the total 

mean annual green turtle nesting abundance was around 5,600 nests (Florida east coast) during 2000 

through 2006, and the number of nests appears to be increasing. Overall, the number of green turtle nests 

in Florida has increased over the last 18 years (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a). In addition, 

the numbers of immature green turtles incidentally captured at the St. Lucie power plant (St. Lucie 

County, Florida; south of the BA Area) has also increased during the past 26 years, which could indicate 

the population is improving (Florida Power and Light Company and Quantum Resources, Inc., 2005). It 

is difficult to evaluate how common or rare green turtle occurrence is in comparison to the other sea 

turtles (excluding hawksbill and Kemp’s ridley) found within the BA Area, but in terms of the number of 
A-52 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

nests surveyed in Florida in 2010, green turtles ranked second (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation 

Commission, 2011). 

The green turtle is protected and managed by NMFS and the FWS. Under the leadership of these 

Federal agencies, various conservation and recovery strategies have been implemented since green turtles 

were listed under the protection of the ESA. In 1998, the agencies jointly designated critical habitat 

for the green turtle in the waters of Culebra Island, Puerto Rico, and its outlying keys (Federal Register, 

1998a). A variety of restrictions on commercial fishery activities (e.g., requiring the use of circle hooks 

in pelagic longline fisheries and turtle excluder devices [TEDs] in trawls) were implemented to prevent 

serious injury and mortality to sea turtles, as well as a gear-based approach to reduce interactions called 

the Strategy for Sea Turtle Conservation and Recovery for Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Fisheries. 

Additional conservation measures include restrictions on beach lighting and hopper dredging during the 

sea turtle nesting season. 

The green turtle diet consists of seagrasses and macroalgae. Hazel et al. (2009) documented various 

daily diving behaviors related to foraging activity of green turtles in nearshore foraging habitats in 

Australia. They found that the majority of turtles spent most time (89-100 percent) at depths near the 

surface (<5 m [16.4 ft]). They also found that dives were shorter and shallower during the day than at 

night, suggesting that green turtles rest at night and forage during the day, consistent with the requirement 

to surface more often during increased activity (daytime foraging). In addition, Hazel et al. (2009) found 

that green turtle dives became longer as water temperatures decreased. Off the Hawaiian Islands, Rice 

and Balazs (2008) documented the diving behavior of two adult green turtles in the open-ocean 

environment. Their results demonstrated that green turtles also displayed a shallow daytime and deeper 

nighttime dive pattern. In general, two green turtles stayed near the surface during the day and dove to 

between 35 and 55 m (115 and 180 ft) at night, with dive durations of 33-44 min. A new maximum dive 

depth was recorded for the green turtle, with two dives by one female greater than 135 m (443 ft) and one 

dive by one male to 100 m (328 ft) (Rice and Balazs, 2008). 

Nesting generally occurs from June to September in the southeastern U.S. Females nest at 2- to 

4-year intervals. Similar to other sea turtle species, age at sexual maturity is not reached until late in life 

at around 20-50 years of age. Clutch size varies from 75-200 eggs, and incubation is between 20 and 

50 days. Female green turtles usually deposit two or three clutches per breeding season, with internesting 

intervals ranging from 12-14 days (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a). 

After leaving the nest, green turtle hatchlings swim offshore to areas of convergence zones 

characterized with driftlines and patches of Sargassum. Experiments with post-hatchling green turtles in 

the laboratory suggest that they prefer open ocean habitats more than loggerhead or hawksbill turtles and 

so may avoid floatlines of Sargassum (Musick and Limpus, 1997). Data also suggest that recruitment of 

green turtles into neritic developmental habitats occurs at smaller body sizes (30-40 cm) than for 

loggerhead turtles (Bjorndal and Bolten, 1988). 

3.2.3.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

In the western North Atlantic, green turtles can be found on various coastal beaches during the 

nesting season. Important nesting areas for green turtles include Florida beaches within Brevard, Indian 

River, St. Lucie, Martin, Palm Beach, and Broward Counties. Most green turtles nest in Brevard County 

(USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a). Except for the beaches of Brevard County, the primary 

green turtle nesting sites are south of the BA Area. 

After nesting, green turtles are found feeding or swimming along nearshore or offshore waters from 

Florida to Massachusetts (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007a). Based on satellite tagging 

research, green turtles display daily and seasonal movement patterns that are associated with foraging 

strategies (Hart and Fujisaki, 2010). Green turtles are vulnerable to cold temperatures, so in many 

locations they are found only seasonally within northern portions of the BA Area (Foley et al., 2007). 

Green turtles are reported to use the coastal waters of North Carolina and Virginia as summer foraging 

habitat (Mansfield et al., 2009). Further south, green turtles have been reported to use the Indian River 

Lagoon (Florida) and areas south of the BA Area (Florida Bay and the Florida Keys) as feeding areas. 

The USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS (2007a) status review highlights the Florida east coast (from 

Indian River Lagoon and the waters off Brevard County [within the BA Area] south to Broward County 

[south of the BA Area]) as prime foraging area for green turtles. 
Biological Assessment A-53

Neritic developmental habitats for juvenile green turtles in the western North Atlantic range from 

Long Island Sound to South Florida and the tropics. These habitats include shallow nearshore hard 

substrate, embayments, and other inshore habitats (e.g., Indian River Lagoon [Florida]). Locations with 

optimal habitats (e.g., sources of marine algae) are likely locations where small juvenile green turtles may 

be found. McClellan and Read (2009) documented the seasonal habitat-use patterns of juvenile green 

turtles in the estuaries (i.e., salt marshes, tidal creeks, and marsh islands) of North Carolina (Pamlico 

Sound, Cape Hatteras Region). Juvenile green turtles occupying developmental habitats north of Florida 

must migrate south in autumn (Musick and Limpus, 1997). Therefore, juvenile green turtles may occur 

within nearshore and inshore habitats throughout the BA Area. 

3.2.3.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the green turtle within the BA Area. 

3.2.4. Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) 

3.2.4.1. Species Description and Status 

The hawksbill is a small to medium-sized sea turtle. Adults can reach to 1.1 m (3.5 ft) in carapace 

length and 82 kg (180 lb) in mass (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007b). The carapace is shield 

shaped, and dorsal scutes are overlapping on younger individuals (Ernst et al., 1994). The hawksbill is 

the most colorful among the sea turtle species. The carapace in younger individuals shows the 

characteristic “tortoiseshell” pattern, which gradually, with age, becomes a dark greenish brown. The 

plastron is yellow. The head is medium-sized and elongated with a pointed beak (Márquez-M, 1990). 

The hawksbill turtle is a circumglobal species that is found in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans 

(USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007b). The hawksbill turtle can be found in tropical and 

subtropical waters between latitudes 30° N and 30° S (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007b). 

Hawksbill turtles display highly migratory behavior, with satellite tagging data demonstrating that these 

turtles display both short and long migrations from nesting to foraging grounds (USDOC, NMFS and 

USDOI, FWS, 2007b; Blumenthal et al., 2009). 

The hawksbill turtle is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The conservation and recovery 

of the hawksbill turtle is administered through various regulatory mechanisms, such as designating critical 

habitat and implementing conservation regulations, including commercial fishery measures to prevent 

serious injury and mortality to sea turtles. Campbell et al. (2009) indicate that the co-management 

between local communities and government agencies is a strategy to improve fisheries management that 

has the potential to reduce sea turtle fishery interactions. The agencies also support several international 

agreements for the conservation of sea turtles, such as the South-East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum 

of Understanding in the Indian Ocean. The recovery of the hawksbill turtle population is threatened by 

many ongoing anthropogenic threats, including commercial fishery interactions, habitat loss (i.e., reefs), 

global climatic changes (sea level rise), and fibropapillomatosis (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 

2007b). In addition, the continued overutilization of hawksbill turtles for commercial, recreational, 

scientific, or educational purposes is another major threat to the recovery of the species (USDOC, NMFS 

and USDOI, FWS, 2007b). 

Adult hawksbill turtles specialize on a diet of sponges and feed very selectively on specific species of 

demosponges (Bjorndal, 1997). They may also consume a variety of other food items, such as algae and 

other benthic invertebrates (Márquez-M, 1990). In the Caribbean, hawksbill turtles are often sighted 

feeding along coral reefs and hard bottom communities (Blumenthal et al., 2009). 

There is some information about the diving behavior of hawksbill turtles. In Milman Island, 

Australia, Bell and Parmenter (2008) recorded the diving behavior of nine female hawksbill turtles that 

had previously laid eggs and two females that had not successfully laid any eggs. Results from the study 

showed that the nine hawksbill turtles primarily spent their time near the surface but did make occasional 

deeper dives. The maximum depth recorded was 21.5 m (70.5 ft), and the researchers did not find any 

significant difference between day and night dive behaviors. On average, the dive time and surface 

interval for the nine turtles were 31.2 and 1.6 min, respectively. On the reefs of Mona Island, Puerto 

Rico, van Dam and Diez (1997) reported the diving patterns of five foraging juvenile hawksbill turtles. 

Results showed that individual mean dive depths ranged from 8-10 m (26-33 ft), dive durations ranged 
A-54 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

from 19-26 min, and surface intervals ranged from 37-64 s. Night dives ranged from 7-10 m (23-33 ft), 

dive durations ranged from 35-47 min, and surface intervals ranged from 36-60 s (van Dam and Diez, 

1997). 

Hawksbill turtles primarily nest on Mexican (Yucatán Peninsula) and Caribbean (Puerto Rico 

[Culebra, Mona, and Vieques Islands] to Barbados) beaches. Some nesting has been reported in South 

Florida and the Florida Keys, but this is considered rare (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1993). 

Depending on the location, the nesting season occurs during various summer and fall months (USDOC, 

NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1993). For example, hawksbill nesting occurs from July-October on Buck 

Island (U.S. Virgin Islands) and from August-October on Mona Island (Puerto Rico), with females 

nesting at 2- or 3-year intervals. In Barbados, West Indies, nesting is reported to occur year-round, with 

peak months from June-August (Beggs et al., 2007). These researchers also discovered that nesting 

intervals ranged from 2-6 years with a mean of 2.5 years. Overall, the average nesting season for the 

hawksbill turtle (6 months) is longer than for any other sea turtle (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 

1993). Female hawksbill turtles usually deposit three to five clutches per breeding season at intervals of 

about 14 days (Beggs et al., 2007; USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007b). Age at sexual maturity is 

between 20 and 40 years; average clutch size is around 135 eggs, and incubation is around 60 days. 

Hatchling hawksbill turtles emerge from the nest and actively swim offshore at night to areas of water 

mass convergence. Hawksbill post-hatchlings in the laboratory appear to be attracted to patches of 

floating Sargassum, which they use as protective cover (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1993; 

Musick and Limpus, 1997). Data suggest that juvenile (or post-hatchling) hawksbills move into neritic 

developmental habitats at a smaller size than loggerhead turtles; neritic developmental habitats include 

shallow coral reefs and mangrove estuaries (Carr, 1952; Witzell, 1983) and Caribbean seagrass habitats 

(Bjorndal and Bolten, 1988, 2010). 

3.2.4.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

In the western North Atlantic, hawksbill turtles can be found from Florida to Massachusetts, but they 

are rarely reported north of Florida. The hawksbill turtle has a restricted distribution and range given that 

its habitat (foraging) preference is coral reefs and mangrove estuaries, which are found only in near 

coastal areas to the south of the BA Area. Although it is a rare occurrence, USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, 

FWS (1993) report that hawksbill nesting has occurred not only in South Florida counties (Broward, 

Miami-Dade, Martin, and Palm Beach) but also in Volusia County, which is within the BA Area. Neritic 

developmental habitats for juvenile hawksbills also include shallow coral reefs and mangrove estuaries 

(Witzell, 1983). 

3.2.4.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the hawksbill turtle within the BA Area. Critical habitat for 

the hawksbill turtle was originally designated in 1982 and subsequently in 1998 (Federal Register, 1998a) 

off Mona, Culebrita, and Culebra Islands in Puerto Rico, and the waters surrounding the islands of Mona 

and Monito (3-5 km [1.9-3.1 mi] from shore). Critical habitat also includes specific beaches on Culebra 

Island (Playa Resaca, Playa Brava, and Playa Larga). 

3.2.5. Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) 

3.2.5.1. Species Overview 

The Kemp’s ridley is the smallest sea turtle; adults reach only 76 cm (30 in.) in carapace length and 

range from 36-45 kg (80-100 lb) in mass. The carapace of adults is nearly round in shape when viewed 

from above. The color of adults is plain olive-gray dorsally and white or yellowish white underneath 

(Márquez-M, 1990). 

The Kemp’s ridley is generally found in the Gulf of Mexico and occasionally sighted along the east 

coast from Florida to New England (USDOC, NMFS et al., 2010). Similar to other sea turtles, Kemp’s 

ridley turtles display some seasonal and coastal migratory behavior. Satellite tagging data indicate that 

Kemp’s ridley turtles transit between nearshore and offshore waters (within 28 km [50 mi] from shore) 
Biological Assessment A-55

from spring/summer to fall/winter, which coincides with seasonal water temperature changes (USDOC, 

NMFS et al., 2010). 

The Kemp’s ridley is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. The population is severely 

depleted, and it is considered the most endangered sea turtle species (USDOI, FWS, 1999). Kemp’s 

ridley turtles were once abundant, especially in the Gulf of Mexico, but today the species is struggling. 

At one single nesting event (arribada) in Rancho Nuevo, Mexico, during 1947, approximately 

42,000 nesting females were reported (USDOC, NMFS et al., 2010). However, by the mid-1980’s, the 

number of nests had declined to about only 700 nests per year. Today, the population is stressed and 

there are no reliable Kemp’s ridley turtle population estimates. Given that most of the Kemp’s ridley 

turtle population nests in one location, better population estimates have been inferred from nesting data 

(USDOI, FWS, 1999). Using various assumptions, the current population estimate of Kemp’s ridley 

turtles is approximately 738 females. Márquez-M (2001) indicated that the annual number of nests in 

Tamaulipas, Mexico, has increased between 8 and 12 percent since 1988. USDOC, NMFS et al. (2010) 

reported that the number of nests per season in Rancho Nuevo, Mexico, recently exceeded 20,000 and 

stated that the nesting population is growing exponentially. 

The Kemp’s ridley is a carnivore throughout its life cycle (Márquez-M, 1990). Adult and subadult 

Kemp’s ridley turtles are benthic feeders that primarily feed on crabs. Other preferred food items include 

shrimps, mollusks, sea urchins, and fishes (opportunistically) (USDOC, NMFS et al., 2010). 

Kemp’s ridleys primarily nest on Gulf of Mexico beaches in Mexico (Tamaulipas and Veracruz) 

during April through July. The mean number of clutches is 2.5 per breeding season (14-28 days), average 

clutch size is around 100 eggs, and incubation is between 45 and 58 days. Females nest at 2-year 

intervals (USDOC, NMFS et al., 2010). Age at sexual maturity has been reported to be much younger 

than for other turtles, at around 10-20 years with a mean of 12 years. 

Available information about Kemp’s ridleys in the open ocean is limited, but there is some 

information about their diving behavior. In the Gulf of Mexico, Schmid et al. (2002) reported a surface 

interval between 1 and 88 s, and a mean submergence duration of 8.4 min. Overall, these researchers did 

not find any differences between day and night surface activities, but did find a diel difference in some 

years (1994 versus 1995). The data also showed that the mean submergence interval during the night was 

longer than during the day (Schmid et al., 2002). 

3.2.5.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Overall, the Kemp’s ridley may be the least abundant sea turtle in the BA Area. There is some 

evidence of Kemp’s ridleys nesting on beaches within the BA Area, but this is considered rare (USDOC, 

NMFS et al., 2010). Johnson et al. (1999) reported that Kemp’s ridleys nest on the beaches of North 

Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida (Ponce Inlet and New Smyrna Beach, Volusia County); all of these 

locales are adjacent to the BA Area. Johnson et al. (1999) also reported Kemp’s ridleys nesting in Palm 

Beach County, Florida, which is south of the BA Area. 

Foraging areas along the Atlantic coast include various embayments and estuarine systems from 

Florida to New York. Coles (1999) reported that Kemp’s ridleys were frequently sighted in Chesapeake 

Bay during the summer over a continuous 18-year sea turtle stranding survey and indicated that Kemp’s 

ridleys ranked second in the number of strandings per year in the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Coles (1999) also 

indicated that the Mid-Atlantic Bight is an important foraging area for juvenile Kemp’s ridleys during 

spring through fall. 

3.2.5.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no critical habitat designated for the Kemp’s ridley within the BA Area. 

3.2.6. Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) 

3.2.6.1. Species Overview 

The leatherback is the largest sea turtle. Adults reach up to 1.8 m (6 ft) in carapace length and 907 kg 

(2,000 lb) in mass. They are easily distinguished from all other sea turtle species by their large 

spindle-shaped, leathery, and unscaled carapaces that possess a series of parallel dorsal ridges, or keels 
A-56 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

(Márquez-M, 1990). Their color is brown to black, with small, scattered white, yellowish, or pink 

blotches. Leatherback fore-flippers are large, paddle-shaped, and relatively longer than in other sea turtle 

species. 

The leatherback is a cosmopolitan species that is found in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian, Pacific, 

and Atlantic Oceans; it is reported as having the widest distribution of any sea turtle (USDOC, NMFS and 

USDOI, FWS, 2007c). Leatherbacks have a wide-ranging distribution and apparently are able to adapt to 

and tolerate cold water temperatures; most leatherbacks sighted in the Chesapeake Bay were in waters 

between 25 °C and 29 °C (Coles, 1999). Coles (1999) indicated that sea turtle distribution may not be 

random but associated with specific water temperature ranges. In the Atlantic Ocean, the leatherback is 

reported throughout the North Sea, Canadian waters, and along the east coast of the U.S. and into the Gulf 

of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Adult leatherbacks have been reported to migrate from equatorial to 

temperate waters to forage, which is unique for sea turtles (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). 

Along the U.S. east coast, the principal nesting beaches for leatherbacks are in Florida. According to 

SCDNR (2005b), leatherback turtles have also been documented to nest in Georgia, South Carolina 

(four leatherback nests since 1996), North Carolina, and possibly in Maryland. 

The leatherback is currently listed as endangered under the ESA. Similar to other sea turtles, its 

population is also depleted, although it is more stable than other species (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, 

FWS, 2007c). Spotila et al. (1996) estimated there were about 115,000 individuals in 1980. The most 

recent population estimate for leatherback turtles in the Atlantic is smaller – between 34,000 and 94,000 – 

but apparently stable (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). Recent survey data clearly show that 

the nesting numbers have dramatically increased, from 98 nests in 1988 to around 850 nests in the early 

2000’s (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). Using the number of nests as a population index, the 

estimated annual growth rate for leatherback turtles is around 17 percent (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, 

FWS, 2007c). 

The conservation and recovery of the leatherback is governed through various regulatory 

mechanisms, such as attempting to meet specific recovery plan objectives, habitat protection efforts, and 

protecting nesting females. Other conservation measures include imposing restrictions on commercial 

fishery activities to prevent serious injury and mortality to sea turtles (e.g., circle hook requirements in the 

pelagic longline fishery and the use of TEDS in trawls) and supporting several international agreements, 

such as the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Moreover, 

NMFS has developed and is attempting to implement a Strategy for Sea Turtle Conservation and 

Recovery in Relation to Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Fisheries, which focuses on specific commercial 

fishing gear-related criteria. To assist decision makers, agencies also fund many research projects, 

e.g., the South Carolina nearshore aerial and nesting surveys, and short-term telemetry studies (SCDNR, 

2005b). 

Leatherbacks have various anthropogenic threats to their recovery, which include but are not limited 

to commercial fisheries, habitat loss (nesting), climate change (e.g., sea level rise, shifts in prey 

availability), pollution, overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or education purposes 

(e.g., egg harvesting), and disease (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). 

Leatherbacks are highly migratory and have the most wide-ranging distribution of any sea turtle 

(Hays et al., 2006; USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c; Shillinger et al., 2008). Because 

leatherback turtles appear to adapt quickly to local environmental conditions, they do not display any 

restricted distributional and movement behaviors (Hays et al., 2006; USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 

2007c). In fact, Eckert (2006) reported that leatherbacks tagged in Trinidad were later reported off 

Newfoundland (Flemish Cap), Canada, and subsequently in Mauritanian waters. Genetic techniques have 

been used to distinguish five groups or populations in the western North Atlantic Ocean: Florida, 

Northern Caribbean, Western Caribbean, Southern Caribbean (including northern Brazil), and Southern 

Brazil (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). Genetic studies support the natal homing hypothesis, 

which has been reported for other sea turtles (Godley et al., 2010). Leatherbacks tend to use specific 

beach sites within their respective regions for nesting. 

Leatherbacks primarily feed on pelagic gelatinous invertebrates such as scyphomedusae (jellyfish) 

and pelagic tunicates (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1992; Bjorndal, 1997), and their seasonal 

movements appear to be correlated with jellyfish seasonal abundance (SCDNR, 2005b). Knowledge 

about leatherbacks in their open ocean environment is limited, but there is some published information 

about daily movement and dive behaviors. Off South Africa, Sale et al. (2006) investigated leatherback 

diving behavior during oceanic movements. Results from that study demonstrated that leatherbacks 
Biological Assessment A-57

primarily dove to depths of less than 200 m (656 ft), and maximum dive durations were between 30 and 

40 min. Findings also showed that leatherback turtles displayed differences in dive patterns depending on 

the time of day. At night and at specific periods, leatherbacks dove longer. Interestingly, the researchers 

reported some of the deepest and longest dives during the day for a few individuals. Using tagging data 

from nine turtles (181-431 days), Hays et al. (2006) also recorded seasonal movements from the south 

(Caribbean) to the north (northeastern coast of the U.S.) during the summer and from the north to the 

south during the fall. With these seasonal movements, the researchers found that as the individuals 

moved from southern to northern latitudes, the dives initially became longer but then became 

progressively shallower and shorter. In addition, Hays et al. (2006) documented that leatherbacks also 

displayed a diel dive pattern with more and shallower diving at night than during the day for the 

individuals located between 18° and 30° N latitude. Mean dive duration ranged from 3-30 min, and mean 

dive depth ranged from surface waters to almost 250 m (820 ft). The overall swimming speed ranged 

from 2.5-82.5 km (1.5-51.3 mi) per day; most leatherbacks swam between 32.5 and 42.5 km (20.2 and 

26.4 mi) per day. Hays et al. (2006) concluded that leatherbacks do not display highly migratory behavior 

(i.e., swim from southern to northern waters) just to forage at specific “hotspots,” but instead 

continuously feed as they travel. However, the researchers noted that leatherbacks did remain in specific 

areas for short durations to feed, and their daily diving patterns were correlated with prey abundance. 

Nesting areas include beaches of the eastern Pacific Ocean, western Atlantic Ocean, eastern Atlantic 

Ocean, and Indo-Pacific region. In the western Atlantic, nesting beaches range from northern South 

America to the eastern coast of the U.S. as far north as Georgia (Márquez-M, 1990; Ernst et al., 1994). 

Unlike other sea turtles, leatherbacks can begin nesting much earlier in the year. Leatherbacks have been 

reported to nest as early as February or March with peak nesting in July; females nest at 2- or 3-year 

intervals. Age at sexual maturity has been reported to be much younger than for other sea turtles, at 

around 6-10 years. The average clutch size is around 100 eggs, and incubation is between 60 and 

65 days. Females deposit between five and seven nests per breeding season, with internesting intervals 

ranging from 8-12 days (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2007c). 

Like other sea turtle species, hatchling leatherbacks leave the nest and swim actively offshore. 

Post-hatchling and oceanic juvenile leatherbacks are more active than other sea turtle species (Wyneken 

and Salmon, 1992). These oceanic juveniles virtually disappear for 4 years (Musick and Limpus, 1997). 

Their requirements for gelatinous prey suggest that they may search for areas of major upwelling. 

Juvenile (as well as adult) leatherbacks recruit seasonally to temperate and boreal coastal habitats to feed 

on concentrations of jellyfish (Lutcavage and Lutz, 1986). In the western North Atlantic, juveniles appear 

in these habitats at a body length of 110-120 cm (Musick and Limpus, 1997). 

3.2.6.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Leatherbacks are found throughout the BA Area in certain seasons. Leatherback turtles were 

frequently sighted and stranded in Chesapeake Bay during 1979 through 1997, mainly from 

May-September (Coles, 1999). Off South Carolina, leatherbacks have been reported primarily from 

April-June when “cannonball” jellyfish (Stomolophus meleagris) are abundant, and again in October and 

November (SCDNR, 2005b). It is also likely that post-hatchling and oceanic juvenile leatherbacks may 

be present within both offshore and coastal waters of the BA Area. 

3.2.6.3. Critical Habitat 

There is no designated critical habitat for the leatherback within the BA Area. Critical habitat was 

initially designated in 1979 (Federal Register, 1979) within specific areas off the U.S. Virgin Islands and 

St. Croix. In February 2010, the NMFS and FWS were petitioned to revise critical habitat to include 

specified areas off San Miguel, Paulinas, and Convento Beaches in the Northeast Ecological Corridor of 

Puerto Rico (Sierra Club, 2010). In July 2010, the NMFS concluded that the petition did not warrant 

revision of the critical habitat (Federal Register, 2010e). 

3.2.7. Sea Turtle Hearing Capabilities 

Few studies have examined the role acoustic cues play in the ecology of sea turtles (Mrosovsky, 

1972; Samuel et al., 2005; Nunny et al., 2008). There is evidence that sea turtles may use sound to 
A-58 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

communicate, but the few vocalizations described for sea turtles are restricted to the “grunts” of nesting 

females (Mrosovsky, 1972). These sounds are low frequency and relatively loud, thus leading to 

speculation that nesting females use sounds to communicate with conspecifics (Mrosovsky, 1972). Very 

little is known about the extent to which sea turtles use their auditory environment. The acoustic 

environment for sea turtles changes with each ontogenetic habitat shift. In the inshore environment where 

juvenile and adult sea turtles generally reside, the ambient environment is noisier than the open ocean 

environment of the hatchlings; this inshore environment is dominated by low frequency sound (Hawkins 

and Myrberg, 1983) and, in highly trafficked areas, virtually constant low frequency noises from shipping 

and recreational boating (Hildebrand, 2009). 

Much of the research on the hearing capacity of sea turtles is limited to gross morphological 

dissections (Wever, 1978; Lenhardt et al., 1985). Based on the functional morphology of the ear, it 

appears that sea turtles receive sound through the standard vertebrate tympanic middle ear path. The sea 

turtle ear appears to be a poor receptor for aerial sounds but is well adapted to detect underwater sound. 

The dense layer of fat under the tympanum acts as a low-impedance channel for underwater sound. 

Furthermore, the retention of air in the middle ear of these sea turtles suggests that they are able to detect 

sound pressures. 

Electrophysiological studies on hearing have been conducted on juvenile green turtles (Ridgway et 

al., 1969; Bartol and Ketten, 2006), juvenile Kemp’s ridley turtles (Bartol and Ketten, 2006), and juvenile 

loggerhead turtles (Bartol et al., 1999; Lavender et al., 2010, 2011). Electrophysiological responses, 

specifically auditory evoked potentials (AEPs), are the most widely accepted technique for measuring 

hearing in situations in which normal behavioral testing is impractical. Most AEP research has 

concentrated on responses occurring within the first 10 milliseconds (ms) following presentation of a 

click or brief tone, which has been termed the auditory brainstem response (ABR). 

Ridgway et al. (1969) measured AEPs of green turtles using both aerial and vibrational stimuli. 

Green turtles detect a limited frequency range (200-700 Hz) with best sensitivity at the low tone region of 

about 400 Hz. Though this investigation examined two separate modes of sound reception (i.e., air and 

bone conduction), sensitivity curves were relatively similar, suggesting that the inner ear is the main 

structure for determining frequency sensitivity. To measure electrophysiological responses to sound 

stimuli, Bartol et al. (1999) collected ABRs from juvenile loggerhead turtles. Thresholds were recorded 

for both tonal and click stimuli. Best sensitivity was found in the low frequency region of 250-1,000 Hz. 

The decline in sensitivity was rapid above 1,000 Hz, and the most sensitive threshold tested was at 

250 Hz. More recently, Bartol and Ketten (2006) collected underwater ABRs from hatchling and juvenile 

loggerhead and juvenile green turtles using speakers suspended in air while the turtle’s tympanum 

remained submerged. All turtles tested responded to sounds in the low frequency range, from at least 

100 Hz (lowest frequency tested) to no greater than 900 Hz. The smallest turtles tested, hatchling 

loggerheads, had the greatest range of hearing (100-900 Hz), while the larger juveniles responded to a 

much narrower range (100-400 Hz). Hearing sensitivity of green turtles also varied with size; smaller 

greens had a broader range of hearing (100-800 Hz) than that detected in larger subjects (100-500 Hz). 

Using underwater speakers as a sound source, Lavender et al. (2010, 2011) measured underwater AEPs in 

loggerhead turtles ranging from yearlings to subadults and detected responses to frequencies between 

50 and 1,000 Hz. 

3.3. BIRDS

3.3.1. Introduction 

Under the ESA, there are three threatened or endangered species of marine and coastal birds within 

the BA Area: roseate tern, piping plover, and Bermuda petrel (or cahow) (USDOI, FWS, 2011a). In 

addition, there is one “Priority 3” candidate species, the red knot. Candidate species are identified by the 

FWS as species for which sufficient information is available to support a proposal to list as endangered or 

threatened, but for which preparation and publication of a proposal is precluded by higher priority listing 

actions (Federal Register, 2006). The red knot is also protected under the Federal Migratory Bird Treaty 

Act (50 CFR 10.13). 

Piping plover and red knot are shorebirds that are unlikely to come into contact with G&G activities. 

Roseate terns are more likely to come into contact with G&G activities, as they forage offshore and feed 
Biological Assessment A-59

by plunge-diving, often submerging completely when diving for fish. The Bermuda petrel is also known 

to occur within the BA Area but feeds by snatching prey from the sea surface. 

3.3.2. Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) 

3.3.2.1. Species Overview 

The roseate tern is a medium-sized tern. It is a worldwide species that is divided into five subspecies. 

The Atlantic subspecies (S. dougallii dougallii) breeds in two discrete areas in the western hemisphere 

(USDOI, FWS, 1998); these are recognized as separate populations, the northeastern and Caribbean 

populations. The northeastern population, which is endangered, breeds from New York north to Maine 

and into adjacent areas of Canada. However, historically this population bred as far south as Virginia, 

and this state is recognized as the southern extent of breeding by USDOI, FWS (2011b). The Caribbean 

population breeds on islands around the Caribbean Sea from the Florida Keys to the Lesser Antilles; this 

population, which is listed as threatened, also occurs along the U.S. southeast coast, where there are 

occasional breeding records from North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia (USDOI, FWS, 2011b). 

The roseate tern Atlantic subspecies S. d. dougallii is thought to migrate through the eastern 

Caribbean and along the north coast of South America, and to winter mainly on the east coast of Brazil 

(USDOI, FWS, 2011b). The primary reason for the initial listing of the roseate tern was the concentration 

of the population into a small number of breeding sites; in 1998, about 85 percent nested in three colonies 

(USDOI, FWS, 1998). To a lesser extent, declines in population contributed to their listing, with 

approximately 3,400 breeding pairs in 1997 (USDOI, FWS, 1998). The most important factors in 

breeding colony loss were encroachment by herring gulls and/or great black-backed gulls and habitat loss. 

Roseate terns are primarily pelagic along seacoasts, bays, and estuaries, going to land only to nest and 

roost (Sibley, 2000). They breed in colonies almost exclusively on small offshore islands, rarely on large 

islands. The northeastern colonies are on rocky offshore islands, barrier beaches, or salt marsh islands. 

They hide their nests by nesting in dense vegetation, rocks, driftwood, and even tires or wooden boxes. 

Most colonies are close to shallow water fishing sites with sandy bottoms, bars, or shoals. They forage 

offshore and roost in flocks, typically near tidal inlets in late July to mid-September. Along the Atlantic 

coast, they nest on islands on sandy beaches, open bare ground, and grassy areas, typically near areas with 

cover or shelter (Nature Serve, InfoNatura, 2011). 

Roseate terns forage mainly by plunge-diving and contact-dipping or surface dipping over shallow 

sandbars, reefs, or schools of predatory fish. They are adapted for fast flight and relatively deep diving 

and often submerge completely when diving for fish (USDOI, FWS, 2011b). 

3.3.2.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The two populations of the roseate tern subspecies S. d. dougallii may occur within the BA Area. It is 

believed that this species will occur in relatively low numbers since the primary nesting areas are in 

Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts; Great Gull Island, New York; and in the northern Gulf of Maine (USDOI, 

FWS, 1998). 

3.3.2.3. Critical Habitat 

No critical habitat has been designated for the roseate tern. 

3.3.3. Bermuda Petrel (Pterodroma cahow) 

3.3.3.1. Species Overview 

The Bermuda petrel (or cahow, as it is known locally on Bermuda) is a member of the gadfly petrel 

group (Genus Pterodroma), which are highly pelagic birds widespread in tropical and subtropical seas 

(Warham, 1990; Brooke, 2004). The Bermuda petrel and other gadfly petrels are usually colonial when 

breeding but are often solitary at sea, feeding within oceanic waters on surface and near-surface prey. 

They are extremely aerial birds and rarely land on the sea (Warham, 1990). 
A-60 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Bermuda petrels feed by snatching food or “dipping,” or by scavenging dead or dying prey floating 

on or near the sea surface (Warham, 1990). They and other gadfly petrels are known to feed at night, 

primarily on squids but also on fishes and invertebrates to a lesser degree. Studies on other gadfly petrels 

found that their prey consisted of species associated with deep scattering layers (Warham, 1996). 

The Bermuda petrel is a Bermuda endemic species that breeds on rocky inlets in Castle Harbour and 

on Nonsuch Island, Bermuda (October-June) (Warham, 1990; Onley and Scofield, 2007). It was believed 

to be extinct in the 1620’s; however, 18 breeding pairs were found on rocky islets in Castle Harbour in 

1951 and an extensive conservation program has developed. The species’ distribution outside of the 

breeding season is poorly known, though it is probably widespread in the North Atlantic, following the 

warm waters on the western edges of the Gulf Stream. 

Exploitation of nesting Bermuda petrels by early colonists and predation by introduced mammals 

decimated their numbers. They were initially listed by FWS as endangered in 1970 (USDOI, FWS, 

2011c). Successful conservation efforts have increased the population, but it remains listed as endangered 

(Federal Register, 2007). 

3.3.3.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

There are confirmed sightings of Bermuda petrels offshore of North Carolina (Lee, 1984, 1987). 

From these sightings data, it is presumed that this species may occur within offshore waters of the BA 

Area, although their presence in this area is probably rare. 

3.3.3.3. Critical Habitat 

No critical habitat has been designated for the Bermuda petrel. 

3.3.4. Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) 

3.3.4.1. Species Overview 

The piping plover is a small, migrant shorebird that breeds on beaches from Newfoundland to 

North Carolina (and occasionally south to South Carolina) and winters along the Atlantic coast from 

North Carolina south, along the Gulf Coast, and in the Caribbean (USDOI, FWS, 1996). Piping plovers 

that breed on the Atlantic coast belong to the subspecies Charadrius melodus melodus (USDOI, FWS, 

2009). The Atlantic coast population is classified as threatened, whereas other piping plover populations 

inhabiting the Northern Great Plains and Great Lakes watersheds are endangered (USDOI, FWS, 2011d). 

A key threat to the Atlantic coast population of the piping plover is habitat loss due to shoreline 

development (USDOI, FWS, 1996). Piping plovers are very sensitive to human activities, and 

disturbances from anthropogenic activities can cause the parent birds to abandon their nests. Since the 

listing of this species under the ESA in 1986, the Atlantic coast piping plover population has increased 

234 percent, from approximately 790 breeding pairs to an estimated 1,849 pairs in 2009 (USDOI, FWS, 

2009). Although increased abundance has reduced near-term vulnerability to extinction, piping plovers 

remain sparsely distributed across their Atlantic coast breeding range, and populations are highly 

vulnerable to even small declines in survival rates of adults and fledged juveniles (USDOI, FWS, 2009). 

Piping plovers inhabit coastal sandy beaches and mudflats. They use open, sandy beaches close to 

the primary dune of the barrier islands for breeding, preferring sparsely vegetated open sand, gravel, or 

cobble for a nest site. They feed on marine worms, fly larvae, beetles, insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and 

other small invertebrates. They forage along the wrack zone, or line, where dead or dying seaweed, 

marsh grass, and other debris is left on the upper beach by the high tide (USDOI, FWS, 2011d). 

3.3.4.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Piping plovers may occur on beaches and flats throughout the BA Area, primarily in the winter 

(Figure A-14). 
Biological Assessment A-61

Figure A-14. Locations of Winter and Summer Congregations of Piping Plovers. Source: USDOI, FWS 

(2012). 

3.3.4.3. Critical Habitat 

The FWS first designated critical habitat for the wintering population of piping plovers in 142 areas 

along the coasts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, 

and Texas on July 10, 2001 (Federal Register, 2001). Critical habitat areas were subsequently revised in 

North Carolina in 2008 (Federal Register, 2008) and in Texas in 2009 (Federal Register, 2009). 

3.3.5. Red Knot (Calidris canutus) 

3.3.5.1. Species Overview 

The red knot is a medium-sized shorebird that migrates in large flocks long distances between 

breeding grounds in mid- and high-Arctic areas and wintering grounds in southern South America 

(USDOI, FWS, 2010a), flying more than 14,967 km (9,300 mi) from south to north, making this bird one 

of the longest-distance migrants in the animal kingdom. Along the Mid-Atlantic and southeastern coasts, 

red knots forage along sandy beaches, tidal mudflats, salt marshes, and peat banks (USDOI, FWS, 

2010a). In Delaware Bay, they feed primarily on horseshoe crab eggs, and the timing of their arrival 

within the bay typically coincides with the annual peak of the horseshoe crab spawning period (USDOI, 

FWS, 2010a). 

This species was added to the list of candidate species under the ESA in September 2006 

(Federal Register, 2006). Surveys at wintering areas and in Delaware Bay during spring migration 

indicated a substantial decline in the red knot population in recent years (USDOI, FWS, 2010a,b). The 

primary threat to the red knot is a decrease in the availability of horseshoe crab eggs, since horseshoe 

crabs are harvested primarily for use as bait and secondarily to support a biomedical industry (USDOI, 
A-62 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

FWS, 2010a,b). Other identified threat factors include habitat destruction due to beach erosion and 

various shoreline protection and stabilization projects, the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms, 

human disturbance, and competition with other species for limited food resources. 

Red knots migrate northward through the contiguous U.S. in April-June and southward in 

July-October. Delaware Bay is the most important spring migration stopover in the eastern U.S. because 

it is the final stop at which the birds can refuel in preparation for their nonstop leg to the Arctic (USDOI, 

FWS, 2010a; NatureServe, InfoNatura, 2011). Approximately 90 percent of the entire population of red 

knot can be present in Delaware Bay in a single day (USDOI, FWS, 2010a). In addition to the large 

flocks traditionally found in Delaware Bay, flocks of up to 6,000 red knots have been observed from 

Georgia to Virginia in recent years (USDOI, FWS, 2010a). 

3.3.5.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Red knots may occur on beaches and flats throughout the BA Area, primarily as stopovers during 

spring and fall migrations. No nesting or breeding occurs in the BA Area, as red knots breed in the 

central Canadian Arctic (USDOI, FWS, 2010a).

3.3.5.3. Critical Habitat 

No critical habitat has been designated for the red knot. 

3.4. FISHES

3.4.1. Introduction 

Three fish species presently listed as endangered under the ESA are known to occur within the BA 

Area: smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon. On November 2, 2011, the NMFS 

announced that two anadromous species – the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and the blueback herring 

(Alosa aestivalis) – were undergoing a status review to be listed as threatened (Federal Register, 2011d). 

Both of these species occur in the BA Area as adults and are currently “candidate” species for listing 

under ESA. 

3.4.2. Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinata) 

3.4.2.1. Species Overview 

Despite their elongated, shark-like appearance, sawfishes (Family Pristidae) actually are more closely 

related to skates and rays (Suborder Batoidei). Sawfishes get their name from their “saws,” which are 

long, flat snouts edged with pairs of teeth that are used to locate, stun, and kill prey. Seven species of 

sawfishes are found in shelf, coastal, estuarine, and riverine waters worldwide, and all are imperiled 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2006). Two species occur in the western Atlantic: largetooth sawfish (Pristis 

perotteti) and smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) (McEachran and de Carvalho, 2002). The smalltooth 

sawfish was listed as endangered in 2003 after NMFS was petitioned by the Ocean Conservancy (Federal 

Register, 2003). In 2009, smalltooth sawfish critical habitat was delineated and published 

(74 CFR 45353). 

The smalltooth sawfish historically occurred throughout the Gulf of Mexico and north to Long Island 

Sound on the east coast. This range has greatly receded over the past 200 years, leaving a single DPS in 

southwest Florida, which is where the critical habitat has been designated for this species (Figure A-15). 

The smalltooth sawfish normally inhabits shallow waters (10 m [33 ft] or less) often near river 

mouths or in estuarine lagoons over sandy or muddy substrates, but may also occur in deeper waters 

(~70 m [230 ft]) of the continental shelf. Shallow water less than 1 m (3 ft) appears to be an important 

nursery area for young smalltooth sawfish, particularly in areas where mangrove trees are present. 
Biological Assessment A-63

Figure A-15. Location of Critical Habitat for the Smalltooth Sawfish. Source: USDOC, NMFS (2011f). 
A-64 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Smalltooth sawfish reproduce by internal fertilization. Males mature between 10 and 20 years at an 

average size of 253-351 cm (8.3-11.5 ft) total length. Size and age at maturity is not known for females 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2009a, 2011e). Females bear live young, and litters reportedly range from 

15-20 embryos requiring a year of gestation (USDOC, NMFS, 2009a). Smalltooth sawfish grow to a 

maximum size of 7.6 m (24.7 ft) an age of 60 years. Coarse estimates of growth rates show that early 

juveniles grow rapidly during the first 2 years then slow considerably. 

Smalltooth sawfish feed on benthic invertebrates and fishes. The saw has been considered as a 

trophic apparatus, used to herd and even impale shallow-water schooling fishes such as herrings and 

mullets (Breder, 1952). It appears more likely that the saw is used to rake the seafloor to uncover 

partially buried invertebrates. 

Small juvenile sawfishes may be susceptible to predation from bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) and 

lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris) that inhabit similar water depths as the smalltooth sawfish. The 

toothed saw of fish of all sizes will readily entangle in nets, ropes, monofilament line, discarded pipe 

sections, and other debris (Seitz and Poulakis, 2006). Some sawfishes are caught incidentally on hook 

and line by fishers seeking sharks, tarpon, or groupers, and though most are released unharmed, many of 

these interactions will result in death of the individual. There was and may still be some incentive to 

collect the saws as curios, but this has not been well documented. 

3.4.2.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The current distribution and abundance of smalltooth sawfish are centered along the coast of 

southwest Florida (USDOC, NMFS, 2009a). Historically, smalltooth sawfish were supported year-round 

in the BA Area as far north as northern Florida, but north of Florida they were seasonal visitors (Bigelow 

and Schroeder, 1953). Population status in areas north of southern Florida is virtually unknown. A 

search of the National Sawfish Encounter Database (Simpfendorfer and Wiley, 2006) managed by the 

Florida Museum of Natural History Sawfish Implementation Team revealed only two recent sightings of 

smalltooth sawfish in the BA Area (Figure A-16): one off Florida, and another from Georgia reported by 

a bottom longline fishery observer who documented the capture of an estimated 4.0-m (13-ft) adult from 

depths of 45.6-72.6 m (152-242 ft). 

3.4.2.3. Critical Habitat 

Presently the core of the smalltooth sawfish DPS is surviving and reproducing in the waters of 

southwest Florida and Florida Bay, primarily within the jurisdictional boundaries of Everglades National 

Park, where important habitat features are still present and less fragmented than other parts of the historic 

range (Simpfendorfer and Wiley, 2005; USDOC, NMFS, 2009a). This area also encompasses the critical 

habitat as listed in Federal regulations (74 CFR 45353). 

3.4.3. Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) 

3.4.3.1. Species Overview 

The shortnose sturgeon belongs to the family Acipenseridae and is one of several members of the 

family found exclusively in North America. This species was originally listed as endangered on 

March 11, 1967 (Federal Register, 1967) under the Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966. 

Subsequently, NMFS prepared a recovery plan for the species under the ESA (Federal Register, 1998b), 

and at present 19 east coast rivers are considered to support DPSs (Figure A-17) (USDOC, NMFS, 

1998b). Population declines were attributed to habitat loss or alteration, pollution, and incidental capture 

in nets set for other species. 
Biological Assessment A-65

Figure A-16. Locations of All Smalltooth Sawfish Sightings Recorded from 1999-2009. 

Source: National Sawfish Encounter Database (2011). 
A-66 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-17. Locations of Distinct Population Segments for the Shortnose Sturgeon. Source: USDOC, 

NMFS (1998b). 
Biological Assessment A-67

Shortnose sturgeon use of saltwater is generally amphidromous throughout most of the species' range, 

although far northern populations are anadromous. Spawning takes place in upper freshwater areas, while 

feeding (summering) and wintering occurs in both fresh and saline environments. This species typically 

spends its entire life history in the natal river and estuary and only rarely moves any great distance in 

near-coastal marine waters. The shortnose sturgeon is found in larger rivers and estuaries of the North 

America eastern seaboard from the St. Johns River in Florida to the St. Johns River in Canada. Adults 

ascend rivers to spawn from February-April; eggs are deposited over hard bottom, in shallow, 

fast-moving water (Dadswell et al., 1984; Murdy et al., 1997). Fecundity ranges from 

27,000-208,000 eggs per female (Murdy et al., 1997). Growth is relatively slow, with females reaching 

maturity in 6-7 years whereas males mature in 3-5 years. Shortnose sturgeon can live to be over 67 years, 

with an average life span of 30-40 years. 

3.4.3.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

The shortnose sturgeon is primarily an estuarine and riverine species and rarely enters the coastal 

ocean of the BA Area. Most of the river systems where DPSs exist are in North Carolina, South Carolina, 

Georgia, and northern Florida (USDOC, NMFS, 1998b). Although these systems drain into the estuaries 

or the coastal ocean portion of the BA Area, shortnose sturgeon have rarely been found in coastal or shelf 

waters (Dadswell et al., 1984; Moser and Ross, 1995; Collins and Smith, 1997). Collins and Smith 

(1997) reviewed available records and reported 39 individuals ranging from 60-100 cm (2-3.3 ft) total 

length caught offshore of South Carolina from January-March. Dadswell et al. (1984) reported 

eight records from the Atlantic Ocean between Cape Henry, Virginia, and Cape Fear, North Carolina. 

3.4.3.3. Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat has not been designated for individual shortnose sturgeon DPSs due to lack of 

population-specific data (USDOC, NMFS, 1998b). 

3.4.4. Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) 

3.4.4.1. Species Overview 

The Atlantic sturgeon is a member of the family Acipenseridae. Atlantic sturgeon co-occurs with 

shortnose sturgeon (see Section 3.4.3) in some habitats and utilizes coastal rivers, estuaries, and the 

continental shelf during its ontogeny. 

The National Resources Defense Council (NRDC) petitioned NMFS to list the Atlantic sturgeon as 

endangered (NRDC, 2009). The NRDC requested that the species be segregated into five separate DPSs, 

including the Gulf of Maine, New York Bight, Chesapeake Bay, Carolina, and South Atlantic 

(Figure A-18). On February 6, 2012, the NMFS issued final rules classifying the Gulf of Maine DPS as 

threatened and the other four DPSs as endangered (Federal Register, 2012b,c). Based on information 

provided in the NMFS final rule, the four endangered DPSs (New York Bight, Chesapeake Bay, Carolina, 

and South Atlantic) could be represented within the BA area. 

The Atlantic sturgeon is an anadromous species that resides in 32 coastal rivers of North America 

from the St. Johns River in Florida northward to Hamilton Inlet, Labrador. Spawning occurs in the 

freshwater reaches of 14 of these 32 rivers. The Atlantic sturgeon uses estuarine and marine waters 

primarily during fall and winter months then ascends the spawning rivers from March-April. Mature 

females produce between 400,000 and 8,000,000 adhesive eggs that attach to gravel or other hard 

substrata on the river bed. Larvae develop as they move downstream to the estuarine portion of the 

spawning river where they reside as juveniles for 2-6 years. Adults live for up to 60 years. Age at 

maturity varies with subpopulation but ranges from 5-10 years in South Carolina to 22-34 years in the 

St. Lawrence River, Canada. 
A-68 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Chesapeake 

Ba

C

y DPS

hesapeake 

Bay DPS

South 

Atlantic

DPS

South 

Atlantic

Carolina 

DPS

Carolina 

Gulf of 

Maine DPS

New York 

Bight DPS

New York

Bight DPS

Figure A-18. Locations of Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) for the Atlantic Sturgeon (From: 

Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team, 2007). 
Biological Assessment A-69

Atlantic sturgeon are generally slow growing and late maturing, and mature individuals may not 

spawn every year (generally 1-5 years between spawning events). Spawning takes place in flowing 

freshwater. Subadults will move into coastal ocean waters where they may undergo extensive movements 

usually confined to shelly or gravelly bottoms in 10-50 m (33-164 ft) water depths (Stein et al., 2004). 

Areas of particular concentration were identified by Laney et al. (2007) as offshore (water depth between 

9.1 and 21.3 m [30 and 70 ft]) of Virginia and near sand shoals adjacent to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina. 

Populations from several rivers will intermingle in shelf waters, eventually returning to their natal rivers 

to spawn. 

3.4.4.2. Presence and Abundance within the Biological Assessment Area 

Adult and subadult Atlantic sturgeon occur in the shelf waters of the BA Area during fall and winter 

months. Evidence from extensive tagging programs using trawl-caught fish indicate that shelf areas less 

than 21.3 m (70 ft) deep offshore of Virginia and North Carolina support concentrations of Atlantic 

sturgeon during fall and winter months (Laney et al., 2007; Dunton et al., 2010). Data are lacking for 

areas south of Cape Hatteras. Satellite tracking confirmed the depth preferences and geographic areas 

generated from conventional trawl gear (Erickson et al., 2011). Based on their size, most of the 

individuals caught within the BA Area were immature or subadult fish (Stein et al., 2004; Laney et al., 

2007). 

3.4.4.3. Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat has not been designated for Atlantic sturgeon. 

3.4.5. Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) 

3.4.5.1 Species Overview 

On August 5, 2011, the NMFS was petitioned by the NRDC requesting that the alewife (Alosa 

pseudoharengus) be listed as threatened under the ESA as four DPSs: Central New England, Long Island 

Sound, Chesapeake Bay, and Carolina. The NMFS published the proposed listing in the Federal Register

on November 2, 2011 (Federal Register, 2011d). 

3.4.5.2. Presence and Abundance with the Biological Assessment Area 

The alewife is found along the coast of eastern North America from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to South 

Carolina (Kells and Carpenter, 2011). Abundance of alewives as indicated by fishery landings has 

peaked during the late 1950’s and has steadily declined since that time (USDOC, NMFS, 2009b). 

Specific causes of the decline have not been determined; however, overfishing and loss of riverine 

spawning habitat are likely candidates. 

The alewife is an anadromous species that resides in the ocean for most of its adult life but spawns in 

freshwater reaches of coastal rivers within its geographical range. During fall and winter, most of the 

population overwinters in coastal waters of the continental shelf. Alewives were most abundant in 184 to 

361 ft (56 to 110 m) water depths (Neves, 1981). In spring (March through May) when water 

temperatures reach 46-54°F (8-12°C), mature adults averaging between 3 and 4 years of age enter coastal 

rivers and migrate to freshwater to spawn (Scott and Scott, 1988). Females produce between 48,000 and 

360,000 eggs that are fertilized in the water column. The eggs are adhesive and will stick to vegetation 

and other substrata. Eggs hatch after about 3-5 days. Young make their way downstream, concentrating 

in estuaries where they grow rapidly durng the first year (Scott and Scott, 1988). After spawning, the 

adults return to the sea where they feed on a variety of planktonic organisms. 

3.4.5.3. Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat has not been designated for the alewife. 
A-70 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

3.4.6. Blueback Herring (Alosa aestivalis) 

3.4.6.1 Species Overview 

On August 5, 2011, the NMFS was petitioned by the NRDC requesting that the blueback herring be 

listed as threatened under the ESA throughout much of its geographic range. The NRDC requested that 

the species be segregated into three DPSs: Central New England, Long Island Sound, and Chesapeake 

Bay. The NMFS published the proposed listing in the Federal Register on November 2, 2011 (Federal 

Register, 2011d). 

3.4.6.2 Presence and Abundance with the Biological Assessment Area 

The blueback herring is found from Nova Scotia to the St. Johns River in northern Florida (Kells and 

Carpenter, 2011). Blueback herring abundance in the BA Area as indicated by fishery landings has 

dropped since the late 1950’s. Reasons for the decline are assumed to include overfishing (including 

incidental landings by mid-water trawl fisheries) and habitat degredation (particularly for spawning 

rivers) (USDOC, NMFS, 2009b). 

The blueback herring is an anadromous species that lives in the marine environment but ascends 

freshwater rivers to spawn. Adults occur primarily in coastal and inner shelf waters but also occur over 

the outer shelf. In shelf waters, preferred depth range for adults is 88-180 ft (27-55 m) (Neves, 1981). 

During summer, the greastest abundances were recorded from Georges Bank and Nantucket Shoal. In 

winter, adults are distributed from Cape Hatteras to the Gulf of Maine (Neves, 1981). The blueback 

herring is a coastal migratory pelagic that forms large schools and feeds on plankton. These schools 

undergo vertical migration in response to water temperature and plankton productivity. Water 

temperature initiates spawning migrations, which generally occur from March-May. Mature fish enter 

rivers when water temperatures drop to between 41 and 50°F (5 and 10°C). Evidence suggests that 

individual fish return to natal rivers to spawn. Spawning takes place in moving freshwaters, generally 

over hard substrate. Young reside in fresh or brackish waters including ponds and lakes with access to 

the ocean (Loesch and Lund, 1977). 

3.4.6.3. Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat has not been designated for the blueback herring. 

3.4.7. Fish Hearing Capabilities 

Sound plays a major role in the lives of all fishes (e.g., Zelick et al., 1999; Fay and Popper, 2000). 

This is particularly the case since sound travels much farther in water than other potential signals, and it is 

not impeded by darkness, currents, or obstacles in the environment. Thus, fishes can glean a great deal of 

information about biotic (living) and abiotic (environmental) sources and get a good “image” of the 

environment (Fay and Popper, 2000; Popper et al., 2003; Slabbekoorn et al., 2010). 

In addition to listening to the overall environment and being able to detect sounds of biological 

relevance (e.g., sounds produced by swimming predators), many species of bony fishes (but not 

elasmobranchs, a group that includes the smalltooth sawfish) communicate with sounds and use sounds in 

a wide range of behaviors including, but not limited to, mating and territorial interactions (see 

Zelick et al., 1999 for review). Consequently, anything that impedes the ability of fishes to hear 

biologically relevant sounds such as those produced by anthropogenic sound sources could interfere with 

normal behaviors. Much more detailed discussions of all aspects of fish bioacoustics can be found in Fay 

and Megala-Simmons (1999), Zelick et al. (1999), Popper et al. (2003), and Webb et al. (2008). A broad 

discussion of interactions of anthropogenic sounds and fishes can be found in Popper and Hastings 

(2009a,b) and Popper and Hawkins (2011). 

Besides being able to detect sounds, a critical role for hearing is to be able to discriminate between 

different sounds (e.g., frequency and intensity), detect biologically relevant sounds in the presence of 

background noises (called maskers), and determine the direction and location of a sound source in the 

space around the animal. While actual data on these tasks are available for only a few fish species, all 
Biological Assessment A-71

species are likely to have similar capabilities (reviewed in Fay and Megela-Simmons, 1999; Popper et al., 

2003; Fay, 2005). 

Sensory hair cells in fishes, as in mammals (including humans), can be damaged or killed by 

exposure to very loud sounds (Le Prell et al., 2011). In humans, sensory cells that die are not replaced, 

resulting in deafness, whereas fishes are able to repair and replace cells that die (Lombarte et al., 1993; 

Smith et al., 2006). Moreover, whereas in humans the ear has its full complement of sensory hair cells at 

birth, fishes continue to produce sensory hair cells for much of their lives, resulting in an increase in 

sensory hair cells as they age (Popper and Hoxter, 1984; Lombarte and Popper, 1994). Because fishes 

have the ability to repair damaged sensory hair cells and continuously increase their number, they are not 

likely to become permanently deaf. There is some chance of temporary hearing loss, but this is quickly 

repaired (Smith et al., 2006), and there is no evidence in fishes for permanent hearing loss. 

Basic data on hearing provide information about the range of frequencies that a fish can detect and the 

lowest sound level that an animal is able to detect at a particular frequency. Hearing thresholds have been 

determined for perhaps 100 species (Fay, 1988; Popper et al., 2003; Ladich and Popper, 2004; Nedwell et 

al., 2004; Ramcharitar et al., 2006; Popper and Schilt, 2008). With few exceptions, fishes cannot hear 

sounds above about 3-4 kHz, and the majority of species are only able to detect sounds ≤1 kHz. Most, if 

not all, fishes can detect sounds to below 100 Hz and likely to below 50 Hz. There have also been studies 

on a few species of cartilaginous fishes (a group that includes sawfishes), with results suggesting that they 

detect sounds to no more than 600 or 800 Hz (e.g., Myrberg et al., 1976; Myrberg, 2001; Casper et al., 

2003; Casper and Mann, 2006). 

The data available, while very limited, suggest that the majority of marine species do not have 

specializations to enhance hearing and probably rely on both particle motion and sound pressure for 

hearing. Hearing capabilities vary considerably between different bony fish species, and there is no clear 

correlation between hearing capability and environment. There is also broad variability in hearing 

capabilities within fish families. 

Appendix J of the Draft Programmatic EIS categorizes fishes into four groups based on their hearing 

capabilities. Sawfishes are in Group 1, which consists of fishes that do not have a swim bladder. These 

fishes are likely to use only particle motion for sound detection. The highest frequency of hearing is 

likely to be no greater than 400 Hz, with poor sensitivity compared to fishes with a swim bladder. 

Sturgeons are in Group 2, which includes fishes that detect sounds from below 50 Hz to perhaps 

800-1,000 Hz (though several probably detect sounds only to 600-800 Hz). These fishes have a swim 

bladder but no known structures in the auditory system that would enhance hearing, and sensitivity 

(lowest sound detectable at any frequency) is not very great. These species detect both particle motion 

and pressure, and the differences between species are related to how well the species can use the pressure 

signal. 

4. ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE 

The environmental baseline includes the past and present impacts of all Federal, State, or private 

actions and other human activities in the action area, the anticipated impacts of all proposed Federal 

projects in the action area that have already undergone formal or early Section 7 consultation, and the 

impact of State or private actions that are contemporaneous with the consultation in process 

(50 CFR 402.02). 

4.1. FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIES WITHIN THE BIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 

AREA

Historical and ongoing activities that shape the environmental baseline in the BA Area include 

shipping and marine transportation, commercial and recreational fishing, military range complexes and 

civilian space program use, sand and gravel mining and beach restoration, renewable energy 

development, oil and gas exploration and development, liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals, 

dredging and dredged material disposal, and coastal development. 
A-72 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

4.1.1. Shipping and Marine Transportation 

Commercial, military, and recreational shipping and marine transportation is common and widespread 

throughout the BA Area. The passage of large commercial ships along the inner shelf is limited to 

shipping fairways and navigation channels that are designed to control the movement of vessels as they 

approach ports. Six large, commercial ports are found along the coastline adjacent to the BA Area: 

 Norfolk, Virginia (Port of Virginia); 

 Wilmington, North Carolina; 

 Charleston, South Carolina; 

 Savannah, Georgia; 

 Brunswick, Georgia; and 

 Jacksonville, Florida. 

In addition, Delaware Bay provides access to Delaware River ports and terminals in the Wilmington, 

Delaware, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, areas. Chesapeake Bay provides access to the Port of 

Baltimore and numerous smaller ports in Maryland and Virginia. 

Large commercial vessels (cargo ships, tankers, and container ships) use these ports to access 

overland rail and road routes to transport goods throughout the U.S. Other vessels using these ports 

include military vessels, commercial business craft (tug boats, fishing vessels, and ferries), commercial 

recreational craft (cruise ships and fishing/sightseeing/diving charters), research vessels, and personal 

craft (fishing boats, house boats, yachts and sailboats, and other pleasure craft). 

The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) designates shipping fairways and establishes traffic separation 

schemes that control the movement of vessels as they approach ports (33 CFR Part 166). Each of the 

ports is serviced by a navigation channel maintained by the COE. Traffic fairways and the buoys and 

beacons that serve as aids to navigation are identified on NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey’s navigation 

charts. However, smaller commercial, military, and recreational vessels may travel throughout the BA 

Area. In offshore waters outside of certain regulated channels, vessel speed is not regulated. 

Historical and ongoing effects on listed species from shipping and marine transportation include 

vessel strikes; disturbance by vessel traffic and noise; accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and 

oil spills due to vessel collisions or other accidents. 

4.1.2. Commercial and Recreational Fishing 

The Mid- and South Atlantic coastal states support a regionally and nationally important commercial 

fishing industry (Southwick Associates, Inc., 2006; USDOC, NMFS, 2009c). Chapters 4.2.7 and 4.2.8

of the Draft Programmatic EIS provide additional information about commercial and recreational fishing 

activities in the BA Area. 

Commercial fisheries within the BA Area can be generally categorized into four zones according to 

where species can be found in the water column and distance from shore. In general, these zones are as 

follows: 

 benthic: inshore (~4.88 km [3 mi]) to offshore (~32 km [20 mi]); species found 

within bottom sediments or along the seafloor; 

 demersal: inshore (~4.88 km [3 mi]) to offshore (~32 km [20 mi]); species 

associated with the bottom (1-2 m [3.3-6.6 ft] above the seafloor) but that are not 

found within the bottom sediments; 

 coastal pelagic: mid-water and surface (~8-32 km [5-20 mi] from shore); and 

 pelagic: mid-water (mesopelagic) and surface (epipelagic); >64 km (40 mi) from 

shore. 

The main commercial fishing gears used along the Atlantic east coast are pots/traps, dredges, trawls, 

longlines (bottom and pelagic), gillnets, purse seines, and pound nets (Chuenpagdee et al., 2003; 

Stevenson et al., 2004). 

Recreational fishing can be classified as nearshore or offshore, depending on the size of vessel and its 

fishing location (distance from shore). Nearshore recreational fishing (<4.8 km [3.0 mi]) consists of 

anglers fishing from private vessels, beaches, marshes, or manmade structures (e.g., jetties, docks, and 
Biological Assessment A-73

piers), whereas offshore fishing consists of anglers fishing from larger vessels (private, rental, charter, or 

party) in offshore waters (>4.8 km [3.0 mi]). 

Historical and ongoing effects on listed species from commercial and recreational fishing include 

vessel strikes; disturbance by vessel traffic and noise; entanglement in lost or discarded fishing gear; 

incidental taking of demersal fish species as bycatch; effects on prey species due to direct taking of fish 

and shellfish resources including targeted species and bycatch; and oil spills due to vessel collisions or 

other accidents. 

4.1.3. Military Range Complexes and Civilian Space Program Use 

Military range complexes and civilian space program use areas, including restricted areas and danger 

zones, are established in areas off U.S. coastlines to allow military forces to conduct training and testing 

activities. Most of the BA Area is within military range complexes and civilian space program use areas, 

as shown in Figure A-19. Military activities can include various air-to-air, air-to-surface, and 

surface-to-surface naval fleet training, submarine and antisubmarine training, and Air Force exercises. 

The five military-related restricted areas operated by the DOD within the BA Area extend from 

Chesapeake Bay to Jacksonville, Florida (Figure A-19). The Atlantic Fleet training Virginia Capes 

(VACAPES) Range Complex extends along the coastlines of Delaware, Maryland, and North Carolina 

(U.S. Fleet Forces, 2009). Within the VACAPES Range Complex, the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA), Goddard Space Flight Center’s Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) owns and 

operates a launch range on Virginia’s eastern shore. The WFF serves as a flight test site for aerodynamic 

research, and NASA conducts science, technology, and educational flight projects from WFF aboard 

rockets, balloons, and unmanned aerial vehicles, using the Atlantic waters for operations on almost a daily 

basis. The WFF is also home to several critical DOD programs. The Cherry Point Complex extends 

along the coastline of central North Carolina, and the Charleston Complex extends along the coastline of 

southern North Carolina and South Carolina. The Jacksonville Complex extends along the coastlines of 

Georgia and north Florida to the Merritt Island NWR. The fifth military area is the Cape Canaveral 

Operating Area (OPAREA), which is located along the coastline of Merritt Island (Figure A-19). 

Training exercises include mine, surface, amphibious, and strike warfare involving bombing and missile 

exercises and mine neutralization. Airborne, surface, and submarine activities are involved. Within the 

VACAPES Range Complex, five mission impact areas are present that are the debris cones for rocket 

tests and detonations performed between 2005 and 2007 (Figure A-19). These areas were showered with 

debris ranging in size from golf balls to the size of a small automobile. 

Military range complexes and civilian space program use areas are designated for Joint Base 

Charleston, a combined Air Force and Navy installation in South Carolina, and Parris Island, a marine 

training facility also in South Carolina. A Danger Zone is also designated offshore Camp Lejeune, North 

Carolina. 

Three military facilities are located at the Port of Jacksonville: the Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, 

Naval Air Station Jacksonville, and Naval Station Mayport; together, these facilities represent the third 

largest concentration of the U.S. Naval fleet in the U.S. (World Port Source, 2011). These facilities also 

make use of offshore military range complexes and civilian space program use areas. 

Military and civilian uses of the offshore sea and air areas are compatible, with Navy ships 

accounting for 3 percent of the total ship presence out to 371 km (200 nmi) (U.S. Fleet Forces, 2009). 

Where naval vessels and aircraft conduct operations that are not compatible with commercial or 

recreational transportation, they are confined to OPAREAs away from commercially used waterways and 

inside Special Use Airspace (U.S. Fleet Forces, 2009). Hazardous operations are communicated to all 

vessels and operators by use of Notices to Mariners issued by the USCG and Notices to Airmen issued by 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 

The NASA also has designated danger zones and restricted areas for rocket testing and shuttle 

launches. Within the BA Area, NASA restricted areas include Wallops Island in Virginia and offshore of 

the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral. The limits of the areas are established offshore of the 

facilities, and access is restricted during rocket and shuttle launch activities (33 CFR 334.525). 

Historical and ongoing effects on listed species from military use include vessel strikes; disturbance 

by underwater noise from sonars, explosives, and other active acoustic sound sources; disturbance by 

vessel traffic and noise; disturbance by aircraft traffic and noise; accidental releases of trash and marine 

debris; and oil spills due to vessel collisions or other accidents. 
A-74 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-19. Military Use, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)-Restricted, and 

Ordnance Disposal Areas along the Atlantic Coast. Source: Naval Facilities Engineering 

Command; 33 CFR 334.595; 33 CFR 334.130. 
Biological Assessment A-75

4.1.4. Sand and Gravel Mining and Beach Restoration 

The BOEM may offer and enter into a noncompetitive, negotiated lease for sand, shell, or gravel 

resources following 1994 amendments to the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) (P.L. 103-426) 

for certain types of projects funded in whole or part by, or authorized by, the Federal Government. The 

Shore Protection Provisions of the Water Resource Development Act of 1999 amended P.L. 103-426 and 

prohibited charging State and local governments a fee for using OCS sand. For all other uses, a 

competitive bidding process is required under Section 8(k)(1) of the OCSLA. The Marine Minerals 

Program administered by BOEM is dominated by the identification and use of OCS sand for beach 

nourishment and coastal restoration projects (USDOI, BOEM, 2011c). Figure A-3 shows the past and 

recent locations of OCS sand and gravel borrow areas within the BA Area. Locations are as follows: 

 Great Gull Bank Borrow Area (offshore Ocean City, Maryland); 

 Sandbridge Shoal Borrow Area (offshore Virginia Beach, Virginia); 

 Little River Borrow Area (offshore North Myrtle Beach, South Carolina); 

 Cane South Borrow Area (offshore Myrtle Beach, South Carolina); 

 Surfside Borrow Area (offshore Garden City, South Carolina); 

 Jacksonville Borrow Area (offshore Jacksonville, Florida); and 

 Canaveral Shoals Borrow Area (offshore Brevard County, Florida). 

To date, BOEM has conveyed rights to about 30 million cubic yards of OCS sand for 23 coastal 

restoration projects in five states. Some of these projects were done on an emergency basis, where 

imminent breaching of barrier islands was prevented by the rapid placement of OCS sand. Most of these 

projects used sand that was previously identified by the BOEM through its cooperative sand evaluation 

program with coastal states (USDOI, BOEM, 2011c). 

Historical effects on listed species from marine minerals activities include vessel strikes; disturbance 

by vessel traffic and noise; incidental taking of sea turtles and demersal fishes (e.g., by hopper dredges); 

indirect effects due to alteration of benthic habitats and resulting impacts on prey species; accidental 

releases of trash and marine debris; and oil spills due to vessel collisions or other accidents. 

Additional impacts can occur onshore when OCS sand deposits are used for beach restoration. 

Within the BA Area, beaches are used by sea turtles (mostly loggerheads) for nesting, by piping plovers 

for foraging (and occasional nesting), and by red knots for foraging. Beach restoration activities can 

disturb these species and affect the availability and quality of beach habitat. For example, although 

additional sand may increase the amount of nesting habitat for sea turtles, the quality of the habitat may 

be less suitable for nesting (Conant et al., 2009). 

Future marine minerals activities involving OCS sand resources would require separate ESA 

consultation and are not part of the environmental baseline. 

4.1.5. Renewable Energy Development 

There are currently no renewable energy developments within the BA Area. The BOEM has initiated 

early ESA consultation with for renewable energy activities in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area offshore 

Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia (Figure A-2). In January 2012, BOEM issued a Final Environmental 

Assessment for these areas (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). Potential impacts on listed species from renewable 

energy site characterization activities include vessel strikes; disturbance by underwater noise from active 

acoustic sound sources during HRG surveys; disturbance by vessel traffic and noise; disturbance by 

aircraft traffic and noise; accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and oil spills due to vessel 

collisions or other accidents. 

4.1.6. Oil and Gas Exploration and Development 

There are currently no active oil and gas leases or oil and gas exploration, development, or production 

activities on the Atlantic OCS. Ten oil and gas lease sales were held in the Atlantic between 1976 and 

1983. Historically, 51 wells were drilled on the Atlantic OCS between 1975 and 1984, including 1 well 

in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area and 7 wells in the South Atlantic Planning Area (USDOI, MMS, 

2008b). Due to the limited scale of these historical activities and the time elapsed since they were 

conducted, these activities are estimated to have no discernable impact on the baseline for listed species in 
A-76 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

the BA Area. Any future oil and gas exploration and development activities would require separate ESA 

consultation and are not part of the environmental baseline. 

4.1.7. Liquefied Natural Gas Import Terminals 

Liquefied natural gas is a form of natural gas that is used mainly for transport to markets, where the 

liquid is regasified and distributed via pipeline networks. In the U.S., LNG is imported through both 

offshore and onshore terminals. Licensing of offshore LNG terminals (deepwater ports) is under the 

jurisdiction of the USCG and the Maritime Administration (MARAD). Onshore LNG terminals are 

licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). There are two USCG/MARAD 

licensed deepwater ports offshore the Atlantic coast – Neptune and Northeast Gateway, both located 

offshore Massachusetts. There are no active, pending applications for deepwater ports on the Atlantic 

coast (U.S. Department of Homeland Security [USDHS], USCG, 2011a). There are three FERC-licensed 

LNG terminals in Atlantic states – Everett, Massachusetts; Cove Point, Maryland; and Elba Island, 

Georgia (FERC, 2012). 

Any future LNG port construction would require separate ESA consultation and is not part of the 

environmental baseline. 

Historical impacts on listed species from construction of LNG terminals may have included 

disturbance by underwater noise from pile driving and other active acoustic sound sources; disturbance by 

vessel traffic and noise; and accidental releases of trash and marine debris. The main impact-producing 

factors (IPFs) associated with routine operations of the existing LNG terminals are vessel traffic, along 

with the associated discharges, air emissions, and noise. 

4.1.8. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal 

There are 11 final dredged material disposal sites designated on the Atlantic OCS (40 CFR 228.15). 

These sites range in size from 3.4-40.5 km2 (1-11.8 nmi2

) and are used for the disposal of dredged 

material from the maintenance dredging of commercial and military ports. The locations are offshore of 

the following areas (Figure A-20): 

 Dam Neck, Virginia; 

 Norfolk, Virginia; 

 Morehead City, North Carolina; 

 Wilmington, North Carolina; 

 Georgetown Harbor, South Carolina; 

 Charleston, South Carolina; 

 Savannah, Georgia; 

 Brunswick Harbor, Georgia; 

 Fernandina Beach, Florida; 

 Jacksonville, Florida; and 

 Canaveral Harbor, Florida. 

There are two additional ocean dredged material disposal sites (ODMDSs) located in the BA Area: 

New Wilmington, North Carolina, and Port Royal, South Carolina. The two areas are 32.2 and 3.4 km2 

(9.4 and 1 nmi2), respectively (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], 2011). 

The disposal sites are used mainly for the disposal of dredged material from the maintenance 

dredging of commercial ports. Typically, sites are permitted for continuing use, and the activity level 

varies depending on the dredging requirements for particular ports. Dredging and the disposal of dredged 

materials are conducted with industry-standard practices to reduce potential effects to the environment, 

including the suspension of contaminated sediments into the water column. The COE is the permitting 

authority for dredged material disposal. However, when issuing a permit, the COE must obtain the 

USEPA’s concurrence, use USEPA developed dumping criteria, and use USEPA-designated ocean 

disposal sites to the maximum extent feasible (33 CFR 324.4(b)). 
Biological Assessment A-77

Figure A-20. Ocean Dredged Material Disposal Sites along the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Coasts. 
A-78 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Historical and ongoing effects on listed species from dredged material disposal include vessel strikes; 

disturbance by vessel traffic and noise; incidental taking of sea turtles and demersal fishes (e.g., by 

hopper dredges); indirect effects due to alteration of benthic habitats and resulting impacts on prey 

species; accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and oil spills due to vessel collisions or other 

accidents. 

4.1.9. Coastal Development 

Coastal development includes an array of human activities such as beachfront construction of homes, 

hotels, restaurants, roads, harbors, jetties, seawalls, and other forms of coastal armoring. More than 

one-half the nation's population now lives and works within 80.5 km (50 mi) of the coastline, but coastal 

areas account for only 11 percent of the nation's land area. In recent years, 40 percent of new commercial 

development and 46 percent of new residential development happened near the coast. 

Of the listed species in this analysis, sea turtles are the most vulnerable to coastal development, 

through loss of nesting habitat (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). Beachfront lighting disorients 

hatchlings when they emerge from the nest, leading them away from the water and towards roads and 

buildings where they may die of exposure, fall victim to predators or vehicles, or become trapped by 

obstacles. Beachfront lighting can also disorient nesting females and may result in failed nesting 

attempts. Obstacles in the coastal zone, from beach chairs to curbs on roads, also impede females and 

may result in failed nesting attempts. Construction of coastal armoring creates impenetrable barriers to 

nesting females and causes unnatural erosion of beaches. Beachfront development and measures to 

control erosion are impenetrable barriers to nesting sea turtles. Increased erosion due to coastal 

development may force females to nest below the high water line, resulting in nests being washed away. 

Atlantic coastal development has also affected habitats used by many birds, including the piping 

plover, roseate tern, and red knot. Piping plovers in particular are very sensitive to human activities, and 

disturbances from anthropogenic activities can cause the parent birds to abandon their nests (USDOI, 

FWS, 1996). 

4.2. MITIGATION AND CONSERVATION MEASURES CONTRIBUTING TO THE 

ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE

Mitigation and conservation measures contributing to the environmental baseline are discussed 

below. Additional mitigation and monitoring applied to the proposed action can be found in Section 7 of 

this BA. 

4.2.1. Marine Mammals 

Critical habitat has been designated for the North Atlantic right whale and Florida manatee within the 

BA Area. In 1994, three critical habitats for the North Atlantic right whale were designated by NMFS 

along the eastern coast of the U.S. (Federal Register, 1994). These include Cape Cod Bay/Massachusetts 

Bay, the Great South Channel, and selected areas off the southeastern U.S. that are within the BA Area 

(Figure A-5). Critical habitat was designated for the Florida manatee on September 24, 1976 (Federal 

Register, 1976) and includes inland waterways in four northeastern Florida coastal counties (Brevard, 

Duval, St. Johns, and Nassau) that are adjacent to the BA Area (Figure A-10). 

North Atlantic right whale SMAs include vessel speed restrictions within the Mid-Atlantic and 

southeast U.S. (Figure A-21) under 50 CFR 224.105. The Southeast U.S. SMA has seasonal restrictions 

in effect from November 15 to April 15 of each year within a continuous area that extends from 

St. Augustine, Florida, to New Brunswick, Georgia, and offshore 37 km (20 nmi) from shore. The 

Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA has seasonal restrictions in effect from November 1 through April 30 and 

includes a combination of both continuous areas and half circles drawn with 37-km (20-nmi) radii around 

the entrances to certain bays and ports. Within the BA Area, the Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA includes a 

continuous zone extending between Wilmington, North Carolina, and New Brunswick, Georgia, as well 

as the Ports of Delaware Bay (Wilmington, Philadelphia), the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay (Ports of 

Hampton Roads and Baltimore), and the Ports of Morehead City and Beaufort, North Carolina. 
Biological Assessment A-79

Figure A-21. Summary of Speed Restrictions and Locations for Vessel Operators to Comply with the 

Right Whale Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105). Source: USDOC, NOAA (2011). 
A-80 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Manatee Protection Zones were developed in inshore waterways of Florida adjacent to the BA Area 

to reduce risks to manatees and their habitat by limiting boat speeds or boat/human access in specific 

geographic areas (50 CFR 17.108). Manatee protection zones are now established in five Florida counties 

adjacent to the BA Area (Duval, St. Johns, Flagler, Volusia, and Brevard) (Florida Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Commission, 2007). The protection zones are managed by the State of Florida Fish and 

Wildlife Conservation Commission. Areas within St. Johns and Brevard Counties are also managed by 

the FWS. 

The U.S. Navy has authorization to conduct sonar training under the Atlantic Fleet Sonar Training 

EIS and associated permits. As part of their authorized action, they have implemented the following 

mitigation measures to decrease potential effects on marine mammals (U.S. Department of the Navy, 

2008): 

 avoid important habitats and marine protected areas; 

 maneuver to stay at least 457 m (1,500 ft) away from observed whales; 

 implement protective measures for North Atlantic right whales; 

 post shipboard lookouts; 

 monitor visually and acoustically for marine mammals and sea turtles prior to and 

during training; and 

 reduce source level or shut down sonar if marine mammals are detected within 

specified exclusion zones (914 m [3,000 ft] for reduced power; 183 m [600 ft] for 

shutdown). 

The NMFS implemented the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan (ALWTRP) in 1997 to 

reduce the level of serious injury and mortality of three strategic stocks of large whales (North Atlantic 

right whales, humpback whales, and fin whales) in commercial gillnet and trap/pot fisheries. The 

measures identified in the ALWTRP are also designed to benefit minke whales, which are not designated 

as a strategic stock but are known to be incidentally injured or killed in gillnet and trap/pot fisheries. The 

ALWTRP has several components, including restrictions on where and how gear can be set; research into 

whale populations and whale behavior, as well as fishing gear interactions and modifications; outreach to 

inform and collaborate with fishermen and other stakeholders; and a large whale disentanglement 

program. 

4.2.2. Sea Turtles 

Since one of the greatest sources of mortality for certain sea turtle species results from interaction 

with commercial fishing vessels and gear (Wallace et al., 2010), NMFS, conservation groups, and the 

commercial fishing industry have been working to develop methods and gear that reduce the incidental 

capture or harm to sea turtles. Effective measures to reduce turtle bycatch include the use of circle hooks 

and fish bait in longline fisheries, and TEDs in trawling. A TED is an angled grid of bars with a hinged 

opening that is fitted into the neck of a shrimp trawl net. The TED is designed to allow small animals 

such as shrimp to pass through the bars into the bag end of the net and allow larger animals, such as 

marine turtles and sharks, to pass through the hinged door after striking the angled grid bars. Federal 

fisheries regulations regarding the use of TEDs include 

 50 CFR 223.205: Sea Turtles; 

 50 CFR 223.206: Exemptions to TED Requirements; and 

 50 CFR 223.207: Currently Approved TED Designs. 

Direct injury or mortality of sea turtles by hopper dredges has been well documented along the 

southeastern and Mid-Atlantic coast (National Research Council [NRC], 1990). Solutions, including 

modification of dredges and time/area closures, have been successfully implemented to reduce mortalities 

and injuries in the U.S. (Conant et al., 2009). 

Other conservation measures have targeted conservation and preservation of nesting beaches, and 

thousands of volunteers around the globe participate in nest protection and other activities on beaches 

during the nesting season. These efforts are intended to increase survival of eggs and hatchlings in an 

attempt to increase the success of getting hatchlings into the ocean, to offset other mortality factors faced 

by sea turtles. 
Biological Assessment A-81

The Archie Carr NWR, located at the southern boundary of the BA Area, was established in 1991 to 

help protect the most important nesting area for loggerhead turtles in the western hemisphere and the most 

important green turtle nesting beach in North America (USDOI, FWS, 2011e). It has been estimated that 

25 percent of all loggerhead nesting in the U.S. occurs in the Archie Carr NWR. The 100-ha (248-ac) 

refuge is critical to the recovery and survival of loggerhead turtles. 

4.2.3. Birds 

In 2001, the FWS designated critical habitat for the wintering population of piping plovers along the 

coasts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (50 CFR 17). Critical habitat areas were 

subsequently revised in North Carolina in 2008 (Federal Register, 2008). Coastline habitat essential for 

the conservation of this listed species includes intertidal beaches, flats, and/or associated dunes extending 

down to the lowest low-tide mark. This designation is designed to reduce potential impacts from coastal 

development, beach nourishment, and onshore recreational activities. 

National wildlife refuges, national seashores, and other managed areas along the coast of the BA Area 

help to maintain and protect habitat for marine and coastal birds including piping plovers, roseate terns, 

and red knots. As listed in Chapter 4.2.11 of the Draft Programmatic EIS, these include seven NWRs 

(Chincoteague, Fisherman Island, Back Bay, Currituck, Pea Island, Blackbeard Island, and Merritt 

Island), five national seashores (Assateague Island, Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Cumberland Island, 

and Canaveral), and numerous state parks, resource conservation areas, nature preserves, aquatic 

preserves, natural areas, and wildlife management areas. 

In 2001, the NMFS established the Dr. Carl N. Shuster, Jr. Horseshoe Crab Sanctuary in Federal 

waters off the mouth of the Delaware Bay estuary. The sanctuary was created to protect the large 

spawning population of horseshoe crabs in Delaware Bay and maintain the abundance of crab eggs 

available to migratory shorebirds, including the red knot. The reduction in horseshoe crab eggs due to 

harvesting of horseshoe crabs has been identified as a key threat to the survival of this species (USDOI, 

FWS, 2010a,b). 

4.2.4. Fishes 

The NMFS developed a recovery plan for the smalltooth sawfish in January 2009 (USDOC, NMFS, 

2009a). The plan recommends specific steps to recover the DPS, focusing on reducing fishing impacts, 

protecting important habitats, and educating the public. Smalltooth sawfish are extremely vulnerable to 

overexploitation because of their propensity for entanglement in nets (USDOC, NMFS, 2011e). The 

NMFS has developed guidelines telling fishermen how to safely handle and release any sawfish they 

catch. In addition, the NMFS has developed guidelines to reduce impacts on smalltooth sawfish during 

coastal dredging and construction projects (USDOC, NMFS, 2006). Some states have taken additional 

steps to protect this species; Florida, Louisiana, and Texas have prohibited the “take” of sawfish. 

Florida's existing ban on the use of gill nets in state waters is an important conservation tool. Three 

NWRs in Florida also protect their habitat (USDOC, NMFS, 2011e). 

 A recovery plan for shortnose sturgeon was developed by the NMFS in 1998 (USDOC, NMFS, 

1998b). Shortnose sturgeon may be caught incidental to shad fishing during spring spawning migrations. 

To increase access to spring spawning habitat, fish ladders around dams and other river obstructions have 

been constructed, improving reproductive potential. 

The Atlantic sturgeon is managed under a Fishery Management Plan implemented by the Atlantic 

States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC). In 1998, the ASFMC instituted a coast-wide moratorium 

on the harvest of Atlantic sturgeon, which is to remain in effect until there are at least 20 protected age 

classes in each spawning stock (anticipated to take up to 40 or more years) (USDOC, NMFS, 2012a). 

The NMFS followed the ASMFC moratorium with a similar moratorium for Federal waters. 

Amendment 1 to ASMFC's Atlantic sturgeon Fishery Management Plan also includes measures for 

preservation of existing habitat, habitat restoration and improvement, monitoring of bycatch and stock 

recovery, and breeding/stocking protocols (USDOC, NMFS, 2012a). 

Because of their candidate status, the NMFS has not yet developed recovery plans for alewife or 

blueback herring. In response to the declining trend for river herring, the states of Massachusetts, Rhode 

Island, Connecticut, and North Carolina have instituted moratoriums on taking and possessing river 

herring. The North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries has developed a River Herring Fisheries 
A-82 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Management Plan that details the steps necessary to recover North Carolina’s river herring populations 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2009b). 

5. EFFECTS OF THE ACTION 

Section 7(a)(2) of the ESA requires each Federal agency, in consultation with and with the assistance 

of NMFS and FWS as appropriate, to insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out is not likely 

to reduce appreciably the likelihood of a species’ survival and recovery in the wild by reducing its 

reproduction, numbers, or distribution. Section 7(a)(2) also requires Federal agencies to insure that any 

action authorized, funded, or carried out is not likely to destroy or adversely modify critical habitat. 

Under the ESA, Federal agencies must evaluate the effects of the action on listed species, including 

whether and what types of “take” is anticipated to occur. Take is defined under the ESA as “to harass, 

harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such 

conduct.” “Harass” is defined as “...an intentional or negligent act or omission which creates the 

likelihood of injury to wildlife by annoying it to such an extent as to significantly impair normal 

behavioral patterns including breeding, feeding or sheltering” (50 CFR 17.3) and “harm” as 

“... significant habitat modification or degradation where it actually kills or injures wildlife by 

significantly impairing essential behavioral patterns, including breeding, feeding or sheltering” 

(50 CFR 17.3). 

Negative effects from G&G activities on listed species or critical habitat may occur either from 

routine activities or from accidental events. These impacts may be direct or indirect. The impact 

determination considers context (the geographic, biophysical, and social context in which the effects will 

occur), intensity (the severity of the impact, in whatever context[s] it occurs), and duration (short- versus 

long-term) of potential impacts. The section to follow analyzes the potential range of effects from the 

Proposed Action on ESA-listed species and ESA-designated critical habitat. 

5.1. SCENARIO SUMMARY AND IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS

5.1.1. Relevant Impact-Producing Factors 

Table A-11 summarizes scenario elements for the three program areas (oil and gas exploration, 

renewable energy, and marine minerals). Based on the scenario, the following IPFs have been identified 

as relevant to the listed species in this analysis: 

 Active acoustic sound sources; 

 Vessel and equipment noise; 

 Vessel traffic; 

 Aircraft traffic and noise; 

 Trash and debris; 

 Seafloor disturbance; 

 Drilling discharges; and 

 Accidental fuel spills. 

Table A-12 summarizes the IPFs with respect to the associated survey types and program areas 

included in the proposed action. Table A-13 indicates the applicable IPFs for each group in this analysis 

(marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, and fishes). 

The IPFs applicable to listed marine mammals are active acoustic sound sources, vessel and 

equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and accidental fuel spills. 

Impacts of drilling discharges are considered negligible for marine mammals due to the rapid dispersion 

of the effluents. Seafloor disturbance is not an IPF for the listed whales because none of them use benthic 

habitats to any significant degree. The benthic habitats used by the Florida manatee are in inland waters, 

which are outside the BA Area. 

The IPFs applicable to listed sea turtles are active acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment 

noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and accidental fuel spills. Impacts of 

seafloor disturbance are considered negligible for sea turtles because of the relatively small area of 
Biological Assessment A-83

seafloor affected, and impacts of drilling discharges are considered negligible because of the rapid 

dispersion of the effluents. 

The IPFs applicable to listed birds are active acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, 

vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and accidental fuel spills. Impacts of drilling 

discharges are considered negligible for birds due to the rapid dispersion of the effluents. Seafloor 

disturbance is not an IPF for birds because they do not use offshore benthic habitats. 

The IPFs applicable to listed fish species are active acoustic sound sources, trash and debris, seafloor 

disturbance, drilling discharges, and accidental fuel spills. 
Table A-11 Scenario Elements for Proposed G&G Activities in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 Activity Type Purpose Number of Events or Level of Effort Primary Platform and Size Scale of Activity Penetration Depth Approximate Duration/ Event Shore Basea Service Vessel Hig

Sound 

Oil and Gas Exploration 2D Seismic Survey Identify geologic structure 1-10 1 ship, ~100 m 617,775 line km kms to 10s of kms 2-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 Airg

3D Seismic Survey Identify geologic structure 5-10 1-2 ships, ~100 m 2,500 OCS blocks kms to 10s of kms 4-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 Dual a

3D WAZ and 3D FAZ Coil Better define complex geologic structure 1-2 4 ships, ~100 m 900 line km kms to 10s of kms 1 year 0 to 2 1 to 2 4 x 

Vertical Seismic Profiling Calibrate seismic with known geology 3-8 1 ship, ~30 m 1,280 line km 100s to 1,000s of m 3-4 days 1 None Sing

High-Resolution Seismic Survey Shallow hazards assessment and archaeological determinations 10-20 1 ship, ~30 m 175,465 line km 10s to 100s of m 3 days – 1 week 1 None  1-2 a

 Boom

subbo

 Side-

 Mult

soun

3D Controlled Source Electromagnetic Optimize reservoir production 0-2 1 ship, ~20-100 m 119,760 km 3-5 km 1-6 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 

Magnetotelluric Survey Optimize reservoir production 0-2 1 ship, ~20-100 m 100s to 1,000s of line kms; or ≤9 OCS blocks 3-5 km 1-6 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 

Gravity and Magnetic Passive measurement, gravity and magnetic fields 0-5 Acquisition with seismic typical 100s to 1,000s of line kms kms to 10s of kms 4-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 

Aeromagnetic Passive measurement, magnetic fields 1-2 1 aircraft 100s to 1,000s of line kms kms to 10s of kms 1-3 months 0 to 1 0 

COST Well Test drilling outside of lease program 0-3 well Platform or drillship, ~100 m <1/16 OCS block ≥150 m 5-30 days 0 to 1 0 to 2 

Shallow Test Drilling Test drilling outside of lease program 0-5 wells Platform or drillship, ~100 m <1/16 OCS block <150 m 5-30 days 0 to 1 0 to 2 

Bottom Sampling Extract sediment core 50-300 1 barge or ship, ~20 m <1/16 OCS block <300 m <3 days 0 to 1 None 
Table A-11. Scenario Elements for Proposed G&G Activities in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2012-2020 (continued).

Activity Type Purpose 

Number of 

Events or 

Level of Effort

Primary Platform 

and Size Scale of Activity Penetration Depth Approximate Duration/ Event Shore Basea Service Vessel Hig

Sound 

Renewable Energy

High-Resolution 

Geophysical Survey 

Shallow hazards 

assessment and 

archaeological 

determinations 

1 or more 

surveys per 

state 

1 ship, ~20-30 m 

Each survey 

≥1/16 OCS blockb

plus cable route to 

shore; Total 

211,585 line km 

(about 220 OCS 

blocks)

Surficial to 

10s to 100s 

of meters 

3 days – 

1 weeks 1 None 

 Boom

subbprofi

 Side-

 Mult

soun

Cone Penetrometer 

Test 

Measure sediment 

engineering 

properties 

2,712-8,374 1 barge or ship, ~20 m 

≥1/16 OCS 

block or along 

cable route to 

shore

<10 m <3 days 1 None 

Geologic Coring Extract sediment core 2,712-8,374 1 barge or ship, ~20 m 

≥1/16 OCS 

block or along 

cable route to 

shore

<300 m <3 days 1 None 

Grab Sampling Collect sediment and benthic fauna 2,712-8,374 1 barge or ship, ~20 m ≥1/16 OCS lock or along cable route to shore <1 m <3 days 1 None 

Bottom-Founded 

Monitoring Buoy 

Measure ocean 

and 

meteorological 

conditions 

7-38 1 barge or ship, ~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block Surficial <3 days 1 None 

2D or 3D Deep 

Penetration Seismic 

Evaluate formation 

for carbon 

sequestration

0 to 1 survey 1 ship, ~100 m <1 OCS block km to 10s of km 1 - 30 days 1 0-2 Airg

or d

Marine Minerals 

High-Resolution 

Geophysical Survey 

Shallow hazards 

assessment and 

archaeological 

determinations 

10-40 surveys, 

9-21 wks 1 ship, ~30 m 

~1,904-12,090 

line kms; or 

1-4.5 OCS 

blocks 

10s to 100s 

of m 

3 days - 1 

weeks 1 None 

 Boom

subbprofi

 Side-

 Mult

soun

Vibracoring Extract sediment core 6-24 events (90-600 cores) 1 barge or ship, ~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block 10-15 m 3-5 days 1 None 

Geologic 

Coring 

Extract sediment 

core 

1-4 events

(1-8 cores)

1 barge or ship,

~20 m

≥1/16 OCS 

block <300 m <3 days 1 None 

Grab Sampling Collect sediment and benthic fauna 2-8 events (60-320 grabs) 1 barge or ship, ~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block <1 m <3 days 1 None 

Abbreviations: COST = Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test; FAZ = Full Azimith Survey; N/A = Not applicable; OCS = Outer Continental 

Survey. 

a Shore base is the point of deployment to return berth. b 1/16 of an OCS block (256 ac) is the smallest area considered for renewable energy leasing. All full-build out renewable energy projects in 

Planning Areas are wind park facilities that would be considerably larger than 1/16 of an OCS block. The average OCS wind park would be ≤10 O
A-86 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Table A-12 

 

Impact-Producing Factors Relevant to the ESA-Listed Species in this Analysis 

Impact-Producing Factor Program Area Survey Type(s) Brief Description OG RE MM

Active Acoustic Sound Sources 

Airguns X -- -- Deep penetration seismic 

surveys and HRG surveys

Underwater noise from 

compressed air release

Electromechanical Sources X X X 

HRG surveys of renewable 

energy and marine mineral 

sites but also oil/gas 

Underwater noise from 

subbottom profilers, side-scan 

sonar, and multi-beam depth 

sounders 

Vessel and Equipment Noise X X X 

All vessel surveys; drilling of 

COST wells and shallow test 

wells

Underwater noise from vessel 

engines and equipment, and 

from drilling activities

Vessel Traffic X X X All vessel surveys 

Vessel movements including 

survey lines and round trips to 

onshore base 

Aircraft Traffic and Noise X -- -- 

Aeromagnetic surveys; 

helicopter support for COST 

well drilling

Aircraft traffic, and noise from 

engines and propellers 

Trash and Debris X X X All vessel surveys Accidental release of trash or 

debris into the ocean

Seafloor Disturbance 

Bottom Sampling X X X Geotechnical sampling and 

testing 

Collection of vibracore, 

geologic core, and grab 

samples; CPT testing

Cables, Nodes, Anchors X -- -- 

Certain deep penetration 

seismic surveys and CSEM 

and MT surveys

Temporary placement of cables, 

nodes, sensors, or anchors on or 

in seafloor

COST Wells and Shallow 

Test Drilling X -- -- Drilling of COST wells and shallow test wells 

Seafloor disturbance due to 

placement of well template, 

jetting of well, and anchoring of 

drilling rig

Meteorological Buoys -- X -- Site characterization for 

renewable energy areas

Temporary anchoring of 

meteorological buoys

Drilling Discharges X -- -- Drilling of COST wells and 

shallow test wells 

Release of drilling fluids and 

cuttings at seafloor and from 

drilling rig

Accidental Fuel Spills X X X All vessel surveys Potential for release of diesel or 

fuel oil from a vessel accident

Abbreviations: CSEM = controlled source electromagnetic; COST = Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test; CPT = cone 

penetrometer test; HRG = high resolution geophysical; MM = marine minerals; MT = magnetotelluric; OG = oil and gas 

exploration; RE = renewable energy. 
Biological Assessment A-87

Table A-13 

 

Preliminary Screening of Potential Impacts on Listed Species and Their Critical Habitats 

Group and Listed 

Species 

Impact-Producing Factor

Active 

Acoustic 

Sound 

Sources 

Vessel and 

Equipment 

Noise 

Vessel 

Traffic 

Aircraft 

Traffic 

and Noise

Trash and 

Debris 

Seafloor 

Disturbance 

Drilling 

Discharges

Accidental 

Fuel Spills

Marine Mammals 

North Atlantic right whale 

Blue whale 

Fin whale 

Sei whale 

Humpback whale 

Sperm whale 

Florida manatee 

X X X X X -- -- X 

Sea Turtles 

Loggerhead turtle 

Green turtle 

Hawksbill turtle 

Kemp’s ridley turtle 

Leatherback turtle 

X X X X X -- -- X 

Marine and Coastal Birds 

Roseate tern 

Bermuda petrel 

Piping plover 

Red knot 

X X X X X -- -- X 

Fishes 

Smalltooth sawfish 

Shortnose sturgeon 

Atlantic sturgeon 

Alewife 

Blueback herring

X -- -- -- X X X X 

X = potential impact. -- = no impact expected. 

5.1.2. Impact-Producing Factors Not Considered Further 

The Programmatic EIS identified several other IPFs, including onshore support activities and vessel 

waste. Onshore support activities refers to activities within onshore bases, such as employment and 

purchase of supplies and services; these are not relevant to any of the listed species, as the associated 

vessel and aircraft traffic are considered separately as IPFs. Vessel wastes are discussed below but were 

screened out in the initial analysis because no significant impacts on listed species are expected. 

Operational waste generated from all vessels associated with the proposed action includes bilge and 

ballast waters, trash and debris, and sanitary and domestic wastes. Discharges are regulated by the USCG 

under 33 CFR 151. Bilge water is water that collects in the lower part of a ship. The bilge water may be 

contaminated by oil that leaks from the machinery within the vessel. The discharge of any oil or oily 

mixtures of greater than 15 parts per million (ppm) into the territorial sea is prohibited under 

33 CFR 151.10. However, discharge is not prohibited in waters farther than 22 km (12 nmi) from shore if 

the oil concentration is less than 100 ppm. As a result, to the extent that bilge water is expelled at sea, 

BOEM anticipates that the discharge would be more likely to occur beyond 22 km (12 nmi) from shore. 

Ballast water is used to maintain the stability of the vessel and may be pumped from coastal or marine 

waters. Generally, the ballast water is pumped into and out of separate compartments and is not usually 

contaminated with oil. However, the same discharge criteria apply to ballast water as to bilge water 

(33 CFR 151.10). The USCG has proposed a Ballast Water Discharge Standard, which is currently in 

review (USDHS, USCG, 2011c). 

All vessels with toilet facilities must have a Type II or Type III marine sanitation device (MSD) that 

complies with 40 CFR 140. A Type II MSD macerates waste solids so that the discharge contains no 

suspended particles and has a bacteria count below 200 per 100 milliliters (ml). Type III MSDs are 

holding tanks and are the most common type of MSD found on boats. These systems are designed to 

retain or treat the waste until it can be disposed of at the proper shoreside facilities. State and local 
A-88 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

governments regulate domestic or gray water discharges. However, a State may prohibit the discharge of 

all sewage within any or all of its waters. Domestic waste consists of all types of wastes generated in the 

living spaces on board a ship, including gray water that is generated from dishwasher, shower, laundry, 

bath, and washbasin drains. Gray water from vessels is not regulated outside the State’s territory and may 

be disposed of overboard. Gray water should not be processed through the MSD, which is specifically 

designed to handle sewage. The BOEM assumes that vessel operators would discharge gray water 

overboard outside of State waters or store it aboard ship until they are able to dispose of it at a shoreside 

facility. 

Based on compliance with the USCG and USEPA regulations, effluent discharges from G&G survey 

vessels are expected to be diluted and dispersed rapidly in the open ocean. They are not expected to have 

any detectable effects on the listed marine mammal, sea turtle, bird, or fish species in this analysis. 

5.2. ACTIVE ACOUSTIC SOUND SOURCES

Two general types of active acoustic sound sources are included in the proposed action: airguns and 

electromechanical sources (e.g., boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, side-scan sonars, and multibeam 

depth sounders). Table A-14 summarizes characteristics of these sources. Detailed characteristics and 

assumptions are discussed in Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. 

Airguns 

Airguns would be used as seismic sources during deep penetration seismic surveys for oil and gas 

exploration, and likely for any post-lease HRG surveys of oil and gas leases. The BOEM does not 

anticipate that airguns will be used for marine minerals sites. HRG surveys for renewable energy site 

assessment activities are also not expected to use air guns. However, there may be limited instances 

where a single air gun is required (i.e., in areas where deeper penetration into the seabed is needed for 

turbine placement). If requested, BOEM would consider their use within its project specific NEPA 

analysis and will also consult with NMFS and/or FWS. 

In addition, the renewable energy scenario includes the possibility that a deep penetration (2D or 3D) 

seismic survey would be conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration. However, a 

single seismic airgun survey for carbon sequestration is not analyzed separately. It is assumed that such a 

survey would be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun survey for oil and gas exploration. 

Because of the large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys included in the oil and gas scenario and 

the likelihood that some of those surveys may not be conducted due to overlapping coverage, a single 

survey for carbon sequestration would not change the effects at a programmatic level. 

An airgun is a stainless steel cylinder charged with high-pressure air. The acoustic signal is generated 

when the air is released nearly instantaneously into the surrounding water column. Seismic pulses are 

typically emitted at intervals of 5-60 s, and occasionally at shorter or longer intervals. 

Although airguns have a frequency range from about 10-2,000 Hz, most of the acoustic energy is 

radiated at frequencies below 200 Hz. The amplitude of the acoustic wave emitted from the source is 

equal in all directions, but airgun arrays do possess some directionality due to different phase delays 

between guns in different directions. 

Individual airguns are available with a wide range of chamber volumes, from under 5 in.3

 to over 

2,000 in.3

, depending on the survey requirements. Airgun sources can range from a single airgun (for 

HRG surveys) to a large array of airguns (for deep penetration seismic surveys). The volume of airgun 

arrays used for seismic surveys can vary from about 45-8,000 in.3

. For the analysis in the Programmatic 

EIS, two sizes of airgun arrays were modeled, based on current usage in the Gulf of Mexico, and 

considered representative for potential Atlantic G&G seismic surveys: 

 large airgun array (5,400 in.3

). This array was used to represent sound sources for 

deep penetration seismic surveys, including 2D, 3D, WAZ, and other variations. 

 small airgun array (90 in.3

). This array was used to represent sound sources for HRG 

surveys for oil and gas exploration sites. 

The large airgun array has dimensions of 16 by 15 m (52.5 by 49.2 ft) and consists of 18 airguns 

placed in three identical strings of six airguns each. The volume of individual airguns ranges from 

105-660 in.3

. The depth below the sea surface for the array was set at 6.5 m (21.3 ft). The small airgun 
Biological Assessment A-89

array consists of two airguns of 45 in.3

 each, placed with 1 m (3.3 ft) separation from each other at a depth 

of 6.5 m (21.3 ft). 

Broadband source levels are 230.7 dB re 1 μPa for the large airgun array and 210.3 dB re 1 μPa for 

the small array (Table A-14). The two arrays differ in both their total source level and the frequency 

spectrum; large arrays have more low frequencies due to the presence of large volume airguns. 

Table A-14 

 

Characteristics of Representative Active Acoustic Sound Sources Included in the Proposed Action. 

Shaded entries in the last three columns indicate that no auditory impacts are expected because the frequency is 

beyond the hearing range of marine mammals, sea turtles, or fishes (birds are not included because their exposure to 

underwater noise would be very limited). 

Source Usage 

Broadband 

Source Level 

(dB re 1 Pa at 

1 m)

Operating 

Frequencies 

Within Hearing Range

Marine 

Mammals 

Sea 

Turtles Fishes 

Large Airgun Array 

(5,400 in.2

) 

Deep penetration 

seismic surveys, oil 

and gas exploration 

(2D, 3D, WAZ, 

VSP, 4D, etc.)

230.7 

10-2,000 Hz 

(most energy 

at <200 Hz) 

Yes Yes Yes 

Small Airgun Array 

(90 in.2

) 

HRG surveys, 

oil and gas 

exploration 

210.3 

10-2,000 Hz

(most energy 

at <200 Hz)

Yes Yes Yes 

Boomer HRG surveys, 

all program areas 

212 200 Hz–16 kHz Yes Yes Yes 

Side-Scan Sonar HRG surveys, 

all program areas 226 100 kHz Yes No Nob

400 kHz No No Nob

Chirp Subbottom 

Profiler 

HRG surveys, 

all program areas 222 

3.5 kHz Yes No Nob

12 kHz Yes No Nob

200 kHz No No Nob

Multibeam Depth 

Sounder

a HRG surveys, 

all program areas 

213 240 kHz No No Nob

a

 Single beam depth sounders may also be used for seafloor mapping, and the frequencies and source levels may differ. The 

multibeam depth sounder was selected as a representative source and is conservative from the standpoint of acoustic impacts. b

 Smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon are unlikely to hear any of the representative side-scan sonar,

chirp subbottom profiler, or multibeam depth sounder frequencies. Alewife and blueback herring may detect some of these 

frequencies, but their sensitivity is considered poor. 

Source: Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. 

Sound propagation modeling for acoustic sources included in the proposed action was conducted as 

described in Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. Based on this modeling, Table A-15 lists the 

estimated maximum range of Level A and Level B harassment of cetaceans based on current NMFS 

criteria. The Level A criterion is defined by a received sound pressure level (SPL) of 180 dB re 1 μPa, 

and the Level B criterion is defined by a received sound pressure level of 160 dB re 1 μPa. As shown in 

Table A-15, the Level A harassment zone could extend up to 2.1 km (1.3 mi) from a large airgun array 

(5,400 in.3

) and up to 186 m (610 ft) from a small airgun array (90 in.3), depending on the geographic 

location and season modeled. The Level B harassment zone could extend up to 15 km (9.3 mi) from a 

large airgun array (5,400 in.3

) and up to 3 km (1.9 mi) from a small airgun array (90 in.3), depending on 

the geographic location and season modeled. 
A-90 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Table A-15 

 

Summary of Radial Distances to the 160- and 180-dB (rms) Isopleths from a Single Pulse for Various Equipment 

Equipment 

Number of 

Scenarios 

Modeled 

Pulse 

Duration 

Adjustment 

(dB) for 

Short Pulse 

Durationa

180-dB Radius (m) 160-dB Radius (m) 

Calculated 

using Nominal 

Source Levelb

Recalculated 

for Short Pulse 

Durationa

Calculated 

using Nominal 

Source Levelb

Recalculated 

for Short Pulse 

Durationa

Large Airgun 

Array (5,400 in.3

), 

2D and 3D 

Surveys 

35 >100 ms -- 799-2,109 

(mean=1,086) -- 5,184-15,305 -- 

Small Airgun 

Array (90 in.3

), 

Oil and Gas HRG 

Surveys 

35 >100 ms -- 76-186 

(mean=128) -- 1,294-3,056 -- 

Boomer 14 180 μs -27.3 38-45 <5 1,054-2,138 16 

Side-Scan Sonar 14 20 ms -7.0 128-192 65-96 500-655 337-450 

Chirp Subbottom 

Profiler 14 64 ms -1.9 32-42 26-35 359-971 240-689 

Multibeam Depth 

Sounder 7 225 μs -26.5 27 <5 147-156 12 

a

 For sources with a pulse duration <100 ms, the nominal source level was adjusted by the amount indicated to produce a 

second, “recalculated” radius for both the 180-dB and 160-dB criteria. See Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. b

 The value is the radius (Rmax) for the maximum received sound pressure level. See Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. 

Source: Appendix D of the Programmatic EIS. 

Electromechanical Sources 

Electromechanical sources are used in HRG surveys for renewable energy development and sand 

source evaluation but may also be used for oil/gas purposes. In these surveys, a high-resolution boomer 

or chirp subbottom profiler is typically used to delineate near-surface geologic strata and features. 

Typical survey deployments also include single beam or multibeam depth sounders and side-scan sonar. 

The AUV surveys for oil and gas leases include a similar equipment suite. These electromechanical 

sources may also be operated simultaneously with the airguns during deep penetration seismic surveys for 

oil and gas exploration purposes. 

Boomers are electromechanical sound sources that generate short, broadband acoustic pulses that are 

useful for high-resolution, shallow penetration sediment profiling. This system is commonly mounted on 

a sled and towed off the stern or alongside the ship. The reflected signal is received by a towed 

hydrophone streamer. Chirp systems are used for high-resolution mapping of relatively shallow deposits 

and in general have less penetration than boomers; however, newer chirp systems are able to penetrate to 

levels comparable to the boomer yet yield extraordinary detail or resolution of the substrate (National 

Science Foundation [NSF] and USDOI, U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 2011). Multibeam depth 

sounders emit brief pings of medium- or high-frequency sound in a fan-shaped beam extending 

downward and to the sides of the ship, allowing bathymetric mapping of swaths of the seafloor. Single 

beam depth sounders may also be used for seafloor mapping, but the multibeam depth sounder was 

selected as a representative source for the Programmatic EIS and is conservative from the standpoint of 

acoustic impacts. 

Detailed acoustic characteristics of electromechanical sources are discussed in Appendix D of the 

Programmatic EIS. Electromechanical sources are considered mid- or high-frequency sources. They 

usually have one or two (sometimes three) main operating frequencies (Table A-14). The frequency 

ranges for representative sources are 200 Hz–16 kHz for the boomer; 100 kHz and 400 kHz for the 

side-scan sonar; 3.5 kHz, 12 kHz, and 200 kHz for the chirp subbottom profiler; and 240 kHz for the 

multibeam depth sounder. For all of these sources, the acoustic energy emitted outside the main operating 

frequency band is negligible, and therefore they can be considered narrow-band sources. High-frequency 

electromechanical sources can be highly directive, with beam widths as narrow as few degrees or less. 

Broadband source levels for the representative electromechanical sources analyzed in this BA range from 

212-226 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m (Table A-14). 
Biological Assessment A-91

Table A-15 lists the estimated maximum ranges of Level A and Level B harassment of cetaceans by 

electromechanical sources, based on current NMFS criteria. The range of values reflects the various 

geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled for the Programmatic EIS. The 180-dB radius ranged from 

38-45 m (125-148 ft) for the boomer and from 32-42 m (105-138 ft) for the chirp subbottom profiler. The 

180-dB radius was 27 m (89 ft) for the multibeam depth sounder under all scenarios. The side-scan sonar 

had the largest 180-dB radius, ranging from 128-192 m (420-630 ft). 

The initial 180-dB calculations in Table A-15 were based on nominal source levels and did not take 

into account the pulse duration. As indicated in the table, the pulses produced by all of the 

electromechanical sources are much shorter than 1 s. As summarized by Au and Hastings (2008), when 

receiving tone pulses, the mammalian ear behaves like an integrator with an “integration time constant.” 

Energy is summed over the duration of a pulse until the pulse is longer than the integration time constant. 

Studies of bottlenose dolphins by Johnson (1968) indicate an integration time constant of approximately 

100 ms. A 10-ms pulse with a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa would be integrated over a 100-ms 

period, resulting in a 10-fold (10-dB) reduction. Using the assumption of a 100-ms integration time, the 

180-dB radii for side-scan sonar and multibeam depth sounder were recalculated to account for short 

pulse duration, as shown in Table A-15. For the boomer and multibeam depth sounder, the recalculated 

180-dB radius was <5 m under all scenarios. The recalculated 180-dB radius ranged from 65-96 m 

(213-315 ft) for the side-scan sonar and from 26-35 m (85-115 ft) for the chirp subbottom profiler. 

Specific considerations for each electromechanical source are discussed below. 

Boomer. The frequency range of the representative boomer (200 Hz-16 kHz) is entirely within the 

hearing range of marine mammals. Based on a source level of 212 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius is 

estimated to range from 38-45 m (125-148 ft) for the various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. 

However, taking into account the short pulse duration (180 μs), the recalculated 180-dB radius is <5 m 

(16 ft) in all modeled scenarios (Table A-15). 

Side-Scan Sonar. For the representative side-scan sonar, the 100-kHz operating frequency is within 

the hearing range of mid- and high-frequency cetaceans, but the 400-kHz frequency is above the range of 

all marine mammals. Based on a source level of 226 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius is estimated to range 

from 128-192 m (420-630 ft) for the various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. Taking into 

account the short pulse length of 20 ms, the recalculated 180-dB radius ranges from 65-96 m (213-315 ft)

(Table A-15). 

Chirp Subbottom Profiler. The representative chirp subbottom profiler operates at three 

frequencies: 3.5 kHz, 12 kHz, and 200 kHz. The highest frequency (200 kHz) is above the hearing range 

for all marine mammals. Based on a source level of 222 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius ranges from 

32-42 m (105-138 ft) for the various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. Because the pulse 

length of 64 ms is relatively close to the 100 ms integration time assumed for the cetacean ear, the 

correction for pulse length reduces the ranges only slightly to 26-35 m (85-115 ft) (Table A-15). 

Multibeam Depth Sounder. Based on a source level of 213 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius 

calculated for the multibeam depth sounder is 27 m (89 ft) for all of the geographic and seasonal scenarios 

modeled (Table A-15). Taking into account the short pulse duration (225 μs), the radius is further 

reduced to <5 m (16 ft) for all modeled scenarios. More importantly, because the operating frequency of 

the representative multibeam system (240 kHz) is above the hearing range of all three cetacean hearing 

groups, no auditory impacts are expected. The relatively low risk of auditory impacts on marine 

mammals from multibeam depth sounders is consistent with a recent analysis by Lurton and DeRuiter 

(2011) taking into account both the short pulse duration and high directivity of these sources. 

 

5.2.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Figure A-22 summarizes the relationship between the functional hearing ranges of marine 

mammals and various noise sources in the marine environment. Studies on the responses of animals to 

noise have shown widely varied responses, depending on the individual, age, gender, and the activity in 

which the animals were engaged (Richardson et al., 1995; Simmonds et al., 2003; NRC, 2005; Southall et 

al., 2007; Ellison et al., 2011). Where there is an overlap between noise sources and the frequencies of 

sound used by marine life, there is the potential for sound to interfere with important biological functions. 

Noise, either natural or anthropogenic, can adversely affect marine life in various ways. Four zones of 

influence from noise are offered by Richardson et al. (1995) and summarized by Gordon et al. (2004), 
A-92 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

including (1) zone of audibility – the area within which the sound is both above the animal’s hearing 

threshold and detectable above background noise; (2) zone of responsiveness – the region within which 

behavioral responses in response to the sound occur; (3) zone of masking – the area within which the 

sound may mask biologically significant sounds; and (4) zone of hearing loss, discomfort, or injury – the 

area within which the sound level is sufficient to cause threshold shifts or hearing damage. 

Figure A-22. Measured or Estimated Functional Hearing Ranges for Different Marine Vertebrate Groups 

Shown Relative to Various Human Noise Sources. 

The range of potential effects from noise, in order of decreasing severity and modified slightly from 

the four zones initially outlined by Richardson et al. (1995) above, includes death, non-auditory 

physiological effects, auditory injury–hearing threshold shift, masking, and stress and disturbance, 

including behavioral response (Richardson et al., 1995; NRC, 2003, 2005; Nowacek et al., 2004; Southall 

et al., 2007). The following discussion addresses the range of potential effects noted above, with the 

exception of death and non-auditory physiological effects, which have been combined. 

5.2.1.1. Death and Non-Auditory Physiological Effects 

Although airguns produce high intensity sound pulses, there have been no observations of direct 

physical injury or death to marine mammals from exposure to these active acoustic sound sources. In 

addition, mitigation measures (see Section 7) would be implemented to decrease the potential for any 

marine mammal to be within the exclusion zone of an operating airgun array, thereby avoiding the highest 

SPLs and minimizing the potential for injury. 

Injury and death of marine mammals has been observed in association with high intensity events such 

as underwaters explosions. These pulses are typically short, with peak pressures that may damage 

internal organs or air-filled body cavities (e.g., lungs) (Yelverton et al., 1973; Goertner, 1982; Young, 

1991). Data on direct physical injury are limited to anecdotal or forensic investigations after accidental 

events because ethical considerations prevent direct empirical methods to measure such impacts in marine 

mammals. However, such observations (e.g., Todd et al., 1996) and modeling based on impact data for 

the human vestibular system as well as other organs (e.g., lungs) for underwater sound exposures (Cudahy 

and Ellison, 2002) suggest that marine mammals can be susceptible to direct physical injury to particular 

organ systems and tissues following intense exposure, particularly where high particle motion events 

occur. Possible types of non-auditory physiological effects or injuries that might occur include stress, 

neurological effects, bubble formation (which is a highly debated effect), resonance effects, and other 
Biological Assessment A-93

types of organ or tissue damage. Based on some stranding observations coincidental to certain naval 

exercises, it is possible that some marine mammal species (i.e., beaked whales) may be especially 

susceptible to injury and/or stranding when exposed to strongly pulsed sounds, particularly at higher 

frequencies. However, is not likely that G&G activities would generate sounds loud enough to cause 

mortality or non-auditory injury. 

5.2.1.2. Hearing Threshold Shift 

Active acoustic sound sources used during G&G surveys have the potential to produce temporary 

threshold shift (TTS) or permanent threshold shift (PTS) in listed marine mammals if they are close to the 

source. Mitigation measures included in the proposed action (see Section 7) are intended to reduce the 

risk of marine mammals being present within the exclusion zone around airgun arrays where the potential 

for TTS and PTS would be greatest. 

The minimum sound level an animal can hear at a specific frequency is the hearing threshold at that 

frequency. Sounds above a hearing threshold are accommodated until a certain level of sound intensity or 

duration is reached. Too much exposure at a certain level might cause a shift in the animal’s hearing 

thresholds within a certain frequency range. Following exposure, the magnitude of the hearing 

impairment, or threshold shift, normally decreases over time following cessation of noise exposure. 

Threshold shifts can be temporary (TTS) or permanent (PTS), can consist of both temporary and 

permanent components, and are defined as follows, as adapted from Southall et al. (2007) and Finneran et 

al. (2005): 

 TTS – the mildest form of hearing impairment; exposure to strong sound results in a 

non-permanent (reversible) elevation in hearing threshold, making it more difficult to 

hear sounds; TTS can last from minutes or hours to days; the magnitude of the TTS 

depends on the level and duration of the noise exposure, among other considerations. 

 PTS – permanent elevation in hearing threshold; no data are currently available 

regarding noise levels that might induce PTS in marine mammals; PTS is attributed 

to exposure to very high peak pressures and short rise times, or very prolonged or 

repeated exposures to noise strong enough to elicit TTS. 

Several important factors relate to the type and magnitude of hearing loss, including exposure level, 

frequency content, duration, and temporal pattern of exposure. A range of mechanical effects (e.g., stress 

or damage to supporting cell structure, fatigue) and metabolic processes (e.g., inner ear hair cell 

metabolism such as energy production, protein synthesis, and ion transport) within the auditory system 

underlie both TTS and PTS. Additional discussion of TTS and PTS is presented by Southall et al. (2007). 

In June 1997, the High Energy Seismic Survey team (HESS, 1999) convened a panel of experts to 

assess existing data on marine mammals exposed to seismic airgun pulses and to predict exposures at 

which physical injury could occur. With the limited available data at that time, exposure to airgun pulses 

with received levels above 180 dB re 1 μPa (root-mean-square [rms] – averaged over the pulse duration) 

was determined to have a high potential for “serious behavioral, physiological, and hearing effects.” 

Based on the HESS (1999) panel conclusions, the NMFS established a 180 dB re 1 μPa (received 

level) threshold criterion for injury from sound exposure for cetaceans and a 190 dB re 1 μPa threshold 

criterion for pinnipeds. Calculated radial distances to the 180-dB isopleth are dependent upon the size 

and orientation of the array and physical characteristics of the marine environment and sediments 

(e.g., water column stratification, water depth and nature of the seafloor). Results of sound propagation 

modeling from sound sources associated with the proposed action are shown in Table A-15. 

More recently, NMFS supported an expert working group to develop more comprehensive and 

current criteria. This process ultimately resulted in the Southall et al. (2007) marine mammal noise 

exposure criteria. Within this process, several important distinctions were made. First, the marine 

mammals were segregated into the functional hearing groups. Second, sound sources were categorized 

into functional categories, based on their acoustic and repetitive properties. The review indicated that the 

lowest received levels of impulsive sounds (e.g., airgun pulses) that might elicit slight auditory injury 

(PTS) are a sound exposure level (SEL) of 198 dB re 1 μPa2

-s in cetaceans and 186 dB re 1 μPa2-s in 

pinnipeds. The noise criteria group also concluded that receipt of an instantaneous flat-weighted peak 

pressure exceeding 230 dB re 1 μPa (peak) for cetaceans or 218 dB re 1 μPa (peak) for pinnipeds might 
A-94 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

also lead to auditory injury even if the aforementioned cumulative energy-based criterion was not 

exceeded. 

The SEL criterion as proposed by Southall et al. (2007) is advantageous because it can account for 

cumulative sound exposure, sounds of differing duration, and multiple sound exposures. It also allows 

comparison between different sound exposures based on total energy (i.e., calculation of a single 

exposure “equivalent” value; Southall et al., 2007). The NMFS continues to evaluate the SEL metric for 

marine mammal injury (i.e., TTS, PTS), but the current regulatory thresholds remain based on SPLs 

(i.e., 180/190 dB re 1 μPa for injury; 160 dB re 1 μPa for behavioral harassment). 

5.2.1.3. Auditory Masking 

Noise can affect hearing and partially or completely reduce an individual’s ability to effectively 

communicate; detect important predator, prey, and/or conspecific signals; and/or detect important 

environmental features associated with spatial orientation (Clark et al., 2009). Masking is defined as the 

obscuring of weaker sounds of interest by other, stronger, more intense sounds, often at similar 

frequencies. Spectral, temporal, and spatial overlap between the masking noise and the sender/receiver 

determines the extent of interference; the greater the spectral and temporal overlap, the greater the 

potential for masking. 

Naturally occurring ambient noise is produced from various sources, including wind, waves, 

precipitation, other animals, and (at frequencies above 30 kHz) thermal noise resulting from molecular 

agitation (Richardson et al., 1995). Background noise can also include sounds from distant human 

activities (e.g., shipping), particularly in areas where heavy levels of shipping traffic are located. 

Ambient noise can produce masking, effectively interfering with the ability of an animal to detect a sound 

signal that it otherwise would hear. Under normal circumstances, in the absence of high ambient noise 

levels, an animal would hear a sound signal because it is above its absolute hearing threshold. Natural 

masking prevents a portion or all of that sound signal from being heard. Further masking of natural 

sounds can result when human activities produce high levels of background noise. Ambient noise is 

highly variable on continental shelves (e.g., see Desharnais et al., 1999), effectively creating a high 

degree of variability in the range at which marine mammals can detect anthropogenic sounds. 

Toothed whales have the ability to facilitate the detection of sounds in the presence of background 

noise. There is evidence that some odontocetes can shift the dominant frequencies of their echolocation 

signals from a frequency range containing excessive ambient noise toward frequencies with less noise 

(Au et al., 1974, 1985; Moore and Pawloski, 1990; Thomas and Turl, 1990; Romanenko and Kitain, 

1992; Lesage et al., 1999). Several marine mammal species are also known to increase the source levels 

of their calls in the presence of elevated sound levels (Dahlheim, 1987; Au, 1993; Lesage et al., 1999; 

Terhune, 1999). While data exist that demonstrate adaptation among odontocetes to reduce the effects of 

masking at high frequencies, there are fewer data sources available regarding corresponding mechanisms 

at moderate or low frequencies, or in mysticetes. Recent work by Clark et al. (2009) summarizes the 

potential for acoustic masking on baleen whales from anthropogenic sounds, including shipping. 

Castellote et al. (2010), studying fin whales in the eastern Atlantic and western Mediterranean, 

documented the shortening of low frequency (20 Hz) pulse duration, decreasing bandwidth, and 

decreasing center and peak frequencies as a result of masking from shipping (and seismic) activity. 

Directional hearing has been demonstrated at frequencies as low as 0.5-2 kHz in several marine 

mammals, including killer whales (see Richardson et al., 1995). This ability may be useful in reducing 

masking at these frequencies. 

Sound sources used during G&G activities have the potential to mask marine mammal 

communication and monitoring of environmental cues if an individual is present within range of 

operational sound sources. The sound energy of the representative sources would be directed primiarly 

towards the seafloor, but reflected energy propagated horizontally away from the sources could result in 

masking. Low-frequency sound from airguns and vessels primarily overlaps with mysticete 

vocalizations, and the lower range of sperm whale and manatee vocalizations. Depth sounders and 

side-scan sonars overlap with sperm whale and manatee vocalizations. In general, because mysticetes 

may communicate over long distances, the potential for masking is greater. However, at this point, there 

has been only preliminary research into masking and its spatial extent (Clark et al., 2009). 

Seismic survey protocols and mitigation procedures (Section 7) would be implemented to decrease 

the potential for any marine mammal to be within the exclusion zone of an operating airgun array, thereby 
Biological Assessment A-95

reducing the potential for masking. While the full extent of the zone of masking has not been determined, 

it is expected that the exclusion zone encompasses a portion of the ensonification area where masking 

may occur. Section 7 also describes what is known on the effectiveness of these measures. 

5.2.1.4. Behavioral Responses 

Stress in marine mammals resulting from noise exposure typically involves the sympathetic nervous 

system. Stress response in marine mammals is immediate, acute, and characterized by the release of the 

neurohormones norepinephrine and epinephrine (i.e., catecholamines; U.S. Navy, Office of Naval 

Research, 2009). Various researchers (e.g., Romano et al., 2004) have summarized available evidence for 

profound activity during stressors such as stranding or predation (Cowan and Curry, 2008; Mashburn and 

Atkinson, 2008; Eskesen et al., 2009). Romano et al. (2004) note that no quantitative approach to 

estimating changes in mortality or fecundity because of stress has been identified and that qualitative 

effects may include increased susceptibility to disease and early termination of pregnancy. 

Disturbance can induce a variety of effects including subtle changes in behavior, more conspicuous 

dramatic changes in activities, and displacement. Disturbance is one of the main concerns of the potential 

impacts of manmade noise on marine mammals. Richardson et al. (1995) noted that most small and 

medium-sized toothed whales exposed to prolonged or repeated underwater sounds are unlikely to be 

displaced unless the overall received level is at least 140 dB re 1 μPa. Limited available data indicate that 

sperm whales are sometimes, though not always, more responsive than other toothed whales to 

anthropogenic noise. Baleen whales probably have better hearing sensitivities at lower sound 

frequencies, and in several studies have been shown to react at received sound levels of approximately 

120 dB re 1 μPa (e.g., 0.5 probability of avoidance by gray whales of a continuous noise source; Malme 

et al., 1988; also see Southall et al., 2007). 

Behavioral responses of marine mammals to sound are difficult to predict because responses are 

dependent on numerous factors, including the species being evaluated; the animal’s state of maturity, 

prior experience and exposure to anthropogenic sounds, current activity patterns, and reproductive state; 

time of day; and weather state (Wartzok et al., 2004). If a marine mammal reacts to an underwater sound 

by changing its behavior or moving to avoid a sound source, the impacts of that change may not be 

important to the individual, the stock, or the species as a whole. However, if a sound source displaces 

marine mammals from an important feeding or breeding area for a prolonged period, impacts on both 

individuals and the population could be important. 

There is a very wide range of possible behavioral responses to sound exposure, given that the sound is 

audible to the particular animal, including, in approximate order of increasing severity but decreasing 

likelihood, the following: 

 none observable – animals can become less sensitive over repeated exposures; 

 looking at the sound source or increased alertness; 

 minor behavioral responses such as vocal modifications associated with masking; 

 cessation of feeding or social interactions; 

 temporary avoidance behavior (emerging as one of the more common responses); 

 modification of group structure or activity state; and/or 

 habitat abandonment. 

Assessing the severity of behavioral effects of anthropogenic sound exposure on marine mammals 

presents unique challenges associated with the inherent complexity of behavioral responses and the 

contextual factors affecting them, both within and between individuals and species. Severity of responses 

can vary depending on characteristics of the sound source (e.g., moving or stationary, number and spatial 

distribution of sound source[s], similarity to predator sounds, and other relevant factors) (Richardson et 

al., 1995; NRC, 2005; Southall et al., 2007; Wirsing et al., 2008; Bejder et al., 2009; Barber et al., 2010; 

Ellison et al., 2011). 

There is considerable available literature on the effects of noise on marine mammal behavior 

(see Southall et al., 2007). Traveling blue and fin whales exposed to seismic noise from airguns have 

been reported to stop emitting redundant songs (McDonald et al., 1995; Clark and Gagnon, 2006). By 

contrast, Di Iorio and Clark (2010) found increased production of transient, non-redundant calls during 

seismic sparker operations, suggesting that blue whales respond to noise interference according to the 
A-96 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

context and the signal produced. They further postulated that animals engaged in near-term, proximate 

communication are probably afforded an advantage in acoustic behaviors that maintain the immediate 

social link; for animals engaged in long-term singing directed to a distant audience, information loss is 

minor if singing is temporarily interrupted. Di Iorio and Clark (2010) determined that blue whales 

changed their calling behavior in response to a low frequency, low output sound source that was 

previously presumed to have minor environmental impact (Duchesne et al., 2007). The mean sound 

pressure was relatively low, 131 dB re 1 μPa (peak to peak) (30-500 Hz) with a mean SEL of 114 dB re 

1 μPa2

 s (90 percent energy approach for duration estimate; Madsen, 2005). There are insufficient data to 

determine the relevance of the observed vocal adjustment to an individual whale’s well-being. 

North Atlantic right whales exhibited changes in diving behavior when exposed to an alert signal at 

received levels of 133-148 dB re 1 μPa (Nowacek et al., 2004). Blue whales responded to noise from 

seismic sparker operations by increasing call production. Observed responses of cetaceans to airgun 

activity include reduced vocalization rates (e.g., Goold, 1996) but no vocal changes (e.g., Madsen et al., 

2002) or cessation of singing (e.g., McDonald et al., 1995). Other short-term vocal adjustments observed 

across taxa exposed to elevated ambient noise levels include shifting call frequency, increasing call 

amplitude or duration, and ceasing to call (Nowacek et al., 2007). In baleen whales, North Atlantic right 

whales exposed to high shipping noise increased call frequency (Parks et al., 2007), while some 

humpback whales responded to low frequency active sonar playbacks by increasing song length (Miller et 

al., 2000). 

It is apparent that there is significant species-specific variability in the behavioral responses of marine 

mammals to noise exposure, including several different active acoustic sound sources. It is also evident 

that there is a broad spectrum of behavioral responses, each of which has varying importance to the 

individual. Recognizing these issues, Southall et al. (2007) concluded (1) that there are many more 

published accounts of behavioral responses to noise by marine mammals than of direct auditory or 

physiological effects; (2) available data on behavioral responses do not converge on specific exposure 

conditions resulting in particular reactions, nor do they point to a common behavioral mechanism; 

(3) study data obtained with substantial controls, precision, and standardized metrics indicate high 

variance both in behavioral responses and in exposure conditions required to elicit a given response; and 

(4) distinguishing a significant behavioral response from an insignificant, momentary alteration in 

behavior is difficult. 

Sound sources used during G&G activities have the potential to produce stress, disturbance, and 

behavioral responses in marine mammals if they are present within range of the operational airgun array. 

Mitigation measures included in the proposed action would minimize the potential for any marine 

mammal to be within the exclusion zone of an operating sound source, thereby reducing the potential for 

behavioral responses in close proximity to the sound source. However, beyond the exclusion zone, some 

behavioral responses may occur. 

5.2.1.5. Indirect Effects Mediated by Prey Availability 

Short-term, indirect effects on marine mammals could occur as a result of acoustic impacts on, or 

behavioral responses of, prey species (e.g., squid) in the immediate vicinity of seismic airgun surveys. 

Based on a review of airgun impacts on invertebrates by Christian and Bocking (2011), studies to date 

have not revealed any consistent evidence of serious pathological or physiological effects on 

invertebrates. Any effects, including behavioral responses, would be localized (near survey vessels) and 

transient. With the seismic source vessel moving at speeds of about 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr), the vessel and its 

streamers would pass any given point within about an hour. If prey species avoided an area in which a 

survey was being performed, it would represent a very small portion of a marine mammal’s foraging 

range. Any indirect impacts on prey behavior would not be expected to significantly affect any of the 

listed marine mammals. 

5.2.1.6. Analysis of the Proposed Action Scenario 

The proposed action includes extensive seismic airgun surveys during the 2012-2020 time period, as 

discussed in Section 2.2.2.1. These include 617,775 line km of 2D surveys, 2,500 blocks of 3D surveys, 

900 line km of 3D WAZ and FAZ coil surveys, 1,280 line km of VSP surveys, and 175,465 line km of 

HRG surveys (Table A-11). All of these surveys are within the oil and gas exploration program, as 
Biological Assessment A-97

airguns are not used on HRG surveys for marine minerals programs and are highly unlike for use in 

renewable energy programs. The renewable energy scenario does include the possibility that a deep 

penetration (2D or 3D) seismic survey would be conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon 

sequestration. However, a single seismic airgun survey for carbon sequestration is not analyzed 

separately. It is assumed that such a survey would be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun 

survey for oil and gas exploration. Because of the large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys 

included in the oil and gas scenario and the likelihood that some of those surveys may not be conducted 

due to overlapping coverage, a single survey for carbon sequestration would not change the effects at a 

programmatic level. 

The proposed action also includes HRG surveys for renewable energy and marine minerals programs 

as described in Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4; activity levels for the 2012-2020 time period are provided in 

Tables A-5 and A-6. These surveys are expected to use only electromechanical sound sources 

(e.g., boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, side-scan sonars, and multibeam depth sounders). 

Incidental take of marine mammals, including listed species, was estimated for the proposed action 

scenario as described in Appendix E of the Programmatic EIS. The calculations used the Acoustic 

Integration Model© 

(AIM), which is a 4D, individual-based, Monte Carlo statistical model designed to 

predict the exposure of receivers to any stimulus propagating through space and time. The modeling used 

both the current NMFS criteria for Level A and Level B harassment, as well as the Southall et al. (2007) 

criteria for injury (Level A harassment). The incidental take estimates are based solely on the activity 

scenario, source characteristics, and seasonal marine mammal densities; although the right whale 

time-area closure was taken into account, the operational mitigation measures included in the seismic 

airgun survey protocol and HRG survey protocol (see Section 7) were not incorporated into the modeling. 

This means that marine mammals could be counted as Level A takes even though mitigation measures 

could prevent those takes (e.g., if a marine mammal were detected approaching the exclusion zone, 

causing shutdown of the airgun array). 

Table A-16 summarizes the results of the incidental take modeling for listed marine mammals, 

including all active acoustic sound sources (airguns, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, side-scan 

sonars, and multibeam depth sounders) and all survey types. For the summary table, annual take 

estimates were calculated (as numbers of individuals) to three decimal places, and values were rounded to 

the nearest whole number of individuals. The grand total is the sum of the rounded annual values. 

Supporting tables are provided for seismic airgun surveys (Table A-17) and non-airgun HRG surveys 

(Table A-18). The fractional individuals in all of the tables are a result of the calculation process (e.g., 

use of mean densities) and do not represent probabilities. 
Table A-16 Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to All Active Acoustic Sound Sources in the Proposed Action, 

Airgun Surveys and Non-Airgun Surveys. Annual numbers of individuals taken were calculated to three decimal places, and values w

whole number of animals. The total is the sum of the rounded annual values.1 Source: Appendix E of the Programm

Species 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 

Level A Harassment Takes (180-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.002 1 1.164 2 2.293 0 0.271 2 1.885 1 1.397 1 1.299 1 0.877 

Blue Whale 0 0.001 2 2.183 4 4.275 0 0.452 3 2.754 2 2.002 2 1.541 1 0.883 Fin Whale 0 0.001 4 4.401 9 8.639 1 0.951 6 5.898 4 4.344 3 3.478 2 1.926 Sei Whale 0 0.000 2 1.966 4 3.855 0 0.417 3 2.565 2 1.881 1 1.477 1 0.819 Humpback Whale 0 0.003 6 5.900 12 11.546 1 1.210 7 7.336 5 5.318 4 4.047 2 2.321 Sperm Whale 0 0.000 159 158.828 310 309.724 30 30.401 179 179.051 127 126.960 89 89.385 55 54.767 Florida Manatee 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 

Level A Harassment Takes (Southall et al. 2007 criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.002 0 0.039 0 0.074 0 0.011 0 0.047 0 0.036 0 0.025 0 0.009 

Blue Whale 0 (0.000) 1 0.831 2 1.623 0 0.164 1 0.915 1 0.664 0 0.439 0 0.208 Fin Whale 0 0.015 0 0.021 0 0.021 0 0.021 0 0.021 0 0.018 0 0.005 0 0.000 Sei Whale 0 0.002 0 0.211 0 0.405 0 0.035 0 0.178 0 0.115 0 0.057 0 0.060 Humpback Whale 0 0.000 3 3.046 6 5.931 1 0.567 3 3.153 2 2.226 1 1.402 1 0.779 Sperm Whale 0 0.001 0 0.096 0 0.185 0 0.016 0 0.077 0 0.051 0 0.021 0 0.019 Florida Manatee 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 

Level B Harassment Takes (160-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.194 114 114.092 225 224.739 27 26.592 185 184.766 137 136.944 127 127.334 86 85.913 

Blue Whale 0 0.066 214 213.999 419 418.979 44 44.264 270 269.881 196 196.170 151 150.994 86 86.495 Fin Whale 0 0.115 431 431.364 847 846.749 93 93.167 578 578.072 426 425.755 341 340.840 189 188.785 Sei Whale 0 0.036 193 192.672 378 377.852 41 40.901 251 251.373 184 184.310 145 144.793 80 80.298 Humpback Whale 0 0.245 578 578.293 1,132 1131.575 119 118.608 719 718.954 521 521.193 397 396.647 227 227.499 Sperm Whale 0 0.018 15,567 15566.727 30,356 30356.018 2,980 2979.633 17,549 17548.762 12,443 12443.391 8,761 8760.616 5,368 5367.671 Florida Manatee 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 0 (0.000) 

1 Both annual and total values could include multiple “takes” of the same individuals. 
Table A-17 Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to Seismic Airgun Surveys Included in the Propos

Values are Total Numbers of Individuals. Source: Appendix E of the Programmatic EIS. Species 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 

Level A Harassment Takes (180-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.000 1 1.162 2 2.290 0 0.269 2 1.883 1 1.395 1 1.294 

Blue Whale 0 0.000 2 2.182 4 4.274 0 0.451 3 2.753 2 2.000 2 1.539 Fin Whale 0 0.000 4 4.400 9 8.638 1 0.949 6 5.896 4 4.342 3 3.474 Sei Whale 0 0.000 2 1.965 4 3.855 0 0.417 3 2.564 2 1.880 1 1.476 Humpback Whale 0 0.000 6 5.897 12 11.542 1 1.207 7 7.332 5 5.314 4 4.043 Sperm Whale 0 0.000 159 158.828 310 309.723 30 30.401 179 179.051 127 126.956 89 89.342 Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 

Level A Harassment Takes (Southall et al. 2007 criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.000 0 0.036 0 0.071 0 0.008 0 0.045 0 0.034 0 0.024 

Blue Whale 0 0.000 1 0.831 2 1.622 0 0.164 1 0.915 1 0.663 0 0.439 Fin Whale 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 Sei Whale 0 0.000 0 0.208 0 0.402 0 0.032 0 0.176 0 0.113 0 0.057 Humpback Whale 0 0.000 3 3.046 6 5.931 1 0.567 3 3.153 2 2.226 1 1.402 Sperm Whale 0 0.000 0 0.095 0 0.184 0 0.015 0 0.076 0 0.050 0 0.021 Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 

Level B Harassment Takes (160-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.000 114 113.846 224 224.490 26 26.343 185 184.517 137 136.675 127 126.832 

Blue Whale 0 0.000 214 213.901 419 418.875 44 44.161 270 269.778 196 196.066 151 150.850 Fin Whale 0 0.000 431 431.204 847 846.583 93 93.001 578 577.905 426 425.583 341 340.531 

1

Sei Whale 0 0.000 193 192.625 378 377.801 41 40.850 251 251.322 184 184.255 145 144.677 Humpback Whale 0 0.000 578 577.964 1,131 1,131.230 118 118.264 719 718.609 521 520.862 396 396.288 

2

Sperm Whale 0 0.000 15,567 15,566.706 30,356 30,355.996 2,980 2,979.611 17,549 17,548.740 12,443 12,442.986 8,756 8,756.403 

5,

Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 
Table A-18 Estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to Non-Airgun High Resolution Geophysical Surveys included 

Values are Total Numbers of Individuals. Source: Appendix E of the Programmatic EIS. Species 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 

Level A Harassment Takes (180-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.0020 0 0.0025 0 0.0025 0 0.0025 0 0.0025 0 0.0027 0 0.0051 

0

Blue Whale 0 0.0007 0 0.0010 0 0.0011 0 0.0011 0 0.0011 0 0.0011 0 0.0015 

0

Fin Whale 0 0.0012 0 0.0016 0 0.0017 0 0.0017 0 0.0017 0 0.0018 0 0.0031 

0

Sei Whale 0 0.0004 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0006 0 0.0012 

0

Humpback Whale 0 0.0025 0 0.0034 0 0.0035 0 0.0035 0 0.0035 0 0.0034 0 0.0037 

0

Sperm Whale 0 0.0002 0 0.0002 0 0.0002 0 0.0002 0 0.0002 0 0.0041 0 0.0430 

0

Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 

Level A Harassment Takes (Southall et al. 2007 criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.0021 0 0.0026 0 0.0026 0 0.0026 0 0.0026 0 0.0022 0 0.0005 

Blue Whale 0 0.0002 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0005 0 0.0003 Fin Whale 0 0.0155 0 0.0208 0 0.0208 0 0.0208 0 0.0208 0 0.0185 0 0.0053 Sei Whale 0 0.0020 0 0.0024 0 0.0024 0 0.0024 0 0.0024 0 0.0021 0 0.0004 Humpback Whale 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 Sperm Whale 0 0.0008 0 0.0009 0 0.0009 0 0.0009 0 0.0009 0 0.0008 0 0.0001 Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 

Level B Harassment Takes (160-dB NMFS criterion) North Atlantic Right Whale 0 0.1945 0 0.2461 0 0.2491 0 0.2491 0 0.2491 0 0.2690 1 0.5016 

0

Blue Whale 0 0.0659 0 0.0980 0 0.1037 0 0.1037 0 0.1037 0 0.1048 0 0.1448 

0

Fin Whale 0 0.1153 0 0.1598 0 0.1665 0 0.1665 0 0.1665 0 0.1722 0 0.3083 

0

Sei Whale 0 0.0358 0 0.0476 0 0.0511 0 0.0511 0 0.0511 0 0.0557 0 0.1152 

0

Humpback Whale 0 0.2454 0 0.3285 0 0.3444 0 0.3444 0 0.3444 0 0.3313 0 0.3597 

0

Sperm Whale 0 0.0182 0 0.0215 0 0.0215 0 0.0215 0 0.0215 0 0.4051 4 4.2127 

3

Florida Manatee 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 0 0.000 
Biological Assessment A-101

Level A Harassment 

The modeling predicts Level A harassment of all listed species except the Florida manatee (all values 

are zero due to low densities in the BA Area) (Table A-16). Using the 180 dB re 1 μPa criterion, the 

sperm whale has the largest number of Level A takes (0-310 individuals per year), whereas all other 

species have fewer than 12 individuals taken per year. Using the Southall et al. (2007) criteria, all species 

are predicted to have fewer than six individuals taken per year, and all except the blue whale and 

humpback whale are predicted to have much less than one individual per year (rounded to zero). The 

difference reflects the higher threshold for Level A harassment in the Southall et al. (2007) criteria, as 

well as the consideration of the different functional hearing groups. For example, the reduction in number 

of takes was much more pronounced for sperm whales because as mid-frequency specialists they are less 

likely to be affected by low-frequency airgun pulses (in contrast to mysticete whales, which are 

low-frequency specialists). 

The NMFS Level A criterion is not based on a specific injury (e.g., PTS), but more broadly on SPLs 

that are “likely to have the potential to cause serious behavioral, physiological and hearing effects” 

(HESS, 1999). Based on the Southall et al. (2007) injury criteria, the risk of actual injury (as estimated by 

the number of takes) is much lower and nearly zero for most species. 

The proposed action includes a time-area closure (see Section 7) that has been factored into the 

incidental take calculations. The Level A incidental takes of North Atlantic right whales are 

approximately 67 percent lower than they would be without the time-area closure. However, the 

modeling does not take into account the operational mitigation measures to ensure that marine mammals 

are not present within the 180-dB exclusion zone. Although these measures may not be 100 percent 

effective, they would be expected to significantly reduce the risk of Level A harassment to marine 

mammals. 

Level B Harassment 

The modeling also predicts Level B harassment of all of the listed marine mammal species except the 

Florida manatee (Table A-16). The sperm whale is predicted to have the largest number of Level B 

harassment takes (up to 30,356 individuals per year), and the North Atlantic right whale has the smallest 

number (0-225 individuals per year). The results primarily reflect differences in the densities of the 

species modeled within the BA Area, as differences in functional hearing group are not taken into account 

in the 160-dB re 1 μPa criterion. 

The proposed action includes a time-area closure (see Section 7) that has been factored into the 

incidental take calculations. The Level B incidental takes of North Atlantic right whales are 

approximately 67 percent lower than they would be without the time-area closure. In addition, the 

operational mitigation measures to ensure that marine mammals are not present within the exclusion zone 

may also help to reduce the number of Level B harassment takes, but this has not been quantified in the 

modeling. 

Relative Effects of Airguns vs. Electromechanical Sources 

Incidental takes from airguns (during seismic airgun surveys) and electromechanical sources (during 

non-airgun HRG surveys) are summarized in Tables A-17 and A-18, respectively. It should be noted that 

electromechanical sources could be operating concurrently with airguns during seismic airgun surveys, 

but any incidental takes are assumed to be accounted for by the airgun calculations. 

Except for 2012 when only non-airgun HRG surveys are expected to be conducted, seismic airgun 

surveys are expected to account for more than 99 percent of the incidental takes of each species during a 

given year. Non-airgun HRG surveys are expected to result in essentially zero Level A takes using either 

the NMFS 180-dB criterion or the Southall et al. (2007) criteria (Table A-18). 

Non-airgun HRG surveys could result in a few Level B harassment takes (Table A-18). For blue 

whale, sei whale, and the Florida manatee, the values are less than one individual per year throughout the 

2012-2020 period (assuming annual values would be rounded to the nearest whole number). Non-zero 

Level B harassment takes were predicted for the sperm whale (0-12 individuals per year), North Atlantic 
A-102 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

right whale (0-1 individuals per year), fin whale (0-1 individuals per year), and humpback whale 

(0-1 individuals per year). 

Among the representative electromechanical sources, boomers and multibeam depth sounders pose 

the smallest risk of auditory impacts to marine mammals. Under all scenarios modeled, the 180-dB radius 

for both sources is estimated to be <50 m (160 ft) for the nominal source level and <5 m (16 ft) when 

pulse duration is taken into account (Table A-15). Based on the Southall criteria, the predicted injury 

radius would be zero for both sources. In addition, the operating frequency of the representative 

multibeam depth sounder is beyond the range of all three cetacean groups. (Some multibeam depth 

sounders use different frequencies that are within the cetacean hearing range, but the system modeled here 

is considered representative of the equipment likely to be used during HRG surveys for renewable energy 

and marine minerals sites.) 

Both the representative side-scan sonar and chirp subbottom profiler could be detectable by 

cetaceans, depending on the operating frequencies selected. The side-scan sonar operating at 100 kHz 

would be detectable, and the 180-dB radius is estimated to be 128-192 m (420-630 ft) based on the 

nominal source level and 65-96 m (213-315 ft) when the short pulse length is taken into account. The 

chirp subbottom profiler operating at either 3.5 kHz or 12 kHz would be detectable, and the 180-dB 

radius is estimated to be 32-42 m (105-138 ft) based on the nominal source level and 26-35 m (85-115 ft) 

when the short pulse length is taken into account. Based on the Southall criteria, predicted injury ranges 

are less than 10 m (33 ft) for both sources. 

For non-airgun HRG surveys using only electromechanical sources, depending on the suite of 

equipment selected and the operating frequencies selected, there may be no risk of Level A or B 

harassment of marine mammals. For example, if a survey uses side-scan sonar at 400 kHz, chirp 

subbottom at 200 kHz, multibeam depth sounder at 240 kHz, and no boomer, then no acoustic harassment 

of marine mammals would be expected. 

Multiple Exposures to Airgun Pulses 

The incidental take modeling includes the potential for multiple exposures of individual marine 

animals in numerous ways. For example, in the modeling of the WAZ surveys, the received “ping” or 

transmitted signal history for all modeled animals (called “animats” in AIM) is recorded for two sources 

operating simultaneously in the simulation. Since most of the take criteria (i.e., the historic 160-dB and 

180-dB NMFS criteria and the Southall Level A SPL threshold) depend on the strongest signal received 

by each animat, only the Southall SEL criterion would incorporate effects of multiple pings. Similarly, 

for most of the surveys examined in this analysis, the AIM modeling keeps track of the multiple 

exposures of each animat, whether it is from an airgun array firing every 10-15 s as it approaches that 

animat during a single survey leg, or if it is from multiple legs of a survey, or from multiple passes of a 

side-scan sonar or multiple beams from a multi-beam system; all of these exposures are recorded and 

analyzed. 

An examination of the raw data from the analysis indicates that with the exception of the case of 

multiple pings received during the approach of a source during a single leg of the survey, only a relatively 

small number (nominally less than about 10 percent) of animats remain in the same area or vicinity long 

enough to allow multiple legs (lines) of a survey to affect them more than once. Most of these animats 

would have moved far enough from the survey legs that if their received levels were greater than 

155-160 dB re 1 μPa, the next highest received levels would 20 dB re 1 μPa or more below this. These 

cases occur for different animats throughout the timeline of the simulation. It should be noted that the 

movement of the modeled animats is random (i.e., they have not been programmed to avoid active 

acoustic sound sources, even though they could do so in the real world). 

Because the proposed action includes surveys over a period of several years (2012-2020), it is also 

possible that some of the same animals could be affected during more than one year. 

Conclusions 

Active acoustic sound sources used during G&G surveys are likely to adversely effect ESA-listed 

whales species as they could result in Level A and Level B incidental takes The most likely effects would 

be behavioral responses (Level B harassment) caused by exposure to airgun pulses. The risk of injury, as 

estimated using the Southall et al. (2007) injury criteria, is very low and nearly zero for most species. 
Biological Assessment A-103

Because of the operational mitigation measures that would be implemented during seismic airgun surveys 

and non-airgun HRG surveys, Level A harassment is expected to be avoided to the maximum extent 

practicable; however, the actual mitigation effectiveness and reduction of incidental takes have not been 

estimated. See Section 7.1.2.6 for a brief discussion of mitigation effectiveness. 

Based on the current NMFS criteria, seismic airgun surveys could result in Level A takes of all listed 

marine mammals except the Florida manatee. The sperm whale is estimated to have the largest number of 

Level A takes (0-310 individuals per year), whereas all other species would have fewer than 

12 individuals taken per year. In contrast, the Southall et al. 2007 criteria would only result in potential 

Level A takes of blue and humpback whales. 

Nearly all of the incidental takes would be caused by airguns, which would be used extensively for 

surveys in the oil and gas program and which produce pulses that are within the functional hearing range 

of all marine mammals. Non-airgun HRG surveys are not expected to result in any Level A takes, but 

could result in a few Level B harassment takes, mainly of sperm whales. 

Approximately two-thirds of the potential incidental takes of North Atlantic right whales (and some 

takes of other listed whales) are expected to be avoided by the time-area closure included in the proposed 

action. Florida manatees are unlikely to come into contact with active acoustic sound sources, and no 

effects to manatees are expected. 

5.2.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Few studies have examined the role acoustic cues play in the ecology of sea turtles (Mrosovsky, 

1972; Samuel et al., 2005; Nunny et al., 2008). There is evidence that sea turtles may use sound to 

communicate; the few vocalizations described for sea turtles are restricted to the “grunts” of nesting 

females (Mrosovsky, 1972). These sounds are low frequency and relatively loud, thus leading to 

speculation that nesting females use sounds to communicate with conspecifics (Mrosovsky, 1972). Little 

is known about the extent to which sea turtles use their auditory environment. However, the passive 

acoustic environment for sea turtles changes with each ontogenetic habitat shift. In the inshore 

environment where juvenile and adult sea turtles generally reside, the ambient environment is noisier than 

the open ocean environment of the hatchlings; this inshore environment is dominated by low frequency 

sound (Hawkins and Myrberg, 1983), and, in highly trafficked areas, virtually constant low frequency 

noises from shipping, recreational boating, and other sources compound the potential for acoustic impact 

(Hildebrand, 2009). 

Active acoustic sound sources could have a range of effects on sea turtles. In order of decreasing 

severity, these could include death, physical injury, hearing threshold shift, auditory masking, and 

behavioral responses. Hearing threshold shifts, auditory masking, and behavioral responses are discussed 

in detail below. There are no data demonstrating death or injury of sea turtles from airguns, which are the 

sound sources with the highest source levels. Behavioral responses are the most likely impact, with a 

limited potential for hearing threshold shift and masking effects for sea turtles close to an airgun array. 

5.2.2.1. Death or Injury 

Injury and death of sea turtles has been observed in association with high intensity events such as 

underwater explosions (O’Keeffe and Young, 1984; Klima et al., 1988). Underwater explosions produce 

pulses with very steep rise times and peak pressures that may damage internal organs or air-filled body 

cavities (e.g., lungs) (Yelverton et al., 1973; Goertner, 1982; Young, 1991). Airgun pulses do not 

produce the same kinds of physical impacts. If the Southall et al. (2007) marine mammal injury criteria 

are applied to sea turtles, then the risk of injury is very low. In addition, mitigation measures (see 

Section 7) would be implemented to decrease the potential for sea turtles to be within the exclusion zone 

of an operating airgun array, thereby avoiding the highest SPLs and minimizing the potential for death or 

injury. 

5.2.2.2. Hearing Threshold Shift 

Auditory impacts such as TTS or PTS could occur in sea turtles. However, unlike marine mammals, 

criteria have not been developed for these effects in sea turtles, mainly because of the few data that exist 

on their hearing. By definition, TTS is a temporary and recoverable damage to hearing structures 
A-104 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

(sensory hair cells) and can vary in intensity and duration. For individuals experiencing TTS, normal 

hearing abilities would return over time; however, animals may lack the ability to detect prey and 

predators and assess their environment during the recovery period. In contrast, PTS results in the 

permanent though variable loss of hearing through the loss of sensory hair cells (Clark, 1991). Few 

studies have looked at hair cell damage in reptiles, and studies do not indicate precisely if sea turtles are 

able to regenerate injured sensory hair cells (Warchol, 2011). 

Because there are no hearing criteria for sea turtles, NMFS typically applies the criteria for marine 

mammals to evaluate the potential for similar impacts. The current NMFS criterion for Level A 

harassment of cetaceans is a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa; although not explicitly referring to TTS or 

PTS, this criterion is based on the potential for “overt behavioral, physiological, and hearing effects on 

marine mammals in general” (HESS, 1999). Calculations indicate that this zone could extend up to 

2.1 km (1.3 mi) from a large airgun array (5,400 in.3

) and up to 186 m (610 ft) from a small airgun array 

(90 in.3

) (Table A-15); however, the actual extent of the injury zone is likely to be much smaller than this. 

Southall et al. (2007) proposed two auditory injury criteria for cetaceans, one based on SEL and the other 

based on a received SPL of 230 dB re 1 μPa (peak). The 230 dB re 1 μPa level would occur within a few 

meters of the center of an airgun array. If auditory threshold shifts occur at similar received levels in sea 

turtles, the actual risk of auditory system impacts is likely to be limited to areas within an airgun array. 

5.2.2.3. Auditory Masking 

Noise below the TTS and PTS levels may have the potential to mask relevant sounds in the 

environment or induce simple behavioral changes in sea turtles such as evasive maneuvers (e.g., diving or 

changes in swimming direction and/or speed). Masking sounds can interfere with the acquisition of prey 

or mates, the avoidance of predators, and, in the case of sea turtles, the identification of an appropriate 

nesting site (Nunny et al., 2008). These maskers could have diverse origins, ranging from natural to 

anthropogenic sounds (Hildebrand, 2009). Because sea turtles appear to be low frequency specialists, the 

potential masking noises would fall mainly within the range of 50-1,000 Hz. There are no quantitative 

data demonstrating masking effects for sea turtles. Because few studies have examined the role acoustic 

cues play in the ecology of sea turtles, it is difficult to predict whether masking would have any 

ecological consequences for sea turtles. 

5.2.2.4. Behavioral Responses 

Limited data exist on noise levels that may induce behavioral changes in sea turtles. Avoidance 

responses to seismic signals have been observed at levels between 166 and 179 dB re 1 μPa (Moein et al., 

1995; McCauley et al., 2000); however, both of these studies were done in a caged environment, so the 

extent of avoidance could not be monitored. In experiments attempting to use airguns to repel turtles 

from dredging operations, Moein et al. (1995) observed a habituation effect to airguns; the animals 

stopped responding to the signal after three presentations. From these results, it was not clear whether 

this lack of behavioral response was a result of behavioral habituation, or physical effects from TTS or 

PTS. 

5.2.2.5. Indirect Effects Mediated by Prey Availability 

Short-term, indirect effects on sea turtles could occur as a result of acoustic impacts on, or behavioral 

responses of, prey species in the immediate vicinity of seismic airgun surveys. Adult loggerheads feed 

primarily on benthic molluscs and crustaceans. Leatherbacks are pelagic feeders, preferring coelenterates 

(jellyfish). Based on a review of airgun impacts on invertebrates by Christian and Bocking (2011), 

studies to date have not revealed any consistent evidence of serious pathological or physiological effects 

on invertebrates. With the seismic source vessel moving at speeds of about 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr), the vessel 

and its streamers would pass any given point within about an hour. If prey species avoided an area in 

which a survey was being performed, it would represent a very small portion of a sea turtle’s foraging 

range. Any indirect impacts on prey behavior would be expected to effect but not adversely effect listed 

sea turtles. 
Biological Assessment A-105

5.2.2.6. Analysis of the Proposed Action Scenario 

The proposed action includes extensive seismic airgun surveys during the 2012-2020 time period, as 

discussed in Section 2.2.2.1. These include 617,775 line km of 2D surveys, 2,500 blocks of 3D surveys, 

900 line km of 3D WAZ and FAZ coil surveys, 1,280 line km of VSP surveys, and 175,465 line km of 

HRG surveys (Table A-11). All of these surveys are within the oil and gas exploration program, as 

airguns are not expected to be used for HRG surveys in either renewable energy or marine minerals 

programs. The renewable energy scenario includes the possibility that a deep penetration (2D or 3D) 

seismic survey would be conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration. However, a 

single seismic airgun survey for carbon sequestration is not analyzed separately. It is assumed that such a 

survey would be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun survey for oil and gas exploration. 

Because of the large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys included in the oil and gas scenario and 

the likelihood that some of those surveys may not be conducted due to overlapping coverage, a single 

survey for carbon sequestration would not change the effects at a programmatic level. 

The proposed action also includes HRG surveys for renewable energy and marine minerals programs, 

as described in Sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.4; activity levels for the 2012-2020 time period are provided in 

Tables A-5 and A-6. These surveys are expected to use only electromechanical sound sources 

(e.g., boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, side-scan sonars, and multibeam depth sounders). As 

discussed below, the electromechanical sources are not likely to be audible to sea turtles, except for the 

boomer at close range. 

Effects of Seismic Airgun Surveys 

Based on the scope of the proposed action, seismic airgun surveys could affect individuals from all 

sea turtle species within the BA Area, potentially including hawksbill turtles within the southernmost part 

of the region. Subadult and adult turtles may be more likely to be affected by seismic airgun noise than 

post-hatchling turtles because of the time that the former remain submerged and at depth. Post-hatchling 

turtles generally reside at or near the sea surface and may be less likely to be injured by the sound field 

produced by an airgun array. It is anticipated that seismic airgun surveys conducted in shallower parts of 

the BA Area may affect a greater number of individual turtles, particularly species other than 

leatherbacks. Deepwater surveys are likely to affect fewer individual turtles but are more likely to affect 

leatherback turtles, particularly within areas of upwelling where individuals may be found in feeding 

aggregations. Also, surveys conducted during summer sea turtle nesting periods may affect greater 

numbers of adult turtles, particularly loggerhead, green, and leatherback turtles, than surveys conducted 

during non-nesting periods. 

Section 7 discusses the operational mitigation measures that would be implemented during seismic 

airgun surveys, including ramp-up of airgun arrays, visual monitoring of an exclusion zone by protected 

species observers, and startup and shutdown requirements. The purpose of these operational measures is 

to prevent injury to sea turtles by ensuring that they are not present within an exclusion zone around the 

airgun array. If the operational mitigation measures were 100 percent successful, then most auditory 

impacts on sea turtles would be avoided. The BOEM expects that mitigation measures would not be 

100 percent effective, and therefore there is the potential to expose some sea turtles to sound levels that 

could cause TTS or PTS. However, no deaths or life-threatening injuries are expected. 

Detection of sea turtles by visual monitoring during seismic airgun surveys can be difficult. Sea 

turtles spend most of their life below the sea surface. Individuals on the sea surface, particularly 

subadults and juveniles, are generally not demonstrative and may be difficult to detect during visual 

surveys, particularly during periods of elevated sea states or low visibility. Most post-hatchling sea turtle 

species tend to aggregate in mats of floating Sargassum within or near zones of ocean current 

convergence, though it is unlikely that a visual observer would detect their presence during visual 

mitigation monitoring surveys. Species such as green turtles and leatherback turtles tend to avoid 

Sargassum mats and may be even more difficult to detect during these mitigation surveys. 

It is possible that sea turtles would move away from approaching and/or increasing levels of sound 

during the ramp-up period of a seismic survey. However, a sea turtle’s response could also include diving 

below the airgun array, which would increase the likelihood of auditory impacts. 

The operational mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not prevent behavioral 

disturbance to sea turtles at distances beyond the exclusion zone. As noted previously, avoidance 
A-106 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

responses to seismic signals have been observed in sea turtles at received SPLs between 166 and 

179 dB re 1 μPa (Moein et al., 1995; McCauley et al., 2000). Received SPLs of 160 dB re 1 μPa could 

extend up to 15 km (9.3 mi) from a large airgun array (5,400 in.3

) and up to 3 km (1.9 mi) from a small 

airgun array (90 in.3

), depending on the geographic location and season modeled. 

Air	gun	surveys	are	likely	to	adversely	affect	listed	sea	turtle	species.		The	most	likely	impacts	

on	 sea	 turtles	 are	 expected	 to	 be	 short‐term	 behavioral	 responses	 of	 individuals	 in	 proximity	 to	

airgun	arrays.		 In	cases	where	individual sea	 turtles	cannot	or	do	not	avoid	airgun	arrays	and	are	

not	detected	by	visual	observers,	TTS	or	PTS	could	occur,	but	no	deaths	or	life‐threatening	injuries	

are	expected.	 

Effects of Non-Airgun HRG Surveys 

The HRG surveys of renewable energy and marine minerals sites would use only electromechanical 

sources such as side-scan sonar, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and multibeam depth sounders. 

Based on their operating frequencies as summarized in Table A-14, the side-scan sonar, chirp subbottom 

profiler, and multibeam depth sounder are not likely to be detectable by sea turtles, whose best hearing is 

mainly below 1,000 Hz. The boomer has an operating frequency range of 200 Hz–16 kHz, and so may be 

audible to sea turtles. However, it has a very short pulse length (120, 150, or 180 μs) and a very low 

source level, with a 180-dB radius ranging from 38-45 m (125-148 ft) (or less than 5 m [16 ft] if pulse 

duration is taken into account) (Table A-15). Therefore, sea turtles are unlikely to hear any of the 

electromechanical sources except perhaps the boomer at very close range. Because the proposed action 

includes a recommended separation distance of 45 m (150 ft) from sea turtles for vessel strike avoidance 

(see Section 7.1.4), auditory or behavioral impacts due to electromechanical sources are unlikely. 

Therefore, the use of non-airgun HRG surveys is not expected to affect listed sea turtle species. 

Effects on Turtle Nesting 

Seismic airgun surveys conducted off of heavily used nesting beaches during the nesting season could 

temporarily displace adult turtles that are approaching or departing nesting beaches or resting in offshore 

waters between nesting events. Beaches of southeast Florida have been identified as the most important 

nesting area for loggerhead turtles (part of the Penisular Florida Recovery Unit) in the western 

hemisphere (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). The northern segment of the Archie Carr NWR 

borders the BA Area, and it has been estimated that 25 percent of all loggerhead nesting in the 

U.S. occurs there (USDOI, FWS, 2011e). During the 2010 nesting season, there were over 

31,000 loggerhead nests in Brevard County, where the Archie Carr NWR is located. It is likely that large 

numbers of sea turtles would be present in nearshore and inner shelf waters of Brevard County during the 

nesting season from May 1 through October 31. Many adult females linger near the nesting beaches 

before and between nesting events, resting under rocky ledges and outcrops in inner shelf waters for 

periods of weeks. Depending on various factors including (1) the distance of the survey from shore; 

(2) local factors such as seafloor topography and seafloor substrate that may affect the lateral propagation 

of underwater sound; and (3) the duration and intensity of survey effort in this area, it is likely that in 

these cases breeding adults, nesting adult females, and hatchlings could be exposed to airgun seismic 

survey-related sound exposures at levels of 180 dB re 1 μPa or greater. Potential impacts could include 

auditory injuries to adults and dispersion of hatchlings, though the latter may be somewhat insulated from 

the highest sound levels because of their occurrence at or near the sea surface. 

Multiple Exposures to Airgun Pulses 

Sea turtles could be exposed to multiple airgun pulses within a given survey, from different surveys 

within a year, and in different years over the 2012-2020 time period. Although sea turtles were not 

included in the incidental take modeling, based on an examination of the raw data from the marine 

mammal analysis, it is expected that only a relatively small percentage of animals would be affected more 

than once by pulses emitted along different legs (lines) of a particular survey. Because the proposed 

action includes surveys over a period of several years (2012-2020), it is also possible that some of the 

same animals could be affected during more than one year. 
Biological Assessment A-107

Conclusions 

Listed sea turtles may be adversely affected by seismic air gun surveys. Effects could include direct 

auditory impacts (including TTS or PTS) and behavioral disturbance of sea turtles. Because of the 

operational mitigation measures that would be implemented during seismic airgun surveys and non-airgun 

HRG surveys, the risk of auditory impacts is expected to be avoided to the maximum extent practicable; 

however, the actual mitigation effectiveness and reduction of incidental takes have not been estimated. 

See Section 7.1.2.6 for a brief discussion of mitigation effectiveness. 

Some acoustic impacts on sea turtles are expected to be avoided by the time-area closure for North 

Atlantic right whales that is included in the proposed action because the closure would preclude airgun 

surveys in some near-coastal waters during certain months. 

5.2.3. Effects on Birds 

Piping plovers and red knots inhabit beaches and flats along the coast and are not likely to come into 

contact with active acoustic sound sources from G&G surveys. The Bermuda petrel and roseate tern 

occur offshore but do not spend substantial time under water, and therefore they are unlikely to be 

affected by active acoustic sound sources. 

Roseate terns forage mainly by plunge-diving and surface dipping, and Bermuda petrels feed by 

snatching food or “dipping,” or by scavenging dead or dying prey floating on or near the sea surface. 

Active acoustic sound sources used for G&G surveys are intermittent (e.g., airguns firing at 10-15 s 

intervals) and highly directive (e.g., downward, toward the seafloor). Because of these source 

characteristics and the brief time that plunge-diving birds spend underwater with each dive, there is little 

risk of impacts. It is expected that few if any roseate terns or Bermuda petrels would be exposed to active 

acoustic sound sources other than on an occasional basis. 

Seabirds have air-adapted ears and are not believed to be particularly sensitive to underwater sound 

(Dooling and Popper, 2000; Dooling, 2002). There is no evidence that birds use underwater sound. 

Consequently, there is very little potential for active acoustic sound sources to directly affect these birds 

even if they were briefly exposed to underwater noise. 

Investigations into the effects of airguns on seabirds are extremely limited. Stemp (1985) and 

Lacroix et al. (2003) did not observe any mortality to the several species of seabirds studied when 

exposed to seismic survey noise; further, they did not observe any differences in distribution or 

abundance of those same species as a result of seismic survey activity. Based on the directionality of the 

sound generated from seismic airgun surveys and low frequency equipment used for HRG surveys and 

the limited study results available, it is expected that there would be no mortality or life-threatening injury 

and little disruption of behavioral patterns or other non-injurious effects for any of the listed bird species. 

Short-term, indirect effects on foraging could occur as a result of behavioral responses of prey species 

(e.g., fishes) in the immediate vicinity of seismic survey operations. However, any effects would be 

localized (near survey vessels) and transient. With the seismic source vessel moving at speeds of about 

4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr), the vessel and its streamers would pass any given point within about an hour. If prey 

species avoided an area in which a survey was being performed, it would represent a very small portion of 

a bird’s foraging range. Any indirect impacts on prey behavior would not be expected to adversely affect 

either the roseate tern or Bermuda petrel. 

5.2.4. Effects on Fishes 

The range of potential effects due to noise, in order of decreasing severity, is (1) death, 

(2) physiological effects, (3) hearing threshold shift, (4) masking, and (5) behavioral response. In 

estimating the potential effects of noise to fishes, it is important to understand that any sound source 

produces both pressure waves and actual motion of the medium particles. All fishes, including 

elasmobranchs such as the listed smalltooth sawfish, detect particle motion since it directly stimulates the 

inner ear (Popper et al., 2003). Bony fishes with an air bubble (most often the swim bladder) are also 

likely to detect pressure signals that are re-radiated to the inner ear as particle motion. Species detecting 

pressure hear a wider range of frequencies and sounds of lower intensity than fishes without an air bubble 

(such as the listed shortnose sturgeon and Atlantic sturgeon) since the bubble re-radiates the received 
A-108 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

signal, which is then detectable by the ear as a secondary sound source (Popper et al., 2003; Popper and 

Fay, 2010). 

Hearing thresholds have been determined for perhaps 100 fish species; data on hearing thresholds can 

be found in Fay (1988), Popper et al. (2003), Ladich and Popper (2004), Nedwell et al. (2004), 

Ramcharitar et al. (2006), and Popper and Schilt (2008). These data demonstrate that, with few 

exceptions, fishes cannot hear sounds above about 3-4 kHz, and the majority of species are only able to 

detect sounds to 1 kHz or below. Studies of the family Aceripensidae (sturgeons) suggested that the 

highest frequency they can detect is 800 Hz and that they have relatively poor sensitivity (Lovell et al., 

2005; Meyer et al., 2010). There have also been studies on a few species of cartilaginous fishes such as 

the smalltooth sawfish, with results suggesting that they detect sounds to no more than 1,000 Hz and are 

not very sensitive to sound (Casper et al., 2003). 

BOEM recently conducted a workshop on the effects of industry-produced noise on fish and 

invertebrates. The worshop effort also included a literature review of what is known regarding the 

potential for effects. This review can be found on-line at: 

http://www.boemsoundworkshop.com/documents/Literature_Synthesis_Effects_of_Noise_on_Fish_Fishe

ries_and_Invertebrates.pdf. 

5.2.4.1. Death 

Active acoustic sound sources included in the proposed action, including airguns, are not expected to 

kill any ESA-listed fish species. The only data on mortality associated with sound sources other than 

explosives comes from studies of driving very large piles. For example, the California Department of 

Transportation (Caltrans, 2001) showed some mortality for several different species of wild fishes 

exposed to driving of steel pipe piles 2.4 m (8 ft) in diameter. However, mortality does not seem to occur 

at distances of more than approximately 10 m (33 ft) from the source. Since the proposed action will not 

use explosives or include pile driving, immediate mortality is not a potential effect. The potential for 

delayed mortality due to physiological impacts is discussed below. 

5.2.4.2. Physiological Effects 

Non-auditory physiological effects from exposure to intense sounds generally result from rapid and 

substantial expansion and contraction of the air bubble walls within fishes (such as the swim bladder or 

air bubbles in the blood) that strike against nearby tissues or from air bubbles within the blood bursting or 

expanding and damaging tissues (Stephenson et al., 2010). The actual nature of non-auditory 

physiological effects may range from a very small amount of external bleeding to small internal bleeding 

to substantial hemorrhage of tissues (such as kidney or liver) to rupture of the swim bladder (see 

Stephenson et al. [2010] and Halvorsen et al. [2011a,b] for a discussion of the range of potential effects). 

There are several potential (and overlapping) consequences of non-auditory physiological effects 

(Stephenson et al., 2010; Halvorsen et al., 2011a,b). One possibility is that the effects heal, and there is 

no lasting consequence. Alternatively, even if the physiological effect has no direct consequences per se, 

it is possible that it leads to temporary decreased fitness of the animal until the damage is healed. This 

could result in the animal being subject to predation, less able to find food, or other consequences that 

result in death. Secondly, the effect could result in delayed mortality from events such as continuous 

bleeding or disruption of tissues (e.g., spleen or liver); or, the tissue damage itself may not be life 

threatening, but it may become infected and potentially result in death. 

There are few quantified and reliable data on effects of exposure to high-intensity sound on body 

tissues. There are a number of studies showing no tissue damage as a result of exposure of several 

different species to sonar (Kane et al., 2010), seismic devices (Song et al., 2008), and pile driving 

(Caltrans, 2010a,b). However, in each of these studies, the swim bladder in the fishes may not have been 

filled with air, and this could have resulted in less likelihood of damage as compared to situations where 

the swim bladder is filled to its normal density of air (Halvorsen et al., 2011a,b). 

The only quantifiable study documenting a range of physiological effects on fishes comes 

from exposure of Chinook salmon to 960 or 1,920 strikes of simulated pile driving sounds (Casper et al., 

2011; Halvorsen et al., 2011a,b). This study demonstrates that effects are graded, with what is likely to 

be minimal peripheral bleeding at the lowest (but still very intense) sound exposures (210 dB re 1 μPa2

·s 
Biological Assessment A-109

SEL) to significant bleeding and tissue rupture at the very highest levels presented in the study (219 dB re 

1 μPa2

·s SEL). Importantly, fish held for a period of time post-exposure showed complete recovery from 

most of the effects, although the investigators are very careful to point out that recovery took place in a 

laboratory tank where fish with slightly lowered fitness would not be subject to predation or disease, as 

may happen in the wild (Casper et al., 2011). 

Several studies have examined effects of high-intensity sounds on the ear. While there was no effect 

on ear tissue in either the Navy Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System (SURTASS) Low Frequency 

Active (LFA) sonar study (Popper et al., 2007) or in the study of effects of seismic airguns on hearing 

(Popper et al., 2005; Song et al., 2008), three earlier studies suggested that there may be some loss of 

sensory hair cells resulting from exposure to high-intensity sources. However, none of these studies 

concurrently investigated effects on hearing. Enger (1981) showed some loss of sensory cells in Atlantic 

cod after exposure to pure tones. A similar result was shown for the lagena of the oscar, a cichlid fish, 

after an hour of continuous exposure (Hastings et al., 1996). In neither study was the hair cell loss more 

than a relatively small percentage of the total sensory hair cells in the hearing organs. Most recently, 

McCauley et al. (2003) showed loss of a small percentage of sensory hair cells in the saccule (the only 

end organ studied) of the pink snapper, and this loss continued to increase (but never to become a major 

proportion of sensory cells) for up to at least 53 days post-exposure. However, based on the considerable 

data demonstrating hair cell replacement and addition in many fish species, it is likely that the high rate of 

sensory cell proliferation in fishes would have compensated for the small number of lost hair cells (e.g., 

Corwin, 1981; Popper and Hoxter, 1984; Lombarte and Popper, 1994, 2004). 

5.2.4.3. Hearing Threshold Shift 

Although PTS can result from exposure to very loud sounds in humans and other mammals, PTS is 

not known to occur in fishes, since unlike mammals, they can repair and regenerate the sensory cells of 

the ear that are damaged (e.g., Lombarte et al., 1993; Smith et al., 2006). The data suggest that TTS 

occurs after long-term exposure to sounds that are as high as 170-180 dB re 1 μPa, but only in species that 

have specializations that result in their having relatively wide hearing bandwidths (to over 2 kHz) and 

lower hearing thresholds than fishes without specializations. Based on the available data, the fish species 

included in the BA are unlikely to experience hearing threshold shift from the proposed action. 

5.2.4.4. Masking 

Similar to masking in marine mammals, noise can affect hearing and partially or completely reduce 

an individual’s ability to effectively communicate, detect important predator, prey, and/or conspecific 

signals, and/or detect important environmental features associated with spatial orientation (see Clark et 

al., 2009 for a review). Spectral, temporal, and spatial overlap between the masking noise and the 

sender/receiver determine the extent of interference; the greater the spectral and temporal overlap, the 

greater the potential for masking. Thus, if a fish uses sounds to detect predators, the presence of the 

increased ambient sound would keep the fish from hearing the predator until it was much closer. 

Similarly, if male fishes use sounds to attract females, as occurs in toadfish (reviewed in Zelick et al., 

1999), sciaenids (reviewed in Ramcharitar et al., 2006), and many other species, the female would have to 

be much closer to the males before they could hear the sound. 

The sound energy of the proposed sources is primarily directed towards the seafloor, but reflected 

energy does propagate horizontally away from the sources and can result in masking. In addition, vessel 

noise is primarily low-frequency and will contribute to the ambient noise level of the surrounding 

environment. Smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon likely use sound to detect 

predators and prey and obtain an understanding of the acoustic scene. 

5.2.4.5. Behavioral Response 

Perhaps the most likely effects of active acoustic sound sources would be behavioral responses. The 

available data show, in general, that as sound levels in the environment increase, animals tend to respond 

in different ways, which often vary depending on the nature of the sound source and sound level as well 

as on the behavioral state of the animal (e.g., what it is doing) when the sound level changes. Responses 

of animals vary widely (reviewed in Brumm and Slabbekoorn [2005]). These may include movement 
A-110 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

from the area of maximum sound level, as shown for several fish species (Engås et al., 1996; Slotte et al., 

2004), to changing the intensity of calls so they can be heard over the background sounds (Bee and 

Swanson, 2007) or changing the spectrum of the emitted sounds so they are no longer masked, as has 

been shown in a variety of species (Brumm and Slabbekoorn, 2005; Dooling et al., 2009; Parris et al., 

2009; Laiolo, 2010; Slabbekoorn et al., 2010). 

A study by Jorgenson and Gyselman (2009) may provide some insight into how fishes would behave 

in response to intense anthropogenic sounds. The authors exposed fishes in the Mackenzie River 

(Northwest Territories, Canada) to seismic airguns and, using sonar, observed the movements of the 

fishes. The goal was to determine if a seismic survey using high-intensity sounds for long periods of time 

could impact behavior by changing migratory patterns of fishes. The investigators could not determine 

the species observed by sonar, but based on known river inhabitants, they suggest that there were a 

variety of species present, including those used by Popper et al. (2005). While results may be limited to 

one or two species, the investigators found that free-swimming fishes observed with sonar showed no 

response to the airguns with respect to changes in swimming direction or speed, even when sound 

exposure levels (single discharge) were on the order of 175 dB re 1 μPa2

·s and peak levels of over 

200 dB re 1 μPa. 

5.2.4.6. Analysis of the Proposed Action Scenario 

The proposed action includes extensive seismic surveys (i.e., using airguns) during the 2012-2020 

time period. These include 617,775 line km of 2D surveys, 2,500 blocks of 3D surveys, 900 line km of 

3D WAZ and FAZ coil surveys, 1,280 line km of VSP surveys, and 175,465 line km of HRG surveys 

(Table A-11). All of these surveys are within the oil and gas exploration program, as airguns are not 

expected to be used for HRG surveys in either renewable energy or marine minerals programs. The 

renewable energy scenario includes the possibility that a deep penetration (2D or 3D) seismic survey 

would be conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration. However, a single seismic 

airgun survey for carbon sequestration is not analyzed separately. It is assumed that such a survey would 

be similar in scope to a single 2D or 3D seismic airgun survey for oil and gas exploration. Because of the 

large number and extent of seismic airgun surveys included in the oil and gas scenario and the likelihood 

that some of those surveys may not be conducted due to overlapping coverage, a single survey for carbon 

sequestration would not change the effects at a programmatic level. 

Effects on Smalltooth Sawfish 

Because no specific information is available on hearing range in smalltooth sawfish, inferences must 

be made by examing available data on other elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). From this perspective, the 

smalltooth sawfish likely hears sounds within a very low frequency range (600 or 800 Hz) and relies on 

water particle motion to sense these sounds (Myrberg et al., 1976; Myrberg, 2001; Casper et al., 2003; 

Casper and Mann, 2006). Therefore, sounds from airguns (10-2,000 Hz) projected for the proposed 

action fall within the audible range of the smalltooth sawfish. With the exception of the boomer 

subbottom profiler (0.2-16 kHz), sounds from the electromechanical equipment fall within a much higher 

frequency range (3.5-400 kHz) than the airguns (Table A-14) and outside of the smalltooth sawfish’s 

hearing range. Airgun noise would be of primary concern where it affects behavior of individuals, 

particularly those involved in reproduction or foraging. Smalltooth sawfish are currently absent from 

areas north of North Carolina (Mid-Atlantic Planning Area) and rare between Cape Canaveral, Florida, 

and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (South Atlantic Planning Area). Surveys of sand borrow areas or 

renewable energy sites conducted in inner shelf or coastal waters would be the most likely G&G activities 

to encounter smalltooth sawfish. 

Based on the preceding discussion, airgun pulses are not expected to result in death or injury of any 

smalltooth sawfishes. Since smalltooth sawfishes do not have any specializations that increase their 

hearing sensitivity, it is unlikely they would experience any hearing threshold shift from the proposed 

action. The most likely effects, if any, would be transient behavioral responses. Because of the rare 

occurrence of the smalltooth sawfish within the BA Area, active acoustic sound sources under this 

Proposed Action may affect but are not likely to adversely affect smalltooth sawfish. 
Biological Assessment A-111

Effects on Shortnose Sturgeon 

Although little is known about hearing in shortnose sturgeon, studies on other sturgeon species 

indicate hearing at very low frequencies (<800 Hz) (see Appendix J of the Programmatic EIS). 

Interestingly, some sturgeon species apparently produce sounds prior to reproduction that can be higher 

(2 kHz) than their detectable hearing range (Johnston and Phillips, 2003). From this information it can be 

assumed that shortnose sturgeon hearing is probably in the range of frequencies generated by airguns and 

boomers. The severity of impacts caused by the airgun sounds would depend on the intensity and 

distance from the source. For the proposed action, the most likely effects of active acoustic sound sources 

on shortnose sturgeon would be temporary hearing loss, masking, and behavioral changes. The fact that 

shortnose sturgeon reside primarily within estuaries and rivers outside of the BA Area suggests that any 

effects would be very limited in space and over time. Some portion of the shortnose sturgeon population 

enters into the coastal ocean, but interactions with G&G surveys would be rare because coastal waters 

represent a small fraction of the BA Area. Therefore, active acoustic sound sources under this Proposed 

Action may affect but are not likely to adversely affect shortnose sturgeon. 

Effects on Atlantic Sturgeon 

As described above for the shortnose sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon likely has underwater hearing 

sensitivity that is limited to less than 800 Hz, suggesting that this species could detect low-frequency 

sound sources. Airguns and boomers produce sounds in low frequency ranges that overlap with the 

presumed hearing range of Atlantic sturgeon. Unlike the smalltooth sawfish and shortnose sturgeon, the 

Atlantic sturgeon occurs widely over the shelf of the BA Area. Concentrations of this species occur 

offshore of North Carolina and Virginia in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area and South Carolina in the 

South Atlantic Planning Area. Since they do not have any specializations that increase their hearing 

sensitivity, it is unlikely they would experience any hearing threshold shift from the proposed action. The 

most likely effects, if any, would be transient behavioral responses. Seismic airgun surveys could 

temporarily disrupt or displace Atlantic sturgeons in areas of known concentrations. However, certain 

mitigation measures (e.g., time/area closures, establishment of exclusion zones, ramp up procedures) 

although designed for marine mammals would also indirectly provide protective benefits to Atlantic 

sturgeon. Any anticipated behavioral responses at any given location would be transient. Therefore, 

active acoustic sound sources under this Proposed Action may adversely affect the Atlantic sturgeon 

population. 

Effects on Blueback Herring 

The blueback herring and its close relatives have specialized hearing anatomy enabling them to detect 

very high frequency (25-135 kHz) sounds. Studies on the American shad revealed a specialized hearing 

anatomy for this species and members of the clupeid subfamily Alosinae, the latter of which includes 

blueback herring (Mann et al., 1997; Popper et al., 2004). Unlike most fishes, the members of this 

subfamily can hear sounds in the ultrasonic range (>120 kHz). It is thought that the ability to perceive 

such high frequency sounds evolved as a means of sensing the presence of echolocating predators such as 

bottlenose dolphin, which are primary predators of these fish in the coastal oceans (Popper et al., 2004). 

Experimental tests conducted with blueback herring in the Savannah River (Georgia-South Carolina 

border) confirmed avoidance responses to high frequency sound (Nestler et al., 1992). Results also 

determined a maximum avoidance response to sounds ranging from 124.6-130.9 kHz at 187-200 dB 

re 1 μPa emitted by a single electromechanical transducer positioned 180 ft (60 m) from the fish. 

Comparative trials using lower frequency sounds resulted in limited or no response from test subjects 

(Nestler et al., 1992). These results and others on the related alewife (see below) suggest that blueback 

herrings may avoid G&G survey vessels that are using airguns and/or electromechanical sources. No 

masking or temporary hearing loss would be expected. Behavioral responses at any given location would 

be transient so active acoustic sound sources under this Proposed Action may affect but are not likely to 

adversely affect the blueback herring population. 
A-112 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Effects on Alewife 

As described previously for blueback herring, the alewife can also hear high-frequency sounds 

(Dunning et al., 1992). Responses of alewives to sounds emitted from electromechanical transducers 

were tested in Lake Ontario. Ross et al. (1996) found that sounds ranging from 122-128 kHz at a 

maximum intensity of 190 dB re 1 μPa were effective in deterring alewife schools from entering water 

intakes of a power plant. This suggests that alewives, like blueback herring, may avoid G&G survey 

vessels using airguns and/or electromechanical sources. No masking or temporary hearing loss is 

expected. Behavioral responses at any given location would be transient so active acoustic sound sources 

under this Proposed Action may affect but are not likely to adversely affect the alewife population. 

5.3. VESSEL AND EQUIPMENT NOISE

Most of the G&G activities in the proposed action scenario would be conducted from ships. The 

most extensive vessel activities are 2D and 3D seismic airgun surveys, which could occur anywhere in the 

BA Area. Vessels conducting G&G surveys or sampling for renewable energy would be operating 

mainly at specific sites (consisting of one or more OCS blocks) in water depths less than 100 m (328 ft) 

and along potential cable routes. Vessels conducting G&G surveys or sampling for marine minerals 

would be operating mainly at specific borrow sites in water depths less than 30 m (100 ft). 

Vessel noise is one of the main contributors to overall noise in the sea (NRC, 2003; Jasny et al., 

2005). The G&G survey vessels would contribute to the overall noise environment by transmitting noise 

through both air and water. Vessel noise is a combination of narrow-band (tonal) and broadband sound 

(Richardson et al., 1995). Tones typically dominate up to about 50 Hz, whereas broadband sounds may 

extend to 100 kHz. The primary sources of vessel noise are propeller cavitation, propeller singing, and 

propulsion; other sources include auxiliaries, flow noise from water dragging along the hull, and bubbles 

breaking in the wake (Richardson et al., 1995). Propeller cavitation is usually the dominant noise source. 

The intensity of noise from service vessels is roughly related to ship size and speed. Large ships tend to 

be noisier than small ones, and ships underway with a full load (or towing or pushing a load) produce 

more noise than unladen vessels. For a given vessel, relative noise also tends to increase with increased 

speed. Broadband source levels for most small ships (a category that would include seismic survey 

vessels and support vessels for drilling of COST wells or shallow test wells) are anticipated to be in the 

range of 170-180 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m (Richardson et al., 1995). Broadband source levels for smaller boats 

(a category that would include survey vessels for renewable energy and marine minerals sites) are in the 

range of 150-170 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m (Richardson et al., 1995). Noise levels would dissipate quickly with 

distance from the source. 

Drilling of COST and shallow test wells would introduce additional underwater noise into the BA 

Area from engines, generators, and other drilling rig equipment. The oil and gas scenario assumes that up 

to three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells would be drilled in the Mid- or South Atlantic 

Planning Areas during the time period of the Programmatic EIS. Neither the well locations nor the types 

of drilling rig are known at this programmatic stage. Jack-up rigs typically are used in water depths less 

than 100 m (328 ft) (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). Semisubmersibles are floating rigs that are used in depths 

ranging from 100-3,000 m (328-9,843 ft) and can be either moored or dynamically positioned. Drillships 

are used in water depths greater than about 600 m (1,968 ft) and can also be moored or dynamically 

positioned (usually the latter). 

Drilling of deep stratigraphic and shallow test wells is typically an off-lease activity, especially in 

frontier areas, or can be carried out on a leased block if it does not interfere with the leaseholder's 

activities. These activities may occur infrequently in the BA Area during the time period of the 

Programmatic EIS. As defined by 30 CFR 551.1, a deep stratigraphic test well must penetrate at least 

152 m (500 ft) into the seafloor; otherwise, it is classified as shallow test drilling. 

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) wells typically are drilled to obtain information 

about regional stratigraphy, reservoir beds, and hydrocarbon potential. These wells are drilled away from 

any potential petroleum-bearing feature to minimize the chance of encountering oil or gas. The data are 

used to evaluate structural interpretations from geophysical surveys, determine the age of sediments 

drilled, and estimate the potential for hydrocarbon accumulation and for determining the presence, 

absence, or quality of gas hydrate deposits. Drilling would be done by conventional, rotary drilling 

equipment from a drilling rig; the selection of a moored versus dynamically positioned drilling rig would 
Biological Assessment A-113

depend on water depth, site-specific seafloor conditions, and rig availability. Shallow test wells are 

drilled post-lease to allow operators to place wireline testing equipment into a borehole to evaluate 

subsurface properties such as the presence of gas hydrates. Drilling would be done by conventional, 

rotary drilling equipment from a drilling barge or boat. It is likely that at least in the South Atlantic 

Planning Area, in the Blake Plateau region, there will be some interest in a test program for gas hydrates 

within the proposed action scenario period. These wells could be considered either COST wells or 

shallow test drilling, depending on the penetration depth. 

Noise from drilling operations includes strong tonal components at low frequencies (<500 Hz), 

including infrasonic frequencies in at least some cases (Richardson et al., 1995). Machinery noise can be 

continuous or intermittent, and variable in intensity. Noise levels vary with the type of drilling rig and the 

water depth. Drillships produce the highest levels of underwater noise because the hull containing the rig 

generators and drilling machinery is well coupled to the water. In addition, dynamically positioned 

drillships use thrusters to maintain position and are constantly emitting engine and propeller noise. 

Jack-up rigs are at the other end of the spectrum because they are supported by metal legs with only a 

small surface area in contact with the water, the drilling machinery is located on decks well above the 

water, and there is no propulsion noise. Semisubmersibles are intermediate in noise level because the 

machinery is located well above the water but the pontoons supporting the structure have a large surface 

area in contact with the water. Richardson et al. (1995) noted that broadband source levels for 

semisubmersible rigs have been reported to be about 154 dB re 1 μPa. Source levels for drillships have 

been reported to be as high as 191 re 1 μPa during drilling. 

Drilling operations would be supported by crew boats, supply vessels, and helicopters traveling 

between the drilling rig and the onshore support base. Support vessels usually make a few round trips per 

week, and helicopters typically make one round-trip daily. The characteristics of vessel noise have been 

described in Section 5.2, and aircraft noise is discussed in Section 5.5. 

5.3.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

The G&G activities in all three program areas would generate vessel and equipment noise that could 

disturb marine mammals. The types of sound produced by these sources are nonpulsed, or continuous. 

The current acoustic harassment threshold established by NMFS for continuous sounds is 120 dB

re 1 μPa. This threshold was based on avoidance responses observed in whales, specifically from 

research on migrating gray whales and bowhead whales (Malme et al., 1983, 1984, 1988; Richardson et 

al., 1986, 1990; Dahlheim and Ljunblad, 1990; Richardson and Malme, 1993). Actual responses of 

individuals could vary widely and are heavily dependent on context (Richardson et al., 1995; Southall et 

al. 2007; Ellison et al., 2011). 

The effects of noise produced by moving G&G survey vessels on marine mammals are difficult to 

assess because of the wide array of reports of their observed behavioral responses, both between and 

among species. Several species of small toothed cetaceans have been observed to avoid boats when they 

are approached to within 0.5-1.5 km (0.3-0.9 mi), with occasional reports of avoidance at greater 

distances (Richardson et al., 1995). Reports of responses of cetacean species to moving power vessels are 

variable, both between species and temporally (Richardson et al., 1995). It is conservative to assume that 

vessel noise may, in some cases, elicit behavioral changes in individual marine mammals that are in close 

proximity to these vessels. These behavioral changes may include evasive maneuvers such as diving or 

changes in swimming direction and/or speed. Vessel and equipment noise is transitory and generally does 

not propagate at great distances from the vessel. For most of the time that seismic survey vessels are 

underway, they would be operating their airguns or other active acoustic sound sources; under these 

conditions, Level B take numbers have already been accounted for. During those periods when 

non-seismic vessels are operating, or when seismic vessels have shut down their airguns, the potential for 

behavioral impacts from vessel and equipment noise remains. 

Under the proposed action, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for 

maintaining safe distances between G&G vessels and protected species to minimize potential impacts 

from vessel and equipment noise and the avoidance of vessel collisions with these protected species. The 

guidance would be similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance and 

Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting), which incorporates NMFS “Vessel Strike Avoidance 

Measures and Reporting for Mariners” addressing protected species identification, vessel strike 

avoidance, and injured/dead protected species reporting (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b). For the 
A-114 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

proposed activities, it is assumed that this guidance would avoid or minimize potential negative impacts 

to marine mammals from both the presence of vessels and the noise they produce. 

The proposed action also includes a time-area closure in which no G&G surveys using airguns would 

be authorized in the right whale critical habitat from November 15 through April 15, nor in the 

Mid-Atlantic and Southeast SMAs for the North Atlantic right whale during the times when vessel speed 

restrictions are in effect under the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105). In 

addition, HRG surveys proposed in these areas would be considered on a case-by-case basis only if they 

use acoustic sources other than airguns. These measures are expected to reduce vessel-related noise 

impacts to this species during its seasonal migration and calving/nursing periods. In addition, other 

species found in these areas during closures would also benefit from this protective measure. Based on 

the proposed volume of vessel traffic associated with project activities, the presumption that marine 

mammals within the BA Area are familiar with various and common vessel-related noises, and the 

implementation of protective measures (e.g., time/area closures, Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G0), 

project-related vessel and equipment noise within the BA Area is expected to affect but not adversely 

affect ESA-listed marine mammals. 

Other sound sources associated with the proposed activity include drilling-related noises during the 

completion of up to three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells in the Mid- or South Atlantic 

Planning Areas during the time period of the Programmatic EIS. It is expected that marine mammals 

would detect drilling-related noises; the range of audibility would vary depending on the sound source 

level and local attenuation from factors such as water depth, seafloor characteristics, and sea state 

conditions. It is expected that drilling noise may elicit behavioral responses such as changes in swimming 

direction or speed. However, studies indicate that the sensitivity of marine mammals to drilling noise 

varies between and within species (Richardson et al., 1990). 

There are few drilling operations associated with the proposed activity (up to three COST wells and 

up to five shallow test wells). Under the time-area closure included in the proposed action, drilling 

operations would not be authorized within within the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast U.S. SMAs for the 

North Atlantic right whale during the times when vessel speed restrictions are in effect under 50 CFR 

224.105, unless an operationserves important operational or monitoring requirements in conflict with the 

time-area closure. With these measures in place, most impacts on North Atlantic right whales (the baleen 

whale species most likely to regularly occur within inner shelf waters of the BA Area) are expected to be 

avoided by the time-area closure. Although North Atlantic right whales could occur anywhere within the 

BA Area, they are most likely to be found in the calving/nursery areas during the winter months and/or 

near the coast along their migratory corridor (Knowlton et al., 2002). Considering the low number of 

drilling operations and the continuous nature of sounds produced, drilling operations under this Proposed 

Action may affect but are not likely to adversely affect listed marine mammals. 

5.3.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

The most likely effects of vessel and equipment noise on sea turtles would include behavioral changes 

and possibly auditory masking. Vessel and equipment noise is transitory and generally does not 

propagate at great distances from the vessel, and the source levels are too low to cause death or injuries 

such as auditory threshold shifts. Based on existing studies on the role of hearing in sea turtle ecology, it 

is unclear whether masking would realistically have any effect on sea turtles (Mrosovsky, 1972; Samuel 

et al., 2005; Nunny et al., 2008). Behavioral responses to vessels have been observed but are difficult to 

attribute exclusively to noise rather than to visual or other cues. It is conservative to assume that noise 

associated with survey vessels may elicit behavioral changes in individual sea turtles near vessels. These 

behavioral changes may include evasive maneuvers such as diving or changes in swimming direction 

and/or speed. This evasive behavior is not expected to adversely affect these individuals or the 

population, and impacts are not expected to be significant. 

Drilling-related noises during the completion of COST wells and shallow test wells may be audible to 

sea turtles; the range of audibility would vary depending on the sound source level and local attenuation 

from factors such as water depth, seafloor characteristics, and sea state conditions. Drilling-related noise 

is continuous, and it is expected that the sound source may elicit behavioral responses in sea turtles that 

may include temporary avoidance or displacement of sea turtles from a small radius around the drilling 

area. Studies of sea turtles in the proximity of platforms are not conclusive on whether the turtles may 

habituate to the continuous sound source. Considering the low number of drilling operations, the 
Biological Assessment A-115

continuous nature of sounds produced during drilling operations and the frequency levels of these sounds, 

drilling operations under this Proposed Action may affect but are not likely to adversely affect listed sea 

turtles. 

5.3.3. Effects on Birds 

Most G&G survey activities included in the proposed action would be performed from vessels, which 

have the potential to disturb marine and coastal birds (Schwemmer et al., 2011). However, the piping 

plover and red knot are shorebirds that are unlikely to be affected by G&G survey vessels transiting from 

port to offshore or coastal locations. The roseate tern and Bermuda petrel are seabirds that are more 

likely to come into contact with G&G vessel traffic and noise. 

The sound generated from individual vessels can contribute to overall ambient noise levels in the 

marine environment on variable spatial scales. As stated above, birds have a relatively restricted hearing 

range, from a few hundred hertz to about 10 kHz (Dooling and Popper, 2000) for airborne noise, with few 

data available regarding bird hearing range for underwater noise. Vessel noise is one of the main 

contributors to overall noise in the sea (NRC, 2003; Jasny et al., 2005), and G&G survey vessels would 

contribute to the overall noise environment by transmitting noise through both air and water. Underwater 

noise produced by vessels is a combination of narrow-band (tonal) and broadband sound. Tones typically 

dominate up to about 50 Hz, whereas broadband sounds may extend to 100 kHz. According to Southall 

(2005) and Richardson et al. (1995), vessel noise typically falls within the range of 100-200 Hz. Noise 

levels dissipate quickly with distance from the vessel. The underwater noise generated from the survey 

vessels would dissipate prior to reaching the coastline and the shore/beach habitats of shorebirds, 

including threatened, endangered, and candidate species present in the BA Area (i.e., piping plover, 

roseate tern, and red knot). Because of the dissipation of underwater noise from survey vessels prior to 

reaching the shore/beach habitat, it is expected that underwater noise would not affect shorebird species, 

including piping plover and red knot. 

Some seabirds such as the Bermuda petrel dive below the sea surface while foraging. However, 

because of the short duration of individual dives, seabirds would not be likely to be exposed to 

underwater noise to any significant degree. 

There is the potential for impact to marine and coastal birds from the potential disturbance of 

breeding colonies by airborne noise from vessels and equipment (Turnpenny and Nedwell, 1994). 

Because the BA Area includes only Federal (OCS) waters, G&G surveys would not occur close enough to 

land to affect marine and coastal bird breeding colonies during survey activities. However, survey vessels 

for renewable energy and marine minerals projects would typically transit from a shore base to offshore 

and return daily. The expectation is that this daily vessel transit would occur at one of the shore bases 

identified or at other established ports, which have established routes for vessel traffic. Because of this 

existing vessel traffic, it is not anticipated that marine and coastal birds would roost in adjacent areas, or if 

they did already roost nearby, the addition of G&G survey vessels would not significantly increase the 

existing vessel traffic. In addition, noise generated from the survey vessels and equipment would 

typically dissipate prior to reaching the coastline and the nesting habitats of coastal birds. 

The piping plover, roseate tern, and red knot are all ground nesters along the shoreline. As discussed 

above, these bird species would not nest in areas that would be disturbed by G&G survey vessels 

transiting from port to offshore or coastal locations; therefore, there would be no effect to the nesting of 

these shorebird species. The Bermuda petrel nests only on small, rocky offshore islets in Castle Harbor, 

Bermuda, and is only occasionally present in the BA Area during the non-breeding season; therefore, this 

species would not experience nesting impacts from G&G survey activities. 

Overall, noise from vessel and drilling operations under the Proposed Action are not expected to 

affect listed bird species. 

5.3.4. Effects on Fishes 

Vessel and equipment noise are not expected to have any detectable effects on listed fish species 

given the limited exposure, transient and continuous sound sources, and frequency level of sound 

sources.. 
A-116 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

5.4. VESSEL TRAFFIC

The G&G activities in all three program areas involve vessel traffic. Vessels conducting 2D and 3D 

seismic airgun surveys are the largest vessels and would account for most of the line miles traveled. 

Based on the permit applications received by BOEM, these surveys could occur anywhere within the BA 

Area. Vessels conducting G&G surveys or sampling for renewable energy would be smaller and would 

operate mainly at specific sites (consisting of one or more OCS blocks) in water depths less than 100 m 

(328 ft) and along potential cable routes to shore. Similarly, vessels conducting G&G surveys or 

sampling for marine minerals would be operating mainly at specific borrow sites in water depths less than 

30 m (98 ft). Survey vessels for renewable energy and marine minerals projects are expected to make 

daily round trips to their shore base, whereas the larger seismic vessels can remain offshore for weeks or 

months. 

In the BA Area, G&G vessel traffic would be subject to the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule 

(50 CFR 224.105), a Federal regulation that limits vessel speed to 10 kn (18.5 km/hr) in the Mid-Atlantic 

and Southeast U.S. SMAs for North Atlantic right whales during migration. The Southeast U.S. SMA, 

with seasonal restrictions in effect from November 15 to April 15 of each year, is a continuous area that 

extends from St. Augustine, Florida, to Brunswick, Georgia, extending 37 km (20 nmi) from shore. The 

Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA, with seasonal restrictions extending from November 1 through April 30, is a 

combination of both continuous areas and half circles drawn with 37-km (20-nmi) radii around the 

entrances to certain bays and ports. Within the BA Area, the Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA includes a 

continuous zone extending between Wilmington, North Carolina, and Brunswick, Georgia, as well as the 

Ports of Delaware Bay (Wilmington, Philadelphia), the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay (Ports of 

Hampton Roads and Baltimore), and the Ports of Morehead City and Beaufort, North Carolina. 

Seismic Surveys for Oil and Gas Exploration 

Seismic survey vessels typically are 60-90 m (200-300 ft) long for 2D surveys and 80-90 m 

(262-300 ft) long for 3D surveys. The 3D surveys usually require larger vessels because there is more 

equipment to be towed. A typical towing speed is 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr). These surveys could occur 

anywhere within the BA Area, with 24-hr operations that may continue for weeks or months, depending 

upon the size of the survey. 

The proposed action scenario includes 617,775 line km of 2D streamer surveys, 2,500 blocks of 

3D streamer surveys (or 120,000 line km, assuming 48 line km [30 line mi] per block), and 900 line km 

of 3D WAZ surveys. Assuming a vessel speed of 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr), these surveys would represent about 

90,000 hr (3,750 days) of vessel activity. 

Seismic survey vessels are likely to remain offshore for most of the survey duration. They may be 

supported by supply vessels operating from ports along the Atlantic coast, but service vessel support is 

not a requirement. For this analysis, five potential support bases were identified: Norfolk, Virginia; 

Wilmington, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; Savannah, Georgia; and Jacksonville, Florida. 

The ports were selected based on their geographic proximity to the BA Area, locations named in permit 

applications for G&G activities, and the availability of adequate support facilities that could be used by 

G&G survey and support vessels. 

Renewable Energy Surveys 

Vessels conducting G&G surveys or sampling for renewable energy would operate mainly at specific 

sites (consisting of one or more OCS blocks) in water depths less than 100 m (328 ft) and along potential 

cable routes to shore. Typically, the vessel would return to its shore base daily. 

In nearshore waters, HRG surveys would be conducted by a single, small (<23-30 m or 75-98 ft) 

vessel moving at <5 kn (<9.3 km/hr). Geotechnical surveys for renewable energy sites are expected to be 

conducted from a small barge or ship of a similar size. A typical duration for an individual survey would 

be 3 days or less. 

The renewable energy scenario includes 34,040 hr of HRG surveys (Table A-5). Assuming that 

HRG survey vessels would operate on 8-hr working days, the scenario would require 4,255 days and the 

same number of vessel round trips. 
Biological Assessment A-117

Also included in the renewable energy scenario are 3,106-9,969 geotechnical sampling locations 

where CPT testing, geologic coring, and grab sampling would be conducted. Assuming that one 

sampling location could be completed per work day, there would be approximately 3,106-9,969 vessel 

round trips associated with these surveys. 

Vessel trips associated with renewable energy areas would use existing ports in Delaware, Maryland, 

Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Depending on the location of the 

renewable energy area, the surveys could operate from one of the five larger ports analyzed in the 

Programmatic EIS (Norfolk, Wilmington, Charleston, Savannah, or Jacksonville) or any of numerous 

smaller ports along the coast, depending on whatever is convenient. 

Marine Minerals Surveys 

For HRG surveys of sand source areas, geophysical survey equipment is typically deployed from a 

single vessel, <20-30 m (65-98 ft) long, moving at about 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr). Surveys are likely to focus 

on prospective borrow sites (3-10 km2

) or reconnaissance areas (on the order of 1-3 OCS blocks), and 

each survey is assumed to require 1-5 operational days for completion. Vessels are assumed to operate on 

site for 8 hr per day and return to the shore base at the end of each day. 

The marine minerals scenario includes approximately 100-3,200 km of HRG prospecting surveys, 

850-4,300 km of HRG pre-lease/design surveys, and 900-4,600 km of on-lease HRG surveys 

(Table A-6). Across all geophysical survey activities, the maximum activity level is estimated at 

12,100 km; this is the equivalent of approximately 1,450 hr of surveying across 180 8-hr operational 

survey days. The scenario would require 180 vessel round trips. 

Nearly all geotechnical sampling occurs from either relatively small vessels approximately 20 m 

(65 ft) in length, or from work barges towed into place. A typical survey duration would be 3 days or 

less. The marine minerals scenario includes 6-24 deployments for pneumatic vibracoring, 

1-4 deployments for geologic coring, and 2-8 deployments for grab sampling (Table A-7). Each 

deployment is assumed to involve 15-25 vibracores, 1-2 standard (geologic or rotary) cores, and 

30-40 grab samples, as discussed above. Total sample numbers are estimated to include 

90-600 vibracores, 1-8 geologic cores, and 60-320 grab samples. Assuming that one vibracore, one 

geologic core, or 25 grab samples can be collected per work day, there would be approximately 

95-615 vessel round trips associated with these surveys. 

Vessel trips associated with marine minerals activities would be divided among several existing ports 

in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida. Georgia is excluded 

because the State has never had an agreement with BOEM for joint study of OCS marine minerals 

resources and has never requested a non-competitive lease to use them onshore. Depending on the 

location of the renewable energy area, the surveys could operate from one of the larger ports analyzed in 

the Programmatic EIS (Norfolk, Wilmington, Charleston, Savannah, or Jacksonville) or any of numerous 

smaller ports along the coast, depending on whatever is convenient. 

5.4.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Many marine mammal species are vulnerable to collisions with moving vessels (ship strikes) (Laist et 

al., 2001; Douglas et al., 2008; Pace, 2011). Most reports of collisions involve large whales, but 

collisions with smaller species also occur (van Waerebeek et al., 2007). Laist et al. (2001) provides 

records of the following vessel types associated with collisions with whales (listed in descending order): 

tanker/cargo vessels; whale watch vessels; passenger liners; ferries; naval vessels; recreational vessels; 

USCG vessels; fishing vessels; research vessels; dredges; and pilot boats. Most severe and lethal whale 

injuries involved large ships of lengths greater than 80 m (262 ft). Vessel speed was also found to be a 

significant factor, with most (89 percent) of the records involving vessels moving at 14 kn (26 km/hr) or 

greater. There are reports of collisions between moving vessels and most of the listed species that occur 

within the study area, particularly the fin whale (International Whaling Commission, 2011b). Collision 

with vessels is the leading human-caused source of mortality for the endangered North Atlantic right 

whale (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). Their slow movements, time spent at the surface, and time spent near the 

coast make them highly vulnerable to being struck by ships. 

Marine mammal species of concern for possible ship strike with all vessels operating at speed include 

primarily slow-moving species (e.g., North Atlantic right whales) and deep-diving species while on the 
A-118 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

surface (e.g., sperm whales). Generally, it is assumed that the probability of this encounter, and thus 

impact, is very low. However, vessel operations within areas such as the North Atlantic right whale 

critical habitat and migration corridor during calving and nursing or migration periods may increase the 

probability of ship strike with this species. 

Under the proposed action, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for vessel 

strike avoidance similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance and 

Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting), which incorporates NMFS “Vessel Strike Avoidance 

Measures and Reporting for Mariners” addressing protected species identification, vessel strike 

avoidance, and injured/dead protected species reporting (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b). The 

guidance also incorporates elements of the NMFS Compliance Guide for the Right Whale Ship Strike 

Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105), which limits vessel speed to 10 kn (18.5 km/h ) in the Mid-Atlantic 

and Southeast U.S. SMAs for North Atlantic right whales during migration. Vessel speed restrictions in 

these areas are in effect between November 1 and April 30 in the Mid-Atlantic and between November 15 

and April 15 in the southeast U.S. 

Considering the mitigation measures that would be in place as described in Section 7 during transits 

and operations, the slow operating speeds (for seismic vessels) and stationary nature of drilling rigs, G&G 

survey vessels are unlikely to strike any of the listed marine mammals. Seismic survey vessels, which 

account for most of the project-related vessel traffic associated with the proposed action, travel at a speed 

of approximately 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr), much slower than the speeds reported to cause most of the serious or 

lethal injuries (Laist et al., 2001). In addition, waters surrounding survey vessels on survey would be 

monitored by protected species observers for the presence of marine mammals. During transit to and 

from shore bases, seismic vessels and other G&G survey vessels are expected to travel at greater speeds. 

However, as noted above, these vessel movements would be subject to BOEM guidance for vessel strike 

avoidance and would be required to comply with the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule. The risk 

of vessel strikes is also expected to be low because seismic survey vessels would be towing active 

acoustic sound sources that are detectable by most marine mammals (see Section 5.2). 

Florida manatees are vulnerable to vessel collisions, with about 20 percent of documented annual 

mortalities in 2011 attributed to watercraft (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2012). 

Vessel strikes are identified as a threat in the recovery plan for this species (USDOI, FWS, 2001). 

However, because of their preference for shallow coastal and inland waters, it is unlikely that manatees 

would be present in the vicinity of G&G survey vessels operating in the BA Area. The most likely vessel 

traffic in near-coastal waters would be small survey vessels associated with renewable energy or marine 

minerals projects. Taking into account the mitigation described in Section 7, the slow transit and 

operation speeds, and the low level of manatee occurance in the BA area, vessel strikes on manatees are 

expected to be avoided. 

5.4.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Propeller and collision injuries to sea turtles arising from their interactions with boats and ships are 

common. From 1997-2005, 14.9 percent of all stranded loggerhead turtles in the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf 

of Mexico were documented as having sustained some type of propeller or collision injuries (USDOC, 

NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). The incidence of propeller wounds reported in sea turtles rose from 

approximately 10 percent in the late 1980’s to a record high of 20.5 percent in 2004. Documented 

propeller wounds have the highest frequency of occurrence in southeast Florida (Palm Beach through 

Miami-Dade Counties); during some years, as many as 60 percent of the loggerhead strandings found in 

these areas had propeller wounds (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 2008). Green turtle recovery off 

the U.S. west coast has been hampered by vessel collisions, especially when turtles are struck by an 

engaged propeller (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1998a). In contrast, vessel collisions are not 

listed as a current threat to leatherback turtle recovery (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS, 1992, 1998b). 

It is likely that these reported injuries to sea turtles were largely caused by collisions with high-speed 

recreational powerboats because of the high volumes of these vessels operating in waters off southeast 

Florida and in other areas of the U.S. 

There have been no documented sea turtle collisions with offshore survey and support vessels in areas 

such as the Gulf of Mexico, although it is possible that such collisions with small or submerged sea turtles 

may go undetected. Under the proposed action, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include 

guidance for vessel strike avoidance. The guidance would be similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE 
Biological Assessment A-119

NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting), which 

incorporates NMFS “Vessel Strike Avoidance Measures and Reporting for Mariners” addressing 

protected species identification, vessel strike avoidance, and injured/dead protected species reporting 

(USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b). With these mitigation measures in place, G&G survey vessels are 

unlikely to strike sea turtles. Seismic vessels, which account for most of the project-related vessel traffic 

associated with the proposed action, travel at a speed of approximately 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr). In addition, 

waters surrounding survey vessels on survey would be monitored by protected species observers for the 

presence of sea turtles. During transit to and from shore bases, seismic vessels and other G&G survey 

vessels are expected to travel at greater speeds. However, these vessel movements would be subject to 

BOEM guidance for vessel strike avoidance and be required to reduce speed in certain areas to comply 

with the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule. 

Sea turtles spend approximately 20 to 30 percent of their time at the surface for respiration, basking, 

feeding, orientation, and mating (Lutcavage et al., 1997). Because they are submerged most of the time, a 

collision between a project-related survey vessel and a sea turtle within the BA Area is unlikely. In 

addition, the risk of vessel strikes on sea turtles is expected to be minimized because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard surveys under the 

proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and (3) the use of protected species 

observers to scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. Any project-related vessel strike with a 

sea turtle could result in the death of the turtle. However, considering the relatively slow operational 

speed of these vessels, combined with the implementation of vessel strike avoidance measures during all 

surveys, vessel strikes are expected to be avoided. 

5.4.3. Effects on Birds 

Piping plovers and red knots are found on beaches and flats along the coast and therefore are unlikely 

to come into contact with G&G vessel traffic. Roseate terns and Bermuda petrels are seabirds that forage 

over the open ocean and could encounter moving survey vessels. Because G&G survey vessels travel 

slowly and spend most of their time in open ocean waters, no significant impacts on any of the listed bird 

species are expected. 

Seabirds have three sensory abilities that are pertinent to their ability to recognize and avoid collision 

with vessels and other offshore structures: (1) keen eyesight; (2) good hearing; and (3) excellent tactile 

sensitivity. Most seabirds use vision as a key sense during foraging and other behaviors. Birds also have 

relatively good hearing in air, in the range of 1-5 kHz (Dooling, 2002). Seabirds also have tactile sensory 

abilities that enable them to sense increasing or decreasing turbulence. Most seabirds use a combination 

of sight, sound, and tactile sensitivity to avoid natural obstructions (e.g., rocks, islands); it is assumed that 

those abilities would be applied to avoid moving vessels. It is expected that G&G survey vessels would 

be outfitted with appropriate lighting for navigational safety. While vessel collisions are unlikely during 

daylight hours with good visibility, seabird collisions may occur during hours of darkness or during 

periods of restricted visibility such as during rain or fog (Boehlert et al., 2008; Thompson et al., 2008). 

Seismic survey vessels, which account for most of the project-related vessel traffic associated with 

the proposed action, travel at a speed of approximately 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr). Because of their slow speed, 

there is little potential for G&G vessels to collide with birds. The issue of vessel noise is discussed 

separately in Section 5.3.3. 

5.4.4. Effects on Fishes 

Vessel traffic is expected to have little or no effect on the listed fish species. The G&G vessels 

included in the proposed action would be similar to other types of existing vessel traffic in the region. 

Two of the listed fishes, the smalltooth sawfish and shortnose sturgeon, are relatively rare in the BA Area 

and are unlikely to be exposed to G&G vessel traffic. The Atlantic sturgeon, alewife, and blueback 

herring are more common. Except for the Atlantic sturgeon as discussed below, vessel strikes have not 

been identified as a threat for any of the fish species evaluated in the BA. 

Vessel interactions have been documented for estuarine/riverine Atlantic sturgeon (Brown and 

Murphy, 2010). This phenomenon has been documented in the Delaware River estuary where the main 

channel is narrow relative to the beam and draft of large cargo vessels that regularly traverse these waters. 

Propeller wash from large vessels can entrain adult, bottom-dwelling sturgeon, causing direct injury from 
A-120 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

contact with the propellers. Mortalities, recorded primarily during spawning season as adult fish were 

moving upstream, would likely hamper recovery efforts of Atlantic sturgeon (Brown and Murphy, 2010). 

Although ship strikes within estuaries and rivers are a source of mortality for Atlantic sturgeon, it is not 

expected to be a problem in the open shelf of the BA Area where vessel traffic associated with most G&G 

activities would take place. Vessel strike mortality from G&G vessel traffic is expected to be negligible. 

5.5. AIRCRAFT TRAFFIC AND NOISE

The BOEM anticipates that one or two aeromagnetic surveys may be conducted in the BA Area 

during the time period covered by the Programmatic EIS. The surveys would be conducted by fixed-wing 

aircraft flying at speeds of about 250 km/hr (135 kn) (Reeves, 2005). Based on aeromagnetic datasets 

posted by Fugro Gravity and Magnetic Services (2012) for the northern Gulf of Mexico, most offshore 

aeromagnetic surveys are flown at altitudes from 61-152 m (200-500 ft) and collect 15,000-60,000 line 

km (9,320-37,282 line mi) of data. Line spacing varies depending on the objectives, but typical grids are 

0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. A broad scale survey may be flown at higher altitudes (e.g., 305 m 

[1,000 ft]) and use wider line spacing (e.g., 4 by 12 mi or 8 by 24 mi). A fixed-wing aircraft typically 

acquires 20,000 line km (12,427 line mi) of useful data per month (Reeves, 2005). Therefore, it is 

expected that a typical aeromagnetic survey may require 1-3 months to complete. Based on the scale of 

aeromagnetic surveys that have been conducted in the northern Gulf of Mexico, an individual survey 

probably would cover less than 10 percent of the BA Area. 

Helicopters are a potential source of aircraft noise during drilling of COST wells and shallow test 

wells. The oil and gas scenario assumes that up to three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells 

would be drilled in the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Areas during the time period of the Programmatic 

EIS. It is expected that drilling activities would be supported by a helicopter making one round-trip daily 

between the drilling rig and onshore support base. Neither the well locations nor the location of potential 

helicopter support bases are known at this programmatic stage. 

Both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft generate noise from their engines, airframe, and propellers. 

The dominant tones for both types of aircraft are generally below 500 Hz (Richardson et al., 1995). 

Richardson et al. (1995) reported received SPLs (in water) from aircraft flying at an altitude of 152 m 

(500 ft) were 109 dB re 1 μPa for a Bell 212 helicopter and 101 dB re 1 μPa for a small, fixed-wing 

aircraft (B-N Islander). Helicopters are about 10 dB louder than fixed-wing aircraft of similar size 

(Richardson et al., 1995). Penetration of aircraft noise into the water is greatest directly below the 

aircraft; at angles greater than 13o from the vertical, much of the sound is reflected and does not penetrate 

into the water (Richardson et al., 1995). The duration of underwater sound from passing aircraft is much 

shorter in water than air; for example, a helicopter passing at an altitude of 152 m (500 ft) that is audible 

in air for 4 min may be detectable underwater for only 38 s at 3 m (10 ft) depth and for 11 s at 18 m 

(59 ft) depth (Richardson et al., 1995). 

All aircraft would be expected to follow U.S. Department of Transportation(USDOT) FAA guidance 

(USDOT, FAA, 2004), which recommends a minimum altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft) when flying over 

noise-sensitive areas such as parks, wildlife refuges, and wilderness areas. Based on corporate policies 

for helicopter companies in the Gulf of Mexico, helicopters would be expected to maintain a minimum 

altitude of 213 m (700 ft) while in transit offshore (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). In practice, offshore support 

helicopters typically fly at higher altitudes ranging from 229-716 m (750-2,350 ft) depending on the 

distance and direction. 

5.5.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Aeromagnetic surveys have the potential to disturb marine mammals because of the relatively low 

altitude, typically 61-152 m (200-500 ft). The NMFS considers that low-flying aircraft could result in 

Level B (behavioral) harassment (Scholik-Shlomer et al., 2011). Helicopters in support of COST well 

drilling are unlikely to disturb marine mammals because they typically fly at higher altitudes. 

Potential IPFs to marine mammals from aircraft traffic and noise include noise and physical (visual) 

disturbance. Noises generated by project-related aircraft that are directly relevant to marine mammals 

include both airborne sounds to individual mammals resting on the sea surface and underwater sounds 

from air-to-water transmission from passing aircraft. Levels of noise received underwater from passing 

aircraft depend on the aircraft’s altitude, the aspect (direction and angle) of the aircraft relative to the 
Biological Assessment A-121

receiver, receiver depth and water depth, and seafloor type (Richardson et al., 1995). Because of the 

relatively high expected airspeed during aeromagnetic surveys (250 km/hr [135 kn]) and these physical 

variables, exposure of individual marine mammals to aircraft-related noise (including both airborne and 

underwater noise) is expected to be brief. 

The physical presence of low-flying aircraft can disturb marine mammals, particularly individuals 

resting on the sea surface. Observations made from low altitude aerial surveys report behavioral 

responses of marine mammals are highly variable and range from no observable reaction to diving or 

rapid changes in swimming speed or direction (Efroymson et al., 2000; Smultea et al., 2008). Minke 

whales have responded to helicopters at an altitude of 230 m (750 ft) by changing course or slowly diving 

(Leatherwood et al., 1982). Observational data of marine mammals exposed to sound from other sources 

(i.e., non-aircraft) may also be relevant in evaluating aircraft-based noise exposure impacts. For example, 

Frankel and Clark (1998) note that humpback whales exposed to low frequency sound may be responding 

to features of the source of the sound such as sound gradient or changes in the frequency spectrum rather 

than to the level itself. 

Based on the scale of aeromagnetic surveys that have been conducted in the northern Gulf of Mexico, 

it is expected that an individual survey in the Atlantic would cover less than 10 percent of the BA Area 

and may require 1-3 months to complete. Line spacing varies depending on the objectives, but typical 

grids are 0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. Based on the short duration of potential exposure to 

aircraft-related noise and visual disturbance at any given location when an aircraft passes over, it is 

expected that effects on marine mammals would be limited to brief behavioral responses. Because of the 

grid spacing and the movement of marine mammals, multiple exposures could occur in some instances. 

Helicopter traffic may also result in brief behavioral responses, but the potential for impacts is much 

lower because of the higher altitude and the limited extent of the traffic. Helicopters are expected to 

maintain a minimum altitude of 213 m (700 ft) when flying in transit offshore (USDOI, MMS, 2007b), 

but in practice, offshore support helicopters typically fly at higher altitudes ranging from 229-716 m 

(750-2,350 ft) depending on the distance and direction. The oil and gas scenario assumes that up to three 

COST wells and up to five shallow test wells would be drilled in the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning 

Areas during the time period of the Programmatic EIS. It is expected that drilling activities would be 

supported by a helicopter making one round-trip daily between the drilling rig and onshore support base. 

Neither the well locations nor the location of potential helicopter support bases are known at this 

programmatic stage. It is expected that the helicopter would follow the same route each day. Based on 

the short duration of potential exposure to aircraft-related noise and visual disturbance at any given 

location when the helicopter passes over, it is expected that effects on marine mammals would be limited 

to brief behavioral responses. Because of the daily round trips and the movement of marine mammals, 

multiple exposures could occur in some instances. 

Overall, given the low number of anticipated aircraft flights and that most are 700 ft altitude or above, 

air traffic is expected to affect but not adversely affect listed marine mammals. 

5.5.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Aeromagnetic surveys have the potential to disturb sea turtles because of the altitude (typically 

61-152 m [200-500 ft]. Helicopters in support of COST well drilling are unlikely to disturb sea turtles 

because they typically fly at higher altitudes. 

Noises generated by project-related survey aircraft that are directly relevant to sea turtles include both 

airborne sounds to individual turtles on the sea surface and underwater sounds from air-to-water 

transmission from passing aircraft. Levels of noise received underwater from passing aircraft depend on 

the aircraft’s altitude, the aspect (direction and angle) of the aircraft relative to the receiver, receiver depth 

and water depth, and seafloor type (Richardson et al., 1995). Because of the relatively high expected 

airspeed during aeromagnetic surveys (250 km/hr [135 kn]) and these physical variables, exposure of 

individual sea turtles to aircraft-related noise (including both airborne and underwater noise) is expected 

to be brief. 

The physical presence of low-flying aircraft can disturb sea turtles, particularly individuals resting on 

the sea surface. Behavioral responses to flying aircraft could include diving or rapid changes in 

swimming speed or direction. However, because sea turtles spend most of their time submerged, they are 

unlikely to be exposed to visual disturbance. 
A-122 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Based on the scale of aeromagnetic surveys that have been conducted in the northern Gulf of Mexico, 

it is expected that an individual survey in the Atlantic would cover less than 10 percent of the BA Area 

and may require 1-3 months to complete. Line spacing varies depending on the objectives, but typical 

grids are 0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. Based on the short duration of potential exposure to 

aircraft-related noise and visual disturbance at any given location when an aircraft passes over, it is 

expected that effects on sea turtles would be limited to brief behavioral responses. Because of the grid 

spacing and the movement of sea turtles, multiple exposures could occur in some instances. 

Helicopter traffic may also result in brief behavioral responses in sea turtles, but the potential for 

impacts is much lower because of the higher altitude and the limited extent of the traffic. Helicopters are 

expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 213 m (700 ft) when flying in transit offshore (USDOI, 

MMS, 2007b), but in practice, offshore support helicopters typically fly at higher altitudes ranging from 

229-716 m (750-2,350 ft) depending on the distance and direction. The oil and gas scenario assumes that 

up to three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells would be drilled in the Mid- or South Atlantic 

Planning Areas during the time period of the Programmatic EIS. It is expected that drilling activities 

would be supported by a helicopter making one round-trip daily between the drilling rig and onshore 

support base. Neither the well locations nor the location of potential helicopter support bases are known 

at this programmatic stage. It is expected that the helicopter would follow the same route each day. 

Based on the short duration of potential exposure to aircraft-related noise and visual disturbance at any 

given location when the helicopter passes over, it is expected that effects on sea turtles would be limited 

to brief behavioral responses. Because of the daily round trips and the movement of sea turtles, multiple 

exposures could occur in some instances. 

Overall, given the low number of anticipated aircraft flights and that most are 700 ft altitude or above, 

air traffic is expected to affect but not adversely affect listed sea turtles. 

5.5.3. Effects on Birds 

Both aeromagnetic surveys and helicopter traffic in support of COST well drilling have the potential 

to disturb birds or result in collisions (bird strikes). 

Noises generated by project-related survey aircraft that are directly relevant to birds include airborne 

sounds from passing aircraft for both individual birds on the sea surface and birds in flight above the sea 

surface. Both helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft generate noise from their engines, airframe, and 

propellers. The dominant tones for both types of aircraft are generally below 500 Hz (Richardson et al., 

1995) and within the airborne auditory range of birds. Aircraft noise entering the water depends on 

aircraft altitude, the aspect (direction and angle) of the aircraft relative to the receiver, and sea surface 

conditions. The level and frequency of sounds propagating through the water column are affected by 

water depth and seafloor type (Richardson et al., 1995). Because of the expected airspeed (250 km/hr 

[135 kn]), noise generated by survey aircraft is expected to be brief in duration, and birds may return to 

relaxed behavior within 5 min of the overflight (Komenda-Zehnder et al., 2003); however, birds can be 

disturbed up to 1 km away from an aircraft (Efroymson et al., 2000). 

The physical presence of low-flying aircraft can disturb marine and coastal birds, including those on 

the sea surface as well as in flight. Behavioral responses to flying aircraft include flushing the sea surface 

into flight or rapid changes in flight speed or direction. These behavioral responses can cause collision 

with the survey aircraft. However, Efroymson et al. (2000) reported that the potential for bird collision 

decreases for aircrafts flying at speed greater than 150 km/h. In addition, the FAA recommends that 

aircraft fly at a minimum altitude of 610 m (2,000 ft) or more above ground over noise sensitive areas 

such as National Parks, NWRs, Waterfowl Production Areas, and Wilderness Areas (USDOT, FAA, 

2004). 

Based on the scale of aeromagnetic surveys that have been conducted in the northern Gulf of Mexico, 

it is expected that an aeromagnetic survey in the Atlantic would cover less than 10 percent of the BA Area 

and may require 1-3 months to complete. Line spacing varies depending on the objectives, but typical 

grids are 0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. Based on the short duration of potential exposure to 

aircraft-related noise and the small risk of a collision at any given location when an aircraft passes over, it 

is expected that effects on listed birds would be limited to brief behavioral responses. Because of the grid 

spacing and the movement of birds, multiple exposures could occur in some instances. 

Piping plovers and red knots are shorebirds that are unlikely to be affected by aircraft traffic and noise 

from the proposed action. They are not expected to be common in offshore airspace where most of the 
Biological Assessment A-123

aeromagnetic survey activity would occur. When in transit across shorelines, aircraft and helicopters 

would be expected to maintain FAA-recommend altitudes that would avoid most potential disturbance of 

birds along the shoreline and minimize the risk of bird strikes. 

Roseate terns and Bermuda petrels are seabirds that are more likely to occur in offshore airspace 

where most of the aeromagnetic survey activity would occur. However, because of low densities of 

seabirds over the open ocean, the potential for disturbance or bird strikes is low. There are no breeding or 

feeding areas where these birds would be expected to concentrate within the BA Area. Therefore, aircraft 

activities and noise is not expected to affect listed bird species. 

5.5.4. Effects on Fishes 

Aircraft traffic and noise is not expected to have any detectable effects on listed fish species given the 

distance between aircraft operation and listed fish species. 

5.6. TRASH AND DEBRIS

Survey operations generate trash made of paper, plastic, wood, glass, and metal. Most of this trash is 

associated with galley and offshore food service operations. Occasionally, some personal items such as 

hardhats and personal flotation devices are accidentally lost overboard. 

It is prohibited to discharge trash and debris (33 CFR 151.51-77) unless it is passed through a 

comminutor (a machine that breaks up solids) and can pass through a 25-mm mesh screen. Discharge of 

plastic is prohibited regardless of size. All other trash and debris must be returned to shore for proper 

disposal with municipal and solid waste. The BOEM assumes vessel operators would discharge trash and 

debris only after it has passed through a comminutor and that all other trash and debris would be returned 

to shore. 

Current USCG and USEPA regulations require operators to become proactive in avoiding accidental 

loss of solid waste items by developing waste management plans, posting informational placards, 

manifesting trash sent to shore, and using special precautions such as covering outside trash bins to 

prevent accidental loss of solid waste. In addition, over the last several years, companies operating 

offshore have developed and implemented trash and debris reduction and improved handling practices to 

reduce the amount of offshore trash that could potentially be lost into the marine environment. These 

trash management practices include substituting paper and ceramic cups and dishes for those made of 

styrofoam, recycling offshore trash, and transporting and storing supplies and materials in bulk containers 

when feasible and have resulted in a reduction of accidental loss of trash and debris. 

Under the proposed action, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for 

marine debris awareness. The guidance would be similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash 

and Debris Awareness and Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). All vessel operators, employees, and 

contractors actively engaged in G&G surveys must be briefed on marine trash and debris awareness 

elimination as described in the NTL except that BOEM will not require applicants to undergo formal 

training or post placards. The applicant would be required to ensure that its employees and contractors 

are made aware of the environmental and socioeconomic impacts associated with marine trash and debris 

and their responsibilities for ensuring that trash and debris are not intentionally or accidentally discharged 

into the marine environment where it could affect protected species. 

Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is unlikely that 

significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be released into the marine environment. 

Therefore, impacts on listed marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, or fishes are expected to be avoided. 

5.6.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Lost and discarded marine debris, particularly those items made of synthetic materials, is a major 

form of marine pollution. The types of objects most commonly encountered in offshore waters include 

plastic bags, wrappers, bottles, cups, and raw plastic pellets; synthetic rope; glass bottles; metal cans; 

lumber; and cigarette butts (Laist, 1996, 1997; Barnes et al., 2009; Gregory, 2009). Factors that account 

for recent increases in marine debris include unlawful disposal practices, proliferation of synthetic 

materials that are resistant to degradation in the marine environment, and increasing numbers of people 

using and disposing of more synthetic items. 
A-124 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Marine debris poses two types of potentially negative impacts to marine biota, including marine 

mammals: (1) entanglement, and (2) ingestion. Records suggest that entanglement is a far more likely 

cause of mortality to marine mammals than ingestion-related interactions. Entanglement records for 

marine mammals show that entanglement is most common in pinnipeds, less common in mysticete 

cetaceans, and rare among odontocete cetaceans (Laist et al., 1999). Entanglement data for mysticete 

cetaceans may reflect a high interaction rate with active fishing gear rather than with marine debris. 

Abrasion and chafing scars from rope and line have been reported on numbers of photographed North 

Atlantic right whales in the western North Atlantic. These scars were attributed to entanglement in 

fishing gear (USDOC, NMFS, 2005). Entanglement records for odontocete cetaceans that are not clearly 

related to bycatch in active fisheries are almost absent (Laist, 1996). 

G&G survey operations generate trash made of paper, plastic, wood, glass, and metal. Most of this 

trash is associated with galley and offshore food service operations. It is prohibited to discharge trash and 

debris (33 CFR 151.51-77) unless it is passed through a comminutor (a machine that breaks up solids) 

and can pass through a 25-mm mesh screen. All other trash and debris must be returned to shore for 

proper disposal with municipal and solid waste. Some personal items, such as hardhats and personal 

flotation devices, are occasionally accidentally lost overboard. However, USCG and USEPA regulations 

require operators to become proactive in avoiding accidental loss of solid waste items by developing 

waste management plans, posting informational placards, manifesting trash sent to shore, and using 

special precautions such as covering outside trash bins to prevent accidental loss of solid waste. Under 

the proposed action, all authorizations for offshore G&G activities would include guidance for the 

handling and disposal of marine trash and debris, similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and 

Debris Awareness and Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). 

Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is unlikely that 

significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities would be released into the marine 

environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion impacts on marine mammals are expected to 

be avoided and are not expected to affect list marine mammals. 

5.6.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Lost and discarded marine debris, particularly those items made of synthetic materials, is a major 

form of marine pollution (Laist, 1997). Marine debris poses two types of negative impacts to sea turtles: 

(1) entanglement, and (2) ingestion. The USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, FWS (2008) note that loggerhead 

turtles have been found entangled in a wide variety of materials, including steel and monofilament line, 

synthetic and natural rope, plastic onion sacks, and discarded plastic netting. From 1997-2005, 

1.6 percent of stranded loggerheads found on Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico beaches were entangled in 

fishing gear. Monofilament line appears to be the principal source of entanglement for loggerheads in 

U.S. waters (0.9 percent; 1997-2005 average), followed by pot/trap line (0.4 percent; 1997-2005 average) 

and fishing net (0.3 percent; 1997-2005 average). Less than 1 percent of stranded sea turtles in 2005 were 

found entangled in other marine debris (NMFS, unpublished data, as cited in USDOC, NMFS and 

USDOI, FWS, 2008). 

G&G survey operations generate trash made of paper, plastic, wood, glass, and metal. Most of this 

trash is associated with galley and offshore food service operations. It is prohibited to discharge trash and 

debris (33 CFR 151.51-77) unless it is passed through a comminutor (a machine that breaks up solids) 

and can pass through a 25-mm mesh screen. All other trash and debris must be returned to shore for 

proper disposal with municipal and solid waste. Some personal items, such as hardhats and personal 

flotation devices, are occasionally accidentally lost overboard. However, USCG and USEPA regulations 

require operators to become proactive in avoiding accidental loss of solid waste items by developing 

waste management plans, posting informational placards, manifesting trash sent to shore, and using 

special precautions such as covering outside trash bins to prevent accidental loss of solid waste. In 

addition, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for marine debris awareness. 

The guidance would be similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). 

Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is unlikely that 

significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities would be released into the marine 

environment, which appreciably reduces the likelihood of sea turtles encountering marine debris from the 
Biological Assessment A-125

proposed activity. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion impacts on sea turtles are expected to be 

avoided and are not expected to affect list sea turtles.. 

5.6.3. Effects on Birds 

Ingested debris may have three specific effects on seabirds: (1) physical damage and blocking of the 

digestive tract, (2) impairment of foraging efficiency, and (3) the release of toxic chemicals. The severity 

of these effects depends upon the types of debris ingested and their retention time within seabirds (Ryan, 

1990). Seabirds that feed by surface-seizing, such as the roseate tern and Bermuda petrel, are among the 

most susceptible to ingesting floating plastic debris (Azzarello and Van Vleet, 1987; Ryan, 1987). 

Seabirds that feed by different methods may also ingest marine debris, suggesting that all seabirds are 

susceptible to plastic pollution (Tourinho et al., 2010). 

Plastic is found in the surface waters of all of the world’s oceans and poses a potential hazard to most 

marine life, including seabirds through entanglement or ingestion (Laist, 1987). The ingestion of plastic 

by marine and coastal birds can cause obstruction of the gastrointestinal tract, which can result in 

mortality. Plastic ingestion can also include blockage of the intestines and ulceration of the stomach. In 

addition, plastic accumulation in seabirds has also been shown to be correlated with the body burden of 

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which can cause lowered steroid hormone levels and result in delayed 

ovulation and other reproductive problems (Pierce et al., 2004). 

Trash made of paper, plastic, wood, glass, and metal is generated during G&G survey operations. 

Most of this trash is associated with galley and offshore food service operations. It is prohibited to 

discharge trash and debris (33 CFR 151.51-77) unless it is passed through a comminutor (a machine that 

breaks up solids) and can pass through a 25-mm mesh screen. All other trash and debris must be returned 

to shore for proper disposal with municipal and solid waste. Some personal items, such as hardhats and 

personal flotation devices, are occasionally accidentally lost overboard. However, USCG and USEPA 

regulations require operators to become proactive in avoiding accidental loss of solid waste items by 

developing waste management plans, posting informational placards, manifesting trash sent to shore, and 

using special precautions such as covering outside trash bins to prevent accidental loss of solid waste. In 

addition, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for marine debris awareness. 

The guidance would be similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). 

Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is unlikely that 

significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities would be released into the marine 

environment, which appreciably reduces the likelihood of birds encountering marine debris from the 

proposed activity. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion impacts on birds are expected to be 

avoided and are not expected to affect listed birds. 

5.6.4. Effects on Fishes 

None of the listed fish species is likely to ingest trash or debris. Trash and debris have not been 

identified as a significant threat for shortnose sturgeon, Atlantic sturgeon, alewife, or blueback herring. 

However, because of their long, toothed rostrum, smalltooth sawfish are readily entangled in nets, ropes, 

monofilament line, discarded pipe sections, and other debris (Seitz and Poulakis, 2006). 

Under the proposed action, all authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for 

marine debris awareness. The guidance would be similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash 

and Debris Awareness and Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). All vessel operators, employees, and 

contractors actively engaged in G&G surveys must be briefed on marine trash and debris awareness 

elimination as described in the NTL except that BOEM will not require applicants to undergo formal 

training or post placards. The applicant would be required to ensure that its employees and contractors 

are made aware of the environmental and socioeconomic impacts associated with marine trash and debris 

and their responsibilities for ensuring that trash and debris are not intentionally or accidentally discharged 

into the marine environment where it could affect protected species. 

Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is unlikely that 

significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be released into the marine environment. 

Therefore, impacts on smalltooth sawfish and other listed fish species are expected to be avoided and are 

not expected to affect listed fish species. 
A-126 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

5.7. SEAFLOOR DISTURBANCE

Sources of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action include 

 bottom sampling activities in all three program areas; 

 placement of anchors, nodes, cables, sensors, or other equipment on or in the seafloor 

for various activities in the oil and gas program; 

 COST well and shallow test drilling in the oil and gas program; and 

 placement of bottom-founded monitoring buoys in the renewable energy program. 

The BOEM will require site-specific information regarding potential archaeological resources and 

sensitive benthic communities (including hard/live bottom areas, deepwater coral communities, and 

chemosynthetic communities) prior to approving any G&G activities involving seafloor-disturbing 

activities or placement of bottom-founded equipment or structures in the BA Area. The BOEM will use 

this information to ensure that physical impacts to archaeological resources or sensitive benthic 

communities are avoided. 

The BOEM has not designated specific benthic locations for avoidance in the BA Area. However, 

likely areas for avoidance would include known hard/live bottom areas, known deepwater coral locations 

including Lophelia and Oculina coral sites, deepwater coral Habitat Areas of Particular Concern, 

deepwaterMarine Protected Areas, Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary, the Charleston Bump area, 

and the walls of submarine canyons. All authorizations for G&G surveys proposed within or near these 

areas would be subject to the review noted above to facilitate avoidance. The BOEM has not developed 

specific buffer zones for sensitive benthic communities in the Atlantic, but it is expected that they would 

be similar to those that BOEM uses in the Gulf of Mexico. The BOEM would not authorize seafloordisturbing activities in marine sanctuaries in the BA Area except in consultation with NOAA under the 

National Marine Sanctuaries Act. Setbacks of 152 m (500 ft) for seafloor-disturbing activities would be 

expected that could be modified by consultations with NOAA under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act 

for specific activities in proximity to a National Marine Sanctuary. 

For the renewable energy program, BOEM has issued “Guidelines for Providing Geological and 

Geophysical, Hazards, and Archaeological Information Pursuant to 30 CFR Part 585” (USDOI, BOEM, 

2011b). The guidelines specify that a site characterization survey must reliably cover any portion of the 

site that would be affected by seafloor-disturbing activities. The guidelines recommend avoidance as a 

primary mitigation strategy for objects of historical or archaeological significance. The applicant has the 

option to demonstrate through additional investigations that an archaeological resource either does not 

exist or would not be adversely affected by the seafloor/bottom-disturbing activities. While site 

characterization activities covered by these guidelines could identify other resource types (e.g., benthic 

communities), recommendations for conducting and reporting the results of other baseline collection 

studies (e.g., biological) would be provided by BOEM in separate guidelines. 

Bottom Sampling Activities 

The proposed action scenario includes bottom sampling activities in all three program areas. These 

include 

 50-300 core or grab samples in the oil and gas program; 

 3,106-9,969 core or grab samples in the renewable energy program; and 

 1-8 geologic cores, 60-320 grab samples, and 90-600 vibracores in the marine 

minerals program. 

Collection of each sample is estimated to disturb an area of approximate 10 m2

 (108 ft2), although the 

actual area of the core or grab extracted may be much smaller. If all of the samples in the proposed action 

scenario were collected, the total seafloor disturbance would be about 11 ha (27 ac), which represents 

0.00001 percent of the BA Area. 

Sampling for oil and gas exploration would be conducted at specific lease blocks where structures 

such as drilling rigs, platforms, or pipelines may be installed. The blocks could be anywhere within the 

Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Areas and cannot be predicted as there are currently no active oil and gas 

leases in the Atlantic OCS. 
Biological Assessment A-127

Sampling for renewable energy projects would occur at specific sites consisting of one or more 

OCS blocks in water depths less than 100 m (328 ft) and along potential cable routes to shore. Offshore 

Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, the likely sampling locations would be within designated WEAs 

(USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). North Carolina has identified 500 OCS blocks of interest, but it is likely that 

sampling would occur within only a small subset of these blocks. Specific locations have not been 

identified for the South Atlantic states. 

Sampling activities for marine minerals would be conducted at specific borrow sites in water depths 

less than 30 m (98 ft). Much of the marine minerals activity is expected to occur within existing borrow 

sites offshore the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic states (see Figure A-3 for locations). By design, the 

sampling locations are expected to be almost exclusively sand bottom. 

Placement of Anchors, Nodes, Cables, and Sensors 

Certain surveys in oil and gas exploration require placement of anchors, nodes, cables, sensors, or 

other equipment on or in the seafloor. Ocean bottom cable and nodal surveys, vertical cable surveys, 

CSEM surveys, and MT surveys involve placement of sensors and/or anchors on the seafloor. In VSP 

surveys, receivers are placed in boreholes in the seafloor. Each of these activities would temporarily 

affect a small area of seafloor. After a survey is completed, the sensors are removed; anchors are either 

removed or left in place (if biodegradable). The blocks where these surveys would be conducted could be 

anywhere within the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Areas and cannot be predicted as there are currently 

no active oil and gas leases in the Atlantic OCS. The total area of seafloor disturbed has not been 

calculated. 

COST Wells and Shallow Test Drilling 

The oil and gas scenario assumes that up to three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells would 

be drilled in the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Areas during the time period of the Programmatic EIS. 

Locations for COST wells and shallow test wells are unknown. However, it is likely that there would be 

some interest in a test program for gas hydrates within the proposed action scenario period, at least in the 

South Atlantic Planning Area in the Blake Plateau region. These wells could be considered either COST 

wells or shallow test drilling, depending on the penetration depth. 

COST wells and shallow test wells would be drilled using conventional rotary drilling techniques. 

Seafloor disturbance would result from anchoring (if a moored drilling rig was used), placing a well 

template on the seafloor, and jetting the well. The area of seafloor disturbance varies with the type of rig 

chosen to drill a well, which depends primarily on water depth (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). Jack-up rigs are 

used in shallow water and disturb approximately 1 ha (2.5 ac) for each location. Semisubmersibles can be 

operated in a wide range of water depths and disturb about 2-3 ha (5-7 ac), depending on their mooring 

configurations. In water depths >600 m (>1,969 ft), dynamically positioned drillships could be used; 

these drillships disturb only a very small area where the bottom template and wellbore are located, 

approximately 0.25 ha (0.62 ac). 

For this impact analysis, the area of seafloor disturbance is assumed to average about 2 ha (5 ac) per 

well. If all of the COST wells and shallow test wells in the proposed action scenario were drilled, the 

total seafloor disturbance would be about 16 ha (40 ac), or about 0.00002 percent of the BA Area. 

Bottom-Founded Meteorological Buoys 

As part of the renewable energy program, lessees may install bottom-founded meteorological buoys. 

The Programmatic EIS assumes that lessees would choose to install buoys instead of meteorological 

towers. These buoys would be anchored at fixed locations and regularly collect observations from many 

different atmospheric and oceanographic sensors. 

Meteorological buoys would typically be towed or carried aboard a vessel to the installation location. 

Once at the location site, the buoy would be either lowered to the surface from the deck of the transport 

vessel or placed over the final location and then the mooring anchor dropped. A boat-shaped buoy in 

shallower waters of the BA Area may be moored with an all-chain mooring, while a larger discus-type 

buoy would use a combination of chain, nylon, and buoyant polypropylene materials (USDOC, NDBC, 

2011). After installation, the transport vessel would remain in the area for several hours while technicians 

configure proper operation of all systems. Buoys would typically take 1 day to install. Transport and 
A-128 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

installation vessel anchoring for 1 day is anticipated for these types of buoys. Decommissioning of buoys 

is essentially the reverse of the installation process. 

The proposed action scenario includes 7-38 buoys that may be installed within the BA Area during 

the time period of the Programmatic EIS. Anchors for boat-shaped and discus-shaped buoys would have 

a footprint of about 0.55 m2

 (6 ft2) and an anchor sweep of about 3.4 ha (8.5 ac) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). 

The larger anchor sweep area is used to estimate seafloor disturbance. If all of the monitoring buoys in 

the proposed action scenario were installed, the total seafloor disturbance would be about 129 ha (319 ac), 

or about 0.0002 percent of the BA Area. 

5.7.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Seafloor disturbance is not expected to have any detectable effect on the listed marine mammals in 

this analysis. The listed whale species do not use benthic or seafloor habitats to any extent. The benthic 

habitats used by the Florida manatee are in coastal, inland waters, which are not within the BA Area and 

would not be locations for G&G activities under the proposed action. 

5.7.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Seafloor disturbance is not expected to have any detectable effect on the sea turtles in this analysis. 

Green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, and loggerhead turtles use soft bottom benthic habitats for foraging. 

However, the extent of seafloor disturbance from all of the G&G activities in the proposed action is a 

negligible percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Hawksbill turtles feed in coral 

and hard bottom areas, which would be avoided (see Section 7), and therefore no impacts are expected. 

5.7.3. Effects on Birds 

Seafloor disturbance is not expected to have any detectable effect on the listed bird species in this 

analysis. They do not use offshore benthic or seafloor habitats. 

5.7.4. Effects on Fishes 

Seafloor disturbance could affect the three demersal species included in this analysis (smalltooth 

sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon) because all three species inhabit soft bottom areas. 

The alewife and blueback herring do not use offshore benthic habitats and would not be affected. 

Smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon all inhabit soft bottom areas, and 

therefore they could be affected by seafloor disturbance. However, the extent of seafloor disturbance 

from all of the G&G activities in the proposed action is a negligible percentage of the available soft 

bottom habitat in the BA Area. If all of the samples in the proposed action scenario were collected, the 

total seafloor disturbance would be about 11 ha (27 ac), which represents 0.00001 percent of the BA 

Area. In addition, the occurrence of smalltooth sawfish and shortnose sturgeon is so spatially limited that 

exposure to seafloor disturbance caused by the proposed action is extremely unlikely. Smalltooth sawfish 

normally inhabit shallow waters of less than 10 m (33 ft) off southwest Florida, with only occasional 

excursions north of Florida. Shortnose sturgeon is an estuarine and riverine species that rarely enters 

marine waters of the BA Area. Given the limited extent of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action, it 

is unlikely that either species would come into contact with affected areas. 

Because of its distribution, the Atlantic sturgeon is more likely than the other demersal species to 

come into contact with areas of seafloor disturbance from the proposed action. Atlantic sturgeon occur on 

the shelf in water depths of less than 21.3 m (70 ft) during fall and winter months, preferring shell, gravel, 

or sand bottoms. Areas of particular concentration have been identified in water depths between 9.1 and 

21.3 m (30 and 70 ft) offshore Virginia and near sand shoals adjacent to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina 

(Laney et al., 2007). Depending on the survey or sampling location, Atlantic sturgeon could be 

temporarily displaced from areas of concentration during activities that disturb the seafloor or while 

bottom-deployed equipment is in place. However, the extent of seafloor disturbance is a negligible 

percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Moreover, no biologically vital behaviors 

(e.g., spawning) occur in these locations, therefore it is unlikely that seafloor disturbance would have any 

affect on Atlantic sturgeon. 
Biological Assessment A-129

5.8. DRILLING DISCHARGES

The oil and gas scenario assumes that up to three COST wells would be drilled in the BA Area during 

the time period of the Programmatic EIS. Conventional rotary drilling techniques, the same as those 

routinely used for drilling oil and gas exploration and development wells, are used to drill COST wells. 

During the process, drilling fluid and cuttings are discharged, disperse in the water column, and 

accumulate on the seafloor (NRC, 1983; Neff, 1987; Neff et al., 2000). 

During the initial stage of drilling, a large diameter surface hole is jetted a few hundred meters into 

the seafloor. A National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit must be obtained from 

the USEPA in order to discharge drilling fluids and cuttings. At this stage, the cuttings and seawater used 

as drilling fluid are discharged onto the seafloor. A continuous steel pipe known as a surface casing is 

lowered into the hole and cemented in place. A blowout preventer is installed on the top of the surface 

casing to prevent water or hydrocarbons from escaping into the environment. Once the blowout preventer 

is fully pressure tested, the next section of the well is drilled. 

The marine riser is a pipe with special fittings that establishes a seal between the top of the wellbore 

and the drilling rig. After it is set, all drilling fluid and cuttings are returned to the drilling rig and passed 

through a solids control system designed to remove cuttings and silt so that the drilling fluids may be 

recirculated downhole. The drill cuttings, typically sand or gravel-sized with any residual drilling mud 

attached, are then discharged via the shale chute. 

The only drilling fluids in widespread use on the OCS are either water-based fluids (WBFs) or 

synthetic-based fluids (SBFs). Typically, the upper portion of exploration wells are drilled with WBF to 

a depth in the range of 800-2,000 m (2,625-6,562 ft) and, following “switchover,” the remainder is drilled 

with SBF (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). 

During well intervals when WBF systems are used, cuttings and adsorbed WBF solids are discharged 

to the ocean at a rate of 0.2-2.0 m3

/hr (Neff, 1987). Overboard discharge of WBF results in increased 

turbidity in the water column, alteration of sediment characteristics because of coarse material in cuttings, 

and elevated concentrations of some trace metals (NRC, 1983; Neff, 1987). In shallow environments, 

WBFs are rapidly dispersed in the water column immediately after discharge and quickly descend to the 

seafloor, whereas in deeper water, fluids discharged at the sea surface are dispersed over a wider area 

(Neff, 1987). 

Synthetic-based fluids are manufactured hydrocarbons without aromatic hydrocarbons and polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbons characteristic of oil-based fluids, which are not used on the U.S. OCS. When SBF 

systems are used, the SBF is returned to shore for recycling, and the only discharge consists of SBF 

adhering to cuttings. Retention on cuttings is subject to regulatory limits; for example, under the current 

NPDES permit for USEPA Region IV in the Gulf of Mexico, the limits are 6.9 percent for internal olefins 

and 9.4 percent for esters (USEPA, 2010). Cuttings wetted with SBF typically settle close to the 

discharge point and affect the local sediments and any benthic invertebrates in proximity (Neff et al., 

2000; Continental Shelf Associates, Inc., 2006). 

The average exploration well in the Gulf of Mexico is approximately 3,674 m (12,055 ft) below 

mudline (USDOI, MMS, 2007b) and is equivalent to an Atlantic COST well in depth. Each well 

discharges about 7,000-9,700 barrels (bbl) of WBF and 1,500-2,500 bbl of cuttings (USEPA, 1993, 

2000). Assuming an average of 2,000 bbl of cuttings and 8,350 bbl of drilling fluid discharged per well, 

the total volumes for 1-3 COST wells would range from 2,000-6,000 bbl of cuttings and 8,350-25,050 bbl 

of drilling fluid. 

Shallow test wells for gas hydrate would also result in drilling fluid and cuttings discharges. The oil 

and gas exploration scenario estimates up to five shallow test wells in the BA Area. It is likely that, at the 

least, there would be some interest within the proposed action scenario period in a test program for gas 

hydrates in the South Atlantic Planning Area in the Blake Plateau region. Gas hydrate wells are from 

152 m (500 ft) to a few thousand feet deep because gas hydrates are found in shallow depths within the 

sediment due to the physico-chemical requirements for their stability. In the Gulf of Mexico, test 

programs for gas hydrates were fielded in 2005 (Birchwood et al., 2008) and 2009 (Boswell et al., 2009). 

The deepest well for the 2009 test program was 1,122 m (3,680 ft) below mudline. Wells this shallow 

would yield a few hundred barrels of drilling fluid and cuttings each. 
A-130 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

5.8.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

Drilling discharges are not likely to have any detectable effect on marine mammals (USDOI, MMS, 

2007b). The main impacts would be temporary turbidity in the water column and localized alteration of 

the benthic environment around individual wellsites. A plume of turbid water could extend a few 

kilometers from a wellsite and persist for hours after each discharge (Neff, 1987). Due to the localized 

and transient nature of the water quality impacts, the discharges are unlikely to significantly affect 

foraging or other activities by marine mammals. Discharged cuttings may be temporarily suspended in 

the water column and would accumulate on the seafloor, but the listed whale species do not use benthic or 

seafloor habitats to any extent. The benthic habitats used by the Florida manatee are in coastal, inland 

waters, which are remote from locations for COST wells or shallow test drilling activities under the 

proposed action. 

5.8.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

Drilling discharges are not likely to have any detectable effect on sea turtles (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). 

The main impacts would be temporary turbidity in the water column and localized alteration of the 

benthic environment around individual wellsites. A plume of turbid water could extend a few kilometers 

from a wellsite and persist for hours after each discharge (Neff, 1987). Due to the localized and transient 

nature of the water quality impacts, the discharges are unlikely to significantly affect foraging or other 

activities by sea turtles. Discharged cuttings may be temporarily suspended in the water column and 

would accumulate on the seafloor. Although green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, and loggerhead turtles use 

soft bottom benthic habitats for foraging, the extent of benthic habitat impacts from drilling discharges is 

a negligible percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Hawksbill turtles feed in 

coral and hard bottom areas, which would be avoided (see Section 7), and therefore no impacts are 

expected. 

5.8.3. Effects on Birds 

Drilling discharges are not likely to have any detectable effect on marine and coastal birds (USDOI, 

MMS, 2007b). Piping plovers and red knots would not be exposed to drilling discharges because they are 

coastal inhabitants. The roseate tern and Bermuda petrel could encounter temporary turbidity in the water 

column, which could extend a few kilometers from a wellsite and persist for hours after each discharge. 

Because of the localized and transient nature of the water quality impacts, the discharges are unlikely to 

affect foraging or other activities by these birds. 

5.8.4. Effects on Fishes 

The primary environmental concerns related to the discharge of fluids and cuttings are increased 

water column turbidity and accumulation of drilling muds and cuttings on the seafloor. 

Turbidity during drilling discharges could interfere with visual feeding by water column fishes such 

as the alewife and blueback herring. Turbidity could extend a few kilometers from a wellsite and persist 

for hours after each discharge (Neff, 1987). However, because of the localized and transient nature of the 

turbidity, effects on alewife and blueback herring would not be significant. 

Benthic deposition is the main issue for demersal species such as smalltooth sawfish, shortnose 

sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon because all three species inhabit soft bottom areas. Deposition of drilling 

fluids and cuttings can increase the organic load of the benthos and promote anoxic conditions. Drilling 

discharges can also alter the ambient sediment grain size and alter the concentrations of some metals. 

Drilling fluid and cuttings deposition would result in localized changes to the benthic infaunal 

community, including infaunal species important to benthic feeding fishes. 

However, the extent of benthic habitat impacts from drilling discharges is a negligible percentage of 

the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Assuming a typical effect radius of 500 m (1,640 ft), the 

affected area around each wellsite would represent about 3 percent of the seafloor within an OCS lease 

block and about 0.0001 percent of the BA Area. Soft bottom communities are ubiquitous regionally, and 

the impact on benthic habitat would be negligible on a regional basis. 

In addition, the occurrence of smalltooth sawfish and shortnose sturgeon is so spatially limited that 

exposure to drilling discharges is extremely unlikely. Smalltooth sawfish normally inhabit shallow 
Biological Assessment A-131

waters of less than 10 m (33 ft) off southwest Florida, with only occasional excursions north of Florida. 

Shortnose sturgeon is an estuarine and riverine species that rarely enters marine waters of the BA Area. 

Given the limited extent of drilling discharge impacts in the proposed action, it is unlikely that either 

species would come into contact with affected areas. 

Because of its distribution, the Atlantic sturgeon is more likely than the other demersal species to 

come into contact with areas of benthic habitat impacts from drilling discharges. Atlantic sturgeon occur 

on the shelf in water depths of less than 21.3 m (70 ft) during fall and winter months, preferring shell, 

gravel, or sand bottoms. Areas of concentration have been identified in water depths between 9.1 and 

21.3 m (30 and 70 ft) offshore Virginia and near sand shoals adjacent to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina 

(Laney et al., 2007). Depending on the drilling location, Atlantic sturgeon could be temporarily displaced 

from areas of concentration because of drilling discharges. However, the extent of altered seafloor habitat 

from drilling discharges would be a negligible percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA 

Area. Moreover, no biologically vital behaviors (e.g., spawning) occur in these locations, and therefore it 

is unlikely that drilling discharges would have any effects on Atlantic sturgeon. 

5.9. ACCIDENTAL FUEL SPILLS

Vessel fuel capacities generally depend on vessel size, which varies according to the nature of the 

survey (for example, 3D surveys use larger vessels than 2D surveys). A large seismic survey vessel may 

carry between 100,000-1.1 million gal (2,380-27,000 bbl) of fuel, including diesel and fuel oil 

(CGGVeritas, 2011; Geophysical Service, Inc., 2011a,b). Smaller coastal vessels may carry several 

thousand gallons. 

Vessels involved in G&G activities off the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic coasts could be involved 

in collisions or other accidents that result in a fuel spill. Spill size would depend on the type of vessel, the 

severity of the event, and whether the fuel storage is compartmentalized. 

All G&G vessels are required to comply with USCG requirements relating to prevention and control 

of oil spills. Nevertheless, for the purposes of this analysis, a spill scenario was evaluated – a release of 

1.2-7.1 bbl of diesel fuel caused by either a vessel collision or an accident during fuel transfer. The 

volume is based on spill statistics for the period 2000-2009 developed by the USDHS, USCG (2011b). 

During this period, there were 1,521-5,220 spills per year from vessels other than tankers and tank barges. 

Total annual spill volumes from these vessels ranged from 92,388-453,901 gal, resulting in average spill 

sizes ranging between 49.6 and 297.3 gal, or 1.2-7.1 bbl. 

The likelihood of a fuel spill during seismic surveys or other G&G activities is expected to be remote. 

For example, there has never been a recorded oil/fuel spill during more than 54,000 nmi (100,000 km) of 

previous NSF-funded seismic surveys (NSF and USDOI, USGS, 2011). 

The potential for impacts from a 1.2-7.1 bbl diesel fuel spill would depend greatly on the location of 

the spill, meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the time, and the speed with which cleanup 

plans and equipment could be employed. Diesel fuel is a refined petroleum product that is lighter than 

water. It may float on the water’s surface or be dispersed into the water column by waves. It is assumed 

that spilled fuel would rapidly spread to a layer of varying thickness and break up into narrow bands or 

windrows parallel to the wind direction. Diesel is a distillate of crude oil and does not contain the heavier 

components that contribute to crude oil’s longer persistence in the environment. Small diesel spills 

(500-5,000 gal) will usually evaporate and disperse within a day or less, even in cold water (USDOC, 

NOAA, 2006); thus, seldom is there any oil on the surface for responders to recover. However, what is 

commonly referred to as “marine diesel” is often a heavier intermediate fuel oil that will persist longer 

when spilled. When spilled on water, diesel oil spreads very quickly to a thin film of rainbow and silver 

sheens, except for marine diesel, which may form a thicker film of dull or dark colors (USDOC, NOAA, 

2006). There is the potential for a small proportion of the heavier fuel components to adhere to 

particulate matter in the upper portion of the water column and sink. Particulate matter contaminated 

with diesel fuel could eventually reach the benthos either within or outside the BA Area, depending upon 

spill location, water depth, ambient currents, and sinking rate. 

5.9.1. Effects on Marine Mammals 

The potential impacts of a small diesel spill (1.2-7.1 bbl) as evaluated for the proposed action could 

vary depending on the spill location and the meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the time. 
A-132 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

However, in general, a small spill would be expected to disperse quickly in the open ocean and would not 

be likely to contact more than a few individual marine mammals. Prolonged exposure would not be likely 

for any individuals in the open ocean. A small spill would be unlikely to result in the death or 

life-threatening injury of individual marine mammals, or the long-term displacement of marine mammals 

from preferred feeding, breeding, or calving areas or migratory routes. Therefore, potential impacts to 

listed marine mammals within the BA Area are expected to affect but not adversely affect listed marine 

mammals. 

Effects of spilled oil on marine mammals are discussed by Geraci and St. Aubin (1980, 1982, 1985, 

1990) and Lee and Anderson (2005), as well as within spill-specific study results (e.g., Exxon Valdez; 

Frost and Lowry, 1994; Paine et al., 1996; Hoover-Miller et al., 2001; Peterson et al., 2003). Diesel fuel 

on the sea surface may affect marine mammals through various pathways: surface contact of the fuel with 

skin and other mucous membranes, inhalation of concentrated petroleum vapors, or ingestion of the fuel 

(direct ingestion or by the ingestion of oiled prey). 

Whales and dolphins apparently can detect slicks on the sea surface but do not always avoid them 

(Geraci and St. Aubin, 1990; Smultea and Würsig, 1995). Therefore, they may be vulnerable to 

inhalation of hydrocarbon vapors, particularly those components of diesel fuel that are readily evaporated. 

Ingestion of the lighter hydrocarbon fractions found in diesel fuel can be toxic to marine mammals. 

Ingested diesel fuel can remain within the gastrointestinal tract and be absorbed into the bloodstream, thus 

irritating and/or destroying epithelial cells in the stomach and intestines. Certain constituents of diesel 

fuel (i.e., aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) include some well-known 

carcinogens. These substances, however, do not show significant biomagnification in food chains and are 

readily metabolized by many organisms (Neff, 1990). Released diesel fuel may also foul the baleen fibers 

of mysticete whales, thereby impairing food gathering efficiency or resulting in the ingestion of diesel 

fuel or diesel fuel-contaminated prey. 

A spill in offshore waters would be unlikely to affect manatees because of their coastal habitat 

preferences. There have been no experimental studies and only a handful of observations suggesting that 

oil has harmed any manatees (St. Aubin and Lounsbury, 1990). The types of impacts to manatees and 

dugongs from contact with oil include (1) asphyxiation due to inhalation of hydrocarbons, (2) acute 

poisoning due to contact with fresh oil, (3) lowering of tolerance to other stress due to the incorporation 

of sublethal amounts of petroleum components into body tissues, (4) nutritional stress through damage to 

food sources, and (5) inflammation or infection and difficulty eating due to oil sticking to the sensory 

hairs around their mouths (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b). If oil reached coastal or inland waters, it could affect 

the quality or availability of aquatic vegetation upon which manatees feed. Also, this species is 

particularly vulnerable to vessel strikes. Spill response vessels (like all G&G project vessels) would be 

subject to BOEM guidance for avoiding vessel strikes. 

An accidental diesel fuel spill adjacent to or within the North Atlantic right whale critical habitat 

during the winter calving period could result in the direct contact of the spilled fuel with both adults and 

calves. Based on the assumed small size of the spill and the likelihood that it would disperse and weather 

rapidly, it is likely that few individuals would be exposed and there would be no prolonged exposure for 

any animals. A small fuel spill would not be likely to result in the death or life-threatening injury of 

individual North Atlantic right whales, or the long-term displacement of these animals from their critical 

habitat or migratory routes. 

5.9.2. Effects on Sea Turtles 

The potential impacts of a small diesel spill (1.2-7.1 bbl) as evaluated for the proposed action could 

vary depending on the spill location and the meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the time. 

However, in general, a small spill would be expected to disperse quickly in the open ocean and would not 

be likely to contact more than a few individual sea turtles. Prolonged exposure would not be likely for 

any individuals in the open ocean. A small spill would be unlikely to result in the death or 

life-threatening injury of individual sea turtles, or the long-term displacement of sea turtles from preferred 

feeding, breeding, or nesting habitats or migratory routes. Therefore, potential impacts to listed sea 

turtles within the BA Area are expected to affect but not adversely affect listed sea turtles. 

Effects of spilled oil on sea turtles are discussed by Geraci and St. Aubin (1987), Lutcavage et al. 

(1995, 1997), and Milton et al. (2003). Oil, including diesel fuel, may affect sea turtles through various 

pathways including direct contact, inhalation of the fuel and its volatile components, and ingestion 
Biological Assessment A-133

(directly or indirectly through the consumption of fouled prey species) (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1987). 

Several aspects of sea turtle biology and behavior place them at risk, including lack of avoidance 

behavior, indiscriminate feeding in convergence zones, and inhalation of large volumes of air before dives 

(Milton et al., 2003). Studies have shown that direct exposure of sensitive tissues (e.g., eyes, nares, other 

mucous membranes) and soft tissues to diesel fuel or volatile hydrocarbons may produce irritation and 

inflammation. Diesel fuel can adhere to turtle skin or shells. Turtles surfacing within or near a diesel 

release would be expected to inhale petroleum vapors, causing respiratory stress. Ingested diesel fuel, 

particularly the lighter fractions, can be acutely toxic to sea turtles. The assumed small size and rapid 

dispersion of a spill in the open ocean are the main factors mitigating the potential for significant impacts 

on sea turtles. 

5.9.3. Effects on Birds 

The potential impacts of a small diesel spill (1.2-7.1 bbl) as evaluated for the proposed action could 

vary depending on the spill location and the meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the time. 

However, in general, a small spill would be expected to disperse quickly in the open ocean and would not 

be likely to contact more than a few individual birds. Prolonged exposure would not be likely for any 

individuals in the open ocean. A small spill would be unlikely to result in the death or life-threatening 

injury of individual birds, or the long-term displacement of birds from preferred feeding, breeding, or 

nesting habitats or migratory routes. Therefore, potential impacts to listed birds within the BA Area are 

expected to affect but not adversely affect listed birds. 

In the event of a fuel spill, the marine and coastal bird species affected and the type of effect would 

differ depending on the location of the spill (Weise and Jones, 2001; Castege et al., 2007). A spill in 

offshore waters could affect seabirds such as the roseate tern and Bermuda petrel, but would be unlikely 

to affect shorebirds such as the piping plover or red knot. The roseate tern and Bermuda petrel could be 

exposed to diesel fuel floating on the sea surface. Direct contact with diesel fuel may result in the fouling 

or matting of feathers with subsequent limitation or loss of flight capability or insulating or waterrepellent capabilities; irritation or inflammation of skin or sensitive tissues, such as eyes and other 

mucous membranes; or toxic effects from ingested diesel fuel or the inhalation of diesel and its volatile 

components. Birds coming in contact with spilled diesel could also suffer from chronic toxicity due to 

ingestion and/or absorption. Affected birds could also carry diesel fuel to nests where eggs and young 

could be exposed. Contamination of foraging habitat and prey items could also occur. However, the 

potential for significant effects would be limited because of the assumed small size and rapid dispersion 

of the spill, as well as the generally low densities of seabirds in offshore waters. A small spill in the open 

ocean would be expected to disperse quickly and would not be likely to contact more than a few 

individual seabirds. Prolonged exposure would not be likely for any individuals, and death or 

life-threatening injury of individual birds would be unlikely. 

A spill in nearshore waters could affect any of the listed species, including shorebirds such as the 

piping plover and red knot. Direct and indirect impacts would be similar to those described above for an 

offshore spill, but with a greater potential for contamination of foraging habitats along the shoreline. 

5.9.4. Effects on Fishes 

The potential impacts of a small diesel spill (1.2-7.1 bbl) as evaluated for the proposed action could 

vary depending on the spill location and the meteorological and oceanographic conditions at the time. 

However, a small fuel spill is unlikely to affect any of the listed fish species in this analysis. Generally, 

eggs and larvae are the stages that are most sensitive to oiling; however, because of their life histories, 

none of the listed fish species included in the BA would have eggs or larvae in the water column of the 

BA Area where they could be exposed to a spill. 

Effects of spilled oil on fishes have been studied extensively (Hose et al., 1996; Kocan et al., 1996; 

Carls et al., 1999; Couillard et al., 2005; Ramachandran, 2005; Schein et al., 2009). Schein et al. (2009) 

showed that the constituents of diesel remaining 18 hr after simulated weathering and solubilization were 

chronically toxic to rainbow trout. Additional studies have shown significant reduction in growth of 

embryos, a cessation of development, or both, as indicated by a smaller size and reduced absorption of 

yolk. Release and dissolution of spilled diesel may also decrease ambient oxygen concentrations in the 

water column. 
A-134 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

As adults, the alewife and blueback herring feed in coastal and offshore waters and could be exposed 

to an oil spill in the water column. However, the potential for significant effects would be limited 

because of the assumed small size and rapid dispersion of the spill. A small spill in the open ocean would 

be expected to disperse quickly. Because of the schooling behavior of alewife and blueback herring, a 

spill could contact many individual fishes, but prolonged exposure would not be likely, and death or 

life-threatening injury of individual fishes would be unlikely. 

As adults, three of the species (smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon) are 

demersal and are unlikely to be contacted by a diesel spill because it would be expected to float and 

disperse on the sea surface. There is the potential for a small proportion of the heavier fuel components to 

adhere to particulate matter in the upper portion of the water column and sink. However, due to the 

assumed small size of the spill, it is unlikely that benthic habitats would be contaminated to an extent that 

would significantly affect any of the demersal species. 

5.10. CUMULATIVE EFFECTS

Cumulative effects are those effects of future State or private activities, not involving Federal 

activities, that are reasonably certain to occur within the action area of the Federal action subject to 

consultation (50 CFR 402.02). Federal activities are covered in their own ESA Section 7 consultations 

and are not addressed as part of the cumulative scenario under the ESA. Cumulative effects can result 

from individually minor, but collectively significant, actions taking place over time. A relevant 

discussion of cumulative effects must account for past and current activities (the baseline) as well as 

future State or private activities. Section 4 provides an overview of the environmental baseline in the BA 

Area, and Section 3 describes the life history and status of protected species in detail. Impacts of the 

proposed action to protected species were evaluated previously in Sections 5.1 through 5.9. 

5.10.1. Cumulative Activity Scenario 

Future State or private activities that are reasonably certain to occur within the BA Area during the 

period of the proposed action include 

 shipping and marine transportation; 

 commercial and recreational fishing; 

 operation of LNG import terminals; 

 dredging and dredged material disposal; and 

 coastal development. 

Two other factors, climate change and ambient ocean noise, are also considered in the cumulative 

analysis. 

5.10.1.1. Shipping and Marine Transportation 

Shipping and marine transportation in the BA Area are discussed in Section 4.1.1. Deepwater 

commercial ports located along the coast adjacent to the BA Area include Norfolk, Virginia (Port of 

Virginia); Wilmington, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; Savannah, Georgia; Brunswick, 

Georgia; and Jacksonville, Florida. In addition, Delaware Bay provides access to Delaware River ports 

and terminals in the Wilmington, Delaware, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, area. Chesapeake Bay 

provides access to the Port of Baltimore and numerous smaller ports in Maryland and Virginia. 

Large commercial vessels (cargo ships, tankers, and container ships) use these ports to access 

overland rail and road routes to transport goods throughout the U.S. Other vessels using these ports 

include military vessels, commercial business craft (tug boats, fishing vessels, and ferries), commercial 

recreational craft (cruise ships and fishing/sight-seeing/diving charters), research vessels, and personal 

craft (fishing boats, houseboats, yachts and sailboats, and other pleasure craft). 

Insight into the levels of shipping and marine transportation occurring along the U.S. Atlantic coast is 

offered by NOAA’s analyses prepared for the North Atlantic right whale ship strike reduction effort 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2008). Vessel activity was classified as follows, based on USCG data for 2002-2004 

and considering vessels of 150 gross registered tons or more: 
Biological Assessment A-135

 25,532 vessel arrivals at U.S. east coast ports in 2003; 

 Arrivals increased by 7.3 percent to 27,385 vessel arrivals in 2004; 

 The largest number of vessel arrivals was recorded in the Ports of New York/New 

Jersey (5,426 vessel arrivals in 2003; 5,550 vessel arrivals in 2004), followed by the 

Chesapeake Bay region (4,486 vessel arrivals in 2003 and 4,875 vessel arrivals in 

2004), which includes the ports of Baltimore, Norfolk, and Hampton Roads; and 

 Other significant port regions with more than 2,000 vessel arrivals in 2004 include 

the southeastern U.S. (4,315 vessel arrivals), Delaware Bay (2,661 vessel arrivals), 

Block Island Sound (2,563 vessel arrivals), Savannah, Georgia (2,474 vessel 

arrivals), and Charleston, South Carolina (2,473 vessel arrivals). 

Over the 2012-2020 time period of the Programmatic EIS, it is assumed that shipping and marine 

transportation activities in the BA Area will increase above the present level, due in part to the expansion 

of the Panama Canal, which is expected to be complete in 2014 and which will double its capacity (Canal 

de Panamá, 2012). Reasonably foreseeable IPFs associated with these activities include 

 vessel traffic, including associated effluent discharges, air emissions, and noise; 

 accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and 

 a risk of fuel spills from commercial vessels. 

5.10.1.2. Commercial and Recreational Fishing 

Commercial and recreational fishing in the BA Area is summarized in Section 4.1.2. Chapters 4.2.7

and 4.2.8 of the Programmatic EIS provide additional information about commercial and recreational 

fishing activities in the BA Area. Although there are interannual and seasonal variations in both types of 

activities, as well as geographic differences among states, there are no apparent long-term temporal trends 

in the level of these activities. Over the 2012-2020 time period of the Programmatic EIS, it is assumed 

that these activities will continue at about the present level. Reasonably foreseeable IPFs associated with 

commercial and recreational fishing include 

 direct taking of fish and shellfish resources, including targeted species and bycatch; 

 incidental taking of protected species; 

 seafloor disturbance and turbidity due to trawling and dredging; 

 vessel traffic, including the associated effluent discharges, air emissions, and noise; 

 accidental releases of trash and marine debris (e.g., discarded fishing line); and 

 a risk of fuel spills from commercial and recreational vessels. 

5.10.1.3. Operation of Liquefied Natural Gas Import Terminals 

There are two USCG/MARAD licensed deepwater ports offshore the Atlantic coast – Neptune and 

Northeast Gateway, both located offshore Massachusetts. There are no active, pending applications for 

deepwater ports on the Atlantic coast (USDHS, USCG, 2011a). There are three FERC-licensed LNG 

terminals in Atlantic states – Everett, Massachusetts; Cove Point, Maryland; and Elba Island, Georgia 

(FERC, 2012). 

Because there are no active, pending deepwater port applications, the cumulative scenario assumes 

that no deepwater LNG port construction will occur within the BA Area during the 2012-2020 period. 

The development of shale gas in Appalachian Basin black shales has created a significant new source of 

onshore gas in proximity to major use areas along Atlantic coast states. Planning for LNG facilities, in 

general, has been complicated by this development, making it difficult to predict the level of future LNG 

port construction. However, over the 2012-2020 time period, it is reasonable to assume that no additional 

deepwater LNG port construction will occur. The main, reasonably foreseeable IPFs associated with 

routine operations of the existing LNG terminals are vessel traffic, along with the associated discharges; 

air emissions; and noise. 
A-136 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

5.10.1.4. Dredging and Dredged Material Disposal 

Dredged material disposal sites in the BA Area are discussed in Section 4.1.9. There are 

13 designated dredged material disposal sites on the Atlantic OCS ranging from Dam Neck, Virginia, to 

Canaveral Harbor, Florida. The disposal sites are used mainly for the disposal of dredged material from 

the maintenance dredging of commercial ports. Typically, sites are permitted for continuing use, and the 

activity level varies depending on the dredging requirements for particular ports. Over the 2012-2020 

time period of the Programmatic EIS, it is assumed that usage of dredged material disposal sites in the BA 

Area will continue at about the present level. Reasonably foreseeable IPFs associated with these activities 

include 

 seafloor disturbance, turbidity, and benthic habitat alterations due to dredging (at the 

port or channel location) and dumping of dredged material (at the disposal site); 

 a risk of direct physical impacts to sea turtles (e.g., by hopper dredges); 

 vessel traffic and associated effluent discharges, air emissions, and noise; 

 accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and 

 a risk of fuel spills from dredging vessels. 

5.10.1.5. Coastal Development 

As discussed in Section 4.1.10, coastal development includes an array of human activities such as 

beachfront construction of homes, hotels, restaurants, roads, harbors, jetties, seawalls, and other forms of 

coastal armoring. 

Over the 2012-2020 time period of the Programmatic EIS, it is assumed that coastal development will 

continue at about the present level. The BOEM anticipates that OCS sand resources will continue to be 

used for beach restoration and shoreline protection projects over the time period covered by the 

Programmatic EIS. Reasonably foreseeable IPFs associated with these activities include 

 coastal habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation due to development; 

 direct impacts on beaches due to coastal restoration projects; 

 increased lighting and noise due to development near beaches; 

 increased runoff and pollutant loading in coastal waters; 

 recreational vessel traffic and associated waste discharges and noise; 

 accidental releases of trash and marine debris; and 

 a risk of fuel spills from recreational vessels. 

5.10.1.6. Climate Change 

Warming of the earth’s climate system is occurring, and most of the observed increases in global 

average temperatures since the mid-20th century are very likely due to the observed increase in 

anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2007; 

U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2009). Globally, many environmental effects have been 

documented, including widespread changes in snow melt and ice extent; spatial changes in precipitation 

patterns; changes in the frequency of extreme weather events; changes in stream flow and runoff patterns 

in snow-fed rivers; warming of lakes and rivers, with effects on thermal structure and water quality; 

changes in the timing of spring events such as bird migration and egg-laying; poleward shifts in ranges of 

plant and animal species; and acidification of marine environments (Orr et al., 2005; IPCC, 2007; Nye et 

al., 2009). Documented changes in marine and freshwater biological systems are associated with rising 

water temperatures, as well as related changes in ice cover, salinity, oxygen levels, and circulation. These 

include shifts in ranges and changes in algal, plankton, and fish abundance in high-latitude oceans; 

increases in algal and zooplankton abundance in high-latitude and high-altitude lakes; and range changes 

and earlier fish migrations in rivers (IPCC, 2007). 

The U.S. Global Change Research Program (2009) has summarized regional climate changes for the 

southeastern U.S. (including most of the states inshore of the BA Area). Since 1970, average annual 

temperature has risen approximately 2°F (1.1°C) and the number of freezing days has declined by 

4-7 days per year. Average autumn precipitation has increased 30 percent since 1901. There has been an 
Biological Assessment A-137

increase in heavy downpours in many parts of the region, while the percentage of the region experiencing 

moderate to severe drought increased over the past three decades. The area of moderate to severe spring 

and summer drought has increased by 12 percent and 14 percent, respectively, since the mid-1970’s. 

Continuing changes in precipitation could affect the water quality and marine ecology of the BA Area by 

altering the quantity and quality of runoff into estuaries. 

Over the next century, the IPCC (2007) projects that global temperature increases will cause 

significant global environmental changes, including reductions in snow cover and sea ice; more frequent 

extreme heat waves and heavy precipitation events; an increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones 

(hurricanes and typhoons); and numerous hydrological, ecological, social, and health effects. Regionally, 

the U.S. Global Change Research Program (2009) predicts similar long-term changes for the southeastern 

U.S., including increased shoreline erosion due to sea level rise and increases in hurricane intensity; a 

precipitous decline in wetland-dependent fish and shellfish populations due to loss of coastal marshes; 

heat-related stresses for people, plants, and animals; and decreased water availability due to increased 

temperature and longer time between rainfall events. The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be 

exceeded by an unprecedented combination of climate change, associated disturbances, and other global 

change drivers. There are projected to be major changes in ecosystem structure and function, species’ 

ecological interactions, and shifts in species’ geographical ranges, with predominantly negative 

consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem function (IPCC, 2007). 

Reasonably foreseeable marine environmental changes in the BA Area that could result from climate 

change over the next century include altered migratory routes and timing (e.g., for marine mammals and 

migratory birds); changes in shoreline configuration that could adversely affect sea turtle and shorebird 

and seabird nesting beaches and prompt increased levels of beach restoration activity (and increased use 

of OCS sand sources); changes in estuaries and coastal habitats due to interactive effects of climate 

change along with development and pollution; and impacts on calcification in plankton, corals, 

crustaceans, and other marine organisms due to ocean acidification (The Royal Society, 2005). 

Over the next two decades, the IPCC (2007) projected a warming of about 0.2 °C per decade. During 

the 10-year time period of the Programmatic EIS (2012-2020), environmental changes in the BA Area 

due to climate change are likely to be small, incremental, and difficult to discern from effects of other 

natural and anthropogenic factors. 

5.10.1.7. Ambient Ocean Noise 

Various activities and processes, both natural and anthropogenic, combine to form the sound profile 

within the ocean, generally referred to as ambient ocean noise (Richardson et al., 1995; Hildebrand, 

2009). Most ambient noise is broadband (composed of a spectrum of numerous frequencies without a 

differentiating pitch) and encompasses virtually the entire frequency spectrum. For purposes of 

understanding the sources and characteristics of ocean ambient noise, it can be divided into three 

frequency bands: low (10-500 Hz), medium (500 Hz-25 kHz), and high (>25 kHz) (Hildebrand, 2009). 

Shipping noise is the main contributor to ambient ocean noise in the low-frequency band (NRC, 2003; 

Hildebrand, 2009). Noise in the low-frequency band has a broad maximum around 10-80 Hz, with a 

steep negative slope above 80 Hz. According to ambient noise spectra presented by Hildebrand (2009), 

spectrum levels of ambient noise from shipping are 60-90 dB re 1 μPa2

 Hz-1. Sea surface agitation 

correlated with wind and sea state are the major contributions to ambient noise in the medium frequency 

band. In the high-frequency band, “thermal noise” caused by the random motion of water molecules is 

the primary source (Hildebrand, 2009). Ambient noise sources, especially noise from wave and tidal 

action, can cause coastal environments to have particularly high ambient noise levels. 

A large portion of the noise from vessel traffic comes from vessel engines and propellers, and those 

sounds occupy the low frequencies used by most large whales (Richardson et al., 1995). In the open 

water, ship traffic can influence ambient background noise at distances of thousands of kilometers; 

however, the effects of ship traffic sounds in shallow coastal waters are much less far reaching, most 

likely because a large portion of the sound’s intensity is absorbed by soft, nonreflective, unconsolidated 

materials (sands and mud) on the seafloor. Other anthropogenic sources include dredging, oil and gas 

operations, nearshore construction activities, and sonar signals (especially those used by the military). 

Behavioral responses of cetaceans to underwater noise and the population consequences of those 

responses are subjects of recent and ongoing research (NRC, 2005; Southall et al., 2007; Ellison et al., 

2011). However, the increased noise may be steadily eroding marine mammals’ abilities to communicate. 
A-138 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Acousticians have estimated that the chance of two whales hearing each other today has been reduced to 

10 percent of what it was 100 years ago due to the masking of communication sounds by the ambient 

ocean noise created by multiple industrial activities (Parks and Clark, 2007). At some point this acoustic 

smog (Clark et al., 2007) could affect the abilities of whales to find food and mates. Because the bulk of 

human industrial sounds in the oceans are low frequency, it is likely that the large mysticete whales would 

be affected first. Fish can also use and communicate by sound, and increased noise could interfere with 

their foraging and reproductive behaviors (Vasconcelos et al., 2007; Codarin et al., 2009). 

Long-term data analyzed by McDonald et al. (2006) offshore California show an increase in ambient 

noise of approximately 10-12 dB in the frequency range 30-50 Hz over a 40-year period, suggesting an 

average noise increase rate of 2.5-3 dB per decade. The authors attributed the change to increased levels 

of shipping traffic. While comparable long-term data for the BA Area have not been published, it is 

assumed that underwater noise from vessel traffic and other anthropogenic sources is increasing and will 

continue to increase incrementally over the time period of the Programmatic EIS (2012-2020). 

5.10.2. Cumulative Effects on Listed Marine Mammals 

This analysis considers the incremental and synergistic impacts of the proposed action in combination 

with similar impacts from the cumulative activity scenario as described above. Table A-19 lists the IPFs 

associated with the proposed action and sources of similar impacts in the cumulative activity scenario. 

In the proposed action, IPFs applicable to listed marine mammals are active acoustic sound sources, 

vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and accidental fuel 

spills. As described in the preceding analyses, the greatest potential impacts on listed marine mammals 

would be from active acoustic sound sources (especially airgun arrays) and vessel traffic (e.g., vessel 

strikes). Impacts of trash and debris are expected to be avoided by mitigation, and the other IPFs are not 

likely to adversely affect any listed marine mammal species. 

Table A-19 

 

Sources of Impact-Producing Factors in the Proposed Action and Cumulative Activity Scenario 

Impact-Producing 

Factor Proposed Action Sources Cumulative Scenario Sources 

Active Acoustic 

Sound Sources 

 High-energy sound sources 

(airguns, boomer and chirp 

subbottom profilers, side-scan 

sonars, and multibeam depth 

sounders) 

 Military sound sources (sonars, explosives) 

 Vessel noise (shipping and marine transportation, 

commercial and recreational fishing, military use, etc.) 

 Ambient ocean noise 

Vessel and 

Equipment Noise 

 All G&G vessel engines 

 Equipment noise (e.g., during 

drilling of COST wells) 

 Vessel noise (shipping and marine transportation, 

commercial and recreational fishing, military use, etc.) 

 Military sound sources (sonars, explosives) 

 Ambient ocean noise 

Vessel Traffic  All G&G vessel surveys 

 Shipping and marine transportation 

 Commercial and recreational fishing 

 Military use 

 Sand and gravel mining and beach restoration 

 Renewable energy development 

 Oil and gas exploration and development 

 Dredging and dredged material disposal 

 Coastal development

Aircraft Traffic and 

Noise 

 Aeromagnetic surveys; helicopter 

support for COST well drilling  Military and civilian use of airspace 

Trash and Debris  All G&G vessel surveys  Same as vessel traffic above

Seafloor 

Disturbance 

 Geotechnical sampling and testing

 Certain deep penetration seismic 

surveys, CSEM and MT surveys 

 Drilling of COST wells and 

shallow test wells 

 Site characterization for 

renewable energy areas

 Commercial fishing (e.g., trawling, dredging) 

 Military use 

 Sand and gravel mining and beach restoration 

 Renewable energy development 

 Oil and gas exploration and development 

 Dredging and dredged material disposal 

Drilling  Drilling of COST wells and  Drilling of exploration wells (if leasing occurs)
Biological Assessment A-139

Discharges shallow test wells 

Accidental Fuel 

Spills  All G&G vessel surveys  All vessel activities 

Climate Change  Greenhouse gas emissions from 

G&G survey vessels and aircraft  Global greenhouse gas emissions 

Abbreviations: COST = continental offshore stratigraphic test; CSEM = controlled source electromagnetic; 

MT = magnetotelluric. 

The proposed action will contribute incrementally to the ambient noise environment in the BA Area. 

There are numerous other sources of underwater noise. These include vessel noise from many activities, 

including shipping and marine transportation, and commercial and recreational fishing. As noted in 

Section 5.10.1.7, long-term data suggest an average increase in underwater noise of 2.5-3 dB per decade, 

primarily attributable to shipping. Most impacts of increasing ambient noise are expected to be in the 

category of masking and behavioral responses, rather than death, injury, or threshold shifts. The 

biological significance of behavioral responses to underwater noise and the population consequences of 

those responses are not fully understood (NRC, 2005; Southall et al., 2007). The increased noise may be 

steadily eroding marine mammals’ abilities to communicate. Acousticians have estimated that the chance 

of two whales hearing each other today has been reduced to 10 percent of what it was 100 years ago due 

to the masking of communication sounds by the ambient ocean noise created by multiple industrial 

activities (Parks and Clark, 2007). At some point this acoustic smog could affect the abilities of whales to 

find food and mates (Clark et al., 2007). 

Vessel strikes are the other main source of cumulative impacts in the BA Area. The proposed action 

will contribute incrementally to the risk of vessel strikes. However, G&G vessel activities involve much 

less risk of vessel strikes than most shipping sources. Vessel strikes on North Atlantic right whales are 

expected to be avoided due to (1) compliance with the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule 

(50 CFR 224.105); (2) the guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations 

for shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (3) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; (4) the fact 

that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within the hearing range of the listed whales; 

and (5) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

5.10.3. Cumulative Effects on Listed Sea Turtles 

Table A-19 lists the IPFs associated with the proposed action and sources of similar impacts in the 

cumulative activity scenario. In the proposed action, IPFs applicable to listed sea turtles are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. As described in the preceding analyses, the greatest potential impacts 

on sea turtles are from active acoustic sound sources (especially airgun arrays) and vessel traffic 

(e.g., vessel strikes). Impacts of trash and debris are expected to be avoided by mitigation, and the other 

IPFs are not likely to adversely affect any sea turtle species. 

The proposed action will contribute incrementally to the ambient noise environment in the BA Area. 

There are numerous other sources of underwater noise. These include vessel noise from many activities, 

including shipping and marine transportation, and commercial and recreational fishing. As noted in 

Section 5.10.1.7, long-term data suggest an average increase in underwater noise of 2.5 to 3 dB per 

decade, primarily attributable to shipping. 

As discussed in Section 5.2.2, few studies have examined the role acoustic cues play in the ecology 

of sea turtles and little is known about the extent to which they use their auditory environment. However, 

impacts of increasing ambient noise would be expected to be in the category of behavioral responses and 

possibly masking effects, rather than death, injury, or threshold shifts. Avoidance responses to seismic 

signals have been observed, so it is known they can detect and respond to low-frequency sound. Sea 

turtles appear to be low frequency specialists, and thus the potential masking noises would fall within at 

least 50-1,000 Hz. However, there are no quantitative data demonstrating masking effects for sea turtles, 

and no noise exposure criteria have been developed for them. 

Vessel strikes are the other main source of cumulative impacts in the BA Area. The proposed action 

will contribute incrementally to the risk of vessel strikes on sea turtles. However, G&G vessel activities 

involve much less risk of vessel strikes than most shipping sources. Vessel strikes on sea turtles are 

expected to be avoided due to (1) the guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all 
A-140 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

authorizations for shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic 

vessels; and (3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic survey 

vessels. 

5.10.4. Cumulative Effects on Listed Birds 

Table A-19 lists the IPFs associated with the proposed action and sources of similar impacts in the 

cumulative activity scenario. In the proposed action, IPFs applicable to listed bird species are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. As described in the preceding analyses, none of these sources are likely 

to have adverse effects on the species evaluated in the BA (roseate tern, Bermuda petrel, piping plover, 

and red knot). Active acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, and vessel traffic are expected 

to have no effects on the two coastal species (piping plover and red knot), and impacts on the two seabirds 

(roseate tern and Bermuda petrel) are not expected to be adverse. Aircraft traffic and noise could affect 

any of the bird species, but impacts are not expected to be adverse. Most impacts of trash and debris are 

expected to be avoided by mitigation, and a small, accidental fuel spill is not likely to result in adverse 

effects on any of the bird species analyzed. 

The most important sources of cumulative impacts on listed birds include habitat loss and marine 

pollution due to coastal development, and habitat alteration due to global climate change. The proposed 

action is not a significant contributor to either of these impact sources. 

5.10.5. Cumulative Effects on Listed Fishes 

Table A-19 lists the IPFs associated with the proposed action and sources of similar impacts in the 

cumulative activity scenario. In the proposed action, IPFs applicable to listed fishes are active acoustic 

sound sources, trash and debris, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, and accidental fuel spills. As 

described in the preceding analyses, the greatest potential impacts on fishes are from active acoustic 

sound sources (particularly from airgun arrays). Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges are not 

expected to result in impacts because of their limited areal extent. Impacts of trash and debris are 

expected to be avoided by mitigation, and a small, accidental fuel spill is not likely to adversely affect any 

of the listed fish species. 

The proposed action would contribute incrementally to the ambient noise environment in the BA 

Area. There are numerous other sources of underwater noise. These include vessel noise from many 

activities, including shipping and marine transportation, and commercial and recreational fishing. As 

noted in Section 5.10.1.7, long-term data suggest an average increase in underwater noise of 2.5-3 dB per 

decade, primarily attributable to shipping. 

Sound plays a major role in the lives of all fishes. In addition to listening to the overall environment 

and being able to detect sounds of biological relevance, many species of bony fishes communicate with 

sounds and use sounds in a wide range of behaviors. Consequently, anything that impedes the ability of 

fishes to hear biologically relevant sounds, such as those produced by anthropogenic sound sources, could 

interfere with the normal behaviors and even the survival of individuals, populations, or a species. 

Detailed discussions of fish bioacoustics can be found in the papers in Webb et al. (2008) and in papers 

by Fay and Megela-Simmons (1999), Zelick et al. (1999), and Popper et al. (2003). A broad discussion of 

interactions of anthropogenic sounds and fishes can be found in Popper and Hastings (2009a,b) and in the 

papers in Popper and Hawkins (2011). Impacts of increasing ambient noise on fishes would be expected 

to be in the category of masking and behavioral responses, rather than death, injury, or threshold shifts. 

Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges during the proposed action would directly affect small 

areas of benthic habitat, including areas potentially inhabited by three of the species included in the BA 

(smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon), but any effects are not expected to be 

adverse. However, the extent of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action represents a negligible 

percentage of the BA Area, and no adverse impacts on smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, or Atlantic 

sturgeon are expected. Other sources of seafloor disturbance in the cumulative scenario include 

commercial fishing (trawling and dredging), and dredging and dredged material disposal. The proposed 

action would be a negligible source of seafloor disturbance in relation to these other activities. 

All vessel activity included in the cumulative scenario carries a risk of accidental spills. Potential 

sources would include shipping and marine transportation, as well as commercial and recreational fishing 
Biological Assessment A-141

vessels. A small, accidental fuel spill such as the one analyzed under the proposed action is not likely to 

result in effects on any of the listed fish species analyzed. The proposed action would be a negligible 

source of spill risk in relation to these other activities. The greatest risk of a fuel spill is to fishes at 

various life stages that occur near or at the surface. Direct exposure would only occur in the water 

column near the discharge point, thus pelagic adults and planktonic eggs and larvae are most susceptible. 

Smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, and Atlantic sturgeon do not have pelagic life stages in waters of 

the BA Area, while blueback herring and alewife are anadromous (with spawing occurring in freshwater 

reaches of coastal rivers); therefore, the expected impact of an accidental diesel fuel spill is not expected 

to be adverse for any of the five species. 

6. EFFECTS DETERMINATION FOR LISTED SPECIES AND 

DESIGNATED CRITICAL HABITATS 

Section 7(a)(2) of the ESA requires Federal agencies, in consultation with and with the assistance of 

NMFS and FWS as appropriate, to insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out is not likely to 

jeopardize the continued existence of endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or 

adverse modification of critical habitat. 

Table A-20 summarizes the effects determinations for the listed marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, 

and fishes present within the BA Area. Determinations for each species are discussed below in individual 

sections. There are three conclusions that an action agency may make based on their analyses of direct 

and indirect effects when determining whether formal consultation is necessary, based on the Endangered 

Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998): 

 No Effect. This is the appropriate determination when the action agency determines 

its proposed action is not expected to affect listed/proposed species or 

designated/proposed critical habitat; 

 May Affect, but Not Likely to Adversely Affect. This is the appropriate 

determination when effects on listed species are expected to be discountable, 

insignificant, or completely beneficial. Beneficial effects are positive effects without 

any adverse effects. Insignificant effects relate to the size of the impact; the impact 

cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated, and should never reach the 

scale where take occurs. Discountable effects are those that are extremely unlikely 

to occur; and 

 May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. This is the appropriate determination 

when adverse effects that are not beneficial, insignificant, or discountable are likely 

to occur to listed species/critical habitat. 

For species with designated or proposed critical habitat, the determination is made as to whether the 

proposed action would be likely to destroy or adversely modify the critical habitat. 

6.1. MARINE MAMMALS

6.1.1. North Atlantic Right Whale 

North Atlantic right whales could occur anywhere within the BA Area, and given the geographic 

scope of the proposed action, these whales could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G 

survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 

However, the most likely known locations for right whales are within the winter calving and nursery 

grounds offshore Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina, and the migratory corridor between these winter 

grounds and the summer feeding grounds (Figures A-4 and A-5). The proposed action includes a 

time-area closure that would effectively avoid these areas during the seasons when right whales are most 

likely to be present (see Section 7.1.1). Under the time-area closure, no airgun surveys would be 

authorized within the designated right whale critical habitat from November 15 through April 15 nor 

within the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast U.S. SMAs during the times when vessel speed restrictions are in 

effect under 50 CFR 224.105 (Figure A-23). However, HRG surveys proposed in the critical habitat and 

SMAs may be considered on a case-by-case basis if they use acoustic sources other than airguns. Any 
A-142 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

such authorization may include additional mitigation and monitoring requirements to avoid or 

significantly reduce impacts on right whales and would be subject to further NEPA and ESA review. 

Other supporting surveys (e.g., biological surveys) would not be affected by this restriction. Exceptions 

to the time-area closure could occur if a survey was needed to serve important operational or monitoring 

requirements for a particular project. 
Biological Assessment A-143

Table A-20 

 

Summary of Effects Determinations for Listed Species and Critical Habitat 

Common 

Name 

ESA 

Status1

Effect Determination for Listed Species

Critical Habitat Determination No Effect 

May Affect, but 

Not Likely to 

Adversely Affect

May Affect, 

Likely to 

Adversely Affect

Marine Mammals 

North Atlantic 

Right Whale E -- -- X

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Southeastern U.S. critical 

habitat is within the BA area, but G&G 

activities would not destroy or adversely 

modify these areas. 

Blue Whale E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Fin Whale E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Sei Whale E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Humpback Whale E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Sperm Whale E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Florida Manatee E -- X -- 

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Critical habitat is adjacent 

to the BA area, but G&G activities would 

not occur there and would not destroy or 

adversely modify these areas.

Sea Turtles 

Loggerhead Turtle T -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Green Turtle T/E -- -- X

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Critical habitat has been 

designated (in Puerto Rico) but is remote 

from the BA area and would not be 

affected.

Hawksbill Turtle E -- -- X

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Critical habitat has been 

designated (in Puerto Rico) but is remote 

from the BA area and would not be 

affected.

Kemp’s Ridley 

Turtle E -- -- X N/A (no critical habitat designated) 

Leatherback Turtle E -- -- X No effect (no critical habitat in BA area)

Birds 

Roseate Tern E -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Bermuda Petrel E -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Piping Plover T X -- -- 

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Critical habitat exists 

along shorelines adjacent to the BA area, 

but G&G activities would not occur there 

and would not destroy or adversely 

modify these areas. 

Red Knot C X -- -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Fishes 

Smalltooth Sawfish E -- X -- 

No destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat. Critical habitat has been 

designated (in south Florida) but is remote 

from the BA area and would not be 

affected.

Shortnose Sturgeon E -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Atlantic Sturgeon E/T -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Alewife C -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated)

Blueback Herring C -- X -- N/A (no critical habitat designated) 1

 ESA = Endangered Species Act (E = endangered; T = threatened; C = candidate). 
A-144 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Figure A-23. Time-Area Closures Included in the Proposed Action. 
Biological Assessment A-145

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect North Atlantic right whales are 

active acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash 

and debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of North Atlantic right whales by active 

acoustic sound sources to the maximum extent practicable. No mortalities or injuries 

are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of 

North Atlantic right whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys 

would not prevent this impact. However, it is expected that the impacts would be 

avoided to the maximum extent practicable because of the time-area closures 

included in the proposed action. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic may elicit behavioral responses from 

North Atlantic right whales; any effects are expected to be minor. It is expected that 

the impacts would be avoided to the maximum extent practicable because of the 

time-area closures included in the proposed action. 

 Vessel strikes on North Atlantic right whales are expected to be avoided because of 

(1) compliance with the Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105); 

(2) the guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations 

for shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (3) the typical slow speed of 

seismic vessels; (4) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that 

are within the hearing range of right whales; and (5) the use of protected species 

observers to scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on North Atlantic right whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adverselyaffect North Atlantic 

right whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some North Atlantic right whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, 

it is likely that some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the 

mitigation measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the 

Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental 

taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable 

(extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

The proposed action is not expected to result in the destruction or adverse modification of right whale 

critical habitat given the very limited anticipated activity in critical habitat. 

6.1.2. Blue Whale 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the blue whale is an occasional visitor in the BA Area. 

However, given the geographic scope of the proposed action, these whales could reasonably be expected 

to come into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not 

appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect blue whales are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of blue whales to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 
A-146 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of 

blue whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from blue whales; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on blue whales are expected to be avoided because of (1) the 

guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for 

shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic 

vessels; (3) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within 

the hearing range of blue whales; and (4) the use of protected species observers to 

scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on blue whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect blue whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some blue whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, it is likely that 

some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the mitigation 

measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the Endangered 

Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental taking is 

anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the blue whale, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.1.3. Fin Whale 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the fin whale is probably the most common listed 

whale species within the BA Area. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, these whales 

could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” 

determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect fin whales are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of fin whales to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of fin 

whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not prevent 

this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from fin whales; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on fin whales are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; 

(3) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within the 

hearing range of fin whales; and (4) the use of protected species observers to scan the 

sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 
Biological Assessment A-147

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on fin whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect fin whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some fin whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, it is likely that 

some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the mitigation 

measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the Endangered 

Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental taking is 

anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable (extremely 

unlikely), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the fin whale, and therefore no critical habitat determination 

is needed. 

6.1.4. Sei Whale 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the sei whale is likely to occur within the BA Area. 

Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, these whales could reasonably be expected to come 

into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for 

this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect sei whales are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of sei whales to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of sei 

whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not prevent 

this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sei whales; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sei whales are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; 

(3) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within the 

hearing range of sei whales; and (4) the use of protected species observers to scan the 

sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on sei whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect sei whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some sei whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, it is likely that 

some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the mitigation 

measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the Endangered 

Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental taking is 

anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the sei whale, and therefore no critical habitat determination 

is needed. 
A-148 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

6.1.5. Humpback Whale 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the humpback whale is likely to occur within the BA 

Area. Reported sightings off Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay suggest that the Mid-Atlantic region 

may serve as wintering grounds for some humpback whales and possibly as an important area for juvenile 

humpbacks. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, these whales could reasonably be 

expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not 

appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect humpback whales are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of humpback whales to the maximum 

extent practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of 

humpback whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from humpback whales; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on humpback whales are expected to be avoided because of (1) the 

guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for 

shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic 

vessels; (3) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within 

the hearing range of humpback whales; and (4) the use of protected species observers 

to scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on humpback whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect humpback 

whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some humpback whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, it is 

likely that some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the 

mitigation measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the 

Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental 

taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable 

(extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the humpback whale, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.1.6. Sperm Whale 

Based on the species description in Section 3, sperm whales are likely to occur within the BA Area. 

Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, these whales could reasonably be expected to come 

into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for 

this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect sperm whales are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 
Biological Assessment A-149

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of sperm whales to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in Level B harassment of 

sperm whales. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sperm whales; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sperm whales are expected to be avoided because of (1) the 

guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for 

shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic 

vessels; (3) the fact that these vessels are towing active sound sources that are within 

the hearing range of sperm whales; and (4) the use of protected species observers to 

scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on sperm whales are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect sperm whales. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in the 

incidental take of some sperm whales within the BA Area. Based on modeling calculations, it is likely 

that some Level B incidental takes would occur. Level A incidental takes may also occur if the mitigation 

measures included in the proposed action are not 100 percent effective. According to the Endangered 

Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), if any incidental taking is 

anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are not discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the sperm whale, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.1.7. Florida Manatee 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the Florida subspecies of the West Indian manatee 

occurs mainly in coastal marine, brackish, and freshwater areas from Florida to Virginia. The BA Area 

includes Federal (OCS) waters of the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas. Given the 

geographic scope of the proposed action, it is possible, though unlikely, that manatees could be present in 

areas where G&G survey activities would occur (including vessel traffic between onshore support bases 

and offshore survey areas). Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect the Florida manatee are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Manatees are not likely to be present in or near waters where seismic airgun surveys 

would be conducted. In the event that any are present, mitigation measures including 

ramp-up, visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements are 

expected to be effective in avoiding Level A harassment of manatees. In addition, it 

is unlikely that manatees would be exposed to underwater noise from seismic airgun 

surveys at levels sufficient to cause Level B harassment. 

 Vessel and equipment noise, and aircraft traffic and noise are unlikely to affect 

manatees because most G&G activities would occur in offshore waters away from 

their preferred coastal habitats. 

 Vessel strikes on manatees are expected to be avoided because most G&G activities 

would occur in offshore waters away from their preferred coastal habitats. Other 

mitigating factors include (1) the guidelines for vessel strike avoidance that would be 
A-150 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

part of all authorizations for shipboard surveys under the proposed action; (2) the 

typical slow speed of seismic vessels; (3) the fact that these vessels are towing active 

sound sources that are within the hearing range of manatees; and (4) the use of 

protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on manatees are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect manatees. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action is not likely to result in incidental takes of 

Florida manatees. The modeling calculations predict no Level A or Level B takes of manatees. Based on 

the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, 

NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely to occur) and/or insignificant (the 

impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated), and therefore the appropriate 

determination is May Affect, but Not Likely to Adversely Affect. 

Critical habitat for the Florida manatee includes inland waterways in four northeastern Florida coastal 

counties (Brevard, Duval, St. Johns, and Nassau) that are inshore of the BA Area (Figure A-10). 

However, no G&G activities are proposed within these areas, and no destruction or adverse modification 

of critical habitat is expected. 

6.2. SEA TURTLES

6.2.1. Loggerhead Turtle 

Based on the species description in Section 3, loggerhead turtles commonly occur within the BA 

Area, parts of which are near globally significant nesting beaches in Florida. Given the geographic scope 

of the proposed action, loggerhead turtles could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G 

survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect loggerhead turtles are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding injury to loggerhead turtles to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in behavioral disturbance of 

loggerhead turtles. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sea turtles; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sea turtles are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and 

(3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic 

survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on loggerhead turtles are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect loggerhead 

turtles. 
Biological Assessment A-151

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in 

behavioral disturbance of and potential auditory injuries to some loggerhead turtles within the BA Area. 

According to the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 

1998), if any incidental taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are 

not discountable (extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to 

Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the loggerhead turtle, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.2.2. Green Turtle 

Based on the species description in Section 3, green turtles commonly occur within the BA Area, 

parts of which are near globally significant nesting beaches in Florida. Given the geographic scope of the 

proposed action, green turtles could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey 

activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect green turtles are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding injury to green turtles to the maximum extent practicable. 

No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in behavioral disturbance of 

green turtles. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sea turtles; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sea turtles are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and 

(3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic 

survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on green turtles are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect green turtles. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in 

behavioral disturbance of and potential auditory injuries to some green turtles within the BA Area. 

According to the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 

1998), if any incidental taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are 

not discountable (extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to 

Adversely Affect. 

Designated critical habitat for the green turtle is located in Puerto Rico and would not be affected by 

the proposed action. 

6.2.3. Hawksbill Turtle 

Based on the species description in Section 3, hawksbill turtles may occur within the BA Area, 

although they are rarely reported north of Florida. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, 

hawksbill turtles could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 
A-152 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect hawksbill turtles are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding injury to hawksbill turtles to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in behavioral disturbance of 

hawksbill turtles. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would not 

prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sea turtles; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sea turtles are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and 

(3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic 

survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on hawksbill turtles are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect hawksbill 

turtles. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in 

behavioral disturbance of and potential auditory injuries to some hawksbill turtles within the BA Area. 

According to the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 

1998), if any incidental taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are 

not discountable (extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to 

Adversely Affect. 

Designated critical habitat for the hawksbill turtle is located in Puerto Rico and would not be affected 

by the proposed action. 

6.2.4. Kemp’s Ridley Turtle 

Based on the species description in Section 3, Kemp’s ridley turtles may occur within the BA Area, 

but are probably the least abundant sea turtle there. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, 

Kemp’s ridley turtles could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect Kemp’s ridley turtles are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding injury to Kemp’s ridley turtles to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in behavioral disturbance of 

Kemp’s ridley turtles. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would 

not prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sea turtles; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sea turtles are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and 
Biological Assessment A-153

(3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic 

survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on Kemp’s ridley turtles are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect Kemp’s ridley 

turtles. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in 

behavioral disturbance of and potential auditory injuries to some Kemp’s ridley turtles within the BA 

Area. According to the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 

1998), if any incidental taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are 

not discountable (extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to 

Adversely Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the Kemp’s ridley turtle, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.2.5. Leatherback Turtle 

Based on the species description in Section 3, leatherback turtles are likely to be found throughout the 

BA Area. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, leatherback turtles could reasonably be 

expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not 

appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect leatherback turtles are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Mitigation measures in place during seismic airgun surveys, including ramp-up, 

visual monitoring of an exclusion zone, and shutdown requirements, are expected to 

be effective in avoiding injury to leatherback turtles to the maximum extent 

practicable. No mortalities or injuries are expected. 

 Underwater noise, particularly from airguns, may result in behavioral disturbance of 

leatherback turtles. The mitigation measures during seismic airgun surveys would 

not prevent this impact. 

 Vessel and equipment noise and aircraft traffic and noise may elicit behavioral 

responses from sea turtles; any effects are expected to be minor. 

 Vessel strikes on sea turtles are expected to be avoided because of (1) the guidelines 

for vessel strike avoidance that would be part of all authorizations for shipboard 

surveys under the proposed action; (2) the typical slow speed of seismic vessels; and 

(3) the use of protected species observers to scan the sea surface around seismic 

survey vessels. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on leatherback turtles are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect leatherback 

turtles. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the overall effect of the proposed action is likely to result in 

behavioral disturbance of and potential auditory injuries to some leatherback turtles within the BA Area. 

According to the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 

1998), if any incidental taking is anticipated to occur as a result of a proposed action and the effects are 

not discountable (extremely unlikely to occur), the appropriate determination is May Affect, Likely to 

Adversely Affect. 
A-154 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

There is no designated critical habitat for the leatherback turtle, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.3. BIRDS

6.3.1. Roseate Tern 

Based on the species description in Section 3, roseate terns are likely to be found within the BA Area, 

although they are primarily found farther north. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, they 

could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. Therefore, a “No Effect” 

determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect roseate terns are active acoustic 

sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and debris, and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources and vessel and equipment noise are likely to have no 

detectable effect on roseate terns. Roseate terns forage offshore and feed by 

plunge-diving, often submerging completely when diving for fish. However, with 

air-adapted ears, seabirds are not believed to be particularly sensitive to underwater 

sound (Dooling and Popper, 2000). Given the typical low density of seabirds 

offshore, it is expected that few if any roseate terns would be exposed to underwater 

noise other than on an occasional basis. 

 Vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, and aircraft traffic and noise may result in 

minor disturbance to roseate terns, but no significant adverse effects. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on roseate terns are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect roseate terns. 

Based on the preceding analysis, effects on the roseate tern would be discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or 

evaluated), and therefore the appropriate determination is May Affect, but Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the roseate tern, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.3.2. Bermuda Petrel 

Based on the species description in Section 3, Bermuda petrels are likely to be found within the BA 

Area. Although their distribution during non-breeding seasons is not well known, they are presumed to 

be widespread throughout the North Atlantic, following the warm waters on the western edges of the Gulf 

Stream. Bermuda petrels that come into the BA Area could reasonably be expected to come into contact 

with G&G activities since they forage offshore and feed at or near the surface. Therefore, a “No Effect” 

determination is not appropriate for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect Bermuda petrels are active 

acoustic sound sources, vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, aircraft traffic and noise, trash and 

debris, and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources and vessel and equipment noise are likely to have no 

detectable effect on Bermuda petrels. They feed by snatching food or “dipping,” or 

by scavenging dead or dying prey floating on or near the sea surface. Therefore, they 

are unlikely to be exposed to high levels of underwater noise from airguns. Also, 

with air-adapted ears, seabirds are not believed to be particularly sensitive to 

underwater sound (Dooling and Popper, 2000). Given the typical low density of 
Biological Assessment A-155

seabirds offshore, it is likely that few if any Bermuda petrels would be exposed to 

underwater noise other than on an occasional basis. 

 Vessel and equipment noise, vessel traffic, and aircraft traffic and noise may result in 

minor disturbance to Bermuda petrels, but no significant adverse effects. Breeding 

areas in Bermuda are remote from the vessel traffic included in the proposed action. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on Bermuda petrels are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect Bermuda 

petrels. 

Based on the preceding analysis, effects on the Bermuda petrel would be discountable (extremely 

unlikely to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or 

evaluated), and therefore the appropriate determination is May Affect, but Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect. 

There is no designated critical habitat for the Bermuda petrel, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.3.3. Piping Plover 

Based on the species description in Section 3, piping plovers are found primarily along shorelines of 

the BA Area, especially sandy beaches and mudflats. Piping plovers do not feed offshore and are 

unlikely to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, the only IPFs that potentially may affect piping plovers are trash 

and debris and accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on piping plovers are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect piping plovers. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action is expected to have No Effect on the piping 

plover. The effects of the proposed action are spatially separated from the species distribution such that 

no impacts are expected. 

Critical habitat exists along shorelines adjacent to the BA Area, including North Carolina, South 

Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. However, G&G activities would not occur there or affect these areas. No 

destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat is expected. 

6.3.4. Red Knot 

Based on the species description in Section 3, red knots are found primarily along shorelines of the 

BA Area. They migrate in large flocks between breeding grounds in mid- and high-Arctic areas and 

wintering grounds in southern South America. Along the Mid-Atlantic and southeastern coasts, red knots 

forage along sandy beaches, tidal mudflats, salt marshes, and peat banks. Approximately 90 percent of 

the entire population can be found in Delaware Bay on one day, feeding primarily on horseshoe crab eggs 

(USDOI, FWS, 2010a). 

Red knots do not feed offshore and are unlikely to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, the only IPFs potentially affecting red knots are trash and debris and 

accidental fuel spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on red knots are expected to be avoided. 
A-156 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to adversely affect red knots. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action is expected to have No Effect on the red knot. 

The effects of the proposed action are spatially separated from the species distribution such that no 

impacts are expected. There is no designated critical habitat for this candidate species, and therefore no 

critical habitat determination is needed. 

6.4. FISHES

6.4.1. Smalltooth Sawfish 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the smalltooth sawfish rarely occurs within the BA 

Area, with only two documented occurrences in recent years. The smalltooth sawfish normally inhabits 

shallow waters (10 m [33 ft] or less), often near river mouths or in estuarine lagoons over sandy or muddy 

substrates, but may also occur in deeper waters (~70 m [230 ft]) of the continental shelf. Given the 

geographic scope of the proposed action, they could (although unlikely) come into contact with G&G 

survey activities, particularly offshore Florida. Therefore, a “No Effect” determination is not appropriate 

for this species. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect smalltooth sawfish are active 

acoustic sound sources, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, trash and debris, and accidental fuel 

spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources are unlikely to have any adverse effects on smalltooth 

sawfish. 

 Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges (if any) are expected to have no 

detectable effects on smalltooth sawfish. Although the species inhabits soft bottom 

areas, the extent of seafloor disturbance from all of the G&G activities in the 

proposed action, including accumulation of drilling discharges, is a negligible 

percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Given the limited 

extent of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action, it is unlikely that this species 

would come into contact with affected areas. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on smalltooth sawfish are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to reach the benthic environment 

where smalltooth sawfish live. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action May Affect, but is Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect, the smalltooth sawfish. Based on the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation 

Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely 

to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated). 

Critical habitat has been designated in southern Florida but is remote from the BA Area, and G&G 

activities would not occur there or affect these areas. Therefore, no destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat is expected. 

6.4.2. Shortnose Sturgeon 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the shortnose sturgeon is primarily an estuarine and 

riverine species that rarely enters the coastal ocean of the BA Area. Shortnose sturgeon have rarely been 

found in coastal or shelf waters. Therefore, it is unlikely they would come into contact with G&G 

activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect shortnose sturgeon are active 

acoustic sound sources, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, trash and debris, and accidental fuel 

spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 
Biological Assessment A-157

 Active acoustic sound sources are unlikely to have adverse effects on shortnose 

sturgeon. 

 Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges (if any) are expected to have no 

detectable effects on shortnose sturgeon. Although the species inhabits soft bottom 

areas, the extent of seafloor disturbance from all of the G&G activities in the 

proposed action, including accumulation of drilling discharges, is a negligible 

percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Given the limited 

extent of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action, it is unlikely that this species 

would come into contact with affected areas. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on shortnose sturgeon are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to reach the benthic environment 

where shortnose sturgeon live. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action May Affect, but is Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect, the shortnose sturgeon. Based on the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation 

Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely 

to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated). 

There is no designated critical habitat for the shortnose sturgeon, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.4.3. Atlantic Sturgeon 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the Atlantic sturgeon occurs within the BA Area. 

Areas of particular concentration have been identified in water depths between 9.1 and 21.3 m (30 and 

70 ft) offshore Virginia and near sand shoals adjacent to Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (Laney et al., 

2007). The Atlantic sturgeon uses estuarine and marine waters primarily during fall and winter months, 

then ascends the spawning rivers from March-April. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, 

they could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect Atlantic sturgeon are active 

acoustic sound sources, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, trash and debris, and accidental fuel 

spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources are unlikely to have adverse effects on Atlantic 

sturgeon. 

 Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges (if any) are expected to have no 

detectable effects on Atlantic sturgeon. Although the species inhabits soft bottom 

areas, the extent of seafloor disturbance from all of the G&G activities in the 

proposed action, including accumulation of drilling discharges, is a negligible 

percentage of the available soft bottom habitat in the BA Area. Given the limited 

extent of seafloor disturbance in the proposed action, it is unlikely that this species 

would come into contact with affected areas. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on Atlantic sturgeon are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean and is unlikely to reach the benthic environment 

where Atlantic sturgeon live. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action May Affect, but is Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect, the Atlantic sturgeon. Based on the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation 

Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely 

to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated). 
A-158 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

No critical habitat has been designated for the Atlantic sturgeon, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.4.4. Alewife 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the alewife occurs within the AOI. The alewife uses 

estuarine and marine waters primarily during fall and winter, then ascends the spawning rivers from 

March-April. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, adult populations could reasonably be 

expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect the alewife are active acoustic 

sound sources, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, trash and debris, and accidental fuel spills. 

Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources such as airguns are unlikely to have adverse effects on 

alewives. 

 Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges (if any) are expected to have no 

detectable effects on the alewife. This species inhabits and feeds in the water 

column, and therefore seafloor disturbance would not affect its normal activities. 

Drilling discharges would affect a negligible percentage of the water column in the 

BA Area. Given the limited extent of drilling discharges projected for the proposed 

action, it is unlikely that this species would come into contact with affected areas. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on the alewife are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean but would temporarily affect the water column 

where alewives live. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action May Affect, but is Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect, the alewife. Based on the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation Handbook 

(USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely to occur) 

and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated). 

No critical habitat has been designated for this proposed species, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

6.4.5. Blueback Herring 

Based on the species description in Section 3, the blueback herring occurs within the AOI. The 

blueback herring uses estuarine and marine waters primarily during fall and winter, then ascends the 

spawning rivers from March-May. Given the geographic scope of the proposed action, adult populations 

could reasonably be expected to come into contact with G&G survey activities. 

Based on the analysis in Section 5, IPFs that potentially may affect the blueback herring are active 

acoustic sound sources, seafloor disturbance, drilling discharges, trash and debris, and accidental fuel 

spills. Potential impacts are summarized as follows: 

 Active acoustic sound sources are unlikely to have adverse effects on blueback 

herring. 

 Seafloor disturbance and drilling discharges (if any) are expected to have no 

detectable effects on the blueback herring. This species inhabits and feeds in the 

water column, and therefore seafloor disturbance would not affect its normal 

activities. Drilling discharges would affect a negligible percentage of the water 

column in the BA Area. Given the limited extent of drilling discharges projected for 

the proposed action and the temporary nature of elevated turbidity, it is unlikely that 

this species would come into contact with affected areas of the water column. 

 Taking into account the USCG and USEPA regulations and BOEM guidance, it is 

unlikely that significant amounts of trash and debris from G&G activities will be 
Biological Assessment A-159

released into the marine environment. Therefore, debris entanglement and ingestion 

impacts on the blueback herring are expected to be avoided. 

 A small, accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to 

disperse quickly in the open ocean but would only temporarily affect the water 

column where river herirng live. 

Based on the preceding analysis, the proposed action May Affect, but is Not Likely to Adversely 

Affect, the blueback herring. Based on the terminology used in the Endangered Species Consultation 

Handbook (USDOI, FWS and USDOC, NMFS, 1998), effects would be discountable (extremely unlikely 

to occur) and/or insignificant (the impact cannot be meaningfully detected, measured, or evaluated). 

No critical habitat has been designated for this candidate species, and therefore no critical habitat 

determination is needed. 

7. MITIGATION, MONITORING, AND REPORTING REQUIREMENTS 

FOR LISTED SPECIES 

This section outlines the specific mitigation, monitoring and reporting measures built into the 

proposed action to minimize or eliminate potential impacts to ESA-listed species of marine mammals, sea 

turtles, birds, and fishes. Additional mitigation, monitoring, or reporting measures may be added during 

the Federal ESA Section 7 process or through any issued BOEM leases or other authorizations. Also, 

during the MMPA authorization process for specific surveys, the NMFS may require additional or 

different mitigation measures to avoid/minimize impacts on marine mammals. BOEM will require within 

any G&G activity it authorizes that the operator obtain an MMPA authorization from NMFS prior to 

conducting any activity that may take marine mammals. 

7.1. PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR LISTED MARINE MAMMALS AND SEA TURTLES

7.1.1. Time-Area Closure for North Atlantic Right Whales 

The proposed action includes a time-area closure intended to avoid impacts from vessel strikes or 

ensonification of the water column on North Atlantic right whales to the maximum extent practicable. It 

is estimated that this closure would avoid about two-thirds of the incidental takes of North Atlantic right 

whales by active acoustic sound sources over the period of the Programmatic EIS. Although right whales 

could occur anywhere within the BA Area, they are most likely to be found in the calving/nursery areas 

offshore the southeastern U.S. coast during the winter months and near the South Atlantic and 

Mid-Atlantic coast during their seasonal migrations (Knowlton et al., 2002). 

The locations and timing of the closure are shown in Figure A-23. The total closure area under the 

proposed action would be 7,589,594 ac (30,714 km2

) or approximately 4 percent of the BA Area. No 

airgun surveys would be authorized within the designated right whale critical habitat from November 15 

through April 15 nor within the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast U.S. SMAs during the times when vessel 

speed restrictions are in effect under 50 CFR 224.105. However, surveys proposed in the critical habitat 

and SMAs with sources other than air guns may be considered on a case-by-case. Any such authorization 

may include additional mitigation and monitoring requirements to avoid or significantly reduce impacts 

on right whales. Other supporting surveys (e.g., biological surveys) would not be affected by this 

restriction. 

The Southeast U.S. SMA, with seasonal restrictions in effect from November 15 to April 15, is a 

continuous area that extends from St. Augustine, Florida, to Brunswick, Georgia, extending 37 km 

(20 nmi) from shore (Figure A-5). The Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA, with seasonal restrictions from 

November 1 through April 30, is a combination of both continuous areas and half circles drawn with 

37-km (20-nmi) radii around the entrances to certain bays and ports. Within the BA Area, the 

Mid-Atlantic U.S. SMA includes a continuous zone extending between Wilmington, North Carolina, and 

Brunswick, Georgia, as well as the entrance to Delaware Bay (Ports of Wilmington [Delaware] and 

Philadelphia), the entrance to Chesapeake Bay (Ports of Hampton Roads and Baltimore), and the Ports of 

Morehead City and Beaufort, North Carolina (Figure A-5). 
A-160 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Exceptions to the right whale time-area closure could occur if a survey was needed to serve important 

operational or monitoring requirements for a particular project. For example, monitoring surveys for 

renewable energy (e.g., scour, cable burial) might need to take place at fixed intervals to capture seasonal 

changes or safety-related conditions. Another example would be a marine minerals project in which 

dredging is not seasonally restricted and real-time bathymetry data must be collected to track dredging 

operations or pre- and post-bathymetric surveys must be collected immediately before or after dredging to 

establish sand volumes borrowed. 

7.1.2. Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol 

All authorizations for seismic airgun surveys (those involving airguns as an acoustic source) would 

include a survey protocol that specifies mitigation measures for protected species, including an exclusion 

zone, ramp-up requirements, visual monitoring by protected species observers prior to and during seismic 

airgun surveys, and array shutdown requirements. The protocol specifies the conditions under which 

airgun arrays can be started and those under which they must be shut down. It also includes the optional 

use of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) to help detect vocalizing marine mammals. The protocol 

requirements apply specifically to airguns, not electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, 

boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and single beam or multibeam depth sounders that may be 

operating concurrently during seismic airgun surveys. 

A proposed seismic airgun survey protocol is provided as the Attachment to this BA. The draft 

protocol is based on Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G02 (Implementation of Seismic Survey Mitigation 

Measures and Protected Species Observer Program) (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012a), with key 

exceptions as noted in the protocol. This protocol would be required in all water depths for any surveys 

using air guns. 

7.1.2.1. Rationale 

The purpose of the operational measures included in the seismic airgun survey protocol is to prevent 

injury to marine mammals and sea turtles and to avoid Level A harassment of marine mammals to the 

maximum extent practicable. 

For the analysis in the Programmatic EIS, two sizes of airgun arrays were modeled, based on current 

usage in the Gulf of Mexico, and considered representative for potential Atlantic G&G seismic surveys: 

 large airgun array (5,400 in.3

). This array was used to represent sound sources for 

deep penetration seismic surveys, including 2D, 3D, WAZ, and other variations. 

 small airgun array (90 in.3

). This array was used to represent sound sources for HRG 

surveys for oil and gas exploration sites. 

Detailed acoustic characteristics of airguns are discussed in Appendix D of the Draft Programmatic 

EIS. Broadband source levels are 230.7 decibels (dB) re 1 micropascal (μPa) for the large airgun array 

and 210.3 dB re 1 μPa for the small array (Table A-14). Although airguns have a frequency range from 

about 10-2,000 Hz, most of the acoustic energy is radiated at frequencies below 200 Hz. 

Acoustic pulses from airguns are within the hearing range of all marine mammals in the BA Area. 

All of the mysticetes occurring in the BA Area are low-frequency cetaceans (7 Hz-22 kHz), and most of 

the odontocetes are mid-frequency cetaceans (150 Hz-160 kHz), with the exception of the harbor porpoise 

(a high-frequency cetacean, 200 Hz-180 kHz). Manatees have hearing capabilities that are generally 

similar to phocid pinnipeds, with functional hearing between about 250 Hz and ~90 kHz. Airgun pulses 

are also within the hearing range of sea turtles, whose best hearing is mainly below 1,000 Hz (see 

Section 3.2.7). 

To reduce the risk of injury and Level A harassment, the seismic airgun survey protocol would 

establish an exclusion zone based on the predicted range at which animals could be exposed to a received 

SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, which is the current NMFS criterion for Level A harassment of cetaceans (and 

considered conservative and protective). The radius of the exclusion zone would be calculated on a 

survey-specific basis, but would not be less than 500 m (1,640 ft). This exclusion zone applies 

specifically to airguns, not electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, boomer and chirp 

subbottom profilers, and single beam or multibeam depth sounders that may be operating concurrently 

during seismic airgun surveys. Although there are no NMFS noise exposure criteria for sea turtles, the 
Biological Assessment A-161

mitigation measures are expected to similarly reduce the risk of temporary or permanent hearing loss in 

sea turtles. The operational mitigation measures would reduce the extent of, but not prevent, behavioral 

responses including Level B harassment of marine mammals. Other measures such as the time-area 

closure for North Atlantic right whales (Section 7.1.1) would help to reduce the risk of those impacts. 

Key elements of the protocol are discussed below. 

7.1.2.2. Ramp-Up 

Ramp-up (also known as “soft start”) entails the gradual increase in intensity of an airgun array over a 

period of 20 min or more, until maximum source levels are reached. The intent of ramp-up is to either 

avoid or reduce the potential for instantaneous hearing damage to an animal (from the sudden initiation of 

an acoustic source at full power) that might be located in close proximity to an airgun array. Increasing 

sound levels are designed to warn animals of pending seismic operations, and to allow sufficient time for 

those animals to leave the immediate area. Under optimal conditions, sensitive individuals are expected 

to move out of the area, beyond the range where hearing damage might occur. 

Ramp-up has become a standard mitigation measure in the U.S. and worldwide. The International 

Association of Geophysical Contractors (IAGC) recommends ramp-up in its seismic survey guidelines 

(IAGC, 2011). In the Gulf of Mexico, the BOEM requires ramp-up for operators working in water depths 

>200 m throughout the Gulf and all OCS waters of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico Planning Area under Joint 

BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G02 (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012a). 

7.1.2.3. Exclusion Zone 

The seismic airgun survey protocol includes an exclusion zone to prevent injury to marine mammals 

and sea turtles and to avoid Level A harassment of marine mammals to the maximum extent practicable. 

The radius of the exclusion zone would be based on the predicted range at which animals could be 

exposed to a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, which is the current NMFS criterion for Level A 

harassment of cetaceans. The radius of the exclusion zone would be calculated on a survey-specific basis, 

but would not be less than 500 m (1,640 ft). This exclusion zone applies specifically to airguns, not 

electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and single 

beam or multibeam depth sounders that may be operating concurrently during seismic airgun surveys. 

Although the NMFS also uses a criterion of 190 dB re 1 μPa for Level A harassment of pinnipeds, 

based on the rare occurrence of pinnipeds in the BA Area it is unlikely that a smaller exclusion zone 

based on the 190-dB criterion would be appropriate for any seismic airgun survey there. There are no 

noise exposure criteria for sea turtles, but a 180-dB exclusion zone is expected to prevent mortalities, 

injuries, and auditory impacts on sea turtles to the maximum extent practicable. 

Based on calculations in Appendix D of the Draft Programmatic EIS and summarized in Table A-15, 

the 180-dB zone for a large airgun array (5,400 in.3

) ranges from 799-2,109 m (2,622-6,920 ft), with a 

mean of 1,086 m (3,563 ft). Marine mammals can be detected at distances of up to several kilometers, 

depending on sea state and the animal’s size and behavior. Sea turtles are not likely to be detected 

beyond 500 m (1,640 ft). 

For oil and gas HRG surveys using a small airgun array (90 in.3

), the 180-dB zone ranges from 

76-186 m (249-610 ft), with a mean of 128 m (420 ft) (Table A-15). A 500-m (1,640-ft) radius exclusion 

zone can be effectively monitored and would encompass the zone where Level A harassment could occur. 

7.1.2.4. Visual Monitoring by Protected Species Observers 

The seismic airgun survey protocol includes visual monitoring of the exclusion zone by trained 

protected species observers. At least two protected species observers will be required on watch aboard 

seismic vessels at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk – i.e., from about 30 min before sunrise 

to 30 min after sunset) when seismic operations are being conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, 

darkness) make sea surface observations impossible. If conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such 

that the sea surface observations are halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions permit. 

Ongoing activities may continue but may not be initiated under such conditions (i.e., without appropriate 

pre-activity monitoring). Operators may engage trained third party observers, utilize crew members after 

training as observers, or use a combination of both third party and crew observers. 
A-162 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

The main tasks of protected species observers are to monitor the exclusion zone for protected species 

and to observe and document their presence and behavior. Observers search the area around the vessel 

using high-powered, pedestal-mounted, “Big Eye” binoculars, hand-held binoculars, and the unaided eye. 

For larger monitoring programs with a specified visual observation platform, two observers survey for 

protected species generally using the high-powered binoculars, while a third observer searches with the 

unaided eye and occasionally hand-held binoculars, and serves as data recorder. If the vessel is utilizing a 

PAM system, a fourth observer will be assigned to monitor that station and communicate with the third 

observer on the visual observing platform. Data are recorded on paper sheets and/or a laptop computer 

that has direct input from the vessel’s GPS navigation system. Observers rotate among the duty stations 

at regular intervals, and alternate work and rest periods based upon a pre-determined schedule. In the 

event a marine mammal is sighted or otherwise detected within the impact zone, seismic operations are 

suspended until the animal leaves the area (see Attachment). 

Visual shipboard monitoring is affected by limitations on sightability of individuals due to poor 

visibility (fog, elevated Beaufort sea state, nighttime operations), species detectability (cryptic species), 

and/or observer fatigue. Routine activities of marine mammals (e.g., diving duration patterns, pod size, 

overt behaviors) show considerable variability between species, thereby affecting whether or not animals 

are sighted (i.e., availability bias). During nighttime operations or during periods of reduced visibility, 

several options are available to allow for continual monitoring of the impact zone (e.g., shipboard lighting 

of waters around the vessel, use of enhanced vision equipment, night-vision equipment, and acoustic 

monitoring [both active and passive]). However, the efficiency of visual monitoring during nighttime 

hours, using shipboard lighting or enhanced vision equipment, is limited when compared with visual 

monitoring during daylight hours. 

7.1.2.5. Shutdown Requirements 

The seismic airgun survey protocol will require shutdown of the airgun array any time a listed marine 

mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s movement, the 

vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone. In the event of a shutdown, 

seismic operations and ramp-up of airguns would resume only when the sighted animal has cleared the 

exclusion zone and no other marine mammals or sea turtles have been sighted within the exclusion zone 

for at least 30 min. 

7.1.2.6. Effectiveness of Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol 

The seismic airgun survey protocol is adapted from current requirements used for seismic surveys in 

the Gulf of Mexico. Similar protocols are used internationally (Joint Nature Conservation Committee 

[JNCC] 2010; Blue Planet Marine, 2010; NSF and USDOI, USGS, 2011), and it is expected that they 

would help to prevent mortalities or injuries of marine mammals and sea turtles. However, most 

mitigation measures are based on a “common sense” approach and their effectiveness is not well 

documented (Pierson et al., 1998; Stone, 2003; Weir et al., 2006; Weir and Dolman, 2007; Compton et 

al., 2007; Parsons et al., 2009). 

The effectiveness of a mitigation protocol for seismic airgun surveys is inherently difficult to 

evaluate. First, the effect that it is intended to prevent (Level A harassment, or more specifically, the 

onset of auditory injury such as PTS) cannot be measured in the field. Second, there is no perfect 

monitoring system that could be used to evaluate whether all marine mammals within a certain radius 

(exclusion zone) have been detected. Aspects of the seismic airgun survey protocol that are relevant to 

mitigation effectiveness are discussed briefly below. 

Ramp-up. Ramp-up or “soft start” procedures are intended to give adequate time for protected 

species to leave the vicinity before an airgun array reaches full power. Although ramp-up is widely used, 

there is little information on its effectiveness (Weir and Dolman, 2007; Parsons et al., 2009). 

Observations of cetaceans during ramp-up are mixed, and the interpretation of marine mammal responses 

to the airgun source is problematic (Parsons et al., 2009). Stone and Tasker (2006) found no difference in 

the distance of cetaceans from airgun arrays during ramp-up as compared to periods when airguns were 

off or in full operation. Weir (2008a) noted that one group of pilot whales animals altered their behavior 

and direction, moving away from the seismic source, and Weir (2008b) observed that Atlantic spotted 

dolphins moved away from a seismic vessel during a ramp-up. Jochens et al. (2008) reported no lateral 
Biological Assessment A-163

avoidance of airgun sources by sperm whales exposed to maximum received sound levels between 111 to 

147 dB re 1 μPa at ranges of approximately 1.4-12.6 km from the sound source. Compton et al. (2007) 

hypothesized that ramp-up could result in attraction of animals by initially weak sounds. Parsons et al. 

(2009) noted that some animals may respond by moving vertically rather than laterally away from the 

source, which could place them at greater risk. 

The existing data do not consistently support or refute the idea that ramp-up would cause marine 

mammals to avoid approaching an airgun array operating at full power. However, without ramp-up, there 

is the possibility that an animal’s first exposure to a source would be at a level sufficient to cause TTS or 

PTS, whereas ramp-up would prevent that from occurring (Hannay et al., 2011). 

Size of the Exclusion Zone. The seismic airgun survey protocol includes an exclusion zone based on 

the predicted range at which animals could be exposed to a received sound pressure level of 180 dB re 

1 μPa, the current NMFS criterion for Level A harassment of cetaceans. The radius of the exclusion zone 

would be calculated on a survey-specific basis, but would not be less than 500 m (1,640 ft). A 500-m 

(1,640-ft) zone is common internationally and is current practice in the Gulf of Mexico under Joint 

BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G02 (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012a). 

Critiques of seismic survey mitigation have questioned whether the 500-m (1,640-ft) zone is “an 

arbitrary figure, given that it is a relatively round number” (Parsons et al., 2009) and stated that “there is 

clearly a need to incorporate the effect of varying airgun volume on [exclusion zone] calculations” (Weir 

and Dolman, 2007). The seismic airgun survey protocol for the proposed action addresses this issue by 

calculating the exclusion zone radius on a survey-specific basis. This is similar to the approach used by 

NSF and USDOI, USGS (2011) for seismic surveys worldwide and is typically used by NMFS in its 

Incidental Harassment Authorizations for seismic surveys (e.g., USDOC, NMFS, 2012d,e). 

Another effectiveness issue that has been raised with respect to the exclusion zone is that a 500-m 

(1,640-ft) radius is less than the distance at which behavioral responses to airguns have been detected in 

various studies (Parsons et al., 2009). However, the purpose of the exclusion zone is to prevent injury, 

not behavioral responses. The BOEM believes that it would not be feasible to establish an exclusion zone 

that would prevent behavioral responses (Level B harassment). Based on calculations as summarized in 

Table A-14, a Level B harassment zone based on the 160-dB range could extend up to 15 km (9.3 mi) 

from a large airgun array (5,400 in.3

) and up to 3 km (1.9 mi) from a small airgun array (90 in.3) 

depending on the geographic location and season modeled. The area that would have to be monitored 

would be much larger; the area within a 15-km radius (the maximum extent of the 160 dB contour) is 

51 times the area within a 2.1-km radius (the maximum extent of the 180 dB contour). Therefore, it is not 

feasible to routinely require monitoring of a 160-dB exclusion zone for seismic surveys using shipboard 

protected species observers. In addition, although 160 dB is the current Level B criterion for impulse 

sources, there is much variability and ongoing research about the levels of received sound that can cause 

behavioral responses in marine mammals, as well as the biological significance of those responses (NRC, 

2005; Southall et al., 2007; Ellison et al., 2011). An exclusion zone based on a 160-dB radius may not 

prevent all behavioral responses and could trigger array shutdowns even when no response is observable 

within that radius. Further, BOEM will require in any G&G authorization it issues that operators obtain 

an MMPA authorization from NMFS prior to conducting activities under BOEM purview that may take 

marine mammals. Although this MMPA authorization does not prevent Level B Harassment, it will 

ensure that NMFS can make a determination on whether any potential taking would meet the 

requirements of the MMPA (i.e., be no more than negligible). 

Visual Monitoring. The seismic airgun survey protocol includes visual monitoring of the 180-dB 

exclusion zone by protected species observers. Shipboard detection of marine mammals has been studied 

extensively, but mainly in the context of research surveys (e.g., Barlow et al., 2011). The results are 

difficult to extrapolate to mitigation surveys because of differences in equipment, observer experience, 

and sea state conditions. In particular, most research surveys are conducted by highly experienced 

observers and use data acquired under excellent or good sea state conditions, whereas seismic surveys can 

be conducted under much worse conditions including nighttime (Barlow and Gisiner, 2006). 

The blue whale, fin whale, humpback whale, North Atlantic right whale, sei whale, and sperm whale 

are all large whales that, when present on the surface, are likely to be detected by experienced observers 

under good or excellent sea state conditions. However, they would not be visually detectable at night, and 

the probability of detection during the daytime could be reduced under conditions of poor visibility and/or 

sea state. In addition, even during daylight hours a certain proportion of the population is submerged and 

therefore unavailable for visual detection. This is referred to as “availability bias” (Marsh and Sinclair, 
A-164 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

1989). Based on dive characteristics as summarized in Appendix E of the Programmatic EIS, dive times 

for all of these species except the sperm whale are typically in the range of 5-20 min with surface times 

ranging from less than a minute to a few minutes. Although there is a good chance that these whales 

would be on the surface (available for detection) at some time during the passage of a seismic survey 

vessel through an area, there is also a possibility that an animal could emerge within the exclusion zone 

(e.g., a seismic survey vessel traveling at 5 kn [2.6 m/s] would travel 2.3 km [1.4 mi] during a 15 min 

dive). 

The sperm whale is a deep-diving species that may remain submerged for much longer periods; dive 

times in the Atlantic have been reported to average 40-45 min (Palka and Johnson, 2007). In the Gulf of 

Mexico, a typical deep dive of a tagged sperm whale lasts 45 min followed by a surface interval of 9 min 

(Jochens et al., 2008). Palka and Johnson (2007) estimated that if tagged animals are representative of the 

dive patterns of the Atlantic sperm whale population, then there is a 27 percent chance that a single sperm 

whale would at the surface, available to be detected by a visual sighting team. Because of their deep and 

prolonged dives, sperm whales are more likely than the other listed whales to avoid visual detection. 

Sea turtles are difficult to detect on the sea surface except under excellent sea states, and they spend 

most of their time submerged (Eckert et al., 1986, 1989; Keinath and Musick, 1993). Therefore, the 

probability of shipboard observers detecting sea turtles within the exclusion zone would be low. 

The experience and qualifications of protected species observers are an important factor in mitigation 

effectiveness (Weir and Dolman, 2007; Parsons et al., 2009). The seismic airgun survey protocol 

specifies that all visual observers must have completed a protected species observer training course. The 

BOEM will not sanction particular trainers or training programs, but has specified the observer 

qualifications and elements that the training program must include (see Attachment to this BA). 

Shutdown Requirements. The protocol requirements include the shutdown of all airguns at any 

time a listed marine mammal or sea turtle is detected entering or within the exclusion zone. Shutdown is 

considered to be a very effective mitigation measure because it would remove the sound source that is 

causing an impact. However, its effectiveness is limited by the ability of the operator to detect marine 

mammals by visual observations (and PAM if used). Shutdowns based on visual observations would be 

limited to daylight hours. Shutdowns could occur at night if vocalizing marine mammals were detected 

using PAM, but it is expected that PAM may only detect a fraction of the population (Robinson et al., 

2008). 

The shutdown requirements for the proposed action differ from those currently used in the Gulf of 

Mexico under Joint NTL 2012-G02. Shutdown of the airgun array would be required any time a listed 

marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s 

movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone. In contrast, 

in the Gulf of Mexico, Joint NTL 2012-G02 requires the exclusion zone to be clear of all marine 

mammals and sea turtles for startup, but shutdown is required only for whales entering the exclusion zone 

(USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012a). 

Passive Acoustic Monitoring. The seismic airgun survey protocol also includes the optional use of 

PAM to help detect vocalizing marine mammals. Towed PAM systems have been used with some 

success to supplement visual monitoring of exclusion zones in the Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea, and 

elsewhere (Bingham, 2011). Despite these successes, a number of limitations and challenges exist 

including the following (Bingham, 2011): 

 Animals can only be detected if they are vocalizing, which is not always the case; 

 The range to which an animal can be detected varies with the characteristics of its 

sounds (e.g., frequency, bandwidth, source level, directionality), oceanographic and 

bathymetric conditions, design features of the towed array (e.g., number, spacing and 

depth of the individual sensor elements), design features of the PAM software, the 

speed at which the vessel is traveling, and the characteristics of the noise generated 

by the vessel; 

 Currently available towed PAM systems do not have a proven ability to detect marine 

mammals that call in frequencies overlapping those of vessel noise; 

 Accurate range estimation can be difficult. With most currently available towed 

PAM systems deployed from seismic survey vessels, estimating the location of a 

calling animal requires multiple detections of the same animal in order to compute 

multiple bearings to that animal as the vessel steams forward. Estimating the location 
Biological Assessment A-165

of a calling marine mammal becomes problematic when it is in line with (forward 

and aft of) the axis of the towed PAM hydrophone streamer. 

 In general, the effective application of a towed PAM system requires well-trained, 

experienced PAM technicians operating the equipment; 

To the extent that operators use PAM to complement visual monitoring during surveys conducted 

under the proposed action, the BOEM expects that it will improve detection of marine mammals. 

However, the effectiveness cannot be estimated. 

Time-Area Closure. In addition to the seismic airgun survey protocol, the proposed action includes 

a time-area closure intended to avoid most impacts from vessel strikes or ensonification of the water 

column on North Atlantic right whales (see Section 7.1.1). It is estimated that this closure would avoid 

about 67 percent of the incidental takes of North Atlantic right whales by active acoustic sound sources 

over the period of the Programmatic EIS. As noted by Parsons et al. (2009) and Barlow and Gisiner 

(2006), scheduling surveys to avoid certain areas and/or time periods can be a highly effective method of 

mitigating impacts. 

Conclusions. The seismic airgun survey protocol is generally consistent with current practice in the 

U.S. and internationally. It differs from the Gulf of Mexico protocol in several key respects – it would be 

applied throughout the BA Area (no water depth limits) and it would require survey-specific calculation 

of the exclusion zone radius (rather than using 500 m [1,640 ft] for all surveys). Although the 

effectiveness cannot be quantified, the BOEM expects that the protocol would prevent mortality and 

injury of listed marine mammals and sea turtles to the maximum extent practicable. The NSF and 

USDOI, USGS (2011), in an EIS for worldwide seismic surveys, concluded that a “visual monitoring 

program, which is consistent with current practices, will be sufficient to visually detect, with reasonable 

certainty, most marine mammals within or entering [mitigation zones].” 

7.1.3. HRG Survey Protocol (Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Sites) 

The HRG surveys of renewable energy and marine minerals sites would use only electromechanical 

sources such as side-scan sonar, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and single beam and multibeam 

depth sounders. The BOEM does not expect that airguns would be used for these surveys. All 

authorizations for non-airgun HRG surveys would include requirements for visual monitoring of an 

exclusion zone by protected species observers and startup and shutdown requirements. 

The HRG surveys for oil and gas exploration and development sites typically use the 

electromechanical acoustic sources operating concurrently with airgun arrays. These surveys would be 

subject to the seismic airgun survey protocol described in Section 7.1.2 and detailed in the Attachment. 

7.1.3.1. Rationale 

Important considerations in defining an exclusion zone (or “safe” range) include the source level, 

operating frequencies, pulse duration, and directivity of the source as well as the hearing capabilities of 

the receiving animals. Acoustic characteristics of electromechanical sources are discussed in detail in 

Appendix D of the Draft Programmatic EIS and summarized in Table A-14. 

Based on a review of marine mammal hearing, Southall et al. (2007) recognized three cetacean 

groups: low-frequency cetaceans (7 Hz to 22 kHz), mid-frequency cetaceans (150 Hz to 160 kHz) and 

high-frequency cetaceans (200 Hz to 180 kHz). Boomer pulses are within the hearing range of all three 

cetacean groups. However, the operating frequency of the representative multibeam system (240 kHz) is 

above the hearing range of all three groups. For side-scan sonar, the 100-kHz operating frequency is 

within the hearing range of mid- and high-frequency cetaceans, but the 400-kHz frequency is above the 

range of all groups. For the chirp subbottom profiler, the 3.5 kHz and 12 kHz frequencies are within the 

hearing range of all three cetacean groups, but the 200 kHz is above the range of all groups. Frequencies 

emitted by individual equipment may differ from these representative systems selected for programmatic 

analysis. 

Sea turtles are low-frequency specialists whose best hearing is mainly below 1,000 Hz (see 

Section 3.2.7). Acoustic signals from electromechanical sources other than the boomer are not likely to 

be detectable by sea turtles. Because of the relatively low source level of the boomer (as discussed 

below), sea turtles are unlikely to hear boomer pulses unless they are very near the source. 
A-166 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

7.1.3.1.1. Injury Ranges Calculated Using the 180-dB NMFS Criterion 

To reduce the risk of injury and Level A harassment of marine mammals, the HRG survey protocol 

would establish an exclusion zone based on the predicted range at which animals could be exposed to a 

received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, which is the current NMFS criterion for Level A harassment of 

cetaceans. The operational mitigation measures would not prevent all Level A harassment and would 

reduce the extent of, but not prevent, behavioral responses including Level B harassment. 

Table A-15 lists the maximum 180-dB range calculated for electromechanical sources, based on 

acoustic modeling in Appendix D of the Draft Programmatic EIS. The range of values reflects the 

various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. The 180-dB radius ranged from 38-45 m 

(125-148 ft) for the boomer and from 32-42 m (105-138 ft) for the chirp subbottom profiler. The 180-dB 

radius was 27 m (89 ft) for the multibeam depth sounder under all scenarios. The side-scan sonar had the 

largest 180-dB radius, ranging from 128-192 m (420-630 ft). 

The initial 180-dB calculations in Table A-15 are based on nominal source levels and do not take into 

account the pulse duration. As indicated in the table, the pulses produced by all of the electromechanical 

sources are much shorter than 1 s. As summarized by Au and Hastings (2008), when receiving tone 

pulses, the mammalian ear behaves like an integrator with an “integration time constant.” Energy is 

summed over the duration of a pulse until the pulse is longer than the integration time constant. Studies 

of bottlenose dolphins by Johnson (1968) indicate an integration time constant of approximately 100 ms. 

A 10-ms pulse with a received SPL of 180 dB would be integrated over a 100-ms period, resulting in a 

10-fold (10 dB) reduction. Using the assumption of a 100-ms integration time, the 180-dB radii for 

side-scan sonar and multibeam depth sounder were recalculated to account for short pulse duration as 

shown in Table A-15. For the boomer and multibeam depth sounder, the recalculated 180-dB radius was 

<5 m under all scenarios. The recalculated 180-dB radius ranged from 65-96 m (213-315 ft) for the 

side-scan sonar and from 26-35 m (85-115 ft) for chirp subbottom profiler. Specific considerations for 

each source are discussed below. 

Boomer 

The frequency range of the representative boomer (200 Hz to 16 kHz) is entirely within the hearing 

range of all cetacean groups and is also within the expected hearing range of sea turtles. Based on a 

source level of 212 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius is estimated to range from 38-45 m (125-148 ft) for 

the various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. However, taking into account the short pulse 

duration (180 microseconds [μs]), the recalculated 180-dB radius is <5 m (16 ft) in all modeled scenarios 

(Table A-15). 

Side-Scan Sonar 

For the representative side-scan sonar, the 100-kHz operating frequency is within the hearing range of 

mid- and high-frequency cetaceans, but the 400-kHz frequency is above the range of all groups. Sea 

turtles are not expected to hear this source. Based on a source level of 226 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB 

radius is estimated to range from 128-192 m (420-630 ft) for the various geographic and seasonal 

scenarios modeled. Taking into account the short pulse length of 20 ms, the recalculated 180-dB radius 

ranges from 65-96 m (213-315 ft) (Table A-15). 

Chirp Subbottom Profiler 

The representative chirp subbottom profiler operates at three frequencies: 3.5 kHz, 12 kHz, and 

200 kHz. The highest frequency (200 kHz) is above the hearing range for all cetaceans. Sea turtles are 

not expected to hear this source. Based on a source level of 222 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius ranges 

from 32-42 m (105-138 ft) for the various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. Because the pulse 

length of 64 ms is relatively close to the 100 ms integration time assumed for the cetacean ear, the 

correction for pulse length reduces the ranges only slightly to 26-35 m (85-115 ft) (Table A-15). 
Biological Assessment A-167

Multibeam Depth Sounder 

Based on a source level of 213 dB re 1 μPa, the 180-dB radius calculated for the multibeam depth 

sounder is 27 m (89 ft) for all of the geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled (Table A-15). Taking 

into account the short pulse duration (225 μs), the radius is further reduced to <5 m (16 ft) for all modeled 

scenarios. More importantly, because the operating frequency of the representative multibeam system 

(240 kHz) is above the hearing range of all three cetacean groups, no auditory impacts are expected. 

Similarly, sea turtles are not expected to hear this source. 

The relatively low risk of auditory impacts on marine mammals from multibeam depth sounders is 

consistent with a recent analysis by Lurton and DeRuiter (2011) taking into account both the short pulse 

duration and high directivity of these sources. 

7.1.3.1.2. Injury Ranges Calculated Using the Southall Criteria 

Based on data for onset of TTS, Southall et al. (2007) proposed dual injury criteria for cetaceans 

exposed to non-pulse sources. In the Southall et al. (2007) terminology, all of the electromechanical 

sources evaluated here would be considered non-pulse sources. The first injury criterion is a SEL of 

215 dB re 1 μPa2

 s, and the second is a flat-weighted peak pressure exceeding 230 dB re 1 μPa. Injury is 

assumed to occur if either criterion is exceeded (or both). 

For all of the representative electromechanical sources in this Programmatic EIS, the source level is 

less than 230 dB re 1 μPa and therefore the pressure criterion would not be exceeded and the injury radius 

is zero. Calculation of the injury radius using the SEL criterion is complicated because exposure depends 

on the ping rate and the number of pulses an animal receives; however, in general, predicted injury radii 

are expected to be less than 10 m (33 ft) for all of the sources. 

7.1.3.1.3. Level B Harassment Ranges Calculated Using the 160-dB NMFS Criterion 

Table A-15 also lists the maximum 160-dB range calculated for electromechanical sources, based on 

acoustic modeling in Appendix D of the Draft Programmatic EIS. The range of values reflects the 

various geographic and seasonal scenarios modeled. The boomer had the largest 160-dB radius, ranging 

from 1,054-2,138 m (3,458-7,015 ft), followed by the chirp subbottom profiler (359-971 m or 

1,178-3,186 ft), the side-scan sonar (500-655 m or 1,640-2,149 ft), and the multibeam depth sounder 

(147-156 m or 482-512 ft). 

Values taking into account pulse duration are shown in the last column of Table A-15. Due to the 

very short pulse duration, the boomer and multibeam depth sounder have radii of 16 m (52 ft) and 12 m 

(39 ft), respectively. The recalculated 160-dB radius ranged from 240-689 m (787-2,261 ft) for the chirp 

subbottom profiler and from 337-450 m (1,106-1,476 ft) for side-scan sonar. 

7.1.3.1.4. Discussion and Conclusions 

Among the representative electromechanical sources, boomers and multibeam depth sounders pose 

the smallest risk of auditory impacts to marine mammals. Under all scenarios modeled, the 180-dB radius 

for both sources is estimated to be <50 m (160 ft) for the nominal source level and <5 m (16 ft) when 

pulse duration is taken into account. Based on the Southall criteria, the predicted injury radius would be 

zero for both sources. In addition, the operating frequency of the representative multibeam depth sounder 

is beyond the range of all three cetacean groups. (Some multibeam depth sounders use different 

frequencies that are within the cetacean hearing range, but the system modeled here is considered 

representative of the equipment likely to be used during HRG surveys for renewable energy and marine 

minerals sites.) 

Both the representative side-scan sonar and chirp subbottom profiler could be detectable by 

cetaceans, depending on the operating frequencies selected. The side-scan sonar operating at 100 kHz 

would be detectable, and the 180-dB radius is estimated to be 128-192 m (420-630 ft) based on the 

nominal source level and 65-96 m (213-315 ft) when the short pulse length is taken into account. The 

chirp subbottom profiler operating at either 3.5 kHz or 12 kHz would be detectable, and the 180-dB 

radius is estimated to be 32-42 m (105-138 ft) based on the nominal source level and 26-35 m (85-115 ft) 

when the short pulse length is taken into account. Based on the Southall criteria, predicted injury ranges 

are less than 10 m (33 ft) for both sources. 
A-168 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Depending on the suite of equipment selected and the operating frequencies selected, there may be no 

Level A or B harassment of marine mammals. For example, if a survey uses side-scan sonar at 400 kHz, 

chirp subbottom at 200 kHz, multibeam depth sounder at 240 kHz, and no boomer, then no acoustic 

harassment of marine mammals would be expected. 

For surveys with one or more sources operating at frequencies within the cetacean hearing range, if 

source levels are low enough, it may be feasible to monitor the entire 160-dB radius. In that case, both 

Level A and B harassment would be prevented and it would be reasonable to assume that no Incidental 

Take Authorization (ITA) may be needed. For example, a source level of 206 dB re 1 μPa would have a 

160-dB radius of 200 m (656 ft) (based on the simplistic assumption of spherical spreading). 

Sea turtles are unlikely to hear the electromechanical sources, except perhaps the boomer, at very 

close range (e.g., the 180-dB radius is 38-45 m). Vessel strike avoidance measures already included in 

the Programmatic EIS include a recommended separation distance of 45 m (150 ft) for sea turtles. 

Therefore, the protocol does not include an exclusion zone or shutdown requirements for sea turtles. 

However, the exclusion zone would be initially clear of sea turtles prior to startup. 

7.1.3.1.5. Practical Considerations 

The BOEM expects that a 200-m (656-ft) radius exclusion zone can be effectively monitored from the 

types of coastal survey vessels expected to be used for HRG surveys of renewable energy and marine 

minerals sites. The operational ranges for these HRG surveys would be approximately <25 mi from shore 

and in water <30 m (98 ft) deep. Unlike the large, dedicated vessels used for oil and gas seismic surveys, 

coastal survey vessels may not have a bridge or elevated viewing platform, and their capability for 

effectively monitoring a radius larger than a few hundred meters would depend on vessel size and 

configuration. An exclusion zone radius of 200 m (656 ft) would encompass the 180-dB Level A 

harassment radius calculated for all of the representative electromechanical sources included in this 

Programmatic EIS as summarized above. Depending on the source levels of the equipment used on 

particular surveys, this radius may also encompass the 160-dB Level B harassment zone. The BOEM 

anticipates that if an operator can effectively monitor the 160-dB zone to prevent both Level A and B 

harassment of marine mammals, it would be reasonable to assume that an ITA under the MMPA may not 

be necessary for that particular survey. Therefore, the protocol would allow an operator to monitor a 

radius larger than 200 m (656 ft) if the operator demonstrates that it can be effectively monitored. 

Ramp-up is not expected to be an effective mitigation measure for HRG surveys because 

electromechanical sources typically are either on or off and are not powered up gradually. 

The protocol requires that the exclusion zone be initially clear of all marine mammals and specifies 

shutdown for any listed marine mammal or sea turtle entering the exclusion zone. 

7.1.3.2. Protocol Requirements 

1. All HRG surveys must comply with requirements for vessel strike avoidance as 

detailed in separate guidance in Section 7.1.4. The recommended separation distance 

for North Atlantic right whales of 457 m (1,500 ft) would remain in effect during 

HRG surveys since it exceeds the exclusion zone radius specified below. 

Recommended separation distances for other whales and small cetaceans are less 

than, and would be superseded by, the exclusion zone radius. The exclusion zone 

must be initially clear of sea turtles as indicated below, but thereafter the vessel strike 

separation distance of 45 m (150 ft) for sea turtles would be maintained. 

2. One protected species observer would be required on watch aboard HRG survey 

vessels at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk – i.e., from about 30 min 

before sunrise to 30 min after sunset) when survey operations are being conducted, 

unless conditions (fog, rain, darkness) make sea surface observations impossible. If 

conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such that the sea surface observations are 

halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions permit. Ongoing 

activities may continue but may not be initiated under such conditions (i.e., without 

appropriate pre-activity monitoring). Operators may engage trained third party 

observers, utilize crew members after training as observers, or use a combination of 

both third party and crew observers. 
Biological Assessment A-169

3. The following additional requirements apply only to HRG surveys in which one or 

more active acoustic sound sources will be operating at frequencies less than 

200 kHz. 

a. A 200-m (656-ft) radius exclusion zone will be monitored around the survey 

vessel. If the exclusion zone does not encompass the 160-dB Level B harassment 

radius calculated for the acoustic source having the highest source level, BOEM 

will consult with NMFS about additional requirements. On a case-by-case basis, 

BOEM may authorize surveys having an exclusion zone larger than 200 m 

(656 ft) to encompass the 160-dB radius if the applicant demonstrates that it can 

be effectively monitored. 

b. Active acoustic sound sources must not be activated until the protected species 

observer has reported the exclusion zone clear of all marine mammals and sea 

turtles for 30 min. 

c. Except as noted in (d) below, if any listed marine mammal or sea turtle is sighted 

within or transiting towards the exclusion zone, an immediate shutdown of the 

equipment will be required. Subsequent restart of the equipment may only occur 

following clearance of the exclusion zone for 30 min. 

The HRG surveys of renewable energy and marine minerals sites in the SMAs for the North Atlantic 

right whale would be reviewed on a case-by-case basis, and authorizations may include additional 

mitigation and monitoring requirements to avoid or reduce impacts on right whales. 

7.1.4. Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance 

All authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for vessel strike avoidance. The 

guidance would be similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance and 

Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting) (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b), which incorporates the 

NMFS “Vessel Strike Avoidance Measures and Reporting for Mariners” addressing protected species 

identification, vessel strike avoidance, and injured/dead protected species reporting. Key elements of the 

guidance are as follows: 

1. Vessel operators and crews must maintain a vigilant watch for marine mammals and 

sea turtles and slow down or stop their vessel to avoid striking protected species. 

2. When whales are sighted, maintain a distance of 91 m (300 ft) or greater from the 

whale. If the whale is believed to be a North Atlantic right whale, the vessel must 

maintain a minimum distance of 457 m (1,500 ft) from the animal (50 CFR 224.103). 

3. When sea turtles or small cetaceans are sighted, the vessel must maintain a distance 

of 45 m (150 ft) or greater whenever possible. 

4. When cetaceans are sighted while a vessel is underway, the vessel must remain 

parallel to the animal’s course whenever possible. The vessel must avoid excessive 

speed or abrupt changes in direction until the cetacean has left the area. 

5. Reduce vessel speed to 10 kn (18.5 km/h) or less when mother/calf pairs, pods, or 

large assemblages of cetaceans are observed near an underway vessel when safety 

permits. A single cetacean at the surface may indicate the presence of submerged 

animals in the vicinity of the vessel; therefore, precautionary measures should always 

be exercised. 

6. Whales may surface in unpredictable locations or approach slowly moving vessels. 

When animals are sighted in the vessel’s path or in close proximity to a moving 

vessel, the vessel must reduce speed and shift the engine to neutral. The engines 

must not be engaged until the animals are clear of the area. 

7. Vessel crews would be required to report sightings of any injured or dead marine 

mammals or sea turtles to BOEM and NMFS within 24 hr, regardless of whether the 

injury or death was caused by their vessel. 

In addition, vessel operators would be to required to comply with the NMFS marine mammal and sea 

turtle viewing guidelines for the Northeast Region (USDOC, NMFS [2012b] for surveys offshore 

Delaware, Maryland, or Virginia) or the Southeast Region (USDOC, NMFS [2012c] for surveys offshore 
A-170 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, or Florida) or combined guidance if recommended by NMFS. 

These measures are meant to reduce the potential for vessel harassment or collision with marine mammals 

or sea turtles regardless of what activity a vessel is engaged in. 

The guidance will also incorporate the NMFS Compliance Guide for the Right Whale Ship Strike 

Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105), which limits vessel speed to 18.5 km/h (10 kn) in the Mid-Atlantic 

and Southeast U.S. SMAs for North Atlantic right whales during migration (Figure A-21). Vessel speed 

restrictions in these areas are in effect between November 1 and April 30 in the Mid-Atlantic and between 

November 15 and April 15 in the southeast U.S. 

7.1.5. Guidance for Marine Debris Awareness 

All authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for marine debris awareness. The 

guidance would be similar to BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). All vessel operators, employees, and contractors actively engaged 

in G&G surveys must be briefed on marine trash and debris awareness elimination as described in this 

NTL except that BOEM will not require applicants to undergo formal training or post placards. The 

applicant will be required to ensure that its employees and contractors are made aware of the 

environmental and socioeconomic impacts associated with marine trash and debris and their 

responsibilities for ensuring that trash and debris are not intentionally or accidentally discharged into the 

marine environment where it could affect protected species. The above referenced NTL provides 

information that applicants may use for this awareness training. 

7.2. PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR LISTED BIRDS

No mitigation measures have been identified specifically for listed bird species. The piping plover 

and red knot are shorebirds that are unlikely to come into contact with G&G surveys. The roseate tern 

and Bermuda petrel may come into contact with G&G activities, but no adverse impacts are expected, as 

discussed in Section 6.3. Given the typical low density of seabirds offshore, it is likely that few if any of 

these birds would be exposed to G&G survey activities other than on an occasional basis. The marine 

debris awareness guidance (Section 7.1.5) will help to minimize the risk of trash and debris being 

released into the marine environment where it could affect listed birds. 

7.3. PROTECTIVE MEASURES FOR LISTED FISHES

No mitigation measures have been identified specifically for listed fish species. During seismic 

airgun surveys, ramp-up procedures for marine mammals and sea turtles may provide an opportunity for 

fishes such as alewife and blueback herring near airgun arrays to avoid exposure to high SPLs. However, 

ramp-up is not likely to be helpful to demersal fishes such as the smalltooth sawfish, shortnose sturgeon, 

or Atlantic sturgeon because they are beneath the airgun array and would not gain much benefit from 

moving laterally along the seafloor. 

The BOEM will require site-specific information regarding potentially sensitive benthic communities 

prior to approving any G&G activities involving seafloor-disturbing activities or placement of 

bottom-founded equipment or structures in the BA Area. The main purpose of the review is to avoid 

coral, hard/live bottom, and chemosynthetic communities. However, if the review identified habitats that 

serve as important feeding or aggregation areas for any of the listed fish species, the BOEM would 

include this information in its evaluation to ensure that impacts on listed species are avoided to the extent 

practicable. 
Biological Assessment A-171

8. REFERENCES 

Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team. 2007. Status review of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus 

oxyrinchus). Report to National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Regional Office, February 23, 

2007. 174 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/statusreviews/atlanticsturgeon2007.pdf. Accessed April 9, 2012. 

Atlantic Wind Connection. 2011a. Available at: http://atlanticwindconnection.com/. Accessed August 

18, 2011. 

Atlantic Wind Connection. 2011b. Right of way application – FAQs. Available at: 

http://www.atlanticwindconnection.com/ferc/BOEM/ROW%20application%20FAQs.pdf. Accessed 

September 2, 2011. 

Au, W.W.L. 1993. The sonar of dolphins. New York: Springer-Verlag. 277 pp. 

Au, W.W.L. and M.C. Hastings. 2008. Hearing in marine animals. In: Principles of marine 

bioacoustics. New York: Springer-Verlag. Pp. 337-400. 

Au, W.W.L., R.W. Floyd, R.H. Penner, and A.E. Murchison. 1974. Measurement of echolocation 

signals of the Atlantic spotted dolphin, Tursiops truncatus Montagu, in open waters. Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 56(4):1280-1290. 

Au, W.W.L., D.A. Carder, R.H. Penner, and B.L. Scronce. 1985. Demonstration of adaptation in beluga 

whale echolocation signals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 77(2):726-730. 

Au, W.W.L., A.A. Pack, M.O. Lammers, L.M. Herman, M.H. Deakos, and K. Andrews. 2006. Acoustic 

properties of humpback whale songs. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 120:1103-1110. 

Azzarello, M.Y. and E.S. Van Vleet. 1987. Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 37:295-303. 

Barber, J.R., K.R. Crooks, and K.M. Fristrup. 2010. The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial 

organisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 25:180-189. 

Barco, S.G., W.A. McLellan, J.M. Allen, R.A. Asmutis-Silvia, R. Mallon-Day, E.M. Meagher, 

D.A. Pabst, J. Robbins, R.E. Seton, W.M. Swingle, M.T. Weinrich, and P.J. Clapham. 2002. 

Population identity of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the waters of the 

U.S. mid-Atlantic states. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4(2):135-141. 

Barlow, J. and R. Gisiner. 2006. Mitigating, monitoring and assessing the effects of anthropogenic 

sound on beaked whales. J. Cetacean Res. Management 7(3):239–249.Barlow, J., L.T. Ballance, and 

K.A. Forney. 2011. Effective strip widths for ship-based line-transect surveys of cetaceans. U.S. 

Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science Center. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-484. November 

2011. Available at: 

http://swfsc.noaa.gov/uploadedFiles/Divisions/PRD/Programs/Coastal_Marine_Mammal/Barlow%20

et%20al%202011%20EffectiveStripWidths%20TM-484.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012. 

Barnes, D.K.A., F. Galgani, R.C. Thompson, and M. Barlaz. 2009. Accumulation and fragmentation of 

plastic debris in global environments. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 364:1985-1998. 

Bartol, S.M. and D.R. Ketten. 2006. Turtle and tuna hearing. In: Swimmer, Y. and R. Brill, eds. Sea 

turtle and pelagic fish sensory biology: Developing techniques to reduce sea turtle bycatch in 

longline fisheries. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-PIFSC-7. Pp. 98-105. Available at: 

http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/tech/NOAA_Tech_Memo_PIFSC_7.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Bartol, S.M., J.A. Musick, and M. Lenhardt. 1999. Auditory evoked potentials of the loggerhead sea 

turtle (Caretta caretta). Copeia 3:836-840. 
A-172 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Bauer, G.B., D.E. Colbert, and J.C. Gaspard III. 2010. Learning about Manatees: A Collaborative 

Program between New College of Florida and Mote Marine Laboratory to Conduct Laboratory 

Research for Manatee Conservation. International Journal of Comparative Psychology 23: 811-825. 

http://www.comparativepsychology.org/ijcp-2010-4/15.Bauer_etal_Final.pdf

Baumgartner, M.F. and B.R. Mate. 2005. Summer and fall habitat of North Atlantic right whales 

(Eubalaena glacialis) inferred from satellite telemetry. Candian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences 62:527-543. 

Bee, M.A. and E.N. Swanson. 2007. Auditory masking of anuran advertisement calls by road traffic 

noise. Animal Behaviour 74(6):1765-1776. 

Beggs, J.A., J.A. Horrocks, and B.H. Krueger. 2007. Increase in hawksbill sea turtle Eretmochelys 

imbricata nesting in Barbados, West Indies. Endangered Species Research 3:159-168. Available at: 

http://www.widecast.org/What/Country/Barbados/Docs/Beggs_et_al_%282007%29_EI_rising_in_Ba

rbados.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Bejder, L., A. Samuels, H. Whitehead, H. Finn, and S. Allen. 2009. Impact assessment research: Use 

and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to 

anthropogenic stimuli. Marine Ecology Progress Series 395:177-185. Available at: http://www.intres.com/articles/theme/m395p177.pdf. Accessed October 5, 2011. 

Bell, I.P. and C.J. Parmenter. 2008. The diving behavior of inter-nesting hawksbill turtles, 

Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus 1766), on Milman Island reef, Queensland, Australia. 

Herpetological Conservation and Biology 3(2):254-263. Available at: 

http://www.herpconbio.org/Volume_3/Issue_2/Bell_Parmenter_2008.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Bigelow, H.B and W.C. Schroeder. 1953. Fishes of the Gulf of Maine. Fish. Bull. 74. 577 pp. Online 

edition. Available at: http://www.gma.org/fogm/. Accessed September 18, 2011. 

Bingham, G. 2011. Status and Applications of Acoustic Mitigation and Monitoring Systems for Marine 

Mammals: Workshop Proceedings; November 17-19, 2009, Boston, Massachusetts. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEMRE 2011-002. 384 pp. 

Birchwood, R., S. Noeth, and E. Jones. 2008. Safe drilling in gas-hydrate prone sediments: Findings 

from the 2005 drilling campaign of the GOM gas hydrates Joint Industry Project (JIP). U.S. Dept. of 

Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Fire in the Ice. Methane Hydrate Newsletter. 

Winter 2008, Vol. 8, Issue 1. Pp. 1-8. Available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oilgas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/HMNewsWinter08.pdf#page=1. Accessed August 26, 2011. 

Bjorndal, K.A. 1997. Foraging ecology and nutrition of sea turtles. In: Lutz, P.L. and J.A. Musick, eds. 

The biology of sea turtles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Pp. 199-231. 

Bjorndal, K.A and A.B. Bolten. 1988. Growth rates of immature green turtles, Chelonia mydas, on 

feeding grounds in the southern Bahamas. Copeia 1988:555-564. Available at: 

http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/Bjorndal_1988_Copeia.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Bjorndal, K.A. and A.B. Bolten. 2010. Hawksbill sea turtles in seagrass pastures: Success in a 

peripheral habitat. Marine Biology 157:135-145. Available at: 

http://accstr.ufl.edu/publications/Bjorndal_&_Bolten_MarBiol_2010.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Bjorndal, K.A., A.B. Bolten, and M.Y. Chaloupka. 2003. Survival probability estimates for immature 

green turtles Chelonia mydas in the Bahamas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 252:273–281. 

Available at: http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/Bjorndal_2003_MarEcolProgSer.pdf. Accessed August 

19, 2011. 
Biological Assessment A-173

Blue Planet Marine. 2010. Review of seismic survey guidelines and reference document. Discussion 

paper prepared for New Zealand Department of Conservation. Document Reference No. BPM-10-

DOC-DP-v1.0. 19 May 2010. Available at: http://www.pepanz.org.nz/pepanzDocuments/BPM-10-

DOC-DP-v1%200%20-%20Seismic%20Guidelines%20Discussion%20Paper%20-%2019-05-2010-

OPT.pdf. Accessed April 4, 2012. 

Blumenthal, J.M., F.A. Abreu-Grobois, T.J. Austin, A.C. Broderick, M.W. Bruford, M.S. Coyne, 

G. Ebanks-Petrie, A. Formia, P.A. Meylan, A.B. Meylan, and B.J. Godley. 2009. Turtle groups or 

turtle soup: Dispersal patterns of hawksbill turtles in the Caribbean. Molecular Ecology 

18:4841-4853. Available at: http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/BlumenthalJM_2009_MolEcol.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Boehlert, G.W., G.R. McMurray, and C.E. Tortorici (eds.). 2008. Ecological Effects of Wave Energy 

Development in the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical 

Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-92. 174 pp. 

Bolten, A.B. and B.E. Witherington, eds. 2003. Loggerhead sea turtles. Washington, DC: Smithsonian 

Books. 319 pp. 

Boswell, R., T. Collett, D. McConnell, M. Frye, B. Shedd, S. Mrozewski, G. Guerin, A. Cook, 

P. Godfriaux, R. Dufrene, R. Roy, and E. Jones. 2009. Joint industry project Leg II discovers rich 

gas hydrate accumulations in sand reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Dept. of Energy, National 

Energy Technology Laboratory, Fire in the Ice. Methane Hydrate Newsletter Summer 2009 9(3):1-5. 

Available at: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oilgas/publications/Hydrates/Newsletter/MHNewsSummer09.pdf#Page=1. Accessed August 26, 2011. 

Breder, C.M. 1952. On the utility of the saw of the sawfish. Copeia 1952(2):90-91. 

Brooke, M. 2004. Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. 

499 pp. 

Brown, J.J. and G.W. Murphy. 2010. Atlantic sturgeon vessel-strike mortalities in the Delaware Estuary. 

Fisheries. 35(2):72-83. 

Brumm, H, and H. Slabbekoorn. 2005. Acoustic communication in noise. Advances in Behavior 

35:151-209. 

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). 2001. Pile Installation Demonstration Project, 

Fisheries Impact Assessment. PIDP EA 012081, Caltrans Contract 04A0148. San Francisco - 

Oakland Bay Bridge East Span Seismic Safety Project. 

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). 2010a. Effects of Pile Driving Sound on Juvenile 

Steelhead. Prepared by ICF Jones & Stokes, Seattle, WA. 

California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). 2010b. Necropsy and Histopathology of Steelhead 

Trout Exposed to Steel Pile Driving at the Mad River Bridges, U.S. Highway 101, July 2009. 

Prepared by Gary D. Marty, DVM, Ph.D., Fish Pathology Services, Abbotsford, British Columbia, 

Canada. 

Campbell, L.M., J.J. Silver, N.J. Gray, S. Ranger, A.C. Broderick, T. Fisher, M.H. Godfrey, S. Gore, 

K.V.D. Hodge, J. Jeffers, C.S. Martin, A. Mcgowan, P.B. Richardson, C. Sasso, L. Slade, and 

B.J. Godley. 2009. Co-management of sea turtle fisheries: Biogeography versus geopolitic. Marine 

Policy 33:137–145. 

Canal de Panamá. 2012. Expansion program: Program description. Available at: 

http://www.pancanal.com/eng/expansion/. Accessed January 20, 2012. 

Carls, M.G., S.D. Rice, and J.E. Hose. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil. 

I. Low-level exposure during incubation causes malformations, genetic damage, and mortality in 

larval pacific herring (Clupea pallasi). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 18:481-493. 

Carr, A. 1952. Handbook of turtles. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 
A-174 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Carr, A. and A.B. Meylan. 1980. Evidence of passive migration of green turtle hatchlings in Sargassum. 

Copeia 2:366-368. 

Casper, B.M. and D.A. Mann. 2006. Evoked potential audiograms of the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma 

cirratum) and the yellow stingray (Urobatis jamaicensis). Environmental Biology of 

Fishes 76:101-108. 

Casper, B.M., P.S. Lobel, and H.Y. Yan. 2003. The hearing sensitivity of the little skate, Raja erinacea: 

A comparison of two methods. Environmental Biology of Fishes 68:371-379. 

Casper, B.M., F.M. Matthews, M.B. Halvorsen, T.J. Carlson, and A.N. Popper. 2011. Recovery from 

exposure to pile driving signals by Chinook salmon. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 129(4):2436. 

Castege, I., Y. Lalanne, V. Gouriou, G. Hemery, M. Girin, F. D’Amico, C. Mouches, J. D’Elbee, 

L. Soulier, J. Pensu, D. Lafitte, and R. Pautrizel. 2007. Estimating actual seabirds mortality at sea 

and relationship with oil spills: Lessons from the Prestige oil spill in Aquitaine (France). 

Ardeola 54(2):289-307. 

Castellote, M., C.W. Clark, and M.O. Lammers. 2010. Potential negative effects in the reproduction and 

survival on fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) by shipping and airgun noise. International Whaling 

Commission Scientific Committee Document, SC/62/E3. 

CGGVeritas. 2011. Typical seismic vessel specifications. Available at: 

http://oilandgastraining.org/data/gp21/P0728.asp?Code=6043. Accessed August 29, 2011. 

Christian, J.R. and R.C. Bocking. 2011. Appendix D: Review of the Effects of Airgun Sounds on 

Marine Invertebrates and Fish. In: National Science Foundation and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. 

Geological Survey. Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Overseas Environmental 

Impact Statement for Marine Seismic Research Funded by the National Science Foundation or 

conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. June 2011. 514 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/envcomp/usgs-nsf-marine-seismic-research/nsf-usgs-final-eisoeis_3june2011.pdf. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

Chuenpagdee, R., L.E. Morgan, S.M. Maxwell, E.A. Norse, and D. Pauly. 2003. Shifting gears: 

Assessing collateral impacts of fishing methods in U.S. waters. Frontiers in Ecology and the 

Environment 1(10):517–524. Available at: 

http://www.mcbi.org/publications/pub_pdfs/Chuenpagdee_et_al_2003.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Clark, C.W. 1991. Recent studies of temporary threshold shift (TTS) and permanent threshold shift 

(PTS) in animals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 90:155-163. 

Clark, C.W. and W.T. Ellison. 2004. Potential use of low-frequency sounds by baleen whales for 

probing the environment: evidence from models and empirical measurements, pp. 564-582. 

In: J. Thomas, C. Moss and M. Vater (eds.), Echolocation in Bats and Dolphins. The University of 

Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 

Clark, C.W. and G.C. Gagnon. 2006. Considering the temporal and spatial scales of noise exposures 

from seismic surveys on baleen whales. International Whaling Commission SC58/E9. 

Clark, C.W., D. Gillespie, D.P. Nowacek, and S.E. Parks. 2007. Listening to their world: Acoustics for 

monitoring and protecting right whales in the urbanized ocean. In: Kraus, S.D. and R.M. Rolland, 

eds. The urban whale: North Atlantic right whales at the crossroads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 

University Press. Pp. 333-357. 

Clark, C.W., W.T. Ellison, B.L. Southall, L. Hatch, S.M. Van Parijs, A. Frankel, and D. Ponirakis. 2009. 

Acoustic masking in marine ecosystems: Intuitions, analysis, and implication. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 395:201-222. Available at: http://www.int-res.com/articles/theme/m395p201.pdf. 

Accessed October 5, 2011. 

Codarin, A., L.E. Wysocki, F. Ladich, and M. Picciulin. 2009. Effects of ambient and boat noise on 

hearing and communication in three fish species living in a marine protected area. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 58(12):1880-1887. 
Biological Assessment A-175

Coles, W.C. 1999. Aspects of the biology of sea turtles in the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Ph.D. Dissertation, 

College of William and Mary. Available at: http://web.vims.edu/library/Theses/Coles99.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Collins, M.R. and T.I.J. Smith. 1997. Management briefs: Distribution of shortnose and Atlantic 

sturgeons in South Carolina. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 17:995-1000. 

Compton, R., L. Goodwin, R. Handy, and V. Abbott. 2007. A critical examination of worldwide 

guidelines for minimising the disturbance to marine mammals during seismic surveys. Marine Policy 

(2007), doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2007.05.005. Available at: 

http://www.marineconnection.org/docs/Disturbance%20to%20marine%20mammals%20during%20se

ismic%20surveys%20-%20Compton%20et%20al.%202007%20Marine%20Policy.pdf

Conant, T.A., P.H. Dutton, T. Eguchi, S.P. Epperly, C.C. Fahy, M.H. Godfrey, S.L. MacPherson, 

E.E. Possardt, B.A. Schroeder, J.A. Seminoff, M.L. Snover, C.M. Upite, and B.E. Witherington. 

2009. Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) 2009 status review under the U.S. Endangered Species 

Act. Report of the Loggerhead Biological Review Team to the National Marine Fisheries Service, 

August 2009. 222 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/statusreviews/loggerheadturtle2009.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 2006. Effects of oil and gas exploration and development at selected 

continental slope sites in the Gulf of Mexico. Volume II: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study 

MMS 2006-045. 636 pp. Available at: 

http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/3/3875.pdf. Accessed September 28, 2011. 

Corwin, J.T. 1981. Postembryonic production and aging in inner ear hair cells in sharks. J. Comp. 

Neurol. 201:541-553.

Couillard, C.M., K. Lee, B. Legare, and T.L. King. 2005. Effect of dispersant on the composition of the 

water-accommodated fraction of crude oil and its toxicity to larval marine fish. Environ. Toxicol. 

Chem. 24:1496-1504. 

Cowan, D.F. and B.E. Curry. 2008. Histopathology of the alarm reaction in small odontocetes. Journal 

of Comparative Pathology 139:24-33. 

Cranford, T.W., M.F. McKenna, M.S. Soldevilla, S.M. Wiggins, J.A. Goldbogen, R.E. Shadwick, 

P. Krysl, J.A. St. Leger, and J.A. Hildebrand. 2008a. Anatomic geometry of sound transmission and 

reception in Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). Anat. Rec. 291:353-378. 

Cranford, T. W.P. Krysl, and J.A. Hildebrand. 2008b. Acoustic pathways revealed: simulated sound 

transmission and reception in Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). Bioinsp. Biomim. 

3:016001 (10pp). Available at: 

http://spermwhale.org/SDSU/My%20Work/Cranford_et_al_Sound_Paths_FEM_BB_2008.pdf. 

Accessed August 5, 2011. 

CSA International, Inc. 2009. Ecological functions of nearshore hardbottom habitat in east Florida: A 

literature synthesis. Prepared for the Florida Dept. of Environmental Protection Bureau of Beaches 

and Coastal Systems, Tallahassee, FL. 186 pp + apps. Available at: 

http://www.dep.state.fl.us/beaches/publications/pdf/EFNHBE.pdf. Accessed August 17, 2011. 

Cudahy, E. and W. Ellison. 2002. A review of the potential for in vivo tissue damage by exposure to 

underwater sound. Naval Submarine Medical Research Library, Groton, CT. 

Dadswell, M.J., B.D. Taubert, T.S. Squiers, D. Marchette, and J. Buckley. 1984. Synopsis of biological 

data on shortnose sturgeon, Acipenser brevirostrum LeSueur 1818. NOAA Technical Report 

NMFS-14, FAO Fisheries Synopsis No. 140. 45 pp. Available at: http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/tr14.pdf. 

Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Dahlheim, M.E. 1987. Bio-acoustics of the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus). Ph.D. thesis, Univ. 

British Columbia, Vancouver, BC. 315 pp. 
A-176 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Dahlheim, M.E., and D.k. Ljungblad. 1990. Preliminary hearing study on gray whales (Eschrichtius 

robustus) in the field. In: J.A. Thomas and R.A. Kastelein, eds. Sensory Ability of Cetaceans, 

Laboratory and Field Evidence. New York: Plenum. Pp. 335-346. 

Desharnais, F., A. Vanderlaan, C. Taggart, M. Hazen, and A. Hay. 1999. Preliminary results on the 

acoustic characterization of the northern right whale. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

106:2163. 

Di Iorio, L. and C.W. Clark. 2010. Exposure to seismic survey alters blue whale acoustic 

communication. Biology Letters 6:51-54. 

DiFrancesco, D., T. Meyer, A. Christensen, and D. FitzGerald. 2009. Gravity gradiometry – today and 

tomorrow. In: 11th SAGA Biennial Technical Meeting and Exhibition, Swaziland, 16-18 September 

2009. Pp. 80-83. Available at: 

http://www.sagaonline.co.za/2009Conference/CD%20Handout/SAGA%202009/PDFs/Abstracts_and

_Papers/difrancesco_paper1.pdf. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

Dooling, R. 2002. Avian Hearing and the Avoidance of Wind Turbines. National Renewable Energy 

Laboratory, NREL/TP-500-30844. 83 pp. 

Dooling, R.J. and A.N. Popper. 2000. Hearing in birds and reptiles: An overview. In: Dooling, R.J., 

A.N. Popper, and R.R. Fay, eds. Comparative Hearing: Birds and Reptiles. New York: 

Springer-Verlag. Pp. 1-12. 

Dooling, R.J., E.W. West, and M.R. Leek. 2009. Conceptual and computation models of the effects of 

anthropogenic sound on birds. Proceedings of the Institute of Acoustics, 31(pt 1). 

Douglas, A.B., J. Calambokidis, S. Raverty, S.J. Jeffries, D.M. Lambourn, and S.A. Norman. 2008. 

Incidence of ship strikes of large whales in Washington State. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 

Duchesne, M., G. Bellefleur, M. Galbraith, R. Kolesar, and R. Kuzmiski. 2007. Strategies for waveform 

processing in sparker data. Marine Geophysical Researches 28:153-164. 

Dunning, D.J., Q.E. Ross, P. Geoghegan, J.J. Reichle, J.K. Menezes, and J.K. Watson. 1992. Alewives 

avoid high-frequency sound. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12:407-416. 

Dunton, K.J., A. Jordaan, K.A. McKown, D.O. Conover, and M.G. Frisk. 2010. Abundance and 

distribution of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus) within the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, 

determined from five fishery-independent surveys. Fishery Bulletin 108(4):450-465. Available at: 

http://fishbull.noaa.gov/1084/dunton.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Eckert, S.A. 2006. High-use oceanic areas for Atlantic leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) as 

identified using satellite telemetered location and dive information. Marine Biology 149:1257–1267. 

Eckert, S. A., D. W. Nellis, K. L. Eckert, and G. L. Kooyman. 1986. Diving patterns of two leatherback 

sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) during internesting intervals at Sandy Point, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin 

Islands. Herpetologica 42(3):381-388. 

Eckert, S. A., K. L. Eckert, P. Ponganis, and G. L. Kooyman. 1989. Diving and foraging behavior of 

leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). Can. J. Zool. 67:2,834-2,840. 

Efroymson, R.A., W.H. Rose, S. Nemeth, and G.W. Suter II. 2000. Ecological risk assessment 

framework for low-altitude overflights by fixed-wing and rotary-wing military aircraft. 

ORNL/TM-2000/289. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 115 pp. 

Ellison, W.T., B.L. Southall, C.W. Clark, and A.S. Frankel. 2011. A new context-based approach to 

assess marine mammal behavioral responses to anthropogenic sounds. Conservation Biology, online 

version published December 19, 2011. DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01803.x. 

Engås, A., S. Løkkeborg, E. Ona, and A.V. Soldal. 1996. Effects of seismic shooting on local abundance 

and catch rates of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Canadian Journal 

of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53:2238-2249. 
Biological Assessment A-177

Enger, P.S. 1981. Frequency discrimination in teleosts-central or peripheral? In: Tavolga, W.N., A.N. 

Popper, and R.R. Fay, eds. Hearing and sound communication in fishes. New York, NY: 

Springer-Verlag. Pp. 243-255. 

Erickson, D.L., A. Kahnle, M.J. Millard, E.A. Mora, M. Bryja, A. Higgs, J. Mohler, M. DuFour, 

G. Kenney, J. Sweka, and E.K. Pikitch. 2011. Use of pop-up satellite archival tags to identify 

oceanic-migratory patterns for adult Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus

Mitchell, 1815. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 27:356–365. Available at: 

http://www.oceanconservationscience.org/publications/files/papers/Erickson_et_al_2011_Atlantic_St

urgeon.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Ernst, C.H., J.E. Lovich, and R.W. Barbour. 1994. Turtles of the United States and Canada. 

Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, DC. 578 pp. 

Eskesen, I.G., J. Teilmann, B.M. Geertsen, G. Desportes, F. Riget, R. Dietz, F. Larsen, and U. Siebert. 

2009. Stress level in wild harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) during satellite tagging measured 

by respiration, heart rate and cortisol. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United 

Kingdom 89:885-892. 

Fay, R.R. 1988. Hearing in vertebrates: A psychophysics databook. Winnetka, IL: Hill-Fay Associates. 

Fay, R.R. 2005. Sound source localization by fishes. In: Popper, A.N. and R.R. Fay, eds. Sound source 

localization. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. Pp. 36-66. 

Fay, R.R. and A. Megela-Simmons. 1999. The sense of hearing in fishes and amphibians. In: Fay, R.R. 

and A.N. Popper, eds. Comparative hearing: Fish and amphibians. New York: Springer-Verlag. 

Pp. 269-318. 

Fay, R.R. and A.N. Popper. 2000. Evolution of hearing in vertebrates: The inner ears and processing. 

Hearing Research 149:1-10. 

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 2012. North American LNG import terminals. Available at: 

http://www.ferc.gov/industries/gas/indus-act/lng/LNG-existing.pdf. Last updated February 28, 2012. 

Accessed March 22, 2012. 

Federal Register. 1967. Native fish and wildlife endangered species. Dept. of the Interior, Office of the 

Secretary. March 11, 1967. 32 FR 48, p. 4001. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr32-4001.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011.

Federal Register. 1976. Determination of critical habitat for American crocodile, California condor, 

Indiana bat, and Florida manatee. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. September 24, 

1976. 41 FR 187, pp. 41914-41916. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr115.pdf. Accessed August 24, 2011. 

Federal Register. 1979. Designated critical habitat; Determination of critical habitat for the leatherback 

sea turtle. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine 

Fisheries Service. March 23, 1979. 44 FR 58, pp. 17710-17712. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr44-17710.pdf. Accessed August 24, 2011. 

Federal Register. 1994. Designated critical habitat; Northern right whale. Dept. of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. June 3, 1994. 

59 FR 106, pp. 28793-28808. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1994-06-03/html/94-

13500.htm. Accessed August 24, 2011. 

Federal Register. 1998a. Designated critical habitat; Green and hawksbill sea turtles. Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

September 2, 1998. 63 FR 170, pp. 46693-46701. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR1998-09-02/pdf/98-23533.pdf. Accessed August 24, 2011. 
A-178 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Federal Register. 1998b. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Notice of availability for the 

final recovery plan for shortnose sturgeon. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. December 17, 1998. 63 FR 242, 

pp. 69613-69615. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1998-12-17/pdf/98-33465.pdf. 

Accessed August 23, 2011.

Federal Register. 2001. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Final determination of critical 

habitat for wintering piping plovers. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. July 10, 2001. 

66 FR 132, pp. 36038-36143. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2001-07-10/pdf/01-

16905.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011.

Federal Register. 2003. Endangered and threatened Species; Final endangered status for a distinct 

population segment of smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) in the United States. Department of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

April 1, 2003. 68 FR 62, pp. 15674-15680. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2003-

04-01/pdf/03-7786.pdf. Accessed September 18, 2011. 

Federal Register. 2006. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Review of native species that are 

candidates or proposed for listing as endangered or threatened; Annual notice of findings on 

resubmitted petitions; Annual description of progress on listing actions. Dept. of the Interior, Fish 

and Wildlife Service. September 12, 2006. 71 FR 176, pp. 53756-53835. Available at: 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2006-09-12/pdf/06-7375.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011.

Federal Register. 2007. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; 5-Year Review of 

16 Southeastern Species. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. September 21, 2007. 72 

FR 183, pp. 54057-54059. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-09-21/pdf/E7-

18558.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011.

Federal Register. 2008. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Revised designation of critical 

habitat for the wintering population of the Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) in North Carolina. 

Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. October 21, 2008. 73 FR 204, pp. 62816-62841. 

Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2008-10-21/pdf/E8-23206.pdf. Accessed August 

22, 2011. 

Federal Register. 2009. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Revised designation of critical 

habitat for the wintering population of the Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) in Texas. Dept. of the 

Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. May 19, 2009. 74 FR 95, pp. 23476-23600. Available at: 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2009-05-19/pdf/E9-11245.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

Federal Register. 2010a. Commercial leasing for wind power on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 

offshore Delaware—Request for Interest (RFI). U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement. April 26, 2010. 75 FR79, pp. 21653-21657. Available 

at: http://www.boemre.gov/offshore/PDFs/FinalDelawareRFI.pdf. 

Federal Register. 2010b. Commercial leasing for wind power on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 

offshore Maryland—Request for Interest (RFI). U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement. November 9, 2010. 75 FR 216, pp. 68824-68828. 

Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-11-09/pdf/2010-28269.pdf. 

Federal Register. 2010c. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Designating Critical Habitat for the 

Endangered North Atlantic Right Whale. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. October 6, 2010. 75 FR 193, 

pp. 61690-61691. Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr75-61690.pdf. Accessed 

April 3, 2012. 

Federal Register. 2010d. Endangered and threatened species; Proposed listing of nine distinct 

population segments of loggerhead sea turtles as endangered or threatened. Dept. of the Interior, 

National Marine Fisheries Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. March 16, 2010. 75 FR 50, pp. 12598-12656. Available at: 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-03-16/pdf/2010-5370.pdf. Accessed August 24, 2011. 
Biological Assessment A-179

Federal Register. 2010e. Endangered and threatened wildlife; Notice of 90–day finding on a petition to 

revise critical habitat for the endangered leatherback sea turtle under the Endangered Species Act. 

Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries 

Service. July 16, 2010. 75 FR 136, pp. 41436-41438. Available at: 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2010-07-16/pdf/2010-17531.pdf. Accessed August 24, 2011. 

Federal Register. 2011a. Reorganization of Title 30: Bureaus of Safety and Environmental Enforcement 

and Ocean Energy Management. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Environmental Safety 

and Enforcement and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. October 18, 2011. 76 FR 201, pp. 

64432-64780. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-10-18/pdf/2011-22675.pdf. Accessed 

March 19, 2012. 

Federal Register. 2011b. Commercial wind lease issuance and site characterization activities; Atlantic 

Outer Continental Shelf offshore NJ, DE, MD, and VA. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. February 9, 2011. 76 FR 27, pp. 7226-7228. 

Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-02-09/pdf/2011-2774.pdf. 

Federal Register. 2011c. Endangered and threatened species; Determination of nine distinct population 

segments of loggerhead sea turtles as endangered or threatened. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

September 16, 2011. Number not assigned yet. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/loggerhead_listing_finalrule_filed.pdf. Accessed 

September 18, 2011. 

Federal Register. 2011d. Listing endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; 90-day finding on a 

petition to list alewife and blueback herring as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. Dept. 

of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

November 2, 2011. 76 FR 212, pp. 67652-67656. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR2011-11-02/pdf/2011-28430.pdf. Accessed February 2, 2012. 

Federal Register. 2012a. Endangered and Threatened Species; Initiation of 5-Year Review for the North 

Atlantic Right Whale and the North Pacific Right Whale. Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. March 21, 2012. 

77 FR 55, pp. 16538-16539. Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr77-16538.pdf. 

Accessed April 3, 2012. 

Federal Register. 2012b. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened and Endangered 

Status for Distinct Population Segments of Atlantic Sturgeon in the Northeast Region. Department of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

February 6, 2012. 77 FR 24, pp. 5880-5912. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr77-5880.pdf. Accessed April 3, 2012. 

Federal Register. 2012c. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened and Endangered 

Status for Two Distinct Population Segments of Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) 

in the Southeast Region. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service. February 6, 2012. 77 FR 24, pp. 5914-5982. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/fr/fr77-5914.pdf. Accessed April 3, 2012. 

Finneran, J.J., D.A. Carder, C.E. Schlundt, and S.H. Ridgway. 2005. Temporary threshold shift in 

bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) exposed to mid-frequency tones. Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 118:2696-2705. 

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2007. Florida Manatee Management Plan, 

(Trichechus manatus latirostris). December, 2007. 281 pp. Available at: 

http://myfwc.com/media/214332/Manatee_Mgmt_Plan.pdf. Accessed September 18, 2011. 

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2011. 2010 Statewide Nesting Totals. Available 

at: http://myfwc.com/research/wildlife/sea-turtles/nesting/statewide/. Accessed March 29, 2011. 
A-180 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2012. 2011 Preliminary manatee mortality report. 

Available at: http://myfwc.com/research/manatee/rescue-mortality-response/mortalitystatistics/2011/. Accessed April 18, 2012. 

Florida Power and Light Company and Quantum Resources, Inc. 2005. Florida Power and Light 

Company. St. Lucie Plant Annual Environmental Operating Report. 57 pp. 

Foley, A.M., K.E. Singel, P.H. Dutton, T.M. Summers, A.E. Redlow, and J. Lessman. 2007. 

Characteristics of a green turtle (Chelonia mydas) assemblage in northwestern Florida determined 

during a hypothermic stunning event. Gulf of Mexico Science 2:131–143. Available at: 

http://research.myfwc.com/engine/download_redirection_process.asp?file=07foley_0757.pdf&objid=

57695&dltype=publication. Accessed April 2, 2012. 

Frankel, A.S. 2005. Gray whales hear and respond to a 21-25 kHz high-frequency whale-finding sonar, 

p. 97. In: Proceedings 16th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, San Diego, 

California, 12-16 December 2005. 

Frankel, A.S. and C. W. Clark. 1998. Results of low-frequency playback of M-sequence noise to 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Hawaii. Canadian Journal of Zoology 1998:521-535. 

Frost, K.J., and L.F. Lowry. 1994. Assessment of injury to harbor seals in Prince William Sound, Alaska 

and adjacent areas following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Marine mammal Study No. 5. Exxon Valdez

oil spill, State/Federal Natural Resource Damage Assessment, Final Report. PB-96-197116/XAB. 

Fugro. 2003. Geophysical and geological techniques for the investigation of near-seabed soils and rocks. 

A handbook for non-specialists. U.S. Rev. 02-23/03. 55 pp. Available at: http://www.fugrosurvey.nl/downloads/corporate/other/GP-GT-TECHNIQUES-handbook.pdf. Accessed September 2, 

2011. 

Fugro Gravity and Magnetic Services. 2012. Offshore Gulf of Mexico USA Non-Exclusive Data. 

Available at: http://www.fugrogravmag.com/nex_na/offshore_gulf.php?region=Offshore%20Gulf%20of%20Mexico#aeromag. 

Accessed January 19, 2012. 

Geophysical Service, Inc. 2011a. Marine seismic survey vessel: M/V GSI Admiral, vessel 

specifications. Available at: 

http://www.geophysicalservice.com/Site_Files/My_Files/Seismic%20Fleet/GSI%20Admiral%20Spec

%20Sheet.pdf.. Accessed August 29, 2011. 

Geophysical Service, Inc. 2011b. Marine seismic survey vessel: M/V GSI Pacific, vessel specifications. 

Available at: 

http://www.geophysicalservice.com/Site_Files/My_Files/Seismic%20Fleet/GSI%20Pacific%20Spec

%20Sheet,%20Updated%20May%202008.pdf. Accessed August 29, 2011. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin. 1980. Offshore petroleum resource development and marine mammals: 

A review and research recommendations. Marine Fisheries Review 42:1-12. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin. 1982. Study of the effects of oil on cetaceans. Report by the University 

of Guelph for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Washington, DC. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin. 1985. Expanded studies of the effects of oil on cetaceans, Part I. Report 

by the University of Guelph for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Washington, DC. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin. 1987. Effects of offshore oil and gas development on marine mammals 

and turtles. In: Boesch, D.F. and N.N. Rabalais, eds. Long term environmental effects of offshore 

oil and gas development. London and New York: Elsevier Applied Science Publ. Ltd. Pp. 587-617. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. 1990. Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. San Diego, 

CA: Academic Press. 

Gerstein, E.R., L. Gerstein, S.E. Forsythe, and J.E. Blue. 1999. The underwater audiogram of the West 

Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105:3575–3583. 
Biological Assessment A-181

Godley, B.J., A.C. Broderick, F. Glen, and G.C. Hays. 2003. Post-nesting movements and submergence 

patterns of loggerhead marine turtles in the Mediterranean assessed by satellite tracking. Journal of 

Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 287:119-134. Available at: 

http://www.seaturtle.org/mtrg/pubs/godley_JEMBE_03.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Godley, B.J., J.M. Blumenthal, A.C. Broderick, M.S. Coyne, M.H. Godfrey, L.A. Hawkes, and M.J. Witt. 

2008. Satellite tracking of sea turtles: Where have we been and where do we go next? Endangered 

Species Research 4:3-22. Available at: http://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2007/3/n003pp16.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Godley, B.J., C. Barbosa, M. Bruford, A.C. Broderick, P. Catry, M.S. Coyne, A. Formia, G.C. Hays, and 

M.J. Witt. 2010. Unravelling migratory connectivity in marine turtles using multiple methods. 

Journal of Applied Ecology 47:769-778. Available at: 

http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/GodleyBJ_2010_JApplEcol.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Goertner, J.F. 1982. Prediction of underwater explosion safe ranges for sea mammals. Naval Surface 

Weapons Center, Silver Spring, MD. Available at: 

http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a139823.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2011. 

Goold, J.C. 1996. Acoustic assessment of populations of common dolphin Delphinus delphis in 

conjunction with seismic surveying. Journal of the Marine Biological Association 76:811-820. 

Gordon, J., D. Gillespie, J. Potter, A. Frantzis, M.P. Simmonds, R. Swift, and D. Thompson. 2004. A 

review of the effects of seismic surveys on marine mammals. Marine Technology Society Journal 

37:16-34. 

Gregory, M.R. 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings – entanglement, 

ingestion, smothering, hangers on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philosophical Transactions of 

the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences (2009) 364:2013-2025. 

Griffin, D.B. 2002. GIS analysis of inter-nesting habitat, migratory corridors, and resident foraging areas 

of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) along the southeast coast. M.S. thesis, University of 

Charleston, SC. 64 pp. 

Hain, J.H.W., M.J. Ratnaswamy, R.D. Kenney and H.E. Winn. 1992. The fin whale, Balaenoptera 

physalus, in waters of the northeastern United States continental shelf. Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. 42: 

653-669. 

Halvorsen, M.B., C.M. Woodley, B.M. Casper, T.J. Carlson, and A.N. Popper. 2011a. Derivation of a 

response severity index model for physiological quantification of fish response to impulsive sound. 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 129:2435. 

Halvorsen, M.B., B.M. Casper, C.M. Woodley, T.J. Carlson, and A.N. Popper. 2011b. Predicting and 

mitigating hydroacoustic impacts on fish from pile installations. National Cooperative Highway 

Research Program Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, in press. 

Hamilton, P.K., M.K. Marx, and S.D. Kraus. 1998. Scarification analysis of North Atlantic right whales 

(Eubalaena glacialis) as a method of assessing human impacts. Final report to NMFS Northeast 

Fisheries Science Center, contract No. 4EANF-6-0004. 

Hannay, D., R. Racca, and A. MacGillivray. 2011. Model based assessment of underwater noise from an 

airgun array soft-start operation. Report by JASCO Applied Sciences for International Association of 

Oil and Gas Producers. OGP Report No. 451. Available at: http://www.ogp.org.uk/pubs/451.pdf. 

Accessed April 25, 2012. 

Hart, K.M. and I. Fujisaki. 2010. Satellite tracking reveals habitat use by juvenile green sea turtles 

Chelonia mydas in the Everglades, Florida, USA. Endangered Species Research 11:221-232. 

Hastings, M.C., A.N. Popper, J.J. Finneran, and P.J. Lanford. 1996. Effects of low-frequency underwater 

sound on hair cells of the inner ear and lateral line of the teleost fish Astronotus ocellatus. J. Acoust. 

Soc. Am. 99(3):1759-1766. 
A-182 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Hatase, H., K. Omuta, and K. Tsukamoto. 2007. Bottom or midwater: Alternative foraging behaviours 

in adult female loggerhead sea turtles. Journal of Zoology 46 (273):46–55. Available at: 

http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/Hatase_2007_JZool.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Hawkins, A.D. and A.A. Myrberg, Jr. 1983. Hearing and sound communication under water. In: Lewis, 

B., ed. Bioacoustics: A comparative approach. London: Academic Press. Pp. 347-405. 

Hays, G.C., V.J. Hobson, J.D. Metcalfe, D. Righton, and D.W. Sims. 2006. Flexible foraging 

movements of leatherback turtles across the North Atlantic Ocean. Ecology 87(10):2647–2656. 

Available at: http://www.swan.ac.uk/bs/turtle/reprints/Hays_etal_Ecology_2006.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Hazel, J., I.R. Lawler, and M. Hamann. 2009. Diving at the shallow end: Green turtle behavior in 

near-shore foraging habitat. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 371 84–92. 

Available at: http://www.seaturtle.org/PDF/HazelJ_2009a_JExpMarBiolEcol.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

High Energy Seismic Survey. 1999. High energy seismic survey review process and interim operational 

guidelines for marine surveys offshore Southern California. Prepared for The California State Lands 

Commission and the Minerals Management Service Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region. 

http://www.boemre.gov/omm/pacific/lease/fullhessrept.pdf. 

Hildebrand, J.A. 2009. Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. Marine 

Ecology Progress Series 395:5-20. Available at: http://www.intres.com/articles/theme/m395p005.pdf. 

Hoffman, W. and T.H. Fritts. 1982. Sea turtle distribution along the boundary of the Gulf Stream 

Current off eastern Florida. Herpetologica 38(3):405-409. 

Hoover-Miller, A., K.R. Parker, and J.J. Burns. 2001. A reassessment of the impact of the Exxon Valdez

oil spill on harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine 

Mammal Science 17(1):111-135. 

Hose, J.E., M.D. McGurk, G.D. Marty, D.E. Hinton, E.D. Brown, and T.T. Baker. 1996. Sublethal 

effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on herring embryos and larvae: morphological, cytogenetic, and 

histopathological assessments, 1989–1991. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53:2355-2365. 

Houghton, J.D.R., A. Woolmer, and G.C. Hayes. 2000. Sea turtle diving and foraging behaviour around 

the Greek Island of Kefalonia. Journal of Marine Biology U.K. 80:761-762. Available at: 

http://www.swan.ac.uk/bs/turtle/reprints/jon_jmba2000.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Houser, D.S., D.A. Helweg, and P.W.B. Moore. 2001. A bandpass filter-bank model of auditory 

sensitivity in the humpback whale. Aquatic Mammals 27:82-91. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007. Climate change 2007: Synthesis report. 73 pp. 

Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf. 

International Association of Geophysical Contractors. 2011. Recommended mitigation measures for 

cetaceans during geophysical operations. Revision 02, June 2011. Available at: 

http://www.iagc.org/attachments/contentmanagers/7708/IAGC_doc_RevRecMitigationMeasuresCeta

ceans_VF_2011_06_03.pdf. Accessed September 28, 2011. 

International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. 2005. Geotechnical & 

geophysical investigations for offshore and nearshore developments. Compiled by Technical 

Committee 1, International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 

September 2005. 94 pp. Available at: 

http://www.issmge.org/getfile.ashx?cid=78814&cc=3&refid=1. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

International Whaling Commission. 2011a. International Whaling Commission statistics. Accessed on 

March 5, 2011. Available at: www.iwcoffice.org. Last updated July 27, 2011. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 
Biological Assessment A-183

International Whaling Commission. 2011b. Ship strikes: Whales and ship strikes. Available at: 

http://iwcoffice.org/sci_com/shipstrikes.htm. Accessed October 5, 2011. 

Jasny, M., J. Reynolds, C. Horowitz, and A. Wetzler 2005. Sounding the depths II: The rising toll of 

sonar, shipping, and industrial ocean noise on marine life. National Resources Defense Council. 

November 2005. 76 pp. Available at: http://www.nrdc.org/wildlife/marine/sound/sound.pdf. 

Accessed September 2, 2011. 

Jefferson, T.A., M.A. Webber, and R.L. Pitman. 2008. Marine mammals of the world: A 

comprehensive guide to their identification. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 573 pp. 

Jochens, A., D. Biggs, K. Benoit-Bird, D. Engelhardt, J. Gordon, C. Hu, N. Jaquet, M. Johnson, R. Leben, 

B. Mate, P. Miller, J. Ortega-Ortiz, A. Thode, P. Tyack, and B. Würsig. 2008. Sperm whale seismic 

study in the Gulf of Mexico: Synthesis report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2008-006. 341 pp. 

Available at: http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/4/4444.pdf. Accessed April 4, 2012. 

Johnson, C.S. 1968. Relation between absolute threshold and duration of tone pulses in the bottlenosed 

porpoise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 43(4):757 763. 

Johnson, S.A., A.L. Bass, B. Libert, M. Marshall, and D. Fulk. 1999. Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys 

kempi) nesting in Florida. Florida Scientist 62(3/4):194-204. Available at: 

http://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/pdfs/johnsonetal1999kempsridley.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011.

Johnston, C.E. and C.T. Phillips. 2003. Sound production in sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus and S. 

platorhynchus (Acipenseridae). Environmental Biology of Fishes 68:59-64. 

Joint Nature Conservation Committee. 2010. JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury and 

disturbance to marine mammals from seismic surveys. August 2010. Available at: 

http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/JNCC_Guidelines_Seismic%20Guidelines_Aug%202010.pdf. Accessed 

April 4, 2012. 

Jorgenson, J.K. and E.C. Gyselman. 2009. Hydroacoustic measurements of the behavioral response of 

arctic riverine fishes to seismic airguns. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 126:1598-1606. 

Kane, A.S., J. Song, M.B. Halvorsen, D.L. Miller, J.D. Salierno, L.E. Wysocki, D. Zeddies, A.N. Popper. 

2010. Exposure of fish to high intensity sonar does not induce acute pathology. Journal of Fish 

Biology 76:1825-1840. 

Kastak, D. and R.J. Schusterman. 1998. Low-frequency amphibious hearing in pinnipeds: Methods, 

measurements, noise, and ecology. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103:2216-2228. 

Kells, V and K.E. Carpenter. 2011. A field guide to coastal fishes from Maine to Texas. Baltimore, MD: 

Johns Hopkins University Press. 448 pp. 

Keinath, J.A. and J.A. Musick. 1993. Movements and diving behavior of a leatherback turtle, 

Dermochelys coriacea. Copeia 1993(4):1,010-1,017. 

Kenney, R.D., M.A.M. Hyman, R.E. Owen, G.P. Scott, and H.E. Winn. 1986. Estimation of prey 

densities required by western North Atlantic right whales. Marine Mammal Science 2:1-13. 

Kenney, R.D., H.E. Winn, and M.C. Macaulay. 1995. Cetaceans in the Great South Channel, 

1979-1989: Right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). Cont. Shelf Res. 15:385-414. 

Ketten, D.R., S. Cramer, and J. Arruda. 2007. A manual for the removal, fixation, and preservation of 

cetacean ears. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA. 

Klima, E. F., G. R. Gitschlag, and M. L. Renaud. 1988. Impacts of the explosive removal of offshore 

petroleum platforms on sea turtles and dolphins. Mar. Fish. Rev. 50(3):33-42. 

Knowlton, A.R. and S.D. Kraus. 2001. Mortality and serious injury of northern right whales (Eubalaena 

glacialis) in the western North Atlantic Ocean. J. Cet. Res. Manage (Special issue) 2: 193-208. 
A-184 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Knowlton, A.B., J.B. Ring, and B. Russell. 2002. Right whale sightings and survey effort in the Mid 

Atlantic region: Migratory corridor, time frame, and proximity to port entrances. A report submitted 

to the NMFS Right Whale Ship Strike Working Group. July 2002. 

Kocan, R.M., J.E. Hose, E.D. Brown, and T.T. Baker. 1996. Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) embryo 

sensitivity to Prudhoe Bay petroleum hydrocarbons: laboratory evaluation and in situ exposure at 

oiled and unoiled sites in Prince William Sound. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53:2366-2375. 

Komenda-Zehnder, S., M. Cevallos, and B. Bruderer. 2003. Effects of disturbance by aircraft overflight 

on waterbirds – an experimental approach. Proceedings of the International Birdstrike Committee 

26(1): 157-168. Available at: 

http://farallones.noaa.gov/eco/seabird/pdf/articles/disturbcon/komendazehnderetal2003.pdf. 

Accessed April 18, 2012. 

Kraus, S.D. 1990. Rates and potential causes of mortality in North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena 

glacialis). Mar. Mammal Sci. 6(4):278-91. 

Lacroix, D.L., R.B. Lanctot, J.A. Reed, and T.L. McDonald. 2003. Effect of underwater seismic surveys 

on molting male long-tailed ducks in the Beaufort Sea, Alaska. Canadian Journal of Zoology 

81:1862-1875. 

Ladich, F. and A.N. Popper. 2004. Parallel evolution in fish hearing organs. In: Manley, G.A., A.N. 

Popper, and R.R. Fay, eds. Evolution of the vertebrate auditory system, Springer handbook of 

auditory research. New York: Springer-Verlag. Pp. 95-127. 

Laiolo, P. 2010. The emerging significance of bioacoustics in animal species conservation. Biological 

Conservation 143:1635-1645. 

Laist, D.W. 1987. Overview of the biological effects of lost and discarded plastic debris in the marine 

environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 18:319–326. 

Laist, D.W. 1996. Marine debris entanglement and ghost fishing: A cryptic and significant type of 

bycatch. In: Alaska Sea Grant College Program Report No. 96-03, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 

AK. Pp. 33-39. 

Laist, D. 1997. Impacts of marine debris: Entanglement of marine life in marine debris including a 

comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. In: Coe, J.M. and D.B. 

Rogers, eds. Marine debris: Sources, impacts, and solutions. Springer, New York. Pp. 99-139. 

Laist, D.W., J.M. Coe, and K.J. O’Hara. 1999. Marine debris pollution. In: Twiss, J.R., Jr. and R.R. 

Reeves, eds. Conservation and management of marine mammals. Washington, DC: Smithsonian 

Institute Press. Pp. 342-366. 

Laist, D.W., A.R. Knowlton, J.G. Mead, A.S. Collet, and M. Podesta. 2001. Collisions between ships 

and whales. Marine Mammal Science 17:35-75. 

Lambertsen, R.H. 1983. Internal mechanism of rorqual feeding. J. Mammalogy 64(1):76-88. 

Laney, R.W., J.E. Hightower, B.R. Versak, M.F. Mangold, W.W. Cole Jr., and S.E. Winslow. 2007. 

Distribution, habitat use, and size of Atlantic sturgeon captured during cooperative winter tagging 

cruises, 1988–2006. American Fisheries Society Symposium 56:167-182 Available at: 

http://etd.lib.ncsu.edu/publications/bitstream/1840.2/1959/1/Laney_etal_2007.pdf. Accessed 

August 12, 2011. 

Lavender, A.L., S.M. Bartol, and I.K. Bartol. 2010. Hearing capabilities of loggerhead sea turtles 

(Caretta caretta) throughout ontogeny. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the 

Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life, Cork, Ireland. 

Lavender, A.L., S.M. Bartol, and I.K. Bartol. 2011. A two-method approach for investigating the 

hearing capabilities of loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Proceedings of 31st Annual 

Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, San Diego, CA. Available at: 

http://iconferences.seaturtle.org/preview.shtml?event_id=18&abstract_id=4003. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 
Biological Assessment A-185

Le Prell, G., D. Henderson, R.R. Fay, and A.N. Popper, eds. 2011. Noise-induced hearing loss: 

Scientific advances. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC. 

Leatherwood, S., F.T. Awbrey, and J.A. Thomas. 1982. Minke whale response to a transiting survey 

vessel. Report of the International Whaling Commission 32:795-805. 

Lee, D.S. 1984. Petrels and storm-petrels in North Carolina’s offshore waters, including species 

previously unrecorded for North America. American Birds 38(2):151-163. Available at: 

http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/NAB/v038n02/p00151-p00163.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

Lee, D.S. 1987. December records of seabirds off North Carolina. Wilson Bulletin 99:116-121. 

Lee, R.F. and J.W. Anderson. 2005. Significance of cytochrome P450 system responses and levels of 

bile fluorescent aromatic compounds in marine wildlife following oil spills. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 50(7):705-723. 

Lenhardt, M.L., R.C. Klinger, and J.A. Musick. 1985. Marine turtle middle-ear anatomy. Journal of 

Auditory Research 25:66-72. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3836997. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Lesage, V., C. Barrette, and M.C.S. Kingsley. 1999. The effect of noise from an outboard motor and a 

ferry on the vocal activity of beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) in the St. Lawrence Estuary, Canada. 

In: Abstracts, 10th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, Galveston, TX, 

November 1993. P. 70. 

Loesch, J.G. and W.A. Lund, Jr. 1977. A contribution to the life history of the blueback herring Alosa 

aestivalis. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 106(6):583-589. 

Lombarte, A. and A.N. Popper. 1994. Quantitative analyses of postembryonic hair cell addition in the 

otolithic endorgans of the inner ear of the European hake, Merluccius merluccius (Gadiformes, 

Teleostei). Journal of Comparative Neurology 345:419-428. 

Lombarte, A. and A.N. Popper. 2004. Quantitative changes in the otolithic organs of the inner ear during 

the settlement period in European hake (Merluccius merluccius). Marine Ecol. Prog. Ser. 

267:233-240. 

Lombarte, A., H.Y. Yan, A.N. Popper, J.C. Chang, and C. Platt. 1993. Damage and regeneration of hair 

cell ciliary bundles in a fish ear following treatment with gentamicin. Hearing Research 66:166-174. 

Lovell, J.M., M.M. Findlay, R.M. Moate, J.R. Nedwell, and M.A. Pegg. 2005. The inner ear 

morphology and hearing abilities of the Paddlefish (Polyodon spathula) and the Lake Sturgeon 

(Acipenser fulvescens). Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. 142:286-289. 

Lurton, X. and S. DeRuiter. 2011. Sound radiation of seafloor-mapping echosounders in the water 

column, in relation to the risks posed to marine mammals. Intl. Hydrographic Review, November 

2011. Available at: http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/IHReview/2011/IHR_Nov032011.pdf. Accessed 

January 24, 2012. 

Lutcavage, M. and P.L. Lutz. 1986. Metabolic rate and food energy requirements of the leatherback sea 

turtle, Dermochelys coriacea. Copeia 1986. Pp. 796-798. 

Lutcavage, M.E., P.L. Lutz, G.D. Bossart, and D.M. Hudson. 1995. Physiologic and clinicopathologic 

effects of crude oil on loggerhead sea turtles. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 28:417-422. 

Lutcavage, M.E., P. Plotkin, B. Witherington, and P.L. Lutz. 1997. Human impacts on sea turtle 

survival. In: Lutz, P.L. and J.A. Musick, eds. The biology of sea turtles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC 

Press. Pp. 387-409. 

Madsen, P.T. 2005. Marine mammals and noise: Problems with root mean square sound pressure levels 

for transients. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 117(6):3952-3957. 

Madsen, P.T., B Møhl, K. Nielsen, and M. Wahlberg. 2002. Male sperm whale behavior during 

exposures to distant seismic survey pulses. Aquatic Mammals 28:231-240. 
A-186 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Malme, C.I., P.R. Miles, C.W. Clark, P. Tyack, and J.E. Bird. 1983. Investigations of the potential 

effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on migrating gray whale behavior. 

Prepared for U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Anchorage, AK. Bolt Beranek 

and Newman Inc., Cambridge, MA. BBN Rep. 5366. NTIS PB86-174174. 

Malme, C. I., P.R. Miles, C.W. Clark, P. Tyack, and J.E. Bird. 1984. Investigations of the potential 

effects of underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on migrating gray whale behavior. 

Phase II: January 1984 migration. Prepared for U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service. Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., Cambridge, MA: BBN Report No. 5586. Available at: 

http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/1/1086.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2011. 

Malme, C.I., B. Würsig, J.E. Bird, and P. Tyack. 1988. Observations of feeding gray whale responses to 

controlled industrial noise exposure, pp. 55-73. In: W.M. Sackinger, M.O. Jefferies, J.L. Imm, and 

S.D. Treacy, eds. Vol. 2. Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions. University of 

Alaska, Fairbanks, AK. 111 pp. 

Mann, D.A., Z. Lu, and A.N. Popper. 1997. A clupeid fish can detect ultrasound. Nature 389:341. 

Mann, D.A., D.E. Colbert, J.C. Gaspard, B.M. Casper, M.L.H. Cook, R.L. Reep, and G.B. Bauer. 2005. 

Temporal resolution of the Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) auditory system. 

J. Comparative Physiology 191(10):903-908. 

Mansfield, K.L., V.S. Saba, J.A. Keinath, and J.A. Musick. 2009. Satellite tracking reveals a dichotomy 

in migration strategies among juvenile loggerhead turtles in the Northwest Atlantic. Marine 

Biology 156(12):2555-2570. 

Márquez-M, R. 1990. FAO species catalog. Vol. 11: Sea turtles of the world. An annotated and 

illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis, No. 125, Vol. 11. 

Rome: FAO. 81 pp. 

Márquez-M, R. 2001. Status and distribution of the Kemp’s ridley turtle, Lepidochelys kempii, in the 

wider Caribbean region. In: Eckert, K.L. and F.A. Abreu Grobois, eds. Proceedings of the Regional 

Meeting: Marine Turtle Conservation in the Wider Caribbean Region: A Dialogue for Effective 

Regional Management. Santo Domingo, 16-18 November 1999. WIDECAST, IUCN-MTSG, WWF, 

and UNEP-CEP. Pp. 46-51. Available at: 

http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/Biology_Kemps_DR_Proc.pdf. Accessed August 19, 

2011. 

Marsh, H. and D.F. Sinclair. 1989. Correcting for visibility bias in strip transect aerial surveys of aquatic 

fauna. J. Wildl. Manage. 53:1,017-1,024. 

Mashburn, K.L. and S. Atkinson. 2008. Variability in leptin and adrenal response in juvenile Steller sea 

lions (Eumetopias jubatus) to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in different seasons. General 

and Comparative Endocrinology 155:352-358. 

Mate, B.M., S.L. Nieukirk, and S.D. Kraus. 1997. Satellite-monitored movements of the northern right 

whale. Journal of Wildlife Management 61:1393-1405. 

Mayo, C.A. and M.K. Marx. 1990. Surface foraging behaviour of the North Atlantic right whale, 

Eubalaena glacialis, and associated zooplankton characteristics. Canadian Journal of Zoology 

68:2214-2220. 

McCauley, R.D., J. Fewtrell, A.J. Duncan, C. Jenner, M.-N. Jenner, J.D. Penrose, R.I.T. Prince, 

A. Adhitya, J. Murdoch, and K. McCabe. 2000. Marine seismic surveys – a study of environmental 

implications. APPEA Journal 40:692-708. 

McCauley, R.D., J. Fewtrell, and A.N. Popper. 2003. High intensity anthropogenic sound damages fish 

ears. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 113(1):638-642. 

McClellan, C.M. and A.J. Read. 2009. Confronting the gauntlet: Understanding incidental capture of 

green turtles through finescale movement studies. Endangered Species Research 10:165-179. 

Available at: http://www.int-res.com/articles/esr2010/10/n010p165.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011 
Biological Assessment A-187

McDonald, M.A., J.A. Hildebrand, and S.C. Webb. 1995. Blue and fin whales observed on a seafloor 

array in the northeast Pacific. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 98(2):712-721. 

Available at: 

http://escholarship.org/uc/item/2sx2b1cj;jsessionid=13E40342F9C3F7C5419BB401AF9ACE56. 

Accessed August 5, 2011. 

McDonald, M.A., J.A. Hildebrand, and S.M. Wiggins. 2006. Increases in deep ocean ambient noise in 

the Northeast Pacific west of San Nicolas Island, California. Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 120(2):711-718. Available at: http://www.awionline.org/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/10168. 

Accessed September 6, 2011. 

McEachran, J.D. and M.R. de Carvalho. 2002. Rajidae: Skates, pp. 531-561. In: Carpenter, K.E. (ed.), 

The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Atlantic. Volume 1: Introduction, molluscs, 

crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid fishes and chimaeras. FAO, Rome. 

Meyer, M., R.R. Fay, and A.N. Popper. 2010. Frequency tuning and intensity coding of sound in the 

auditory periphery of the lake sturgeon, Acipenser fulvescens. Journal of Experimental Biology 

213:1567-1578. 

Miller, P.J.O., N. Biassoni, A. Samuels, and P.L. Tyack. 2000. Whale songs lengthen in response to 

sonar. Nature 405:903. 

Milton, S., P. Lutz, and G. Shigenaka. 2003. Oil toxicity and impact on sea turtles. In: Oil and sea 

turtles: Biology, planning, and response. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration. 

Reprinted July 2010. Pp. 35-47. Available at: 

http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/35_turtle_complete.pdf. Accessed September 18, 

2011. 

Moein, S.E., J.A. Musick, J.A. Keinath, D.E. Barnard, M.L. Lenhardt, and R. George. 1995. Evaluation 

of seismic sources for repelling sea turtles from hopper dredges, pp. 90-93. In: L.Z. Hales, ed. Sea 

Turtle Research Program: Summary Report. Technical Report CERC-95. Pp. 90-93. 

Moncada, F., F.A. Abreu-Grobois, D. Bagley, K. A. Bjorndal, A. B. Bolten, J. A. Camiñas, L. Ehrhart, 

A. Muhlia-Melo, G. Nodarse, B.A. Schroeder, J. Zurita, and L.A. Hawkes. 2010. Movement patterns 

of loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta in Cuban waters inferred from flipper tag recaptures.		

Endangered Species Research 11:61-68. Available at: http://www.intres.com/articles/esr2010/11/n011p061.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Montie, E.W., C.A. Manire, and D.A. Mann. 2011. Live CT imaging of sound reception anatomy and 

hearing measurements in the pygmy killer whale, Feresa attenuata. The Journal of Experimental 

Biology 214:945-955. 

Moore, P.W.B. and D.A. Pawloski. 1990. Investigations on the control of echolocation pulses in the 

dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). In: Thomas, J.A. and R.A. Kastelein, eds. Sensory abilities of 

cetaceans – Laboratory and field evidence. New York: Plenum. Pp. 305-316. 

Moser, M.L. and S.W. Ross. 1995. Habitat use and movements of shortnose and Atlantic sturgeons in 

the Lower Cape Fear River, North Carolina. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 

124:225-234. 

Mrosovsky, N. 1972. Spectographs of the sounds of leatherback turtles. Herpetologica 29(3):256-258. 

Mulsow, J. and C. Reichmuth. 2010. Psychophysical and electrophysiological aerial audiograms of a 

Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus). Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 127:2692–2701. 

Murdy, E.O., R.S. Birdsong, and J.A. Muscik. 1997. Fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Washington, DC: 

Smithsonian Institution Press. 324 pp. 
A-188 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Musick, J.A. 1988. The sea turtles of Virginia with notes on identification and natural history. Second 

revised edition. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Educational 

Series No. 24, June 1988. Available at: 

http://web.vims.edu/GreyLit/VIMS/EdSeries24.pdf?svr=www. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Musick, J.A. and C.J. Limpus. 1997. Habitat utilization and migration in juvenile sea turtles. In: Lutz, 

P.L. and J.A. Musick, eds. The biology of sea turtles. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Pp. 137-163. 

Myrberg, A.A. 2001. The acoustical biology of elasmobranchs. Environmental Biology of Fishes 

60(1-3):31-46. 

Myrberg, A.A., Jr., C.R. Gordon, and A.P. Klimley. 1976. Attraction of free ranging sharks by low 

frequency sound, with comments on its biological significance, pp. 205-228. In: A. Schuijf and 

A.D. Hawkins, eds. Sound reception in fish. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 

NatureServe, InfoNatura. 2011. NatureServe, InfoNatura: An online conservation and educational 

resource on the animals and eco-systems of Latin America and the Caribbean. NatureServe, 

Arlington, VA. Available at: http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura/. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

National Research Council. 1983. Drilling discharges in the marine environment. Washington, DC: 

National Academy Press. 180 pp. Available at: 

http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/4/4596.pdf. Accessed September 28, 2011. 

National Research Council. 1990. Decline of the Sea Turtles: Causes and Prevention. National 

Academy Press, Washington, DC. 259 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904247X. Accessed March 21, 2012. 

National Research Council. 2003. Ocean noise and marine mammals. Washington, DC: National 

Academies Press. 151 pp. + app. Available at: 

http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309085365. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

National Research Council. 2005. Marine mammal populations and ocean noise: Determining when 

noise causes biologically significant effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. 

99 pp + apps. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11147&page=1 Accessed 

September 6, 2011. 

National Resources Defense Council. 2009. Petition to list Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus 

oxyrinchus) as an endangered species, or to list specified Atlantic sturgeon DPSs as threatened and 

endangered species, and to designate critical habitat. Prepared by National Resources Defense 

Council, New York, NY. 68 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/petition_atlanticsturgeon_nrdc.pdf. Accessed 

August 23, 2011. 

National Sawfish Encounter Database. 2011. Florida Museum of Natural History, Ichthyology. 

Available at: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/sharks/sawfish/sawfishdatabase.html. Accessed August 

23, 2011. 

National Science Foundation and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 2011. Final 

Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Overseas Environmental Impact Statement for 

Marine Seismic Research Funded by the National Science Foundation or conducted by the U.S. 

Geological Survey. June 2011. 514 pp. Available at: http://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/envcomp/usgsnsf-marine-seismic-research/nsf-usgs-final-eis-oeis_3june2011.pdf. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

Nedwell, J.R., B. Edwards, A.W.H. Turnpenny, and J. Gordon. 2004. Fish and marine mammal 

audiograms: A summary of available information. Prepared by Subacoustech Ltd., Hamphire, UK. 

Report 534 R 0214. 

Neff, J.M. 1987. Biological effects of drilling fluids, drill cuttings and produced waters. In: Boesch, 

D.F. and N.N. Rabalais, eds. Long-term effects of offshore oil and gas development. London: 

Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. Pp. 469-538. 
Biological Assessment A-189

Neff, J.M. 1990. Composition and fate of petroleum and spill-treating agents in the marine environment, 

pp. 1-33. In: Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. Sea Mammals and Oil: Confronting the Risks. 

Academic Press, San Diego. 

Neff, J.M., S. McKelvie, and R.C. Ayers, Jr. 2000. Environmental impacts of synthetic based drilling 

fluids. Prepared by Robert Ayers & Associates, Inc. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2000-064. 

118 pp. Available at: http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/3/3175.pdf. Accessed 

September 28, 2011. 

Nestler, J.M., G.R. Ploskey, J.R. Pickens, J. Menezes, and C. Schilt. 1992. Responses of blueback 

herring to high-frequency sound and implications for reducing entrainment at hydropower dams. 

North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12:667-683. 

Neves, R.J. 1981. Offshore distribution of alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) and blueback herring (Alosa 

aestivalis), along the Atlantic coast. Fishery Bulletin 79(3): 473- 486. 

Nowacek, D.P., M.P. Johnson, and P.L. Tyack. 2004. North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) 

ignore ships but respond to alerting stimuli. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Part B., 

271:227-231. 

Nowacek, D.P., L.H. Thorne, D.W. Johnston, and P.L. Tyack. 2007. Responses of cetaceans to 

anthropogenic noise. Mammal Review 37:81-115. 

Nunny, R., E. Graham, and S. Bass. 2008. Do sea turtles use acoustic cues when nesting? NOAA Tech. 

Mem. NMFS SEFSC No. 582:83. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/turtlesymposium2005.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Nye, J.A., J.S. Link, J.A. Hare, and W.J. Overholtz. 2009. Changing spatial distribution of fish stocks in 

relation to climate and population size on the Northeast United States continental shelf. Mar Ecol 

Prog Ser 393:111-129. 

O'Keeffe, D. J. and G. A. Young. 1984. Handbook on the environmental effects of underwater 

explosions. NSWC TR 83-240. Naval Surface Weapons Center, Dahlgren, VA and Silver Spring, 

MD. 

Onley, D. and P. Scofield. 2007. Albatrosses, petrels, and shearwaters of the world. Princeton 

Princeton, NJ: University Press. 240 pp. 

Orr, J.C., V. J. Fabry, O. Aumont, L. Bopp, S.C. Doney, R.A. Feely, A. Gnanadesikan, N. Gruber, 

A. Ishida, F. Joos, R.M. Key, K.Lindsay, E. Maier-Reimer, R. Matear, P. Monfray, A. Mouchet, R.G. 

Najjar, G-K. Plattner, K.B. Rodgers, C.L. Sabine, J.L. Sarmiento, R. Schlitzer, R.D. Slater, I.J. 

Totterdell, M-F. Weirig, Y. Yamanaka, and A. Yool. 2005. Anthropogenic ocean acidification over 

the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature 437: 681-686. Available at: 

http://web.archive.org/web/20080625100559/http://www.ipsl.jussieu.fr/~jomce/acidification/paper/Or

r_OnlineNature04095.pdf. Accessed January 20, 2012. 

Pace, R.M. 2011. Frequency of whale and vessel collisions on the U.S. Eastern seaboard: Ten years 

prior and two years post ship strike rule. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Northeast Fish Science Center, 

Ref Doc. 11-15. 12 pp. 

Packard, G.C. 1999. Water relations of chelonian eggs and embryos: Is wetter better? American 

Zoologist 39:289-303. 

Paine, R.T., J.L. Ruesink, A. Sun, E.L. Soulanille, M.J. Wonham, C.D.G. Harley, D.R. Brumbaugh, and 

D.L. Secord. 1996. Trouble on oiled waters: Lessons from the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Annual 

Review of Ecology and Systematics 27:197–235. 

Palka, D. and M. Johnson. 2007. Cooperative research to study dive patterns of sperm whales in the 

Atlantic Ocean. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2007-033. Available at: 

http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/4/4247.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012. 
A-190 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Paquet, D., C. Haycock, and H. Whitehead. 1997. Numbers and seasonal occurrence of humpback 

whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, off Brier Island, Nova Scotia. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 

111:548-552. 

Parks, S.E. and C.W. Clark. 2007. Acoustic communication: Social sounds and the potential impacts of 

noise. In: Kraus, S.D. and R.M. Rolland, eds. The urban whale: North Atlantic right whales at the 

crossroads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 310-332. 

Parks, S.E., C.W. Clark, and P.L. Tyack. 2007. Short- and long-term changes in right whale calling 

behavior: The potential effects of noise on acoustic communication. Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 122:3725-3731. 

Parris, K.M., M. Velik-Lord, and J.M.A. North. 2009. Frogs call at a higher pitch in traffic noise. 

Ecology and Society 14(1):25.

Parsons, E.C.M., S.J. Dolman, M. Jasny, N.A. Rose, M.P. Simmonds, and A.J. Wright. 2009. A critique 

of the UK’s JNCC seismic survey guidelines for minimising acoustic disturbance to marine 

mammals: Best practise? Mar. Poll. Bull. 58: 643–651. 

Peterson, C.H., S.D. Rice, J.W. Short, D. Esler, J.L. Bodkin, B.E. Ballachey, and D.B. Irons. 2003. 

Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science 302:2082-2086. 

Pierce, K.E., R.J. Harris, L.S. Larned, and M.A. Porkas. 2004. Obstruction and starvation associated 

with plastic ingestion in a Northern Gannet Morus Bassanus and a Greater Shearwater Puffinus 

Gravis. Marine Ornithology 32:187–189. 

Pierson M.O., J.P. Wagner, V. Langford, P. Birnie, and M.L. Tasker. 1998. Protection from, and 

mitigation of, the potential effects of seismic exploration on marine mammals. In M.L. Tasker and 

C. Weir, editors. Proceedings of the seismic and marine mammals workshop, London, 23-25 June 

1998. 

Pike, D.A. and J.C. Stiner. 2007. Sea turtle species vary in their susceptibility to tropical cyclones. 

Oecologia 153:471-478. 

Polovina, J.J., E. Howell, D.M. Parker, and G.H. Balazs. 2003. Dive-depth distribution of loggerhead 

(Carretta carretta) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles in the central North Pacific: 

Might deep longline sets catch fewer turtles? Fishery Bulletin 101(1):189-193. Available at: 

http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/library/pubs/Polovina_etal_2003.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Popper, A.N. and R.R. Fay. 2010. Rethinking sound detection by fishes. Hear. Res. 273(1-2):25-36. 

Popper, A.N. and M.C. Hastings. 2009a. The effects on fish of human-generated (anthropogenic) sound. 

Integrative Zoology 4:43-52. 

Popper, A.N. and M.C. Hastings. 2009b. Effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes. Journal of 

Fish Biology 75:455-498. 

Popper, A.N. and A. Hawkins, eds. 2011. Effects of noise on aquatic life. New York: Springer Science 

+ Business Media, LLC. 

Popper, A.N. and B. Hoxter. 1984. Growth of a fish ear: 1. Quantitative analysis of sensory hair cell and 

ganglion cell proliferation. Hearing Research 15:133-142. 

Popper, A.N. and C.R. Schilt. 2008. Hearing and acoustic behavior (basic and applied). In: Webb, J.F., 

R.R. Fay, and A.N. Popper, eds. Fish bioacoustics. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, 

LLC. 

Popper, A.N., R.R. Fay, C. Platt, and O. Sand. 2003. Sound detection mechanisms and capabilities of 

teleost fishes. In: Collin, S.P. and N.J. Marshall,, eds. Sensory processing in aquatic environments. 

New York: Springer-Verlag. Pp. 3-38. 

Popper, A.N., D.T.T. Plachta, D.A. Mann, and D. Higgs. 2004. The response of clupeid fishes to 

ultrasound: a review. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 61:1057-1061. 
Biological Assessment A-191

Popper, A.N., M.E. Smith, P.A. Cott, B.W. Hanna, A.O. MacGillivray, M.E. Austin, and D.A. Mann. 

2005. Effects of exposure to seismic airgun use on hearing of three fish species. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 

117:3958-3971. 

Popper, A.N., M.B. Halvorsen, E. Kane, D.D. Miller, M.E. Smith, P. Stein, and L.E. Wysocki. 2007. 

The effects of high-intensity, low-frequency active sonar on rainbow trout. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 

122:623-635. 

Ramachandran, S.D. 2005. The risks to fish of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from 

chemical dispersion of crude oil. Ph.D. thesis. Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada. 

Ramcharitar, J., D. Gannon, and A. Popper. 2006. Bioacoustics of fishes of the family Sciaenidae 

(croakers and drums). Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 135:1409-1431. 

Reeves, C. 2005. Aeromagnetic Surveys. Principles, Practice, and Interpretation. October 2005. 

Available at: http://www.geosoft.com/media/uploads/resources/technicalpapers/Aeromagnetic_Survey_Reeves.pdf. Accessed January 19, 2012. 

Reeves, R.R., B.S. Stewart, P.J. Clapham, and J.A. Powell. 2002. Guide to marine mammals of the 

world. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 527 pp. 

Reichmuth, C. 2007. Assessing the hearing capabilities of mysticete whales. A proposed research 

strategy for the Joint Industry Programme on Sound and Marine Life on 12 September. Available at: 

http://www.soundandmarinelife.org/Site/Products/MysticeteHearingWhitePaper-Reichmuth.pdf. 

Accessed August 5, 2011.

Rice, D.W. 1989. Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758. In: Ridgway, S.H. and 

R. Harrison, eds. Handbook of marine mammals, Vol. 4: River dolphins and the larger toothed 

whales. London: Academic Press. Pp. 177-233. 

Rice, M.R. and G.H. Balazs. 2008. Diving behavior of the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas) 

during oceanic migrations. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 356 (1-2):121-127. 

Richardson, W.J. and C.I. Malme. 1993. Man-made noise and behavioral responses. In: J.J. Burns, J.J. 

Montague, and C.J. Cowles, eds. The Bowhead Whale. Special Publication 2, Society of Marine 

Mammology, Lawrence, KS. Pp. 631-700. 

Richardson, W.J., B. Würsig, and C.R. Greene, Jr. 1986. Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena 

mysticetus, to seismic exploration in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 79:1117-1128. 

Richardson, W.J., B. Würsig, and C.R. Greene. 1990. Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena 

mysticetus, to drilling and dredging noise in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. Mar. Envir. Research 

29:135-160. 

Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., C.I. Malme, and D.H. Thomson. 1995. Marine mammals and noise. 

San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 576 pp. 

Ridgway, S.H. and D.A. Carder. 2001. Assessing hearing and sound production in cetacean species not 

available for behavioral audiograms: Experiences with sperm, pygmy sperm, and gray whales. 

Aquatic Mammals 27:267‐276. Available at: 

http://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/share/AquaticMammalsIssueArchives/2001/AquaticMammal

s_27-03/27-03_Ridgway.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Ridgway, S.H., E.G. Wever, J.G. McCormick, J. Palin, and J.H. Anderson. 1969. Hearing in the giant 

sea turtle, Chelonia mydas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 64:884-890. Available 

at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC223317/pdf/pnas00113-0080.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Robinson, N.E., F. Chaudry, N.M. Clark, G. Duguid, and R.N. Walker. 2008. Is passive acoustic 

monitoring during seismic surveys a valuable tool for mitigation? Bioacoustics 17: 265-267 
A-192 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Romanenko, E.V. and V.Ya. Kitain. 1992. The functioning of the echolocation system of 

Tursiops truncatus during noise masking,. In: Thomas, J.A. and R.A. Kastelein, eds. Sensory 

abilities of cetaceans – Laboratory and field evidence. New York: Plenum Press. Pp. 415-419. 

Romano, T.A., M.J. Keogh, C. Schlundt, D. Carder, and J. Finneran. 2004. Anthropogenic sound and 

marine mammal health: Measures of the nervous and immune systems before and after intense 

sound. Candian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61(7):1124-1134. 

Ross, Q.E., D.J. Dunning, J.K. Menezes, M.J. Kenna, Jr., and G.Tiller. 1996. Reducing impingement of 

alewives with high frequency sound at a power plant on Lake Ontario. North American Journal of 

Fisheries Management16:548-559. 

Ryan, P.G. 1987. The incidence and characteristics of plastic particles ingested by seabirds. Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 23:175-206. 

Ryan, P.G. 1990. The marine plastic debris problem off southern Africa: types of debris, their 

environmental effects, and control measures, pp 85-102. In: R.S. Shomura and M.L. Godfrey, (ed.): 

Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Marine Debris 2-7 April 1989, Honolulu, 

Hawaii, Volume 1. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-SWFSC-154. U.S. Department of 

Commerce. NOAA, Panama City, FL. 

Sale, A., P. Luschi, R. Mencacci, P. Lambardi, G.R. Hughes, G.C. Hays, S. Benvenuti, and F. Papi. 

2006. Long-term monitoring of leatherback turtle diving behaviour during oceanic movements.		

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 328:197-210. Available at: 

http://www.seaturtle.org/ghays/reprints/Sale%20et%20al.%202006%20JEMBE.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Samuel, Y., S.J. Morreale, C.W. Clark, C.H. Greene, and M.E. Richmond. 2005. Underwater, 

low-frequency noise in coastal sea turtle habitat. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

117(3):1465-1472. Available at: http://asadl.org/jasa/resource/1/jasman/v117/i3/p1465_s1. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Schein, A., J.A. Scott, L.Mos, and P.V. Hodson. 2009. Oil dispersion increases the apparent 

bioavailability and toxicity of diesel to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Environmental 

Toxicology and Chemistry 28(3):595-602. 

Schmid, J.R., A.B. Bolten, K.A. Bjorndal, and W.J. Lindberg. 2002. Activity patterns of Kemp’s ridley 

turtles, Lepidochelys kempii, in the coastal waters of the Cedar Keys, Florida. Marine Biology 

140:215-228. Available at: http://accstr.ufl.edu/publications/Schmid_et_al_MarBiol2002.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Scholik-Schlomer, A.R., L. Morse, S. Guan, and K. Beard. 2011. National Marine Fisheries Service: 

Airborne Noise Issues from the Perspective of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Aviation Noise 

Impacts Roadmap Annual Meeting, 19-20 April 2011. Available at: 

http://www.fican.org/pdf/Roadmap2011/2011_1420_ScholikSchlomer_Airborne_noise_issues_MMPA.pdf. Accessed April 18, 2012. 

Schwemmer, P., B. Mendel, N. Sonntag, V. Dierschke, and S. Garthe. 2011. Effects of ship traffic on 

seabirds in offshore waters: implications for marine conservation and spatial planning. Ecological 

Applications 21:1851-1860. 

Scott, W.B. and M.G. Scott. 1988. Atlantic Fishes of Canada. Univeristy of Toronto Press, Toronto. 

731 pp. 

Sears, R. 2002. Blue whale, pp. 112-116. In: W.F. Perrin, B. Wursig, and J.G.M. Thewissen, eds. 

Encyclopedia of marine mammals. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 1,414 pp. 

Seitz, J.C. and G.R. Poulakis. 2006. Anthropogenic effects on the smalltooth sawfish (Pristis pectinata) 

in the United States. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:1533-1540. 
Biological Assessment A-193

Shillinger, G.L., D.M. Palacios, H. Bailey, S.J. Bograd, A.M. Swithenbank, P. Gaspar, B.P. Wallace, 

J.R. Spotila, F.V. Paladino, R. Piedra, S.A. Eckert, and B.A. Block. 2008. Persistent leatherback 

turtle migrations present opportunities for conservation. PLoS Biol. 6(7):1408-1416. Available at: 

http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060171. Accessed August 19, 

2011. 

Shirihai, H. and B. Jarrett. 2006. Whales, dolphins, and other marine mammals of the world. Princeton 

University Press. 384 pp. 

Sibley, D.A. 2000. The Sibley guide to birds. National Audubon Society. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 

NY. 235 pp. 

Sierra Club. 2010. Petition to revise critical habitat for the endangered leatherback sea turtle. San 

Francisco, California. 25 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/petitions/leatherback_criticalhabitat_feb2010.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

Simmonds, M., S. Dolman, and L. Weilgart. 2003. Oceans of noise. WDCS Science Report. Whale and 

Dolphin Conservation Society. 129 pp. Available at: 

http://www.mmc.gov/sound/internationalwrkshp/pdf/simmondsetal.pdf. Accessed September 18, 

2011. 

Simpfendorfer, C.A. and T.R. Wiley. 2005. Determination of the distribution of Florida's remnant 

sawfish population and identification of areas critical to their conservation. Final report. Florida Fish 

and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Tallahassee, Florida. 40 pp. 

Simpfendorfer, C.A. and T.R. Wiley. 2006. National smalltooth sawfish encounter database. Mote 

Marine Laboratory Technical Report 1134. A final report for NOAA Purchase Order 

No. GA133F05SE5547. 13 pp. Available at: 

https://dspace.mote.org/dspace/bitstream/2075/284/1/colin-%231134.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Slabbekoorn, H., N. Bouton, I. van Opzeeland, A. Coers, C. ten Cate, and A.N. Popper. 2010. A noisy 

spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends in Ecology & 

Evolution 25:419-427. 

Slotte, A., K. Kansen, J. Dalen, and E. Ona. 2004. Acoustic mapping of pelagic fish distribution and 

abundance in relation to a seismic shooting area off the Norwegian west coast. Fisheries 

Research 67:143-150. 

Smith, M.E., A.B. Coffin, D.L. Miller, and A.N. Popper. 2006. Anatomical and functional recovery of 

the goldfish (Carassius auratus) ear following noise exposure. Journal of Experimental Biology 

209:4193-4202. 

Smultea, M.A. and B. Würsig. 1995. Behavioral reactions of bottlenose dolphins to the Mega Borg oil 

spill, Gulf of Mexico 1990. Aquatic Mammals 21:171-181. 

Smultea, M.A., J.A. Mobley, Jr., D. Fertl, and G.L. Fulling. 2008. An unusual reaction and other 

observations of sperm whales near fixed-wing aircraft. Gulf and Carib. Res., 20:75-80. 

Sobin, J.M. 2008. Diving behavior of female loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) during their 

internesting interval and an evaluation of the risk of boat strikes. M.Sc. Thesis, Duke University, 

Durham, NC. 49 pp. Available at: 

http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/845/MP_jms73_a_200812.pdf?sequenc

e=1. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Song, J., D.A., Mann, P.A. Cott, B.W. Hanna, and A.N. Popper. 2008. The inner ears of northern 

Canadian freshwater fishes following exposure to seismic air gun sounds. Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 124:1360-1366. 
A-194 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 2002. Fishery Management Plan for the pelagic 

Sargassum habitat of the South Atlantic region, Second Revised Final. Including a Final 

Environmental Impact Statement, Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis, Regulatory Impact Review, 

and Social Impact Assessment/Fishery Impact Statement, November 2002. Charleston, SC. 228 pp. 

+ apps. Available at: http://www.safmc.net/Portals/6/Library/FMP/Sargassum/SargFMP.pdf. 

Accessed August 23, 2011. 

South Carolina Dept. of Natural Resources. 2005a. The 2005 Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation 

Strategy. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) species description. Available at: 

http://www.dnr.sc.gov/cwcs/pdf/Loggerheadturtle.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

South Carolina Dept. of Natural Resources. 2005b. The 2005 Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation 

Strategy. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) species description. Available at: 

http://www.dnr.sc.gov/cwcs/pdf/Leatherbacktutle.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Southall, B.L. 2005. Final Report of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

International Symposium: Shipping noise and marine mammals: A forum for science, management, 

and technology. 18-19 May 2004 Arlington, VA. 

Southall, B.L., A.E. Bowles, W.T. Ellison, J.J. Finneran, R.L. Gentry, C.R. Greene Jr., D. Kastak, 

D.R. Ketten, J.H. Miller, P.E. Nachtigall, W.J. Richardson, J.A. Thomas, and P.L. Tyack. 2007. 

Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Initial scientific recommendations. Aquatic 

Mammals 33(4):411-521. 

http://www.thecre.com/pdf/Aquatic%20Mammals%2033%204_FINAL1.pdf

Southwick Associates, Inc. 2006. The Relative Economic Contributions of U.S. Recreational and 

Commercial Fisheries. Fernandina Beach, Florida. 31 pp. Available at: 

http://www.angling4oceans.org/pdf/Economics_of_Fisheries_Harvests.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

Spotila, J.R., A.E. Dunham, A.J. Leslie, A.C. Steyermark, P.T. Plotkin and F.V. Paladino. 1996. 

Worldwide population decline of Dermochelys coriacea: Are leatherback turtles going extinct? 

Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2(2):209-222. Available at: 

http://www.leatherback.org/ldc/pg/popdec.htm. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Spotila, J.R., P. Plotkin, and J. Keinath. 2000. Sea turtles of Delaware Bay. Powerpoint presentation. 

Proceedings of the 2007 Delaware Estuary Science Conference & Environmental Summit. Available 

at: 

http://www.delawareestuary.org/scienceandresearch/science_conf/Conference_Presentations/DESC0

7_No58_Spotila58.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

St. Aubin, D.J. and V. Lounsbury. 1990. Oil effects on manatees: Evaluating the risks. pp. 241-251. 

In: Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. Sea Mammals and Oil: Confronting the Risks. Academic 

Press, San Diego. 

Stein, A.B., K.B. Friedland, and M. Sutherland. 2004. Atlantic sturgeon marine bycatch mortality on the 

continental shelf of the northeastern United States. North American Journal Fisheries Management 

24(1):171–183. 

Stemp, R. 1985. Observations of the effects of seismic exploration on seabirds, pp. 217-233. In: 

G.D. Green, F.R. Engelhardt, and R.J. Patterson, eds. Proceedings of a workshop on effects of 

explosives use in the marine environment, January 1985, Halifax, NS. Technical Report Number 5. 

Canadian Oil and Gas Lands Administration, Environmental Protection Branch, Ottawa. 

Stephenson, J.R., A.J. Gingerich, R.S. Brown, B.D. Pflugrath, Z. Deng, T.J. Carlson, M.J. Langeslay, 

M.L. Ahmann, R.L. Johnson, and A.G. Seaburg. 2010. Assessing barotrauma in neutrally and 

negatively buoyant juvenile salmonids exposed to simulated hydro-turbine passage using a mobile 

aquatic barotrauma laboratory. Fisheries Res. 106:271-278. 
Biological Assessment A-195

Stevenson, D., L. Chiarella, D. Stephan, R. Reid, K. Wilhelm, J. McCarthy, and M. Pentony. 2004. 

Characterization of the fishing practices and marine benthic ecosystems of the northeast U.S. shelf, 

and an evaluation of the potential effects of fishing on essential fish habitat. NOAA Tech Memo 

NMFS NE 181; 179 pp. Available at: http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/tm/tm181/. Accessed 

August 23, 2011. 

Stone, C.J. 2003. The effects of seismic activity on marine mammals in UK waters, 1998-2000. JNC 

Report 323, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Aberdeen, Scotland. 77 pp. Available at: 

http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/jncc323.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012. 

Stone, C.J. and M.L. Tasker. 2006. The effects of seismic airguns on cetaceans in UK waters. 

J. Cetacean Res. Management 8: 255–263. Available at: 

http://www.carolynbarton.co.uk/Stone_Tasker_2006.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012. 

Swingle, W.M., S.G. Barco, T.D. Pitchford, W.A. McLellan, and D.A. Pabst. 1993. Appearance of 

juvenile humpback whales feeding in the nearshore waters of Virginia. Marine Mammal Science 

9(3):309-315. 

Terhune, J.M. 1999. ‘Pitch separation as a possible jamming-avoidance mechanism in underwater calls 

of bearded seals Erignathus barbatus. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:1,025-1,034. 

The Royal Society. 2005. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. The Royal 

Society, Policy Document 12/05. Available at: http://eprints.ifmgeomar.de/7878/1/965_Raven_2005_OceanAcidificationDueToIncreasing_Monogr_pubid13120.pdf. 

Accessed September 6, 2011. 

Thomas, J.A. and C.W. Turl. 1990. Echolocation characteristics and range detection threshold of a false 

killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), pp. 321-334. In: Thomas, J.A. and R.A. Kastelein, eds. 

Sensory abilities of cetaceans – Laboratory and field evidence. New York: Plenum. 710 pp. 

Thompson, S.A., J. Castle, K.L. Mills, and W.J. Sydeman. 2008. Chapter 6, Wave Energy Conversion 

Technology Development in Coastal California: Potential Impacts on Marine Birds and Mammals. 

In: P.A. Nelson, D. Behrens, J. Castle, G. Crawford, R.N. Gaddam, S.C. Hackett, J. Largier, 

D.P. Lohse, K.L. Mills, P.T. Raimondi, M. Robart, W.J. Sydeman, S.A. Thompson, and S. Woo. 

2008. Developing Wave Energy in Coastal California: Potential Socio-Economic and Environmental 

Effects. California Energy Commission, PIER Energy-Related Environmental Research Program & 

California Ocean Protection Council CEC-500-2008-083. 

Thrive in North Carolina. 2011. NC Offshore Wind Energy. Potential Development Areas Map. 

May 6, 2011. Available at: 

http://www.boemre.gov/offshore/RenewableEnergy/PDFs/stateactivities/NC/NCOffshoreWindEnerg

y.pdf. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

Todd, S., P. Stevick, J. Lien, F. Marques, and D. Ketten. 1996. Behavioral effects of exposure to 

underwater explosions in humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). Canadian Journal of 

Zoology 74:1661-1672. 

Tourinho, P.S., J.A. Ivar do Sul, and G. Fillman. 2010. Is marine debris ingestion still a problem for the 

coastal marine biota of southern Brazil? Mar. Pollut. Bull. 60(3):396-401. 

Turnpenny, A.W.H. and J.R. Nedwell. 1994. The effects on marine fish, diving mammals and birds of 

underwater sound generated by seismic surveys. Fawley Aquatic Research laboratories Ltd. 

FCR 089/94. October 1994. 40 pp. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Data Buoy Center. 2011. “Can You Describe the Moored Buoys” 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Data Buoy Center. Available at: 

http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov/hull.shtml. Accessed August 29, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 1991. Draft recovery plan for the 

humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). Silver Spring, MD. 105 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_humpback.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 
A-196 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 1998a. Recovery plan for the blue whale 

(Balenoptera musculus). Silver Spring, MD. 42 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_blue.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 1998b. Final recovery plan for the 

shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum). Prepared by the Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery Team 

for the National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 104 pages. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/sturgeon_shortnose.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2005. Recovery plan for the North Atlantic 

right whale (Eubalaena glacialis). Silver Spring, MD. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/whale_right_northatlantic.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2006. Sea turtle and smalltooth sawfish 

construction conditions. Revised March 23, 2006. Internet Website: 

http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/endangered%20species/Sea%20Turtle%20and%20Smalltooth%20Sawfi

sh%20Construction%20Conditions%203-23-06.pdf. Accessed September 18, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2008. FEIS Report – Economic Analysis 

for the Final Environmental Impact Statement of the North Atlantic Right Whale Ship Strike 

Reduction Strategy. Prepared by Nathan Associates, Inc., Arlington, VA for NOAA, NMFS, Office 

of Protected Resources, Silver Spring, MD. 179 pp. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2009a. Smalltooth sawfish recovery plan 

(Pristis pectinata). Prepared by the Smalltooth Sawfish Recovery Team for the National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/smalltoothsawfish.pdf. Accessed August 23, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2009b. Species of Concern: River herring 

(alewife and blueback herring). Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/riverherring_detailed.pdf. Accessed March 28, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2009c. Fishing communities of the United 

States, 2006: Economics and sociocultural status and trends series. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Tech. 

Memo. NMFS-F/SPO-98. 84 pp. Available at: 

http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st5/publication/fisheries_communities_2006.html. Accessed 

August 23, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2010a. Final recovery plan for the fin 

whale (Balaenoptera physalus). Silver Spring, MD. 121 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/finwhale.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2010b. Final recovery plan for the sperm 

whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Silver Spring, MD. 165 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/final_sperm_whale_recovery_plan_21dec.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011a. Glossary (Candidate Species). 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/glossary.htm#candidate. Accessed April 3, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011b. Status of marine mammals. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/#status. Last updated November 15, 

2011. Accessed April 3, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011c. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/green.htm. Last updated August 15, 2011. 

Accessed April 3, 2012. 
Biological Assessment A-197

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011d. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta 

caretta). Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/loggerhead.htm. Last updated 

September 22, 2011. Accessed April 3, 2012. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011e. Smalltooth sawfish (Pristis 

pectinata). Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/fish/smalltoothsawfish.htm. Updated 

July 12, 2011. Accessed March 28, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011f. Smalltooth sawfish critical habitat. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/criticalhabitat/smalltoothsawfish.pdf. Accessed 

August 23, 2011. 

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012a. Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser 

oxyrinchus oxyrinchus). Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/fish/atlanticsturgeon.htm. Updated March 14, 2012. Accessed 

March 28, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012b. Whalewatching guidelines for the 

northeast region including the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/education/viewing_northeast.pdf. No post date. Accessed April 3, 

2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012c. Southeast region marine mammal 

and turtle viewing guidelines. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/education/southeast/guidelines.htm. No post date. Accessed April 3, 

2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012d. Incidental Harassment 

Authorization. Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Marine Seismic Survey in the Commonwealth of 

the Northern Mariana Islands. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/permits/ldeo_cnmi_iha_issued2012.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012e. Incidental Harassment 

Authorization. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Low-Energy Marine Seismic Survey in the 

Western Tropical Pacific Ocean. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/permits/sio_iha_signed2011.pdf. Accessed April 25, 2012U.S. 

Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 1991. Recovery plan for U.S. population of Atlantic green turtle Chelonia mydas. 

Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries 

Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 52 pp. Available 

at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_green_atlantic.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 1992. Recovery plan for U.S. leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service 

and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 65 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_leatherback_atlantic.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 1993. Recovery plan for hawksbill turtles in the U.S. Caribbean Sea, Atlantic 

Ocean, and Gulf of Mexico. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 52 pp. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_hawksbill_atlantic.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 1998a. Recovery plan for U.S. Pacific populations of the green turtle (Chelonia 

mydas). National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 97 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_green_eastpacific.pdf. Accessed October 6, 2011. 
A-198 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 1998b. Recovery plan for U.S. Pacific populations of the leatherback turtle 

(Dermochelys coriacea). National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 76 pp. Available 

at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_leatherback_pacific.pdf. Accessed October 6, 

2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 2007a. Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) 5-year review: Summary and 

evaluation. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 105 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/greenturtle_5yearreview.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 2007b. Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) 5-year review: Summary 

and evaluation. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 93 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/hawksbill_5yearreview.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 2007c. Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) 5-year review: Summary 

and evaluation. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 81 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/species/leatherback_5yearreview.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service. 2008. Recovery plan for the Northwest Atlantic population of the loggerhead sea 

turtle (Caretta caretta), second revision. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_loggerhead_atlantic.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and SEMARNAT. 2010. Draft bi-national recovery plan for the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle 

(Lepidochelys kempii), second revision. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 

174 pp. Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/recovery/turtle_kempsridley_draft2.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006. Fact sheet: Small 

diesel spills (500-5,000 gallons). NOAA Scientific Support Team, Hazardous Materials Response 

and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA. 2 pp. 

Available at: http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/974_diesel.pdf. Accessed October 5, 

2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011. Compliance Guide 

for Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105). Available at: 

http://www.nero.noaa.gov/shipstrike/doc/compliance_guide.pdf. No post date. Accessed August 5, 

2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard. 2011a. Deepwater Ports License Applications. 

Available at: http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg522/cg5225/dwp.asp. Last updated October 27, 2011. 

Accessed March 22, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard. 2011b. Oil spills in U.S. water -- Number and 

volume: 2000 to 2009. U.S. Coast Guard, pollution incidents in and around U.S. waters, a spill 

release compendium: 1969-2004, and 2004-2009: U.S. Coast Guard Marine Information for Safety 

and Law Enforcement (MISLE) System based on an April 2009 data extraction. Available at: 

www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s0382.xls. Accessed August 29, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard. 2011c. Ballast water management. Available at: 

http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg522/cg5224/bwm.asp. Accessed August 30, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2011a. Proposed Outer Continental 

Shelf Leasing Program, 2012-2017. November 2011. Available at: 

http://www.boem.gov/uploadedFiles/Proposed_OCS_Oil_Gas_Lease_Program_2012-2017.pdf. 

Accessed January 19, 2012. 
Biological Assessment A-199

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. 2011b. 

Guidelines for Providing Geological and Geophysical, Hazards, and Archaeological Information 

Pursuant to 30 CFR Part 285. Available at: 

http://www.boemre.gov/offshore/RenewableEnergy/PDFs/GGARCH4-11-2011.pdf. Accessed 

September 2, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. 2011c. 

Sand and Gravel Program. Available at: http://www.boemre.gov/sandandgravel/. Accessed August 

24, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012a. Commercial Wind Lease 

Issuance and Site Characterization Activities on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore New 

Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia: Final Environmental Assessment. January 2012. OCS 

EIS/EA BOEM 2012-003. Available at: 

http://www.boem.gov/uploadedFiles/BOEM/Renewable_Energy_Program/Smart_from_the_Start/Mi

d-Atlantic_Final_EA_012012.pdf. Accessed March 21, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012b. Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and 

Gas Lease Sale: 2012. Central Planning Area Lease Sale 216/222. Final Supplemental 

Environmental Impact Statement. OCS EIS/EA BOEMRE 2012-058. January 2012. 

http://www.boem.gov/BOEM-Newsroom/Library/Publications/2012/2012-058_vol_1-pdf.aspx. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and Bureau of Safety and Environmental 

Enforcement. 2012a. Joint NTL 2012-G02. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, 

gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the OCS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

Implementation of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program. 

Available at: http://www.bsee.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Notices-to-Lessees/2012/2012-JOINTG02-pdf.aspx. Accessed January 11, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and Bureau of Safety and Environmental 

Enforcement. 2012b. Joint NTL 2012-G01. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, 

gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the OCS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. 

Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting. Available at: 

http://www.boem.gov/Regulations/Notices-To-Lessees/2012/2012-JOINT-G01-pdf.aspx. Accessed 

January 11, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2012. BSEE NTL 

2012-G01. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and 

pipeline right of-way holders in the OCS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Marine trash and debris 

awareness and elimination. Available at: http://www.bsee.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Noticesto-Lessees/2012/2012-BSEE-G01-pdf.aspx. Accessed January 11, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) Atlantic 

coast population. Revised recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hadley, Massachusetts. 

236 pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/960502.pdf. Accessed August 22, 

2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1998. Roseate tern (Sterna dougallii) northeastern 

population recovery plan, first update. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hadley, Massachusetts. 

75 pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/981105.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan – 

The reptiles. Kemp’s ridley sea turtle. 16 pp. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Florida manatee recovery plan (Trichechus 

manatus latirostris), Third Revision. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southeast Region, Atlanta, GA. 

Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/011030.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 
A-200 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007. West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus): 

5-Year Review: Summary and evaluation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Southeast Region, 

Jacksonville Ecological Services Office, Jacksonville, Florida and Caribbean Field Office, Boquerón, 

Puerto Rico. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc1042.pdf. Accessed 

August 19, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2009. Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) 5-year 

review: Summary and evaluation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Northeast Region, Hadley, 

Massachusetts and Midwest Region, East Lansing, Michigan. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3009.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010a. Species assessment and listing priority 

assignment form for the red knot (Calidris canutus rufa). Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candidate/assessments/2010/r5/B0DM_V01.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010b. Red knot (Calidris canutus rufa): Spotlight 

species action plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pleasantville, New Jersey and U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service Northeast Region, Hadley, Massachusetts. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/action_plans/doc3265.pdf. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011a. Species report. Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/SpeciesReport.do?groups=B&listingType=L&mapstatus=1. Last 

updated August 22, 2011. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011b. Species Profile: Roseate tern (Sterna 

dougallii dougallii). Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B07O. Last updated 

August 22, 2011. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011c. Species Profile: Cahow (Pterodroma 

cahow). Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B015. Updated 

August 16, 2011. Accessed August 16, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011d. Species Profile: Piping plover (Charadrius 

melodus). Available at: 

http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=B079. Last updated 

August 22, 2011. Accessed August 22, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011e. Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge. 

Available at: http://www.fws.gov/archiecarr/. Accessed October 26, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Atlantic Coast Piping Plover – Summer 

(Breeding) and Winter Areas. Available at: 

http://www.fws.gov/northeast/pipingplover/images/map.gif. No post date. Accessed April 9, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine 

Fisheries Service. 1998. Endangered Species Consultation Handbook. March 1998 Final. Available 

at: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/esa-library/pdf/esa_section7_handbook.pdf. Accessed April 5, 

2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 2005. NTL 2005-G07. Notice to Lessees and 

Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the outer 

continental shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Archaeology resource surveys and reports. Available 

at: http://www.boem.gov/Regulations/Notices-To-Lessees/2005/05-G07.aspx. Accessed January 23, 

2012. 
Biological Assessment A-201

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 2007a. Programmatic Environmental Impact 

Statement for alternative energy development and production and alternate use of facilities on the 

Outer Continental Shelf, Final Environmental Impact Statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Herndon, 

VA. OCS EIS/EA 2007-046. Available at: http://ocsenergy.anl.gov/eis/guide/index.cfm. Accessed 

September 6, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 2007b. Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas 

Lease Sales: 2007-2012. Western Planning Area Sales 204, 207, 210, 215, and 218; Central 

Planning Area Sales 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, and 222. Final Environmental Impact Statement. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. OCS EIS/EA 

MMS 2007-018. April 2007. Available at: https://www.gomr.mms.gov/PDFs/2007/2007-018-

Vol1.pdf. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 2008a. NTL 2008-G05. Notice to Lessees and 

Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the outer 

continental shelf, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Shallow hazards program. Available at: 

http://www.boem.gov/Regulations/Notices-To-Lessees/2008/08-g05.aspx. Accessed January 23, 

2012. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 2008b. OCS Atlantic planning area boundaries 

and well location index map. Available at: 

http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/homepg/offshore/atlocs/Atlantic_Index_Preliminary.pdf. Accessed 

October 27, 2011. 

U.S. Department of the Navy. 2008. Final Atlantic Fleet Active Sonar Training Environmental Impact 

Statement/Overseas Environmental Impact Statement. Available at: 

https://portal.navfac.navy.mil/portal/page/portal/navfac/navfac_ww_pp/navfac_hq_pp/navfac_enviro

nmental/documents/atlantic%20documents/final%20afast%20eis%20main%20document.pdf. 

Accessed March 22, 2012. 

U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. 2004. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight 

Near Noise-Sensitive Areas. Advisory Circular No. 91-36D. Available at: 

http://www.fs.fed.us/r10/tongass/PackCreek-OG/AC91-36d.pdf. Accessed January 19, 2012. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Development Document for Effluent Limitations 

Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Offshore Subcategory of the Oil and Gas 

Extraction Point Source Category, Final. EPA 821-R93-003. January 1993. Available at: 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=20002XFX.txt. Accessed September 2, 2011. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2000. Development Document for Final Effluent Limitations 

Guidelines and Standards for Synthetic-Based Drilling Fluids and other Non-Aqueous Drilling Fluids 

in the Oil and Gas Extraction Point Source Category. EPA 821-B-00-013. December 2000. 

Available at: http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/guide/sbf/eng.cfm. Accessed September 2, 

2011. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Final National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

(NPDES) General Permit No. GEG460000 For Offshore Oil and Gas Activities in the Eastern Gulf of 

Mexico. Available at: 

http://www.epa.gov/region4/water/permits/documents/final_r4_ocspermit_03152010.pdf. Accessed 

September 2, 2011. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Ocean dredged material disposal sites (ODMDS) in the 

southeast. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/region4/water/oceans/sites.html. Last updated February 

9, 2011. Accessed August 24, 2011. 

U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Task Force. 2010. U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Project: 

Establishing the Full Extent of the Continental Shelf of the United States. Posted December 2010. 

Available at: http://continentalshelf.gov/media/ECSposterDec2010.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2011. 
A-202 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

U.S. Fleet Forces. 2009. Virginia Capes Range Complex Final Environmental Impact 

Statement/Overseas Environmental Impact Assessment. Volume 1. Figure 3.1-1. Available at: 

http://64.78.11.86/uxofiles/enclosures/VACAPES_FEIS_Vol_1_Chapter3.pdf. Accessed 

September 6, 2011. 

U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2009. Global climate change impacts in the United States. A 

State of Knowledge Report from the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Available at: 

http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate-impacts-report.pdf. Accessed 

September 6, 2011. 

U.S. Navy, Office of Naval Research. 2009. Final workshop proceedings for effects of stress on marine 

mammals exposed to sound. Arlington, VA, 4-5 November 2009. 59 pp. 

van Dam, R.P. and C.E. Diez. 1997. Diving behavior of immature hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys 

imbricata) in a Caribbean reef habitat. Coral Reefs 16:133-138. Available at: 

http://www.widecast.org/What/Country/PuertoRico/Docs/vanDam%26Diez_%281997%29_Hawksibl

l_dive_behavior_in_Caribbean_reef_habitat.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

van Houtan, K.S. and O.L. Bass. 2007. Stormy oceans are associated with declines in sea turtle hatching. 

Current Biology 17(15):590-591. 

van Waerebeek, K., A.N. Baker, F. Félix, J. Gedamke, M. Iñiguez, G.P. Sanino, E. Secchi, D. Sutaria, 

A. van Helden, and Y. Wang. 2007. Vessel collisions with small cetaceans worldwide and with large 

whales in the Southern Hemisphere, an initial assessment. Latin American Journal of Aquatic 

Mammals 6(1):43-69. 

Vasconcelos, R. O., M.P. Amorim, and F. Ladich. 2007. Effects of ship noise on the detectability of 

communication signals in the Lusitania toadfish. J. Exp. Biol.210:2104-2112. 

Wallace, B.P., R.L. Lewison, S.L. McDonald, C.Y. Kot, S. Kelez, R.K. Bjorkland, E.M. Finkbeiner, 

S. Helmbrecht, and L.B. Crowder. 2010. Global patterns of marine turtle bycatch. Conservation 

Letters 3:131-142. 

Warchol, M.E. 2011. Sensory regeneration in the vertebrate inner ear: Differences at the levels of cells 

and species. Hear Res 273(1-2):72-79. 

Ward, W.D. 1997. Effects of high-intensity sound, pp. 1497-1507. In: M.J. Crocker (ed.), Encyclopedia 

of Acoustics, Vol. III. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. 

Warham, J. 1990. Petrels: Their ecology and breeding systems. London: Academic Press. 440 pp. 

Warham, J. 1996. The behavior, population biology, and physiology of the petrels. Academic Press, 

London. 613 pp. 

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, K. Maze-Foley, and P.E. Rosel, eds. 2010. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico Marine Mammal Stock Assessments -- 2010. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS-NE-219. 598 pp. 

Available at: http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/tm/tm219/tm219.pdf. Accessed August 19, 

2011. 

Wartzok, D. and D.R. Ketten. 1999. Marine mammal sensory systems, pp. 117-175. In: 

J.E. Reynolds, II and S.A. Rommel (eds.), Biology of marine mammals. Smithsonian Institute Press, 

Washington, DC. 

Wartzok, D., A.N. Popper, J. Gordon, and J. Merrill. 2004. Factors affecting the responses of marine 

mammals to acoustic disturbance. Mar. Tech. Soc. J. 37:6-15. 

Webb, J.F., R.R. Fay, and A.N. Popper, eds. 2008. Fish bioacoustics. New York: Springer Science + 

Business Media, LLC. 

Webster, P.J., G.J. Holland, J.A. Curry, and H-R Chang. 2005. Changes in tropical cyclone number, 

duration, and intensity in a warming environment. Science 309:1844-1846. 
Biological Assessment A-203

Weir, C.R. 2008a. Overt Responses of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), Sperm Whales 

(Physeter macrocephalus), and Atlantic Spotted Dolphins (Stenella frontalis) to Seismic Exploration 

off Angola. Aquatic Mammals 34(1): 71-83. 

Weir, C.R. 2008b. Short-Finned Pilot Whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) Respond to an Airgun 

Ramp-up Procedure off Gabon. Aquatic Mammals 34(3): 349-354. 

Weir, C.R. and S.J. Dolman. 2007. Comparative review of the regional marine mammal mitigation 

guidelines implemented during industrial seismic surveys, and guidance towards a worldwide 

standard. J. Intl. Wildlife Law & Policy 10:1-27. 

Weir, C.R., Dolman, S.J. and M.P. Simmonds. 2006. Marine mammal mitigation during seismic surveys 

and recommendations for worldwide standard mitigation guidance. Paper SC/58/E12 presented to the 

Scientific Committee of the International Whaling Commission, St. Kitts, May 2006. 

Weise, F.K. and I.L. Jones. 2001. Experimental support for a new drift block design to assess seabird 

mortality from oil pollution. The Auk 118(4):1062-1068. 

Weishampel, J.F., D.A. Bagley, and L.M. Ehrhart. 2006. Intra-annual loggerhead and green turtle spatial 

nesting patterns. Southeastern Naturalist 5(3):453-462. 

Wever, E.G. 1978. The reptile ear: Its structure and function. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 

Whitehead, H. 2002. Estimates of the current global population size and historical trajectory for sperm 

whales. Marine Ecology Progress Series 242:295-304. Available at: 

http://whitelab.biology.dal.ca/hw/Sperm_Population_Whitehead.pdf. Accessed August 19, 2011. 

WildEarth Guardians. 2010. Petition to designate critical habitat for the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle 

(Lepidochelys kempii). Petition Submitted to the U.S. Secretary of Interior, Acting through the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Secretary of Commerce, acting through the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Service. Santa Fe, New Mexico. 28 pp. 

Available at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/petitions/kempsridley_criticalhabitat_feb2010.pdf. 

Accessed August 19, 2011. 

Wiley, D.N., R.A. Asmutis, T.D. Pitchford and D.P. Gannon. 1995. Stranding and mortality of 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, in the mid-Atlantic and southeast United States, 

1985-1992. Fishery Bulletin 93:196-205. 

Wirsing, A.J., M.R. Heithaus, A. Frid, and L.M. Dill. 2008. Seascapes of fear: Evaluating sublethal 

predator effects experienced and generated by marine mammals. Marine Mammal Science 24:1-15. 

Witzell, W. 1983. Synopsis of the biological data on the hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata

(Linnaeus, 1766). FAO Fisheries Synopsis 137. 78 pp. 

World Port Source. 2011. Port of Jacksonville port detail. Available at: 

http://www.worldportsource.com/ports/USA_FL_Port_of_Jacksonville_225.php. Accessed 

August 24, 2011. 

Wyneken, J. and M. Salmon. 1992. Frenzy and post-frenzy swimming activity in loggerhead, green, and 

leatherback hatchling sea turtles. Copeia 1992:478-484. 

Yelverton, J.T., D.R. Richmond, E.R. Fletcher, and R.K. Jones. 1973. Safe distances from underwater 

explosions for mammals and birds. AD-766 952. Prepared for Defense Nuclear Agency, 

Washington, DC. Available at: http://www.dtic.mil/cgibin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD766952&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf. Accessed August 5, 2011. 

Yochem, P.K. and S. Leatherwood. 1985. Blue whale. In: Ridgway, S.H. and R. Harrison, eds. 

Handbook of marine mammals, Vol. 3: The sirenians and baleen whales. New York: Academic 

Press. Pp. 193-240. 
A-204 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

Young, G.A. 1991. Concise methods for predicting the effects of underwater explosions on marine life. 

AD-A241-310. Naval Surface Warfare Center, Silver Spring, MD. Available at: 

http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA241310&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf. 

Accessed August 5, 2011. 

Zelick, R., D. Mann, and A.N. Popper. 1999. Acoustic communication in fishes and frogs. In: Fay, 

R.R. and A.N. Popper, eds. Comparative hearing: Fish and amphibians. New York: SpringerVerlag. Pp. 363-411. 

9. LIST OF CONTACTS MADE AND PREPARERS 

9.1. CONTACTS

Kellie Foster 

Fishery Biologist 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

1315 East-West Highway, F/PR3 

Silver Spring, MD 20910 

Mark Minton 

ESA Liaison 

NMFS Northeast Regional Office 

55 Great Republic Drive 

Gloucester, MA 01930 

Janet Mizzi 

Chief, Division of Endangered Species 

Ecological Services 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

1875 Century Boulevard 

Atlanta, GA 30345 

9.2. PREPARERS

The BA was prepared by CSA International, Inc. under contract to the BOEM. The following 

individuals contributed to the BA: 

 Stephen T. Viada, CSA International, Inc. – primary author 

 Kathleen J. Vigness-Raposa, Ph.D., Marine Acoustics, Inc. – co-author 

 Brian J. Balcom, CSA International, Inc. – co-author 

 David B. Snyder, CSA International, Inc. – co-author 

 Kim Olsen, CSA International, Inc. – co-author 

 Neal W. Phillips, Ph.D., CSA International, Inc. – technical reviewer 

 Kristen L. Metzger, CSA International, Inc. – librarian 

 Melody B. Powell, CSA International, Inc. – technical editor 

 Danielle Johnson, CSA International, Inc. – technical editor 
Biological Assessment A-205

ATTACHMENT: DRAFT SEISMIC AIRGUN SURVEY PROTOCOL 

Note: The following draft protocol is based on Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G02 (Implementation 

of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program) (USDOI, BOEM and 

BSEE, 2012a) with the following key exceptions: 

 The protocol would apply to all seismic surveys in the BA Area regardless of water 

depth. Joint NTL 2012-G02 does not apply to water depths less than 200 m (656 ft) 

in the Gulf of Mexico west of 88o W. 

 The radius of the exclusion zone would be based on the predicted range at which 

animals could be exposed to a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, which is the current 

NMFS criterion for Level A harassment of cetaceans. The radius would be calculated 

for each survey but would not be less than 500 m (1,640 ft). In contrast, Joint 

NTL 2012-G02 specifies a single, fixed radius of 500 m (1,640 ft). 

 Shutdown of the airgun array would be required any time a marine mammal or sea 

turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s movement, 

the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone. 

There would be an exception for dolphins approaching the vessel or towed equipment 

at a speed and vector that indicates voluntary approach to bow-ride or chase towed 

equipment. In contrast, Joint NTL 2012-G02 requires the exclusion zone to be clear 

of all marine mammals and sea turtles for startup, but shutdown is required only for 

whales entering the exclusion zone. 

BACKGROUND

The use of an airgun or airgun arrays while conducting seismic operations may have an impact on 

marine wildlife, including marine mammals and sea turtles. Some marine mammals, such as the North 

Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis), blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), fin whale (Balaenoptera 

physalus), sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), sperm whale 

(Physeter macrocephalus), and Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris), that inhabit the BA 

Area are protected under the ESA, and all marine mammals are protected under the MMPA. All five sea 

turtle species inhabiting the BA Area are protected under the ESA. They are the loggerhead turtle 

(Caretta caretta), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Kemp’s 

ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), and leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). 

In order to protect marine mammals and sea turtles during seismic operations, the NMFS requires 

seismic operators to use ramp-up and visual observation procedures when conducting seismic surveys. 

Procedures for ramp-up, protected species observer training, visual monitoring, and reporting are 

described in detail in this protocol. These mitigation measures apply to all seismic survey operations 

conducted regardless of water depth. Performance of these mitigation measures is also a condition of the 

approval of applications for geophysical permits. Permittees must demonstrate compliance with these 

mitigation measures by submitting to BOEM certain reports detailed in this protocol. The measures 

contained herein would apply to all on-lease surveys conducted under 30 CFR 550 and all off-lease 

surveys conducted under 30 CFR 551 in the BA Area. In addition, the measures would apply to any deep 

penetration seismic surveys conducted to evaluate formation suitability for carbon sequestration in the 

renewable energy program. 

DEFINITIONS

Terms used in this protocol have the following meanings: 

1. Airgun means a device that releases compressed air into the water column, creating 

an acoustical energy pulse with the purpose of penetrating the seafloor. 

2. Ramp-up means the gradual increase in emitted sound levels from an airgun array by 

systematically turning on the full complement of an array’s airguns over a period of 

time. 
A-206 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

3. Visual monitoring means the use of trained protected species observers to scan the 

ocean surface visually for the presence of marine mammals and sea turtles. These 

observers must have successfully completed a visual observer training program as 

described below. The area to be scanned visually includes, but is not limited to, the 

exclusion zone. Visual monitoring of an exclusion zone and adjacent waters is 

intended to establish and, when visual conditions allow, maintain a zone around the 

sound source and seismic vessel that is clear of marine mammals and sea turtles, 

thereby reducing or eliminating the potential for injury. 

4. Exclusion zone means the area at and below the sea surface within a radius to be 

determined by calculating the maximum range at which animals could be exposed to 

a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, which is the current NMFS criterion for Level A 

harassment of cetaceans. The distance is calculated from the center of an airgun 

array. Each survey vessel must maintain its own unique exclusion zone. The radius 

of the exclusion zone must be calculated independently for each survey based on the 

configuration of the airgun array and the ambient acoustic environment, but must not 

be less than 500 m (1,640 ft). 

5. Dolphins mean all marine mammal species in the family Delphinidae. This includes, 

among others, killer whales, pilot whales, and all of the “dolphin” species. 

RAMP-UP PROCEDURES

The intent of ramp-up is to warn marine mammals and sea turtles of pending seismic operations and 

to allow sufficient time for those animals to leave the immediate vicinity. Under normal conditions, 

animals sensitive to these activities are expected to move out of the area. For all seismic surveys, 

including airgun testing, use the ramp-up procedures described below to allow marine mammals and sea 

turtles to depart the exclusion zone before seismic surveying begins. 

Measures to conduct ramp-up procedures during all seismic survey operations, including airgun 

testing, are as follows: 

1. Visually monitor the exclusion zone and adjacent waters for the absence of marine 

mammals and sea turtles for at least 30 min before initiating ramp-up procedures. If 

none are detected, you may initiate ramp-up procedures. Do not initiate ramp-up 

procedures at night or when you cannot visually monitor the exclusion zone for 

marine mammals and sea turtles if your minimum source level drops below 160 dB 

re 1 μPa-m ( rms) (see measure 5). 

2. Initiate ramp-up procedures by firing a single airgun. The preferred airgun to begin 

with should be the smallest airgun, in terms of energy output (dB) and volume (in.3

). 

3. Continue ramp-up by gradually activating additional airguns over a period of at least 

20 min, but no longer than 40 min, until the desired operating level of the airgun 

array is obtained. 

4. Immediately shut down all airguns, ceasing seismic operations at any time a marine 

mammal or sea turtle is detected entering or within the exclusion zone. However, 

shutdown would not be required for dolphins approaching the vessel or towed 

equipment at a speed and vector that indicates voluntary approach to bow-ride or 

chase towed equipment. After a shutdown, you may recommence seismic operations 

and ramp-up of airguns only when the exclusion zone has been visually inspected for 

at least 30 min to ensure the absence of marine mammals and sea turtles. 

5. You may reduce the source level of the airgun array, using the same shot interval as 

the seismic survey, to maintain a minimum source level of 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) 

for the duration of certain activities. By maintaining the minimum source level, you 

will not be required to conduct the 30-min visual clearance of the exclusion zone 

before ramping back up to full output. Activities that are appropriate for maintaining 

the minimum source level are (1) all turns between transect lines, when a survey 

using the full array is being conducted immediately prior to the turn and will be 

resumed immediately after the turn; and (2) unscheduled, unavoidable maintenance 

of the airgun array that requires the interruption of a survey to shut down the array. 
Biological Assessment A-207

The survey should be resumed immediately after the repairs are completed. There 

may be other occasions when this practice is appropriate, but use of the minimum 

source level to avoid the 30-min visual clearance of the exclusion zone is only for 

events that occur during a survey using the full power array. The minimum sound 

source level is not to be used to allow a later ramp-up after dark or in conditions 

when ramp-up would not otherwise be allowed. 

PROTECTED SPECIES OBSERVER PROGRAM

Visual Observers 

Visual observers who have completed a protected species observer training program as described 

below are required on all seismic vessels conducting operations in the BA Area. at least two protected 

species visual observers will be required on watch aboard seismic vessels at all times during daylight 

hours (dawn to dusk) when seismic operations are being conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, 

darkness) make sea surface observations impossible. If conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such 

that the sea surface observations are halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions permit. 

Operators may engage trained third party observers, utilize crew members after training as observers, or 

use a combination of both third party and crew observers. During these observations, the following 

guidelines shall be followed: (1) other than brief alerts to bridge personnel of maritime hazards, no 

additional duties may be assigned to the observer during his/her visual observation watch (if conditions 

warrant more vigilant look-outs when navigating around or near maritime hazards, additional personnel 

must be used to ensure that watching for protected species remains the primary focus of the on-watch 

observers); (2) no observer will be allowed more than 4 consecutive hours on watch as a visual observer; 

(3) a “break” time of no less than 2 hr must be allowed before an observer begins another visual 

monitoring watch rotation (break time means no assigned observational duties); and (4) no person (crew 

or third party) on watch as a visual observer will be assigned a combined watch schedule of more than 

12 hr in a 24-hr period. Due to the concentration and diligence required during visual observation 

watches, operators who choose to use trained crew members in these positions may select only those crew 

members who demonstrate willingness as well as ability to perform these duties. 

Training 

All visual observers must have completed a protected species observer training course. The BOEM 

will not sanction particular trainers or training programs. However, basic training criteria have been 

established and must be adhered to by any entity that offers observer training. Operators may utilize 

observers trained by third parties, may send crew for training conducted by third parties, or may develop 

their own training program. All training programs offering to fulfill the observer training requirement 

must (1) furnish to BOEM a course information packet that includes the name and qualifications 

(i.e., experience, training completed, or educational background) of the instructor(s), the course outline or 

syllabus, and course reference material; (2) furnish each trainee with a document stating successful 

completion of the course; and (3) provide BOEM with names, affiliations, and dates of course completion 

of trainees. 

The training course must include the following elements: 

I. Brief overview of the MMPA and the ESA as they relate to seismic acquisition and 

protection of marine mammals and sea turtles in the Atlantic Ocean. 

II. Brief overview of seismic acquisition operations. 

III. Overview of seismic mitigation measures and the protected species observer program. 

IV. Discussion of the role and responsibilities of the protected species observer, including 

a) Legal requirements (why you are here and what you do); 

b) Professional behavior (code of conduct); 

c) Integrity; 

d) Authority of protected species observer to call for shutdown of seismic acquisition 

operations; 
A-208 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

e) Assigned duties; 

1) What can be asked of the observer; 

2) What cannot be asked of the observer; and 

f) Reporting of violations and coercion; 

V. Identification of Atlantic marine mammals and sea turtles. 

VI. Cues and search methods for locating marine mammals and sea turtles. 

VII. Data collection and reporting requirements: 

a) Forms and reports to BOEM via email on the 1st and 15th of each month; and 

b) Marine mammal or sea turtle in exclusion zone/shutdown report within 24 hr. 

Visual Monitoring Methods 

The observers on duty will look for marine mammals and sea turtles using the naked eye and handheld binoculars provided by the seismic vessel operator. The observers will stand watch in a suitable 

location that will not interfere with navigation or operation of the vessel and that affords the observers an 

optimal view of the sea surface. The observers will provide 360o coverage surrounding the seismic vessel 

and adjust their positions appropriately to ensure adequate coverage of the entire area. These 

observations must be consistent, diligent, and free of distractions for the duration of the watch. 

Visual monitoring will begin no less than 30 min prior to the beginning of ramp-up and continue until 

seismic operations cease or sighting conditions do not allow observation of the sea surface (e.g., fog, rain, 

darkness). If a marine mammal or sea turtle is observed, the observer should note and monitor the 

position (including latitude/longitude of the vessel and relative bearing and estimated distance to the 

animal) until the animal dives or moves out of visual range of the observer. Make sure you continue to 

observe for additional animals that may surface in the area, as often there are numerous animals that may 

surface at varying time intervals. At any time a marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the 

exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal 

surfaced inside the exclusion zone, the observer will call for the immediate shutdown of the seismic 

operation, including airgun firing (the vessel may continue on its course but all airgun discharges must 

cease). However, shutdown would not be required for dolphins approaching the vessel or towed 

equipment at a speed and vector that indicates voluntary approach to bow-ride or chase towed equipment. 

The vessel operator must comply immediately with such a call by an on-watch visual observer. Any 

disagreement or discussion should occur only after shutdown. After a shutdown, when no marine 

mammals or sea turtles are sighted for at least a 30-min period, ramp-up of the source array may begin. 

Ramp-up cannot begin unless conditions allow the sea surface to be visually inspected for marine 

mammals and sea turtles for 30 min prior to commencement of ramp-up (unless the method described in 

the section entitled “Experimental Passive Acoustic Monitoring” is used). Thus, ramp-up cannot begin 

after dark or in conditions that prohibit visual inspection (fog, rain, etc.) of the exclusion zone. Any 

shutdown due to a marine mammal or sea turtle sighting within the exclusion zone must be followed by a 

30-min all-clear period and then a standard, full ramp-up. Any shutdown for other reasons, including, but 

not limited to, mechanical or electronic failure, resulting in the cessation of the sound source for a period 

greater than 20 min, must also be followed by full ramp-up procedures. In recognition of occasional, 

short periods of the cessation of airgun firing for a variety of reasons, periods of airgun silence not 

exceeding 20 min in duration will not require ramp-up for the resumption of seismic operations if 

(1) visual surveys are continued diligently throughout the silent period (requiring daylight and reasonable 

sighting conditions), and (2) no marine mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone. If 

marine mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone during the short silent period, 

resumption of seismic survey operations must be preceded by ramp-up. 

REPORTING

The importance of accurate and complete reporting of the results of the mitigation measures cannot be 

overstated. Only through diligent and careful reporting can BOEM, and subsequently the NMFS, 

determine the need for and effectiveness of mitigation measures. Information on observer effort and 

seismic operations is as important as animal sighting and behavior data. In order to accommodate various 

vessels’ bridge practices and preferences, vessel operators and observers may design data reporting forms 

in whatever format they deem convenient and appropriate. Alternatively, observers or vessel operators 
Biological Assessment A-209

may adopt the United Kingdom’s JNCC forms (available at their website, http://www.jncc.gov.uk). At a 

minimum, the following items should be recorded and included in reports to the BOEM: 

Observer Effort Report: Prepared for each day during which seismic acquisition operations are 

conducted. Furnish an observer effort report to BOEM on the 1st and the 15th of each month that includes 

 Vessel name; 

 Observers’ names and affiliations; 

 Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

 BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number 

(for “on-lease seismic surveys”); 

 Date; 

 Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey began; 

 Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey ended; and 

 Average environmental conditions while on visual survey, including 

– Wind speed and direction; 

– Sea state (glassy, slight, choppy, rough, or Beaufort scale); 

– Swell (low, medium, high, or swell height in meters); and 

– Overall visibility (poor, moderate, good). 

Survey Report: Prepared for each day during which seismic acquisition operations are conducted 

and the airguns are being discharged. Furnish a survey report to BOEM on the 1st and the 15th of each 

month during which operations are being conducted that includes 

 Vessel name; 

 Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

 BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number 

(for “on-lease seismic surveys”); 

 Date; 

 Time pre-ramp-up survey begins; 

 What marine mammals and sea turtles were seen during pre-ramp-up survey? 

 Time ramp-up begins; 

 Were marine mammals seen during ramp-up? 

 Time airgun array is operating at the desired intensity; 

 What marine mammals and sea turtles were seen during survey? 

 If marine mammals were seen, was any action taken (i.e., survey delayed, guns shut 

down)? 

 Reason that marine mammals might not have been seen (e.g., swell, glare, fog); and 

 Time airgun array stops firing. 

Sighting Report: Prepared for each sighting of a marine mammal or sea turtle made during seismic 

acquisition operations. Furnish a sighting report to BOEM on the 1st and the 15th of each month during 

which operations are being conducted that includes 

 Vessel name; 

 Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

 BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number 

(for “on-lease seismic surveys”); 

 Date; 

 Time; 

 Watch status (Were you on watch or was this sighting made opportunistically by you 

or someone else?); 

 Observer or person who made the sighting; 

 Latitude/longitude of vessel; 

 Bearing of vessel; 

 Bearing and estimated range to animal(s) at first sighting; 
A-210 Atlantic G&G Programmatic EIS

 Water depth (meters); 

 Species (or identification to lowest possible taxonomic level); 

 Certainty of identification (sure, most likely, best guess); 

 Total number of animals; 

 Number of juveniles; 

 Description (as many distinguishing features as possible of each individual seen, 

including length, shape, color and pattern, scars or marks, shape and size of dorsal 

fin, shape of head, and blow characteristics); 

 Direction of animal’s travel – compass direction; 

 Direction of animal’s travel – related to the vessel (drawing preferably); 

 Behavior (as explicit and detailed as possible; note any observed changes in 

behavior); 

 Activity of vessel; 

 Airguns firing? (yes or no); and 

 Closest distance (meters) to animals from center of airgun or airgun array (whether 

firing or not). 

Note: If this sighting was of a marine mammal or sea turtle within the exclusion zone that 

resulted in a shutdown of the airguns, include in the sighting report the observed behavior of the 

animal(s) before shutdown, the observed behavior following shutdown (specifically noting any change in 

behavior), and the length of time between shutdown and subsequent ramp-up to resume the seismic 

survey (note if seismic survey was not resumed as soon as possible following shutdown). Send this report 

to BOEM within 24 hr of the shutdown. These sightings should also be included in the first regular 

semi-monthly report following the incident. 

Additional information, important points, and comments are encouraged. All reports will be 

submitted to BOEM on the 1st and the 15th of each month (with one exception noted above). Forms 

should be scanned (or data typed) and sent via email to the BOEM.

Please note that these marine mammal and sea turtle reports are in addition to any reports required as 

a condition of the geophysical permit. 

BOREHOLE SEISMIC SURVEYS 

Borehole seismic surveys differ from surface seismic surveys in a number of ways, including the use 

of much smaller airgun arrays, having an average survey time of 12-24 hr, utilizing a sound source that is 

not usually moving at 7.4-9.3 km/hr (4-5 kn), and requiring the capability of moving the receiver in the 

borehole between shots. Due to these differences, the following altered mitigations apply only to 

borehole seismic surveys: 

 During daylight hours, when visual observations of the exclusion zone are being 

performed as required in this protocol, borehole seismic operations will not be 

required to ramp-up for shutdowns of 30 min or less in duration, as long as no marine 

mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone during the shutdown. If a 

marine mammal or sea turtle is sighted in the exclusion zone, ramp-up is required and 

may begin only after visual surveys confirm that the exclusion zone has been clear 

for 30 min. 

 During nighttime or when conditions prohibit visual observation of the exclusion 

zone, ramp-up will not be required for shutdowns of 20 min or less in duration. For 

borehole seismic surveys that utilize passive acoustics during nighttime and periods 

of poor visibility, ramp-up is not required for shutdowns of 30 min or less. 

 Nighttime or poor visibility ramp-up is allowed only when passive acoustics are used 

to ensure that no marine mammals are present in the exclusion zone (as for all other 

seismic surveys). Operators are strongly encouraged to acquire the survey in daylight 

hours when possible. 
Biological Assessment A-211

 Protected species observers must be used during daylight hours, as required in this 

protocol, and may be stationed either on the source boat or on the associated drilling 

rig or platform if a clear view of the sea surface in the exclusion zone and adjacent 

waters is available. 

 All other mitigations and provisions for seismic surveys as set forth in this protocol 

will apply to borehole seismic surveys. 

 Reports should reference OCS Lease Number, Area/Block and Borehole Number. 

EXPERIMENTAL PASSIVE ACOUSTIC MONITORING

Whales are very vocal marine mammals, and periods of silence are usually short and most often occur 

when these animals are at the surface and may be detected by visual observers. However, whales are at 

the greatest risk of potential injury from seismic airguns when they are submerged and under the airgun 

array. Passive acoustic monitoring appears to be very effective at detecting submerged and diving sperm 

whales, and some other marine mammal species, when they are not detectable by visual observation. The 

BOEM strongly encourages operators to participate in an experimental program by including passive 

acoustic monitoring as part of the protected species observer program. Inclusion of passive acoustic 

monitoring does not relieve an operator of any of the mitigations (including visual observations) in this 

protocol with the following exception: Monitoring for whales with a passive acoustic array by an 

observer proficient in its use will allow ramp-up and the subsequent start of a seismic survey during times 

of reduced visibility (darkness, fog, rain, etc.) when such ramp-up otherwise would not be permitted using 

only visual observers. If passive acoustic monitoring is used, an assessment must be included of the 

usefulness, effectiveness, and problems encountered with the use of that method of marine mammal 

detection in the reports described in this protocol. A description of the passive acoustic system, the 

software used, and the monitoring plan should also be reported to BOEM at the beginning of its use. 
This page intentionally left blank. 
Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-229 

RESPONSE LETTER FROM FWS 

 



Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-233

BOEM NON-AIR GUN,

HIGH-RESOLUTION GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS IN 

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE CRITICAL HABITAT,

SEASONAL MANAGEMENT AREAS, AND 

DYNAMIC MANAGEMENT AREAS IN THE MID-ATLANTIC AND

SOUTH ATLANTIC PLANNING AREAS OF THE 

OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF

1

Non-Air Gun, High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys in North Atlantic right whale Critical 

Habitat, Seasonal Management Areas, and Dynamic Management Areas in the 

Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas of the Outer Continental Shelf 

Objectives

 Clarify BOEM’s proposed action and identify the limited high-resolution geophysical 

(HRG) survey activity proposed in North Atlantic right whale critical habitat (CH) and 

seasonal management areas (SMA). 

 Explain BOEM’s strategy to mitigate or avoid adverse impacts to North Atlantic right 

whales in SMAs and CH. 

Background

Under the Terms and Conditions of the NMFS draft biological opinion for the Mid/South 

Atlantic G&G proposed action, NMFS proposed to require the following prohibition and 

requirement: 

1. BOEM and BSEE shall not authorize any seismic or HRG surveys within North Atlantic 

right whale critical habitat (CH) in the southeast United States from November 15 

through April 15 of each year or within the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic seasonal 

management areas (SMAs) from November 1 through April 30 of each year. Any surveys 

authorized outside but in proximity of critical habitat and SMA boundaries are required 

to remain at a distance such that received levels at these boundaries are no more than 

160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms). 

2. If BOEM and/or BSEE consider any future project specific HRG surveys that serve 

important operational or monitoring requirements (e.g., renewable energy or marine 

minerals monitoring surveys) for authorization within right whale critical habitat and/or 

SMAs during restricted periods, then BOEM and/or BSEE shall seek separate section 7 

consultation as appropriate. 

These draft Terms and Conditions modify the proposed action from what was included in 

BOEM’s Biological Assessment (BA). NMFS interpreted BOEM’s proposed action to include a 

blanket prohibition on all HRG surveys in North Atlantic right whale CH and SMAs. The 

misinterpretation or misunderstanding stems from ambiguous language used in the BA to 

describe potential exceptions to the time area closures anticipated by BOEM, especially when 

compared to the assumptions used in BOEM’s take estimation (Draft PEIS, Appendix E, 7.4.3). 

BOEM’s BA indicated that there would be exceptions for certain HRG surveys proposed in 

North Atlantic right whale CH and SMAs, and those exceptions would be considered on a 

case-by-case basis if the surveys served important operational or monitoring requirements related 

to BOEM’s Marine Minerals Program (MMP) or Renewable Energy Program (REP) and 

involved the use of acoustic sources other than airguns (BA, 7.1.1). The BA indicated BOEM’s 

authorizations and/or leases may include additional mitigation and monitoring requirements (if 

needed) to avoid or reduce impacts on right whales from those “exception” surveys. BOEM 
2

proposed that those additional requirements would be specified following further BOEM review. 

NMFS assumed those surveys would also be subject to a separate Section 7 consultation. In 

addition, the supporting incidental taking modeling assumed that no geophysical surveys would 

occur in North Atlantic right whale CH and SMA time area closures, thereby concentrating all 

survey activity into remaining months (Draft PEIS, Appendix E; BA, 5.2.1.6). Separate take 

modeling was not done to account for the comparatively limited survey effort associated with 

HRG surveys supporting the MMP or REP within North Atlantic right whale CH and SMAs. As 

a result of the misunderstanding in the proposed action BOEM is offering the following 

clarification of the proposed action and a detailed example of “additional mitigation and 

monitoring” that was alluded to in the Biological Assessment. 

Proposed Action and Program Implications

Limited HRG survey activity will need to occur in or adjacent to North Atlantic right whale CH 

and SMAs. 

The HRG electromechanical sources that could be used in those areas include: 

 Boomer seismic 

 Chirp seismic 

 Sub-bottom profiler 

 Side scan sonar 

 Single-beam, swath, and multibeam bathymetric sonars 

These HRG sources are described in detail in the BA (2.2). Table 1 summarizes the 

characteristic frequencies for these sources; source levels vary according to manufacturer’s 

specification, but generally increase with lower operational frequency. Table 1 can be compared 

to Table A-14 of the BA, the latter of which identifies the sources used for acoustic propagation 

and take modeling. 

The subset of HRG surveys, specifically those for the MMP and REP that need to occur in North 

Atlantic right whale CH and SMAs, was already included in BOEM’s proposed action (see 

Table A-5 and Table A-6 of the BA). Section 2.2.4 of the BA provides a geographic and 

temporal description of the proposed prospecting, pre-lease, and on-lease geophysical surveys 

supporting the MMP. The footprint and duration of most MMP-related surveys are limited to 

less than a few OCS blocks and last less than a few days. Section 2.2.3 of the BA describes the 

comparatively larger and longer site characterization and assessment surveys anticipated for the 

REP. Section 2.2.1 provides the equivalent for HRG for the Oil and Gas Program. Note that 

BOEM anticipates that all HRG surveys for oil and gas will not occur until 2017 or later. Most 

of those oil and gas related HRG surveys are expected to occur outside the North Atlantic right 

whale CH and SMAs and/or those surveys will also involve the use of small volume 

air guns- either of which preclude those geophysical activities from occurring during the 

North Atlantic right whale CH and SMA windows. 

Systematic North Atlantic right whale time-area closures (and the need for separate, individual 

Section 7 consultations) would disproportionally affect HRG surveys in support of the MMP and 
3

potentially the REP. For example, more than 75% of the MMP proposed action could be 

impacted by NMFS’s proposed time area closures. Figures 1-2 show where HRGs surveys for 

MMP and REP are expected to take place between 2013 - 2020 within North Atlantic right whale 

CH and SMAs. Some additional survey activity is projected, but at this time, the exact location 

and timing is not known. Note that the MMP and REP level of effort (translated into OCS 

blocks/year) is specified in Tables B-4 and B-5 of the Draft EIS, Supplemental Seismic Take 

Tables. A more narrative description of program-specific activities and implications is provided 

below. 

Marine Minerals Program 

Survey activity occurring within the North Atlantic right whale CH or SMA accounts for less 

than one percent of the HRG surveys included in BOEM’s proposed action. The activity 

scenario for MMP includes HRG surveys offshore Cape Canaveral, FL north to St. John’s River, 

FL (Figure 2); these surveys (Brevard County; Patrick Air Force Base; Flagler County; St. Johns 

County; Duval County) may need to occur during the CH or Southeast SMA window. Most of 

the proposed survey activity will be pre- and post-construction bathymetric surveys associated 

with the dredging and use of OCS sand resources. There may be an occasional need, especially 

following any severe coastal erosion and storm damage, to delineate and clear additional borrow 

area (using of the full HRG instrument suite except boomer). Prospecting, pre lease and post 

lease HRG surveys may also need to occur in the Mid-Atlantic SMAs, in particular offshore SC, 

NC, VA, and DE (Figure 1; BA, Table A-6). Between 1-<5 surveys may be reasonably expected 

to occur in any given year offshore the FL CH or Southeast SMAs, subject to the overall ceiling. 

These surveys offshore FL are the most relevant to noise and vessel disturbance of cow/calf 

pairs. Between 1-<5 surveys may also be reasonably expected to occur in any given year 

offshore the mid-Atlantic SMAs, subject to the overall ceiling. The surveys are generally limited 

to less than 1 OCS block, but may include up to 3 OCS blocks for reconnaissance scale surveys. 

As described in the BA, these HRG surveys generally occur in 1-2 days, but may last up to 5 

days for rare larger surveys. 

The MMP’s need for more flexibility in the CH and SMAs is largely driven by separately 

imposed and/or recommended environmental windows for nesting sea turtles in the same project 

areas for times other than North Atlantic right whale closure windows. These different 

requirements exist under separate biological opinions related to dredging and beach nourishment 

and have been issued by Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and NMFS to the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers and BOEM. The draft proposals for designation of loggerhead critical habitat may 

provide additional temporal and spatial constraints. The combination of environmental windows 

could effectively prohibit dredging to less than a month in the spring and fall, rendering 

construction of beach nourishment and coastal restoration projects impossible. Similarly, 

foraging and swimming sea turtles are less likely to be present in the Mid- and South-Atlantic 

areas during the North Atlantic right whale environmental windows. The North Atlantic right 

whale time areas closures could inadvertently encourage dredging in a time window when 

incidental take of sea turtles would increase. Moreover, restricting dredging, because of 

associated pre and post-bathymetric surveys, may also create additional competition for dredges 

in narrow windows of time and significantly increase the cost of publically-funded projects. 
4

Renewable Energy Program 

The activity scenario for the Renewable Energy Program includes HRG surveys that are partially 

located within or in close proximity to the Delaware lease area, Virginia WEA, and North 

Carolina WEAs, and proposed Atlantic Wind Connection corridor. HRG surveys in these areas 

may be affected by the Mid-Atlantic SMA (Figure 1). Unknown, but anticipated HRG surveys 

offshore SC and GA may also occur in the Mid-Atlantic SMA areas. Unknown, but anticipated 

HRG surveys offshore GA/FL may also occur in the Southeast SMA and CH areas. The activity 

level in these areas has not been explicitly defined, but has been estimated at 30 lease blocks 

offshore each of these states and is assumed to occur later in the 2013-2020 window.  The REP’s 

relative proportion of survey activity and level of survey effort potentially occurring within 

North Atlantic right whale CH and SMA cannot be determined at this time because activities in 

SC, GA, and FL have not been explicitly defined. Because of the scale and duration of requisite 

surveys, BOEM does not anticipate that much survey work would be conducted during the 

winter in the northern Mid-Atlantic SMAs because of weather conditions and sea state. It is 

possible that these activities could be scheduled in part or wholly outside the CH and SMA 

windows. 

For the reasons described above, the prohibition of survey activities within the Mid and South 

Atlantic planning areas present less direct impacts to REP activities since many of the Mid- and 

South Atlantic SMAs only partially overlap with existing wind planning areas. However, 

BOEM contends that any blanket seasonal prohibition is inconsistent with NMFS’ opinions for 

similar activities in the North Atlantic planning area and unnecessarily constrains operators to a 

narrower operational window (increasing costs) and reduces the ability to simultaneously 

conduct other biological surveys (e.g. avian, bat, benthic, etc.) during winter time periods that 

may be more advantageous or even necessary for those types of studies. BOEM has completed 

several informal Section 7 consultations and one formal consultation with the NMFS NER 

addressing non-air gun HRG surveys in support of the REP in the North Atlantic Planning Area. 

NMFS has determined that seasonal prohibitions for survey activity are not necessary given the 

standard operating conditions required by BOEM and the limited spatial and temporal footprint 

of these surveys over a period of 5 or more years. 

In its January 2012 Environmental Assessment of Commercial Wind Lease Issuance and Site 

Assessment Activities on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore New Jersey, Delaware, 

Maryland and Virginia, BOEM specifically evaluated an alternative to prohibit HRG surveys 

during the migratory period of North Atlantic right whales in the mid-Atlantic. The evaluation 

of this alternative concluded that the impacts of a seasonal prohibition as a whole would not be 

substantially different from no prohibition. This is because the seasonal prohibition would be 

narrowing the window of time to complete survey activities and potentially constrain the season 

when some biological studies would occur (assuming some biological studies would occur 

concurrently as part of the geophysical data acquisition process). The greatest negative impact 

resulting from the adoption of a seasonal prohibition was for sea turtles. Similarly to concerns 

expressed above, a winter prohibition would effectively narrow the window of activity in and 

around the mid-Atlantic WEAs, concentrating activities that would have been performed in the 

winter into spring, summer, and fall, when sea turtle density in the mid-Atlantic planning area is 

higher. 
5

Proposed Changes to Terms and Conditions for HRG Surveys

BOEM proposes the following to clarify the proposed action and eliminate any ambiguity 

associated with the current “exception” and “case-by-case” language included in the BA and 

Draft EIS. To enhance protective measures, manage the impacts programmatically and thus 

maximize the utility of the programmatic consultation vehicle, BOEM has identified the 

mitigation that would enable the reasonable conduct of limited HRG surveys in North Atlantic 

right whale CH and SMAs. This mitigation is the practical and cost-reasonable substitute for any 

additional mitigation that NMFS believed would have otherwise been added in subsequent 

BOEM authorizations. 

The proposed approach is based on the best available information on geophysical sound source 

propagation and North Atlantic right whale hearing; the scientific rationale is explained in more 

detail below.

1. BOEM shall not authorize any seismic surveys using air guns i) within North Atlantic 

right whale critical habitat (CH) in the southeast United States from November 15 

through April 15 of each year, ii) within the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic seasonal 

management areas (SMAs) from November 1 through April 30 of each year, or iii) within 

active dynamic management areas (DMAs). Any surveys authorized outside, but in 

proximity of CH, SMA, or DMA boundaries are required to remain at a distance such 

that received levels at the boundaries of these areas are no more than 160 dB re 1 μPa-m 

(rms). This will be determined by advance modeling, in situ observation or monitoring, 

or other acceptable means. 

2. In addition to the implementation of the HRG Survey Protocol (BA, 7.1.3) and vessel 

strike avoidance measures (BA, 7.1.4), BOEM will require all operators to follow the 

following measures for all HRG surveys within SMAs, DMAs and, between November 

15 through April 15, in CH: 

a. Vessel transit speeds for all vessels to and from CH, SMAs, and DMAs are 

limited to no more than 10 knots (<18.5 km/h); 

b. a Protected Species Observer must maintain a 500 m (1640 ft) separation distance 

for North Atlantic right whales during transit and operation; 

c. operators must make use of the Early Warning System, Sighting Advisory 

System, and Mandatory Ship Reporting System data as a means to increase vessel 

operator and crew vigilance, as well as ensure radio communications are available 

and operators are capable of receiving Coast Guard Broadcast Notice to Mariners 

and NOAA Weather Radio updates. 

3. Subject to condition 4 below, BOEM may authorize geophysical surveys using certain 

non-air gun sources in North Atlantic right whale CH and SMAs (including during the 

North Atlantic right whale calving and nursing season). Permissible sources include 

boomer, chirp seismic, sub-bottom profiler, side scan sonar, and multibeam, swath, and 

single beam bathymetric sonars. 
6

4. BOEM shall not authorize any non-air gun sources operating below 30 kHz within any 

active DMA. Permissible sources, all operating above 30 kHz, include sub-bottom 

profiler, side scan sonar, and multibeam, swath, and single beam bathymetric sonars. The 

use of sources operating below 30 kHz must be discontinued within 24 hours of the time 

a DMA is established. 

5. Any surveys authorized by BOEM outside, but in proximity, of DMA boundaries are 

required to remain at a distance such that received levels, for all sound sources, at these 

boundaries are no more than 160 dB re 1 μPa (rms). 

6. BOEM will notify NMFS at least 30 days in advance of the start of the proposed activity 

with a brief determination regarding whether the proposed action is consistent with the 

activities considered in this consultation. If the proposed action is not consistent with the 

activities and conditions considered in this consultation then a separate Section 7 

consultation may be required. 

Clarification of HRG Survey Protocol

The 200 m exclusion zone of the HRG Survey Protocol was incorrectly described as 

encompassing the 160-dB Level B radius for all HRG sources. The HRG Survey Protocol 

should be revised as follows: 

a. A 200-m (656-ft) radius exclusion zone will be monitored around the survey 

vessel. If the exclusion zone does not encompass the 180-dB Level A radius 

calculated for the acoustic source having the highest source level, BOEM will 

consult with NMFS about additional requirements. On a case-by-case basis, 

BOEM may authorize surveys having an exclusion zone larger than 200m (656 ft) 

to encompass the 180-dB radius if the applicant demonstrates that it can be 

effectively monitored. 

The 200 m exclusion zone encompasses the 180-dB Level A radii for all modeled HRG sources 

(BA, 7.1.3). Depending on the source levels, operational frequency, and deployment mode of 

the geophysical equipment used, the 200 m exclusion zone could also encompass the 160-dB 

Level B harassment zone. In fact, recent sound source verification monitoring indicates that the 

200 m exclusion zone will effectively encompass the 160-dB Level B zone (Martin et al. 2012; 

Zykov and MacDonnell 2013). BOEM anticipates that if an operator can effectively monitor the 

160-dB zone to prevent both Level A and B harassment of marine mammals, it would be 

reasonable to assume that an ITA under the MMPA may not be necessary for that particular 

survey. 

Basis for Effects Determination

Broadband sounds generated by the North Atlantic right whale include non-vocal slaps (when 

the whale strikes the surface of the water with parts of its body) and the “gunshot” sound; data 

suggests that the latter serves communicative purposes (Parks and Clark 2007). Tonal calls can 
7

be divided into simple, low-frequency, stereo-typed calls and more complex, 

frequency-modulated, higher-frequency calls (Parks and Clark 2007). Most of these sounds 

range in frequency from 0.02 to 15 kHz (dominant frequency range from 0.02 to less than 2 kHz 

(e.g., Vanderlaan et al. 2003)); durations typically range from 0.01 to multiple seconds) with 

some sounds having multiple harmonics (Parks and Tyack 2005). Peak frequency for social 

communication has been reported as 50-400 Hz (Parks et al. 2010) and 300-600 Hz (Vanderlaan 

et al. 2003). Parks and Tyack (2005) suggested that the frequency of right whale vocalizations 

increases significantly during the period from dusk until dawn. 

Recent morphometric analyses of North Atlantic right whale inner ears estimates a hearing range 

of approximately 0.01 to 22 kHz based on established marine mammal models (Parks et al. 2004; 

Parks and Tyack 2005; Parks et al. 2007). In addition, Parks et al. (2007) estimated the 

functional hearing range for right whales to be 15 Hz to 18 kHz. NARW are unlikely to hear 

sounds above 22 kHz (e.g., Finneran and Jenkins 2012; Parks et al. 2007; Southall et al. 2007; 

Parks and Tyack 2005). Most Baleen whales are estimated to hear from 15 Hz – 20 kHz, with 

the most sensitivity from 20 Hz – 2 kHz (Ketten 1998). 

Operational or monitoring surveys, which typically only involve single beam, swath or 

multibeam and, on occasion, side scan sonar, would not involve sources generally operating 

within the hearing range of the North Atlantic right whale. These HRG surveys are not likely to 

adversely affect North Atlantic right whales. Principal effects or risk of exposure, therefore, 

would be limited to strike risk (Parks et al. 2011; Fonnesbeck et al. 2008; Kite-Powell et al. 

2007; Vanderlaan and Taggart 2007; Merrick 2005) and/or possible harassment from broad 

band, vessel noise < 1 kHz (i.e., Rolland et al. 2012). Strike risk is limited in a number of ways, 

including: (1) < 5 knot (<9.3 km/h) survey speed; (2) < 10 knot (<18.5 km/h) transit speed; (3) 

PSOs surveying during transit and survey operations; (4) 500 m (or 1640 ft ) separation distance 

for NARWs during transit and survey operations; and (5) mandates for participation in the EWS. 

These restrictions (survey and transit speed) are supported in recognition of the endangered 

status of the North Atlantic right whale, as well as the potential sensitivity or susceptibility of 

cow/calf/yearling pairs in calving and nursery grounds offshore Florida and Georgia. The same 

restrictions are recommended in SMAs and DMAs to minimize strike potential and reduce 

exposure from broadband vessel noise, which is assumed to be less at slower vessel speeds. 

Over the past several decades, there has been increasing recognition, concern, and debate over 

the environmental effects of various anthropogenic sound sources. While certain sounds may be 

inaudible or entirely benign to marine animals, various adverse effects of noise have been 

documented, ranging from minor orienting responses to injury and even mortality (Southall et al. 

2009). While there has been much recent progress, including work supported by U.S. federal 

agencies, scientific knowledge remains limited on the biological significance of the varied 

effects of anthropogenic sound on marine life. These effects remain hard to objectively identify, 

or predict in realistic conditions and, as a consequence, the potential overall magnitude of the 

issue remains unclear (Southall et al. 2009, Rolland et al. 2013). Although some age and sex 

classes are more sensitive to noise disturbance, and such disturbance may be more detrimental to 

young animals (Tilt 1985; Bauer et al. 1993; Bejder et al. 2006), most disturbance studies on 

cetaceans reflect data collected from direct boat approaches (e.g. whale-watching vessels and 

simulations). Masking effects can reduce the range of communication, particularly long-range 
8

communication, such as that for blue and fin whales. Recent scientific evidence suggests that 

marine mammals, including North Atlantic right whales, blue and fin whales, compensate for 

masking by changing the frequency, source level, redundancy, or timing of their signals, but the 

long-term implications of these adjustments are currently unknown (McDonald et al. 2006; Parks 

2003; Parks et al. 2009). An on-going study to describe the acoustic behavior of North Atlantic 

right whale mother-calf pairs presents preliminary data that show overall consistent trends in 

behavior. Mother-calf pairs produced very few sounds that were detectable (at ranges of ~100m 

or more) in the Southeastern U.S. when the calf was less than four months of age. Instances 

when sounds were documented involved interaction between the mother-calf pair and either 

another whale or a novel object in their environment that elicited a curious approach. In contrast, 

right whale vocalizations produced in bouts were commonly detected in the Bay of Fundy during 

reunion events between mothers and their older, more independent calves, and when calves were 

alone at the surface for extended periods of time. In terms of surface behavior, calves were 

consistently in much closer proximity to their mothers in the Southeastern U.S. than in the Bay 

of Fundy habitat and spent more time at the surface. These results indicate that passive acoustic 

detection may be an unreliable tool to detect right whale mother-calf pairs in the Southeastern 

U.S (Parks and Van Parijs 2013). Although preliminary, these results indicate that masking of 

mother/calf communication when calves are less than four months of age (in the Southeastern 

U.S.) is of less a concern than potential communication masking in the Northeast U.S. when the 

calves are older. 

Assuming sound sources operate outside the functional hearing range and the implementation of 

the mitigation measures described above, including assessment of mitigation monitoring, 

constant protected species observer effort, such HRG activities likely support a determination 

that the proposed action may affect, but are unlikely to adversely affect North Atlantic right 

whales, including mother-calf pairs, because of the limited period of the proposed operations, the 

prohibition of close approaches by vessels, the consequent low risk of vessel strike, and the low 

risk of broadband vessel noise exposure. 

No physiological injury, but possible behavioral effects to the North Atlantic right whale may 

result from acoustic sources operating below 22 kHz, but greater than 500 Hz. A more 30 kHz 

conservative threshold has been included by BOEM in proposed Terms and Conditions in 

recognition of the uncertainty related to the functional hearing range of the North Atlantic right 

whale. A range of HRG sources may operate below 30 kHz, but principally include boomer 

seismic, chirp seismic,and sub-bottom profilers. HRG surveys involving the use of such sources 

may adversely affect North Atlantic right whales. However, JASCO modeling confirms 

physiological injury is extremely remote and behavioral effects are insignificant and in most 

cases discountable, especially if the peak frequency is outside of a marine mammal’s functional 

hearing range and observers and operators can effectively implement exclusion zones (see 

Table 1). Furthermore, two recent JASCO sound monitoring programs demonstrate received 

levels and/or threshold radii significantly less than those reported in Appendix D of the PEIS or 

assumed in the BA (Table 1). Zykov and MacDonnell (2013) specifically compare the observed 

sound sources with those modeled and establish the conservative nature of the modeling 

approach for Level A and Level B take estimation. A host of factors, such as differences in 

attenuation factors, different deployment mode, etc., collectively contribute to differences in 

received levels and threshold radii. The transmission loss and received level results are generally 
9

applicable to similar sources (comparable source level and frequencies) operating in other OCS 

areas, as any differences in oceanographic and bottom conditions are not significantly dissimilar. 

These monitoring results suggest that the 200 m exclusion zone can effectively avoid Level A 

and Level B take. Implementation of the same conservative approach to speed restrictions 

(survey and transit speed) also minimizes strike potential and decreases exposure to broadband 

vessel noise in CH, SMAs, and DMAs. Assuming sound sources operating in the functional 

hearing range and the implementation of the above mitigation, these HRG activities may affect, 

but are unlikely to adversely affect North Atlantic right whales. 

Implications for Take Estimates

Incidental take of marine mammals was estimated for the proposed action scenario using the 

Acoustic Integration Model (AIM) to predict the exposure of marine mammals to any impulsive 

sound propagating through space and time (Draft EIS, Appendix D; Draft EIS, Supplemental 

Seismic Take Tables; BA, 5.2.1). Take estimates were derived using both the current NMFS 

criteria for Level A and Level B harassment (RMS SPLs), as well as the Southall et al. (2007) 

criteria for injury (Level A harassment). The incidental takes modeled were estimated assuming 

a generalized spatial and temporal allocation of the scenario, representative source 

characteristics, seasonal marine mammal densities, and characteristic animal behavior. Take 

estimates assumed a systematic right whale time-area closure in the North Atlantic right whale 

CH and SMAs rather than separate out the relatively limited HRG level of effort proposed. This 

means that potential take of North Atlantic right whales could be potentially under-represented in 

the CH and SMAs. However, operational mitigation measures, such as the HRG survey 

protocol, and factors, such as hearing integration time, were also not incorporated into the take 

estimation (BA, 5.2.1.6). This means that marine mammals could be counted as take even 

though mitigation measures could prevent those takes. Exposure above 120 dB from impulsive 

sound sources was not estimated. No take was estimated or assumed for vessel noise exposure 

or strike. 

BOEM estimated that air gun surveys would be responsible for more than 99% of all Level A 

and B take of any given marine mammal species in a given year; that was premised on the 

assumption that no survey activity, including HRG surveys, would occur during time area 

closures. BOEM determined that Level A and Level B incidental take of North Atlantic right 

whales were effectively reduced by 67% with the imposition of systematic time-area closures 

(BA, 5.2.1, A-101). However, it is important to consider that reduction in context of the actual 

number of Level A and Level B take projected during the conduct of MMP and REP HRG 

surveys. Supplemental Take Tables B-7 to B-30 provide the estimates of Level A and Level B 

take expected for MMP and REP HRG surveys provided said assumptions (MMP – odd tables; 

REP – even tables). The shallow modeling sites/regions most relevant to the MMP include 

22-28. Modeling regions 22 (winter), 24 (spring), and 27 (fall) are relevant to North Atlantic 

right whale CH, whereas regions 23 (winter), 24 (spring), and 25 (spring) are more relative to the 

SMAs. Modeling regions most relevant to the REP include 29-35 (BA, Table E-7). Note that 

only a relatively small fraction of a single Level B take (<<.01) are predicted for any sound 

source or modeling region combination. That extremely small potential for Level B take is only 

triggered for the boomer, chirp seismic, and side scan sonar. Applying a conservative correction 

to account for the estimated 67% take reduction (assumed with the time area closures in place), 
10

the number of Level B take of North Atlantic right whales projected for the MMP HRG surveys 

is still 0-1 take, consistent with the BA. 

Conclusion

BOEM believes that this approach supports a ‘not likely to adversely affect’ finding for vessel 

strikes and broad band and impulsive noise exposure below 160 dB. Recognizing the 

conservative nature of the take estimation, BOEM maintains that the limited non-air gun HRG 

survey activities proposed in CH and SMAs may result in “Level B” harassment of marine 

mammals, as currently defined by NMFS under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. In 

comparison, BOEM believes a “may adversely affect but not jeopardize the continued existence 

of ESA-listed species” determination is still appropriate when considering all proposed 

geophysical surveys proposed in the mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas and their 

effects on North Atlantic right whales. BOEM recommends the HRG surveys described herein 

be included in the final programmatic biological opinion subject to the conditions described 

above and not be subject to a separate case-by-case Section 7 consultation. 

References

Criteria and Thresholds for U.S. Navy Acoustic and Explosive Effects Analysis 

J. J. Finneran and A. K. Jenkins, SSC Pacific, April 2012. 

Bayesian hierarchichal model for evaluating the risk of vessel strikes on North Atlantic 

right whales in the SE United States, Christopher J. Fonnesbeck1,*, Lance P. Garrison2, 

Leslie I. Ward-Geiger3, René D. Baumstark3, Endang Species Res 6: 87–94, 2008. 

Eliciting Expert Knowledge in Conservation Science 

TARA G. MARTIN,∗† MARK A. BURGMAN,§ FIONA FIDLER,§ PETRA M. 

KUHNERT, SAMANTHA LOW-CHOY,∗∗†† MARISSA MCBRIDE,§ AND KERRIE 

MENGERSEN††, Conservation Biology Volume 26, No. 1, 2012. 

Martin, B, J. MacDonnell, N.E. Chorney, and D. Zeddies. 2012. Sound Source 

Verification of Fugro Geotechnical Sources: Final Report: Boomer, Sub-Bottom Profiler, 

Multibeam Sonar, and the R/V Taku. JASCO Document 00413, Version 1.0 DRAFT. 

Technical report by JASCO Applied Sciences for Fugro GeoServices Inc. 

Ketten, D.R. 1998. Marine Mammal Hearing and Acoustic Trauma: Basic Mechanisms, 

Marine Adaptations, and Beaked Whale Anomalies. Pp. 2/21, 2/63-78. In: Report of the 

Bioacoustics Panel, NATO/SACLANT (Eds. A. D’Amico and W. Verboom). 

Unpublished Report. 

Modeling the effect of vessel speed on Right Whale ship strike risk 

Project report for NOAA/NMFS Project NA04NMF47202394 April 2007 

Hauke L. Kite-Powell1, Amy Knowlton2, and Moira Brown2 

http://www.whoi.edu/cms/files/ship_strike_risk_and_vessel_speed_final_report_Apr_07_

24304.pdf.
11

Merrick RL. 2005. Seasonal management area to reduce ship strikes of northern right 

whales in the Gulf of Maine. Northeast Fish Sci Cent Ref Doc. 05-19; 18 p. Available 

from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 

02543-1026. 

Parks, S. E., Ketten, D. R., O'Malley, J. T., & Arruda, J. (2007). Anatomical predictions 

of hearing in the North Atlantic right whale. Anat Rec (Hoboken), 290(6), 734-744. 

doi: 10.1002/ar.20527. 

Parks, S. E. and Clark, C. W. (2007). Acoustic communication: Social sounds and the 

potential impacts of noise. In: Kraus, S.D. and R.M Rolland, eds. The urban whale: North 

Atlantic right whales at the crossroads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Pp. 310-332. 

Parks, S. E., Clark, C. W., & Tyack, P. L. (2007). Short- and long-term changes in right 

whale calling behavior: the potential effects of noise on acoustic communication. 

J Acoust Soc Am, 122(6), 3725-3731. doi: 10.1121/1.2799904. 

Parks, S. E., & Tyack, P. L. (2005). Sound production by North Atlantic right whales 

(Eubalaena glacialis) in surface active groups. J Acoust Soc Am, 117(5), 3297-3306. 

Parks, S.E., Searby, A., Celerier, A., Johnson, M.P., Nowacek, D.P., Tyack, P.L. (2011) 

Sound production behavior of individual North Atlantic right whales: implications for 

passive acoustic monitoring. Endang. Species. Res. 15: 63-76. doi: 10.3354/esr00368. 

Parks, S.E., Johnson, M., Nowacek, D., Tyack P.L. (2010) Individual right whales call 

louder in increased environmental noise. Biology Letters, 7(1): 33-35. 

doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0451. 

Parks & Clark (2005) – as was used in the BiOp is INCORRECT. Unless Kellie can 

provide the reference, I believe it should be Parks and Tyack (2005) as cited above. 

Parks, S.E. & S. Van Parijs (2013). Acoustic Behavior of North Atlantic Right Whale 

(Eubalaena glacialis) Mother-Calf Pairs. Award Number: N00014-12-1-0268. 

Bejder L., Samuels A., Whitehead H., Gales N., Mann J., Connor R., Heithaus M., 

Watson-Capps J., Flaherty C., Krützen M. 2006. Decline in relative abundance of 

bottlenose dolphins exposed to long-term disturbance. Conserv. Biol. 20(6): 1791-8. 

Rolland, R. M., Parks, S. E., Hunt, K. E., Castellote, M., Corkeron, P. J., Nowacek, D. P., 

Wasser, S. K., et al. (2012). Evidence that ship noise increases stress in right whales. 

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 
12

Southall, Brandon L., Bowles, A. E., Ellison, W. T., Finneran, J. J., Gentry, R. L., Greene 

Jr, C. R., Kastak, D., et al. (2007). Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Initial 

scientific recommendations. Aquatic Mammals, 33(4), 411-521. 

Vanderlaan ASM, Hay AE, Taggart CT (2003) Characteri-zation of North Atlantic rightwhale (Eubalaena glacialis) sounds in the Bay of Fundy. IEEE J Ocean Eng 28:164–17. 

Vaderlaan ASM, Taggart CT (2007) Vessel collisions withwhales: the probability of 

lethal injury based on vessel speed. Mar Mamm Sci 23:144–156. 

Zykov and MacDonnell 2013.
13

Table 1: Acoustic Sources Used in Marine Minerals and Renewable Energy Program High-Resolution 

Geophysical Surveys 

Sources Frequency Range Modeled Frequency 

in Draft PEIS, 

Appendix D 

JASCO 

Modeled 

Max 

Threshold 

Radii for 

Level B 

Impulsive 

Harassment 

(rms SPL 160 

dB isopleth) 

(Draft PEIS, 

Appendix D) 

JASCO Observed 

Distance to SPL 

160 dB isopleth 

(Martin et al. 

2012) 

JASCO Observed 

Distance to SPL 

160 dB isopleth 

(Zykov and 

MacDonnell 2013) 

Vessel Noise Broadband Not Modeled Not Modeled 20 m to 120 dB 

(broadband) 

< 150 m to 120 dB 

(broadband, 

filtered 10 Hz to 

100 kHz) 

Boomer 200 Hz ─ <14 kHz 200 Hz – 16 kHz 1 km - 2.1 

km 

[ <20 m ] 

12 m 

[ 300 Hz – 14 kHz] 

Subbottom 

Profiler 

500 Hz ─ 200 kHz Knudsen Chirp 

3260 3.5 kHz, 12 

kHz, and 200 kHz 

Knudsen Chirp 

3260 3.5 kHz; SL, 

assumed 210dB

[note this is a 

multichannel subbottom profiling 

echosounder and 

not a chirp seismic 

used in deepwater 

applications]

350 m – 1 km 

[ < 700 m ] 

< 50 m 

 

Chirp 

FM/Broadband 

SBP 

500 Hz ─ 24 kHz Not modeled 10 m 

[2-16 kHz] 

30 m – 80 m 

[variable, 500 Hz – 

12 kHz ] 

Side Scan 

Sonar / Chirp 

FM SSS 

100 kHz – 900 kHz 

(some SSS exceed 

900 kHz; 

application on the 

OCS is limited) 

100 kHz / 400 kHz 500 – 650 m 

[ < 450 m ] 

 

Multibeam 70- 500 kHz 

(lower frequency 

MB available to 12 

KHz but only for 

deepwater 

applications) 

240 kHz 150 m 

[ < 20 m ] 

1 m 

[260-400 kHz] 

Swath 100 – 600 kHz Not modeled <10 - 20 m 

[ 234 kHz ] 

Single Beam 3.5 kHz– 540 kHz 

(typically >20 kHz) 

Not modeled 2 m [70 /200 kHz] 
14

Figure 1: Location of North Atlantic Right Whale Seasonal Management Areas (SMAs) in comparison to High-Resolution 

Activities proposed in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area in support of the Marine Minerals and Renewable Energy Programs 
15

Figure 2: Location of North Atlantic Right Whale Critical Habitat and Seasonal Management Areas (SMAs) in comparison 

Geophysical Survey Activities proposed in the South Atlantic Planning Area in support of the Marine Minerals and Renew
16

The lessee must ensure that all vessels conducting activity in support of a plan comply with the 

vessel strike avoidance measures specified below except under extraordinary circumstances 

when the safety of the vessel or crew are in doubt or the safety of life at sea is in question: 

1) The lessee must ensure that vessel operators and crews maintain a vigilant watch for 

cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sea turtles and slow down or stop their vessel to avoid striking 

protected species. 

2) The lessee must ensure that all vessels 65 feet in length or greater, operating from 

November 1 through April 30, operate at speeds of 10 knots (<18.5 km/h) or less. In 

addition, vessel operators must comply with 10 knot (<18.5 km/h) speed restrictions in 

any Dynamic Management Area (DMA). Vessel operators may send a blank email to for 

an automatic response listing all current SMAs and DMAs. 

3) North Atlantic right whales 

(a) The lessee must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 500 m 

(1,640 ft) or greater from any sighted North Atlantic right whale(s) pursuant 

to 50 CFR 224.103. 

(b) The lessee must ensure that the following avoidance measures are taken if a 

vessel comes within 500 m (1,640 ft) of a right whale(s): 

(i) The lessee must ensure that while underway, any vessel must steer a 

course away from the right whale(s) at 10 knots (< 18.5 km/h) or less until 

the 500 m (1,640 ft) minimum separation distance has been established 

(unless (ii) below applies). 

(ii) The lessee must ensure that when a North Atlantic right whale is sighted 

in a vessel’s path, or within 100 m (328 ft) to an underway vessel, the 

underway vessel must reduce speed and shift the engine to neutral. The 

lessee must not engage the engines until the right whale(s) has moved 

outside of the vessel’s path and beyond 100 m (328 ft). 

(iii) The lessee must ensure that if a vessel is stationary, the vessel must not 

engage engines until the North Atlantic right whale(s) has moved beyond 

100 m (328 ft), at which time refer to point 3(b)(i). 

(iv) The lessee must ensure that any vessel must reduce vessel speed to 10 

knots (<18.5 km/h) or less within any Dynamic Management Area 

(DMA). 

4) Non-delphinoid cetaceans other than the North Atlantic right whale 

a) The lessee must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 100 m (328 ft) or 

greater from any sighted non-delphinoid cetacean (s). 

b) The lessee must ensure that the following avoidance measures are taken if a vessel comes 

within 100 m (328 ft) of a non-delphinoid cetacean: 
17

i) The lessee must ensure that when a non-delphinoid cetacean(s) (other than a North 

Atlantic right whale) is sighted, the vessel underway must reduce speed and shift the 

engine to neutral, and must not engage the engines until the non-delphinoid 

cetacean(s) has moved outside of the vessel’s path and beyond 100 m (328 ft). 

ii) The lessee must ensure that if a vessel is stationary, the vessel must not engage 

engines until the non-delphinoid cetacean(s) has moved out of the vessel’s path and 

beyond 100 m (328 ft). 

5) Delphinoid cetaceans 

a) The lessee must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 50 m (164 ft) or 

greater from any sighted delphinoid cetacean(s). 

b) The lessee must ensure that the following avoidance measures are taken if the vessel 

comes within 50 m (164 ft) of a delphinoid cetacean(s): 

i) The lessee must ensure that any vessel underway remain parallel to a sighted 

delphinoid cetacean’s course whenever possible, and avoid excessive speed or abrupt 

changes in direction. Course and speed may be adjusted once the delphinoid 

cetacean(s) has moved beyond 50 m (164 ft) and/or the delphinoid cetacean(s) has 

moved abeam of the underway vessel. 

ii) In addition, the lessee must ensure that any vessel underway reduce vessel speed to 

10 knots (<18.5 km/h) or less when pods (including mother/calf pairs) or large 

assemblages of delphinoid cetaceans are observed. Course and speed may be adjusted 

once the delphinoid cetaceans have moved beyond 50 m (164 ft) and/or abeam of the 

underway vessel. 

6) Sea turtles. The lessee must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 50 m (164 ft) 

or greater from any sighted sea turtle. 

7) The lessee must ensure that vessel operators are briefed to ensure they are familiar with the 

above requirements. 

Section 7 Consultation under the Endangered Species Act A-253

BIOLOGICAL OPINION FROM NMFS 

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT DF CDMMERCE 

Nat:lon.1 Do••nlo .nd Atmo.ph.rlc Admlnl.t~lon 

NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES SERVICE 

Silver Spring. MO 20910 

JUL t 9 2013 

Robert LaBelle 

Science Advisor, BOEM 

Office of the Director, HM3127 

381 Elden Street 

Herndon, VA 20170-48170 

Dear Mr. LaBelle: 

On May 24, 2013, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) under the authority of section 

7(a)(2) of the Endangered Species Act (ESA), issued a Biological Opinion (Opinion) to the 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental 

Enforcement (BSEE). The Opinion analyzed the effects of BOEM's and BSEE's proposed 

geological and geophysical (G&G) activities on threatened and endangered species and 

designated critical habitat. Upon review ofthe Incidental Take Statement (ITS) attached to that 

Opinion, it became apparent that additional language was necessary to clarify the requirements 

for non-airgun HRG surveys for the Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Programs. The 

enclosed Opinion and accompanying ITS reflecting the clarifying language supersedes the 

May 24, 2013, Opinion. 

The Opinion describes the potential for incidental effects from G&G activities on endangered 

blue, fin, sei, humpback, North Atlantic right and sperm whales as well as green, hawksbill, 

Kemp's ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles, and certain fish 

species. After considering the status ofthreatened and endangered species, the environmental 

baseline, and the direct, indirect and cumulative effects ofthe action on threatened and 

endangered species, we conclude that these proposed activities are not likely to jeopardize the 

continued existence ofthreatened or endangered species nor destroy or adversely modify 

designated critical habitat under NMFS' jurisdiction. 

Section 7(b)( 4) ofthe ESA requires that when a proposed agency action is found to be consistent 

with section 7(a)(2) ofthe ESA and the proposed action may incidentally take individuals of 

listed species, NMFS will issue an ITS which provides an exemption from the taking 

prohibitions contained in Section 9 of the ESA. The incidental take statement attached to this 

Opinion includes several nondiscretionary reasonable and prudent measures to minimize effects 

to listed species from G&G activities. These measures are binding conditions and must be 

followed for the exemption provided by the ITS to apply. The ITS becomes effective 

immediately for threatened and endangered sea turtles and remains in etIect through 2020 if 

BOEM and BSEE implement the reasonable and prudent measures and terms and conditions 

contained in the ITS. 

Section 7(b)(4)(C) ofthe ESA provides that if an endangered or threatened marine mammal is 

involved, the taking must first be authorized by Section 101 (a)(5) ofthe Marine Mammal 

*Printed on Recycled Paper 
2 


Protection Act of 1972, as amended (MMPA), before take can be exempted through an ITS. 

Accordingly, this opinion does not exempt the incidental take of blue, fin, sei, humpback, North 

Atlantic right or sperm whales. In order to be exempt from the Section 9 take prohibitions, an 

MMPA incidental take authorization is required. NMFS will reinitiate this consultation as 

appropriate on NMFS Permits and Conservation Division's proposed issuance of any MMPA 

incidental take authorization and may exempt the take of listed marine mammals at that time. 

This concludes formal consultation for BOEM's and BSEE's proposed G&G activities. 

Consultation must be reinitiated if: (1) the amount or extent oftaking specified in the Incidental 

Take Statement is exceeded; (2) new information reveals effects ofthese actions that may affect 

listed species or critical habitat in a manner or to an extent not previously considered; (3) any of 

the identified actions are subsequently modified in a manner that causes an effect to the listed 

species that was not considered in the Biological Opinion; or (4) a new species is listed or critical 

habitat designated that may be affected by the identified actions. 

I look forward to continued cooperation with BOEM and BSEE during future section 7 

consultations. 

Sincerely, 

~'"\&~~C~ eXDonna S. Wieting 

". Director, 

Office of Protected Resources 

Enclosure 

cc: Charles Barbee 
NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service 


Endangered Species Act Section 7 Consultation 


Biological Opinion 


Agencies: 	 The Bureau ofOcean Energy Management 

The Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement 

Activities Considered: 	 Programmatic Geological and Geophysical Activities in the Midand South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013 to 2020 

Consultation Conducted hy: 	 Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation Division of 

the Office of Protected Resources, NOAA's National Marine 

Fisheries Service 

Approved by: ~~~ 6<- -;y>c>. ~,~ 

Date: JUl 1 9 2013 

Section 7(a)(2) ofthe Endangered Species Act (ESA) (16 U.S.C. ] 531 et seq.) requires that each federal 

agency shall ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency is not likely to 

jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or 

adverse modification ofcritical habitat of such species. When the action ofa federal agency "may affect" 

a listed species or critical habitat that has been designated for such species, that agency is required to 

consult with NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and/or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service (USFWS), depending upon the listed resources that may be affected. 

This ESA section 7 consultation considers BOEM's proposed geological and geophysical (O&G) 

activities in support of its oil and gas, renewable energy, and marine minerals programs in the Mid-and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013 through 2020, as described in BOEM's Draft Programmatic 
2 

Environmental Impact Statement (DPEIS) for Atlantic OCS Proposed Geological and Geophysical 

Activities in the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas (BOEM 2012a). These geological and 

geophysical (G&G) activities include various types of surveys (seismic and high resolution geophysical) 

and subsurface sampling activities in support of oil and gas exploration; detection of geohazards, 

archaeological resources and benthic communities; and the assessment of the suitability of seafloor 

sediments or evaluation of sand quantity and quality for beach nourishmentas well as bathymetric surveys 

used for monitoring sand resources before and after dredging. This consultation also considers monitoring 

and mitigation measures proposed to avoid or minimize adverse effects to listed species. BOEM’s sister 

agency, the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), insures regulatory oversight and 

enforces compliance with monitoring and mitigation measures for oil and gas operations. Consequently, 

the action agencies for this consultation are BOEM and BSEE. As BOEM manages the exploration and 

development of the nation's offshore resources and has jurisdiction to authorize the G&G activities as 

described within this biological opinion (Opinion), BOEM is the lead agency for this consultation. The 

consulting agency is NMFS’ Office of Protected Resources, Endangered Species Act Interagency 

Cooperation Division (Interagency Cooperation Division). 

This document represents NMFS’ biological opinion (Opinion) on the effects of the proposed action on 

endangered and threatened species and designated critical habitat, in accordance with section 7 of the 

ESA. This Opinion is based on information provided in BOEM’s March 2012 Biological Assessment 

(BA; BOEM 2012b), DPEIS, published and unpublished scientific information on endangered and 

threatened species, scientific and commercial information such as reports from government agencies and 

peer-reviewed literature, regional experts in marine mammal biology, biological opinions on similar 

activities, and other sources of information. 

Consultation History 

On May 29, 2012, BOEM on behalf of itself and BSEE submitted a request for initiation of consultation 

on the proposed authorization of G&G activities under its oil and gas, renewable energy and marine 

minerals programs. Attached to the request was a BA dated May 22, 2012. 

On August 6, 2012, the Interagency Cooperation Division transmitted a letter informing BOEM that 

NMFS had initiated consultation on the proposed authorization of G&G activities under its oil and gas, 

renewable energy and marine minerals programs. Attached to the initiation letter was a draft analysis 

plan for BOEM’s review describing how NMFS intended to conduct its exposure analysis for the 
3 

consultation. Throughout August and September, BOEM and the Interagency Cooperation Division 

exchanged emails regarding the draft analysis plan and information needs for the consultation. 

On October 5, 2012, the Interagency Cooperation Division forwarded a draft description of the proposed 

action to BOEM for review. Also on October 5, 2012, NMFS asked for an extension to the consultation 

period due to the nature and complexity of the proposed action. On November 1, 2012, BOEM submitted 

its comments on the draft description of the proposed action. In its comments BOEM included changes to 

the proposed action by increasing surveys and subsurface sampling within its renewable energy program. 

Subsequently, NMFS requested an extension to the consultation period to fully analyze the additional 

survey and sampling effort. BOEM and NMFS exchanged information throughout November and into 

December. 1 

On February 12, 2013, NMFS transmitted its draft biological opinion for BOEM and BSEE review. On 

March 13, 2013, BOEM submitted comments on the draft opinion to NMFS. The comments included 

language to further clarify BOEM’s proposed action which includes authorizing certain surveys under the 

renewable energy and marine minerals programs within right whale critical habitat during right whale 

calving and nursing season. Because of BOEM’s submission of its clarification, BOEM and NMFS 

agreed on March 26, 2013, to keep the consultation open while the agencies discussed the clarification. 

On March 29, 2013, NMFS and BOEM discussed BOEM’s comments on the draft opinion and BOEM’s 

clarification and NMFS requested additional information on the clarification. On April 12, 2013, NMFS 

received the additional information requested along with revisions to the comments BOEM submitted to 

NMFS on March 13, 2012, on the draft opinion. 

On April 17, 2013, BOEM submitted additional comments on the draft Opinion for NMFS’ consideration. 

On May 3, 2013, NMFS transmitted its revised draft biological opinion for BOEM/BSEE review. On 

May 9, 2013, BOEM submitted additional comments on the revised draft opinion. Additional discussions 

occurred between BOEM and NMFS from to May 9 to May 20, 2013, on terms and conditions for the 

incidental take statement. 

Informal Consultation on Mid Atlantic Wind Energy Areas 

On September 20, 2011, NMFS’ Northeast Region issued a concurrence letter concluding informal 

consultation for BOEM’s proposed issuance of leases and associated site characterization and site 

assessment activities as required for identifying suitable locations for wind energy facilities under its 

Renewable Energy Program. Activities under the proposed action include geophysical and geotechnical 
4 

activities, wind resources assessments, biological resource surveys, cultural resources surveys, onshore 

activities (fabrication and staging of wind energy structures) and decommissioning of wind energy 

structures. Geophysical surveys employ single and multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonar, chirp 

subbottom profilers and boomers while geotechnical surveys include cone penetrometer tests, vibracores 

and the installation of meteorological towers and buoys. All activities would occur within the Wind 

Energy Areas off New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. 

As of the writing of this Opinion, none of the activities contained in the September 20, 2011, concurrence 

letter have taken place. During development of the proposed action for this G&G consultation BOEM reexamined the G&G acoustic propogation results for Delaware, Maryland and Virginia that were initially 

described and included as part of the proposed action under the 2011 informal consultation and compared 

those results with the results of the Acoustic Impact Model (AIM) modeling included in this G&G 

consultation. Due to the differences in the estimated exposure of marine mammals to some of the sound 

sources proposed for use, BOEM chose to update the assessment which formed the basis of the the 2011 

informal consultation with the new information used for BOEM’s assessment for this consultation. Given 

the updated assessment, this Opinion will only address the geophysical surveys using single and 

multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonar, CHIRP subbottom profilers and boomers, geotechnical 

surveys using cone penetrometer tests and vibracores and the installation of buoys were analyzed during 

this consultation. As such, this Opinion supersedes the concurrence letter for those activities within 

Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. The September 20, 2011, concurrence letter remains in effect for the 

remaining activities (lease issuance, SAP approval, installation of met towers and biological surveys 

within New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia Wind Energy Areas) contained therein, unless and 

until BOEM withdraws the proposed action or reinitiates consultation. 

Scope of this Consultation 

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), as amended, mandates the Secretary of the Interior 

(Secretary), through BOEM, to manage the exploration and development of OCS oil, gas, and marine 

minerals (e.g., sand and gravel) and the siting of renewable energy facilities. The Energy Policy Act 

(EPAct) of 2005, Public Law (P.L.). 109-58, added Section 8(p)(1)(C) to the OCSLA, which grants the 

Secretary the authority to issue leases, easements, or rights-of-way on the OCS for the purpose of 

renewable energy development (43 U.S.C. § 1337(p)(1)(C)). The Secretary delegated this authority to 

BOEM (30 CFR 585). 
5 

BOEM, under the authority of OCSLA, as amended, regulates or otherwise requires the G&G activities 

that are the subject of this consultation within Federal waters. For the Atlantic, this includes waters 

between 3 nm (the limit for state waters) and 200 nm (the limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)). 

Some G&G activities, however, may occur within state waters and seaward of the EEZ beyond BOEM’s 

authority. Activities that occur outside of BOEM’s jurisdiction are still subject to the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act (MMPA) and actions authorized, funded or carried out by any Federal agency, including 

the issuance of MMPA authorizations, are subject to section 7 of the ESA. G&G activities that are the 

subject of this consultation and that may “take” marine mammals will require a MMPA Incidental Take 

Authorization from NMFS. At the time those authorizations are proposed for issuance, this consultation 

may be reinitiated. 

There are currently no active oil and gas leases or oil and gas exploration, development, or production 

activities on the Atlantic OCS. Based on BOEM’s 2012-2017 Proposed OCS Oil and Gas Leasing 

Program, no lease sales are proposed through 2012 and the earliest a lease sale may occur is in 2018, if 

proposed by BOEM’s 2018-2022 Leasing Program. 

Oil and Gas Program 

G&G activities for the oil and gas program can take place anywhere over the shelf, slope, and abyssal 

plain at water depths ranging from 50 m to approximately 6,000 m except for areas governed by time/area 

closures as discussed in the Mitigation and Monitoring section later in this Opinion. 

G&G activities can occur either pre-lease (before a federal lease for oil and gas has been issued under the 

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act) or post-lease (after a lease has been issued). Typical pre-lease 

activities include deep penetration seismic airgun surveys to explore and evaluate deep geologic 

formations. Two-dimensional (2D) airgun surveys are designed to cover thousands of square miles or 

entire geologic basins as a means to geologically screen large areas. Three-dimensional (3D) surveys can 

consist of several hundred OCS blocks and provide much better resolution to evaluate hydrocarbon 

potential in smaller areas or specific prospects. OCS blocks are administrative boundaries (3x3 mi blocks 

in the Atlantic) that define geographic areas and identify federal land ownership to support offshore 

resource management). The 3D technology is also used to identify previously overlooked hydrocarbonbearing zones and new productive horizons. However, because 3D modeling requires much denser data 

coverage (i.e., closer line spacing) than 2D seismic surveys, areas already covered using 2D techniques 

may be resurveyed. Other pre-lease surveys include largely passive data gathering methods such as 
6 

electromagnetic, gravity, and magnetic surveys, as well as remote sensing surveys from aircraft and 

satellites. 

Post-lease activities conducted by operators can include additional seismic airgun surveys, HRG surveys, 

and bottom sampling (including stratigraphic wells, shallow test wells, and geotechnical sampling). 

Examples of post-lease seismic airgun surveys include vertical seismic profiling (VSP) with geophone 

receivers placed in a wellbore. Four-dimensional (4D or time-lapse) surveys are 3D surveys repeated 

over time to monitor reservoirs during production. The HRG surveys are conducted on leases and along 

pipeline routes to evaluate the potential for geohazards, archaeological resources, and certain types of 

benthic communities. Geotechnical sampling is conducted to assess seafloor conditions with respect to 

siting facilities such as platforms and pipelines. 

Seismic and HRG surveys are conducted using acoustic sources that emit acoustic energy pulses into the 

seafloor and receivers that record the returning acoustic signals. Acoustic sources consist of airguns, 

boomers, sparkers, side scan sonars, shallow and medium penetration subbottom profilers and single and 

multibeam depth sounders. Receiver arrays consist of hydrophones or geophones encased in plastic 

tubing and either towed behind the survey vessel, positioned on the seafloor as autonomous nodes or 

cables, or in rare instances spaced at various depths in vertically positioned cables depending on the type 

of survey conducted. Based on the requirements of the survey, one or more sources, vessels and receivers 

may be employed. Individual airguns are available with a wide range of chamber volumes, from under 5 

in3 to over 2,000 in3 depending on survey requirements. Airgun arrays proposed for use in the Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas vary from about 90 in3 (considered airgun HRG surveys) to approximately 

5,400 in3 (2D and 3D airgun seismic surveys) in volume with source levels up to about 230.7 dB re 1 Pa 

at 1m. Boomers, sparkers, side-scan sonars, subbottom profilers and single, swath and multibeam depth 

sounders, all considered HRG sources, may be used concurrently with airguns during seismic surveying 

or without airguns such as during non-airgun HRG surveys under the renewable energy and marine 

minerals programs. 

Deep Penetration Seismic Airgun Surveys 

2D Seismic Exploration Surveys. 

2D seismic exploration surveys are generally conducted over large multi-block areas, whereas proprietary 

surveys usually cover only a few blocks. These seismic surveys are typically conducted with an airgun 

array consisting of three subarrays of six or seven airguns each and measuring approximately 12.5-18 m 

(41-60 ft) long and 16-36 m (52-118 ft) wide. The array is towed approximately 100-200 m (328-656 ft) 
7 

behind the vessel between 5 and 10 m (16-33 ft) below the sea surface. Vessels typically travel between 

4.5 and 6 kts (8.3 to 11 km/hour [hr]), respectively) and the airgun array is fired (emits pulses) every 37.5 

m (123 ft) or every 16 seconds (s) at 4.5 kts and every 12 s at 6 kts. 

When the airgun array is fired, an acoustic energy pulse is emitted and reflected or refracted back from 

the seafloor. These reflected/refracted signals are recorded by a 5-10 km (2.7-5.4 nmi) long, single 

streamer towed 100-200 m (328-656 ft) behind the array. A single ship generally 60-90 m (200-300 ft) 

long tows both the array and the streamer along a predetermined trackline for 12-20 hours (i.e., a distance 

of 100-166 km [54-90 nmi] for a vessel traveling at 4.5 kts [8.3 km/hr]) or 9-15 hours for a vessel 

traveling at 6 kts, depending on the size of the survey area to gather data for one trackline. Upon reaching 

the end of the trackline, the ship takes 2-3 hours to turn around and starts down another trackline. 

Although the airgun array is not fired during turns, operators fire a mitigation gun to maintain source 

levels at 160 dB re 1 μPa. The spacing between tracks is usually on the order of 2 km (1.1 nmi). This 

procedure takes place day and night and may continue for days, weeks, or months, depending on the size 

of the survey area. 

3D Seismic Exploration Surveys. 

3-D or narrow azimuth 3D surveys are typically conducted with two source arrays aligned in parallel with 

one another and towed 100-200 m (328-656 ft) behind a vessel. The two arrays are identical both to each 

other and to those used in the 2D surveys described above. The arrays are towed between 5 and 10 m 

(16-33 ft) below the sea surface and are fired in an alternate fashion. As with 2D surveys described above 

vessel speeds vary between 4.5 and 6 kts which varies the shot intervals; therefore, the first array fires at 

16 s and the second array fires 16 s later with a ship speed of 4.5 kts or firing occurs every 12 s for a 

vessel traveling at 6 kts. Returning signals from the airgun array are recorded by 6-12 streamer cables 3-8 

km (1.6-4.3 nmi) long and 600-1,500 m (1,969-4,922 ft) wide. 

A single ship generally 80-90 m (262-295 ft) long tows both the array and the streamers along a 

predetermined trackline for 12-20 hours (i.e., a distance of 100-166 km [54-90 nmi] for a vessel traveling 

at 4.5 kts [8.3 km/hr]), depending on the size of the survey area. Upon reaching the end of the trackline, 

the ship takes 2-3 hours to turn around and starts down another trackline. During turns the airgun array is 

not fired, although a mitigation gun is fired to maintain source levels at 160 dB re 1 μPa. This procedure 

takes place day and night and may continue for days, weeks, or months, depending on the size of the 

survey area. 
8 

Wide Azimuth and Related Multi-Vessel Surveys. 

New methods such as wide azimuth (WAZ), rich azimuth, multi-azimuth, and wide azimuth towedstreamer acquisition have emerged in the last few years to improve the data gathered by single vessel 

surveys. Wide, rich, and multi-azimuth surveys involve two to four source vessels (four is typical) in 

coordination with single or dual receiver vessels approximately 1,200-m (3,937 ft) apart in either a 

parallel or a rectangular arrangement. Receiver vessels may also deploy acoustic sources to improve data 

acquisition. Full azimuth (FAZ) or coil surveys can consist of a single source/receiver arrangement or a 

multi-vessel operation with multiple sources, with seismic data being acquired while the vessels follow a 

circular to spiral path. Because of vessel configuration and survey design, WAZ and FAZ surveys are 

able to record a broader range of source/receiver azimuths (directions) and a larger subsurface layer is 

surveyed. WAZ and FAZ surveys are considered 3D surveys utilizing multiple vessels, therefore, the 

airgun arrays and tow depths are identical to those described above for 3D surveys. Vessel configuration 

and alternating shot patterns during WAZ and FAZ surveys enables data acquisition over twice the area 

per trackline per pass than is normally covered during conventional 3D surveys. For these seismic 

surveys, airguns are fired every 13 s in an alternate fashion between all source vessels. As a result one 

quarter the number of shots is fired during WAZ surveys than those fired during a conventional 3D 

survey and there are no simultaneous shots. Data acquired from these surveys is volumetric as oppose to 

linear as in 2D surveys and is usually represented in OCS blocks or square kilometers. 

Nodes and Ocean Bottom Cable Surveys. Ocean bottom cable surveys involve the use of remotely 

operated vehicles (ROVs) to deploy autonomous receiving units (nodes). With standard hydrophones, 

these surveys can be conducted in waters up to about 183 m (600 ft) but with newer technology surveys 

can reach waters depths of up to 2,500 m (8,200 ft) or more. 

Autonomous nodes and ocean bottom cable surveys require the use of multiple ships (usually two ships 

for cable layout/pickup, one ship for recording, one ship for shooting, and two smaller utility boats). 

These ships are generally smaller than those used in 2- and 3D surveys using streamers, and the utility 

boats can be very small. Survey speed is typically 4.5 kts but can be as high as 6 kts. Once at the survey 

site, operations begin with the deployment of remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to place nodes in 

equally spaced grids or by spooling cables off the back of the layout boat. Cable length is typically 4.2 

km (2.3 nmi) but can be up to 12 km (6.5 nmi). Groups of seismic detectors (usually hydrophones and 

vertical motion geophones) are attached to the nodes and cable in 25-50 m (82-164 ft) intervals. Multiple 

nodes and cables are laid parallel to each other with a 50-m (164-ft) interval between cables. When the 

node or cable is in place, a ship towing a dual airgun array identical to those described for 3D surveys 
9 

passes between the cables, firing every 25 m (82 ft) or 11 s for a vessel traveling at 4.5 kts (8.3 km/hr) or 

8 s for a vessel traveling at 6 kts. After a source line is acquired, the source ship takes about 10-15 

minutes to turn around and pass down between the next two nodes or cables. 

A particular node or cable can lay on the bottom anywhere from 2 hours to several days, or if nodes or 

cables are needed for 4-D surveys they may lay on the bottom for years. When a node or cable is no 

longer needed to record seismic data, it is retrieved by the ROV or cable pickup ship and moved to the 

next recording position. 

Vertical Cable Surveys. Vertical cable surveys, although uncommon, require two identically configured 

boats traveling at a speed of 4-5 kts (7.4-9.3 km/hr). Both boats are used initially to deploy the cables 

then one boat is used as a source boat and the other to recover and redeploy the cables. Vertical cables 

are deployed on two overlapping grids with vertical cables deployed every 2 km (1.1 nmi) on each grid. 

One grid is staggered relative to the other such that any one vertical cable is no more than 1.4 km (0.75 

nmi) from its closest neighbor. Normally, 28 or 32 vertical cables are deployed at a time. 

Cables are deployed by spooling off the back of the boat. At the bottom of each vertical cable is an 

anchor composed of 680 kilograms (kg) (1,500 pounds [lb]) of steel. The active section of the cable is 

375 m (1,230 ft) long and contains 16 specially constructed hydrophones spaced 25 m (82 ft) apart. At 

the top are buoyant floats to keep the cable as vertical as possible. 

Once the cables are in place, the survey begins. The source vessel is equipped with a dual airgun array 

identical to that described above for 3D streamer surveys. Shots are fired such that each vertical cable 

receives shots at a distance of 5 km (2.7 nmi) in all directions. This is accomplished by traveling down 

lines parallel to the grid of vertical cables. Survey speeds range from 4-5 kn (7.4-9.3 km/hr) and airguns 

are fired approximately every 10- 13 s. Once the source vessel shoots a line 1 km (0.54 nmi) beyond the 

first row of vertical cables, those cables are recovered and redeployed. Cables may be left in place for 

hours or days, depending on the size of the survey area and operating conditions. These surveys can be 

conducted in water depths up to about 2,500 m (8,200 ft). 

4D (Time-Lapse) Surveys. 3D surveys may be repeated over oil and/or gas producing fields to 

characterize production reservoirs. These 4D or time-lapse surveys are 3D surveys repeated every 6 

months to a year, typically, but can occasionally occur every 4 months. Time-lapse surveys can use either 

seismic streamers or ocean-bottom cables to house the seismic detectors. Time-lapse surveys are 

conducted similar to those described for 3D surveys when using seismic streamer cables or similar to 

ocean bottom cable surveys when using ocean-bottom cables. These surveys are conducted over much 
10

smaller areas than 2D surveys since the oil or gas field has already been located. An average survey takes 

2-4 weeks and can cover 20 km2 (5.8 nmi2). When using fixed bottom cables, pre-survey operations are 

minimized since bottom cables are already deployed and all that has to be done is connect the fixed 

bottom cable to the recording instruments and start shooting. 

Vertical Seismic Profile Surveys. Vertical seismic profiling is a technique carried out by using 

geophone receivers (sensor string) located on a cable and placed in a borehole at different depths to 

record acoustic signals from an external acoustic source near the wellbore (zero-offset VSP) or from a 

vessel at different distances from the wellbore (walk-away VSP). Zero-offset and walk-away VSP 

surveys are common during the development and production phases of oil and gas activity. 

In all VSP surveys, sensors are lowered down a borehole before production tubing is placed in the 

wellbore or the well is abandoned. The sensors lowered down the borehole can be connected together in 

strings of 16-36 receivers spaced from 15-150 m (49-492 ft) apart, depending on the survey objective and 

other variables. After lowering the sensor string to the lowest portion of the borehole to be surveyed, the 

sensors are temporarily attached via a mechanical caliper that temporarily clamps to the side of the 

wellbore and seismic signals are recorded. Subsequently, the sensor string is repositioned and the next 

sets of seismic signals are recorded. Seismic sources used in VSP surveys are the same as those used in 

conventional 2D and 3D seismic airgun surveys. 

Zero offset surveys are typically conducted using a single 3,000 in3 airgun suspended approximately 10 m 

below the sea surface by a crane located on the deck of the drilling rig. 

Walk-away surveys utilize a workboat with four to eight airguns towed 7-10 m (23-33 ft) below the 

surface. These surveys involve a source vessel firing at varying distances from the receivers within the 

borehole. The airgun arrays used for these surveys can vary from 1,000-5,000 in.3 in volume, depending 

upon the survey objective. One version of walk-away surveys requires the source vessel to travel in a 

spiral track. The source vessel begins the spiral track at a distance of 200 m (656 ft) from the borehole 

and keeps the distance between spirals equal to the number of arrays times the array separation. Airgun 

arrays are fired in an alternating fashion with the first array firing followed by the second array 11-14 s 

later. At a typical vessel speed of 8.3-9.3 km/hr (4.5-5 kts), the distance between firings is between 28 

and 36 m (92 and 118 ft). The source vessel continues firing on the spiral path out to a distance of up to 9 

km (4.9 nmi). If the borehole sensor string needs to be raised to another level, the whole procedure is 

repeated. 
11

Survey duration depends on the type of survey, objectives, cost of the drilling rig, and equipment used. A 

zero-offset survey can take less than a day to complete. A walk-away survey can be completed in less 

than one day or may require up to 10 days to complete, however, 30 percent of that time may be with the 

airguns in standby mode. 

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

Industry conducts HRG surveys to investigate the shallow subsurface for geohazards and soil conditions 

and to identify potential benthic biological communities (or habitats). The HRG survey design, 

instrumentation and reports for oil and gas exploration will be guided by Notice to Lessees and Operators 

(NTL) issued for the Atlantic and similar to those issued for the Gulf of Mexico (i.e., NTL 2008-G05 for 

Shallow Hazards Program and NTL 2005-G07 for Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports). HRG 

surveys for oil and gas exploration use airguns and several electromechanical acoustic sources including 

boomers, sparkers, side-scan sonars, shallow and medium penetration subbottom profilers and single, 

swath or multibeam depth sounders. Magnetometers, which passively measure the earth’s magnetic field, 

are also employed during HRG surveys. 

Electromechanical sources are considered mid- or high-frequency. BOEM expects that the frequency 

ranges used for non-airgun HRG surveys for oil and gas exploration are 200 Hz–16 kHz for the boomer; 

50-500 Hz for the sparker; 100 kHz to 900 kHz for the side-scan sonar; 500 Hz to 24 kHz and 200 kHz 

for the chirp subbottom profiler; 3.5 kHz to 540 kHz for the single beam depth sounder; 100 kHz to 600 

kHz for the swath depth sounder; and 240 kHz for the multibeam depth sounder. High-frequency 

electromechanical sources can be omni-directional or highly directive, with beam widths as narrow as a 

few degrees or less. Broadband source levels for electromechanical sources can range from 210 to 226 

dB re 1μPa at 1 m. 

Typical airgun HRG surveys commence with a single ship towing an airgun about 25 m (82 ft) behind the 

ship and a 600-m (1,969-ft) streamer cable with a tail buoy recording the acoustic signals. The ship 

travels at 3-3.5 kts (5.6-6.5km/hr) and the airgun is fired every 7-8 s (or about every 12.5 m [41 ft]). 

Typically one lease block is covered (usually 4.8 km on a side) per survey using a 30-m line spacing. 

Side-scan sonar, shallow and medium penetration subbottom profilers, and single, swath, or multibeam 

depth sounders are typically operated concurrently with the airgun array. Including line turns, the time to 

survey one block is about 36 hr; however, streamer and airgun deployment and other operations add to the 

total survey time. 
12

3D high-resolution surveys use slightly larger (47 m vs. 37 m [154 ft vs. 121 ft]) ships since multiple 

streamers are towed. Up to six streamers 100-200 m (328-656 ft) long are used with a tri-cluster of 

airguns. With this system, 66 lines are necessary per block, which takes about 5 days to collect. 

For post-lease engineering studies involving the placement of production facilities and pipelines in deep 

water, HRG surveys are often conducted with autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) equipped with a 

multibeam depth sounder, side-scan sonar, and a chirp subbottom profiler. 

Electromagnetic Surveys 

Electromagnetic surveys are often used in conjunction with seismic airgun surveys to help delineate 

potential oil and gas reservoirs. There are two electromagnetic techniques applicable to oil and gas 

exploration: Magnetotelluric (MT) surveys and controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) surveys. MT 

surveys are passive measurement of the earth’s electromagnetic fields; in this technique, no electrical 

currents are induced into the earth, but the receiver device detects the natural electrical and magnetic 

fields present in the earth. 

The CSEM technique induces very low frequency electromagnetic signals into the upper layers of the 

seafloor via a towed dipole. A vessel tows the dipole approximately 1.5 to 2 kts (2.8-3.7 km/hr) along a 

towline usually within 50 m of the seafloor. In this technique, two cables (one a few hundred feet longer 

than the other) are joined together and towed by a ship. Attached to the end of each cable is a metal 

cylinder about 3 m (10 ft) long and 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter. The towed dipole produces an electrical 

signal (typically less than 2 hertz [Hz]) that is continuous, not pulsed. These electrical signals are 

detected by an array of previously deployed receiver boxes 2-10 km (1.1-5.4 nmi) away from the source 

and arranged in a line or profile. The receiver boxes are attached to a degradable concrete anchor about 

60 centimeters (cm) (24 inches [in]) on a side, 15 cm (6 in) high, and weighing about 136 kg (300 lb). 

Inside the receiver boxes are recording devices that record acoustic signals for a few days. When 

recording is finished, the transponder inside the receiver box is interrogated at a frequency of 35 kHz to 

50 kHz frequency which triggers the release of the recording box from the anchor. The recording box 

floats to the surface for retrieval. These surveys last as little as several weeks to as much as one year as 

individual permits are valid for up to one year. 

In MT surveys, ships are used to deploy and retrieve magnetotelluric recording devices. These devices are 

about 1.5 m (5 ft) high by 1 m (3 ft) on a side and are attached to a degradable concrete anchor like those 

used for CSEM surveys described above. The recording device has four arms sticking out from each side 

of the box with an electrode on each end. These arms are about 20 m (66 ft) long and made of polyvinyl 
13

chloride pipe. The recording box houses a magnetometer and a long-term recording device that allows 

the box to remain on the water bottom for days at a time. The recording box is released from the anchor 

using a transponder as described above for CSEM surveys and retrieved at the surface. 

Table 1: Seismic Airgun and Electromechanical Surveys Proposed under the Oil and Gas Program for the 

Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020. 

Year

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area South Atlantic Planning Area

2D 

(km)

3D 

(blocks)

a

WAZ

(blocks)

b

HRG 

(line 

km)

VSP 

(line 

km)

CSEM 

(line 

km)

2D

(km)

3D

(blocks)

a

WAZ

(blocks)

b

HRG 

(line 

km)

VSP 

(line 

km)

CSEM 

(line 

km)

2013 83,400 0 0 0 0 0 28,450 0 0 0 0 0

2014 160,950 0 0 0 0 0 56,900 0 0 0 0 0

2015 12,875 0 0 0 0 0 8,050 0 0 0 0 0

2016 64,375 400 0 0 0 3,220 48,300 300 0 0 0 1,600

2017 41,800 200 0 0 0 16,100 38,624 200 0 3,220 0 8,050

2018 16,100 200 100 3,220 0 32,200 32,200 200 100 32,200 0 9,650

2019 16,100 200 100 16,100 160 16,100 8,050 200 200 16,100 320 320

2020 800 300 200 64,375 320 32,200 800 300 200 40,250 480 320

TOTAL 396,400 1,300 400 83,695 480 99,820 221,374 1,200 500 91,770 800 19,940

Abbreviations: 2D = two-dimensional; 3D = three-dimensional; CSEM = controlled source electromagnetic; HRG 

= high resolution geophysical; VSP = vertical seismic profile; WAZ = wide azimuth. 

a

 3D surveys include ocean bottom cable and nodal surveys, vertical cable surveys, and 4D (time-lapse) surveys. 

b

 WAZ estimates include coil shooting (exclusive to WesternGeco).

Deep Stratigraphic and Shallow Test Drilling 

Although Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test (COST) well or shallow test well drilling activity is 

infrequent and could occur anywhere within the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Area, they are expected 

in the Blake Plateau region off South Carolina, within the South Atlantic Planning Area. A deep 

stratigraphic test well is defined as a well of at least 152 m (500 ft) in depth; otherwise it is classified as a 

shallow test well. 

COST wells are a type of deep stratigraphic test well that is usually drilled to obtain information about 

regional stratigraphy, reservoir beds, and hydrocarbon potential. These wells are drilled away from 

potential petroleum-bearing features to minimize the chance of encountering oil or gas and are drilled 

using conventional, rotary drilling equipment from either a moored or dynamically positioned drilling rig. 

The choice of a moored or dynamically positioned drilling rig depends upon water depth, site-specific 

seafloor conditions and rig availability. Jack-up rigs typically are used in water depths less than 100 m 

(328 ft). Semisubmersibles are floating rigs that are used in depths ranging from 100 to 3,000 ft (328 to 
14

9,843 ft) and can be either moored or dynamically positioned. Drillships are used in water depths greater 

than about 600 m (1,968 ft) and can also be moored or dynamically positioned (usually the latter). 

COST wells drilled previously off the Atlantic seaboard ranged from 4,040 to 6,667 m below the seafloor 

in 41 to 819 m (136-2,686 ft) water depths. BOEM expects that a test program for gas hydrates in the 

Blake Plateau region of the South Atlantic Planning Area may occur with the request for either a COST 

well or a shallow test well (described below). Gas hydrate wells in the Gulf of Mexico ranged from 152 

to 1,122 m (ft) below the seafloor. 

Shallow test wells are drilled post-lease to allow operators to evaluate subsurface properties such as the 

presence of gas hydrates. Drilling would be done by conventional, rotary drilling equipment from a 

drilling barge or boat. Subsurface properties are evaluated by placing wireline testing equipment into the 

borehole. Wireline is a type of cabling used to lower equipment or measurement devices into the well to 

test well pressure and perform other well evaluations. 

Drilling begins with a large-diameter surface hole jetted a few hundred meters into the seafloor. During 

drilling, drilling fluid and cuttings would be discharged, disperse in the water column, and accumulate on 

the seafloor around the well. 

Bottom Sampling 

Coring or grab sampling methods typically are used to obtain sediment samples for geological and/or 

geotechnical analyses. Geotechnical sampling and testing are used in engineering studies for placement 

of structures such as platforms and pipelines. Usually, a program of bottom sampling and shallow coring 

is conducted simultaneously using a small marine drilling vessel. 

“Deep” geologic cores are obtained by standard rotary coring. The cores obtained by this method vary in 

diameter from 3-20 centimeters (cm) (1-8 inches [in.]) and can penetrate several hundred meters beneath 

the seafloor. Other methods used during geotechnical surveys include vibracorers, gravity corers, piston 

corers, box corers, and jet probes. Bottom sampling involves devices that penetrate only a few 

centimeters to several meters below the seafloor. Samples of surficial sediments are typically obtained by 

dropping a piston core or gravity core (“dart”), essentially a weighted tube, to the ocean floor and 

recovering it with an attached wire line. Grab sampling collects a sample of the topmost layers of the 

seabed by closing two steel clamshells together and cutting a sample from the soil. 

Passive Remote Sensing Surveys 
15

Remote sensing surveys use passive detection methods that do not involve a high-energy sound source. 

Gravity, gravity gradiometry, and marine magnetic surveys are remote sensing surveys typically 

conducted from ships. Aeromagnetic surveys are conducted by fixed wing aircraft and look for deep 

crustal structure, salt-related structure, and intra-sedimentary anomalies. 

Gravity Surveys. Marine gravity data can be collected with instruments on the seafloor, in boreholes, or 

in helicopters, but is only expected to occur from ships and in conjunction with seismic surveys. Data 

grids for gravity surveys range from 1.6 by 8 km to 9.7 by 32 km (0.9 by 4.3 nmi to 5.2 by 17 nmi). 

Gravity Gradiometry. Measuring the earth's gravity gradient is now possible with the release of 

Department of Defense (DOD) technology. The instrument is housed in a box located on a 60-m (197-ft) 

survey ship or fixed-wing aircraft. In shallow water, ships survey a 0.25- by 1-km (0.13- by 0.54-nmi) 

grid, and in deep water, a 1- by 2-km (0.54- nmi by 1.08-nmi) grid is used. Typically, a 20-block area is 

selected for surveying and a ship traveling at 11 kts (20 km/hr) can complete a survey in about 2 days. 

Gravity gradiometry surveys are also conducted with fixed-wing aircraft that fly at a speed of about 100 

kts (185 km/hr) and altitudes of 80-100 m (262-328 ft). 

Marine Magnetic Surveys. Marine magnetic surveys measure the earth's magnetic field for the purpose 

of determining structure and sedimentary properties of subsurface horizons. Magnetic surveys are also 

conducted to detect shipwrecks. These surveys are usually conducted in conjunction with a seismic 

survey, allowing the navigation information to be used for both surveys. 

The magnetic sensor used for these surveys is housed in a cylindrical case measuring approximately 1 m 

(3 ft) long, 15-20 cm (6-8 in.) around and weighing about 14 kg (31 lb). The electronics package inside 

the case contains about 1 liter (L) (0.3 gallons [gal]) of chemically inert nontoxic fluid. The magnetic 

sensor package is towed approximately 100 m (328 ft) behind the seismic source array, although tow 

distances of 40 m (164 ft) or 150 m (492 ft) are also used. The sensor is typically towed at a depth of 3 m 

(10 ft) or in the case of surveys for archaeological resources, 6 m (20 ft) above the seafloor. 

Aeromagnetic Surveys. Aeromagnetic surveys are conducted to look for deep crustal structure, 

salt-related structure, and intra-sedimentary anomalies by detecting the small magnetic fields of these 

structures that distort the earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic field is measured by either a proton 

precision (using protons) or cesium vapor (using elemental cesium in vapor form) magnetometer mounted 

in a “stinger” projection, a rigid extension of the tail of the aircraft. Two magnetometers are also 

sometimes used to measure not only the total magnetic field but also the vertical gradient of the field. 

The surveys are flown by fixed-wing aircraft flying at speeds of about 250 km/hr (135 kts) to obtain a 
16

large number of readings over a relatively short time interval. Based on information for the northern Gulf 

of Mexico, most offshore aeromagnetic surveys are flown at altitudes between 61-152 m (200-500 ft) and 

collect 15,000-60,000 line km (9,320-37,282 line mi) of data. Line spacing varies depending on the 

objectives, but typical grids are 0.5 by 1.0 mi or 1.0 by 1.0 mi. A broad scale survey may be flown at 

higher altitudes (e.g., 305 m [1,000 ft]) and use wider line spacing (e.g., 4 by 12 mi or 8 by 24 mi). 

Table 2: Proposed Level of Remote Sensing, Drilling and Bottom Sampling under the Oil and Gas Program 

in the Mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020. 

Survey Type Number of Sampling Events Notes

Magnetotelluric Surveys 0-2 surveys Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey, 

or <9 OCS blocks; 1-6 months per survey

Gravity and Magnetic Surveys 

(remote sensing) 0-5 surveys

Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey; 

4-12 months per survey. Data typically 

acquired during seismic surveys (i.e., from 

ships)

Aeromagnetic Surveys 

(remote sensing) 0-2 surveys Hundreds to thousands of line km per survey; 1-3 months per survey

Continental Offshore Stratigraphic 

Test (COST) Wells 0-3 wells Penetration >150 m (500 ft). Requires an Environmental Assessment

Shallow Test Drilling 0-5 wells Penetration <150 m (500 ft)

Bottom Sampling 50-300 samples Mainly surficial and near-surface sediments; 

penetration <30 m (98 ft) 

Renewable Energy Program 

BOEM anticipates that developers will pursue construction and operation of wind energy facilities under 

its renewable energy program for the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas. BOEM requires G&G 

surveys for site characterization and foundation studies for renewable energy projects. Several actions 

within the renewable energy program could trigger the requirement for G&G surveys: (1) BOEM’s own 

planning and analysis; (2) unsolicited lease application to actualize plans for a renewable energy facility; 

(3) request for approval of a Site Assessment Plan (SAP) to construct a meteorological tower or install 

meteorological buoys on the leasehold; (4) request for approval of a Construction and Operations Plan 

(COP) which details the construction and operation of a wind energy facility on the lease; and (5) request 

for approval of a General Activities Plan (GAP) for rights-of-way (ROW) for installation of electrical 

cable in the seabed or for substations supporting an OCS wind energy facility on unleased OCS land or 

across land leased to a third party. Although BOEM does not directly permit or authorize G&G surveys 

for site characterization and foundation studies, BOEM does issue guidance specifying acceptable 

instrumentation and survey design parameters to complete the surveys as well as the specific reports 

required for approval of renewable energy activities (instrumentation and survey design parameters are 
17

discussed under the High-Resolution Geophysical Survey section below). BOEM will not approve SAPs, 

COPs, or GAPs without adequate G&G survey data. BOEM will conduct separate NEPA analyses and 

section 7 consultations for COP and GAP approval under its renewable energy program as required for 

the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas. SAP approval in the mid-Atlantic WEAs was analyzed 

during informal consultation that resulted in a concurrence letter issued on September 20, 2011. BOEM 

will review each SAP and submit to NMFS it’s determination as to whether the activity in the SAP is 

consistent with the activities and conditions outlined in the September 20, 2011, concurrence letter and 

this Biological Opinion, or whether additional section 7 consultation is necessary. 

Generally, the outer limit for siting a wind energy facility is approximately 25 nmi (46.3 km) from shore 

or 100m (328 ft) water depth due to economic viability limitations. However, these facilities are typically 

sited around the 60-m isobath; therefore, any G&G activities associated with wind energy facility site 

characterization and foundation studies will occur within those limitations. Areas in which proposed site 

assessment activities for renewable energy development would occur are portions of the OCS along the 

U.S. eastern seaboard within identified Wind Energy Areas in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area and 

offshore several states within the South Atlantic Planning Area (see also Figure 1 below): 

 The Wind Energy Area (WEA) off Delaware is encompassed by 11 whole OCS blocks and 16 

partial blocks (122 nmi2, 91,093 ac) and lies between the incoming and outgoing shipping routes 

for Delaware Bay. The closest point to shore is approximately 10 nmi from Rehoboth Beach, 

DE. 

 The WEA offshore Maryland is encompassed by 9 whole OCS blocks and 11partial blocks (94 

nm2, 79,706 ac) bounded on the western edge approximately 10 nmi from the Ocean City, MD, 

coastline and on the eastern edge approximately 27 nmi from the Ocean City, MD, coastline. 

 The WEA offshore Virginia consists of 19 whole OCS blocks and 4 partial blocks (164 nmi2, 

138,788 ac) bounded on the western edge approximately 18 nmi from Virginia Beach and on the 

eastern edge approximately 37 nmi from Virginia Beach. 

 For North Carolina BOEM has estimated that up to 354 OCS blocks or 2,015,428 ac will 

eventually undergo site assessments for potential wind energy development. 

 For the states adjacent to the South Atlantic Planning Area (South Carolina, Georgia, and 

Florida), BOEM estimated that 30 lease blocks (204 nmi2 , 172,800 ac) offshore each of these 

states will eventually undergo site assessments for potential wind energy development. These 

blocks could lie anywhere off these states’ coastlines. 
18

Figure 1: Proposed Areas for Site Characterization and Assessment 

Activities within the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas during 2013-

2020. 

For the renewable energy program HRG surveys, geotechnical surveys and deployment of bottom 

founded monitoring buoys are used for site characterizations for potential siting of renewable energy 

facilities. BOEM has also received an application for a right-of-way (ROW) grant for the Atlantic Wind 

Connection high voltage direct current cable and is assessing the site characterization survey work that 

would be needed to support the submittal of a GAP. BOEM will conduct separate NEPA and section 7 

consultations upon submittal and consideration of a GAP for the transmission cable. The types of 

equipment employed and techniques used for site characterization activities associated with siting wind 

energy facilities and the Atlantic Wind Connection transmission cable are described below. 
19

High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

Lessees are required to collect HRG data to provide information on sub-seafloor conditions, shallow 

hazards, archaeological resources, and sensitive benthic habitats in a lease area and along transmission 

cable corridors. The area covered by an HRG survey encompasses all seafloor/bottom-disturbing 

activities (including the areas in which installation vessels, barge anchorages, and/or appurtenances may 

be placed) associated with construction, installation, inspection, maintenance, or removal of structures 

and/or transmission cables. 

Equipment typically used in HRG surveys for renewable energy includes single beam, swath or 

multibeam depth sounders, magnetometers, side-scan sonars, shallow or medium penetration subbottom 

profilers, and boomers or sparkers. Air guns are not expected to be used. Specific requirements for HRG 

survey equipment follows: 

 Depth Sounders: The depth sounder system should record with a sweep appropriate 

to the range of water depths expected in the survey area. Use of a multibeam 

bathymetry system is encouraged, particularly in areas characterized by complex 

topography or fragile habitats. Single beam and/or interferometric swath may also be 

used. 

 Magnetometers: Magnetometer survey techniques should be capable of detecting 

and aiding the identification of ferrous, ferric, or other objects having a distinct 

magnetic signature. The magnetometer sensor should be towed as near as possible to 

the seafloor but should not exceed an altitude of greater than 6 m (20 ft) above the 

seafloor. The sensor should be towed in a manner that minimizes interference from 

the vessel hull and other survey instruments. The magnetometer sensitivity should be 

1 gamma or less, and the background noise level should not exceed a total of 3 

gammas peak-to-peak. 

 Side-Scan Sonars: Recording should be of optimal quality (good resolution, minimal 

distortion) resulting in displays automatically corrected for slant range, lay-back, and 

vessel speed. The operator should use a digital dual-frequency side-scan sonar 

system with preferred frequencies of 445 and 900 kHz and no less than 100 and 500 

kHz to record continuous images of the seafloor. The recorded data should be used 

to construct a mosaic to provide a true plan view that provides 100 percent coverage 

of the area of potential effect. The side-scan sonar sensor should be towed at a 

distance above the seafloor that is 10-20 percent of the range of the instrument. 
20

 Shallow and Medium Penetration Subbottom Profilers and Boomer: A highresolution chirp subbottom profiler is typically used to delineate near-surface 

geologic strata and features. A subbottom profiler system capable of achieving a 

vertical bed separation resolution of at least 0.3 m (1 ft) in the uppermost 15 m (49 ft) 

below the seafloor is recommended. The medium penetration boomer profiler 

system must be capable of penetrating greater than 10 m (33 ft) beyond any potential 

foundation depth, and the vertical resolution must be less than 6 m (20 ft). 

The non-airgun HRG surveys are conducted from survey vessels fitted with equipment for deploying and 

handling geophysical systems. In nearshore waters, the surveys would be conducted by a single, small 

(~10-30 m [75-98 ft]) vessel moving at <5 kn (9.3 km/hr). Typically, a survey would be completed in 3-5 

days, and depending on the location, the vessel may return to its shore base daily. Sites in deeper water 

may require larger vessels that operate 24 hr per day and can remain at sea for weeks. Survey vessels 

follow precise, pre-plotted lines so that the desired coverage of the seafloor is achieved. An integrated 

navigational system keeps track of the position and depth of the towed survey equipment. 

BOEM recommends that the grid pattern for each survey should cover the area encompassing all 

anticipated physical disturbances including, but not limited to, the footprint of the renewable energy 

installation site and all areas associated with construction, installation, inspection, maintenance or 

removal of structures and/or transmission cables. Specific grid requirements are as follows: 

 line spacing for all geophysical data for shallow hazards assessments (on side-scan 

sonar/all subbottom profilers) should not exceed 150 m (492 ft) throughout the area. 

 line spacing for all geophysical data for archaeological resources assessments (on 

magnetometer, side-scan sonar, chirp subbottom profiler) should not exceed 30 m (98 

ft) throughout the area. BOEM may require higher resolution surveys where 

necessary to ensure that site-specific actions comply with the National Historic 

Preservation Act. 

 line spacing for bathymetric charting using multibeam technique or side-scan sonar 

mosaic construction should be suitable for the water depths encountered and provide 

both full coverage of the seabed plus suitable overlap and resolution of small discrete 

targets of 0.5-1.0 m (1.5-3 ft) in diameter. 

 all track lines should run generally parallel to each other. Tie-lines running 

perpendicular to the track lines should not exceed a line spacing of 150 m (492 ft) 

throughout the survey area. 
21

In addition, the geophysical survey grid for proposed transmission cable route(s) should include a 

minimum 300-m (984-ft) wide corridor centered on the transmission cable location(s). Line spacing 

should be identical to that noted above. 

Geotechnical Surveys 

Geotechnical surveys are used to aid in siting, design, construction, and operation of renewable energy 

facilities. Geotechnical surveys involve seafloor-disturbing activities such as cone penetrometer tests 

(CPTs), geologic coring, and grab sampling to determine the best foundations or anchoring systems for 

renewable energy facilities. These surveys occur after non-airgun HRG surveys have been conducted and 

BOEM clears the site for geotechnical work. Geotechnical surveys are typically completed within 3 days. 

Sampling, including boring, should occur at every foundation location and at every kilometer of 

transmission cable route to shore, at a minimum. BOEM may request more than one deep geologic 

coring (cores taken from at least 10 m (33 ft) deeper than the proposed penetration depth of the 

foundation piles), with soil sampling and testing at each edge of the project area and within the project 

area to fully describe seafloor conditions relevant to facility design. BOEM may also request deep coring 

at each turbine foundation location. 

Renewable energy geotechnical surveys are conducted from platforms such as a 20 m (65 ft) barge or 

ship. Platforms may require anchoring for sampling work or the use of vessels equipped with dynamic 

positioning capabilities. The area of seabed disturbed by individual sampling events (e.g., collection of a 

core or grab sample) is estimated to range from 1-10 m2 (11-108 ft2) and can occur in areas as small as 

1/16 of lease block or over multiple lease blocks including cable routes to shore. Jack-up barges or 

spudded work barges may be used to deploy geotechnical survey equipment. 

Cone Penetrometer Tests (CPT). The CPT is widely used to gain information regarding soil 

composition and load bearing parameters without taking a soil sample. The CPT provides an in situ

assessment of seabed soils based on the resistance of the soil to a cone-tipped probe, or penetrometer, as it 

is pushed into the seabed at a constant rate of penetration (about 2 cm/s [0.8 in./s]). Standard cones have 

a tip angle of 60 and a cross-sectional area between 5 and 20 cm2 (0.8 and 3 in.2). Electrical strain gauges 

within the cone assembly measure the soil’s resistance through cone tip penetration and the resulting 

friction using a sleeve behind the tip. In a piezocone penetration test (PCPT), an additional parameter, 

soil pore water pressure, is measured via a porous element in the cone face or at the shoulder between 

cone tip and friction sleeve. The CPT device is connected to the vessel via a cable which is used to 

deploy and retrieve the device as well as transmit data for recording and analysis. 
22

Geologic Coring. Geological cores are collected to describe surface and subsurface sediments for 

placement of renewable energy facilities. Standard rotary corers are employed to obtain 3-20 cm cores up 

to several hundred meters beneath the seafloor. Rotary corers are double or triple tube devices where the 

innermost tube acts as a core liner, the middle tube, if present, acts as a holder, and the rotating outer tube 

carries the hollow drill bit. As the bit cuts down through the soils and rock, the core created passes into 

the liner in a relatively undisturbed state. 

At least one “deep” geologic coring (cores taken from at least 10 m (33 ft) deeper than the proposed 

penetration depth of the foundation piles) with soil sampling and testing at each edge of the project area 

and within the project area to fully describe seafloor conditions relevant to facility design is required. 

Other methods may be used during geotechnical surveys, including vibracorers, gravity corers, piston 

corers, box corers, and jet probes. 

Grab Sampling. Grab samplers collect samples of the topmost layers of the seabed and benthic biota by 

bringing two steel clamshells together and cutting a bite from the soil. The grab sampler consists of two 

steel clamshells on a single or double pivot brought together either by a powerful spring or powered 

hydraulic rams operated from the support vessel. The grab is lowered to the seabed and activated either 

automatically or by remote control and the sample is raised to the vessel for examination. The sample is 

recovered to the ship for examination. Grab samplers used in renewable energy projects can retrieve 

samples of 0.35 m3 (12.4 ft3) or 700 kg (1,543 lb) at a rate of three to four grabs per hour. A typical 

hydraulic grab sampler can operate in water depths down to 200 m (656ft) and retrieve between three and 

four grabs per hour. 

Bottom-Founded Monitoring Buoy Deployments 

Instead of meteorological towers to characterize wind conditions for site suitability, BOEM anticipates 

that between 7 and 38 meteorological buoys anchored at fixed locations would gather wind and current 

data. Two types of buoys are likely to be employed: (1) discus buoys with circular hulls measuring 

between 10 and 12 m (33 and 39 ft) in diameter; and (2) boat-shaped hull buoys (“NOMAD”) with an 

aluminum hull that provides long-term survivability in severe seas. Meteorological buoys can vary in 

height, hull type, and anchoring method; however, the largest meteorological buoys anticipated are 

similar to the spar buoys proposed offshore New Jersey by Garden State Offshore Energy. These buoys 

measure 30 m (100 ft) long and just over 2 m (6 ft) in diameter and are ballasted at one end to maintain 

tension and eliminate slack in the anchor chain. The buoy is equipped with an Acoustic Doppler Current 

Profiler which operates at frequencies between 190 kHz to 2MHz. Buoys are towed or carried aboard a 

vessel to the installation location. Once at the location site, the buoy would be either lowered to the water 
23

from the deck of the transport vessel or placed over the final location and dropped. Buoys placed in 

shallower waters may be moored with an all-chain mooring, while a larger discus-type buoy would use a 

combination of chain, nylon, and buoyant polypropylene materials. Buoy installation is estimated at 1 

day including several hours to insure proper operation of all systems. Decommissioning of buoys is 

essentially the reverse of the installation process. 

Atlantic Wind Connection Transmission Cable 

BOEM has received an application for a right-of-way grant for a high voltage direct current cable that 

would inter-connect future offshore wind energy facilities. BOEM is assessing the site characterization 

survey work (non-airgun HRG surveys and geotechnical work) that would be needed to support the future 

submittal of a GAP. The proposed cable route, and thus survey track, would be 1,320 km (820 mi) 

running from northern New Jersey through Delaware to Virginia. The ROW is approximately 1,320 km 

(820 mi) in length. Under BOEM’s regulations, a right-of-way is 61 m (200 ft) in width, though the 

developer may elect to perform non-airgun HRG and geotechnical surveys on a somewhat wider area to 

facilitate rerouting and placement of a dozen offshore platforms (substations). 
24

Table 3: Projected Levels of G&G Activities for Renewable Energy Site Characterization and Assessment in 

the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, 2013-2020. 

Renewable HRG Surveysa Geotechnical Surveysb

Bottom-founded 

Monitoring 

Buoys

Timing

Energy Area (max 

km/hours) CPT Geologic Coring Grab Samples (min-max)

(min-max) (min-max) (min-max)

Delaware 14,880/2,410 224–720 224–720 224–720 1–2 2013-2016

Maryland 13,030/2,110 196–630 196–630 196–630 1–6 2013-2017

Virginia 18,400/2,980 266–855 266–855 266–855 1–6 2013-2017

North Carolina 327,850/53,150 4,956–15,930 4,956–15,930 4,956–15,930 1–20 2013-2020

Mid-Atlantic 

Subtotal 374,160/60,650 5,642-18,135 5,642-18,135 5,642-18,135 5–40 2013-2020

South Carolina 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2013-2017

Georgia 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2013-2018

Florida 27,830/4,510 420–1,350 420–1,350 420–1,350 1–6 2013-2018

South Atlantic 

Subtotal 83,490/13,530 1,260–4,050 1,260–4,050 1,260–4,050 3–18 2013-2018

Atlantic 

Connection 

Transmission 

Cable

6,600/820 12–24 12–24 12–24 0 2013-2020

TOTAL 464,250/75,000 6,914–22,209 6,914–22,209 6,914–22,209 8–58 2013-2020

Abbreviations: HRG = high-resolution geophysical; CPT = cone penetrometer test. 

a

 HRG survey effort per block was assumed to be 925 km (500 nmi), requiring 150 hr to complete. Added 80 km (43 nmi) and 

10 hr for surveying one transmission cable route for each state (except NC which has 5 separate planning areas and could have 

5 independent transmissions cables). For the Atlantic Wind Connection transmission cable, the proposed route length of 1,320 

km (820 mi) was multiplied by 5 km per kilometer of route. 

b

 Geotechnical survey effort was estimated to be 14-45 sampling locations per block based on the potential range of wind 

turbine densities per block (assuming one sampling location per turbine location). For the Atlantic Wind Connection 

transmission cable, assumed up to 12 substations with one or two sampling locations per substation.

Marine Minerals Program 

The marine minerals program manages the sand and gravel resources on the OCS through authorizing 

G&G prospecting for sand resources, as well as authorizing G&G surveying for borrow area monitoring 

before and after dredging and construction. In addition to identifying OCS sand resources, G&G surveys 

are conducted to identify any environmental resources such as sensitive benthic habitats, cultural 

resources, and shallow hazards that may exist in potential sand and gravel resource (borrow) areas as well 

as to further characterize the volume and quality of a prospective borrow area. Although the exact 

locations for G&G surveys for sand and gravel identification and assessment activities are not known at 

this time, BOEM has determined using existing borrow site information and future use projections that 

much of the G&G survey activity is expected to occur within existing borrow areas offshore the Mid-and 
25

South Atlantic, with probably 40-50 percent repeated use of the Sandbridge Shoal, Virginia, and 

Canaveral Shoals, Florida and Jacksonville, Florida borrow areas (See Figure 2). New borrow areas 

along any coastal state from Delaware to Florida (except Georgia) may be discovered and used as well. 

Whether borrow areas accessed are existing or new, current dredging technology effectively limits all 

borrow areas to less than 30 m (98 ft) water depths and all existing areas are within 10-30 m depths (33 to 

98 ft). When existing sites are reused in the future, additional G&G surveying, with the exception of 

operational or monitoring bathymetric surveys, is not usually required, but may be conducted if needed to 

detect archaeological resources and other bottom obstructions and to sample the area to see if it can 

provide the quantity and quality of sand required. 

Two general types of G&G surveys are expected to be conducted in support of marine mineral uses, nonairgun HRG surveys and geotechnical surveys. Non-airgun HRG surveys involve single beam, swath 

interferometric, or multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonar, a magnetometer and a chirp subbottom 

profiler or a boomer. Geophysical surveys involve seafloor disturbing activities such as coring and grab 

sampling. These surveys, although much smaller in scale (usually 1-3 OCS blocks per survey and usually 

1-2 days in duration), are conducted similarly to those under the renewable energy program and are 

described in more detail below. 
26

Figure 2: Sand and Gravel Borrow Areas Likely Used Along the Mid- and 

South Atlantic Coasts From 2013-2020. 

Non-Airgun High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys 

Prospecting and Pre-Lease Geophysical Surveys. Prospecting and pre-lease surveys usually involve a 

single vessel (<10-20 m [35-65 ft] traveling less than 5 kts (9.3 km/hr, typically 8.3 km/hr) while 

deploying single beam, swath, or multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonar, a magnetometer and a chirp 

subbottom profiler or a boomer. Surveys can be conducted over reconnaissance areas (generally 1-3 OCS 

blocks, 23.3- 69.9 km2) to locate prospective sand resources or over prospective borrow areas (generally 

3-10 km2 [300-1,000 ha or 741-2,471 ac]) to identify promising borrow targets. Prospecting surveys may 

be conducted at line spacing between 150 and 600 m (492 and 1,969 ft). During the reconnaissance 

phase, limited geotechnical sampling often occurs at a geographic point along already acquired seismic 

lines to validate geophysical data interpretations. Pre-lease (or design-level) non-airgun HRG surveys 

may be used to prepare a dredging plan or to refine the borrow area and/or determine horizontal and 

vertical continuity of sedimentary units (in which case, the survey may be subject to BOEM 

authorization). These surveys may be conducted at 15-50 m (49-164 ft) line spacing. Individual 
27

prospecting and pre-lease surveys are usually completed within 1-5 operational days, depending on the 

weather and sea state and survey footprint. 

On-Lease Geophysical Surveys. BOEM uses on-lease non-airgun HRG surveys to monitor the location 

and volume of sand dredging, the structure of sand bodies and borrow areas and to insure observance of 

exclusion zones around cultural resources. About 1 mi2 (259 ha or 640 ac) is surveyed at the borrow area 

or a sub-section of the borrow area; therefore these surveys are usually completed within 1-2 days. 

Bathymetric surveys using high frequency single beam, swath, or multibeam sonar are the most common 

type of geophysical surveys but side-scan sonar may also be used if sensitive cultural or benthic resources 

cannot be avoided during dredging. 
28

Table 4: Proposed Levels of High-Resolution Geophysical Surveys for OCS Sand Borrow Projects In the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Area under 

the Marine Mineral Program From 2013-2020. 

Year Project State

Cycle 

Volume 

(cubic yd)

Depth 

(m)

Distance 

Offshore (km)

Prospecting HRGa

(line km)

Pre-Lease HRGa

(line km)

On-Lease HRGb

(line km) 

(lower 

bound)

(upper 

bound)

(lower 

bound)

(upper 

bound)

(lower 

bound)

(upper 

bound)

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area

2013

Wallops Island VA 3,200,000 9-24 18-20 0 0 0 0 100 501

Fort Story/Dam Neck VA 1,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 31 156

Sandbridge VA 2,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 63 313

2014-

2016

Rehoboth/Dewey DE 360,000 9-20 5 26 642 47 235 11 56

Bethany/S. Bethany DE 480,000 9-20 5 34 856 63 313 15 75

Atlantic Coast of Maryland MD 800,000 12-16 12-16 0 0 104 522 25 125

Wallops Island VA 806,000 9-24 18-20 0 0 0 0 25 126

Sandbridge VA 2,000,000 9-20 5 0 0 0 0 63 313

West Onslow/North Topsail NC 866,000 13-15 6-9 0 0 0 0 27 135

Bogue Banks NC 500,000 13-15 3-5 0 0 65 327 16 78

2017-

2020

Rehoboth/Dewey DE 360,000 9-20 4.8 0 0 0 0 11 56

Bethany/S. Bethany DE 480,000 9-20 4.8 0 0 0 0 15 75

Atlantic Coast of Maryland MD 800,000 12-16 12-16 0 0 0 0 25 125

Surf City/North Topsail NC 2,640,000 12-15 5-8 0 0 0 0 83 413

Wrightsville Beach NC 800,000 N/A N/A 34 856 104 522 25 125

South Atlantic Planning Area

2013 Patrick Air Force Base FL 310,000 3-14 3-8 0 0 0 0 10 49

2014-

2016

Grand Strand SC 2,300,000 7-13 4-7 0 0 0 0 72 360

Brevard County North Reach FL 516,000 3-14 3-8 0 0 0 0 16 81

Brevard County Mid-Reach FL 900,000 3-15 3-8 0 0 0 0 28 141

Brevard County South Reach FL 850,000 3-16 3-8 0 0 0 0 27 133

2017-

2020

Folly Beach SC 2,000,000 12-14 5 0 0 261 1306 63 313

Duval County FL 1,500,000 14-19 10-11 0 0 0 0 47 235

St. Johns FL N/A N/A 3-6 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

Flagler FL N/A N/A 3-5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

TOTALS

2013-

2020

Mid-Atlantic Planning Area 17,092,000 94 2,354 383 1,919 535 2,672

South Atlantic Planning Area 8,376,000 0 0 261 1,306 263 1,312

Unknown Projects in Mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas 8,000,000 N/A N/A 34 856 209 1,045 125 626

Mid- and South Atlantic Planning 

Areas 33,468,000 128 3,210 853 4,270 923 4,610

a

 Prospecting and pre-lease HRG involves the use of subbottom profiler, side-scan sonar, bathymetry (depth sounders), and magnetometer. 

b On-lease typically involves only a bathymetry survey (depth sounders). 
29

Geotechnical Surveys 

Nearly all geotechnical sampling occurs from either stationary vessels less than approximately 20 m (65 

ft) in length or from work barges towed into place. Some operational platforms require anchoring for 

brief periods with small anchors; however, approximately 50 percent of deployments for this sampling 

work could involve a boat having dynamic positioning capability. Jack-up barges and spudded work 

barges are seldom used. Surveys typically last 3 days or less and disturb between 1 and 10 m2 (11 and 

108 ft2) of seabed during individual sampling events (e.g., collection of a core or grab sample). 

Geotechnical sampling is most frequently done in connection with reconnaissance geophysical surveying 

and includes vibracoring, geologic (standard rotary) coring, and /or grab sampling. Although vibracoring 

is the most likely technique used, other sampling methods such as piston or box coring and jet probes are 

also used as part of geotechnical surveys. 

Vibracoring. Vibracoring is usually performed with a 7-cm (2.8-in.) diameter core barrel mounted on a 

platform or tripod support assembly and can penetrate sediments in the upper 15 m (50 ft). Vibracores are 

often diver assisted. The vibracore barrel is vibrated, facilitating its penetration into the sediment. A 

typical vibracore survey will obtain 15-25 cores, approximately 6 m (20 ft) deep in a 1 mi2 (640-ac or 

259-ha) area. Vibracores are performed from a small gasoline powered vessel, usually less than 14 m (45 

ft).

Geologic coring and grab sampling. These techniques are the same as those described earlier (see Oil 

and Gas section). Core samples vary in diameter from 3-20 cm (1.2-7.9 in.) and can penetrate several 

hundred meters beneath the seafloor. Because of the significantly greater expense, only one to two 

geologic cores would typically be drilled in a 1-mi2 (640-ac or 259-ha) area. Grab sampling penetrates 

from a few inches to a few feet below the seafloor and typically involves 30-40 grabs in the area of 

interest. 

Table 5: Proposed Levels of Geotechnical Surveys for OCS Sand Borrow Projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas under the Marine Minerals Program From 2013-2020. 

Type of Geotechnical 

Sampling

Number of 

Deployments

Number of Samples Per 

Deployment Number of Samples

Vibracoring 6-24 15-25 90-600

Geologic coring 1-4 1-2 1-8

Grab sampling 2-8 30-40 60-320
30

Table 6: Total G&G Activities within the Oil and Gas, Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Programs from 2013 through 2020. 

Activity Type Purpose

Number of 

Events or Level 

of Effort

Primary Platform 

and Size Scale of Activity Penetration Depth

Approximate 

Duration/ Event

Shore 

Basea

Service 

Vessel

High-Energy Sound 

Source(s) 

Bottom 

Area 

Disturbed

Oil and Gas Exploration

2D Seismic

Survey

Identify geologic 

structure 1-10 1 ship,~100 m 617,775 line km kms to 10s of kms 2-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 Airgun array None

3D Seismic 

Survey

Identify geologic 

structure 5-10 1-2 ships,~100 m 2,500 OCS blocks kms to 10s of kms 4-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 Dual airgun array None

3D WAZ and 3D 

FAZ Coil 

Better define 

complex geologic 

structure

1-2

4 ships, 

~100 m 900 line km kms to 10sof kms 1 year 0 to 2 1 to 2 4 x arrays None

Vertical Seismic 

Profiling

Calibrate seismic 

with known 

geology

3-8

1 ship, 

~30 m 1,280 line km

100s to 

1,000s 

of m

3-4 days 1 None Single airgun

High-Resolution 

Seismic Survey

Shallow hazards 

assessment and 

archaeological 

determinations

10-20 1 ship, 

~30 m 175,465 line km 10s to 100sof m

3 days –

1 week 1 None

 1-2 airguns

 Boomer or chirp 

subbottom profiler 

 Side-scan sonar

 Multi-beam depth 

sounder

 Sparker

None

3D Controlled Source 

Electromagnetic

Optimize reservoir 

production 0-2

1 ship, 

~20-100 m 119,760 km 3-5 km 1-6 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 None

Anchors 

with bottom 

receivers, 

<1 OCS 

block

Magnetotelluric 

Survey

Optimize reservoir 

production 0-2

1 ship, 

~20-100 m

100s to 1,000s 

of line kms; 

or ≤9 OCS blocks

3-5 km 1-6 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 None

Anchors 

with bottom 

receivers,

<1 OCS 

block

Gravity and Magnetic

Passive 

measurement, 

gravity and 

magnetic fields

0-5

Acquisition with 

seismic typical

100s to 1,000s

of line kms

kms to 10s

of kms 4-12 months 0 to 1 0 to 1 None None

Aeromagnetic

Passive 

measurement, 

magnetic fields

1-2 1 aircraft 100s to 1,000s of 

line kms

kms to 10s

of kms 1-3 months 0 to 1 0 None None

COST Well 

Test drilling 

outside of lease 

program

0-3

well

Platform or 

drillship, ~100 m <1/16 OCS block ≥150 m 5-30 days 0 to 1 0 to 2 None ≤2 ha per well

Shallow Test Drilling

Test drilling 

outside of lease 

program

0-5

wells

Platform or 

drillship, ~100 m <1/16 OCS block <150 m 5-30 days 0 to 1 0 to 2 None ≤2 ha per well

Bottom Sampling Extract sediment 

core

50-300 1 barge or ship,

~20 m <1/16 OCS block <300 m <3 days 0 to 1 None None ~10 m2

, 

per sample
31

Activity Type Purpose

Number of 

Events or Level 

of Effort

Primary Platform 

and Size Scale of Activity Penetration Depth

Approximate 

Duration/ Event

Shore 

Basea

Service 

Vessel

High-Energy Sound 

Source(s) 

Bottom 

Area 

Disturbed

Renewable Energy

Non-airgun HighResolution 

Geophysical Survey

Shallow hazards 

assessment and 

archaeological 

determinations 

1 or more 

surveys per state 1 ship, ~20-30 m

Each survey ≥1/16 

OCS block plus 

cable route to shore; 

Total 464,250 line 

km

Surficial to 

10s to 100s 

of meters

3 days –

1 week 1 None

 Boomer or chirp 

subbottom profiler 

 Side-scan sonar

 Single, swath,and 

multi-beam depth 

sounders

None

Cone Penetrometer 

Test

Measure sediment 

engineering 

properties

6,914-22,209 1 barge or ship,

~20 m 

≥1/16 OCS block 

or along cable 

route to shore

<10 m <3 days 1 None None ~10 m2

per 

sample

Geologic Coring Extract sediment 

core

6,914-22,209 1 barge or ship,

~20 m

≥1/16 OCS block 

or along cable 

route to shore

<300 m <3 days 1 None None ~10 m2

per 

sample

Grab Sampling Collect sediment 

and benthic fauna 6,914-22,209 1 barge or ship,~20 m

≥1/16 OCS lock 

or along cable 

route to shore

<1 m <3 days 1 None None ~10 m2

per 

sample

Bottom-Founded 

Monitoring Buoy

Measure ocean and 

meteorological 

conditions

8-58 1 barge or ship,

~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block Surficial <3 days 1 None None ~75 m2per buoy

2D or 3D Deep 

Penetration Seismicc

Evaluate formation 

for carbon 

sequestration

0 to 1 survey 1 ship,

~100 m <1 OCS block km to 10s of km 1 - 30 days 1 0-2

Airgun array

or dual array None

Marine Minerals

Non-airgun HighResolution 

Geophysical Survey

Shallow hazards 

assessment and 

archaeological 

determinations

10-40 surveys,

9-21 wks 1 ship, ~10-30 m 

~1,904-12,090 

line kms; or 1-4.5 

OCS blocks

10s to 100s

of m 1 day - 1 week 1 None

 Boomer or chirp 

subbottom profiler

 Side-scan sonar

 Single, swath, and 

multi-beam depth 

sounders

None

Vibracoring Extract sediment 

core

6-24 events

(90-600 cores)

1 barge or ship,

~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block 10-15 m 3-5 days 1 None None ~10 m2per sample

Geologic 

Coring

Extract sediment 

core

1-4 events

(1-8 cores)

1 barge or ship,

~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block <300 m <3 days 1 None None ~10 m2per sample

Grab Sampling Collect sediment 

and benthic fauna

2-8 events

(60-320

grabs)

1 barge or ship, 

~20 m ≥1/16 OCS block <1 m <3 days 1 None None ~10 m2per sample

Abbreviations: COST = Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test; FAZ = Full Azimith Survey; N/A = Not applicable; OCS = Outer Continental Shelf; WAZ=Wide Azimith 

Survey. 

a Shore base is the point of deployment to return berth. 

b

1/16 of an OCS block (256 ac) is the smallest area considered for renewable energy leasing. All full-build out renewable energy projects in the Mid- and South Atlantic 

Planning Areas are wind park facilities that would be considerably larger than 1/16 of an OCS block. The average OCS wind park would be ≤10 OCS blocks in size. 

c Would follow oil and gas program protocols for seismic airgun surveys.
32

Mitigation, Monitoring and Reporting Requirements 

BOEM is proposing several measures to minimize potential adverse effects to listed species. These 

measures include limitations on airgun surveys in right whale critical habitat and their migratory corridors 

during certain times of the year, seismic, electromechanical and borehole operational protocols, vessel 

speed restrictions and marine trash and debris awareness briefings. Monitoring and reporting 

requirements are also proposed. A description of these measures and requirements follows. 

Time-Area Considerations for North Atlantic Right Whales 

BOEM is proposing to limit surveys using some active acoustic sound sources during critical times within 

and in proximity to right whale calving and nursing habitat, migratory pathways and when right whales 

are found aggregating in an area to limit acoustic and vessel traffic disturbance and collision risk for 

North Atlantic right whales. The Southeast seasonal management area (SMA) is a continuous area that 

extends 37 km from the shoreline from St. Augustine, Florida, to Brunswick, Georgia. Ten knot (18 

km/hr) speed limits are in effect from November 15 to April 15, annually within the Southeast SMA. The 

Mid-Atlantic SMA is a combination of both continuous and 20 km arcs around the entrances to certain 

bays and ports with the same speed restrictions effective from November 1 through April 30, annually. 

Within the right whale critical habitat in the southeast the calving and nursing season extends from 

November 15 through April 15, annually (See Table 7). Dynamic management areas (DMAs) are 

designed to reduce the risk of whale-ship interactions when right whale(s) are found aggregating in an 

area. 

Surveys using airguns would not be permitted within right whale critical habitat from November 15 

through April 15 nor within southeast and mid-Atlantic SMAs from November 1 through April 30, nor 

within any DMAs that may be established by NMFS. Airgun use around these areas would include 

prohibition of sound levels entering these areas at 160 re 1 μPamrms or higher. See the section titled 

Mitigation and Monitoring for additional measures BOEM proposes for protection of right whales and 

special areas used by right whales. 

BOEM also proposes additional mitigation and monitoring requirements for surveys using non-airgun 

HRG sources that are proposed for use within and adjacent to southeast critical habitat during right whale 

calving and nursing season and/or SMAs during restricted periods. Ten knot (18 km/hr) speed limits are 

in effect during applicable times and areas as listed above for airguns and in Table 7 below. Vessel 

operators would monitor the Early Warning System, Sighting Advisory System, and Mandatory Ship 
33

Reporting System data to remain notified of right whale presence and be on alert as necessary. Active 

acoustic sources in use within a DMA must cease within 24 hours of the DMA’s establishment. BOEM 

will review each of these non-airgun surveys to determine whether additional mitigation measures are 

necessary. See the section titled Mitigation and Monitoring for additional measures BOEM proposes for 

protection of right whales and special areas used by right whales. 

Table 7: North Atlantic Right Whale Seasonal Management Areas and Critical Habitat within the Action 

Area and BOEM’s Proposed Seismic and Oil and Gas Program HRG Restricted Activity Periods. 

Individual Areas Period of Restricted 

Activity

Restricted Area

Latitude/Longitude

Entrance to Delaware Bay (Ports 

of Philadelphia and Wilmington)

Nov 1–April 30

Within a 20-nm (37 km) radius of the port entrance at 

38°52′27.4′′N/075°01′32.1′′W

Entrance to Chesapeake Bay 

(Ports of Hampton Roads and 

Baltimore)

Within a 20-nm (37 km) radius of the port entrance at 

37°00′36.9′′N/75°57′50.5′′W

Ports of Morehead City and 

Beaufort, NC

Within a 20-nm (37 km) radius of the port entrance at 

34°41′32.0′′N/076 °40′08.3′′W

Wilmington, NC to 

Brunswick, GA

Within a continuous area 20 nm from shore between 

Wilmington, NC, to Brunswick, GA, bounded by the 

following Latitude/Longitude 

34°10'30"N/77°49'12"W 

33°56'42"N/77°31'30"W 

33°36'30"N/77°47'06"W 

33°28'24"N/78°32'30"W 

32°59'06"N/78°50'18"W 

31°50'00"N/80°33'12"W 

31°27'00"N/80°51'36"W 

Brunswick, GA to South of St. 

Augustine, FL

The area bounded by 31o27′00.0′′N/80o51′36.0′′W and 

29o45′00.0′′N/ 80o51′36.0′′W

Southeast Right Whale Critical 

Habitat Nov 15 – April 15

The area bounded by 31°15'N (approximately the 

mouth of the Altamaha River, GA) and 30°15'N 

(approximately Jacksonville, FL) from the shoreline 

out to 27 km (15 nmi) offshore, and the waters between 

30°15'N and 28° 00 N (approximately Sebastian Inlet, 

FL) from the shoreline out to 9.26 km (5 nmi)

Right Whale Ship Strike Reduction Rule (50 CFR 224.105) 

Seismic Airgun Survey Protocol 

BOEM proposes to require certain protocols for all airgun surveys (deep penetration and airgun HRG 

surveys under the oil and gas program) including any surveys to evaluate formation suitability for carbon 

sequestration in the renewable energy program regardless of water depth. These protocols include 

exclusion zone determination, array ramp-up and shut down requirements and visual monitoring 

requirements by protected species observers prior to and during seismic airgun surveys (similar to BOEM 

and BSEE Joint NTL No. 2012-G02; BOEM and BSEE 2012a). These protocols apply to airguns only 
34

and not to electromechanical sources (side-scan sonars, boomers, sparkers, and chirp subbottom profilers, 

and single beam, swath or multibeam depth sounders) operating simultaneously with the airguns. The 

protocols also require the use of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) to detect vocalizing marine mammals 

to allow operators to ramp-up and start/resume a seismic survey during times of reduced visibility 

(darkness, fog, rain, etc.) when such ramp-up otherwise would not be permitted using only visual 

observers. 

Ramp-Up

Ramp-up (also known as “soft start”) is conducted to increase the intensity of an airgun array over a 

period of 20 min or more, until maximum source levels are reached. Increasing sound levels are designed 

to warn animals of pending seismic operations, and to allow sufficient time for those animals to leave the 

immediate area and avoid the highest source levels from operating airguns. Proposed protocols for 

initiating ramp-up procedures during all seismic airgun survey operations, including airgun testing, are as 

follows. Only the procedures pertaining to ESA-listed species are shown here. 

1. BOEM and BSEE will require operators to ramp-up airgun arrays. Protocols for initiating rampup procedures during all seismic airgun survey operations, including airgun testing, are as 

follows. 

a. Operators will visually monitor the exclusion zone and adjacent waters for the absence of 

marine mammals and sea turtles for at least 60 minutes before initiating ramp-up procedures. 

If no marine mammals or sea turtles are detected, ramp-up procedures may commence. 

Ramp-up at night or when the exclusion zone cannot be visually monitored is prohibited if 

the minimum source level drops below 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) (see measure iv). 

i. Initiate ramp-up procedures by firing a single airgun. The preferred airgun to 

begin with should be the smallest airgun, in terms of energy output (dB) and 

volume (in.3). 

ii. Continue ramp-up by gradually activating additional airguns over a period of 

at least 20 min, but no longer than 40 min, until the desired operating level of 

the airgun array is obtained. 

iii. Immediately shut down all airguns, ceasing seismic operations at any time a 

listed marine mammal or sea turtle is detected entering or within the 

exclusion zone. After a shutdown, ramp-up and seismic operations may 

recommence only when the exclusion zone has been visually inspected for at 

least 60 minutes to ensure the absence of marine mammals and sea turtles. 
35

iv. Array source levels may be reduced using the same shot interval as the 

seismic survey, to maintain a minimum source level of 160 dB re 1 μPa-m 

(rms) for the duration of certain activities. The 60-minute visual clearance of 

the exclusion zone before ramp-up to full power is not required if the 

minimum source level of 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) is maintained. Activities 

that are appropriate for maintaining the minimum source level are (1) all 

turns between transect lines, when a survey using the full array is being 

conducted immediately prior to the turn and will be resumed immediately 

after the turn; and (2) unscheduled, unavoidable maintenance of the airgun 

array that requires the interruption of a survey to shut down the array. The 

survey should be resumed immediately after the repairs are completed, but 

should not exceed 20 minutes. Use of the minimum source level to avoid the 

60-minute visual clearance of the exclusion zone is only for events that occur 

during a survey using the full power array. The minimum sound source level 

is not to be used to allow a later ramp-up after dark or in conditions when 

ramp-up would not otherwise be allowed. 

Exclusion Zone 

The proposed seismic airgun survey protocol includes an exclusion zone to prevent exposure of marine 

mammals and sea turtles to the highest source levels from operating airguns. An exclusion zone is the 

area at and below the sea surface within a radius to be determined by calculating the maximum range at 

which animals could be exposed to a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa, one of NMFS’ criteria for Level A 

harassment (potential for injury) of cetaceans under the MMPA. The 180 dB re 1 μPa distance is 

calculated from the center of an airgun array. The radius of the exclusion zone must be calculated 

independently for each survey based on the configuration of the airgun array and the ambient acoustic 

environment, but must not be less than 500 m 1640 ft). This exclusion zone applies specifically to 

airguns, not electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, boomers, sparkers and chirp subbottomprofilers, and single beam or multibeam depth sounders that may be operating concurrently during 

seismic airgun surveys. 

Visual Monitoring Methods for Seismic Airgun Surveys
36

The proposed seismic airgun survey protocol includes visual monitoring of the exclusion zone by trained 

protected species observers. All observers on duty will look for marine mammals and sea turtles using 

the naked eye and reticled, hand-held binoculars provided by the seismic vessel operator. The observers 

will stand watch in a suitable location that will not interfere with navigation or operation of the vessel and 

that affords the observers an optimal view of the sea surface. Observers will adjust their positions to have 

a 360o view of the entire area around the seismic vessel, where possible, but ensure complete coverage of 

the exclusion zone. BOEM has proposed the following visual monitoring requirements: 

1. Visual monitoring will begin no less than 60 minutes prior to the beginning of airgun ramp-up 

and continue until operations cease or sighting conditions do not allow observation of the sea 

surface (e.g., fog, rain, darkness). 

2. If an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is observed, the observer should note and monitor 

the position (including latitude/longitude of the vessel and relative bearing and estimated distance 

to the animal) until the animal dives or moves out of visual range of the observer. Continue to 

observe for additional animals that may surface in the area, as often there are numerous animals 

that may surface at varying time intervals. 

3. At any time an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, 

whether due to the animal’s movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced 

inside the exclusion zone, the observer will call for the immediate shutdown of the operation, 

including airgun firing (the vessel may continue on its course but all airgun discharges must 

cease). The vessel operator must comply immediately with such a call by an on-watch visual 

observer. Any disagreement or discussion should occur only after shutdown. 

4. After a shutdown, when no ESA-listed marine mammals or sea turtles are sighted for at least a 

60-minute period, airgun ramp-up of the source array may begin. Ramp-up cannot begin unless 

conditions allow the sea surface to be visually inspected for ESA-listed marine mammals and sea 

turtles for 60 minutes prior to commencement of ramp-up. Ramp-up cannot begin after dark or in 

conditions that prohibit visual inspection (e.g., fog, rain, etc.) of the exclusion zone unless PAM 

is utilized. 

5. Any shutdown due to an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle sighting within the exclusion 

zone must be followed by a 60-minute all-clear period and then a standard, full ramp-up. Any 

shutdown for other reasons, including, but not limited to, mechanical or electronic failure, 

resulting in the cessation of the sound source for a period greater than 20 minutes, must also be 

followed by full ramp-up procedures. 
37

6. Periods of airgun silence not exceeding 20 minutes in duration will not require ramp-up for the 

resumption of seismic operations if (a) visual surveys are continued diligently throughout the 

silent period (requiring daylight and reasonable sighting conditions), and (b) no ESA-listed 

marine mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone. If ESA-listed marine 

mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone during the short silent period, 

resumption of seismic survey operations must be preceded by ramp-up only after no ESA-listed 

marine mammals or turtles have been observed in the exclusion zone for a period of 60 minutes. 

Shutdown Requirements 

The proposed seismic airgun survey protocol will require shutdown of the airgun array any time a listed 

marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s 

movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone. In the event 

of a shutdown, seismic operations and ramp-up of airguns would resume only when the sighted animal 

has cleared the exclusion zone and no other marine mammals or sea turtles have been sighted within the 

exclusion zone for at least 60 minutes. 

Non-Airgun HRG Survey Protocol for Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Sites

The HRG surveys for renewable energy and marine minerals sites would use only electromechanical 

sources such as side-scan sonar, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and single beam, swath and 

multibeam depth sounders. BOEM proposes that all of their authorizations for non-airgun HRG surveys 

include requirements for visual monitoring of an exclusion zone by protected species observers and startup and shut-down requirements as described below. The HRG surveys for oil and gas exploration 

typically use electromechanical sources operating concurrently with airgun arrays. These surveys would 

be subject to the proposed seismic airgun survey protocol described above. 

Non-Airgun HRG Protocol Requirements

1. All HRG surveys must comply with requirements for vessel strike avoidance (See 

Vessel Strike Avoidance below). The recommended separation distance for North 

Atlantic right whales of 500 m (1,640 ft) would remain in effect during HRG surveys 

since it exceeds the exclusion zone radius specified below. Recommended separation 

distances for other whales and small cetaceans are less than 500 m, and would be 

superseded by the exclusion zone radius. 
38

2. Sound sources used within Northern right whale critical habitat in the southeast during 

calving and nursing season should operate at frequencies above 30 kHz. If surveys are 

identified that require the use of frequencies below 30 kHz, BOEM should notify NMFS to 

determine if additional monitoring and mitigation measures are necessary. 

3. For non-airgun HRG surveys within or adjacent to North Atlantic right whale critical habitat 

in the southeastern United States, within or adjacent to SMAs or within established DMAs, 

BOEM and BSEE must require operators implement the following measures : 

a. Vessel Strike Avoidance: A distance of 500 m (1, 1,640 ft) from right whales must 

be maintained during transit and operation and the Early Warning System, Sighting 

Advisory System, and Mandatory Ship Reporting System data notifying mariners of 

right whale presence must be monitored. 

b. A 200-m (656 ft) radius exclusion zone would be monitored by a protected species 

observer that would encompass the 180 dB re 1 μPamrms isopleth of any acoustic 

source. If the source produces a wider radius than this, than the exclusion zone 

would be increased to the field verification or modeled distance. 

c. Non-airgun HRG transmissions within a DMA must cease within 24 hours of the 

DMA’s establishment. 

4. At least one protected species observer would be required on watch aboard HRG 

survey vessels at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk – i.e., from about 30 

minutes before sunrise to 30 minutes after sunset) when survey operations are being 

conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, darkness) make sea surface observations 

impossible. If conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such that the sea surface 

observations are halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions 

permit. Ongoing activities may continue but may not be initiated under such 

conditions (i.e., without appropriate pre-activity monitoring). 

5. Visual monitoring will begin no less than 60 minutes prior to start-up and continue until 

operations cease or sighting conditions do not allow observation of the sea surface (e.g., fog, 

rain, darkness). 

6. At any time a marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether 

due to the animal’s movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside 

the exclusion zone, the observer will call for the immediate shutdown of the operation. The 

vessel operator must comply immediately with such a call by an on-watch visual observer. 

Any disagreement or discussion should occur only after shutdown. 
39

The following additional requirements apply only to non-airgun HRG surveys in which one 

or more active acoustic sound sources will be operating at frequencies less than 200 kHz. 

1. A 200-m (656-ft) radius exclusion zone will be established and monitored around 

the sound source. However, if this exclusion zone does not encompass the 180-dB 

radius, as validated through field verification or modeling, for any acoustic source 

proposed for use, BOEM may authorize, with NMFS’ concurrence, surveys 

having a larger exclusion zone to encompass the 180-dB radius. Effectiveness can 

be evidenced by monitoring studies that have been carried out (i.e., Barkaszi et al 

2012). Demonstration may also be in the class of boat used for the survey work, 

some of which may not have flying bridges or an observer height on deck that 

easily allows visual observation of the larger exclusion zone. 

2. Active acoustic sound sources must not be activated until the protected species 

observer has reported the exclusion zone clear of all ESA-listed marine mammals 

and sea turtles for 60 minutes. 

3. If any ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is sighted at or within the 

exclusion zone, operators are required to immediately shutdown the equipment. 

Subsequent restart of the equipment may only occur following a confirmation that 

the exclusion zone if clear of ESA-listed marine mammals and sea turtles for 60 

minutes.

Borehole Seismic Surveys 

Borehole seismic surveys (completed during VSP surveys) differ from surface seismic surveys in a 

number of ways, including the use of much smaller airgun arrays, having an average survey time of 12-24 

hrs, utilizing a sound source that may or may not move at 7.4-9.3 km/hr (4-5 kn), and requiring the 

capability of moving the receiver in the borehole between shots. Due to these differences, the following 

altered mitigation measures apply only to borehole seismic surveys: 

1. During daylight hours, when visual observations of the exclusion zone are being performed 

as required in this protocol, borehole seismic operations will not be required to ramp-up for 

shutdowns of 30 min or less in duration, as long as no marine mammals or sea turtles are 

observed in the exclusion zone during the shutdown. If a marine mammal or sea turtle is 

sighted in the exclusion zone, ramp-up is required and may begin only after visual surveys 

confirm that the exclusion zone has been clear for 60 minutes. 
40

2. Nighttime or poor visibility ramp-up is allowed only when passive acoustics are used to 

ensure that no marine mammals are present in the exclusion zone (as for all other seismic 

surveys). Operators are strongly encouraged to acquire the survey in daylight hours when 

possible. 

3. Protected species observers must be used during daylight hours, as required in this protocol, 

and may be stationed either on the source boat or on the associated drilling rig or platform if a 

clear view of the exclusion zone and adjacent waters is available. 

4. All other mitigations and provisions for seismic surveys as set forth in this protocol will apply 

to borehole seismic surveys. 

Passive Acoustic Monitoring for Airgun Seismic Surveys 

BOEM proposes to require operators to include passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) as part of the 

protected species observer program for seismic surveys. Operators using passive acoustic array devices 

are required to employ an observer proficient in passive acoustic monitoring operations and methods to 

detect vocalizing cetaceans. By using PAM devices, operators can ramp-up and start/resume a seismic 

survey during times of reduced visibility (e.g., darkness, fog, rain, etc.) when such ramp-up otherwise 

would not be permitted using only visual observers. All other mitigation measures required for seismic 

surveys remain applicable to seismic survey operations. A description of the passive acoustic system, the 

software used, and the monitoring plan should also be reported to BSEE prior to its use. NMFS will work 

with operators to determine which PAM systems are adequate for use. 

Protected Species Observer Training for Seismic Airgun Surveys 

BOEM and BSEE propose to require all visual observers complete a protected species observer training 

course that includes the requirements below. Operators may utilize observers trained by third parties 

based on the requirements below. All protected species observer training programs must: 

BOEM and BSEE propose to require all visual observers to qualify for, and complete a protected species 

observer training course, as per the recommendations described in NOAA Fisheries Service 2012 

National Standards for a Protected Species Observer and Data Management Program: A model for 

Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, unpublished) that includes the requirements below. All protected species 

observer training programs must: 

1. Furnish BSEE a course information packet that includes the name and qualifications (i.e., 

experience, training completed, or educational background) of the instructor(s), the course outline 

or syllabus, and course reference material; 
41

2. Furnish each trainee with a document stating successful completion of the course; and 

3. Provide BSEE with names, affiliations, course completion dates for trainees. 

The training course must include the following topics: 

i. Brief overview of the MMPA and the ESA as they relate to seismic acquisition 

and protection of marine mammals and sea turtles in the Atlantic Ocean. 

ii. Brief overview of seismic acquisition operations. 

iii. Overview of seismic mitigation measures and the protected species observer 

program. 

iv. Discussion of the role and responsibilities of the protected species observer, 

including: 

a. Legal requirements (why you are here and what you do); 

b. Professional behavior (code of conduct); 

a. Integrity; 

b. Authority of protected species observer to call for shutdown of seismic 

acquisition operations; 

c. Assigned duties; 

d. What can be asked of the observer; 

1. What cannot be asked of the observer; and 

2. Reporting of violations and coercion; 

3. Identification of Atlantic marine mammals and sea turtles; 

4. Cues and search methods for locating marine mammals and sea 

turtles; and, 

5. Distance determination techniques and training. 

e. Data collection and reporting requirements: 

1. Forms and reports to BSEE via email on the 1st and 15th of each 

month; and, 

2. Marine mammal or sea turtle in exclusion zone/shutdown report 

within 24 hr. 

Reporting Requirements for Seismic Airgun Surveys 

BOEM and BSEE propose to require operators to submit observer effort reports and survey reports for 

each seismic and HRG survey conducted. In order to accommodate various vessels’ bridge practices and 
42

preferences, vessel operators and observers may design data reporting forms in whatever format they 

deem convenient and appropriate. Alternatively, observers or vessel operators may adopt the United 

Kingdom’s JNCC forms (available at their website, http://www.jncc.gov.uk). At a minimum, the 

following items should be recorded and included in reports to the BOEM and BSEE (see NOAA Fisheries 

Service 2012 National Standards for a Protected Species Observer and Data Management Program: A 

model for Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, unpublished). 

Observer Effort Report: BOEM requires the submission of observer effort reports to BSEE on the 1st

and the 15th of each month for each day seismic acquisition operations are conducted. These reports must 

include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Observers’ names and affiliations; 

3. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

4. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for “onlease seismic surveys”); 

5. Date; 

6. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey began; 

7. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey ended; and 

8. Average environmental conditions while on each visual survey rotation and session as well as 

when any conditions change during the rotation ,each session, including: 

a. Wind speed and direction; 

b. Sea state (glassy, slight, choppy, rough, or Beaufort scale); 

c. Swell (low, medium, high, or swell height in meters); and 

d. Overall visibility (poor, moderate, good). 

Survey Report: BOEM requires the submission of survey reports to BSEE on the 1st and the 15th of the 

month for each day seismic acquisition operations are conducted and airguns are discharged. These 

reports must include:

1. Vessel name; 

2. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

3. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for 

“on-lease seismic surveys”), if applicable; 

4. Date; 
43

5. Time pre-ramp-up survey begins; 

6. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during pre-ramp-up surveys 

7. Time ramp-up begins; 

8. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during ramp-up;

9. Time sound source (airguns or HRG equipment) is operating at the desired intensity; 

10. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during surveys; 

11. If marine mammals or sea turtles were seen, was any action taken (i.e., survey delayed, 

guns shut down)? 

12. Reason that marine mammals and sea turtles might not have been observed (e.g., swell, 

glare, fog); and 

13. Time sound source (airgun array or HRG equipment) stops firing. 

Sighting Report: BOEM shall require the submission of reports to BSEE for marine mammals and sea 

turtles sighted during seismic and HRG surveys on the 1st and the 15th of each month except as indicated 

below. These reports are in addition to any reports required as a condition of the geophysical permit and 

must include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

3. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for “onlease seismic surveys”); 

4. Date; 

5. Time; 

6. Watch status (Were you on watch or was this sighting made opportunistically by you or 

someone else?); 

7. Observer or person who made the sighting; 

8. Latitude/longitude of vessel; 

9. Bearing of vessel; (true compass direction); 

10. Bearing (true compass direction) and estimated range to animal(s) at first sighting; 

11. Water depth (meters); 

12. Species (or identification to lowest possible taxonomic level); 

13. Certainty of identification (sure, most likely, best guess); 

14. Total number of animals; 

15. Number of juveniles; 
44

16. Description (as many distinguishing features as possible of each individual seen, 

including length, shape, color and pattern, scars or marks, shape and size of dorsal fin, 

shape of head, and blow characteristics); 

17. Direction of animal’s travel – compass direction; 

18. Direction of animal’s travel – related to the vessel (drawing preferably); 

19. Behavior (as explicit and detailed as possible; note any observed changes in behavior); 

20. Activity of vessel; 

21. Airguns firing? (yes or no); and 

22. Closest distance (meters) to animals from center of airgun or airgun array (whether firing 

or not). 

BOEM proposes to also require operators to report sightings of marine mammals or sea turtles within the 

exclusion zone that resulted in a shutdown of the airguns within 24 hours of the shut-down to BSEE. The 

sighting report must include the observed behavior of the animal(s) before shutdown, the observed 

behavior following shutdown (specifically noting any change in behavior), and the length of time between 

shutdown and subsequent ramp-up to resume the seismic survey (note if seismic survey was not resumed 

as soon as possible following shutdown). These sightings should also be included in the first regular 

semi-monthly report following the incident. Sighting forms should be scanned (or data typed) and sent via 

email to the BOEM and BSEE. If passive acoustic monitoring is used, an assessment must be included of 

the usefulness, effectiveness, and problems encountered with the use of that method of marine mammal 

detection in the reports described in this protocol. 

Non Airgun HRG and Geotechnical Survey Reporting Requirements 

Protected Species Observer Reports: Data on all protected-species observations must be recorded based 

on standard marine mammal observer collection data by the protected-species observer. This information 

must include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Observers’ names, affiliations, and any Protected Species Training courses taken; 

3. Date; 

4. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey began; 

5. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey ended; and 

6. Average environmental conditions during visual surveys including: 

a. Wind speed and direction; 
45

b. Sea state (glassy, slight, choppy, rough, or Beaufort scale); 

c. Swell (low, medium, high, or swell height in meters); and 

d. Overall visibility (poor, moderate, good). 

7. Species (or identification to lowest possible taxonomic level); 

8. Certainty of identification (sure, most likely, best guess); 

9. Total number of animals; 

10. Number of juveniles; 

11. Description (as many distinguishing features as possible of each individual seen, 

including length, shape, color and pattern, scars or marks, shape and size of dorsal fin, 

shape of head, and blow characteristics); 

12. Direction of animal’s travel – related to the vessel (drawing preferably); 

13. Behavior (as explicit and detailed as possible; note any observed changes in behavior); 

14. Activity of vessel when sighting occurred. 

Non-Airgun and Geotechnical Reporting Requirements: The lessee/operator must provide BOEM 

with a report within ninety (90) calendar days following the commencement of HRG and/or geotechnical 

sampling activities that includes all protected species observer reports, a summary of the survey activities 

and an estimate of the number of listed marine mammals and sea turtles observed or taken during these 

survey activities. 

Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance 

All authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for protected species identification, 

vessel strike avoidance and injured/dead protected species reporting. The guidance would be similar to 

Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species 

Reporting) (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b). The lessee and/or operator must ensure that all vessels 

conducting G&G activities comply with the vessel strike avoidance measures specified below except 

under extraordinary circumstances when the safety of the vessel or crew are in doubt or the safety of life 

at sea is in question. The vessel strike avoidance measures have been included in the proposed siesmic 

airgun and non-airgun HRG survey protocols and include maintaining a vigilant watch for listed whales 

and sea turtles and slowing down or stopping vessels to avoid striking protected species, observing the 10 

kt (18.5 km/h) speed restriction in SMAs, North Atlantic right whale southeast critical habitat and within 

DMAs, maintaining separation distances from listed whales and sea turtles and reporting of any dead or 

injured listed whales or sea turtles. 
46

Guidance for Marine Debris Awareness 

All authorizations for shipboard surveys would include guidance for marine debris awareness. The 

deliberate discharge of containers and other similar materials (i.e., trash and debris) into the marine 

environment is generally prohibited unless it is passed through a comminutor that breaks up solids and 

can pass through a 25-mm mesh screen. Discharge of plastic is prohibited regardless of size. Durable 

identification marking on equipment, tools and containers (especially drums), and other material are also 

required as well as recording and reporting of items lost overboard. Special precautions should be taken 

when handling and disposing of small items and packaging materials, particularly those made of nonbiodegradable, environmentally persistent materials such as plastic or glass that can be lost in the marine 

environment and washed ashore. 

All vessel operators, employees and contractors actively engaged in G&G surveys must be briefed on 

marine trash and debris awareness elimination as described in BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash 

and Debris Awareness and Elimination) (USDOI, BSEE, 2012a). BOEM will not require G&G 

operators, employees and contractors to undergo formal training or to post placards. The operator will be 

required to ensure that its employees and contractors are made aware of the environmental and 

socioeconomic impacts associated with marine trash and debris and their responsibilities for ensuring that 

trash and debris are not intentionally or accidentally discharged into the marine environment. 

Overview of NMFS’ Assessment Framework 

We approach the assessments in section 7 consultations using several steps. The first step identifies a 

proposed action and those aspects of an action that are likely to have direct or indirect effects on the 

physical, chemical, and biotic environment of an action area. This step includes identifying the 

specific stressors produced by the action, including defining the spatial extent of these stressors and 

changes in that spatial extent over time (the spatial extent of these stressors is the “Action Area” for a 

consultation). 

The second step starts by identifying the threatened species, endangered species, and designated 

critical habitat (hereafter, “listed resources”) that are likely to co-occur with these effects in space and 

time and the nature of that co-occurrence (the latter represent our exposure analyses). We try to 

identify the number, age (or life stage), and gender of individuals that are likely to be exposed to an 

Action’s effects and the populations or subpopulations those individuals represent. 

Once we identify which listed resources are likely to be exposed to an Action’s effects and the nature 

of that exposure, we evaluate the available evidence to determine how those listed resources are likely 
47

to respond given their probable exposure (these represent our response analyses). The final steps of 

our assessments are different for listed species and designated critical habitat. For listed species, we 

assess the consequences of these responses to the individuals that have been exposed, the populations 

those individuals represent, and the species those populations comprise. For designated critical 

habitat, we assess the consequences of these responses on the value of the critical habitat for the 

conservation of the species for which the habitat had been designated. 

Application of the General Approach to this Consultation 

The primary stressors associated with the G&G activities BOEM proposes to authorize within the 

Action Area consist of: 

1. sound fields produced by active seismic and electromechanical sources used during G&G 

activities (airguns, boomers, sparkers, side-scan sonars, depth sounders and subbottom 

profilers); 

2. disturbance produced by vessels and equipment involved in G&G activities; 

3. the risk of collisions associated with vessels involved in G&G activities; 

4. disturbance produced by aircraft traffic; 

5. drilling discharges and accidental fuel spills; 

6. trash and debris; and, 

7. seafloor disturbance from coring, equipment or anchors associated with certain deep penetration 

surveys, drilling and sampling activities. 

The first step of our analysis evaluates the available evidence to determine the likelihood of listed 

species or critical habitat being exposed to these potential stressors. Our analysis assumes that these 

stressors pose no risk to listed species or critical habitat if these potential stressors do not co-occur, in 

space or time, with (1) individuals of endangered or threatened species or their designated critical 

habitat; (2) species that are food for endangered or threatened species; (3) species that prey on or 

compete with endangered or threatened species; or (4) pathogens for endangered or threatened 

species. 

Exposure Analyses 

As discussed in the introduction to this section, our exposure analyses are designed to identify the 

listed resources that are likely to co-occur with these effects in space and time and the nature of that 

co-occurrence. Our exposure analyses are designed to identify the number, age (or life stage), and 

gender of the individuals that are likely to be exposed to an Action’s effects and the populations or 

subpopulations those individuals represent. When it is impossible or impracticable to estimate the 
48

number of individuals likely to be exposed, we try to estimate the proportion of a population that is 

likely to be exposed. If we cannot estimate this proportion, we will rely on a surrogate or index. 

For our exposure analyses, NMFS generally relies on an action agency’s estimates of the number of 

marine mammals that might be “taken” (as that term is defined for the purposes of the MMPA). In a 

small number of consultations involving active acoustic sound sources, however, NMFS conducted 

separate analyses to estimate the number of endangered or threatened marine animals that might be 

exposed to stressors produced by a proposed action to assess the effect of assumptions in an action 

agency’s model estimates. For example, NMFS’ model was used to independently estimate the 

number of marine mammals that might be exposed to U.S. Navy training activities in a few recent 

consultations. These consultations identified the sole or primary stressor as an active sound source 

(mid-frequency sonar) and data were available on (1) densities of endangered or threatened animals in 

an action area, (2) the ship speeds, (3) the radial distance at which different received levels would be 

detected from a source given sound speed profiles levels (estimated sound propagation from the 

highest received levels close to the source with increasing distance from the source down to ambient 

sound levels), and (4) the duration of specific training exercises in predictable areas of the associated 

training range. 

Although for this consultation data were available for densities of marine mammals and ship speeds, 

we did not have the radial distance at which different received levels would be detected with 

increasing distance from a source down to ambient sound levels in the Action Area given sound speed 

profiles. BOEM only modeled radial distances for received levels of sound between 210 dB and 150 

dB re 1 μPa, for their representative airgun array and single airgun, boomer, side scan sonar, chirp 

subbottom profiler and multibeam depth sounder, and therefore only those radial distances were 

available to us. Also, individual surveys and simultaneous, overlapping and non-overlapping survey 

activity can occur anywhere at any time within or adjacent to the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning 

Areas and it is impossible to predict the times, areas and durations of the different types of seismic 

surveys and HRG surveys that would be representative of the spatial and temporal arrangements of 

the surveys that would occur in any particular year, let alone over the life time of the proposed action. 

For the two reasons just cited, we could not run the exposure models we had developed as described 

for other consultations. 

BOEM’s estimate of the number of animals that might be “taken” follows two steps: estimating the 

acoustic field produced from a sound source and how it propagates through the water; and 

determining the net exposure of marine mammals that occur within the ensonified volume of water, 

using the MMPA “take” criteria recommended by NMFS. BOEM’s model starts with a set of 
49

representative acoustic modeling regions based on seasonal sound velocity profiles, bathymetries and 

bottom types within the Action Area for this consultation. Within each of these regions, transmission 

loss was modeled for representative sound sources (airguns, side-scan sonar, boomer, chirp 

subbottom profiler and multibeam depth sounder) at depth which were used to estimate the acoustic 

field radiated by the sound sources. BOEM also estimated sound exposure levels and root mean 

square (rms) levels. 

BOEM estimated the expected number of animals that might be exposed to peak pressures based on 

levels that exceed certain regulatory thresholds using the acoustic fields estimated for the 

representative sound sources and the Acoustic Integration Model (AIM). AIM predicts exposure of 

receivers (in this case, marine species) to any stimulus propagating through space and time. 

We use BOEM’s estimates as a rough estimate of the number of instances in which endangered and 

threatened species might be exposed to and “taken” by sounds produced by seismic and HRG survey 

activities along the Atlantic seaboard. However, these “take” estimates underestimate the number of 

instances in which these species would have been exposed to those sounds and would have responded 

in ways that we would consider “adverse”, even if those adverse responses did not constitute one or 

more forms of “take.” Nevertheless, we relied solely on the results of acoustic models and the marine 

mammal take model BOEM used to prepare its NEPA compliance documents. 

Response Analyses 

As discussed in the introduction to this section, once we identify which listed resources are likely to 

be exposed to active seismic and electromechanical sources associated with the proposed G&G 

activities and the nature of that exposure, we examined the scientific and commercial data available to 

determine whether and how (1) endangered or threatened species are likely to respond following 

exposure and the set of physical, physiological, behavioral, or social responses that are likely and (2) 

the quantity, quality, or availability of one or more of the physical or biological features that led us to 

conclude that the area was essential for the conservation of a particular listed species are likely to 

change in response to the exposure. 

Conceptual Model for Response Analyses 

To guide our response analyses, we constructed a conceptual model that is based on a model of 

animal behavior and behavioral decision-making and incorporates the cognitive processes involved in 

behavioral decisions (Figure 3) although we continue to recognize the risks presented by physical 

trauma and noise-induced losses in hearing sensitivity (threshold shift). This model is also based on a 

conception of “hearing” that includes cognitive processing of auditory cues, rather than focusing 
50

solely on the mechanical processes of the ear and auditory nerve. Our model incorporates the primary 

mechanisms by which behavioral responses affect the longevity and reproductive success of animals: 

changing an animal’s energy budget, changing an animal’s time budget (which is related to changes 

in an animal’s energy budget), forcing animals to make life history trade-offs (for example, engaging 

in evasive behavior such as deep dives that involve short-term risks while promoting long-term 

survival), or changes in social interactions among groups of animals (for example, interactions 

between a cow and her calf). 

This conceptual model begins with the specific acoustic stimuli that we focus on in an assessment 

(Box 1 in Figure 3). Although we generally considered different acoustic stimuli separately, we 

considered a single source of multiple acoustic stimuli as a complex “acoustic object” that has several 

acoustic properties. For example, we treat pulses produced by active sound sources and sounds 

produced by the source vessel as a single “acoustic object” that produced continuous sounds (enginenoise, propeller cavitation, hull displacement, etc.) and periodic impulsive pulses. Because animals 

would be exposed to this complex of sounds produced by a single, albeit moving, source over time, 

we assumed they would generally respond to the acoustic stream associated with this single acoustic 

object moving through their environment. Multiple ships associated with a particular type of survey, 

for instance WAZ surveys, are expected to also represent a single acoustic object as all vessels are 

moving in formation at the same speeds while alternating shots. Multiple ships associated with other 

surveys, such as support ships for different types of surveys that move independently of the survey 

formation would represent different acoustic objects in the acoustic scene of endangered and 

threatened marine animals. 

Acoustic stimuli can represent two different kinds of stressors: processive stressors, which require 

high-level cognitive processing of sensory information, and systemic stressors, which usually elicit 

direct physical or physiological responses and, therefore, do not require high-level cognitive 

processing of sensory information (Anisman and Merali 1999, de Kloet et al. 2005, Herman and 

Cullinan 1997). Disturbance from surface vessels and airguns would be examples of processive 

stressors while ship strikes would be an example of a systemic stressor. As a result, G&G activities 

may result in two general classes of responses: 

1. responses that are influenced by an animal’s assessment of whether a potential stressor poses a threat or 

risk (see Figure 3: Behavioral Response). 

2. responses that are not influenced by the animal’s assessment of whether a potential stressor poses a threat 

or risk (see Figure 3: Physical Damage). 
51

Our conceptual model explicitly recognizes that other acoustic and non-acoustic stimuli that occur in 

an animal’s environment might determine whether a focal stimulus is salient to a focal animal (the 

line connecting Box 2b to Box 2 in Figure 3). The salience of an acoustic signal will depend, in part, 

on its signal-to-noise ratio and, given that signal-to-noise ratio, whether an animal will devote 

attentional resources to the signal or other acoustic stimuli (or ambient sounds) that might compete 

for the animal’s attention (the line connecting Box 2b to Box B1 in Figure 3)1

. That is, an acoustic 

signal might not be salient (1) because of a signal-to-noise ratio or (2) because an animal does not 

devote attentional resources to the signal, despite its signal-to-noise ratio. Absent information to the 

contrary, we generally assume that an acoustic stimulus that is “close” to an animal (within 10 – 15 

kilometers) would remain salient regardless of competing stimuli and would compete for an animal’s 

attentional resources. By extension, we also assume that any behavioral change we might observe in 

an animal would have been caused by a focal stimulus (the stimulus most immediately confronting 

the animal) rather than competing stimuli. However, as the distance between the source of a specific 

acoustic signal and a receiving animal increases, we assume that the receiving animal is less likely to 

devote attentional resources to the signal. 

If we conclude (or if we assume) that an acoustic stimulus, such as a seismic or electromechanical 

source, was salient to an animal or population of animals, we would then ask how an animal 

might classify the stimulus as a cue about its environment (Box B2 in Figure 3) because an 

animal’s response to a stimulus in its environment depends upon whether and how the animal 

converts the stimulus into information about its environment (Blumstein and Bouskila 1996, Yost 

2007). For example, if an animal classifies a stimulus as a “predatory cue,” that classification 

will invoke a suite of candidate physical, physiological, or behavioral responses that are 

appropriate to being confronted by a predator (this would occur regardless of whether a predator 

is, in fact, present). 

 

1

 See Blumstein and Bouskila (1996) for more of a review of the literature on how animals process and filter sensory information, 

which affects the subjective salience of sensory stimuli. See Clark and Dukas (2003), Dukas (1998, 2002, 2004), and Roitblat (1987) 

for more extensive reviews of the literature on attentional processes and the consequences of limited attentional resources in animals.
Figure 3. Conceptual model of the potential responses of endangered and threatened species upon being exposed to an active seismic and electromechanical sources 

and the pathways by which those responses might affect the fitness of individual animals that have been exposed. See text in “Application of this Approach” and 

“Response Analyses” for an explanation of the model and supporting literature.
53

By incorporating a more expansive concept of “hearing,” our conceptual model departs from earlier 

models which have focused on the mechanical processes of “hearing” associated with structures in the ear 

that transduce sound pressure waves into vibrations and vibrations to electro-chemical impulses. That 

conception of hearing resulted in assessments that focus almost exclusively on active acoustic sources 

while discounting other acoustic stimuli associated with activities that marine animals might also perceive 

as relevant. That earlier conception of hearing also led to an almost singular focus on the intensity of the 

sound - its received level (in decibels) - as an assessment metric and noise-induced hearing loss as an 

assessment endpoint. 

Among other considerations, the earlier focus on received level and losses in hearing sensitivity failed to 

recognize several other variables that affect how animals are likely to respond to acoustic stimuli: 

1. “hearing” includes the cognitive processes an animal employs when it analyzes acoustic impulses 

(see Bregman 1990, Blumstein and Bouskila 1996, Hudspeth 1997, Yost 2007), which includes 

the processes animals employ to integrate and segregate sounds and auditory streams and the 

circumstances under which they are likely to devote attentional resources to an acoustic stimulus. 

2. animals can “decide” which acoustic cues they will focus on and their decision will reflect the 

salience of a cue, its spectral qualities, and the animal’s physiological and behavioral state when 

exposed to the cue. 

3. animals not only perceive the received level (in dB) of a sound source, they also perceive their 

distance from a sound source. Further, animals are more likely to devote attentional resources to 

sounds that are close than sounds that are distant. 

4. both received levels and the spectral qualities of sounds degrade over distance so the sound 

perceived by a distant receiver is not the same sound at the source. 

As a result of this shift in focus, we have to consider more than the received level of a particular low- or 

mid-frequency wave form and its effects on the sensitivity of an animal’s ear structure. We also have to 

distinguish between different auditory scenes; for example, animals will distinguish between sounds from 

a source that is moving away, sounds produced by a source that is approaching them, sounds from 

multiple sources that are all approaching, sounds from multiple sources that appear to be moving at 

random, etc. 

Animals would then combine their perception of the acoustic stimulus with their assessment of the 

auditory scene (which include other acoustic stimuli), their awareness of their behavioral state, 

physiological state, reproductive condition, and social circumstances to assess whether the acoustic 

stimulus poses a risk and the degree of risk it might pose, whether it is impairing their ability to 
54

communicate with conspecifics, whether it is impairing their ability to detect predators or prey, etc. We 

assume that animals would categorize an acoustic source differently if the source is moving towards its 

current position (or projected position), moving away from its current position, moving tangential to its 

current position, if the source is stationary, or if there are multiple acoustic sources it its auditory field. 

This process of “categorizing a stimulus” (Box B2 in Figure 3) lends meaning to a stimulus and places the 

animal in a position to decide whether and how to respond to the stimulus (Blumstein and Bouskila 

1996). How an animal categorizes a stimulus will determine the set of candidate responses that are 

appropriate in the circumstances. That is, we assume that animals that categorizes a stimulus as a 

“predatory cue” would invoke candidate responses that consisted of anti-predator behavior rather than 

foraging behavior (Bejder et al. 2009, Blumstein and Bouskila 1996). 

We then assume that animals apply one or more behavioral decision rules to the set of candidate 

responses that are appropriate to the acoustic stimulus as it has been classified (Box B3 in Figure 3). Our 

use of the term “behavioral decision rule” follows Blumstein and Bouskila (1996), Dill (1987), 

McFarland (1982), and Lima and Dill (1990) and is synonymous with the term “behavioral policy” of 

McNamara and Houston (1986): the process an animal applies to determine which specific behavior it 

will select from the set of behaviors that are appropriate to the auditory scene, given its physiological and 

behavioral state when exposed and its experience. Because we would never know the behavioral policy of 

an individual, free- ranging animal, we treat this policy as a probability distribution function that matches 

a particular response in the suite of candidate behavioral responses. 

Once an animal selects a behavioral response from a set of candidate behaviors, we assume that any 

change in behavioral state would represent a shift from an optimal behavioral state (or behavioral act) to a 

sub-optimal behavioral state (or behavioral act) as the animal responds to a stimulus such as acoustic 

sound sources. That selection of the sub-optimal behavioral state or act could be accompanied by 

canonical costs, which are reductions in the animal’s expected future reproductive success that would 

occur when an animal engages in suboptimal behavioral acts (McNamara and Houston 1986). 

Specifically, canonical costs represent a reduction in current and expected future reproductive success 

(which integrates survival and longevity with current and future reproductive success) that would occur 

when an animal engages in a sub-optimal rather than an optimal sequence of behavioral acts; given the

pre-existing physiological state of the animal in a finite time interval (Barnard and Hurrst 1996, Houston 

1993, McFarland and Sibly 1975, McNamara 1993, McNamara and Houston 1982, 1986, 1996; Nonacs 

2001). Canonical costs would generally result from changes in animals’ energy budgets (McEwen and 

Wingfield 2003, Moberg 2000; Romero 2004, Sapolsky 1990, 1997), time budgets (Frid and Dill 2002, 
55

Sutherland 1996), life history trade-offs (Cole 1954, Stearns 1992), changes in social interactions 

(Sutherland 1996), or combinations of these phenomena (see Box B4 in Figure 3). We assume that an 

animal would not incur a canonical cost if they adopted an optimal behavioral sequence (see McNamara 

and Houston 1986 for further treatment and discussion). 

This conceptual model does not require us to assume that animals exist in pristine environments; in those 

circumstances in which animals are regularly or chronically confronted with stress regimes that animals 

would adapt to by engaging in sub-optimal behavior, we assume that a change in behavior that resulted 

from exposure to a particular stressor or stress regime would either contribute to sub-optimal behavior or 

would cause animals to engage in behavior that is even further from optimal. 

Risk Analyses 

As discussed in the Introduction to this section, the final steps of our analyses -- establishing the risks 

those responses pose to endangered and threatened species or designated critical habitat -- normally begin 

by identifying the probable risks actions pose to listed individuals that are likely to be exposed to an 

action’s effects. Our analyses then integrate those individual’s risks to identify consequences to the 

populations those individuals represent. Our analyses conclude by determining the consequences of those 

population-level risks to the species those populations comprise. 

We measure risks to listed individuals using the concept of current or expected future reproductive 

success which, as we described in the preceding sub-section, integrate survival and longevity with current 

and future reproductive success. In particular, we examine the scientific and commercial data available to 

determine if an individual’s probable response to stressors produced by an Action would reasonably be 

expected to reduce the individual’s current or expected future reproductive success by increasing the 

individual’s likelihood of dying prematurely, having reduced longevity, increasing the age at which 

individuals become reproductively mature, reducing the age at which individuals stop reproducing, 

reducing the number of live births an individual produces during any reproductive bout, reducing the 

number of times an individual is likely to reproduce over the reproductive lifespan (in animals that 

reproduce multiple times), or causing an individual’s progeny to experience any of these phenomena. 

When individual animals would be expected to experience reductions in their current or expected future 

reproductive success, we would also expect those reductions to also reduce the abundance, reproduction 

rates, or growth rates (or increase variance in one or more of these rates) of the populations those 

individuals represent (see Stearns 1992). If we conclude that listed animals are not likely to experience 

reductions in their current or expected future reproductive success, we would conclude our assessment. 
56

If we conclude that listed animals are likely to experience reductions in their current or expected future 

reproductive success, we would integrate those individuals risks to determine if the number of individuals 

that experience reduced fitness (or the magnitude of any reductions) is likely to be sufficient to reduce the 

viability of the populations those individuals represent (measured using changes in the populations’ 

abundance, reproduction, spatial structure and connectivity, growth rates, or variance in these measures to 

make inferences about a population’s probability of becoming demographically, ecologically, or 

genetically extinct in 10, 25, 50, or 100 years). For this step of our analyses, we would rely on the 

population’s base condition (established in the Environmental Baseline and Status of Listed Resources

sections of this Opinion) as our point of reference. 

Our risk analyses normally conclude by determining whether changes in the viability of one or more 

population is or is not likely to be sufficient to reduce the viability of the species (measured using 

probability of demographic, ecological, or genetic extinction in 10, 25, 50, or 100 years) those 

populations comprise. For these analyses, we combine our knowledge of the patterns that accompanied 

the decline, collapse, or extinction of populations and species that have experienced these phenomena in 

the past as well as population viability models, if available. 

Our assessment is designed to establish that a decline, collapse, or extinction of an endangered or 

threatened species is not likely to occur; we do not conduct these analyses to establish that such an 

outcome is likely to occur. For this step of our analyses, we would also use the species’ status (established 

in the Status of the Species section of this Opinion) as our point of reference. 

For critical habitat our “destruction or adverse modification” determinations must be based on an action’s 

effects on the conservation value of habitat that has been designated as critical to threatened or 

endangered species. If an area encompassed in a critical habitat designation is likely to be exposed to the 

direct or indirect consequences of the proposed action on the natural environment, we ask if primary 

constituent elements included in the designation (if there are any) or physical, chemical, or biotic 

phenomena that give the designated area value for the conservation are likely to respond to that exposure. 

If primary constituent elements of designated critical habitat (or physical, chemical, or biotic phenomena 

that give the designated area value for the conservation of listed species) are likely to respond given 

exposure to the direct or indirect consequences of the proposed action on the natural environment, we ask 

if those responses are likely to be sufficient to reduce the quantity, quality, or availability of those 

constituent elements or physical, chemical, or biotic phenomena. 
57

If the quantity, quality, or availability of the primary constituent elements of the area of designated critical 

habitat (or physical, chemical, or biotic phenomena) are reduced, we ask if those reductions are likely to 

be sufficient to reduce the conservation value of the designated critical habitat for listed species in the 

action area. 

If the conservation value of designated critical habitat in an action area is reduced, the final step of our 

analyses asks if those reductions are likely to be sufficient to reduce the conservation value of the entire 

critical habitat designation. We use the conservation value of the entire designated critical habitat as our 

point of reference for this comparison. For example, if the designated critical habitat has limited current 

value or potential value for the conservation of listed species, the limited value is our point of reference 

for our assessment. 

Evidence Available for the Consultation

To conduct these analyses, we considered lines of evidence available through published and unpublished 

sources that represent evidence of adverse consequences or the absence of such consequences. A 

considerable body of scientific information on anthropogenic sound and its effects on marine mammals 

and other marine life has become available. Many investigators have studied the potential responses of 

marine mammals and other marine organisms to human-generated sounds in marine environments or have 

integrated and synthesized the results of these studies for example, Abgrall et al. 2008, Bowles et al. 

1994; Croll et al. 1999, 2001; Frankel and Clark 1998; Gisiner 1998, Gordon et al 2004; McCauley and 

Cato 2001; NRC 1994 1996, 2000, 2003, 2005; Norris 1994; OSPAR 2009; Reeves 1992; Richardson et 

al. 1995; Southall et al. 2007; Tyack 2000, 2007; Weilgart 2007; Wright et al. 2007; Tyack and Clark 

2000; Popper and Hastings 2009; Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012. To comply with our obligation to 

use the best scientific and commercial data available, we conducted additional searches to identify 

information relevant to the potential stressors and responses of marine mammals, sea turtles and fish 

species that may be affected by the proposed action to draw conclusions about the likely risks to the 

continued existence of these species. Despite the information that has become available, this assessment 

involves a large amount of uncertainty about the basic hearing capabilities of marine mammals; how 

marine mammals use sounds as environmental cues, how they perceive acoustic features of their 

environment; the importance of sound to the normal behavioral and social ecology of marine mammals; 

the mechanisms by which human-generated sounds affect the behavior and physiology (including the 

non-auditory physiology) of marine mammals, and the circumstances that are likely to produce outcomes 

that have adverse consequences for individual marine mammals and marine mammal populations. These 
58

same questions remain for sea turtles and fish species addressed in this consultation, however, there are 

even less studies available for these taxa. 

Treatment of “Cumulative Impacts” (in the sense of NEPA)

Several organizations have argued that previous biological opinions failed to consider the “cumulative 

impact” (in the NEPA sense of the term) of anthropogenic sound on the ocean environment and its 

organisms, particularly endangered and threatened species and critical habitat that has been designated for 

them (for example, see NRDC 2007 and Ocean Mammal Institute 2007). In each instance, we have had to 

explain how biological opinions consider “cumulative impacts” (in the NEPA sense of the term). 

The U.S. Council on Environmental Quality defined “cumulative impacts” (which we refer to as 

“cumulative effects” to distinguish between NEPA and ESA uses of the same term) as “the impact on the 

environment which results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, 

and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency (Federal or non-federal) or person 

undertakes such other actions” (40 CFR 1508.7). The effects analyses of biological opinions considers the 

“impacts” on listed species and designated critical habitat that result from the incremental impact of an 

action by identifying natural and anthropogenic stressors that affect endangered and threatened species 

throughout their range (the Status of the Species) and within an Action Area (the Environmental Baseline, 

which articulate the pre-existing impacts of activities that occur in an Action Area, including the past, 

contemporaneous, and future impacts of those activities). We assess the effects of a proposed action by 

adding their direct and indirect effects to the impacts of the activities we identify in an Environmental 

Baseline (50 CFR 402.02), in light of the impacts of the status of the listed species and designated critical 

habitat throughout their range; as a result, the results of our effects analyses are similar to those contained 

in the “cumulative impact” sections of NEPA documents. 

A Brief Background on Sound

Sound is a wave of pressure variations propagating through a medium (for this consultation, the sounds 

generated by seismic and electromechanical equipment proparates through marine water as its medium). 

Pressure variations are created by compressing and relaxing the medium. Sound measurements can be 

expressed in two forms: intensity and pressure. Acoustic intensity is the average rate of energy 

transmitted through a unit area in a specified direction and is expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2). 

Acoustic intensity is rarely measured directly, it is derived from ratios of pressures; the standard reference 

pressure for underwater sound is 1 microPascal (Pa); for airborne sound, the standard reference pressure 

is 20 Pa (Richardson et al 1995a). 
59

Acousticians have adopted a logarithmic scale for sound intensities, which is denoted in decibels (dB). 

Decibel measurements represent the ratio between a measured pressure value and a reference pressure 

value (in this case 1 Pa or, for airborne sound, 20 Pa.). The logarithmic nature of the scale means that 

each 10 dB increase is a ten-fold increase in power (e.g., 20 dB is a 100-fold increase, 30 dB is a 1,000-

fold increase). The term “sound pressure level” implies a decibel measure and a reference pressure that is 

used as the denominator of the ratio. Throughout this Opinion, we use 1 microPascal (denoted re: 1Pa) 

as a standard reference pressure unless noted otherwise. 

It is important to note that decibels underwater and decibels in air are not the same and cannot be directly 

compared. Because of the different densities of air and water and the different decibel standards in water 

and air, a sound with the same intensity (i.e., power) in air and in water would be approximately 63 dB 

quieter in air. 

Sound frequency is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (abbreviated Hz), and is analogous to musical 

pitch; high-pitched sounds contain high frequencies and low-pitched sounds contain low frequencies. 

Natural sounds in the ocean span a huge range of frequencies: from earthquake noise at 5 Hz to harbor 

porpoise clicks at 150,000 Hz. These sounds are so low or so high in pitch that humans cannot even hear 

them; acousticians call these infrasonic and ultrasonic sounds, respectively. A single sound may be made 

up of many different frequencies together. Sounds made up of only a small range of frequencies are called 

“narrowband”, and sounds with a broad range of frequencies are called “broadband”; airguns are an 

example of a broadband sound source and sonars are an example of a narrowband sound source. 

When considering the influence of various kinds of noise on the marine environment, it is necessary to 

understand that different kinds of marine life are sensitive to different frequencies of sound. Most 

dolphins, for instance, have excellent hearing at very high frequencies between 10,000 and 100,000 Hz. 

Their sensitivity at lower frequencies below 1000 Hz, however, is quite poor. On the other hand, the 

hearing sensitivity of most sea turtles appears to be best at frequencies between about 200 Hz and 700 Hz. 

As a result, sea turtles might be expected to suffer more harmful effects from low frequency noise than 

would dolphins. 

When sound travels away from its source, its loudness decreases as the distance traveled by the sound 

increases. Thus, the loudness of a sound at its source is higher than the loudness of that same sound a 

kilometer distant. Acousticians often refer to the loudness of a sound at its source as the source level and 

the loudness of sound elsewhere as the received level. For example, a humpback whale 3 kilometers from 

an airgun that has a source level of 230 dB may only be exposed to sound that is 160 dB loud. As a result, 
60

it is important not to confuse source levels and received levels when discussing the loudness of sound in 

the ocean. 

As sound moves away from a source, its propagation in water is influenced by various physical 

characteristics, including water temperature, depth, salinity, and surface and bottom properties that cause 

refraction, reflection, absorption, and scattering of sound waves. Oceans are not homogeneous and the 

contribution of each of these individual factors is extremely complex and interrelated. Sound speed in 

seawater is generally about 1,500 meters per second (5,000 feet per second) although this speed varies 

with water density, which is affected by water temperature, salinity (the amount of salt in the water), and 

depth (pressure). The speed of sound increases as temperature and depth (pressure), and to a lesser extent, 

salinity, increase. The variation of sound speed with depth of the water is generally presented by a “sound 

speed profile,” which varies with geographic latitude, season, and time of day. 

Sound tends to follow many paths through the ocean, so that a listener may hear multiple, delayed copies 

of transmitted signals (Richardson et al 1995a). Echoes are a familiar example of this phenomenon in air. 

In order to determine what the paths of sound transmission are, one rule is to seek paths that deliver the 

sound to the receiver the fastest. If the speed of sound were constant throughout the ocean, acoustic rays 

would consist of straight-line segments, with reflections off the surface and the bottom. However, because 

the speed of sound varies in the ocean, most acoustic rays do not follow a straight path. 

As sound travels through the ocean, the intensity associated with the wave front diminishes, or attenuates. 

In shallow waters of coastal regions and on continental shelves, sound speed profiles become influenced 

by surface heating and cooling, salinity changes, and water currents. As a result, these profiles tend to be 

irregular and unpredictable, and contain numerous gradients that last over short time and space scales. 

This decrease in intensity is referred to as propagation loss, also commonly called transmission loss. In 

general, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sound intensity decreases as the square of the range due to 

simple spherical spreading. In other words, a source level of 235 dB will have decreased in intensity to a 

received level of 175 dB after about 914 meters (1,000 yards). 
61

Action Area

The Action Area for this biological opinion encompasses the marine and coastal waters off the states of 

New Jersey to Delaware and within and adjacent to BOEM’s Mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas 

(See Figure 4). The Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas includes federal waters from the mouth of 

the Delaware River (38o51’N) to south of Cape Canaveral, Florida (28o N), from the coastline (excluding 

estuaries) to 350 nm (638 km) from shore See Figure 2). Within the Action Area, activities conducted 

under the 3 program areas (oil and gas, renewable energy and marine minerals) can occur within the 

following areas: 

 Oil and gas exploration and development -- these surveys and sampling activities are expected to 

occur anywhere within federal waters from 3 to 350 nm (6458 km) from shore;

 Renewable energy development --these surveys are expected to occur within 25 nmi (46.3 km) 

from shore or within 100 m (328 ft) of water;

 Marine mineral activities (e.g., sand and gravel mining) -- these activities are expected to occur 

within 10-30 m depths (33 to 98 ft) mostly within existing borrow areas along the eastern 

seaboard but could occur within previously undiscovered borrow areas; and 

 Atlantic Wind Connection Transmission Cable -- these HRG surveys are expected to occur within 

waters within 25 nmi (46.3 km) from shore or within 100 m (328 ft) of water from New Jersey 

to Virginia.
62

Figure 4: Action Area Encompassing the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas and adjacent state and 

Federal Waters. For Atlantic Wind Transmission Cable see Figure 3. 
63

Status of Listed Resources 

NMFS has determined that the following species and critical habitat designations may occur in this action 

area for this consultation: 

Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus Endangered 

Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Endangered 

Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Endangered 

North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis Endangered 

Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis Endangered 

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus Endangered 

Green sea turtle Chelonia mydas Threatened 

Hawksbill sea turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Endangered 

Kemp’s ridley sea turtle Lepidochelys kempii Endangered 

Leatherback sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea Endangered 

Loggerhead sea turtle 

(Northwest Atlantic) Caretta caretta Threatened

Smalltooth sawfish Pristis pectinata Endangered 

Shortnose sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum Endangered 

Atlantic sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus Endangered/Threatened 

Critical habitat has also been designated for the North Atlantic right whale in the Atlantic Ocean in Cape 

Cod Bay, Great South Channel, and off Georgia and Florida (50 CFR 226.203). Critical habitat for green 

sea turtles has been designated on Culebra Island, Puerto Rico (50 CFR 226.208), for hawksbill sea turtles 

on Mona and Monita Islands, Puerto Rico (50 CFR 226.209), and for leatherback sea turtles on Sandy 

Point on Saint Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands (50 CFR 226.207). 

Species Not Considered Further in this Opinion

As described in the Approach to the Assessment section of this Opinion, NMFS uses two criteria to 

identify those endangered or threatened species or critical habitat that are not likely to be adversely 

affected by the proposed G&G activities in the Action Area from 2013 to 2020. The first criterion was 

exposure or some reasonable expectation of a co-occurrence between one or more potential stressors 

associated with G&G activities and a particular listed species or designated critical habitat: if we conclude 

that a listed species or designated critical habitat is not likely to be exposed to G&G activities, we must 
64

also conclude that the species or critical habitat is not likely to be adversely affected by those activities. 

The second criterion is the probability of a response given exposure, which considers susceptibility: 

species or elements of critical habitat that may be exposed to sound transmissions from seismic or 

electromechanical equipment, for example, but are likely to be unaffected by the transmissions (at sound 

pressure levels or frequencies they are likely to be exposed to) are also not likely to be adversely affected 

by use of the equipment. We applied these criteria to the species listed at the beginning of this section; 

this subsection summarizes the results of those evaluations. 

Smalltooth Sawfish 

Smalltooth sawfish are tropical, marine and estuarine fish that inhabit shallow waters of inshore bars, 

mangrove edges, and seagrass beds, although they are occasionally found in deeper coastal waters (NMFS 

2000). Historically, this species was common in the shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico and along the 

eastern seaboard of the United States to North Carolina (rare sightings of this sawfish occurred as far 

north as New York). Their current range is limited to peninsular Florida, where they are only found with 

any regularity off the extreme southern portion of the peninsula (off Everglades National Park and Florida 

Bay). Because of their current distribution, smalltooth sawfish might only be exposed to the G&G 

activities proposed off the coast of Florida; however, the Action Area remains north of smalltooth sawfish 

primary distribution. Therefore, smalltooth sawfish are not likely to be exposed to the proposed G&G 

activities, and, therefore, are not likely to be adversely affected by the proposed activities. 

Shortnose Sturgeon 

Shortnose sturgeon occur along the Atlantic Coast of North America, from the St. John River in Canada 

to the St. Johns River in Florida. Shortnose sturgeon are known to occur at depths of up to 30m (98.4 ft) 

but are generally found in waters less than 20m (65.5 ft) (Dadswell et al. 1984; Dadswell 1979), however, 

a minimum depth of 0.6m (approximately 2 feet) is necessary for the unimpeded swimming by adults. 

Because they rarely leave their natal rivers, Kieffer and Kynard (1993) considered shortnose sturgeon to 

be freshwater amphidromous (i.e. adults spawn in freshwater but regularly enter saltwater habitats during 

their life). Telemetry data, however, do indicate that shortnose sturgeon do make localized coastal 

migrations although these migrations are not the significant marine migrations seen in Atlantic sturgeon. 

Interbasin movements have been documented among rivers within the Gulf of Maine (GOM) and between 

the GOM and the Merrimack and between the Connecticut and Hudson rivers. These rivers are outside 

the Action Area for this consultation. Within the Action Area interbasin transfers have been document 

between the Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay and among rivers in the Southeast. Genetic analyses 
65

suggest that individual shortnose sturgeon migrate between some of these populations each generation 

(Quattro et al. 2002, Wirgin et al. 2005). At the northern end of the species’ distribution, the highest rate 

of gene flow (which suggests migration) occurs between the Kennebec and Androscoggin Rivers which 

empty into the Gulf of Maine. At the southern end of the species’ distribution, populations south of the 

Pee Dee River within North and South Carolina appear to exchange between 1 and 10 individuals per 

generation (30 years), with the highest rates of exchange within the Ogeechee River in Georgia and the 

Delaware River (Wirgin et al. 2005). Wirgin et al. (2005) concluded that rivers separated by more than 

400 km were connected by very little migration while rivers separated by no more than 20 km (such as 

the rivers flowing into coastal South Carolina) would experience high migration rates. At the geographic 

center of the shortnose sturgeon range, there is a 400 km stretch of river with no known populations 

occurring from the Delaware River, New Jersey to Cape Fear River, North Carolina (Kynard 1997). The 

shortnose sturgeon that are known to occur in the Chesapeake Bay may be transients from the Delaware 

River via the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal (Skjeveland et al. 2000, Welsh et al. 2002) or remnants of 

a population in the Potomac River and not the result of regular coastal migrations. 

Based on the distribution of shortnose sturgeon populations, the low expected rate of migrations outside 

of natal rivers and preference for shallow water, the probability of shortnose sturgeon exposure to G&G 

activities within the Action Area is expected to be so low as to be discountable. As such shortnose 

sturgeon are not likely to be adversely affected by the proposed activities and we will not consider them 

further in this Opinion. 

Critical Habitat

Critical habitat has also been designated for the North Atlantic right whale in Cape Cod Bay and the Great 

South Channel off Massachusetts, and off Georgia and Florida (50 CFR 226.203). Critical habitat for 

green sea turtles has been designated on Culebra Island, Puerto Rico (50 CFR226.208), for hawksbill sea 

turtles on Mona and Monita Islands, Puerto Rico (50 CFR 226.209), and for leatherback sea turtles on 

Sandy Point on Saint Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands (50 CFR 226.207). 

Based on the best scientific and commercial data available, critical habitat that has been designated for 

North Atlantic right whales off the coast of Massachusetts, as well as critical habitat designated for green 

sea turtles, hawksbill sea turtles, and leatherback sea turtles is outside of the area that might be exposed to 

the proposed G&G activities. As a result, we conclude that the proposed action will not affect these areas 

of designated critical habitat. Therefore, this critical habitat will not be considered further in this opinion. 
66

Critical habitat has been designated for North Atlantic right whales in the southeast U.S. (off Georgia and 

Florida) encompassing an area extending from 31o15 N to 30o15 N from the coast out to 28 km (15 nmi), 

and the area from 28o00 N to 30o15 N from the coast out to 9 km (5 nm) to protect calving and nursing 

right whales and their young. 

Under the proposed action considered in this consultation, no surveys using airguns would be authorized 

from November 15 to April 15, annually, within southeast right whale critical habitat when right whales 

are present, to limit the effects of the proposed airgun survey activities on North Atlantic right whales. 

For non-airgun HRG surveys within southeast North Atlantic right whale critical habitat, BOEM proposes 

to authorize surveys using electromechanical equipment during right whale calving and nursing season. 

These surveys would generally operate at frequencies above the audibility range of North Atlantic right 

whales (30 kHz). Only surveys BOEM determines to be critical to program activities can be authorized to 

use frequencies below 30 kHz. This determination will consider whether survey planning could have 

scheduled survey activities outside of the calving and nursing season and how the particular survey fills a 

critical need of the program. For these surveys, BOEM will only authorize the use of sound source during 

daylight hours (Marine Minerals Program) or use of sound sources above 200 kHz at night and sound 

sources within the audibility range of North Atlantic right whales during daylight hours (Renewable 

Energy Program). Only 1-2 surveys that may require the use of sound sources below 30 kHz are 

anticipated to occur per year within North Atlantic right whale critical habitat in the southeast during 

calving and nursing season. 

Neither seismic airgun nor non-airgun HRG survey activities affect the essential features (temperatures, 

bathymetry and calm water) of this critical habitat; therefore North Atlantic right whale critical habitat 

will not be affected by the proposed G&G activities and we will not consider southeastern right whale 

critical habitat further in this Opinion. We will, however, consider further in this opinion the exposure, 

responses and the risks of those responses given exposure to individual North Atlantic right whales that 

occur within critical habitat during survey activities. 

Introduction to Status of Listed Species

The rest of this section of our Opinion consists of narratives for each of the threatened and endangered 

species that occur in the Action Area and that may be adversely affected by the proposed G&G activities 

along the Atlantic Coast of the United States from 2013 to 2020. In each narrative, we present a summary 

of information on the distribution and population structure of each species to provide a foundation for the 

exposure analyses that appear later in this Opinion. Then we summarize information on the threats to the 
67

species and the species’ status given those threats to provide points of reference for the jeopardy 

determinations we make later in this Opinion. That is, we rely on a species’ status and trend to determine 

whether or not an action’s direct or indirect effects are likely to increase the species’ probability of 

becoming extinct. 

After the Status subsection of each narrative, we present information on the diving and social behavior of 

the different species because that behavior helps determine whether monitoring efforts during G&G 

activities are likely to detect each species. We also summarize information on the vocalizations and 

hearing of the different species because that background information lays the foundation for our 

assessment of how the different species are likely to respond to sounds produced by G&G activities. 

More detailed background information on the status of these species and critical habitat can be found in a 

number of published documents including status reviews and recovery plans for blue whales (NMFS 

1998a), fin whales (NMFS 2007, 2010a), fin and sei whale (NMFS 1998b, NMFS 2007, NMFS 2012), 

humpback whales (NMFS 1991a), sperm whales (NMFS 2010b) and a status report on large whales 

prepared by Perry et al. (1999). Sea turtle background information can be found in recovery plans 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1998d, and 1998e) 5-year reviews (NMFS 2007) and status 

reviews (Conant et al 2009). More detailed information on Atlantic sturgeon can be found in the status 

review (Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team. 2007). 

For the following species, the term “population” refers to groups of individuals whose patterns of increase 

or decrease in abundance over time are determined by internal dynamics (births resulting from sexual 

interactions between individuals in the group and deaths of those individuals) rather than external 

dynamics (immigration or emigration). This definition is a reformulation of definitions articulated by 

Cole (1957), Futuyma (1986) and Wells and Richmond (1995) and is more restrictive than those uses of 

‘population’ that refer to groups of individuals that co-occur in space and time but do not have internal 

dynamics that determine whether the size of the group increases or decreases over time (see review by 

Wells and Richmond 1995). The definition we apply is important to section 7 consultations because such 

concepts as “population decline”, “population collapse”, “population extinction”, and “population 

recovery” apply to the restrictive definition of “population” but do not explicitly apply to alternative 

definitions. As a result, we do not treat the different whale “stocks” recognized by the International 

Whaling Commission or other authorities as populations unless those distinctions were clearly based on 

demographic criteria. We do, however, acknowledge those “stock” distinctions in these narratives. 
68

Blue Whale 

Distribution 

Blue whales are found along the coastal shelves of North America and South America (Rice 1974; 

Donovan 1984; Clarke 1980) in the North Pacific Ocean. In the North Pacific Ocean, blue whales occur 

in summer foraging areas in the Chukchi Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, around the Aleutian Islands, and the 

Gulf of Alaska; in the eastern Pacific, they occur south to California; in the western Pacific, they occur 

south to Japan. Blue whales in the eastern Pacific winter from California south; in the western Pacific, 

they winter from the Sea of Japan, the East China and Yellow Seas, and the Philippine Sea (Gambell 

1985). 

In the western North Atlantic Ocean, blue whales are found from the Arctic to at least the mid-latitude 

waters of the North Atlantic (CeTAP 1982, Wenzel et al.1988, Yochem and Leatherwood 1985, Gagnon 

and Clark 1993). Blue whales have been observed frequently off eastern Canada, particularly in waters 

off Newfoundland, during the winter. In the summer month, they have been observed in Davis Strait 

(Mansfield 1985), the Gulf of St. Lawrence (from the north shore of the St. Lawrence River estuary to the 

Strait of Belle Isle), and off eastern Nova Scotia (Sears et al. 1987). In the eastern North Atlantic Ocean, 

blue whales have been observed off the Azores Islands, although Reiner et al. (1993) do not consider 

them common in that area. 

In 1992, the U.S. Navy conducted an extensive acoustic survey of the North Atlantic using the Integrated 

Underwater Surveillance System’s fixed acoustic array system (Clark 1995). Concentrations of blue 

whale sounds were detected in the Grand Banks off Newfoundland and west of the British Isles. In the 

lower latitudes, one blue whale was tracked acoustically for 43 days, during which time the animal 

traveled 1400 nautical miles around the western North Atlantic from waters northeast of Bermuda to the 

southwest and west of Bermuda (Gagnon and Clark 1993). 

In the North Pacific Ocean, blue whales have been recorded off the island of Oahu in the main Hawaiian 

Islands and off Midway Island in the western edge of the Hawaiian Archipelago (Barlow et al. 1994b; 

Northrop et al. 1971; Thompson and Friedl 1982), although blue whales are rarely sighted in Hawaiian 

waters and have not been reported to strand in the Hawaiian Islands. Nishiwaki (1966) reported that blue 

whales occur in the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska, although blue whales have not been 

observed off Alaska since 1987 (Leatherwood et al. 1982; Stewart et al. 1987; Forney and Brownell 

1996). No distributional information exists for the western region of the North Pacific. 
69

In the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, the Costa Rica Dome appears to be important for blue whales based 

on the high density of prey (euphausiids) available in the Dome and the number of blue whales that 

appear to reside there (Reilly and Thayer 1990). Blue whales have been sighted in the Dome area in every 

season of the year, although their numbers appear to be highest from June through November.

Blue whales have also been reported year-round in the northern Indian Ocean, with sightings in the Gulf 

of Aden, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and across the Bay of Bengal to Burma and the Strait of Malacca 

(Mizroch et al. 1984). The migratory movements of these whales are unknown. 

Historical catch records suggest that “true” blue whales and “pygmy” blue whale (B. m. brevicauda) may 

be geographically distinct (Brownell and Donaghue 1994, Kato et al. 1995). The distribution of the 

“pygmy” blue whale is north of the Antarctic Convergence, while that of the “true” blue whale is south of 

the Convergence in the austral summer (Kato et al. 1995). “True” blue whales occur mainly in the higher 

latitudes, where their distribution in mid-summer overlaps with that of the minke whale (Balaenoptera 

acutorostrata). During austral summers, “true” blue whales are found close to edge of Antarctic ice 

(south of 58° S) with concentrations between 60°-80° E and 66°-70° S (Kasamatsu et al. 1996). 

Population Structure 

At least three subspecies of blue whales have been identified based on body size and geographic 

distribution (B. musculus intermedia, which occurs in the higher latitudes of the Southern Oceans, B. m. 

musculus, which occurs in the Northern Hemisphere, and B. m. brevicauda which occurs in the midlatitude waters of the southern Indian Ocean and north of the Antarctic convergence), but this consultation 

will treat them as a single entity. Readers who are interested in these subspecies will find more 

information in Gilpatrick et al. (1997), Kato et al. (1995), Omura et al. (1970) and Ichihara (1966). 

In addition to these subspecies, the International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee has 

formally recognized one blue whale population in the North Pacific (Donovan 1991), although there is 

increasing evidence that there may be more than one blue whale population in the Pacific Ocean 

(Gilpatrick et al. 1997, Barlow et al. 1995, Mizroch et al. 1984a, Ohsumi and Wada 1974). For example, 

studies of the blue whales that winter off Baja California and in the Gulf of California suggest that these 

whales are morphologically distinct from blue whales of the western and central North Pacific (Gilpatrick 

et al. 1997), although these differences might result from differences in the productivity of their foraging 

areas more than genetic differences (the southern whales forage off California; Sears et al.1987; Barlow 

et al.1997; Calambokidis et al. 1990). 
70

A population or “stock” of endangered blue whales occurs in waters surrounding the Hawaiian 

archipelago (from the main Hawaiian Islands west to at least Midway Island), although blue whales are 

rarely reported from Hawaiian waters. The only reliable report of this species in the central North Pacific 

was a sighting made from a scientific research vessel about 400 km northeast of Hawai’i in January 1964 

(NMFS 1998). However, acoustic monitoring has recorded blue whales off Oahu and the Midway Islands 

much more recently (Barlow et al. 1994, McDonald and Fox 1999, Northrop et al. 1971; Thompson and 

Friedl 1982). 

The recordings made off Oahu showed bimodal peaks throughout the year, suggesting that the animals 

were migrating into the area during summer and winter (Thompson and Friedl 1982; McDonald and Fox 

1999). Twelve aerial surveys were flown within 25 nm2 of the main Hawaiian Islands from 1993-1998 

and no blue whales were sighted. Nevertheless, blue whale vocalizations that have been recorded in these 

waters suggest that the occurrence of blue whales in these waters may be higher than blue whale 

sightings. There are no reports of blue whales stranding in Hawaiian waters. 

The International Whaling Commission also groups all of the blue whales in the North Atlantic Ocean 

into one “stock” and groups blue whales in the Southern Hemisphere into six “stocks” (Donovan 1991), 

which are presumed to follow the feeding distribution of the whales. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Natural causes of mortality in blue whales are largely unknown, but probably include 

predation and disease (not necessarily in their order of importance). Blue whales are known to become 

infected with the nematode Carricauda boopis (Baylis 1920), which are also believed to have caused fin 

whales to die as a result of renal failure (Lambertsen 1986; see additional discussion under Fin whales). 

Killer whales and sharks are also known to attack, injure, and kill very young or sick fin and humpback 

whale and probably hunt blue whales as well (Perry et al. 1999). 

Anthropogenic threats. Two human activities are known to threaten blue whales: whaling and shipping. 

Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every population of blue whales and was 

ultimately responsible for listing blue whales as an endangered species. As early as the mid-seventeenth 

century, the Japanese were capturing blue, fin, and other large whales using a fairly primitive open-water 

netting technique (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982, Cherfas 1989). In 1864, explosive harpoons and steampowered catcher boats were introduced in Norway, allowing the large-scale exploitation of previously 

unobtainable whale species. Before fin whales became the focus of whaling operations, populations of 

blue whales had already become commercially extinct (IWC 1995). 
71

From 1910 to 1965, whalers killed about 9,500 blue whales in the North Pacific Ocean (NMFS 1998). 

Although the International Whaling Commission banned commercial whaling in the North Pacific in 

1966, Soviet whaling fleets continued to hunt blue whales in the North Pacific for several years after the 

ban. Surveys conducted in these former-whaling areas in the 1980s and 1990s failed to find any blue 

whales (Forney and Brownell 1996). By 1967, Soviet scientists wrote that blue whales in the North 

Pacific Ocean (including the eastern Bering Sea and Prince William Sound) had been so overharvested by 

Soviet whaling fleets that some scientists concluded that any additional harvests were certain to cause the 

species to become extinct in the North Pacific (Latishev 2007). As its legacy, whaling has reduced blue 

whales to a fraction of their historic population size and, as a result, makes it easier for other human 

activities to push blue whales closer to extinction. Otherwise, whaling currently does not threaten blue 

whale populations. 

In the Eastern North Pacific, ship strikes were implicated in the deaths of five blue whales, from 2004-

2008 (Caretta et al. 2011). Four of these deaths occurred in 2007, the highest number recorded for any 

year. During 2004-2008, there were an additional eight injuries of unidentified large whales attributed to 

ship strikes. Several blue whales have been photographed in California with large gashes in their dorsal 

surface that appear to be from ship strikes (J. Calambokidis, pers. comm.). Blue whale mortality and 

injuries attributed to ship strikes in California waters averaged 1.0 per year for 2004-2008. Additional 

mortality from ship strikes probably goes unreported because the whales do not strand or, if they do, they 

do not always have obvious signs of trauma. Studies have shown that blue whales respond to approaching 

ships in a variety of ways, depending on the behavior of the animals at the time of approach, and speed 

and direction of the approaching vessel. While feeding, blue whales react less rapidly and with less 

obvious avoidance behavior than whales that are not feeding (Sears et al. 1983). Within the St. Lawrence 

Estuary, blue whales are believed to be affected by large amounts of recreational and commercial vessel 

traffic. Blue whales in the St. Lawrence appeared more likely to react to these vessels when boats made 

fast, erratic approaches or sudden changes in direction or speed (Edds and Macfarlane 1987, Macfarlane 

1981). No confirmed ship strikes of blue whales have been recorded in the North Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico between 2006 and 2010 (Henry et al. 2012). 

Status 

Blue whales were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1973. Blue whales are listed as endangered on 

the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (Baillie and Groombridge 1996). They are also protected by 

the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna and the MMPA. 

Critical habitat has not been designated for blue whales. 
72

It is difficult to assess the current status of blue whales because (1) there is no general agreement on the 

size of the blue whale population prior to whaling and (2) estimates of the current size of the different 

blue whale populations vary widely. We may never know the size of the blue whale population prior to 

whaling, although some authors have concluded that their population numbers about 200,000 animals 

before whaling. Similarly, estimates of the global abundance of blue whales are uncertain. Since the 

cessation of whaling, the global population of blue whales has been estimated to range from 11,200 to 

13,000 animals (Maser et al. 1981; U. S. Department of Commerce 1983). These estimates, however, are 

more than 20 years old. 

A lot of uncertainty surrounds estimates of blue whale abundance in the North Pacific Ocean. Barlow 

(1994) estimated the North Pacific population of blue whales to number between 1,400 and 1,900. Barlow 

and Calambokidis (1995) estimated the abundance of blue whales off California at 2,200 individuals. 

Wade and Gerrodette (1993) and Barlow et al. (1997) estimated there were a minimum of 3,300 blue 

whales in the North Pacific Ocean in the 1990s. Most recently, Calambokidis et al. (2010) estimated that 

the eastern North Pacific stock size is increasing at approximately 3% per year. 

The size of the blue whale population in the North Atlantic is also uncertain. The population has been 

estimated to number from a few hundred individuals (Allen 1970; Mitchell 1974) to 1,000 to 2,000 

individuals (Sigurjónsson 1995). Gambell (1976) estimated that there were between 1,100 and 1,500 blue 

whales in the North Atlantic before whaling began and Braham (1991) estimated there were between 100 

and 555 blue whales in the North Atlantic during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Sears et al. (1987) 

identified over 300 individual blue whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which provides a minimum 

estimate for their population in the North Atlantic, and some speculate that there may be between 400 and 

600 blue whales in the western North Atlantic (Mitchell 1974, Waring et al. 2011). Sigurjónsson and 

Gunnlaugson (1990) concluded that the blue whale population had been increasing since the late 1950s 

and argued that the blue whale population off western and southwestern Iceland had increased at an 

annual rate of about 5 percent between 1969 and 1988, although the level of confidence we can place in 

these estimates is low. 

Estimates of the number of blue whales in the Southern Hemisphere range from 5,000 to 6,000 (review by 

Yochem and Leatherwood 1985) with an average rate of increase that has been estimated at between 4 

and 5 percent per year. Butterworth et al. (1993), however, estimated the Antarctic population at 710 

individuals. More recently, Stern (2001) estimated the blue whale population in the Southern Ocean at 

between 400 and 1,400 animals (C.V. 0.4). The pygmy blue whale population has been estimated at 6,000 

individuals (Yochem and Leatherwood 1985). 
73

The information available on the status and trend of blue whales do not allow us to reach any conclusions 

about the extinction risks facing blue whales as a species, or particular populations of blue whales. With 

the limited data available on blue whales, we do not know whether these whales exist at population sizes 

large enough to avoid demographic phenomena that are known to increase the extinction probability of 

species that exist as “small” populations (that is, “small” populations experience phenomena such as 

demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and Allee effects, among others, that cause their 

population size to become a threat in and of itself) or if blue whales are threatened more by exogenous 

threats such as anthropogenic activities (primarily whaling, entanglement, and ship strikes) or natural 

phenomena (such as disease, predation, or changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey in 

response to changing climate). 

Diving and Social Behavior 

Generally, blue whales make 5-20 shallow dives at 12-20 second intervals followed by a deep dive of 3-

30 minutes (Mackintosh 1965; Leatherwood et al. 1976; Maser et al. 1981; Yochem and Leatherwood 

1985; Strong 1990; Croll et al. 1999). Croll et al. (1999) found that the dive depths of blue whales 

foraging off the coast of California during the day averaged 132 m (433 ft) with a maximum recorded 

depth of 204 m (672 ft) and a mean dive duration of 7.2 minutes. Nighttime dives are generally less than 

50 m (165 ft) in depth (Croll et al. 1999).

Blue whales are usually found swimming alone or in groups of two or three (Ruud 1956, Slijper 1962, 

Nemoto 1964, Mackintosh 1965, Pike and MacAskie 1969, Aguayo 1974). However, larger foraging 

aggregations and aggregations mixed with other species like fin whales are regularly reported 

(Schoenherr 1991, Fiedler et al. 1998). Little is known of the mating behavior of blue whales.

Vocalizations and Hearing 

The vocalizations that have been identified for blue whales include a variety of sounds described as low 

frequency moans or long pulses (Cummings and Thompson 1971, 1977; Edds 1982, Thompson and 

Friedl 1982; Edds-Walton 1997). Blue whales produce a variety of low frequency sounds in the 10-100 

Hz band (Cummings and Thompson 1971, Edds 1982, Thompson and Friedl 1982, McDonald et al. 1995, 

Clark and Fristrup 1997, Rivers 1997). The most typical signals are very long, patterned sequences of 

tonal infrasonic sounds in the 15-40 Hz range. The sounds last several tens of seconds. Estimated source 

levels are as high as 180-190 dB (Cummings and Thompson 1971). Ketten (1997) reports the frequencies 

of maximum energy between 12 and 18 Hz. In temperate waters, intense bouts of long patterned sounds 

are very common from fall through spring, but these also occur to a lesser extent during the summer in 
74

high latitude feeding areas. Short sequences of rapid calls in the 30-90 Hz band are associated with 

animals in social groups. The seasonality and structure of long patterned sounds suggest that these sounds 

are male displays for attracting females, competing with other males, or both. The context for the 30-90 

Hz calls suggests that they are communicative but not related to a reproductive function. Vocalizations 

attributed to blue whales have been recorded in presumed foraging areas, along migration routes, and 

during the presumed breeding season (Beamish and Mitchell 1971; Cummings and Thompson 1971, 

1977, 1994; Cummings and Fish 1972; Thompson et al. 1996; Rivers 1997; Tyack and Clark 1997; Clark 

et al. 1998). 

Blue whale moans within the low frequency range of 12.5-200 Hz, with pulse duration up to 36 seconds, 

have been recorded off Chile (Cummings and Thompson 1971). A short, 390 Hz pulse also is produced 

during the moan. One estimate of the overall source level was as high as 188 dB, with most energy in the 

1/3-octave bands centered at 20, 25, and 31.5 Hz, and also included secondary components estimates near 

50 and 63 Hz (Cummings and Thompson 1971). 

Direct studies of large whale hearing have not been conducted for most species of large whales, but it is 

assumed that they can hear the same frequencies that they produce (low) and are likely most sensitive to 

that frequency range (D. R. Ketten, 1997; Richardson, Jr., Malme, & Thomson, 1995). A more recent 

study involving blue whales off California observed responses to mid-frequency sonar signals in the 1-8 

kHz range (Melcón et al 2012). This study challenges our assumptions about the hearing ranges of large 

whales. 

As with other vocalizations produced by baleen whales, the function of blue whale vocalizations is 

unknown, although there are numerous hypotheses (which include: maintenance of inter-individual 

distance, species and individual recognition, contextual information transmission, maintenance of social 

organization, location of topographic features, and location of prey resources; see the review by 

Thompson et al. 1992 for more information on these hypotheses). Responses to conspecific sounds have 

been demonstrated in a number of mysticetes, and there is no reason to believe that blue whales do not 

communicate similarly (Edds-Walton 1997). The low-frequency sounds produced by blue whales can, in 

theory, travel long distances, and it is possible that such long-distance communication occurs (Payne and 

Webb 1971, Edds-Walton 1997). The long-range sounds may also be used for echolocation in orientation 

or navigation (Tyack 1999). 

Cetaceans have an auditory anatomy that follows the basic mammalian pattern, with some modifications 

to adapt to the demands of hearing in the sea. The typical mammalian ear is divided into the outer ear, 
75

middle ear, and inner ear. The outer ear is separated from the inner ear by the tympanic membrane, or 

eardrum. In terrestrial mammals, the outer ear, eardrum, and middle ear function to transmit airborne 

sound to the inner ear, where the sound is detected in a fluid. Since cetaceans already live in a fluid 

medium, they do not require this matching, and thus do not have an air-filled external ear canal. The inner 

ear is where sound energy is converted into neural signals that are transmitted to the central nervous 

system via the auditory nerve. Acoustic energy causes the basilar membrane in the cochlea to vibrate. 

Sensory cells at different positions along the basilar membrane are excited by different frequencies of 

sound (Tyack 1999). Baleen whales have inner ears that appear to be specialized for low-frequency 

hearing. In a study of the morphology of the mysticete auditory apparatus, Ketten (1997) hypothesized 

that large mysticetes have acute infrasonic hearing. 

Fin Whale 

Distribution 

Fin whales are distributed widely in every ocean except the Arctic Ocean. In the North Pacific Ocean, fin 

whales occur in summer foraging areas in the Chukchi Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, around the Aleutian 

Islands, and the Gulf of Alaska; in the eastern Pacific, they occur south to California; in the western 

Pacific, they occur south to Japan. Fin whales in the eastern Pacific winter from California south; in the 

western Pacific, they winter from the Sea of Japan, the East China and Yellow Seas, and the Philippine 

Sea (Gambell 1985). 

In the North Atlantic Ocean, fin whales occur in summer foraging areas from the coast of North America 

to the Arctic, around Greenland, Iceland, northern Norway, Jan Meyers, Spitzbergen, and the Barents Sea. 

In the western Atlantic, they winter from the edge of sea ice south to the Gulf of Mexico and the West 

Indies. In the eastern Atlantic, they winter from southern Norway, the Bay of Biscay, and Spain with 

some whales migrating into the Mediterranean Sea (Gambell 1985). 

In the Southern Hemisphere, fin whales are distributed broadly south of 50° S in the summer and migrate 

into the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans in the winter, along the coast of South America (as far north 

as Peru and Brazil), Africa, and the islands in Oceania north of Australia and New Zealand (Gambell 

1985). 

Fin whales are common off the Atlantic coast of the United States in waters immediately off the coast 

seaward to the continental shelf (about the 1,000-fathom contour). In this region, they tend to occur north 

of Cape Hatteras, where they accounted for about 46 percent of the large whales observed in surveys 

conducted between 1978 and 1982. During the summer months, fin whales in this region tend to 
76

congregate in feeding areas between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, from shore seaward to the 1,000-fathom 

contour. 

In the Atlantic Ocean, Clark (1995) reported a general southward pattern of fin whale migration in the fall 

from the Labrador and Newfoundland region, south past Bermuda, and into the West Indies. The overall 

distribution may be based on prey availability, and fin whales are found throughout the action area for this 

consultation in most months of the year. This species preys opportunistically on both invertebrates and 

fish (Watkins et al. 1984). They feed by filtering large volumes of water for the associated prey. Fin 

whales are larger and faster than humpback and right whales and are less concentrated in nearshore 

environments. 

Population Structure 

Fin whales have two recognized subspecies: Balaenoptera physalus physalus (Linnaeus 1758) occurs in 

the North Atlantic Ocean while B. p. quoyi (Fischer 1829) occurs in the Southern Ocean. Globally, fin 

whales are sub-divided into three major groups: Atlantic, Pacific, and Antarctic. Within these major areas, 

different organizations use different population structure. 

In the North Atlantic Ocean, the International Whaling Commission recognizes seven management units 

or “stocks” of fin whales: (1) Nova Scotia, (2) Newfoundland-Labrador, (3) West Greenland, (4) East 

Greenland-Iceland, (5) North Norway, (6) West Norway-Faroe Islands, and (7) British Isles-SpainPortugal. In addition, the population of fin whales that resides in the Ligurian Sea, in the northwestern 

Mediterranean Sea, is believed to be genetically distinct from other fin whales populations (as used in this 

Opinion, “populations” are isolated demographically, meaning, they are driven more by internal dynamics 

— birth and death processes — than by the geographic redistribution of individuals through immigration 

or emigration. Some usages of the term “stock” are synonymous with this definition of “population” 

while other usages of “stock” are not). 

In the North Pacific Ocean, the International Whaling Commission recognizes two “stocks”: (1) East 

China Sea and (2) rest of the North Pacific (Donovan, 1991). However, Mizroch et al. (1984) concluded 

that there were five possible “stocks” of fin whales within the North Pacific based on histological 

analyses and tagging experiments: (1) East and West Pacific that intermingle around the Aleutian Islands; 

(2) East China Sea; (3) British Columbia; (4) Southern-Central California to Gulf of Alaska; and (5) Gulf 

of California. Based on genetic analyses, 

Berube et al. (1998) concluded that fin whales in the Sea of Cortez represent an isolated population that 

has very little genetic exchange with other populations in the North Pacific Ocean (although the 
77

geographic distribution of this population and other populations can overlap seasonally). They also 

concluded that fin whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Gulf of Maine are distinct from fin whales 

found off Spain and in the Mediterranean Sea. Regardless of how different authors structure the fin whale 

population, mark-recapture studies have demonstrated that individual fin whales migrate between 

management units (Mitchell 1974; Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjónsson 1989), which suggests that these 

management units are not geographically isolated populations. 

In its final recovery plan for fin whales, NMFS recognized three populations in U.S. Pacific waters: 

Alaska (Northeast Pacific), California/Oregon/Washington, and Hawaii (NMFS 2010). 

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Natural sources and rates of mortality are largely unknown, but Aguilar and Lockyer 

(1987) suggest annual natural mortality rates may range from 0.04 to 0.06. Although these results are 

based on studies of fin whales in the northeast Atlantic, there are no comparable estimates for fin whales 

in the Pacific Ocean. The occurrence of the nematode Crassicauda boopis appears to increase the 

potential for kidney failure in fin whales and may be preventing some fin whale stocks from recovering 

from whaling (Lambertsen 1992, as cited in Perry et al. 1999). Killer whale or shark attacks may injure or 

kill very young or sick whales (Perry et al. 1999, Tomilin 1967). 

Anthropogenic threats. Three human activities are known to threaten fin whales: whaling, commercial 

fishing, and shipping. Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every population of fin 

whales and was ultimately responsible for listing fin whales as an endangered species. As early as the 

mid-seventeenth century, the Japanese were capturing fin, blue (Balaenoptera musculus), and other large 

whales using a fairly primitive open-water netting technique (Tønnessen and Johnsen 1982, Cherfas 

1989). In 1864, explosive harpoons and steam-powered catcher boats were introduced in Norway, 

allowing the large-scale exploitation of previously unobtainable whale species. After blue whales were 

depleted in most areas, fin whales became the focus of whaling operations and more than 700,000 fin 

whales were landed in the Southern Hemisphere alone between 1904 and 1979 (IWC 1995). 

As its legacy, whaling has reduced fin whales to a fraction of their historic population size and, as a result, 

makes it easier for other human activities to push fin whales closer to extinction. Otherwise, whaling 

currently does not threaten every fin whale population, although it may threaten specific populations. 

From 1904 to 1975, the International Whaling Commission estimates that 703,693 fin whales were 

captured and killed in Antarctic whaling operations (IWC 1990). Whaling in the Southern Oceans 

originally targeted humpback whales, but by 1913, those whales had become rare so whalers shifted their 
78

focus to fin and blue whales (Mizroch et al. 1984b). From 1911 to 1924, whalers killed 2,000–5,000 fin 

whales each year. After the introduction of factory whaling ships in 1925, the number of whales killed 

each year increased substantially: from 1931 to 1972, whalers killed about 511,574 fin whales 

(Kawamura 1994). In 1937 alone, whalers are reported to have killed more than 28,000 fin whales. From 

1953 to 1961, the number of fin whales killed each year averaged around 25,000. In 1962, whalers 

appeared to shift their focus to sei whale as fin whales became scarce. By 1974, whalers killed fewer than 

1,000 fin whales. 

Recently released Soviet whaling records indicate a discrepancy between reported and actual fin whale 

catch numbers by whalers from the former USSR in southern waters between 1947 and 1980 (Zemsky et 

al. 1995). The former USSR previously reported 52,931 whales caught; however, the data that was 

released recently suggests that only 41,984 were killed. 

In the Antarctic Ocean, fin whales are hunted by Japanese whalers for its scientific whaling program 

under an Antarctic Special Permit. Japan started killing fin whales in its 2005–2006 program season and 

increased its target from 10 to 50 fin whales for the next twelve seasons beginning with the 2007/2008 

season. Japan took zero fin whales in the 2007/2008 season and one in the 2008/2009 season (NMFS 

2010a); however, in 2009 and the 2009/2010 seasons Japan killed a total of one fin whale in Antarctica 

(IWC 2010). 

In the Atlantic Ocean fin whales are also hunted in subsistence fisheries off West Greenland and Iceland. 

In 2004, 5 males and 6 females were killed and landed; 2 other fin whales were struck and lost in the 

same year off West Greenland. In 2003 2 males and 4 females were landed and 2 other fin whales were 

struck and lost off West Greenland (IWC 2005). Between 2003 and 2007, the IWC set a catch limit of up 

to 19 fin whales in the West Greenland subsistence fishery (IWC 2005), however, the IWC’s Scientific 

Committee recommended limiting the number of fin whale killed in this fishery to 1 to 4 individuals until 

accurate population estimates are produced. Seven fin whales were killed, 2 struck and lost and 1 reported 

killed as an infraction in 2009 and the 2009/2010 seasons combined (IWC 2010). Another 125 fin whales 

with 2 reported as infractions were killed off Iceland in 2009 and the 2009/2010 seasons combined (IWC 

2010). 

Despite anecdotal observations from fishermen which suggest that large whales swim through their nets 

rather than get caught in them (NMFS 2000), fin whales have been entangled by fishing gear off 

Newfoundland and Labrador in small numbers: a total of 14 fin whales are reported to have been captured 

in coastal fisheries in those two provinces between 1969 and 1990 (Lien 1994, Perkins and Beamish 
79

1979). Of these 14 fin whales, 7 are known to have died as a result of that capture, although most of the 

animals that died were less than 15 meters in length (Lien 1994). Between 1999 and 2005, there were 10 

confirmed reports of fin whales being entangled in fishing gear along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and 

the Maritime Provinces of Canada (Cole et al. 2005, Nelson et al. 2007). Of these reports, fin whales 

were injured in 1 of the entanglements and killed in 3 entanglements. These data suggest that, despite 

their size and strength, fin whales are likely to be entangled and, in some cases, killed by gear used in 

modern fisheries. 

Fin whales are also killed and injured in collisions with vessels more frequently than any other whale. Of 

92 fin whales that stranded along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. between 1975 and 1996, 31 (33%) 

showed evidence of collisions with ships (Laist et al. 2001). Between 1999 and 2005, there were 15 

reports of fin whales being struck by vessels along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and the Maritime 

Provinces of Canada (Cole et al. 2005, Nelson et al. 2007). Of these reports, 13 were confirmed as ship 

strikes which were reported as having resulted in the death of 11 fin whales. 

Ship strikes were identified as a known or potential cause of death in 8 (20%) of 39 fin whales that 

stranded on the coast of Italy in the Mediterranean Sea between 1986 and 1997 (Laist et al. 2001). 

Throughout the Mediterranean Sea, 46 of the 287 fin whales that are recorded to have stranded between 

1972 and 2001 were confirmed to have died from injuries sustained by ship strikes (Panigada et al. 2006). 

Most of these fin whales (n = 43), were killed between 1972 and 2001 and the highest percentage (37 of 

45 or ~82%) were killed in the Ligurian Sea and adjacent waters, where the Pelagos Sanctuary for Marine 

Mammals was established. In addition to these ship strikes, there are numerous reports of fin whales 

being injured as a result of ship strikes off the Atlantic coast of France and the United Kingdom (Jensen 

and Silber 2003). 

Status 

Fin whales were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1970. In 1976, the IWC protected fin whales from 

commercial whaling (Allen 1980). Fin whales are listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of 

Threatened Animals (Baillie and Groombridge 1996). They are also protected by the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna and the MMPA. Critical habitat has not 

been designated for fin whales. 

It is difficult to assess the current status of fin whales because (1) there is no general agreement on the 

size of the fin whale population prior to whaling and (2) estimates of the current size of the different fin 

whale populations vary widely (NMFS 2007). We may never know the size of the fin whale population 
80

prior to whaling. Based on sighting and CPUE data and a population model, Ohsumi and Wada (1974) 

estimated that there were 8,000–11,000 fin whales in the eastern North Pacific in 1973. The most current 

(1979) estimate of the population size of fin whales in the Southern Ocean is 85,200 (no coefficient of 

variance or confidence interval was provided) based on the history of catches and trends in catches per 

unit of effort (IWC 1979). 

According to the fin whale recovery plan (NMFS 2010), the best abundance estimate available for the 

Western North Atlantic stock is 2,269 (CV = 0.37) from August 2006 with a minimum population 

estimate of 1,678 (Waring et al. 2009). However, based on data produced by surveys conducted between 

1978-1982 and other data gathered between 1966 and 1989, Hain et al. (1992) estimated that the 

population of fin whales in the western North Atlantic Ocean (specifically, between Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina, and Nova Scotia) numbered about 1,500 whales in the winter and 5,000 whales in the spring 

and summer. Because authors do not always reconcile “new” estimates with earlier estimates, it is not 

clear whether the current “best” estimate represents a refinement of the estimate that was based on older 

data or whether the fin whale population in the North Atlantic has declined by about 50% since the early 

1980s. 

The East Greenland-Iceland fin whale population was estimated at 10,000 animals (95 % confidence 

interval = 7,600 - 14,200), based on surveys conducted in 1987 and 1989 (Buckland et al. 1992). The 

number of eastern Atlantic fin whales, which includes the British Isles-Spain-Portugal population, has 

been estimated at 17,000 animals (95% confidence interval = 10,400 -28,900; Buckland et al. 1992). 

These estimates are both more than 15 years old and the data available do not allow us to determine if 

they remain valid. 

Forcada et al. (1996) estimated there were 3,583 fin whales in the western Mediterranean (standard error 

= 967; 95% confidence interval = 2,130 - 6,027), which is similar to an estimate published by 

Notarbartolo-di-Sciara et al. (2003). In the Mediterranean’s Ligurian Sea (which includes the Pelagos 

Whale Sanctuary and the Gulf of Lions), Forcada et al. (1995) estimated there were 901 fin whales 

(standard error = 196.1). 

Regardless of which of these estimates, if any, come closest to actual population sizes, these estimates 

suggest that the global population of fin whales consists of tens of thousands of individuals. Based on 

ecological theory and demographic patterns derived from several hundred imperiled species and 

populations, fin whales appear to exist at population sizes that are large enough to avoid demographic 

phenomena that are known to increase the extinction probability of species that exist as “small” 
81

populations (that is, “small” populations experience phenomena such as demographic stochasticity, 

inbreeding depression and Allee effects, among others, that cause their population size to become a threat 

in and of itself). As a result, we assume that fin whales are likely to be threatened more by exogenous 

threats such as anthropogenic activities (primarily whaling, entanglement, and ship strikes) or natural 

phenomena (such as disease, predation, or changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey in 

response to changing climate) than endogenous threats caused by the small size of their population. 

Nevertheless, based on the evidence available, the number of fin whales that are recorded to have been 

killed or injured in the past 20 years by human activities or natural phenomena, does not appear to be 

increasing the extinction probability of fin whales, although it may slow the rate at which they recover 

from population declines that were caused by commercial whaling. 

Diving and Social Behavior 

The percentage of time fin whales spend at the surface varies. Some authors have reported that fin whales 

make 5-20 shallow dives with each of these dives lasting 13-20 seconds followed by a deep dive lasting 

between 1.5 and 15 minutes (Gambell 1985). Other authors have reported that the fin whale’s most 

common dives last between 2 and 6 minutes, with 2 to 8 blows between dives (Hain et al. 1992, Watkins 

1981). 

In waters off the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. individual fin whales or pairs represented about 75% of the fin 

whales observed during the Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program (Hain et al. 1992). Individual 

whales or groups of less than five individuals represented about 90% of the observations (out of 2,065 

observations of fin whales, the mean group size was 2.9, the modal value was 1, and the range was 1 – 65 

individuals; Hain et al. 1992). 
82

Vocalizations and Hearing 

The sounds fin whales produce underwater are one of the most studied Balaenoptera sounds. Fin whales 

produce a variety of low-frequency sounds in the 10-200 Hz band (Watkins 1981; Watkins et al. 1987a; 

Edds 1988; Thompson et al. 1992). The most typical signals are long, patterned sequences of short 

duration (0.5-2s) infrasonic pulses in the 18-35 Hz range (Patterson and Hamilton 1964). Estimated 

source levels are as high as 190 dB (Patterson and Hamilton 1964; Watkins et al. 1987a; Thompson et al.

1992; McDonald et al. 1995). In temperate waters intense bouts of long patterned sounds are very 

common from fall through spring, but also occur to a lesser extent during the summer in high latitude 

feeding areas (Clark and Charif 1998). Short sequences of rapid pulses in the 20-70 Hz band are 

associated with animals in social groups (McDonald et al. 1995, Clark personal communication, 

McDonald personal communication). Each pulse lasts on the order of one second and contains twenty 

cycles (Tyack 1999). 

During the breeding season, fin whales produce a series of pulses in a regularly repeating pattern. These 

bouts of pulsing may last for longer than one day (Tyack 1999). The seasonality and stereotype of the 

bouts of patterned sounds suggest that these sounds are male reproductive displays (Watkins et al. 1987a), 

while the individual counter-calling data of McDonald et al. (1995) suggest that the more variable calls 

are contact calls. Some authors feel there are geographic differences in the frequency, duration and 

repetition of the pulses (Thompson et al. 1992). 

As with other vocalizations produced by baleen whales, the function of fin whale vocalizations is 

unknown, although there are numerous hypotheses (which include: maintenance of inter-individual 

distance, species and individual recognition, contextual information transmission, maintenance of social 

organization, location of topographic features, and location of prey resources; see the review by 

Thompson et al. 1992 for more information on these hypotheses). Responses to conspecific sounds have 

been demonstrated in a number of mysticetes, and there is no reason to believe that fin whales do not 

communicate similarly (Edds-Walton 1997). The low-frequency sounds produced by fin whales have the 

potential to travel over long distances, and it is possible that long-distance communication occurs in fin 

whales (Payne and Webb 1971; Edds-Walton 1997). Also, there is speculation that the sounds may 

function for long-range echolocation of large-scale geographic targets such as seamounts, which might be 

used for orientation and navigation (Tyack 1999). 
83

Humpback Whale 

Distribution 

Humpback whales are a cosmopolitan species that occur in the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, and Southern 

Oceans. Humpback whales migrate seasonally between warmer, tropical or sub-tropical waters in winter 

months (where they reproduce and give birth to calves) and cooler, temperate or sub-Arctic waters in 

summer months (where they feed). In their summer foraging areas and winter calving areas, humpback 

whales tend to occupy shallower, coastal waters; during their seasonal migrations, however, humpback 

whales disperse widely in deep, pelagic waters and tend to avoid shallower coastal waters (Winn and 

Reichley 1985). 

In the North Pacific Ocean, the summer range of humpback whales includes coastal and inland waters 

from Point Conception, California, north to the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea, and west along the 

Aleutian Islands to the Kamchatka Peninsula and into the Sea of Okhotsk (Tomlin 1967, Nemoto 1957, 

Johnson and Wolman 1984 as cited in NMFS 1991b). These whales migrate to Hawaii, southern Japan, 

the Mariana Islands, and Mexico during the winter. 

In the Atlantic Ocean, humpback whales range from the mid-Atlantic bight, the Gulf of Maine, across the 

southern coast of Greenland and Iceland, and along coast of Norway in the Barents Sea. These humpback 

whales migrate to the western coast of Africa and the Caribbean Sea during the winter. 

In the Southern Ocean, humpback whales occur in waters off Antarctica. These whales migrate to the 

waters off Venezuela, Brazil, southern Africa, western and eastern Australia, New Zealand, and islands in 

the southwest Pacific during the austral winter. A separate population of humpback whales appears to 

reside in the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean off the coasts of Oman, Pakistan, and India (Mikhalev 

1997). 

Population Structure

Descriptions of the population structure of humpback whales differ depending on whether an author 

focuses on where humpback whales winter or where they feed. During winter months in northern or 

southern hemispheres, adult humpback whales migrate to specific areas in warmer, tropical waters to 

reproduce and give birth to calves. During summer months, humpback whales migrate to specific areas in 

northern temperate or sub-arctic waters to forage. In summer months, humpback whales from different 

“reproductive areas” will congregate to feed; in the winter months, whales will migrate from different 

foraging areas to a single wintering area. In either case, humpback whales appear to form “open” 

populations; that is, populations that are connected through the movement of individual animals. 
84

NMFS’ Stock Assessment Reports recognize four stocks of humpback whales in the North Pacific Ocean, 

based on genetic and photo-identification studies: two Eastern North Pacific stocks, one Central North 

Pacific stock, and one Western Pacific stock (Hill and DeMaster 1998). The first two of these stocks are 

based on where these humpback whales winter: the central North Pacific stock winters in the waters 

around Hawai'i while the eastern North Pacific stock (also called the California-Oregon-WashingtonMexico stock) winters along coasts of Central America and Mexico. 

Herman (1979) presented extensive evidence and various lines of reasoning to conclude that the 

humpback whales associated with the main Hawaiian Islands immigrated to those waters only in the past 

200 years. Winn and Reichley (1985) identified genetic exchange between the humpback whales that 

winter off Hawai'i and those that winter off Mexico (with further mixing on feeding areas in Alaska) and 

suggested that the humpback whales that winter in Hawai'i may have emigrated from wintering areas in 

Mexico. Based on these patterns of movement, we conclude that the various stocks of humpback whales 

are not true populations or, at least, they represent populations that experience substantial levels of 

immigration and emigration. 

In the Atlantic Ocean, humpback whales aggregate in four feeding areas in the summer months: (1) Gulf 

of Maine, eastern Canada, (2) west Greenland, (3) Iceland and (4) Norway (Katona and Beard 1990, 

Smith et al. 1999). The principal breeding range for these whales lies from the Antilles and northern 

Venezuela to Cuba (Winn et al. 1975, Balcomb and Nichols 1982, Whitehead and Moore 1982). The 

largest contemporary breeding aggregations occur off the Greater Antilles where humpback whales from 

all of the North Atlantic feeding areas have been identified from photographs (Katona and Beard 1990, 

Clapham et al. 1993b, Mattila et al. 1994, Palsbøll et al. 1997, Smith et al. 1999, Stevick et al. 2003a). 

Historically, an important breeding aggregation was located in the eastern Caribbean based on the 

important humpback whale fisheries this region supported (Mitchell and Reeves 1983, Reeves et al. 2001, 

Smith and Reeves 2003). Although sightings persist in those areas, modern humpback whale abundance 

appears to be low (Winn et al. 1975, Levenson and Leapley 1978, Swartz et al. 2003). Winter 

aggregations also occur at the Cape Verde Islands in the Eastern North Atlantic (Reiner et al. 1996, 

Reeves et al. 2002, Moore et al. 2003). In another example of the “open” structure of humpback whale 

populations, an individual humpback whale migrated from the Indian Ocean to the South Atlantic Ocean 

and demonstrated that individual whales may migrate from one ocean basin to another (Pomilla and 

Rosenbaum 2005). 

A separate population of humpback whales appears to reside in the Arabian Sea in the Indian Ocean off 

the coasts of Oman, Pakistan, and India (Mikhalev 1997). 
85

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. There is limited information on natural phenomena that kill or injure humpback whales. 

We know that humpback whales are killed by orcas (Dolphin 1989, Florez-González et al. 1984, 

Whitehead and Glass 1985) and are probably killed by false killer whales and sharks. Because 7 female 

and 7 male humpback whales stranded on the beaches of Cape Cod and had died from toxin produced by 

dinoflagellates between November 1987 and January 1988, we also know that adult and juvenile 

humpback whales are killed by naturally-produced biotoxins (Geraci et al. 1989). 

Other natural sources of mortality, however, remain largely unknown. Similarly, we do not know whether 

and to what degree natural mortality limits or restricts patterns of growth or variability in humpback 

whale populations. 

Anthropogenic Threats. Three human activities are known to threaten humpback whales: whaling, 

commercial fishing, and shipping. Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every 

population of humpback whales and was ultimately responsible for listing humpback whales as an 

endangered species. From 1900 to 1965, nearly 30,000 whales were taken in modern whaling operations 

of the Pacific Ocean. Prior to that, an unknown number of humpback whales were taken (Perry et al.

1999). In 1965, the International Whaling Commission banned commercial hunting of humpback whales 

in the Pacific Ocean. As its legacy, whaling has reduced humpback whales to a fraction of their historic 

population size and, as a result, makes it easier for other human activities to push these whales closer to 

extinction. 

Humpback whales are also killed or injured during interactions with commercial fishing gear. Like fin 

whales, humpback whales have been entangled by fishing gear off Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada: 

a total of 595 humpback whales were reported to have been captured in coastal fisheries in those two 

provinces between 1969 and 1990 (Lien 1994, Perkins and Beamish 1979). Of these whales, 94 are 

known to have died as a result of that capture, although, like fin whales, most of the animals that died 

were smaller: less than 12 meters in length (Lien 1994). These data suggest that, despite their size and 

strength, humpback whales are likely to be entangled and, in some cases, killed by gear used in modern 

fisheries. 

Along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and the Maritime Provinces of Canada, there were 101 confirmed 

entanglement events between 2006 and 2010 (Henry et al. 2012). Of these, 20 resulted in serious injury 

and 9 resulted in mortality of humpbacks. No information is available on the number of humpback whales 

that have been killed or seriously injured by interactions with fishing fleets outside of U.S. waters. 
86

There are also reports of entangled humpback whales from the Hawaiian Islands. From 2001 through 

2006, there were 23 reports of entangled humpback whales in Hawaiian waters; 16 of these reports were 

from 2005 and 2006. Some of the entangled humpback whales observed in Hawaiian waters brought the 

gear with them from higher latitude feeding grounds. 

The number of humpback whales killed by ship strikes is exceeded only by fin whales. As of 2008, there 

have been more than 143 recorded ship strikes involving humpback whales worldwide (Van Waerebeek 

and Leaper 2008), and many likely go undetected or unreported. When cause of death could be 

determined, ship strikes made up 4% of observed humpback whale deaths in 2001-2005 (Nelson et al.

2007) and 2003-2007 (Glass et al. 2009) along the US east coast, Canadian Maritimes and Gulf of 

Mexico region. On the Pacific coast, the average number of documented humpback whale deaths by ship 

strikes for 2004-2008 is 0.4 per year (Carretta et al. 2012). While there are reports of humpback whales 

being injured as a result of ship strikes outside of U.S. waters, we do not have more specific data. 

Status 

Humpback whales were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1973. Humpback whales are listed as 

endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (Baillie and Groombridge 1996). They are also 

protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna and the 

MMPA. Critical habitat has not been designated for humpback whales. 

It is difficult to assess the current status of humpback whales for the same reasons that it is difficult to 

assess the status of fin whales: (1) there is no general agreement on the size of the humpback whale 

population prior to whaling and (2) estimates of the current size of the different humpback whale 

populations vary widely and produce estimates that are not always comparable to one another, although 

robust estimates of humpback whale populations in the western North Atlantic have been published. We 

may never know the size of the humpback whale population prior to whaling. 

Winn and Reichley (1985) argued that the global population of humpback whales consisted of at least 

150,000 whales in the early 1900s, with the largest population historically occurring in the Southern 

Ocean. Based on analyses of mutation rates and estimates of genetic diversity, Palumbi and Roman 

(2006) concluded that there may have been as many as 240,000 (95% confidence interval = 156,000 – 

401,000) humpback whales in the North Atlantic before whaling began. In the western North Atlantic 

between Davis Strait, Iceland and the West Indies, Mitchell and Reeves (1983) estimated there were at 

least 4,685 humpback whales in 1865 based on available whaling records (although the authors note that 
87

this does not represent a “pre-exploitation estimate” because whalers from Greenland, the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence, New England, and the Caribbean Sea had been hunting humpback whales before 1865). 

Estimates of the number of humpback whales occurring in the different populations that inhabit the 

Northern Pacific population have risen over time. In the 1980s, the size of the North Pacific humpback 

whale population was estimated to range from 1,407 to 2,100 (Baker 1985; Darling and Morowitz 1986; 

Baker and Herman 1987). By the mid-1990s, the population was estimated to consist of about 6,000 

whales (standard error = 474) in the North Pacific (Calambokidis et al. 1997; Cerchio 1998; Mobley et al.

1999). 

Between 2004 and 2006, an international group of whale researchers coordinated their surveys to conduct 

a comprehensive assessment of the population structure, levels of abundance, and status of humpback 

whales in the North Pacific (Calambokidis et al. 2008). That effort identified a total of 7,971 unique 

individuals from photographs taken during close approaches. Of this total, 4,516 individuals were 

identified at wintering regions in at least one of the three seasons in which the study surveyed wintering 

areas and 4,328 individuals were identified at least once at feeding areas in one of the two years in which 

the study surveyed feeding areas. Based on the results of that effort, Calambokidis et al. (2008) estimated 

that the population of humpback whales in the North Pacific Ocean consisted of about 18,300 whales, not 

counting calves. Almost half of the humpback whales that were estimated to occur in wintering areas, or 

about 8,000 humpback whales, occupy the Hawaiian Islands during the winter months. 

In the North Atlantic, Stevick et al. (2003) estimated the size of the humpback whale population between 

1979 and 1993 by applying statistical analyses that are commonly used in capture-recapture studies to 

individual humpback whales that were identified based on natural markings. Between 1979 and 1993, 

they estimated that the North Atlantic populations (what they call the “West Indies breeding population”) 

consisted of between 5,930 and 12,580 individual whales. The best estimate they produced (11,570; 95% 

confidence interval = 10,290 -13,390) was based on samples from 1992 and 1993. If we assume that this 

population has grown according to the instantaneous rate of increase Stevick et al. (2003) estimated for 

this population (r = 0.0311), this would lead us to estimate that this population could be over 20,000 

individuals in 2011-2012. 

Regardless of which of these estimates, if any, most closely correspond to the actual size and trend of the 

humpback whale population, all of these estimates suggest that the global population of humpback whales 

consists of tens of thousands of individuals. Based on ecological theory and demographic patterns derived 

from several hundred imperiled species and populations, humpback whales appear to exist at population 
88

sizes that are large enough to avoid demographic phenomena that are known to increase the extinction 

probability of species that exist as “small” populations (that is, “small” populations experience 

phenomena such as demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression, and Allee effects, among others, 

that cause their population size to become a threat in and of itself). As a result, we assume that humpback 

whales will have elevated extinction probabilities because of exogenous threats caused by anthropogenic 

activities (primarily whaling, entanglement, and ship strikes) and natural phenomena (such as disease, 

predation, or changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey in response to changing climate) 

rather than endogenous threats caused by the small size of their population. 

Diving and Social Behavior 

In Hawaiian waters, humpback whales remain almost exclusively within the 1820 m isobath and usually 

within waters depths less than 182 meters. Maximum diving depths are approximately 150 m (492 ft) (but 

usually <60 m [197 ft]), with a very deep dive (240 m [787 ft]) recorded off Bermuda (Hamilton et al.

1997). They may remain submerged for up to 21 min (Dolphin 1987). Dives on feeding grounds ranged 

from 2.1-5.1 min in the North Atlantic (Goodyear unpublished manuscript). In southeast Alaska average 

dive times were 2.8 min for feeding whales, 3.0 min for non-feeding whales, and 4.3 min for resting 

whales (Dolphin 1987). In the Gulf of California humpback whale dive times averaged 3.5 min (Strong 

1989). Because most humpback prey is likely found above 300 m depths most humpback dives are 

probably relatively shallow. 

In a review of the social behavior of humpback whales, Clapham (1986) reported that they form small, 

unstable social groups during the breeding season. During the feeding season they form small groups that 

occasionally aggregate on concentrations of food. Feeding groups are sometimes stable for long-periods 

of times. There is good evidence of some territoriality on feeding (Clapham 1994, 1996), and calving 

areas (Tyack 1981). In calving areas, males sing long complex songs directed towards females, other 

males or both. The breeding season can best be described as a floating lek or male dominance polygyny 

(Clapham 1996). Intermale competition for proximity to females can be intense as expected by the sex 

ratio on the breeding grounds which may be as high as 2.4:1. 

Vocalizations and Hearing 

Humpback whales produce at least three kinds of vocalization: (1) complex songs with components 

ranging from at least 20Hz to 4 kHz with estimated source levels from 144dB 174 dB, which are mostly 

produced by males on breeding areas (Payne 1970, Winn et al. 1970, Richardson et al. 1995); (2) social 

sounds in breeding areas that extend from 50 Hz B more than 10 kHz with most energy below 3 kHz 
89

(Tyack and Whitehead 1983, Richardson et al. 1995); and (3) vocalizations in foraging areas that are less 

frequent, but tend to be 20Hz to 2 kHz with estimated sources levels in excess of 175 dB re 1 Pa-m 

(Thompson et al. 1986, Richardson et al. 1995). Sounds that investigators associate with aggressive 

behavior in male humpback whales are very different from songs; they extend from 50 Hz to 10 kHz (or 

higher), with most energy in components below 3 kHz (Tyack 1983, Silber 1986). These sounds appear to 

have an effective range of up to 9 kilometers (Tyack and Whitehead 1983). A general description of the 

anatomy of the ear for cetaceans is provided in the description of the blue whale above; that description is 

also applicable to humpback whales. 

In summary, humpback whales produce at least three kinds of sounds: 

a. Complex songs with components ranging from at least 20 Hz–4 kHz with estimated source 

levels from 144 – 174 dB; these are mostly sung by males on the breeding grounds (Au et al 

2006; Frazer and Mercado 2000; U.S. Navy 2006a; Payne 1970; Winn et al. 1970a; Richardson et 

al. 1995) 

b. Social sounds in the breeding areas that extend from 50Hz–more than 10 kHz with most energy 

below 3 kHz (Tyack and Whitehead 1983, Richardson et al. 1995); and 

c. Feeding area vocalizations that are less frequent, but tend to be 20 Hz–2 kHz with estimated 

sources levels in excess of 175 dB re 1 μPa-m (Thompson et al. 1986; Richardson et al. 1995). 

Helwig et al. (2000) produced a mathematical model of a humpback whale’s hearing sensitivity based on 

the anatomy of the whale’s ear. Based on that model, they concluded that humpback whales would be 

sensitive to sound in frequencies ranging from 0.7 kHz to 10 kHz, with a maximum sensitivity between 2 

and 6 kHz. 

North Atlantic Right Whale 

Distribution 

Right whales exist as three separate species: North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) that are 

distributed seasonally from the Gulf of Mexico north to waters off Newfoundland and Labrador (on the 

western Atlantic) and from northern Africa and Spain north to waters north of Scotland and Ireland (the 

Shetland and Orkney Islands; on the eastern Atlantic coast); North Pacific right whales (E. japonica) that 

historically ranged seasonally from the coast of Baja California north to the northern Bering Sea (on the 

eastern Pacific) and the south China Sea north to the Sea of Okhotsk and the Kamchatka Peninsula (on the 

western Pacific); and Southern right whales (E. australis) which historically ranged across the Southern 
90

Ocean, including waters off southern Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and southern Africa 

(north to Madagascar). This Opinion will only discuss the North Atlantic right whale. 

In the western Atlantic Ocean, right whales generally occur in northwest Atlantic waters west of the Gulf 

Stream and are most commonly associated with cooler waters (21 C). North Atlantic right whales are 

most abundant in Cape Cod Bay between February and April (Hamilton and Mayo 1990 Schevill et al. 

1986, Watkins and Schevill 1982), in the Great South Channel in May and June (Kenney et al. 1986, 

Payne et al. 1990), and off Georgia and Florida from mid-November through March (Slay et al. 1996). 

Right whales also frequent the Bay of Fundy, Browns and Baccaro Banks (in Canadian waters), 

Stellwagen Bank and Jeffrey’s Ledge in the spring and summer months, and use mid-Atlantic waters as a 

migratory pathway between the winter calving grounds and their spring and summer nursery feeding 

areas in the Gulf of Maine. North Atlantic right whales are not found in the Caribbean Sea and have been 

recorded only rarely in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Population Structure 

NMFS recognizes two extant groups of right whales in the North Atlantic Ocean (E. glacialis): an eastern 

population and a western population. A third population may have existed in the central Atlantic 

(migrating from east of Greenland to the Azores or Bermuda), but appears to be extinct, if it existed as a 

distinct population at all (Perry et al. 1999). 

The degree to which the two extant populations of North Atlantic right whales are connected through 

immigration or emigration is unknown, but the two populations have historically been treated as if they 

are isolated populations. Nevertheless, on 5 January 2009, a North Atlantic right whale that had been 

observed in the Bay of Fundy on 24 September 2008, was observed in the Azore Islands (38 22.698 N 

and 28 30.341W) which demonstrates that at least one right whale migrated across the Atlantic (Hamilton 

et al. 2009). These long-range sightings indicate an extended range for at least some individuals and 

perhaps the existence of important habitat areas not presently well described. The few published records 

from the Gulf of Mexico (Moore and Clark 1963; Schmidly et al. 1972) represent either distributional 

anomalies, normal wanderings of occasional animals, or a more extensive historic range beyond the sole 

known calving and wintering ground in the waters of the southeastern United States. 

However, from 1980 to 2001, there were 64 calves born that were not sighted later with their mothers 

(Frasier et al. 2007). Fathers for only 45% of known calves have been genetically determined. However, 

genetic profiles were available for 69% of all photo-identified males (Frasier 2005). The conclusion was 

that the majority of these calves must have different fathers that cannot be accounted for by the 
91

unsampled males and that the population of males must be larger than previously thought (Frasier 2005). 

This inference of additional animals that have never been captured photographically and/or genetically 

suggests the existence of habitats of potentially significant use that remain unknown and suggests 

emigration or immigration with other unknown populations. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Several researchers have suggested that the recovery of right whales in the northern 

hemisphere has been impeded by competition with other whales for food (Rice 1974, Scarff 1986). 

Mitchell (1975) analyzed trophic interactions among baleen whales in the western North Atlantic and 

noted that the foraging grounds of right whales overlapped with the foraging grounds of sei whales and 

both preferentially feed on copepods. Reeves et al. (1978) noted that several species of whales feed on 

copepods in the eastern North Pacific, so that the foraging pattern and success of right whales would be 

affected by other whales as well. Mitchell (1975) argued that the right whale population in the North 

Atlantic had been depleted by several centuries of whaling before steam-driven boats allowed whalers to 

hunt sei whales; from this, he hypothesized that the decline of the right whale population made more food 

available to sei whales and helped their population to grow. He then suggested that competition with the 

sei whale population impedes or prevents the recovery of the right whale population. 

Anthropogenic threats. Several human activities are known to threaten North Atlantic right whales: 

whaling, commercial fishing and shipping. Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every 

population of right whales and was ultimately responsible for their listing as an endangered species. As its 

legacy, whaling reduced North Atlantic right whales to about 396 (minimum population as of 2007) 

individuals in the western North Atlantic Ocean; the North Atlantic right whale population in the eastern 

North Atlantic Ocean is probably much smaller, although we cannot estimate the size of that population 

from the data available. 

Of the current threats to North Atlantic right whales, entanglement in commercial fishing gear and ship 

strikes currently pose the greatest threat to the persistence of North Atlantic right whales. Along the 

Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and the Maritime Provinces of Canada, there were 33 confirmed reports of right 

whales being entangled in fishing gear between 2006 and 2010 (Henry et al. 2012). Of these, right whales 

were injured in five of the entanglements and killed in four entanglements. 

In the same region, there were 13 confirmed reports of right whales being struck by vessels between 2006 

and 2010 (Henry et al. 2012). Of these, right whales were injured in one of the ship strikes and killed in 

five ship strikes. In April 2009, a research vessel in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary 
92

struck a North Atlantic right whale while transiting to port. Pictures of the whale taken minutes after the 

strike revealed that the propeller had struck and cut the animal. Although the animal was injured the 

injury was deemed not life threatening. 

The rate at which North Atlantic right whales are killed or injured by ship strikes and in entanglements 

also appears to be somewhat variable, or possibly increasing: from 1999 to 2003, about 2.6 right whales 

were killed per year; from 2001 to 2005, an average of 3.2 right whales were killed per year (NMFS 2005, 

Waring et al. 2007). The most recent estimate of anthropogenic mortality and serious injury available 

shows a rate of 3.0 right whales per year from 2006 to 2010. Of these, 1.2 were attributed to ship strikes 

and 1.8 were attributed to entanglements (Henry et al. 2012). 

Status 

Right whales (E. glacialis and E. australis) were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1970. In April, 

2008, NMFS divided northern right whales into two separate listings: North Atlantic right whales (E. 

glacialis) and North Pacific right whales (E. japonica). All three species (E. glacialis, E. japonica, and 

Southern right whales, E. australis) are listed as endangered. Since 1949, the northern right whale has 

been protected from commercial whaling by the International Whaling Commission. They are also 

protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna and the 

MMPA. NMFS designated critical habitat for the North Atlantic population of right whales on 3 June 

1994 (59 FR 28793), and this remains in effect for the North Atlantic right whale. 

The legacy effects of whaling appear to have had and continue to have greatest effect on endangered 

North Atlantic right whales by reducing them to a population size that is sufficiently small to experience 

“small population dynamics” (Caughley 1994, Lande 1993, Lande et al. 2003, Melbourne and Hastings 

2008). Kraus et al. (2005) estimated that about 350 individual right whales, including about 70 mature 

females, occur in the western North Atlantic. The western North Atlantic population numbered at least 

361 individuals in 2005 and at least 396 in 2007 (Waring et al. 2012). Examination of the minimum 

number alive population index calculated from the individual sightings database, as it existed on 6 July 

2010, for the years 1990-2007, suggests a positive trend (2.4 % mean growth rate) in population size. 

These data reveal a significant increase in the number of catalogued whales alive during this period, but 

with significant variation due to apparent losses (particularly pregnant females and calves) exceeding 

gains during 1998-99 (Waring et al. 2012). 

Nevertheless, at these population sizes, we would expect North Atlantic right whales to have higher 

probabilities of becoming extinct because of demographic stochasticity, demographic heterogeneity 

(Coulson et al. 2006, Fox et al. 2006) —including stochastic sex determination (Lande et al. 2003) — and 
93

the effects of these phenomena interacting with environmental variability. Demographic stochasticity 

refers to the randomness in the birth or death of an individual in a population, which results in random 

variation on how many young that individuals produce during their lifetime and when they die. 

Demographic heterogeneity refers to variation in lifetime reproductive success of individuals in a 

population (generally, the number of reproductive adults an individual produces over their reproductive 

lifespan), such that the deaths of different individuals have different effects on the growth or decline of a 

population (Coulson et al. 2006). Stochastic sex determination refers to the randomness in the sex of 

offspring such that sexual ratios in population fluctuate over time (Melbourne and Hastings 2008). 

At small population sizes, populations experience higher extinction probabilities because of their 

population size, because stochastic sexual determination can leave them with all males or all females 

(which occurred to the heath hen and dusky seaside sparrow just before they became extinct), or because 

the loss of individuals with high reproductive success has a disproportionate effect on the rate at which 

the population declines (Coulson et al. 2006). In general, an individual’s contribution to the growth (or 

decline) of the population it represents depends, in part, on the number of individuals in the population: 

the smaller the population, the more the performance of a single individual is likely to affect the 

population’s growth or decline (Coulson et al. 2006). Given the small size of the northern right whale 

population, the performance (“fitness” measured as the longevity of individuals and their reproductive 

success over their lifespan) of individual whales would be expected to have appreciable consequences for 

the growth or decline of the northern right whale population. Evidence of the small population dynamics 

of North Atlantic right whales appears in demographic models that suggest that the death or survival of 

one or two individual animals is sufficient to determine whether North Atlantic right whales are likely to 

accelerate or abate the rate at which their population continues to decline (Fujiwara and Caswell 2001). 

These phenomena would increase the extinction probability of northern right whales and amplify the 

potential consequences of human-related activities on this species. Based on their population size and 

population ecology (that is, slow-growing mammals that give birth to single calves with several years 

between births), we assume that right whales would have elevated extinction probabilities because of 

exogenous threats caused by anthropogenic activities that result in the death or injury of individual whales 

(for example, ship strikes or entanglement) and natural phenomena (such as disease, predation, or changes 

in the distribution and abundance of their prey in response to changing climate) as well as endogenous 

threats resulting from the small size of their population. Based on the number of other species in similar 

circumstances that have become extinct (and the small number of species that have avoided extinction in 

similar circumstances), the longer North Atlantic right whales remain in these circumstances, the greater 

their extinction probability becomes. 
94

Diving and Social Behavior 

Right whales dive as deep as 306 m (Mate et al. 1992). In the Great South Channel, average diving time 

is close to 2 minutes; average dive depth is 7.3 m with a maximum of 85.3 m (Winn et al. 1994). In the 

U.S. Outer Continental Shelf the average diving time is about 7 min although maximum dive durations 

are considerably longer (CeTAP 1982). For example, Baumgartner and Mate (2003) reported right whale 

feeding dives were characterized by a rapid descent from the surface to a particular depth between 80 and 

175 m (262 to 574 ft) with animals remaining at those depths for 5 to 14 min, then ascending quickly to 

the surface (Baumgartner and Mate 2003). Longer surface intervals have been observed for 

reproductively active females and their calves (Baumgartner and Mate, 2003). 

Northern right whales are primarily seen in groups of less than 12, most often singles or pairs (Jefferson 

et al. 1993). They may form larger groups while on feeding or breeding areas (Jefferson et al. 1993). 

Vocalizations and Hearing 

North Atlantic right whales produce a variety of sounds, including moans, screams, gunshots, blows, 

upcalls, downcalls, and warbles that are often linked to specific behaviors (Matthews et al., 2001; 

Laurinolli et al., 2003; Vanderlaan et al., 2003; Parks et al., 2005; Parks and Tyack, 2005). Sounds can be 

divided into three main categories: (1) blow sounds; (2) broadband impulsive sounds; and (3) tonal call 

types (Parks and Clark, 2007). Blow sounds are those coinciding with an exhalation; it is not known 

whether these are intentional communication signals or just produced incidentally (Parks and Clark, 

2007). 

Broadband sounds include non-vocal slaps (when the whale strikes the surface of the water with parts of 

its body) and the “gunshot” sound; data suggests that the latter serves a communicative purpose (Parks 

and Clark, 2007). Tonal calls can be divided into simple, low-frequency, stereo-typed calls and more 

complex, frequency-modulated, higher-frequency calls (Parks and Clark 2007). Most of these sounds 

range in frequency from 0.02 to 15 kHz (dominant frequency range from 0.02 to less than 2 kHz; 

durations typically range from 0.01 to multiple seconds) with some sounds having multiple harmonics 

(Parks and Tyack 2005). 

Source levels for some of these sounds have been measured as ranging from 137 to 192 dB root-meansquare (rms) re 1 Pa-m (decibels at the reference level of one micro Pascal at one meter) (Parks et al., 

2005; Parks and Tyack, 2005). Parks and Clark (2005) suggested that the frequency of right whale 

vocalizations increases significantly during the period from dusk until dawn. Recent morphometric 

analyses of North Atlantic right whale inner ears estimates a hearing range of approximately 0.01 to 22 
95

kHz based on established marine mammal models (Parks et al. 2004, Parks and Tyack 2005, Parks et al. 

2007). In addition, Parks et al. (2007) estimated the functional hearing range for right whales to be 15 Hz 

to 18 kHz. 

Designated Critical Habitat 

Five areas have been reported to be critical to the survival and recovery of North Atlantic right whales: 

(1) coastal Florida and Georgia; (2) the Great South Channel, which lies east of Cape Cod; (3) Cape Cod 

and Massachusetts Bays; (4) the Bay of Fundy; and (5) Browns and Baccaro Banks off southern Nova 

Scotia. The first three areas occur in U.S. waters and have been designated by NMFS as critical habitat 

(59 FR 28793). North Atlantic right whales are most abundant in Cape Cod Bay between February and 

April (Hamilton and Mayo 1990; Schevill et al. 1986; Watkins and Schevill 1982), in the Great South 

Channel in May and June (Kenney et al. 1986, Payne et al. 1990), and off Georgia/Florida from midNovember through March (Slay et al. 1996). Right whales also frequent the Bay of Fundy, Browns and 

Baccaro Banks (in Canadian waters), Stellwagen Bank and Jeffrey’s Ledge in spring and summer months 

and use mid-Atlantic waters as a migratory pathway between winter calving grounds and their spring and 

summer nursery/feeding areas in the Gulf of Maine. A recent review and comparison of sighting data 

suggests that Jeffrey’s Ledge may also be regularly used by right whales in late fall (October through 

December; Weinrich et al. 2000). 

The availability of dense concentrations of zooplankton blooms in Cape Cod Bay in late winter and the 

Great South Channel in spring is described as the key factor for right whale utilization of these areas. 

Kraus and Kenney (1991) provide an overview of data regarding right whale use of these areas. 

Important habitat components in Cape Cod Bay include seasonal availability of dense zooplankton 

patches and protection from weather afforded by land masses surrounding the bay. The spring current 

regime and bottom topography of the Great South Channel result in nutrient rich upwelling conditions. 

These conditions support the dense plankton and zooplankton blooms utilized by right whales. The 

combination of highly oxygenated water and dense zooplankton concentrations are optimal conditions for 

the small schooling fishes (sand lance, herring and mackerel) that prey upon some of the same 

zooplankton as right whales. Therefore, the abundance of these fishes, in turn, may affect and be affected 

by the distribution of several piscivorous marine mammal species such as humpback, fin, minke, and pilot 

whales, Atlantic whitesided dolphins, and harbor porpoise (CeTAP 1982). 

Overfishing has severely reduced the stocks of several groundfish species such as cod, haddock, and 

yellowtail flounder. Recovery of commercially targeted finfish stocks from their current overfished 
96

condition may reduce the biomass of small schooling fish that feed directly on zooplankton resources 

throughout the region. It is unknown whether zooplankton densities that occur seasonally in Cape Cod 

Bay or the Great South Channel could be expected to increase significantly. However, increased 

predation by groundfish on small schooling fish in certain areas and at specific critical periods may allow 

the necessary high zooplankton densities to be maintained in these areas for longer periods, or accumulate 

in other areas at levels acceptable to right whales. 

Fishing is allowed within the Cape Cod Bay and Great South Channel right whale critical habitat. 

Lobster trap gear and anchored gillnet gear are believed to pose the most serious risks of entanglement 

and serious injury to right whales frequenting these waters. As a result, regulations developed under the 

Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Program restrict the use of lobster and anchored gillnet gear in 

Cape Cod Bay and Great South Channel critical habitat. The most restrictive measures apply during peak 

right whale abundance: January 1 to May 15 in Cape Cod Bay, and April 1 to June 30 in the Great South 

Channel critical habitat. Measures include prohibitions on the use of lobster trap gear and anchored 

gillnet gear in the Great South Channel critical habitat during periods of peak right whale abundance 

(with the exception of gillnet gear in the Great South Channel Sliver Area), and, for Cape Cod Bay 

critical habitat, anchored gillnet gear prohibitions and lobster trap restrictions during peak right whale 

abundance. During non-peak periods of right whale abundance, lobster trap and gillnet fishers must 

modify their gear by using weak links in net and/or buoy lines, follow gillnet anchoring requirements and 

meet mandatory breaking strengths for buoy line weak links, amongst others. Additional measures (i.e., 

gear marking requirements, and prohibitions on the use of floating line and the wet storage of gear) apply 

within as well as outside of critical habitat. All of these measures are intended to reduce the likelihood of 

whale entanglements or the severity of an entanglement should an animal encounter anchored gillnet or 

lobster gear. 

The critical habitat identified in the Southeast U.S. is used primarily as a calving and nursery area. The 

nearshore waters of northeast Florida and southern Georgia were formally designated as critical habitat 

for right whales on June 3, 1994 (59 FR 28793); ten years after they were first identified as a likely 

calving and nursery area for right whales. Since that time, 74 percent of all known, mature female North 

Atlantic right whales have been documented in this area (Kraus et al., 1993). While sightings off Georgia 

and Florida include primarily adult females and calves, juveniles and adult males have also been 

observed. 

Sei Whale 
97

Distribution 

Sei whales occur in every ocean except the Arctic Ocean. The migratory pattern of this species is thought 

to encompass long distances from high-latitude feeding areas in summer to low-latitude breeding areas in 

winter; however, the location of winter areas remains largely unknown (Perry et al. 1999). Sei whales are 

often associated with deeper waters and areas along the continental shelf edge (Hain et al. 1985); 

however, this general offshore pattern of sei whale distribution is disrupted during occasional incursions 

into more shallow and inshore waters (Waring et al. 2004). 

In the western Atlantic Ocean, sei whales occur from Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Labrador in the summer 

months and migrate south to Florida and the northern Caribbean (Gambell 1985, Mead 1977). In the 

eastern Atlantic Ocean, sei whales occur in the Norwegian Sea (as far north as Finnmark in northeastern 

Norway), occasionally occurring as far north as Spitsbergen Island, and migrate south to Spain, Portugal, 

and northwest Africa (Jonsgård and Darling 1974, Gambell 1985). 

In the North Pacific Ocean, sei whales occur from the Bering Sea south to California (on the east) and the 

coasts of Japan and Korea (on the west). During the winter, sei whales are found from 20°N to 23°N 

(Masaki 1977; Gambell 1985). Horwood (1987) reported that 75 - 85% of the North Pacific population of 

sei whales resides east of 180° longitude. 

Sei whales occur throughout the Southern Ocean during the summer months, although they do not 

migrate as far south to feed as blue or fin whales. During the austral winter, sei whales occur off Brazil 

and the western and eastern coasts of Southern Africa and Australia. 

Population Structure 

The population structure of sei whales is largely unknown because there are so few data on this species. 

The International Whaling Commission’s Scientific Committee groups all of the sei whales in the entire 

North Pacific Ocean into one population (Donovan 1991). However, some mark-recapture, catch 

distribution, and morphological research suggest more than one “stock” of sei whales may exist in the 

Pacific: one between 175oW and 155oW longitude, and another east of 155oW longitude (Masaki 1977); 

however, the amount of movement between these “stocks” suggests that they probably do not represent 

demographically-isolated populations as we use this concept in this Opinion. 

Mitchell and Chapman (1977) divided sei whales in the western North Atlantic in two populations, one 

that occupies the Nova Scotian Shelf and a second that occupies the Labrador Sea. Sei whales are most 

common on Georges Bank and into the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy during spring and summer, 
98

primarily in deeper waters. There are occasional influxes of sei whales further into Gulf of Maine waters, 

presumably in conjunction with years of high copepod abundance inshore. Sei whales are occasionally 

seen feeding in association with right whales in the southern Gulf of Maine and in the Bay of Fundy. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Sei whales appear to compete with blue, fin, and right whales for prey and that 

competition may limit the total abundance of each of the species (Rice 1974, Scarff 1986). As discussed 

previously in the narratives for fin and right whales, the foraging areas of right and sei whales in the 

western North Atlantic Ocean overlap and both whales feed preferentially on copepods (Mitchell 1975). 

Anthropogenic threats. Two human activities are known to threaten sei whales: whaling and shipping. 

Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every population of sei whales and was ultimately 

responsible for listing sei whales as an endangered species. From 1910 to 1975, approximately 74,215 sei 

whales were caught in the entire North Pacific Ocean (Horwood 1987, Perry et al. 1999). From the early 

1900s, Japanese whaling operations consisted of a large proportion of sei whales: 300 - 600 sei whales 

were killed per year from 1911 to 1955. The sei whale catch peaked in 1959, when 1,340 sei whales were 

killed. In 1971, after a decade of high sei whale catch numbers, sei whales were scarce in Japanese 

waters. 

In the North Atlantic Ocean, sei whales were hunted from land stations in Norway and Iceland in the 

early- to mid-1880s, when blue whales started to become more scarce. In the late 1890s, whalers began 

hunting sei whales in Davis Strait and off the coasts of Newfoundland. In the early 1900s, whalers from 

land stations on the Outer Hebrides and Shetland Islands started to hunt sei whales. Between 1966 and 

1972, whalers from land stations on the east coast of Nova Scotia engaged in extensive hunts of sei 

whales on the Nova Scotia shelf, killing about 825 sei whales (Mitchell and Chapman 1977). 

Sei whales are occasionally killed in collisions with vessels. Of 3 sei whales that stranded along the 

Atlantic Coast of the U.S. between 1975 and 1996, 2 showed evidence of collisions with ships (Laist et 

al. 2001). Between 1999 and 2010, there were 6 reports of sei whales being struck by vessels along the 

Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and the Maritime Provinces of Canada (Cole et al. 2005, Nelson et al. 2007, 

Henry et al. 2012). Five of these ship strikes were reported as having resulted in the death of the sei 

whale. 

Sei whales are occasionally found entangled. Along the Atlantic Coast of the U.S. and the Maritime 

Provinces of Canada, there were 3 confirmed reports of sei whales being entangled in fishing gear 
99

between 2006 and 2010 (Henry et al. 2012). Of these, sei whales were injured in two of the entanglements 

and killed in one. 

Status 

Sei whales were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1973. In the North Pacific, the International 

Whaling Commission began management of commercial taking of sei whales in 1970, and sei whales 

were given full protection in 1985 (Allen 1980). Sei whales are also protected by the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna and the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act. They are listed as endangered under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (Baillie and 

Groombridge 1996). Critical habitat has not been designated for sei whales. 

Prior to commercial whaling, sei whales in the North Pacific are estimated to have numbered 42,000 

individuals (Tillman 1977), although Ohsumi and Fukuda (1975) estimated that sei whales in the North 

Pacific numbered about 49,000 whales in 1963, had been reduced to 37,000 or 38,000 whales by 1967, 

and reduced again to 20,600 to 23,700 whales by 1973. When commercial whaling for sei whales ended 

in 1974, the population of sei whales in the North Pacific had been reduced to between 7,260 and 12,620 

animals (Tillman 1977). In the same year, the North Atlantic population of sei whales was estimated to 

number about 2,078 individuals, including 965 whales in the Labrador Sea group and 870 whales in the 

Nova Scotia group (IWC 1977, Mitchell and Chapman 1977). 

The 2004 abundance estimate of 386 is considered the best available for the Nova Scotia stock of sei 

whales (Waring et al. 2012). There have been no direct estimates of sei whale abundance in the entire (or 

eastern) North Pacific based on sighting surveys, but two abundance estimates based on recent line 

transect surveys of California, Oregon, and Washington waters are 74 (CV=0.88) and 215 (CV=0.71) sei 

whales, respectively (Forney 2007, Barlow 2010) 

Like blue whales, the information available on the status and trend of sei whales do not allow us to reach 

any conclusions about the extinction risks facing sei whales as a species, or particular populations of sei 

whales. With the limited data available on sei whales, we do not know whether these whales exist at 

population sizes large enough to avoid demographic phenomena that are known to increase the extinction 

probability of species that exist as “small” populations (that is, “small” populations experience 

phenomena such as demographic stochasticity, inbreeding depression and Allee effects, among others, 

that cause their population size to become a threat in and of itself) or if sei whales are threatened more by 

exogenous threats such as anthropogenic activities (primarily whaling, entanglement, and ship strikes) or 

natural phenomena (such as disease, predation, or changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey 
100

in response to changing climate). However, sei whales have historically exhibited sudden increases in 

abundance in particular areas followed by sudden decreases in number. Several authors have reported 

“invasion years” in which large numbers of sei whales appeared off areas like Norway and Scotland, 

followed the next year by sudden decreases in population numbers (Jonsgård and Darling 1974). 

With the evidence available, we do not know if this year-to-year variation still occurs in sei whales. 

However, if sei whales exist as a fraction of their historic population sizes, large amounts of variation in 

their abundance would increase the extinction probabilities of individual populations (Fagan and Holmes 

2006, Fagan et al. 1999, 2001). 

Diving and Social Behavior 

Generally, sei whales make 5-20 shallow dives of 20-30 sec duration followed by a deep dive of up to 15 

min (Gambell 1985). The depths of sei whale dives have not been studied, however the composition of 

their diet suggests that they do not perform dives in excess of 300 meters. Sei whales are usually found in 

small groups of up to 6 individuals, but they commonly form larger groupings when they are on feeding 

grounds (Gambell 1985). 

Vocalizations and Hearing 

There is a limited amount of information on the vocal behavior of sei whales. McDonald et al. (2005) 

recorded sei whale vocalizations off the Antarctic Peninsula that included broadband sounds in the 100-

600 Hz range with 1.5 second duration and tonal and upsweep call in the 200-600 Hz range 1-3 second 

duration. During visual and acoustic surveys conducted in the Hawaiian Islands in 2002, Rankin and 

Barlow (2007) recorded 107 sei whale vocalizations, which they classified as two variations of lowfrequency downswept calls. The first variation consisted of sweeps from 100 Hz to 44 Hz, over 1.0 

seconds. The second variation, which was more common (105 out of 107) consisted of low frequency 

calls which swept from 39 Hz to 21 Hz over 1.3 seconds. These vocalizations are different from sounds 

attributed to sei whales in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans but are similar to sounds that had previously 

been attributed to fin whales in Hawaiian waters. Vocalizations from the North Atlantic consisted of 

paired sequences (0.5-0.8 sec, separated by 0.4-1.0 sec) of 10-20 short (4 msec) FM sweeps between 1.5-

3.5 kHz (Richardson, et al., 1995). 

A general description of the anatomy of the ear for cetaceans is provided in the preceding description of 

the blue whale. 

Sperm Whale 
101

Distribution 

Sperm whales occur in every ocean except the Arctic Ocean. Sperm whales are found throughout the 

North Pacific and are distributed broadly from tropical and temperate waters to the Bering Sea as far 

north as Cape Navarin. Mature, female, and immature sperm whales of both sexes are found in more 

temperate and tropical waters from the equator to around 45 ̊ N throughout the year. These groups of 

adult females and immature sperm whales are rarely found at latitudes higher than 50 ̊ N and 50 ̊ S 

(Reeves and Whitehead 1997). Sexually mature males join these groups throughout the winter. During the 

summer, mature male sperm whales are thought to move north into the Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska, 

and the Bering Sea. 

In the western Atlantic Ocean, sperm whales are distributed in a distinct seasonal cycle, concentrated 

east-northeast of Cape Hatteras in winter and shifting northward in spring when whales are found 

throughout the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Distribution extends further northward to areas north of Georges Bank 

and the Northeast Channel region in summer and then south of New England in fall, back to the MidAtlantic Bight. 

In the eastern Atlantic Ocean, mature male sperm whales have been recorded as far north as Spitsbergen 

(Oien 1990). Recent observations of sperm whales and stranding events involving sperm whales from the 

eastern North Atlantic suggest that solitary and paired mature male sperm whales predominantly occur in 

waters off Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and the Norwegian Sea (Gunnlaugsson and Sigurjonsson 1990, Oien 

1990, Christensen et al. 1992). 

In the Mediterranean Sea sperm whales are found from the Alboran Sea to the Levant Basin, mostly over 

steep slope and deep offshore waters. Sperm whales are rarely sighted in the Sicilian Channel, and are 

vagrant in the northern Adriatic and Aegean Seas (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Demma 1997). In the Italian 

seas sperm whales are more frequently associated with the continental slope off western Liguria, western 

Sardinia, northern and eastern Sicily, and both coasts of Calabria. 

Sperm whales have a strong preference for the 3,280 feet (1,000 meters) depth contour and seaward. 

Berzin (1971) reported that they are restricted to waters deeper than 300 meters (984 feet), while Watkins 

(1977) and Reeves and Whitehead (1997) reported that they are usually not found in waters less than 

1,000 meters (3,281 feet) deep. While deep water is their typical habitat, sperm whales have been 

observed near Long Island, New York, in water between 41-55 meters (135-180 feet; Scott and Sadove 

1997). When they are found relatively close to shore, sperm whales are usually associated with sharp 
102

increases in bottom depth where upwelling occurs and biological production is high, implying the 

presence of good food supplies (Clarke 1956). 

Population Structure 

The population structure of sperm whales is largely unknown. Lyrholm and Gyllenstein (1998) reported 

moderate, but statistically significant, differences in sperm whale mitochondrial (mtDNA) between ocean 

basins, although sperm whales throughout the world appear to be homogenous genetically (Whitehead 

2003). Genetic studies also suggest that sperm whales of both genders commonly move across over ocean 

basins and that males, but not females, often breed in ocean basins that are different from the one in 

which they were born (Whitehead 2003). 

Sperm whales may not form “populations” as that term is normally conceived. Jaquet (1996) outlined a 

hierarchical social and spatial structure that includes temporary clusters of animals, family units of 10 or 

12 females and their young, groups of about 20 animals that remain together for hours or days, 

“aggregations” and “super-aggregations” of 40 or more whales, and “concentrations” that include 1,000 

or more animals (Peterson 1986, Whitehead and Wiegart 1990, Whitehead et al. 1991). The “family unit” 

forms the foundation for sperm whale society and most females probably spend their entire life in the 

same family unit (Whitehead 2002). The dynamic nature of these relationships and the large spatial areas 

they are believed to occupy might complicate or preclude attempts to apply traditional population 

concepts, which tend to rely on group fidelity to geographic distributions that are relatively static over 

time. 

Based on harvests of tagged sperm whales or sperm whales with other distinctive marking, sperm whales 

in the North Atlantic Ocean appear to represent a single population, with the possible exception of the 

sperm whales that appear to reside in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Female and immature animals stay in Atlantic temperate or tropical waters year round. In the western 

North Atlantic, groups of female and immature sperm whales concentrate in the Caribbean Sea (Gosho et 

al. 1984) and south of New England in continental-slope and deep-ocean waters along the eastern United 

States (Blaylock et al. 1995). In eastern Atlantic waters, groups of female and immature sperm whales 

aggregate in waters off the Azores, Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde Islands (Tomilin 1967). Multiple 

reports suggest that at least some sperm whales migrate across the North Atlantic Ocean (Mitchell 1975, 

Martin 1982, Donovan 1991). 
103

The distribution of the sperm whale in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone occurs on the continental shelf 

edge, over the continental slope, and into mid-ocean regions. Waring et al. (1993; Waring et al. 2001) 

suggest that this offshore distribution is more commonly associated with the Gulf Stream edge and other 

features. However, the sperm whales that occur in the eastern U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone in the 

Atlantic Ocean likely represent only a fraction of the total stock. The nature of linkages of the U.S. habitat 

with those to the south, north, and offshore is unknown. Historical whaling records compiled by Schmidly 

(1981) suggested an offshore distribution off the southeast United States, over the Blake Plateau, and into 

deep ocean waters. In the southeast Caribbean, both large and small adults, as well as calves and juveniles 

of different sizes are reported (Watkins et al. 1985). Whether the northwestern Atlantic population is 

discrete from northeastern Atlantic is currently unresolved. The International Whaling Commission 

recognizes one stock for the North Atlantic, based on reviews of many types of stock studies (i.e., 

tagging, genetics, catch data, mark-recapture, biochemical markers, etc.).

In winter, sperm whales are concentrated east and northeast of Cape Hatteras. In spring, the center of 

distribution shifts northward to east of Delaware and Virginia and is widespread throughout the central 

portion of the mid-Atlantic Bight and the southern portion of Georges Bank. In summer, the distribution 

is similar but now also includes the area east and north of Georges Bank and into the Northeast Channel 

region, as well as the continental shelf (inshore of the 100-m isobath) south of New England. In the fall, 

sperm whale occurrence south of New England on the continental shelf is at its highest level, and there 

remains a continental shelf edge occurrence in the mid-Atlantic Bight. Similar inshore (less than 200 m) 

observations were made on the southwestern and eastern Scotian Shelf, particularly in the region of “the 

Gully” (Whitehead and Weilgart 1991).

Several investigators have suggested that the sperm whales that occupy the northern Gulf of Mexico are 

distinct from sperm whales elsewhere in the North Atlantic Ocean based on year-round presence in the 

Gulf (Schmidly 1981, Fritts 1983, and Hansen et al. 1996, Mullin and Hoggard 2000). More recent 

studies provide further support that Gulf of Mexico sperm whales are a separate stock based on year 

round presence in the Gulf and preliminary results of genetics, size distribution and coda vocalizations 

(Mullin et al. 2003, Jaquet 2006; Jochens et al. 2008). These studies, like almost all studies to date, rely 

almost exclusively on sperm whales from the northern Gulf, with greatest density along and deeper than 

the 1000 m depth contour, and do not adequately represent sperm whales that may occur regularly in the 

central, western, southern, or eastern Gulf (for example, Ortega-Ortiz 2003). It is very likely, though, that 

sperm whales of the north-central Gulf, present there throughout the year (Davis et al. 1998), are more 

numerous than in other parts of the Gulf (Jochens et al 2008). Based on this information NMFS is 
104

currently consideringwhether to list the sperm whale population in the northern Gulf of Mexico as a 

separate species, however, the IWC, does not recognize these sperm whales as a separate stock. 

In the Northern Indian Ocean the International Whaling Commission recognized differences between 

sperm whales in the northern and southern Indian Ocean (Donovan 1991). Little is known about the 

Northern Indian Ocean population of sperm whales (Perry et al. 1999). 

Several authors have proposed population structures that recognize at least three sperm whales 

populations in the North Pacific for management purposes (Kasuya 1991, Bannister and Mitchell 1980). 

At the same time, the IWC’s Scientific Committee designated two sperm whale stocks in the North 

Pacific: a western and eastern stock or population (Donovan 1991). The line separating these populations 

has been debated since their acceptance by the IWC’s Scientific Committee. For stock assessment 

purposes, NMFS recognizes three discrete population centers of sperm whales in the Pacific: (1) Alaska, 

(2) California-Oregon-Washington, and (3) Hawaii. 

Sperm whales are widely distributed throughout the Hawaiian Islands throughout the year and are the 

most abundant large whale in waters off Hawai'i during the summer and fall (Rice 1960, Shallenberger 

1981, Lee 1993, and Mobley et al. 2000). Sperm whale clicks recorded from hydrophones off Oahu 

confirm the presence of sperm whales near the Hawaiian Islands throughout the year (Thompson and 

Friedl 1982). The primary area of occurrence for the sperm whale is seaward of the shelf break in the 

Hawaiian Islands. 

Sperm whales south of the equator are generally treated as a single “population,” although the 

International Whaling Commission divides these whales into nine different divisions that are based more 

on evaluations of whaling captures than the biology of sperm whales (Donovan 1991). Several authors, 

however, have argued that the sperm whales that occur off the Galapagos Islands, mainland Ecuador, and 

northern Peru are geographically distinct from other sperm whales in the Southern Hemisphere (Rice 

1977, Wade and Gerrodette 1993, and Dufault and Whitehead 1995). 
105

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Sperm whales are hunted by killer whales (Orcinus orca), false killer whales 

(Pseudorca crassidens), and short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas; Arnbom et al. 1987, Palacios 

and Mate 1996, Rice 1989, Weller et al. 1996, Whitehead 1995). Sperm whales have been observed with 

bleeding wounds on their heads and tail flukes after attacks by these species (Arnbom et al. 1987, Dufault 

and Whitehead 1995). 

Studies on sperm whales in the North Pacific and North Atlantic Oceans have demonstrated that sperm 

whales are infected by caliciviruses and papillomavirus (Smith and Latham 1978, Lambertsen et al.

1987). In some instances, these diseases have been demonstrated to affect 10 percent of the sperm whales 

sampled (Lambertsen et al. 1987). 

Anthropogenic threats. Three human activities are known to threaten sperm whales: whaling, 

entanglement in fishing gear, and shipping. Historically, whaling represented the greatest threat to every 

population of sperm whales and was ultimately responsible for listing sperm whales as an endangered 

species. Sperm whales were hunted all over the world during the 1800s, largely for spermaceti oil and 

ambergris. Harvesting of sperm whales subsided by 1880 when petroleum replaced the need for sperm 

whale oil (Whitehead 2003). 

The actual number of sperm whales killed by whalers remains unknown and some of the estimates of 

harvest numbers are contradictory. Between 1800 and 1900, the International Whaling Commission 

estimated that nearly 250,000 sperm whales were killed globally by whalers. From 1910 to 1982, another 

700,000 sperm whales were killed globally by whalers (IWC Statistics 1959-1983). These estimates are 

substantially higher than a more recent estimate produced by Caretta et al. (2005), however, who 

estimated that at least 436,000 sperm whales were killed by whalers between 1800 and 1987. Hill and 

DeMaster (1999) concluded that about 258,000 sperm whales were harvested in the North Pacific 

between 1947 and 1987 by commercial whalers. They reported that catches in the North Pacific increased 

until 1968, when 16,357 sperm whales were harvested, then declined after 1968 because of harvest limits 

imposed by the IWC. Perry et al. (1999) estimated that, on average, more than 20,000 sperm whales were 

harvested in the Southern Hemisphere each year between 1956 and 1976. 

For the Atlantic Four hundred twenty-four sperm whales were harvested in the Newfoundland-Labrador 

area between 1904 and 1972 and 109 male sperm whales were taken near Nova Scotia in 1964-1972 

(Mitchell and Kozicki 1984) in a Canadian whaling fishery. There was also a well-documented sperm 

whale fishery based on the west coast of Iceland. Other sperm whale catches occurred near West 
106

Greenland, the Azores, Madeira, Spain, Spanish Morocco, Norway (coastal and pelagic), the Faroes, and 

Britain. At present, because of their general offshore distribution, sperm whales are less likely to be 

impacted by humans and those impacts that do occur are less likely to be recorded. There has been no 

complete analysis and reporting of existing data on this topic for the western North Atlantic. 

These reports probably underestimate the actual number of sperm whales that were killed by whalers, 

particularly because they could not have incorporated realistic estimates of the number of sperm whales 

killed by Soviet whaling fleets, which often went unreported. Between 1947 and 1973, Soviet whaling 

fleets engaged in illegal whaling in the Indian, North Pacific, and southern Oceans. In the Southern 

Hemisphere, these whalers killed an estimated 100,000 whales that they did not report to the International 

Whaling Commission (Yablokov et al. 1998). Illegal catches in the Northern Hemisphere (primarily in 

the North Pacific) were smaller but still caused sperm whales to disappear from large areas of the North 

Pacific Ocean (Yablokov and Zemsky 2000). 

In addition to large and illegal harvests of sperm whales, Soviet whalers had disproportionate effect on 

sperm whale populations because they commonly killed adult females in any reproductive condition 

(pregnant or lactating) as well as immature sperm whales of either gender. 

When the International Whaling Commission introduced the International Observer Scheme in 1972, the 

IWC relaxed regulations that limited the minimum length of sperm whales that could be caught from 11.6 

meters to 9.2 meters out of a concern that too many male sperm whales were being caught so reducing 

this size limit would encourage fleets to catch more females. Unfortunately, the IWC’s decision had been 

based on data from the Soviet fleets who commonly reported female sperm whales as males. As a result, 

the new regulations allowed the Soviet whalers to continue their harvests of female and immature sperm 

whales legally, with substantial consequences for sperm whale populations. Berzin noted in a report he 

wrote in 1977, “the result of this was that some breeding areas for sperm whales became deserts” (Berzin 

2007). 

In U.S. waters in the Pacific Ocean, sperm whales are known to have been incidentally captured only in 

drift gillnet operations, which killed or seriously injured an average of 9 sperm whales per year from 1991 

- 1995 (Barlow et al. 1997). Interactions between longline fisheries and sperm whales in the Gulf of 

Alaska have been reported over the past decade (Rice 1989, Hill and DeMaster 1999). Observers aboard 

Alaskan sablefish and halibut longline vessels have documented sperm whales feeding on fish caught in 

longline gear in the Gulf of Alaska. During 1997, the first entanglement of a sperm whale in Alaska’s 

longline fishery was recorded, although the animal was not seriously injured (Hill and DeMaster 1998). 
107

The available evidence does not indicate sperm whales are being killed or seriously injured as a result of 

these interactions, although the nature and extent of interactions between sperm whales and long-line gear 

is not yet clear. 

Several sperm whale entanglements have been documented in the North Atlantic. In July 1990, a sperm 

whale was entangled and subsequently released (injured) from the now prohibited pelagic drift gillnet 

near the continental shelf edge on southern Georges Bank. In August 1993, a dead sperm whale, with 

longline gear wound tightly around the jaw, was found floating about 20 miles off Mt Desert Rock. In 

October 1994, a sperm whale was successfully disentangled from a fine- mesh gillnet in Birch Harbor, 

Maine. During June 1995, one sperm whale was entangled with “gear in/around several body parts” then 

released injured from a pelagic drift gillnet haul located on the shelf edge between Oceanographer and 

Hydrographer Canyons on Georges Bank. In May 1997, a sperm whale entangled in net with three buoys 

trailing was sighted 130 nm northwest of Bermuda. No information on the status of the animal was 

provided. 

Sperm whales are also killed by ship strikes. In May 1994 a sperm whale that had been struck by a ship 

was observed south of Nova Scotia (Reeves and Whitehead 1997) and in May 2000 a merchant ship 

reported a strike in Block Canyon (NMFS, unpublished data), which is a major pathway for sperm whales 

entering southern New England continental shelf waters in pursuit of migrating squid (CeTAP 1982, Scott 

and Sadove 1997). One sperm whale died as the result of a ship strike in Oregon in 2007 (NMFS 

Northwest Regional Stranding data, unpublished). 

Status 

Sperm whales were listed as endangered under the ESA in 1973. Sperm whales have been protected from 

commercial harvest by the International Whaling Commission since 1981, although the Japanese 

continued to harvest sperm whales in the North Pacific until 1988 (Reeves and Whitehead 1997). They 

are also protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and 

Fauna and the MMPA. Critical habitat has not been designated for sperm whales. 

The status and trend of sperm whales at the time of this summary is largely unknown. Allen and Angliss 

(2012) reported that estimates for population abundance, status, and trends for sperm whales off the coast 

of Alaska were not available when they prepared the Stock Assessment Report for marine mammals off 

Alaska. Similarly, no information was available to support estimates of sperm whales status and trends in 

the western North Atlantic Ocean (Waring et al. 2007), the Indian Ocean (Perry et al. 1999), or the 

Mediterranean Sea. 
108

Nevertheless, several authors and organizations have published “best estimates” of the global abundance 

of sperm whales or their abundance in different geographic areas. Based on historic whaling data,190,000 

sperm whales were estimated to have been in the entire North Atlantic, but the IWC considers data that 

produced this estimate unreliable (Perry et al. 1999). Whitehead (2002) estimated that prior to whaling 

sperm whales numbered around 1,110,000 and that the current global abundance of sperm whales is 

around 360,000 (coefficient of variation = 0.36) whales. Whitehead’s current population estimate (2002) 

is about 20% of past global abundance estimates which were based on historic whaling data. 

Waring et al. (2007) concluded that the best estimate of the number of sperm whales along the Atlantic 

coast of the U.S. was 4,804 (coefficient of variation = 0.38) in 2004, with a minimum estimate of 3,539 

sperm whales in the western North Atlantic Ocean. 

The information available on the status and trend of sperm whales do not allow us to make a definitive 

statement about the extinction risks facing sperm whales as a species or particular populations of sperm 

whales. However, the evidence available suggests that sperm whale populations probably exhibit the 

dynamics of small populations, causing their population dynamics to become a threat in and of itself. The 

number of sperm whales killed by Soviet whaling fleets in the 1960s and 1970s would have substantial 

and adverse consequence for sperm whale populations and their ability to recover from the effects of 

whaling on their population. The number of adult females killed by Soviet whaling fleets, including 

pregnant and lactating females whose death would also have resulted in the death of their calves, would 

have had a devastating effect on sperm whale populations. In addition to decimating their population size, 

whaling would have skewed sex ratios in their populations, created gaps in the age structure of their 

populations, and would have had lasting and adverse effect on the ability of these populations to recover 

(for example, see Whitehead 2003). 

Data regarding the abundance and trends for sperm whales in the Atlantic are sparse. An abundance of 

2,607 (CV=0.57) for sperm whales was estimated from a line-transect sighting survey conducted 345 

during 12 June to 4 August 2004 by a ship and plane that surveyed 10,761 km of track line in waters 

north of Maryland (about 38oN) to the Bay of Fundy (about 45oN) (Palka 2006). 

A survey of the U.S. Atlantic outer continental shelf and continental slope (water depths>50 m) between 

Florida and Maryland (27.5 and 38oN) was conducted during June-August, 2004. Survey effort was 

stratified to include increased effort along the continental shelf break and Gulf Stream front in the midAtlantic. The survey included 5,659 km of trackline, and there were a total of 473 cetacean sightings. 

Sightings were most frequent in waters north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina along the shelf break. The 
109

resulting abundance estimate for sperm whales between Florida and Maryland was 2,197 (CV=0.47) 

(Waring et al 2010). 

Populations of sperm whales could not have recovered from the overharvests of adult females and 

immature whales in the 30 to 40 years that have passed since the end of whaling, but the information 

available does not allow us to determine whether and to what degree those populations might have 

stabilized or whether they have begun the process of recovering from the effects of whaling. Absent 

information to the contrary, we assume that sperm whales will have elevated extinction probabilities 

because of both exogenous threats caused by anthropogenic activities (primarily whaling, entanglement, 

and ship strikes) and natural phenomena (such as disease, predation, or changes in the distribution and 

abundance of their prey in response to changing climate) as well as endogenous threats caused by the 

legacy of overharvests of adult females and immature whales on their populations (that is, a population 

with a disproportion of adult males and older animals coupled with a small percentage of juvenile whales 

that recruit into the adult population). 

Diving and Social Behavior 

Sperm whales are probably the deepest and longest diving mammal: they can dive to depths of at least 

2000 meters (6562 ft), and may remain submerged for an hour or more (Watkins et al. 1993). Typical 

foraging dives last 40 min and descend to about 400 m followed by about 8 min of resting at the surface 

(Gordon 1987; Papastavrou et al. 1989). However, dives of over 2 hr and as deep as 3,000 m have been 

recorded (Clarke 1976; Watkins et al. 1985). Descent rates recorded from echo-sounders were 

approximately 1.7m/sec and nearly vertical (Goold and Jones 1995). There are no data on diurnal 

differences in dive depths in sperm whales. However, like most diving vertebrates for which there are 

data (e.g. rorqual whales, fur seals, chinstrap penguins), sperm whales probably make relatively shallow 

dives at night when organisms from the ocean’s deep scattering layers move toward the ocean’s surface. 

The groups of closely related females and their offspring develop dialects specific to the group (Weilgart 

and Whitehead 1997) and females other than birth mothers will guard young at the surface (Whitehead 

1996) and will nurse young calves (Reeves and Whitehead 1997). 

Vocalizations and Hearing 

Sperm whales produce loud broad-band clicks from about 0.1 to 20 kHz (Weilgart and Whitehead 1993, 

1997; Goold and Jones 1995). These have source levels estimated at 171 dB re 1 Pa (Levenson 1974). 

Current evidence suggests that the disproportionately large head of the sperm whale is an adaptation to 
110

produce these vocalizations (Norris and Harvey 1972; Cranford 1992; but see Clarke 1979). This suggests 

that the production of these loud low frequency clicks is extremely important to the survival of individual 

sperm whales. The function of these vocalizations is relatively well-studied (Weilgart and Whitehead 

1993, 1997; Goold and Jones 1995). Long series of monotonous regularly spaced clicks are associated 

with feeding and are thought to be produced for echolocation. Distinctive, short, patterned series of clicks, 

called codas, are associated with social behavior and intragroup interactions; they are thought to facilitate 

intra-specific communication, perhaps to maintain social cohesion with the group (Weilgart and 

Whitehead 1993). 

A general description of the anatomy of the ear for cetaceans is provided in the description of the blue 

whale above. The only data on the hearing range of sperm whales are evoked potentials from a stranded 

neonate (Carder and Ridgway 1990). These data suggest that neonatal sperm whales respond to sounds 

from 2.5-60 kHz. Sperm whales have been observed to frequently stop echolocating in the presence of 

underwater pulses made by echosounders and submarine sonar (Watkins and Schevill 1975; Watkins et 

al. 1985). They also stop vocalizing for brief periods when codas are being produced by other individuals, 

perhaps because they can hear better when not vocalizing themselves (Goold and Jones 1995). Sperm 

whales have moved out of areas after the start of air gun seismic testing (Davis et al. 1995). Seismic air 

guns produce loud, broadband, impulsive noise (source levels can be on the order of 250 dB) with “shots” 

fired typically every 15 seconds, 240 shots per hour, 24 hours per day during active tests. Because they 

spend large amounts of time at depth and use low frequency sound sperm whales are likely to be 

susceptible to low frequency sound in the ocean (Croll et al 1999). Furthermore, because of their apparent 

role as important predators of mesopelagic squid and fish, changing the abundance of sperm whales 

should affect the distribution and abundance of other marine species. 

Green Sea Turtle 

Distribution 

Green sea turtles are distributed circumglobally, and can be found in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic 

Oceans, Caribbean Sea, as well as the Mediterranean Sea (NMFS and USFWS 1991, 2007d; Seminoff 

2004), primarily in tropical or, to a lesser extent, subtropical waters. These regions can be further divided 

into nesting aggregations within the eastern, central, and western Pacific Ocean; the western, northern, 

and eastern Indian Ocean; Mediterranean Sea; and eastern, southern, and western Atlantic Ocean, 

including the Caribbean Sea. 
111

Green turtles appear to prefer waters that usually remain around 20oC in the coldest month. During warm 

spells (e.g., El Niño), green turtles may be found considerably north of their normal distribution. Stinson 

(1984) found green turtles appear most frequently in U.S. coastal waters with temperatures exceeding 

18C. An east Pacific green turtle equipped with a satellite transmitter was tracked along the California 

coast and showed a distinct preference for waters with temperatures above 20C (Eckert, unpublished 

data). 

Further, green sea turtles seem to occur preferentially in drift lines or surface current convergences, 

probably because of the prevalence of cover and higher densities of their food items associated with these 

oceanic phenomena. For example, in the western Atlantic Ocean, drift lines commonly contain floating 

Sargassum capable of providing small turtles with shelter and sufficient buoyancy to raft upon (NMFS 

and USFWS 1998a). Underwater resting sites include coral recesses, the underside of ledges, and sand 

bottom areas that are relatively free of strong currents and disturbance from natural predators and humans. 

Available information indicates that green turtle resting areas are in proximity to their feeding pastures 

(NMFS 2000). 

Pacific Ocean 

Green sea turtles occur in the western, central, and eastern Pacific. Foraging areas are located throughout 

the Pacific and along the southwestern U.S. coast (NMFS and USFWS 1998b). In the western Pacific, 

major nesting rookeries at four sites including Heron Island (Australia), Raine Island (Australia), Guam, 

and Japan were evaluated. Three where determined to be increasing in abundance, while the population in 

Guam appears stable (NMFS and USFWS 2007d). In the central Pacific, nesting occurs on French Frigate 

Shoals, Hawaii, which has also been reported as increasing (NMFS and USFWS 2007d). The main 

nesting sites for green sea turtles in the eastern Pacific are located in Michoacan, Mexico and in the 

Galapagos Islands, Ecuador (NMFS and USFWS 2007d). The number of nesting females per year 

exceeds 1,000 females at each site (NMFS and USFWS 2007d). However, historically, more than 20,000 

females per year are believed to have nested in Michoacan alone (Cliffton et al. 1982; NMFS and USFWS 

2007d). The Pacific Mexico green turtle nesting population (also called the black turtle) is considered 

endangered. 

Historically, green sea turtles were caught for food in many areas of the Pacific. They also were 

commercially exploited, which, coupled with habitat degradation, led to their decline in the Pacific 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998b). Green sea turtles in the Pacific continue to be affected by poaching, habitat 
112

loss or degradation, fishing gear interactions, and fibropapillomatosis, which is a viral disease that causes 

tumors in affected turtles (NMFS and USFWS 1998b; NMFS 2004d). 

Indian Ocean 

There are numerous nesting sites for green sea turtles in the Indian Ocean. One of the largest nesting sites 

for green sea turtles worldwide occurs on the beaches of Oman where an estimated 20,000 green sea 

turtles nest annually (Hirth 1997; Ferreira et al. 2003). Based on a review of the 32 Index Sites used to 

monitor green sea turtle nesting worldwide, Seminoff (2004) concluded that declines in green sea turtle 

nesting were evident for many of the Indian Ocean Index Sites. While several of these had not 

demonstrated further declines in the recent past, only the Comoros Island Index Site in the western Indian 

Ocean showed evidence of increased nesting (Seminoff 2004). 

Mediterranean Sea 

There are four nesting concentrations of green sea turtles in the Mediterranean from which data are 

available – Turkey, Cyprus, Israel, and Syria. Currently, approximately 300-400 females nest each year, 

about two-thirds of which nest in Turkey and one-third in Cyprus. Although green sea turtles are depleted 

from historic levels in the Mediterranean Sea (Kasparek et al. 2001), nesting data gathered since the early 

1990s in Turkey, Cyprus, and Israel show no apparent trend in any direction. However, a declining trend 

is apparent along the coast of Palestine/Israel, where 300-350 nests were deposited each year in the 1950s 

(Sella 1982) compared to a mean of six nests per year from 1993-2004 (Kuller 1999; Y. Levy, Israeli Sea 

Turtle Rescue Center, unpublished data). A recent discovery of green sea turtle nesting in Syria adds 

roughly 100 nests per year to green sea turtle nesting activity in the Mediterranean (Rees et al. 2005). 

That such a major nesting concentration could have gone unnoticed until recently (the Syrian coast was 

surveyed in 1991, but nesting activity was attributed to loggerheads) bodes well for the speculation that 

the unsurveyed coast of Libya may also host substantial nesting. 

Atlantic Ocean 

In the western Atlantic, large juvenile and adult green sea turtles are largely herbivorous, occurring in 

habitats containing benthic algae and seagrasses from Massachusetts to Argentina, including the Gulf of 

Mexico and Caribbean (Wynne and Schwartz 1999). Green sea turtles occur seasonally in Mid-Atlantic 

and Northeast waters such as Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound (Musick and Limpus 1997; 

Morreale and Standora 1998; Morreale et al. 2005), which serve as foraging and developmental habitats. 
113

Some of the principal feeding areas in the western Atlantic Ocean include the upper west coast of Florida, 

the Florida Keys, and the northwestern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula. Additional important foraging 

areas in the western Atlantic include the Mosquito and Indian River Lagoon systems and nearshore 

wormrock reefs between Sebastian and Ft. Pierce Inlets in Florida, Florida Bay, the Culebra archipelago 

and other Puerto Rico coastal waters, the south coast of Cuba, the Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua, the 

Caribbean coast of Panama, and scattered areas along Colombia and Brazil (Hirth 1971). 

Population Structure 

The population dynamics of green sea turtles and all of the other sea turtles we consider here are usually 

described based on the distribution and habit of nesting females, rather than their male counterparts. The 

spatial structure of male sea turtles and their fidelity to specific coastal areas is unknown; however, we 

describe sea turtle populations based on the nesting beaches that female sea turtles return to when they 

mature. Because the patterns of increase or decrease in the abundance of sea turtle nests over time are 

determined by internal dynamics rather than external dynamics, we make inferences about the growth or 

decline of sea turtle populations based on the status and trend of their nests. 

Primary nesting aggregations of green turtles (i.e. sites with greater than 500 nesting females per year) 

include: Ascension Island (south Atlantic Ocean), Australia, Brazil, Comoros Islands, Costa Rica, 

Ecuador (Galapagos Archipelago), Equatorial Guinea (Bioko Island), Guinea-Bissau (Bijagos 

Archipelago), Iles Eparses Islands (Tromelin Island, Europa Island), Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, 

Oman, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles Islands, Suriname, and United States (Florida; Seminoff 

2002, NMFS and USFWS 1998a). 

Smaller nesting aggregations include: Angola, Bangladesh, Bikar Atoll, Brazil, Chagos Archipelago, 

China, Costa Rica, Cuba, Cyprus, Democratic Republic of Yemen, Dominican Republic, d'Entrecasteaux 

Reef, French Guiana, Ghana, Guyana, India, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives Islands, Mayotte 

Archipelago, Mexico, Micronesia, Pakistan, Palmerston Atoll, Papua New Guinea, Primieras Islands, Sao 

Tome é Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, 

Turkey, Scilly Atoll, United States (Hawai’i), Venezuela, and Vietnam (Seminoff 2002). 

Molecular genetics techniques have helped researchers gain insight into the distribution and ecology of 

migrating and nesting green turtles. In the Pacific Ocean, green sea turtles group into two distinct 

regional clades: (1) western Pacific and South Pacific islands, and (2) eastern Pacific and central Pacific, 

including the rookery at French Frigate Shoals, Hawai’i. In the eastern Pacific, greens forage coastally 

from San Diego Bay, California in the north to Mejillones, Chile in the South. Based on mtDNA 
114

analyses, green turtles found on foraging grounds along Chile’s coast originate from the Galapagos 

nesting beaches, while those greens foraging in the Gulf of California originate primarily from the 

Michoacan nesting stock. Green turtles foraging in San Diego Bay and along the Pacific coast of Baja 

California originate primarily from rookeries of the Islas Revillagigedos (Dutton 2003). 

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. Green sea turtles face many of the same natural threats as loggerhead and Kemp’s 

ridley sea turtles. In addition, green sea turtles appear to be particularly susceptible to fibropapillomatosis, 

an epizootic disease producing lobe-shaped tumors on the soft portion of a turtle’s body and often fatal. 

Juveniles appear to have the highest incidence of disease and the most extensive lesions, whereas lesions 

in nesting adults are rare. Also, green sea turtles frequenting nearshore waters, areas adjacent to large 

human populations, and areas with low water turnover, such as lagoons, have a higher incidence of the 

disease than individuals in deeper, more remote waters. The occurrence of fibropapilloma tumors may 

result in impaired foraging, breathing, or swimming ability, leading potentially to death (George 1997). 

Green turtles in the northwest Hawai’ian Islands are afflicted with fibropapilloma, as well as 

spirochidiasis, both of which are the major causes of strandings of this species. The presence of 

fibropapillomatosis among stranded turtles has increased significantly over the past 17 years, ranging 

from 47-69 percent during the past decade (Murakawa et al. 2000). Green turtles captured off Molokai 

from 1982-96 showed a massive increase in the disease over this period, peaking at 61% prevalence in 

1995 (Balazs et al. 1998). Preliminary evidence suggests an association between the distribution of 

fibropapillomatosis in the Hawai’ian Islands and the distribution of toxic benthic dinoflagellates 

(Prorocentrum spp.) known to produce a tumor promoter, okadaic acid (Landsberg et al. 1999). 

Fibropapillomatosis is considered to decrease growth rates in afflicted turtles and may inhibit the growth 

rate of Hawai’ian green turtle populations (Balazs et al. 1998). 

Anthropogenic Threats. Three human activities are known to threaten green sea turtles: overharvests of 

individual animals, incidental capture in commercial fisheries, and human development of coastlines. 

Historically, the primary cause of the global decline of green sea turtles populations were the number of 

eggs and adults captured and killed on nesting beaches in combination with the number of juveniles and 

adults captured and killed in coastal feeding areas. Some populations of green sea turtles still lose large 

numbers of eggs, juveniles, and adults to subsistence hunters, local communities that have a tradition of 

harvesting sea turtles, and poachers in search of turtle eggs and meat. 
115

Green sea turtles were once the target of directed fisheries in the United States and throughout the 

Caribbean. In 1890, over one million pounds of green sea turtles were taken in a directed fishery in the 

Gulf of Mexico (Doughty 1984). However, declines in the turtle fishery throughout the Gulf of Mexico 

were evident by 1902 (Doughty 1984). 

Directed harvests of eggs and other life stages of green sea turtles were identified as a “major problem” in 

American Samoa, Guam, Palau, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of 

Micronesia, Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Unincorporated Islands (Wake, Johnston, Kingman, 

Palmyra, Jarvis, Howland, Baker, and Midway). In the Atlantic, green sea turtles are captured and killed 

in turtle fisheries in Colombia, Grenada, the Lesser Antilles, Nicaragua, St. Vincent and the Grenadines 

(Bräutigam and Eckert 2006); the turtle fishery along the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua has captured more 

than 11,000 green sea turtles each year for the past 10 years (Bräutigam and Eckert 2006, Lagueux 1998). 

Severe overharvests have resulted from a number of factors in modern times: (1) the loss of traditional 

restrictions limiting the number of turtles taken by island residents; (2) modernized hunting gear; (3) 

easier boat access to remote islands; (4) extensive commercial exploitation for turtle products in both 

domestic markets and international trade; (5) loss of the spiritual significance of turtles; (6) inadequate 

regulations; and (7) lack of enforcement (NMFS and USFWS 1998a). 

As with the other sea turtle species, incidental fishery mortality accounts for a large proportion of annual 

human-caused mortality outside the nesting beaches. Witherington et al. (2009) observes that because 

green sea turtles spend a shorter time in oceanic waters and as older juveniles occur on shallow seagrass 

pastures (where benthic trawling is unlikely), they avoid high mortalities in pelagic longline and benthic 

trawl fisheries. Although the relatively low number of observed green sea turtle captures makes it difficult 

to estimate bycatch rates and annual take levels, green sea turtles have been observed captured in the 

pelagic driftnet, pelagic longline, traps and pots, southeast shrimp trawl, and mid-Atlantic trawl and 

gillnet fisheries. Gillnets account for the highest number of green sea turtles that are captured and killed. 

Murray (2009a) also lists five observed captures of green turtle in Mid-Atlantic sink gillnet gear between 

1995 and 2006. 

Finkbeiner et al. (2011) compiled cumulative sea turtle bycatch information in U.S. fisheries from 1990 

through 2007, before and after implementation of bycatch mitigation measures. Information was obtained 

from peer reviewed publications and NMFS documents (e.g., Opinions and bycatch reports). In the 

Atlantic, a mean estimate of 137,700 bycatch interactions, of which 4,500 were mortalities, occurred 

annually (since implementation of bycatch mitigation measures). The Southeast/Gulf of Mexico shrimp 
116

trawl fishery was responsible for the vast majority of U.S. interactions (up to 98%) and mortalities (more 

than 80%). While this provides an initial cumulative bycatch assessment, there are a number of caveats 

that should be considered when interpreting this information, such as sampling inconsistencies and 

limitations. The most recent section 7 consultation on the shrimp fishery, completed in May 2012, was 

unable to estimate the total annual level of take for green sea turtles at present. Instead, it qualitatively 

estimated that the shrimp fishery, as currently operating, would result in at least hundreds and possibly 

low thousands of interactions annually, of which hundreds are expected to be lethal (NMFS 2012b).

Other activities like channel dredging, marine debris, pollution, vessel strikes, power plant impingement, 

and habitat destruction account for an unquantifiable level of other mortality. Stranding reports indicate 

that between 200-400 green sea turtles strand annually along the eastern U.S. coast from a variety of 

causes most of which are unknown (STSSN database). The most recent five-year status review for green 

sea turtles notes that global climate change is affecting the species and will likely continue as a threat to 

these turtles (NMFS and USFWS 2007d). Climate change may impact nesting beaches through sea level 

rise which may reduce the availability of nesting habitat and increase the risk of nest inundation as well as 

skewing sex ratios of sea turtle populations. Loss of appropriate nesting habitat may also be accelerated 

by a combination of other environmental and oceanographic changes, such as an increase in the frequency 

of storms and/or changes in prevailing currents, both of which could lead to increased beach loss via 

erosion. Oceanic changes related to rising water temperatures could result in changes in the abundance 

and distribution of the primary food sources of green sea turtles, which in turn could result in changes in 

behavior and distribution of this species. Seagrass habitats may suffer from decreased productivity and/or 

increased stress due to sea level rise, as well as salinity and temperature changes (Short and Neckles 

1999; Duarte 2002). 

Status 

Green turtles are listed as threatened under the ESA, except for breeding populations found in Florida and 

the Pacific coast of Mexico, which are listed as endangered. Seminoff (2002) estimates using a 

conservative approach that the global green turtle population has declined by 34% to 58% over the last 

three generations (approximately 150 years). Actual declines may be closer to 70% to 80%. Causes for 

this decline include harvest of eggs, subadults and adults, incidental capture by fisheries, loss of habitat, 

and disease. Critical habitat was designated in 1998 for green turtles in coastal waters around Culebra 

Island, Puerto Rico, and its outlying keys. 
117

While some nesting populations of green turtles appear to be stable or increasing in the Atlantic Ocean 

(e.g. Bujigos Archipelago (Guinea-Bissau), Ascension Island, Tortuguero (Costa Rica), Yucatan 

Peninsula (Mexico), and Florida), declines of over 50% have been documented in the eastern (Bioko 

Island, Equatorial Guinea) and western Atlantic (Aves Island, Venezuela). Nesting populations in Turkey 

(Mediterranean Sea) have declined between 42% and 88% since the late 1970s. Population trend 

variations also appear in the Indian Ocean. Declines greater than 50% have been documented at Sharma 

(Republic of Yemen) and Assumption and Aldabra (Seychelles), while no changes have occurred at 

Karan Island (Saudi Arabia) or at Ras al Hadd (Oman). The number of females nesting annually in the 

Indian Ocean has increased at the Comoros Islands, Tromelin and maybe Europa Island (Iles Esparses; 

Seminoff 2002). 

Green turtles are thought to be declining throughout the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of Hawaii, as a 

direct consequence of a historical combination of overexploitation and habitat loss (Eckert 1993, 

Seminoff 2002). They are also thought to be declining in the Atlantic Ocean. However, like several of 

the species we have already discussed, the information available on the status and trend of green sea 

turtles do not allow us to make a definitive statement about the global extinction risks facing these sea 

turtles or risks facing particular populations (nesting aggregations) of these turtles. With the limited data 

available on green sea turtles, we do not know whether green sea turtles exist at population sizes large 

enough to avoid demographic phenomena that are known to increase the extinction probability of species 

that exist as “small” populations (that is, “small” populations experience phenomena such as demographic 

stochasticity, inbreeding depression and Allee effects, among others, that cause their population size to 

become a threat in and of itself) or if green sea turtles are threatened more by exogenous threats such as 

anthropogenic activities (entanglement, habitat loss, overharvests, etc.) or natural phenomena (such as 

disease, predation, or changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey in response to changing 

climate). Nevertheless, with the exception of the Hawaiian nesting aggregations, we assume that green 

sea turtles are endangered because of both anthropogenic and natural threats as well as changes in their 

population dynamics. 

Diving Behavior 

Based on the behavior of post-hatchlings and juvenile green turtles raised in captivity, we presume that 

those in pelagic habitats live and feed at or near the ocean surface, and that their dives do not normally 

exceed several meters in depth (Hazel et al. 2009; NMFS and USFWS 1998a). Recent data from Australia 

indicate green sea turtles rarely dive deep, staying in upper 8 m of the water column (Hazel et al. 2009). 

Here, daytime dives were shorter and shallower than were nighttime dives. Also, time spent resting and 
118

dive duration increased significantly with decreases in seasonal water temperatures. The maximum 

recorded dive depth for an adult green turtle was just over 106 m (Berkson 1967 in Lutcavage and Lutz 

1997), while subadults routinely dive to 20 m for 9-23 min, with a maximum recorded dive of over 1 h 

(Brill et al. 1995; I-Jiunn 2009). Green sea turtles along Taiwan may rest during long, shallow dives (IJiunn 2009). Dives by females may be shorter in the period leading up to nesting (I-Jiunn 2009). 

Hearing 

The information on green turtle hearing is limited. Ridgway et al. (1969) studied the auditory evoked 

potentials of three green sea turtles (in air and through mechanical stimulation of the ear) and concluded 

that their maximum sensitivity occurred from 300 to 400 Hz with rapid declines for tones at lower and 

higher frequencies. They reported an upper limit for cochlear potentials without injury of 2000 Hz and a 

practical limit of about 1000 Hz. This is similar to estimates for loggerhead sea turtles, which had most 

sensitive hearing between 250 and 1000 Hz, with rapid decline above 1000 Hz (Bartol et al. 1999). 

In a study of the auditory brainstem responses of subadult green sea turtles, Bartol and Ketten (2006) 

reported responses to frequencies between 100 and 500 Hz; with highest sensitivity between 200 and 400 

Hz. They reported that two juvenile green turtles had hearing sensitivities that were slightly broader in 

range: they responded to sounds at frequencies from 100 to 800 Hz, with highest hearing sensitivities 

between 600 to 700 Hz. In a more recent study, Piniak et al. (2012) reported an upper limit for auditory 

evoked potentials of about 1600 Hz in water with maximum sensitivity between 50 and 400 Hz and a 

sharp decline in sensitivity after 400 Hz for juvenile green turtles. 

Hawksbill Sea Turtle 

Distribution 

The hawksbill has a circumglobal distribution throughout tropical and, to a lesser extent, subtropical 

waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. Satellite tagged turtles have shown significant variation 

in movement and migration patterns. In the Caribbean, distance traveled between nesting and foraging 

locations ranges from a few kilometers to a few hundred kilometers (Byles and Swimmer 1994; HillisStarr et al. 2000; Horrocks et al. 2001; Lagueux et al. 2003; Miller et al. 1998; Prieto et al. 2001). 

Hawksbill sea turtles occur in tropical and subtropical seas of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

The species is widely distributed in the Caribbean Sea and western Atlantic Ocean, with individuals from 

several life history stages occurring regularly along southern Florida and the northern Gulf of Mexico 
119

(especially Texas)(Amos 1989); in the Greater and Lesser Antilles; and along the Central American 

mainland south to Brazil. 

In the continental U.S., hawksbill sea turtles have been reported in every state on the coast of the Gulf of 

Mexico and along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean from Florida to Massachusetts, except for Connecticut 

(Wallace et al. 2010); however, sightings of hawksbill sea turtles north of Florida are rare. The only 

states where hawksbill sea turtles occur with any regularity are Florida (particularly in the Florida Keys 

and the reefs off Palm Beach County on Florida’s Atlantic coast, where the warm waters of the Gulf 

Stream pass close to shore) and Texas (Bowen et al. 2007). In both of these states, most sightings are of 

post-hatchlings and juveniles that are believed to have originated from nesting beaches in Mexico. 

Hawksbill sea turtles have stranded along almost the entire Atlantic coast of the United States, although 

most stranding records occur south of Cape Canaveral, Florida, particularly in Palm Beach, Broward and 

Miami-Dade counties (Florida Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage database). Hawksbill sea turtles are very 

rare north of Florida, although they have been recorded as far north as Massachusetts. During their 

pelagic-stage, hawksbills disperse from the Gulf of Mexico and southern Florida in the Gulfstream 

Current, which could carry them offshore of Georgia and the Carolinas. As evidence of this, a pelagicstage hawksbill was captured 37 nautical miles east of Sapelo Island, Georgia in May 1994 (Parker 1995). 

There are also records of hawksbill sea turtles stranding on the coast of Georgia (Ruckdeschel et al.

2000), being captured in pound nets off Savannah, and being captured in summer flounder trawls 

(Epperly et al. 1995), gillnets (Epperly et al. 1995), and power plants off Georgia and the Carolinas. 

Within United States territories and U.S. dependencies in the Caribbean Region, hawksbill sea turtles nest 

principally in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, particularly on Mona Island and Buck Island. 

They also nest on other beaches on St. Croix, Culebra Island, Vieques Island, mainland Puerto Rico, St. 

John, and St. Thomas. Within the continental United States, hawksbill sea turtles nest only on beaches 

along the southeast coast of Florida and in the Florida Keys. 

Hawksbill sea turtles occupy different habitats depending on their life history stage. After entering the 

sea, hawksbill sea turtles occupy pelagic waters and occupy weedlines that accumulate at convergence 

points. When they grow to about 20-25 cm carapace length, hawksbill sea turtles reenter coastal waters 

where they inhabit and forage in coral reefs as juveniles, subadults and adults. Hawksbill sea turtles also 

occur around rocky outcrops and high energy shoals, where sponges grow and provide forage, and they 

are known to inhabit mangrove-fringed bays and estuaries, particularly along the eastern shore of 

continents where coral reefs are absent (Hildebrand 1987, Amos 1989). 
120

Population Structure 

Populations are distinguished generally by ocean basin and more specifically by nesting location. Our 

understanding of population structure is relatively poor. For example, genetic analysis of hawksbill sea 

turtles foraging off the Cape Verde Islands identified three closely-related haplotypes in a large majority 

of individuals sampled that did not match those of any known nesting population in the Western Atlantic, 

where the vast majority of nesting has been documented (McClellan et al. 2010; Monzon-Arguello et al. 

2010). 

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. The various habitat types hawksbill sea turtles occupy throughout their lives exposes 

these sea turtles to a wide variety of natural threats. The beaches on which hawksbill sea turtles nest and 

the nests themselves are threatened by hurricanes and tropical storms as well as the storm surges, sand 

accretion, and rainfall that are associated with hurricanes. Hatchlings are hunted by predators like herons, 

gulls, dogfish, and sharks. Adult hawksbill sea turtles are also killed by sharks and other large, marine 

predators.

Anthropogenic Threats. Three human activities are known to threaten hawksbill sea turtles: 

overharvests of individual animals, incidental capture in commercial fisheries, and human development of 

coastlines. Historically, the primary cause of the global decline of hawksbill sea turtle populations was 

overharvest by humans for subsistence and commercial purposes. In the Atlantic, hawksbill sea turtles 

are still captured and killed in turtle fisheries in Colombia, Grenada, the Lesser Antilles, Nicaragua, St. 

Vincent and the Grenadines (Bräutigam and Eckert 2006). Climate change may impact nesting beaches 

through sea level rise which may reduce the availability of nesting habitat and increase the risk of nest 

inundation as well as skewing sex ratios of sea turtle populations. Loss of appropriate nesting habitat may 

also be accelerated by a combination of other environmental and oceanographic changes, such as an 

increase in the frequency of storms and/or changes in prevailing currents, both of which could lead to 

increased beach loss via erosion. Oceanic changes related to rising water temperatures could result in 

changes in the abundance and distribution of the primary food sources of hawksbill sea turtles, which in 

turn could result in changes in behavior and distribution of this species. 

For centuries, hawksbill sea turtles have been captured for their shells, which have commercial value, 

rather than food (the meat of hawksbill sea turtles is considered to have a bad taste and can be toxic to 

humans; NMFS and USFWS 1998b). Until recently, tens of thousands of hawksbills were captured and 

killed each year to meet demand for jewelry, ornamentation, and whole stuffed turtles (Milliken and 

Tokunaga 1987 cited in Eckert 1993). In 1988, Japan’s imports from Jamaica, Haiti and Cuba 
121

represented some 13,383 hawksbills: it is extremely unlikely that this volume could have originated solely 

from local waters (Greenpeace 1989 in Eckert 1993). 

Although Japan banned the importation of turtle shell in 1994, domestic harvests of eggs and turtles 

continue in the United States, its territories, and dependencies, particularly in the Caribbean and Pacific 

Island territories. Large numbers of nesting and foraging hawksbill sea turtles are captured and killed for 

trade in Micronesia, the Mexican Pacific coast, southeast Asia and Indonesia (NMFS and USFWS 

1998b). In addition to the demand for the hawksbill’s shell, there is a demand for other products 

including leather, oil, perfume, and cosmetics. Before the U.S. certified Japan under the Pelly 

Amendment, Japan had been importing about 20 metric tons of hawksbill shell per year, representing 

approximately 19,000 turtles. 

The second most important threat to hawksbill sea turtles is the loss of nesting habitat caused by the 

expansion of resident human populations in coastal areas of the world and increased destruction or 

modification of coastal ecosystems to support tourism. Hawksbill sea turtles are also captured and killed 

in commercial fisheries. Along the Atlantic coast of the U.S., NMFS estimated that about 650 hawksbill 

sea turtles are captured in shrimp trawl fisheries each year in the Gulf of Mexico, with most of those sea 

turtles dying as a result of their capture. Each year, about 35 hawksbill sea turtles are captured in Atlantic 

pelagic longline fisheries. Although most of these turtles are released alive, these fisheries are expected 

to kill about 50 hawksbill sea turtles each year; the health effects of being captured on the sea turtles that 

survive remain unknown. 

Like green sea turtles, hawksbill sea turtles are threatened by domestic or domesticated animals that prey 

on their nests; artificial lighting that disorients adult female and hatchling sea turtles, which can 

dramatically increase the mortality rates of hatchling sea turtles; beach replenishment; ingestion and 

entanglement in marine debris; and environmental contaminants. 

Status 

Hawksbill sea turtles received protection on June 2, 1970 (35 FR 8495) under the Endangered Species 

Conservation Act and since 1973 have been listed as endangered under the ESA. Under Appendix I of the 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, hawksbill sea turtles 

are identified as “most endangered” (Baillie and Groombridge, 1996; Meylan and Donnelly, 1999). 

Critical habitat was designated in 1998 for hawksbill turtles in coastal waters surrounding Mona and 

Monito Islands, Puerto Rico. 
122

Hawksbill sea turtles are solitary nesters, which makes it difficult to estimate the size of their populations. 

There are no global estimates of the number of hawksbill sea turtles, but a minimum of 15,000 to 25,000 

females are thought to nest annually in more than 60 geopolitical entities (Groombridge and Luxmoore 

1989). Moderate populations appear to persist around the Solomon Islands, northern Australia, Palau, 

Persian Gule islands, Oman, and parts of the Seychelles (Groombridge 1982). In a more recent review, 

Groombridge and Luxmoore (1989) list Papua New Guinea, Queensland, and Western Australia as likely 

to host 500-1,000 nesting females per year, while Indonesia and the Seychelles may support >1,000 

nesting females. The largest known nesting colony in the world is located on Milman Island, Queensland, 

Australia where Loop (1995) tagged 365 hawksbills nesting within an 11 week period. With the 

exception of Mexico, and possibly Cuba, nearly all Wider Caribbean countries are estimated to receive 

<100 nesting females per year (Meylan 1989). 

Although no historical records of abundance are known, hawksbill sea turtles are considered to be 

severely depleted due to the fragmentation and low use of current nesting beaches (NMFS and USFWS 

2007b). Worldwide, an estimated 21,212-28,138 hawksbills nest each year among 83 sites. Among the 58 

sites with historic trends, all show a decline during the past 20 to 100 years. Among 42 sites for which 

recent trend data are available, 10 (24 percent) are increasing, three (7 percent) are stable and 29 (69 

percent) are decreasing. Encouragingly, nesting range along Mexico and Central America appears not to 

have contracted and estimates continue to increase as additional dedicated study is conducted in the 

eastern Pacific (Gaos et al. 2010). 

Of the 65 geopolitical units on which hawksbill sea turtles nest and where hawksbill nesting densities can 

be estimated, 38 geopolitical units have hawksbill populations that are suspected or known to be 

declining. Another 18 geopolitical units have experienced well-substantiated declines (NMFS and 

USFWS 1995). The largest remaining nesting concentrations occur on remote oceanic islands off 

Australia (Torres Strait) and the Indian Ocean (Seychelles) (McCann 2010). 

Hawksbill sea turtles, like green sea turtles, are thought to be declining globally as a direct consequence 

of a historical combination of overexploitation and habitat loss. However, like several of the species we 

have already discussed, the information available on the status and trend of hawksbill sea turtles does not 

allow us to make definitive statements about the global extinction risks facing these sea turtles or the risks 

facing particular populations (nesting aggregations) of these turtles. However, the limited data available 

suggests that several hawksbill sea turtles populations exist at sizes small enough to be classified as 

“small” populations (that is, populations that exhibit population dynamics that increase the extinction 

probabilities of the species or several of its populations) while others are large enough to avoid these 
123

problems. Exogenous threats such as overharvests and entanglement in fishing gear only increase their 

probabilities of becoming extinct in the foreseeable future. 

Atlantic nesting sites include: Antigua (Jumby Bay), the Turks and Caicos, Barbados, the Bahamas, 

Puerto Rico (Mona Island), the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Dominican Republic, Sao Tome, Guadaloupe, 

Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Martinique, Cuba (Doce Leguas Cays), Mexico (Yucatan Peninsula), 

Costa Rica (Tortuguero National Park), Guatemala, Venezuela, Bijagos Archipelago, Guinea-Bissau, and 

Brazil. 

Population increase has been greater in the Insular Caribbean than along the Western Caribbean Mainland 

or the eastern Atlantic (including Sao Tomé and Equatorial Guinea). Nesting populations of Puerto Rico 

appeared to be in decline until the early 1990s, but have universally increased during the survey periods. 

Mona Island now hosts 199-332 nesting females annually, and the other sites combined host 51-85 

nesting females annually (R.P. van Dam and C.E. Diez, unpublished data in NMFS and USFWS 2007b, 

C.E. Diez, Chelonia, Inc., in litt. to J. Mortimer 2006). The U.S. Virgin Islands have a long history of 

tortoiseshell trade (Schmidt 1916). At Buck Island Reef National Monument, protection has been in force 

since 1988, and during that time, hawksbill nesting has increased by 143 percent to 56 nesting females 

annually, with apparent spill over to beaches on adjacent St. Croix (Z. Hillis-Starr, National Park Service, 

in lett. to J. Mortimer 2006). However, St. John populations did not increase, perhaps due to the proximity 

of the legal turtle harvest in the British Virgin Islands (Z. Hillis-Starr, National Park Service, in litt. to J. 

Mortimer 2006). Populations have also been identified in Belize and Brazil as genetically unique 

(Hutchinson and Dutton 2007). An estimated 50 to 200 nests are laid per year in the Guinea-Bissau (Catry 

et al. 2009). 

Diving Behavior 

The duration of foraging dives in hawksbill sea turtles commonly depends on the size of the turtle: larger 

turtles diving deeper and longer. At a study site in the northern Caribbean, foraging dives were made 

only during the day and dive durations ranged from 19-26 minutes in duration at depths of 8-10 m. At 

night, resting dives ranged from 35-47 minutes in duration (Van Dam and Diez, 1997). 

Hearing 

There is no information on hawksbill sea turtle hearing. However, we assume that their hearing 

sensitivities will be similar to those of green and loggerhead sea turtles with their best hearing sensitivity 

in the low frequency range: from 50 to 400 Hz with rapid declines for tones at lower and higher 

frequencies with an upper limit of about 1600 Hz in water (Piniak et al. 2012). 
124

Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle 

Distribution 

The Kemp's ridley was formerly known only from the Gulf of Mexico and along the Atlantic coast of the 

U.S. (NMFS et al. 2011, TEWG 2000), as far north as the Grand Banks (Watson et al. 2004) and Nova 

Scotia (Bleakney 1955). However, recent records support Kemp’s ridley sea turtles distribution extending 

into the Azores and eastern north Atlantic (Deraniyagala 1938, Brongersma 1972, Fontaine et al. 1989a, 

Bolten and Martins 1990) and Mediterranean (Pritchard and Marquez 1973, Brongersma and Carr 1983, 

Tomas and Raga 2008, Insacco and Spadola 2010). The vast majority of individuals stem from breeding 

beaches at Rancho Nuevo on the Gulf of Mexico coast of Mexico. Females rarely leave the Gulf of 

Mexico and adult males do not migrate. Juveniles feed along the east coast of the United States up to the 

waters off Cape Cod, Massachusetts (Spotila 2004). A small number of individuals reach European 

waters (Brongersma 1972, Spotila 2004) and the Mediterranean (Pritchard and Marquez-M. 1973, Insacco 

and Spadola 2010). 

Juvenile Kemp’s ridley sea turtles are the second most abundant sea turtle in the mid-Atlantic region from 

New England, New York, and the Chesapeake Bay, south to coastal areas off North Carolina (Morreale et 

al. 2007; TEWG 2000; Schmid 1998; Wibbels et al. 2005). In the fall, they migrate south along the coast, 

forming one of the densest concentrations of Kemp’s ridley sea turtles outside of the Gulf of Mexico 

(Musick and Limpus 1997). 

Developmental habitats are defined by several characteristics, including sheltered coastal areas such as 

embayments and estuaries, and nearshore temperate waters shallower than 50 meters (NMFS and USFWS 

2007c), although it is not uncommon for adults to venture into deeper waters (Byles 1989a; Mysing and 

Vanselous 1989; Renaud et al. 1996; Shaver et al. 2005; Shaver and Wibbels 2007b). The suitability of 

these habitats depends on resource availability, with optimal environments providing rich sources of crabs 

and other invertebrates. 

Foraging areas documented along the U.S. Atlantic coast include Charleston Harbor, Pamlico Sound 

(Epperly et al. 1995c), Chesapeake Bay (Musick and Limpus 1997), Delaware Bay (Stetzar 2002), and 

Long Island Sound (Morreale and Standora 1993; Morreale et al. 2005). For instance, in the Chesapeake 

Bay, Kemp’s ridleys frequently forage in submerged aquatic grass beds for crabs (Musick and Limpus 

1997). Upon leaving Chesapeake Bay in autumn, juvenile Kemp’s ridleys migrate down the coast, 

passing Cape Hatteras in December and January (Musick and Limpus 1997). These larger juveniles are 

joined by juveniles of the same size from North Carolina and smaller juveniles from New York and New 
125

England to form one of the densest concentrations of Kemp’s ridleys outside of the Gulf of Mexico 

(Epperly et al. 1995a, 1995b; Musick and Limpus 1997). 

Population Structure 

The majority of Kemp’s ridleys nest along a single stretch of beach near Rancho Nuevo, Tamaulipas, 

Mexico (Carr 1963; NMFS and USFWS 2007c; NMFS et al. 2011). There is a limited amount of 

scattered nesting to the north and south of the primary nesting beach (NMFS and USFWS 2007c). 

Nesting often occurs in synchronized emergences termed arribadas. The number of recorded nests 

reached an estimated low of 702 nests in 1985, corresponding to fewer than 300 adult females nesting in 

that season (TEWG 2000; NMFS and USFWS 2007c; NMFS et al. 2011). Conservation efforts by 

Mexican and U.S. agencies have aided this species by eliminating egg harvest, protecting eggs and 

hatchlings, and reducing at-sea mortality through fishing regulations (TEWG 2000). Since the mid-1980s, 

the number of nests observed at Rancho Nuevo and nearby beaches has increased 14%-16% per year 

(Heppell et al. 2005), allowing cautious optimism that the population is on its way to recovery. An 

estimated 5,500 females nested in the State of Tamaulipas over a three-day period in May 2007 and more 

than 4,000 of those nested at Rancho Nuevo (NMFS and USFWS 2007c). In 2008, 17,882 nests were 

documented on Mexican nesting beaches (NMFS 2011b). There is limited nesting in the U.S., most of 

which is located in south Texas. Occasional nesting has been documented in North Carolina, South 

Carolina, and the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. Kemp’s ridley sea turtles are exposed to a wide variety of threats during every stage of 

their lives. Eggs and hatchlings on nesting beaches are preyed upon by coyotes, raccoons, coatis, skunks, 

ghost crabs, ants, and to lesser degrees hawks, vultures, grackles, and caracaras (Dodd 1988, Hirth 1971, 

Witzell 1983). Those hatchlings that reach the ocean are preyed upon by gulls, terns, sharks, and 

predatory fish (Dodd 1988). Sharks and other large marine predators prey on large juvenile Kemp’s 

ridley sea turtles. Kemp’s ridleys also face oceanographic-related events such as coldstunning. 

Although cold-stunning can occur throughout the range of the species, it may be a greater risk for sea 

turtles that use the more northern habitats of Cape Cod Bay and Long Island Sound (2009). In the last five 

years (2006-2010), the number of cold-stunned turtles on Cape Cod beaches averaged 115 Kemp’s 

ridleys, seven loggerheads, and seven greens (NMFS unpublished data). The numbers ranged from a low 

in 2007 of 27 Kemp's ridleys, five loggerheads, and five greens to a high in 2010 of 213 Kemp's ridleys, 

four loggerheads, and 14 greens. Annual cold stun events vary in magnitude; the extent of episodic major 
126

cold stunning events may be associated with numbers of turtles using Northeast U.S. waters in a given 

year, oceanographic conditions, and/or the occurrence of storm events in the late fall. Although many 

cold-stunned turtles can survive if they are found early enough, these events are a significant source of 

natural mortality for Kemp’s ridleys. 

Because of their restricted geographic distribution, the concentration of most nesting activity at one beach, 

and the frequency of hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico, hurricanes represent a substantial threat to Kemp’s 

ridley sea turtles. For example, in 1988 Hurricane Gilbert struck the primary nesting beach, destroyed 

many of the nests, and altered the structure of the nesting beach. 

Anthropogenic Threats. Like other sea turtle species, the severe decline in the Kemp’s ridley 

population appears to have been heavily influenced by a combination of exploitation of eggs, impacts 

from fishery interactions, loss of foraging habitat, and marine pollution. From the 1940s through the early 

1960s, nests from Rancho Nuevo were heavily exploited, but beach protection in 1967 helped to curtail 

this activity (NMFS et al. 2011). 

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles have been captured and killed by fishing gear in several Federal and state 

fisheries throughout their range. They have been captured in gear used in lobster fisheries and monkfish 

fisheries off the northeastern United States, pound net fisheries off eastern Long Island, the mid-Atlantic, 

and Chesapeake Bay; fisheries for squid, mackerel, butterfish, bluefish, summer flounder, Atlantic 

herring, weakfish, and the sargassum fishery. The most significant fishery-related threat to Kemp’s ridley 

sea turtles has been the number of sea turtles that have been captured and killed in the shrimp trawl 

fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. 

Although modifications to shrimp trawls have helped to reduce mortality of Kemp’s ridleys, a recent 

assessment found that the Southeast/Gulf of Mexico shrimp trawl fishery remained responsible for the 

vast majority of U.S. fishery interactions (up to 98%) and mortalities (more than 80%). Finkbeiner et al. 

(2011) compiled cumulative sea turtle bycatch information in U.S. fisheries from 1990 through 2007, 

before and after implementation of bycatch mitigation measures. Information was obtained from peer 

reviewed publications and NMFS documents (e.g., Opinions and bycatch reports). In the Atlantic, a mean 

estimate of 137,700 bycatch interactions, of which 4,500 were mortalities, occurred annually (since 

implementation of bycatch mitigation measures). Kemp’s ridleys interacted with fisheries most 

frequently, with the highest level of mean annual mortality (2,700), followed by loggerheads (1,400), 

greens (300), and leatherbacks (40). While this provides an initial cumulative bycatch assessment, there 

are a number of caveats that should be considered when interpreting this information, such as sampling 
127

inconsistencies and limitations. The most recent section 7 consultation on the shrimp fishery, completed 

in May 2012, was unable to estimate the total annual level of take for Kemp’s ridleys at present. Instead, 

it qualitatively estimated that the shrimp fishery, as currently operating, would result in at least tens of 

thousands and possibly hundreds of thousands of interactions annually, of which at least thousands and 

possibly tens of thousands are expected to be lethal (NMFS 2012a). 

Kemp’s ridley non-fisheries interactions have also been observed; for example, the Oyster Creek Nuclear 

Generating Station in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, recorded a total of 27 Kemp’s ridleys (15 of which were 

found alive) impinged or captured on their intake screens from 1992-2006 (NMFS 2006b), and 

interactions with coastal dredging remains a concern. NMFS’ biological biological opinions has required 

non-dredging “windows” to protect nesting females as well as relocation trawls that preceed dredging 

equipment to relocated turtles out of the dredge path. 

The recovery plan for Kemp’s ridley sea turtles (NMFS et al. 2011) identifies climate change as a threat; 

however, as with the other species discussed above, no significant climate change related impacts to 

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles have been observed to date. Atmospheric warming could cause habitat alteration 

which may change food resources such as crabs and other invertebrates. It may increase hurricane 

activity, leading to an increase in debris in nearshore and offshore waters, which may result in an increase 

in entanglement, ingestion, or drowning. In addition, increased hurricane activity may cause damage to 

nesting beaches or inundate nests with sea water. Atmospheric warming may change convergence zones, 

currents and other oceanographic features that are relevant to Kemp's ridleys, as well as changes in 

precipitation regimes and levels of nearshore runoff. 

Status 

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles were listed as endangered on December 2, 1970 (35 FR 18320). Internationally, 

the Kemp’s ridley is considered the most endangered sea turtle (NRC 1990b; USFWS 1999). There is no 

designated critical habitat for the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle. 

In 1947, 40,000 female Kemp’s ridley sea turtles were observed nesting on the beaches at Rancho Nuevo 

on a single day (Carr 1963, Hildebrand 1963). By the early 1970s, the estimate of mature female Kemp's 

ridleys had been reduced to 2,500-5,000 individuals. Between the years of 1978 and 1991 only 200 

Kemp's ridleys nested annually (TEWG 2000; USFWS and NMFS 1992). Today the Kemp's ridley 

population appears to be in the early stages of recovery. Nesting has increased steadily over the past 

decade and the total annual number of nests recorded at Rancho Nuevo and adjacent camps has exceeded 

10,000 in recent years. Over 20,000 nests were recorded in 2009 at Rancho Nuevo and adjacent camps. 
128

From 2002-2009, a total of 771 Kemp’s ridley nests have been documented on the Texas coast. This is 

more than nine times greater than the 81 nests recorded over the previous 54 years from 1948-2001, 

indicating an increasing nesting population in Texas. From 2005 through 2009, the number of nests from 

all monitored beaches indicate approximately 5,500 females are nesting each season in the Gulf of 

Mexico (NMFS and USFWS 2010b). 

The Turtle Expert Working Group (2000) estimated that the population size of Kemp’s ridley sea turtles 

grew at an average rate of l1.3 percent per year (95% C.I. slope = 0.096-0.130) between 1985 and 1998. 

Over the same time interval, hatchling production increased at a slightly slower rate (9.5% per year). 

Population models predict the population will grow 12-16% per year, for the near future, assuming 

current survival rates within each life stage remain constant (Heppell et al. 2005 in NMFS 2010b). 

Nesting has also expanded geographically, with a headstart program reestablishing nesting on South 

Padre Island starting in 1978. Growth remained slow until 1988, when rates of return started to grow 

slowly (Shaver and Wibbels 2007a). Nesting rose from 6 nests in 1996 to 128 in 2007, 195 in 2008, and 

197 in 2009. Texas nesting then experienced a decline similar to that seen in Mexico for 2010, with 140 

nests (National Park Service data, http://www.nps.gov/pais/naturescience/strp.htm), but nesting 

rebounded in 2011 with a record 199 nests (National Park Service data, 

http://www.nps.gov/pais/naturescience/current-season.htm). 

The number of adult males in the population is unknown, but sex ratios of hatchlings and immature 

Kemp’s ridleys suggest that the population is female-biased, suggesting that the number of adult males is 

less than the number of adult females (NMFS and USFWS 2007c). While there is cautious optimism for 

recovery, events such as the Deepwater Horizon oil release, and stranding events associated with 

increased skimmer trawl use and poor TED compliance in the northern Gulf of Mexico may dampen 

recent population growth. 

As with the other sea turtle species, fishery mortality accounts for a large proportion of annual humancaused mortality outside the nesting beaches, while other activities like dredging, pollution, and habitat 

destruction also contribute to annual human caused mortality, but the levels are unknown. Based on their 

five-year status review of the species, NMFS and USFWS (2007c) determined that Kemp’s ridley sea 

turtles should not be reclassified as threatened under the ESA. A revised bi-national recovery plan was 

published for public comment in 2010, and in September 2011, NMFS, USFWS, and the Services and the 

Secretary of Environment and Natural Resources, Mexico (SEMARNAT) released the second revision to 

the Kemp’s ridley recovery plan. Based on the information presented above, for purposes of this Opinion, 
129

we consider that the status of Kemp’s ridleys over the next ten years will be no worse than it is currently 

and that the species may actually be in the early stages of recovery, although this should be viewed in the 

context of a much larger population in the mid-20th century. 

Hearing 

There is no information on Kemp’s ridley sea turtle hearing. However, we assume that their hearing 

sensitivities will be similar to those of green and loggerhead sea turtles with their best hearing sensitivity 

in the low frequency range: from 50 to 400 Hz with rapid declines for tones at lower and higher 

frequencies and a practical upper limit of about 1600 Hz in water (Piniak et al. 2012). 

Leatherback Sea Turtle 

Distribution 

Leatherbacks are the largest living turtles and range farther than any other sea turtle species. Leatherbacks 

evolved physiological and anatomical adaptations that allow them to exploit cold waters (Frair et al. 1972; 

Greer et al. 1973; NMFS and USFWS 1995). High-latitude leatherback range in the Atlantic includes the 

North and Barents Seas, Newfoundland and Labrador, Argentina, and South Africa (Goff and Lien 1988; 

Hughes et al. 1998; Luschi et al. 2003; Luschi et al. 2006; Márquez 1990; Threlfall 1978). Pacific ranges 

extend to Alaska, Chile, and New Zealand (Brito 1998; Gill 1997; Hodge and Wing 2000). 

Leatherback sea turtles are highly migratory, exploiting convergence zones and upwelling areas in the 

open ocean, along continental margins, and in archipelagic waters (Morreale et al. 1994, Eckert 1998, 

Eckert 1999). In a single year, a leatherback may swim more than 10,000 kilometers (Eckert 1998). In 

the North Atlantic Ocean, leatherback turtles regularly occur in deep waters (>328 ft). An aerial survey in 

the north Atlantic observed leatherback turtles in continental shelf and pelagic environments with 

sightings in offshore waters ranging from 7-27o C (CETAP 1982). Juvenile leatherbacks usually stay in 

warmer, tropical waters >21o C (Eckert 2002). Males and females show some degree of natal homing to 

annual breeding sites (James et al. 2005). 

In the Pacific Ocean, leatherback turtles have been reported in all pelagic waters of the Pacific between 

71N and 47S latitude and in all other major pelagic ocean habitats (NMFS and USFWS 1998c). 

Leatherback turtles lead a completely pelagic existence, foraging widely in temperate waters except 

during the nesting season, when gravid females return to tropical beaches to lay eggs. Males are rarely 

observed near nesting areas, and it has been hypothesized that leatherback sea turtles probably mate 

outside of tropical waters, before females swim to their nesting beaches (Eckert and Eckert 1988). 
130

Population Structure 

Leatherback sea turtles are widely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, including the Atlantic, 

Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea (Casale et al. 2003, Ernst and Barbour 1972, 

Hamann et al. 2006b), although they are not known to nest there. These four main regional areas may 

further be divided into nesting aggregations. Leatherback turtles are found on the western and eastern 

coasts of the Pacific Ocean, with nesting aggregations in Mexico and Costa Rica (eastern Pacific) and 

Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, and Fiji (western 

Pacific). In the Atlantic Ocean, leatherback nesting aggregations have been documented in Gabon, Sao 

Tome and Principe, French Guiana, Suriname, and Florida. In the Caribbean, leatherbacks nest in the 

U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. In the Indian Ocean, leatherback nesting aggregations are reported 

in India and Sri Lanka, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Detailed population structure is unknown, 

but is likely dependent upon nesting beach location. 

Atlantic Ocean 

Previous genetic analyses of leatherbacks using only mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) resulted in an earlier 

determination that within the Atlantic basin there are at least three genetically different nesting 

populations: the St. Croix nesting population (U.S. Virgin Islands), the mainland nesting Caribbean 

population (Florida, Costa Rica, Suriname/French Guiana), and the Trinidad nesting population (D. L. 

Dutton, Bowen, Owens, Barragan, & Davis, 1999). Further genetic analyses using microsatellite markers 

in nuclear DNA along with the mtDNA data and tagging data has resulted in Atlantic Ocean leatherbacks 

now being divided into seven groups or breeding populations: Florida, Northern Caribbean, Western 

Caribbean, Southern Caribbean/Guianas, West Africa, South Africa, and Brazil (TEWG, 2007). 

Caribbean Sea

Nesting occurs in Puerto Rico, St. Croix, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, 

Suriname, and French Guiana (Bräutigam & Eckert, 2006; Márquez, 1990; J.R. Spotila et al., 1996). 

Mediterranean Sea 

Casale et al. (2003) reviewed the distribution of leatherback sea turtles in the Mediterranean. Among the 

411 individual records of leatherback sightings in the Mediterranean, there were no nesting records. 

Nesting in the Mediterranean is believed to be extremely rare, if it occurs at all. Leatherbacks found in 

Mediterranean waters originate from the Atlantic Ocean. 

Indian Ocean 
131

Leatherbacks nest in several areas around the Indian Ocean. These sites include Tongaland, South Africa 

(Pritchard 2002) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Andrews et al. 2002, Hamann et al. 2006b). 

Intensive survey and tagging work in 2001 provided new information on the level of nesting in the 

Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Andrews et al. 2002). Based on the survey and tagging work, it was 

estimated that 400-500 female leatherbacks nest annually on Great Nicobar Island (Andrews et al. 2002). 

The number of nesting females using the Andaman and Nicobar Islands combined was estimated to be 

around 1,000 (Andrews and Shanker 2002). Some nesting also occurs along the coast of Sri Lanka, 

although in much smaller numbers than in the past (Pritchard 2002). 

Pacific Ocean 

Leatherbacks are found from tropical waters north to Alaska within the North Pacific and is the most 

common sea turtle in the eastern Pacific north of Mexico (Eckert, 1993; Stinson, 1984; Wing & Hodge, 

2002). The west coast of Central America and Mexico hosts nesting from September-March, although 

Costa Rican nesting peaks during April-May (Chacón-Chaverri & Eckert, 2007; LGL Ltd., 2007). 

Leatherback nesting aggregations occur widely in the Pacific, including China, Malaysia, Papua New 

Guinea, Indonesia, Thailand, Australia, Fiji, the Solomon Islands, and Central America (P. H. Dutton et 

al., 2007; Limpus, 2002). Significant nesting also occurs along the Central American coast (Márquez, 

1990). Although not generally known to nest on Japanese shores, two nests were identified in the central 

Ryukyu Islands in 2002 (Kamezaki, Oki, Mizuno, Toji, & Doi, 2002). Leatherback nesting has been 

declining at all major Pacific Basin nesting beaches for the last two decades (Spotila et al. 1996, 2000; 

NMFS and USFWS 1998a, 2007b; Sarti et al. 2000). 

In the Pacific, nesting beaches in Mexico and Costa Rica (nesting occurs October through March) are a 

separate population from the western Pacific beaches (Benson et al., 2007; summary in NMFS and 

USFWS, 2007d; J. R. Spotila, 2004). In Costa Rica, leatherbacks nest at Playa Naranjo in Santa Rosa 

National Park, the second-most important nesting beach on the Pacific coast (Yañez, Gaos, & Aruaz, 

2010), Rio Oro on the Osa Peninsula, and at various beaches in Las Baulas National Park, which includes 

Playa Langosta and Playa Grande and contains the largest colony of leatherbacks in the Pacific (J. R. 

Spotila, 2004). Females typically lay six clutches per season (average nine days between nests), which 

incubate for 58–65 days (Lux, Reina, & Stokes, 2003). Limited nesting also occurs along Nicaragua, 

Panama, El Salvador, and Guatemala. ). A dramatic decline has been seen on nesting beaches in Pacific 

Mexico, where aerial survey data was used to estimate that tens of thousands of leatherback nests were 

laid on the beaches in the 1980s (Pritchard 1982), but a total of only 120 nests on the four primary index 

beaches (combined) were counted in the 2003-2004 season (Sarti Martinez et al. 2007). Since the early 
132

1980s, the Mexican Pacific population of adult female leatherback turtles has declined to slightly more 

than 200 during 1998-1999 and 1999-2000 (Sarti et al. 2000). Spotila et al. (2000) reported the decline of 

the leatherback nesting at Playa Grande, Costa Rica, which had been the fourth largest nesting group in 

the world and the most important nesting beach in the Pacific. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. The various habitat types leatherback sea turtles occupy throughout their lives exposes 

these sea turtles to a wide variety of natural threats. The beaches on which leatherback sea turtles nest 

and the nests themselves are threatened by hurricanes and tropical storms as well as the storm surges, 

sand accretion, and rainfall that are associated with hurricanes. Hatchlings are hunted by predators like 

herons, gulls, dogfish, and sharks. Larger leatherback sea turtles, including adults, are also killed by 

sharks and other large, marine predators. 

Anthropogenic Threats. Leatherback sea turtles are endangered by several human activities, including 

fisheries interactions, entanglement in fishing gear (e.g., gillnets, longlines, lobster pots, weirs), direct 

harvest, egg collection, the destruction and degradation of nesting and coastal habitat, boat collisions, and 

ingestion of marine debris (NMFS and USFWS 2007, TEWG 2007). 

The foremost threat is the number of leatherback turtles killed or injured in fisheries (Finkbeiner 2011). 

Leatherbacks seem to be the most vulnerable to entanglement in fishing gear, particularly trap/pot gear. 

This susceptibility may be the result of their body type (large size, long pectoral flippers, and lack of a 

hard shell), their diving and foraging behavior, their distributional overlap with the gear, their possible 

attraction to gelatinous organisms and algae that collect on buoys and buoy lines at or near the surface, 

and perhaps to the lightsticks used to attract target species in longline fisheries. Leatherbacks entangled in 

fishing gear generally have a reduced ability to feed, dive, surface to breathe, or perform any other 

behavior essential to survival (Balazs 1985). In addition to drowning from forced submergence, they may 

be more susceptible to boat strikes if forced to remain at the surface, and entangling lines can constrict 

blood flow resulting in tissue necrosis. The long-term impacts of entanglement on leatherback health 

remain unclear. 

Spotila (2000) concluded that a conservative estimate of annual leatherback fishery-related mortality 

(from longlines, trawls and gillnets) in the Pacific Ocean during the 1990s is 1,500 animals. He estimates 

that this represented about a 23% mortality rate (or 33% if most mortality was focused on the East Pacific 

population). Spotila (2000) asserts that most of the mortality associated with the Playa Grande nesting 

site was fishery related. 
133

Leatherback sea turtles are exposed to commercial fisheries in many areas of the Atlantic Ocean. For 

example, leatherback entanglements in fishing gear are common in Canadian waters where Goff and Lien 

(1988) reported that 14 of 20 leatherbacks encountered off the coast of Newfoundland and Labrador were 

entangled in fishing gear including salmon net, herring net, gillnet, trawl line and crab pot line. 

Leatherbacks are reported taken by the many other nations that participate in Atlantic pelagic longline 

fisheries (see NMFS 2001, for a complete description of take records), including Taiwan, Brazil, 

Trinidad, Morocco, Cyprus, Venezuela, Korea, Mexico, Cuba, U.K., Bermuda, People’s Republic of 

China, Grenada, Canada, Belize, France, and Ireland. 

In the Pacific Ocean, between 1,000 and 1,300 leatherback sea turtles are estimated to have been captured 

and killed in longline fisheries in 2000 (Lewison et al. 2004). Shallow-set longline fisheries based out of 

Hawai'i are estimated to have captured and killed several hundred leatherback sea turtles before they were 

closed in 2001. When they were re-opened in 2004, with substantial modifications to protect sea turtles, 

these fisheries were estimated to have captured and killed about 1 or 2 leatherback sea turtles each year. 

Between 2004 and 2008, shallow-set fisheries based out of Hawai'i are estimated to have captured about 

19 leatherback sea turtles, killing about 5 of these sea turtles. A recent biological opinion on these 

fisheries expected this rate of interaction and deaths to continue into the foreseeable future (NMFS 2012). 

Leatherback sea turtles have also been and are expected to continue to be captured and killed in the deepset based longline fisheries based out of Hawai'i and American Samoa. 

Leatherback interactions with the U.S. South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico shrimp fisheries are also 

known to occur (NMFS 2002a). Leatherbacks are likely to encounter shrimp trawls working in the coastal 

waters off the U.S. Atlantic coast (from Cape Canaveral, Florida through North Carolina) as they make 

their annual spring migration north. For many years, TEDs that were required for use in the U.S. South 

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico shrimp fisheries were less effective for leatherbacks as compared to the 

smaller, hard-shelled turtle species, because the TED openings were too small to allow leatherbacks to 

escape. To address this problem, NMFS issued a final rule on February 21, 2003, to amend the TED 

regulations (68 FR 8456, February 21, 2003). Modifications to the design of TEDs are now required in 

order to exclude leatherbacks as well as large benthic immature and sexually mature loggerhead and 

green sea turtles. Given those modifications, Epperly et al. (2002) anticipated an average of 80 

leatherback mortalities a year in shrimp gear interactions but dropping to an estimate of 26 leatherback 

mortalities in 2009 due to effort reduction in the Southeast shrimp fishery (Memo from Dr. B. Ponwith, 

SEFSC, to Dr. R. Crabtree, SERO; January 5, 2011). 
134

Along the Atlantic coast of the U.S., NMFS estimated that about 800 leatherback sea turtles are captured 

in pelagic longline fisheries, bottom longline and drift gillnet fisheries for sharks as well as lobster, deepsea red crab, Jonah crab, dolphin fish and wahoo, and Pamlico Sound gillnet fisheries. For instance, an 

estimated 6,363 leatherback sea turtles were caught by the U.S. Atlantic tuna and swordfish longline 

fisheries between 1992 and 1999 (SEFSC 2001). Currently, the U.S. tuna and swordfish longline fisheries 

managed under the HMS FMP are estimated to capture 1,764 leatherbacks (no more than 252 mortalities) 

for each three-year period starting in 2007 (NMFS 2004c). In 2010, there were 26 observed interactions 

between leatherback sea turtles and longline gear used in the HMS fishery (Garrison and Stokes 2012). 

All leatherbacks were released alive, with all gear removed in 14 (53.8%) of the 26 captures. A total of 

171 (95% CI: 104.3-280.2) leatherback sea turtles are estimated to have interacted with the longline 

fisheries managed under the HMS FMP in 2010 based on the observed bycatch events (Garrison and 

Stokes 2012). The 2010 estimate continues a downward trend since 2007 and remains well below the 

average prior to implementation of gear regulations (Garrison and Stokes 2012). 

Leatherback sea turtles are known to drown in fish nets set in coastal waters of Sao Tome, West Africa 

(Castroviejo et al. 1994; Graff 1995). Gillnets are one of the suspected causes for the decline in the 

leatherback turtle population in French Guiana (Chevalier et al. 1999), and gillnets targeting green and 

hawksbill turtles in the waters of coastal Nicaragua also incidentally catch leatherback turtles (Lagueux et 

al. 1998). Observers on shrimp trawlers operating in the northeastern region of Venezuela documented 

the capture of six leatherbacks from 13,600 trawls (Marcano and Alio, 2000). An estimated 1,000 mature 

female leatherback turtles are caught annually off of Trinidad and Tobago with mortality estimated to be 

between 50-95% (Eckert and Lien, 1999). However, many of the turtles do not die as a result of 

drowning, but rather because the fishermen butcher them in order to get them out of their nets (NMFS 

2001). There are known to be many sizeable populations of leatherbacks nesting in West Africa, possibly 

as many as 20,000 females nesting annually (Fretey 2001). In Ghana, nearly two thirds of the leatherback 

turtles that come up to nest on the beach are killed by local fishermen. 

On some beaches, nearly 100% of the eggs laid have been harvested. Eckert (1996) and Spotila et al.

(1996) noted that adult mortality has also increased significantly, particularly as a result of driftnet and 

longline fisheries. Like green and hawksbill sea turtles, leatherback sea turtles are threatened by domestic 

or domesticated animals that prey on their nests; artificial lighting that disorients adult female and 

hatchling sea turtles, which can dramatically increase the mortality rates of hatchling sea turtles; beach 

replenishment; ingestion and entanglement in marine debris; and environmental contaminants. 
135

Leatherbacks may be more susceptible to marine debris ingestion than other sea turtle species due to the 

tendency of floating debris to concentrate in convergence zones that juveniles and adults use for feeding 

(Shoop and Kenney 1992; Lutcavage et al. 1997). Investigations of the necropsy results of leatherback sea 

turtles revealed that a substantial percentage (34% of the 408 leatherback necropsies recorded between 

1885 and 2007) reported plastic within the turtle’s stomach contents, and in some cases (8.7% of those 

cases in which plastic was reported), blockage of the gut was found in a manner that may have caused the 

mortality (Mrosovsky et al. 2009). An increase in reports of plastic ingestion was evident in leatherback 

necropsies conducted after the late 1960s (Mrosovsky et al. 2009). Along the coast of Peru, intestinal 

contents of 19 of 140 (13%) leatherback carcasses were found to contain plastic bags and film (Fritts 

1982). The presence of plastic debris in the digestive tract suggests that leatherbacks might not be able to 

distinguish between prey items (e.g., jellyfish) and plastic debris (Mrosovsky 1981). Balazs (1985) 

speculated that plastic objects may resemble food items by their shape, color, size, or even movements as 

they drift about, and induce a feeding response in leatherbacks. 

Status 

Leatherback sea turtles received protection on June 2, 1970 (35 FR 8491) under the Endangered Species 

Conservation Act and, since 1973, have been listed as endangered under the ESA, but declines in nesting 

have continued worldwide. In 1979, critical habitat for leatherback turtles was designated to include the 

coastal waters adjacent to Sandy Point, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. On September 26, 2007, NMFS 

received a petition to revise the critical habitat designation for leatherback sea turtles to include waters 

along the U.S. West Coast. On January 26, 2012, NMFS published a final rule to revise the critical 

habitat designation to include three particular areas of marine habitat. The designation includes 

approximately 16,910 square miles along the California coast from Point Arena to Point Arguello east of 

the 3,000 meter depth contour, and 25,004 square miles from Cape Flattery, Washington to Cape Blanco, 

Oregon east of the 2,000 meter depth contour. The areas comprise approximately 41,914 square miles of 

marine habitat and include waters from the ocean surface down to a maximum depth of 262 feet. The 

designated critical habitat areas contain the physical or biological feature essential to the conservation of 

the species that may require special management conservation or protection. In particular, the team 

identified one Primary Constituent Element: the occurrence of prey species, primarily scyphomedusae of 

the order Semaeostomeae, of sufficient condition, distribution, diversity, abundance and density necessary 

to support individual as well as population growth, reproduction, and development of leatherbacks. 

Globally, leatherback turtle populations have been decimated worldwide. Increases in the number of 

nesting females have been noted at some sites in the Atlantic Ocean, but these are far outweighed by local 
136

extinctions, especially of island populations, and the demise of populations throughout the Pacific, such 

as in Malaysia and Mexico. Spotila et al. (1996) estimated the global population of female leatherback 

turtles to be only 34,500 (confidence limits: 26,200 to 42,900), but later issued an update of 35,860 

(Spotila 2004b). However, the eastern Pacific population has continued to decline since that estimate, 

leading some researchers to conclude that the leatherback is now on the verge of extinction in the Pacific 

Ocean (e.g. Spotila et al. 1996, Spotila, et al. 2000). The species as a whole is declining and local 

populations are in danger of extinction (NMFS 2001b; NMFS 2001a). 

In the Pacific Ocean, leatherback sea turtles are critically endangered as a direct consequence of a 

historical combination of overexploitation and habitat loss. The information available suggests that 

leatherback sea turtles have high probabilities of becoming extinct in the Pacific Ocean unless they are 

protected from the combined threats of entanglements in fishing gear, overharvests, and loss of their 

nesting habitat. The limited data available suggests that leatherback sea turtles exist at population sizes 

small enough to be classified as “small” populations (that is, populations that exhibit population dynamics 

that increase the extinction probabilities of the species or several of its populations) as evidenced by 

biases in the male to female ratios in the Pacific. 

Populations in the eastern Atlantic (i.e. off Africa) and Caribbean appear to be stable; however, 

information regarding the status of the entire leatherback population in the Atlantic is lacking and it is 

certain that some nesting populations (e.g., St. John and St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands) have been 

extirpated (NMFS and USFWS 1995). Data collected in southeast Florida clearly indicate increasing 

numbers of nests for the past twenty years (9.1-11.5% increase), although it is critical to note that there 

was also an increase in the survey area in Florida over time (NMFS 2001). However, the largest 

leatherback rookery in the western North Atlantic remains along the northern coast of South America in 

French Guiana and Suriname. Recent information suggests that Western Atlantic populations declined 

from 18,800 nesting females in 1996 (Spotila et al. 1996) to 15,000 nesting females by 2000 (Spotila, 

personal communication cited in NMFS 2001). The nesting population of leatherback turtles in the 

Suriname-French Guiana trans-boundary region has been declining since 1992 (Chevalier and Girondot, 

1998). Poaching and fishing gear interactions are believed to be the major contributors to the decline of 

leatherbacks in the area. The status of leatherback sea turtles in the Atlantic Ocean remains uncertain. 
137

Diving Behavior 

The maximum dive depths for post-nesting female leatherback turtles in the Caribbean have been 

recorded at 475 meters and over 1,200 meters, with routine dives recorded at between 50 and 84 meters 

(Bradshaw et al., 2007; Fossette et al. 2010, Houghton et al., 2008). The maximum dive length recorded 

for such female leatherback turtles was 37.4 minutes, while routine dives ranged from 4 -14.5 minutes (in 

Lutcavage and Lutz 1997). Leatherback turtles also appear to spend almost the entire portion of each dive 

traveling to and from maximum depth, suggesting that maximum exploitation of the water column is of 

paramount importance to the leatherback (Eckert et al. 1989). 

A total of six adult female leatherback turtles from Playa Grande, Costa Rica were monitored at sea 

during their internesting intervals and during the 1995 through 1998 nesting seasons. The turtles dived 

continuously for the majority of their time at sea, spending 57 - 68% of their time submerged. Mean dive 

depth was 19±1 meters and the mean dive duration was 7.4± 0.6 minutes (Southwood et al. 1999). 

Similarly, Eckert (1999) placed transmitters on nine leatherback females nesting at Mexiquillo Beach and 

recorded dive behavior during the nesting season. The majority of the dives were less than 150 meters 

depth, although maximum depths ranged from 132 meters to over 750 meters. Although the dive 

durations varied between individuals, the majority of them made a large proportion of very short dives 

(less than two minutes), although Eckert (1999) speculates that these short duration dives most likely 

represent just surfacing activity after each dive. Excluding these short dives, five of the turtles had dive 

durations greater than 24 minutes, while three others had dive durations between 12 - 16 minutes. 

Migrating leatherback turtles also spend a majority of time at sea submerged, and they display a pattern of 

continual diving (Standora et al. 1984, in Southwood et al. 1999). Based on depth profiles of four 

leatherbacks tagged and tracked from Monterey Bay, California in 2000 and 2001, using satellite-linked 

dive recorders, most of the dives were to depths of less than 100 meters and most of the time was spent 

shallower than 80 meters. Based on preliminary analyses of the data, 75-90% of the time the leatherback 

turtles were at depths less than 80 meters. 

Hearing 

There is no information on leatherback sea turtle hearing. However, we assume that their hearing 

sensitivities will be similar to those of green and loggerhead sea turtles with their best hearing sensitivity 

in the low frequency range: from 50 to 400 Hz with rapid declines for tones at lower and higher 

frequencies and a practical upper limit of about 1600 Hz in water (Piniak et al. 2012).
138

Loggerhead Sea Turtle 

Distribution 

Loggerheads are circumglobal, inhabiting continental shelves, bays, estuaries, and lagoons throughout the 

temperate and tropical regions of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans (Dodd 1988). However, the 

majority of loggerhead nesting is at the western rims of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The most recent 

reviews show that only two loggerhead nesting aggregations have greater than 10,000 females nesting per 

year: Peninsular Florida, United States and Masirah Island, Oman (Baldwin et al. 2003, Ehrhart et al. 

2003, Kamezaki et al. 2003, Limpus and Limpus 2003b, Margaritoulis et al. 2003). Nesting aggregations 

with 1,000 to 9,999 females nesting annually are Georgia through North Carolina (U.S.), Quintana Roo 

and Yucatán (Mexico), Brazil, Cape Verde Islands (Cape Verde), Western Australia (Australia), and 

Japan. Smaller nesting aggregations with 100 to 999 nesting females annually occur in the Northern Gulf 

of Mexico (U.S.), Dry Tortugas (U.S.), Cay Sal Bank (The Bahamas), Tongaland (South Africa), 

Mozambique, Arabian Sea Coast (Oman), Halaniyat Islands (Oman), Cyprus, Peloponnesus (Greece), 

Zakynthos (Greece), Crete (Greece), Turkey, and Queensland (Australia). In contrast to determining 

population size on nesting beaches, determining population size in the marine environment has been very 

localized (Bjorndal and Bolten 2000). At present, there are no data on population size in the oceanic 

habitat. 

Adult loggerheads are known to make considerable migrations from nesting beaches to foraging grounds 

(TEWG, 1998); and evidence indicates turtles entering the benthic environment undertake routine 

migrations along the coast that are limited by seasonal water temperatures. Small juveniles are found in 

pelagic waters (e.g., of the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea); and the transition from oceanic to 

neritic juvenile stages can involve trans-oceanic migrations (Bowen et al., 2004). Loggerhead nesting is 

confined to lower latitudes, concentrated in temperate zones and subtropics; the species generally does 

not nest in tropical areas (NMFS and USFWS, 1991b; NRC, 1990; Witherington, Herren, & Bresette, 

2006b). Loggerhead turtles travel to northern waters during spring and summer as water temperatures 

warm, and southward and offshore toward warmer waters in fall and winter; loggerheads are noted to 

occur year round in offshore waters of sufficient temperature. 

Ehrhart et al. (2003) provided a summary of the literature identifying known nesting habitats and foraging 

areas for loggerheads within the Atlantic Ocean. Detailed information is also provided in the five-year 

status review for loggerheads (NMFS and USFWS 2007a), the TEWG report (2009), and the final revised 
139

recovery plan for loggerheads in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (NMFS and USFWS 2009), which is a 

second revision to the original recovery plan that was approved in 1984 and subsequently revised in 1991. 

In the western Atlantic, waters as far north as 41o N to 42o N latitude are foraging habitats for juveniles, 

as well as adults (Shoop 1987; Shoop and Kenney 1992; Ehrhart et al. 2003; Mitchell et al. 2003). In U.S. 

Atlantic waters, loggerheads commonly occur throughout the inner continental shelf from Florida to Cape 

Cod, Massachusetts and in the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas, although their presence varies with 

the seasons due to changes in water temperature (Shoop and Kenney 1992; Epperly et al. 1995a, 1995b; 

Braun and Epperly 1996; Braun-McNeill et al. 2008; Mitchell et al. 2003). Loggerheads have been 

observed in waters with surface temperatures of 7 C to 30 C, but water temperatures ≥11 C are most 

favorable (Shoop and Kenney 1992; Epperly et al. 1995b). The presence of loggerhead sea turtles in U.S. 

Atlantic waters is also influenced by water depth. Aerial surveys of continental shelf waters north of Cape 

Hatteras, North Carolina indicated that loggerhead sea turtles were most commonly sighted in waters with 

bottom depths ranging from 22-49 meters deep (Shoop and Kenney 1992). However, more recent survey 

and satellite tracking data support that they occur in waters from the beach to beyond the continental shelf 

(Mitchell et al. 2003; Braun-McNeill and Epperly 2004; Mansfield 2006; Blumenthal et al. 2006; Hawkes 

et al. 2006, 2011; McClellan and Read 2007; Mansfield et al. 2009). 

Loggerhead sea turtles occur year round in ocean waters off North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and 

Florida. In these areas of the South Atlantic Bight, water temperature is influenced by the proximity of the 

Gulf Stream. As coastal water temperatures warm in the spring, loggerheads begin to migrate to inshore 

waters of the Southeast United States (e.g., Pamlico and Core Sounds) and also move up the U.S. Atlantic 

Coast (Epperly et al. 1995a, 1995b, 1995c; Braun-McNeill and Epperly 2004), occurring in Virginia 

foraging areas as early as April/May and on the most northern foraging grounds in the Gulf of Maine in 

June (Shoop and Kenney 1992). The trend is reversed in the fall as water temperatures cool. The large 

majority leave the Gulf of Maine by mid-September but some turtles may remain in Mid-Atlantic and 

Northeast areas until late fall. By December, loggerheads have migrated from inshore and more northern 

coastal waters to waters offshore of North Carolina, particularly off of Cape Hatteras, and waters further 

south where the influence of the Gulf Stream provides temperatures favorable to sea turtles (Shoop and 

Kenney 1992; Epperly et al. 1995b). 

Population Structure 

Loggerhead sea turtles, like other sea turtles, are divided into regional groupings that represent major 

oceans or seas: the Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Mediterranean Sea. 
140

In these regions, the population structure of loggerhead turtles is based on physical, ecological, behavioral 

and genetic data and distribution of their nesting aggregations. 

Recent studies have established that the loggerhead’s life history is more complex than previously 

believed. Rather than making discrete developmental shifts from oceanic to neritic environments, research 

is showing that both adults and (presumed) neritic stage juveniles continue to use the oceanic 

environment and will move back and forth between the two habitats (Witzell 2002; Blumenthal et al. 

2006; Hawkes et al. 2006; McClellan and Read 2007; Mansfield et al. 2009). One of the studies tracked 

the movements of adult post-nesting females and found that differences in habitat use were related to 

body size with larger adults staying in coastal waters and smaller adults traveling to oceanic waters 

(Hawkes et al. 2006). A tracking study of large juveniles found that the habitat preferences of this life 

stage were also diverse with some remaining in neritic waters and others moving off into oceanic waters 

(McClellan and Read 2007). However, unlike the Hawkes et al. (2006) study, there was no significant 

difference in the body size of turtles that remained in neritic waters versus oceanic waters (McClellan and 

Read 2007). 

Pelagic and benthic juveniles are omnivorous and forage on crabs, mollusks, jellyfish, and vegetation at 

or near the surface (Dodd 1988; NMFS and USFWS 2008). Sub-adult and adult loggerheads are primarily 

coastal dwelling and typically prey on benthic invertebrates such as mollusks and decapod crustaceans in 

hard bottom habitats (NMFS and USFWS 2008). For the past decade or so, the scientific literature has 

recognized five distinct nesting groups, or subpopulations, of loggerhead sea turtles in the Northwest 

Atlantic, divided geographically as follows: (1) a northern group of nesting females that nest from North 

Carolina to northeast Florida at about 29 N latitude; (2) a south Florida group of nesting females that nest 

from 29 N latitude on the East Coast to Sarasota on the West Coast; (3) a Florida Panhandle group of 

nesting females that nest around Eglin Air Force Base and the beaches near Panama City, Florida; (4) a 

Yucatán group of nesting females that nest on beaches of the eastern Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico; and (5) 

a Dry Tortugas group that nests on beaches of the islands of the Dry Tortugas, near Key West, Florida 

and on Cal Sal Bank (TEWG 2009). 

The lack of genetic structure makes it difficult to designate specific boundaries for the nesting 

subpopulations based on genetic differences alone. Therefore, the Status Review Team (Conant et al 

2009) recently used a combination of geographic distribution of nesting densities, geographic separation, 

and geopolitical boundaries, in addition to genetic differences, to reassess the designation of these 

subpopulations to identify recovery units. Five recovery units have been designated for the Northwest 

Atlantic population of loggerhead sea turtles based on the aforementioned nesting groups and inclusive of 
141

a few other nesting areas not mentioned above. The first four of these recovery units represent nesting 

assemblages located in the Southeast United States. The fifth recovery unit is composed of all other 

nesting assemblages of loggerheads within the Greater Caribbean, outside the United States, but which 

occur within U.S. waters during some portion of their lives. The five recovery units representing nesting 

assemblages are: (1) the Northern Recovery Unit (NRU: Florida/Georgia border through southern 

Virginia), (2) the Peninsular Florida Recovery Unit (PFRU: Florida/Georgia border through Pinellas 

County, Florida), (3) the Dry Tortugas Recovery Unit (DTRU: islands located west of Key West, 

Florida), (4) the Northern Gulf of Mexico Recovery Unit (NGMRU: Franklin County, Florida through 

Texas), and (5) the Greater Caribbean Recovery Unit (GCRU: Mexico through French Guiana, Bahamas, 

Lesser Antilles, and Greater Antilles)(NMFS and USFWS 2008). 

Genetic studies of juvenile and a few adult loggerhead sea turtles collected from Northwest Atlantic 

foraging areas (beach strandings, a power plant in Florida, and North Carolina fisheries) show that the 

loggerheads that occupy East Coast U.S. waters originate from these Northwest Atlantic nesting groups; 

primarily from the nearby nesting beaches of southern Florida, as well as the northern Florida to North 

Carolina beaches, and finally from the beaches of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico (Rankin-Baransky et al. 

2001; Witzell et al. 2002; Bass et al. 2004; Bowen et al. 2004). The contribution of these three nesting 

assemblages varies somewhat among the foraging habitats and age classes surveyed along the east coast. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural Threats. The diversity of a loggerhead sea turtle’s life history and the various habitat types 

loggerhead sea turtles occupy throughout their lives exposes these sea turtles to a wide variety of natural 

and anthropogenic threats. The five-year status review and 2009 recovery plan provide a summary of 

natural as well as anthropogenic threats to loggerhead sea turtles (NMFS and USFWS 2007a, 2009). 

Amongst those of natural origin, hurricanes are known to be destructive to sea turtle nests (Witherington 

et al. 2006). Sand accretion, rainfall, and wave action that result from these storms can appreciably reduce 

hatchling success. Other sources of natural mortality include cold-stunning (Witherington and Ehrhart 

1989, Morreale et al. 1992), and native species predation such as herons, gulls, dogfish, sharks and other 

large marine predators. Biotoxin exposure by harmful algal blooms, such as a red tide, also impact 

loggerheads. Karenia brevis, a type of microalgae known as a dinoflagellate that produces a toxin, has 

been known to cause red tides (Florida Marine Research Institute 2003). 
142

Anthropogenic Threats. A wide variety of anthropogenic activities adversely affect hatchlings and adult 

female turtles and their nesting habitat include coastal development/construction of fishing piers that alter 

patterns of erosion and accretion on nesting beaches, placement of erosion control structures and other 

barriers to nesting, beachfront lighting, vehicular and pedestrian traffic, sand extraction, beach erosion, 

beach sand placement, beach pollution (ingestion and entanglement of debris and environmental 

contaminants), removal of native vegetation, and poaching (Baldwin 1992; NMFS and FWS 1998, 2008; 

Margaritoulis et al. 2003). As the size of the human population in coastal areas increases, that population 

brings with it secondary threats such as exotic fire ants, feral hogs, dogs, and the growth of populations of 

native species that tolerate human presence (e.g., raccoons, armadillos, and opossums) and which feed on 

turtle eggs (NMFS and USFWS 2007a, 2009). Planting of non-native plants can have a detrimental effect 

in the form of roots invading eggs (e.g., tamarisk tree roots invading eggs in Zakynthos, Greece) 

(Margaritoulis et al. 2007). 

When they are in coastal or marine waters, loggerhead turtles are affected by a completely different set of 

human activities that include discharges of toxic chemicals and other pollutants into the marine 

ecosystem; underwater explosions; hopper dredging, offshore artificial lighting; entrainment or 

impingement in power plants; entanglement in marine debris; ingestion of marine debris; boat collisions; 

poaching, and interactions with commercial fisheries. Human presence, especially in neritic habitats, can 

disturb both juvenile and adult loggerheads. The ever-growing human population in coastal areas and the 

corresponding increase in recreational boating, and diving can result in behavioral disturbances to resting, 

foraging, and migrating loggerheads. Continuous, intense boat traffic in neritic habitats may result in 

abandonment of previously used foraging or resting areas, and intense diver/snorkeler activity may result 

in displacement of loggerheads from preferred resting or foraging areas (NMFS 2009 Recovery Plan). 

Interactions with fisheries represent a primary threat because of the number of individuals that are 

captured and killed in fishing gear each year (Finkbeiner et al. 2011). In the Pacific Ocean, between 

2,600 and 6,000 loggerhead sea turtles are estimated to have been captured and killed in longline fisheries 

in 2000 (Lewison et al. 2004). Shallow-set Hawai'i based longline fisheries are estimated to have 

captured and killed several hundred loggerhead sea turtles before they were closed in 2001. When they 

were re-opened in 2004, with substantial modifications to protect sea turtles, these fisheries were 

estimated to have captured and killed about fewer than 5 loggerhead sea turtles each year. Between 2004 

and 2008, shallow-set fisheries based out of Hawai'i are estimated to have captured about 45 loggerhead 

sea turtles, killing about 10 of these sea turtles. A recent biological opinion on these fisheries expected 

this rate of interaction and deaths to continue into the foreseeable future (NMFS 2008). Loggerhead sea 
143

turtles have also been and are expected to continue to be captured and killed in the deep-set based 

longline fisheries based out of Hawai'i and American Samoa. 

Shrimp trawl fisheries account for the highest number of loggerhead sea turtles that are captured and 

killed, but they are also captured and killed in trawls, traps and pots, longlines, and dredges along the 

Atlantic coast of the U.S. In 2002, NMFS estimated that almost 163,000 loggerhead sea turtles are 

captured in shrimp trawl fisheries each year in the Gulf of Mexico, with 3,948 of those sea turtles dying 

as a result of their capture. Each year, several hundred loggerhead sea turtles are also captured in herring 

fisheries; mackerel, squid, and butterfish fisheries; monkfish fisheries; pound net fisheries, summer 

flounder and scup fisheries; Atlantic pelagic longline fisheries; and gillnet fisheries in Pamlico Sound. 

Although most of these turtles are released alive, these fisheries capture about 2,000 loggerhead sea 

turtles each year, killing almost 700; the effects of capture-related stress on the current or expected future 

reproductive success of sea turtles remains unknown. 

In the pelagic environment, loggerhead sea turtles are exposed to a series of longline fisheries that include 

the U.S. Atlantic tuna and swordfish longline fisheries, an Azorean longline fleet, a Spanish longline fleet, 

and various fleets in the Mediterranean Sea (Aguilar et al. 1995, Bolten et al. 1994, Crouse 1999). In the 

benthic environment in waters off the coastal U.S., loggerheads are exposed to a suite of fisheries in 

federal and state waters including trawl, purse seine, hook and line, gillnet, pound net, longline, dredge, 

and trap fisheries. 

Status 

Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles were listed as threatened on October 24, 2011 (76 FR 58868, 

September 22, 2011). 

Atlantic Ocean 

Loggerheads in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean comprise one of the two largest nesting assemblages in the 

world and have been identified as the most significant assemblage in the western hemisphere. Data 

collected from 1989 to 2010 indicates that there has been a slight decline in nesting numbers but the 

decline is not statistically different from zero (76 FR 58899, September 22, 2011). Although this DPS 

suffers impacts from U.S. fisheries and degradation of its terrestrial and marine habitats along their range 

in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, the nesting population is large and widespread and trends indicate that 

at least the nesting population appears to be stabilizing, as substantial conservation efforts are underway 

to address threats to this species’ survival and recovery. Five nesting subpopulations have been identified 

in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (NMFS and USFWS 2008). Their status follows: 
144

(1) Northern U.S. (Florida/Georgia border to southern Virginia). The Northern U.S. subpopulation is the 

second largest unit within the Northwest Atlantic population and has been declining at 1.3 percent 

annually from 1983 to 2007 (NMFS and USFWS, 2008). Based on more recent nesting data from 

Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina from 2008 through 2010, however, this subpopulation may 

be showing signs of stabilizing (76 FR 58885, September 22, 2011); 

(2) Peninsular Florida (Florida/Georgia border south through Pinellas County, excluding the islands west 

of Key West, Florida). A significant declining trend had been documented for the Peninsular Florida 

subpopulation, where nesting declined 26 percent over the 20-year period from 1989–2008, and declined 

41 percent over the period 1998–2008 (NMFS and USFWS, 2008; Witherington et al., 2009). Extending 

the nesting data set from 1989 through the 2010 nesting season yields a slightly declining trend not 

significant from zero. Nesting in 2008 substantially surpassed nesting in 2007 and nesting in 2010 

reached the highest levels since 2000. This subpopulation represents approximately 87 percent of all 

nesting effort in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS (Ehrhart et al., 2003); 

(3) Dry Tortugas (islands west of Key West, Florida). Data are currently not adequate to assess trends in 

the annual number of nests for this subpopulation; 

(4) Northern Gulf of Mexico (Franklin County, Florida, west through Texas). Data are currently not 

adequate to assess trends in the annual number of nests for this subpopulation; and 

(5) Greater Caribbean (Mexico through French Guiana, the Bahamas, Lesser and Greater Antilles). This 

is the third largest subpopulation within the Northwest Atlantic population, with the majority of nesting at 

Quintana Roo, Mexico. TEWG (2009) reported a greater than 5 percent annual decline in loggerhead 

nesting from 1995–2006 at Quintana Roo, however, a reanalysis using nesting counts from a longer time 

series (1989 through 2010) for this subpopulation did not detect a trend (a trend not significantly different 

from zero as compared with the subpopulation for which there are enough data to analyze). 

Diving Behavior 

Studies of loggerhead diving behavior indicate varying mean depths and surface intervals, depending on 

whether they were located in shallow coastal areas (short surface intervals) or in deeper, offshore areas 

(longer surface intervals). The maximum recorded dive depth for a post-nesting female was 211-233 

meters, while mean dive depths for both a post-nesting female and a subadult were 9-22 meters. Routine 

dive times for a post-nesting female were between 15 and 30 minutes, and for a subadult, between 19 and 

30 minutes (Sakamoto et al. 1990 cited in Lutcavage and Lutz 1997). Two loggerheads tagged by 
145

Hawaii-based longline observers in the North Pacific and attached with satellite-linked dive recorders 

were tracked for about 5 months. Analysis of the dive data indicates that most of the dives were very 

shallow - 70% of the dives were no deeper than 5 meters. In addition, the loggerheads spent 

approximately 40% of their time in the top meter and nearly all of their time at depths shallower than 100 

meters. On 5% of the days, the turtles dove deeper than 100 meters; the deepest daily dive recorded was 

178 meters (Polovina et al. 2003). 

Polovina et al. (2004) reported that tagged turtles spent 40 percent of their time at the surface and 90 

percent of their time at depths shallower than 40 meters. On only five percent of recorded dive days 

loggerheads dove to depths greater than 100 meters at least once. In the areas that the loggerheads were 

diving, there was a shallow thermocline at 50 meters. There were also several strong surface temperature 

fronts the turtles were associated with, one of 20C at 28N latitude and another of 17C at 32N latitude. 

Free swimming hatchlings typically swim at the surface or within the upper 1 m of the water column with 

occasional diving to about 3-4 m (Wyneneken 1997). 

Hearing 

The information on loggerhead turtle hearing is very limited. Bartol et al. (1999) studied the auditory 

evoked potential of loggerhead sea turtles that had been captured in pound nets in tributaries to the 

Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and Virginia and concluded that loggerhead sea turtles had most sensitive 

hearing between 250 and 1000 Hz, with rapid decline above 1000 Hz (Bartol et al. 1999, Lenhardt 1994; 

Lenhardt et al. 1983; Moein Bartol and Ketten 2006; Moein Bartol et al. 1999; O'Hara and Wilcox 1990). 

This is similar to the results produced by Ridgway et al. (1969) who studied the auditory evoked 

potentials of three green sea turtles (in air and through mechanical stimulation of the ear). They 

concluded that the maximum sensitivity of green sea turtles occurred from 300 to 400 Hz with rapid 

declines for tones at lower and higher frequencies. They found that 2,000 Hz was the upper limit of 

maximum sensitivity without injury for auditory evoked potentials and suggested that the practical 

hearing range was no more than 1,000 Hz. 

Atlantic Sturgeon 

Distribution 

The Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) is a subspecies of sturgeon distributed along the 

eastern coast of North America from Hamilton Inlet, Labrador, Canada to the Saint Johns River in Florida 

(Smith and Clugston 1997, ASSRT 2007). Atlantic sturgeon have been documented as far south as 
146

Bermuda and Venezuela (Lee et al. 1980). Historically, Atlantic sturgeon were present in approximately 

38 rivers in the United States from St. Croix, ME to the Saint Johns River, FL, of which 35 rivers have 

been confirmed to have had historic spawning populations. Atlantic sturgeon are currently present in 36 

rivers, and spawning occurs in at least 20 of these. Other estuaries along the coast formed by rivers that 

do not support Atlantic sturgeon spawning populations may still be important rearing habitats. 

Atlantic sturgeon are long lived, late maturing, estuarine dependent, anadromous fish. Atlantic sturgeon 

spawn in freshwater, but spend most of their sub-adult and adult life in the marine environment. The 

spawning areas in most U.S. rivers have not been well defined. However, the habitat characteristics of 

spawning areas have been identified based on historical accounts of where fisheries occurred, tracking 

and tagging studies of spawning sturgeon, and physiological needs of early life stages. Spawning is 

believed to occur in flowing water between the salt front of estuaries and the fall line of large rivers. 

Larval Atlantic sturgeon (i.e. less than 4 weeks old, with total lengths (TL) less than 30 mm; Van 

Eenennaam et al. 1996) are assumed to undertake a demersal existence and inhabit the same riverine or 

estuarine areas where they were spawned (Smith et al. 1980; Bain et al. 2000; Kynard and Horgan 2002; 

ASMFC 2009). Studies suggest that age-0 (i.e., young-of-year), age- 1, and age-2 juvenile Atlantic 

sturgeon occur in low salinity waters of the natal estuary (Haley 1999; Hatin et al. 2007; McCord et al. 

2007; Munro et al. 2007) while older fish are more salt tolerant and occur in higher salinity waters as well 

as low salinity waters (Collins et al. 2000). Atlantic sturgeon remain in the natal estuary for months to 

years before emigrating to open ocean as subadults (Holland and Yelverton 1973; Dovel and Berggen 

1983; Waldman et al. 1996; Dadswell 2006; ASSRT 2007). 

After emigration from the natal estuary, subadults and adults travel within the marine environment, where 

they may undergo extensive movements usually confined to shelly or gravelly bottoms in 10-50 m (33-

164 ft) water depths (Stein et al., 2004; Erickson et al., 2011). Fish distribution varies seasonally within 

this depth range. During summer months (May to September) fish are primarily found in the shallower 

depths of 10-20 m (33-66 ft). In winter and early spring (December to March), fish move to depths 

between 20 and 50 m (66 and 165 ft) (Erickson et al., 2011). Shelf areas <18 m (59 ft) deep off Virginia 

and the sandy shoals offshore of Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, appear to be areas of concentration during 

summer months (Laney et al., 2007). The area of high concentration offshore of Virginia was centered 

from 15 to 37.5 km (9.3 to 23.3 mi) from shore, and the maximum distance from shore during winter was 

about 112.5 km (70 mi). 
147

After leaving the Delaware River estuary during the fall, juvenile Atlantic sturgeon were recaptured by 

commercial fishermen in nearshore waters along the Atlantic coast as far south as Cape Hatteras, North 

Carolina from November through early March. In the spring, a portion of the tagged fish reentered the 

Delaware River estuary. However, many fish continued a northerly coastal migration through the MidAtlantic as well as into southern New England waters where they were recovered throughout the summer 

months. Movements as far north as Maine were documented. A southerly coastal migration was apparent 

from tag returns reported in the fall. The majority of these tag returns were reported from relatively 

shallow near shore fisheries with few fish reported from waters in excess of 25 m (C. Shirey, Delaware 

Department of Fish and Wildlife, unpublished data reviewed in ASMFC, 2009). Areas where migratory 

Atlantic sturgeon commonly aggregate include the Bay of Fundy (e.g., Minas and Cumberland Basins), 

Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut River estuary, Long Island Sound, New York Bight, Delaware Bay, 

Chesapeake Bay, and waters off of North Carolina from the Virginia/North Carolina border to Cape 

Hatteras at depths up to 24 m (Dovel and Berggren, 1983; Dadswell et al., 1984; Johnson et al., 1997; 

Rochard et al., 1997; Kynard et al. 2000; Eyler et al. 2004; Stein et al.2004; Wehrell 2005; Dadswell 

2006; ASSRT 2007; Laney et al. 2007). These sites may be used as foraging sites and/or thermal refuge. 

Population Structure 

NMFS has delineated U.S. populations of Atlantic sturgeon into five DPSs (77 FR 5880 and 77 FR 5914). 

These are: the Gulf of Maine (GOM), New York Bight (NYB), Chesapeake Bay (CB), Carolina, and 

South Atlantic (SA) DPSs. The results of genetic studies suggest that natal origin influences the 

distribution of Atlantic sturgeon in the marine environment (Wirgin and King 2011). However, genetic 

data as well as tracking and tagging data demonstrate sturgeon from each DPS and Canada occur 

throughout the full range of the subspecies. Therefore, individuals originating from all of the 5 listed 

DPSs may occur in the Action Area. Information general to all Atlantic sturgeon as well as information 

specific to each of the relevant DPSs is provided. 

Threats to the Species 

Natural threats. Atlantic sturgeon occur naturally in small populations and in some rivers because of 

variable spawning returns, Allee affects could be an issue. During all stages of development, Atlantic 

sturgeon are sensitive to temperatures above 28°C (Niklitschek and Secor 2005, Kahn and Mohead 2010, 

Niklitschek and Secor 2010) and dissolved oxygen levels below 4.3 to 4.7 parts per million (Secor and 

Niklitschek 2002, EPA 2003, Niklitschek and Secor 2009). Juvenile sturgeon are also stressed by high 

salinities until they mature and out migrate. 
148

Anthropogenic threats. Historical records provide evidence of commercial fisheries for Atlantic 

sturgeon in the Kennebec and Androscoggin Rivers dating back to the 17th century (Squiers et al. 1979); 

and in the James River and Chesapeake Bay in the 19th century (Hildebrand and Schroeder 1928; 

Vladykov and Greeley 1963; ASMFC 1998; Secor 2002; Bushnoe et al. 2005; ASSRT 2007). Following 

the 1880s, the sturgeon fishery was almost non-existent due to a collapse of the sturgeon stocks. 

All directed Atlantic sturgeon fishing as well as retention of Atlantic sturgeon bycatch has been 

prohibited since 1998. Nevertheless, mortalities associated with bycatch in fisheries occurring in state and 

federal waters still occur throughout the marine range, as well as in some riverine waters, reducing 

survivorship of subadult and adult Atlantic sturgeon (Stein et al. 2004; ASMFC 2007). Stress or injury to 

Atlantic sturgeon taken as bycatch but released alive may result in increased susceptibility to other 

threats, such as poor water quality (e.g., exposure to toxins and low DO). This may result in reduced 

ability to perform major life functions, such as foraging and spawning, or even postcapture mortality. 

The Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team (2007) determined Atlantic sturgeon in the Delaware River 

are at a moderately high risk of extinction because of ship strikes and sturgeon in the James River are at a 

moderate risk from ship strikes. Since that time, managers in the Hudson River are concerned that ship 

strikes may also be threatening Atlantic sturgeon populations there. In these systems, large ships move 

upstream from the mouths of the river to ports upstream through narrow shipping channels. The channels 

are dredged to the approximate depth of the ships, usually leaving less than 6 feet of clearance between 

the bottom of ships and the benthos of the river. Because of the size of the propellers used on large ships, 

everything along the bottom is sucked through the propellers. Large sturgeon are most often killed by ship 

strikes because smaller fish often pass through the propellers without making contact but larger sturgeon 

get hit. As shipping increases in the future, as has been predicted by the US Coast Guard, more Atlantic 

sturgeon are likely to be killed during encounters with ships. Besides the threats to Atlantic sturgeon from 

ships, the act of dredging the channel can also kill sturgeon. 

Twenty-nine mortalities believed to be the result of vessel strikes were documented in the Delaware River 

from 2004 to 2008, and at least 13 of these fish were large adults. Given the time of year in which the fish 

were observed (predominantly May through July, with two in August), it is likely that many of the adults 

were migrating through the river to the spawning grounds. Eleven Atlantic sturgeon were reported to 

have been struck by vessels from 2005 through 2007 in the James River; several of these were mature 

individuals. 
149

Dredging projects in the rivers such as the Kennebec, Delaware, James, Cape Fear, and Savannah Rivers 

put Atlantic sturgeon at moderate risk (ASSRT 2007). Dredging primarily affects sturgeon by removing 

food resources and homogenizing habitat, eliminating holding areas and other high quality habitat. Also, 

sometimes Atlantic sturgeon are attracted to the sediment plume created during dredging operations and 

are killed by the dredge itself. While some dredging projects operate with observers present to document 

fish mortalities, many do not. 

Connectivity is disrupted by the presence of dams on several rivers, including the Penobscot and 

Merrimack Rivers, whereas other dams, such as those on the Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco Rivers, 

are near the site of natural falls and likely represent the maximum upstream extent of sturgeon occurrence 

even if the dams were not present. Dams have curtailed Atlantic sturgeon spawning and juvenile 

developmental habitat by blocking over 60 percent of the historical sturgeon habitat upstream of the dams 

in the Cape Fear and Santee-Cooper River systems. 

Most Atlantic sturgeon managers and researchers consider water quality as a moderate risk to every DPS 

in the United States (ASSRT 2007). Atlantic sturgeon are sensitive to pesticides, heavy metals, and other 

toxins in the aquatic environment. 

Many rivers in Maine, including the Androscoggin River, were heavily polluted in the past from 

industrial discharges from pulp and paper mills. Both the Hudson and Delaware rivers, as well as other 

rivers in the New York Bight region, were heavily polluted in the past from industrial and sanitary sewer 

discharges. While water quality has improved (Lichter et al. 2006; EPA 2008) and most discharges are 

limited through regulations, many pollutants persist in the benthic environment. This can be particularly 

problematic if pollutants are present on spawning and nursery grounds as developing eggs and larvae are 

particularly susceptible to exposure to contaminants. 

The Chesapeake Bay system is vulnerable to the effects of nutrient enrichment due to a relatively low 

tidal exchange and flushing rate, large surface to volume ratio, and strong stratification during the spring 

and summer months (Pyzik et al. 2004; ASMFC 1998; ASSRT 2007; EPA 2008). These conditions 

contribute to reductions in dissolved oxygen levels throughout the Bay, which in turn can limit the 

availability of nursery habitat (Niklitschek and Secor 2005; 2010). Similarly, low dissolved oxygen levels 

in the Roanoke, Savannah, Ogeechee, St. Marys, and St Johns Rivers due to dredging and non-point 

source inputs affect or even eliminate nursery habitat. Large water withdrawals can alter flows, 

temperature, and dissolved oxygen levels, 
150

In the Pamlico and Neuse systems, nutrient loading and seasonal anoxia are occurring, associated in part 

with concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Heavy industrial development and CAFOs have 

degraded water quality in the Cape Fear River. Water quality in the Waccamaw and Pee Dee rivers have 

been affected by industrialization and riverine sediment samples contain high levels of various toxins, 

including dioxins. Additional stressors arising from water allocation and climate change threaten to 

exacerbate water quality problems that are already present throughout the range of the Carolina DPS. 

Twenty interbasin water transfers in existence prior to 1993, averaging 66.5 million gallons per day 

(mgd), were authorized at their maximum levels without being subjected to an evaluation for certification 

by North Carolina Department of Environmental and Natural Resources or other resource agencies. Since 

the 1993 legislation requiring certificates for transfers, almost 170 mgd of interbasin water withdrawals 

have been authorized, with an additional 60 mgd pending certification. The removal of large amounts of 

water from the system will alter flows, temperature, and DO. Existing water allocation issues will likely 

be compounded by population growth and potentially climate change. 

Status 

Prior to 1890, Atlantic sturgeon populations were at or near carrying capacity. In the mid-1800s, 

incidental catches of Atlantic sturgeon in the shad and river herring haul seine fisheries indicated that the 

species was very abundant (reviewed in Armstrong and Hightower 2002). A major fishery for this 

species did not exist until 1870 when a caviar market was established (reviewed in Smith and Clugston 

1997). Record landings were reported in 1890, where over 3350 metric tons (mt) of Atlantic sturgeon 

were landed from coastal rivers along the Atlantic Coast (reviewed in Smith and Clugston 1997, Secor 

and Waldman 1999). Between 1890 and 1905, Atlantic sturgeon (and shortnose sturgeon) populations 

were drastically reduced for sale of meat and caviar. Between 1920 and 1998, the harvest level remained 

very low due to small remnant populations. The majority of these landings (75%) were dominated by the 

Delaware River fishery, which presumably supported the largest population along the Atlantic Coast 

(reviewed in Secor and Waldman 1999). Prompted by research on juvenile production between 1985 and 

1995 (Peterson et al. 2000), the Atlantic sturgeon fishery was closed by the Atlantic States Marine 

Fisheries Commission in 1998, when a coastwide fishing moratorium was imposed for 20 to 40 years, or 

at least until 20 year classes of mature female Atlantic sturgeon were present (ASMFC 1998).

Ten years after peak landings, the fishery collapsed in 1901, when less than 10% (295 mt) of its 1890 

peak landings were reported. The landings continued to decline to about 5% of the peak until 1920 and 

have remained between 1-5% since then. During the 1950s, the remaining fishery switched to targeting 

sturgeon for flesh, rather than caviar. The Atlantic sturgeon fishery was closed by the Atlantic States 
151

Marine Fisheries Commission in 1998, when a coastwide fishing moratorium was imposed for 20-40 

years, or at least until 20 year classes of mature female Atlantic sturgeon were present (ASMFC 1998). 

There are no current, published population abundance estimates for any of the currently known spawning 

stocks. Therefore, there are no published abundance estimates for any of the five DPSs of Atlantic 

sturgeon. An estimate of 863 mature adults per year (596 males and 267 females) was calculated for the 

Hudson River based on fishery-dependent data collected from 1985-1995 (Kahnle et al. 2007). Peterson et 

al. (2008) reported that approximately 324 and 386 adults per year returned to the Altamaha River in 

2004 and 2005, respectively. Using the data collected from the Hudson River and Altamaha River to 

estimate the total number of Atlantic sturgeon in either subpopulation is not possible, since mature 

Atlantic sturgeon may not spawn every year (Vladykov and Greeley 1963; Smith 1985; Van Eenennaam 

et al. 1996; Stevenson and Secor 1999; Collins et al. 2000; Caron et al. 2002), the age structure of these 

populations is not well understood, and stage to stage survival is unknown. 

In other words, the information that would allow us to take an estimate of annual spawning adults and 

expand that estimate to an estimate of the total number of individuals (e.g., yearlings, subadults, and 

adults) in a population is lacking. The Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team (ASSRT) presumed that 

the Hudson and Altamaha rivers had the most robust of the remaining U.S. Atlantic sturgeon spawning 

populations and concluded that the other U.S. spawning populations were likely less than 300 spawning 

adults per year (ASSRT 2007). 

Juvenile Atlantic sturgeon abundance may be a more precise way to measure the status of Atlantic 

sturgeon populations because it is believed that all age-1 and age-2 juveniles are restricted to their natal 

rivers (Dovel and Berggren 1983, Bain et al. 1999), avoiding the assumptions noted above. Peterson et 

al. (2000) reported that there were approximately 4,300 age-1 and -2 Atlantic sturgeon in the Hudson 

River between 1985 and 1995. Schueller and Peterson (2010) reported that age-1 and -2 Atlantic 

sturgeon population densities ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 individuals over a 4 year period from 2004 to 

2007. Other spawning populations within the U.S. are predicted to have fewer than 300 adults spawning 

per year. 

Hearing 

Information available about the hearing abilities of Atlantic sturgeon come from studies of other species 

of sturgeon. 

Meyer and Popper (2003), investigated shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) hearing abilities by 

using physiological methods to measure responses to pure tones. The authors presented shortnose 
152

sturgeon with pure tone stimuli from 50-1000 Hz with intensities ranging from of 120 to 160 dB re 1 μpa. 

Shortnose sturgeon were most sensitive to tones presented at 100 and 400 Hz although thresholds were 

not determined. Based on the limited data, sturgeon were able to detect sounds below 100 Hz to about 

1,000 Hz and that sturgeon should be able to determine the direction of sounds (Popper 2005). 

Meyer and Popper (2005) recorded auditory evoked potentials to pure tone stimuli of varying frequency 

and intensity in lake sturgeon and reported that lake sturgeon detect pure tones from 100 to 2000 Hz, with 

best sensitivity from 100 to 400 Hz. They also compared these sturgeon data with comparable data for 

oscar (Astronotus ocellatus) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) and reported that the auditory brainstem 

responses for the lake sturgeon are more similar to the goldfish (which is can hear up to 5000 Hz) than to 

the oscar (which can only detect sound up to 400 Hz); these authors, however, felt additional data were 

necessary before lake sturgeon could be considered in the same auditory group as the goldfish. 

Lovell et al. (2005) also studied sound reception in and the hearing abilities of paddlefish (Polyodon 

spathula) and lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) in pressure dominated and particle motion dominated 

sound fields. They concluded that both species were responsive to sounds ranging in frequency from 100 

to 500 Hz with lowest hearing thresholds from frequencies in bandwidths between 200 and 300 Hz and 

higher thresholds at 100 and 500 Hz. The results showed that both species were not sensitive to sound 

pressure, and would have a significantly higher hearing threshold in a pressure dominated sound field. 

Based on the above we assume that the hearing sensitivity of shortnose sturgeon is best between 100-500 

Hz with sensitivity falling up to 1,000 Hz. 

BOEM (2012c) categorized sturgeon in general as fishes that detect sounds from below 50 Hz to perhaps 

800-1,000 Hz (though several probably only detect sounds to 600-800 Hz). These fishes have a swim 

bladder but no known structures in the auditory system that would enhance hearing, and sensitivity 

(lowest sound detectable at any frequency) is not very great. Sounds would have to be more intense to be 

detected compared to fishes with swim bladders that enhance hearing. Sturgeon can detect both particle 

motion and pressure. 

Environmental Baseline 

By regulation, environmental baselines for biological opinions include the past and present impacts of all 

state, Federal or private actions and other human activities in the Action Area, the anticipated impacts of 

all proposed Federal projects in the action area that have already undergone formal or early section 7 

consultation, and the impact of State or private actions which are contemporaneous with the consultation 
153

in process (50 CFR 402.02). The environmental baseline for this biological opinion includes the effects of 

several activities that affect the survival and recovery of endangered whales, threatened and endangered 

sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon in theAction Area. 

A number of human activities have contributed to the current status of populations of large whales, sea 

turtles and anadromous fish in the action area. Some of those activities, most notably commercial 

whaling, occurred extensively in the past, continue at low levels, and no longer appear to affect these 

whale populations, although the effects of these reductions likely persist today. Other human activities are 

ongoing and appear to continue to affect whale and sea turtles populations in the Action Areas for this 

consultation. The following discussion summarizes the principal phenomena that are known to affect 

these whales, sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon in the Action Area. 

Natural Mortality

The sources of natural mortality discussed in the species-specific narratives from the preceding section of 

this Opinion affect endangered and threatened whales, sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon in the Action 

Areas for this consultation as well. Large whale species are known to be affected by parasites. The 

occurrence of the nematode Crassicauda boopis appears to increase the potential for kidney failure in 

large whales and may be preventing some fin and humpback whale populations from recovering 

(Lambertsen, 1992). Killer whale and shark attacks have also been documented in blue, fin, sei and 

humpback whales and may result in serious injury or death in very young and sick individuals (Perry, 

DeMaster, & Silber, 1999). 

The various habitat types sea turtles occupy along the Atlantic coast of the United States exposes these 

sea turtles to a wide variety of natural threats. Hatchling sea turtles are hunted by predators like herons, 

gulls, dogfish, and sharks. Adult sea turtles are also killed by sharks and other large, marine predators and 

are killed by cold stunning and exposure to biotoxins. The Atlantic beaches on which loggerhead, green 

and leatherback sea turtles nest and the nests themselves are threatened by hurricanes and tropical storms 

as well as the storm surges, sand accretion and rainfall that are associated with these types of storms. The 

nesting ecology of sea turtle species determines their vulnerability to major storm systems. For example, 

from 1995 to 2005, Pike and Stiner (2007) monitored nesting beaches along an uninhabited portion of 

Florida’s Atlantic coast. They compared the number of successful reproductive events (number of nest 

hatched and the number of hatchlings that emerged) with the number of tropical storms and hurricanes as 

well as storm induced flooding. These authors report that since leatherback turtles began nesting earliest 

and most eggs hatched before the tropical cyclone season arrived, they were not affected by storm surges 
154

caused by major storm systems. The loggerhead turtle nesting season began before and continued into the 

storm season causing a portion of nests to be inundated by storm surges while the green turtle nesting 

season occurred during the entire tropical cyclone season leaving 79% of green turtle nests incubating in 

September susceptible to storm surge. 

For Atlantic sturgeon, bony scutes likely protect these fish from predation once they reach a total length 

of 25 mm (Gadomski and Parsley 2005 In ASSRT 2007. Trematodes as well as nematodes have been 

found infesting juvenile and adult sturgeon, respectively. Parasites are not uncommon in fish species, 

however, diseases from parasite do not normally occur unless some environmental event alters the 

equilibrium between the parasites and the fish (ASSRT 2007). During all stages of development, Atlantic 

sturgeon are sensitive to temperatures above 28°C (Niklitschek and Secor 2005, Kahn and Mohead 2010, 

Niklitschek and Secor 2010) and dissolved oxygen levels below 4.3 to 4.7 parts per million (Secor and 

Niklitschek 2002, EPA 2003, Niklitschek and Secor 2009). Juvenile sturgeon are also stressed by high 

salinities until they mature and out migrate. 

Human-Induced Mortality 

Commercial Whaling and Subsistence Hunting 

Large whale population numbers in the Action Area have historically been impacted by commercial 

exploitation, mainly in the form of whaling. Prior to current prohibitions on whaling, such as the 

International Whaling Commission’s 1982 moratorium on commercial whaling on all whale stocks, most 

large whale species had been depleted to the extent it was necessary to list them as endangered under the 

ESA of 1966. Nevertheless, fin and humpback whales are still hunted in subsistence fisheries in the 

northwest Atlantic based on IWC aboriginal subsistence catch limits and by Iceland under objection to the 

IWC moratorium. Although these subsistence fisheries operate outside of the Action Area, the fin whales 

killed in these fisheries are part of the population of fin whales occurring within the Action Area for this 

consultation. From 1985 to 2011 a total of 317 fin whales have been taken in the West Greenland and St 

Vincent and The Grenadines subsistence fisheries (IWC 2012l). These totals include adult and juvenile 

whales of both sexes that have been killed and landed as well as struck and lost. Based on abundance 

estimates (4,539 95% CI 1,897-10,114 for fin whales; the IWC believes that this level of removal will not 

reduce the growth rates of these populations (IWC2012m). These fisheries are expected to continue into 

the future as Greenland has requested 19 fin whales for the 2013-2018 whaling seasons (IWC 2012n). 

Iceland, however, continues its commercial whaling program (suspended since 1986) with 7 fin whales 
155

caught in 2006, 125 in 2009 and 148 (74 males and 68 females with 6 struck and lost) in 2010 (IWC 

2012o).

Ship Traffic 

The North Atlantic is one of the most traveled areas in the world for marine shipping. Between 2002 and 

2010 port calls between Delaware and Port Canaveral increased from a low of 21,257 in 2003 to 27, 038 

in 2010 for a total of 99,757 vessel arrivals over the 8-year period (See Table 8; U.S. Department of 

Transportation 2011). Virginia ports received 3, 021 vessel calls from all type of vessels, surpassed only 

by Houston, Texas (6,698 arrivals), New York/New Jersey (4,534 arrivals) and Long Beach/Los Angeles, 

California (4,469 arrivals) in 2010 (U.S. Department of Transportation 2011). Other eastern seaboard 

ports such as Baltimore, Maryland (2,011 arrivals) Savannah, Georgia (2,406), Charleston, South 

Carolina (1,818 arrivals) and Jacksonville, Florida (1,641 arrivals) also receive significant numbers of 

arrivals. 

Expansion of the Panama Canal is scheduled for completion in 2014 and commercial maritime traffic off 

the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coasts is expected to increase as cargo traffic shifts to take advantage of shorter 

routes. U.S. port container traffic is expected to double or triple by 2030 (DOT 2009). Shipping 

companies are also maximizing each vessel call with larger capacity containerships. Between 2005 and 

2010 companies are increasing their use of Post-Panamax class containerships increasing the average size 

of ships by 7 percent. At 1,200 ft long, 160 ft beam (wide) and 50 ft draft, these containerships are about 

two and a half times the capacity of vessels that currently are small enough to transit the canal (965 ft 

long, 106 ft beam and 39.5 ft draft) (U.S. Department of Transportation 2010). Increased dredging to 

deepen and widen port channel entrances and improved on-shore infrastructure such as cranes, railways 

and roadways to distribute arriving cargo are necessary to accommodate these deep-draft vessels (panama 

class vessels in U.S. ports (Chambers 2010). To date, only the port in Savannah, Georgia has the capacity 

to accommodate this new class of cargo ships 
156

Table 8: 2002-2010 Vessel Calls at Ports Located Between Delaware and Cape Canaveral, Florida. 

Year Calls of 

All 

Types

Tanker 

Calls

Product 

Tanker 

Calls

Crude 

Tanker 

Calls

Container 

Calls

Dry 

Bulk 

Calls

Ro-Ro 

Calls

Vehicle 

Calls

Gas 

Carrier 

Calls

Combi

nation 

Calls

General 

Cargo 

Calls

2002 10,094 1,084 1,052 32 4,793 1,419 1,899 1,327 24 75 800

2003 9,466 1,121 1,085 36 4,428 1,287 1,810 1,204 69 64 687

2004 10,827 1,221 1,166 55 5,146 1,629 1,840 1,166 146 88 757

2005 11,233 1,383 1,301 82 5301 1,608 1,998 1534 145 85 639

2006 11,969 1,429 1,343 86 5,788 1,790 2,147 1,649 104 75 636

2007 11,952 1443 1,349 94 6137 1,469 2,149 1,657 83 75 596

2008 11,735 1,419 1,281 138 5693 1,680 2,294 1,774 87 46 516

2009 10,536 1,147 998 149 5,646 1,169 2,007 1,525 84 15 468

2010 11,945 1,231 1,119 112 6,043 1,564 2,471 1,917 56 45 535

2002-2010 TOTALS

99,757 11,478 10,694 784 48,975 13,615 18,606 13,753 718 568 5,634

About 302 Federal vessels have been estimated to operate in waters off the East Coast, although all of 

these vessels probably do not operate at one time or in the same area (NOAA 2008). The percentage of 

time these vessels spend at sea varies with the specific mission and objectives of each agency. For 

example, a study conducted on Navy vessel traffic estimated that of the Navy’s 121 East Coast vessels, 

there are 12 vessels on the East Coast within 200 nm (370.4 km) of shore at any given time (Filadelfo 

2001). 

Ship Strikes and Entanglements 

As discussed in the Status of the Species narratives for several of the whales that are considered in this 

Opinion, ship strikes and entanglement in fishing gear pose significant threats to populations of 

endangered whales along the Atlantic seaboard, particularly North Atlantic right whales. Based on the 

records available, large whales have been struck by ships off almost every coastal state in the United 

States, although ship strikes are most common along the Atlantic Coast. More than half (56 percent) of 

the recorded ship strikes from 1975 to 2002 occurred off the coasts of the northeastern United States and 

Canada, while the mid- Atlantic and southeastern areas each accounted for 22 percent (Jensen and Silber 

2003). 

In particular, ship strikes represent the greatest threat to the continued existence of North Atlantic right 

whales: between 1999 and 2006, ships are confirmed to have struck 22 North Atlantic right whales, 

killing 13 of these whales (Jensen and Silber 2003, Knowlton and Kraus 2001, NMFS 2005b). 
157

Glass et al. (2008) reported that there were 54 instances in which right whales were entangled, struck by 

vessels or otherwise stranded between 2002 and 2006. Out of 21 verified right whale mortalities, 10 were 

from ship strikes and 3 were from entanglement. Entanglement was identified as the cause of four 

recorded serious injuries. There were also two documented serious injuries from ship strikes (Glass et al. 

2008). From 2006 through 2010, there were 55 interactions involving right whales (Henry et al 2012). Of 

the nineteen confirmed mortalities and injuries serious enough to cause death, four were attributed to 

entanglements and 5 to vessel strikes (Henry et al 2012). 

From 2006 to 2010, Henry et al (2012) reported a total of 500 large whale interactions including ship 

strikes, entanglements and strandings due to unknown causes. Two hundred-sixty four (53%) interactions 

involved humans, 16 (3%) did not involve humans and for 220 (44%) of the events it was unknown if 

humans were involved. The number of entanglements (206) far outweighed the number of vessel strikes 

(58); however, 4 events had evidence of both entanglement and vessel strike. Among the entanglements 

24 (12%) caused the deaths of the individuals and 28 (48%) of the vessel strikes caused the deaths of the 

animals. Thirty-three (16%) of the entanglements were serious enough to result in death of the animal 

while only1 of the vessel strikes resulted in a serious injury. Disentanglement teams were successful in 

preventing serious injuries in 28 (14%) entanglement events. Although 45 (22%) of entanglements and 9 

(16%) of the vessel strike events did not have adequate documentation to determine if serious injury 

occurred, 73 (35%) of the entanglement events and 17 (29%) of the vessel strike events were determined 

to have not caused serious injury or death. Out of a total of 313 confirmed mortalities, 52 (17%) were 

attributed to human interactions, 16 (5%) were attributed to natural causes and 245 (78%) lacked 

sufficient evidence to determine the cause of death. Humpback whales had the greatest number of 

entanglement mortalities (n=9), the highest number of serious injury events resulting from entanglements 

(n=20); and the greatest number of vessel strike mortalities (n=10); and right whales had the only serious 

injury (n=1) from vessel strikes. 

A summary paper on ship collisions and whales by Laist et al. (2001) reported that out of 28 recorded 

collisions resulting in lethal or severe injuries to whales in which vessel speed was known, 89 percent 

involved vessels traveling at 14 knots or faster and the remaining 11 percent involved vessels traveling at 

10 to 14 knots. None occurred at speeds below 10 knots. The IWC database of vessel collisions identified 

83 events where speed was recorded; the majority of serious injuries and mortalities occurred within a 

similar range of 15 to 20 knots (Van Waerbeek and Leaper 2008). With regard to the severity of injuries 

at increasing speeds, Pace and Silber (2005) found a predicted 45 percent chance of death or serious 

injury at 10 knots. Vanderlaan and Taggart (2007) came to a similar conclusion, determining that the 

probability of death from a collision was approximately 35-40 percent at 10 knots while Wiley et al 
158

(2011) predicted a 29 percent chance of death at 10 knots. Furthermore, Silber et al (2010) reported that 

as vessel speeds increased the hydrodynamic pull of vessels on large whales within proximity of those 

vessels could make whales more vulnerable to strikes.

North Atlantic right whales appear to be either unable to detect approaching vessels or, while right whales 

are engaged in behavioral activities — for example, feeding, nursing, or mating — they ignore the visual 

or acoustic cues those vessels produce. Because right whales are buoyant and are slow swimmers, they 

may not be able to avoid oncoming vessels even if they are aware of its approach. When the vulnerability 

of right whales to ship strikes is combined with the density of ship traffic within the distribution of right 

whales, ship strikes seem almost inevitable. 

Various types and sizes of vessels have been involved in ship strikes with large whales, including 

container/cargo ships/freighters, tankers, steamships, U.S. Coast Guard vessels, Navy vessels, cruise 

ships, ferries, recreational vessels, fishing vessels, whale-watching vessels, and other vessels (Jensen and 

Silber 2003). Vessel speed (if recorded) at the time of a large whale collision has ranged from 2 to 51 

knots (Jensen and Silber, 2003). Vessels can be damaged during ship strikes (occasionally, collisions with 

large whales have even harmed or killed humans on board the vessels); of 13 recorded vessels that 

reported damages from a strike, all were traveling at a speed of at least 10 knots (Jensen and Silber 2003). 

Atlantic sturgeon are also susceptible to vessel collisions. Out of a total of 28 mortalities reported in the 

Delaware estuary between 2005 and 2008, 14 resulted from vessel strike (Brown and Murphy 2007). 

Based on the demersal behavior demonstrated by Atlantic sturgeon, the damage inflicted upon carcasses 

and the large numbers of deep draft vessels, the authors concluded that interactions with large vessels 

such as tankers comprised the majority of the vessel strikes. Further, the authors determined that a 

mortality rate of more than 2.5% of the females within a population could result in population declines. 

Similarly, in the James River in Virginia, 34 out of a total of 39 Atlantic sturgeon had injuries consistent 

with vessel strikes (Brown and Murphy 2007, Balazik et al 2012). The actual number of vessel strikes in 

both of these river systems in unknown, however, Balazik et al (2012) estimated up to 80 sturgeon were 

killed between 2007 and 2010. 

For sea turtles, vessels also present risks for injury and death. For example, out of a total of 109 stranded, 

dead sea turtles found in the Delaware River estuary from 1994-1999, 30 had been struck and killed by 

vessels (Stetzar 2002). Numbers of vessel struck sea turtles would be elevated above those mentioned 

here in the southern part of their ranges where sea turtle abundance is greater. 
159

Several commercial fisheries operate in the Action Area for this consultation. The shrimp trawl fisheries 

conducted off the southeast United States (from North Carolina to the Atlantic coast of Florida) and Gulf 

of Mexico (from the Gulf coast of Florida to Texas) are one of the fisheries that have the most significant 

demographic effect on sea turtles. Participants in these fisheries are required to use Turtle Exclusion 

Devices (TEDs), which are estimated to reduce the number of shrimp trawl related mortality by as much 

as 94% for loggerheads and 97% for leatherbacks. Even with TED measures in place, in 2002, NMFS 

(2002) expected these fisheries to capture about 323,600 sea turtles each year and kill about 5,600 of the 

turtles captured. Loggerhead sea turtles account for most of this total: 163,000 captured, killing almost 

4,000 of them. Kemp’s ridleys account for the second-most interactions: 155,503 captures with 4,200 of 

them dying. These are followed by green sea turtles: about 18,700 captured with more than 500 of them 

dying as a result of their capture. Leatherback sea turtle interactions were estimated at 3,090 captures 

with 80 of them dying as a result (NMFS 2002). Since 2002, however, effort in the Atlantic shrimp 

fisheries has declined from a high of 25,320 trips in 2002 to approximately 13,464 trips in 2009. Since 

sea turtle takes are directly linked to fishery effort, these takes are expected to decrease but are still 

expected to result in at least hundreds and possibly in the low thousands of sea turtle interactions 

annually, of which hundreds are expected to be lethal (NMFS 2012). 

Portions of the Atlantic pelagic fisheries for swordfish, tuna, shark, and billfish also operate in the Action 

Area and capture and kill the second highest numbers of sea turtles along the Atlantic coast. These 

fisheries, which operate off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia (with the exception of waters off 

Florida and southernmost Georgia that are closed to the longline component of these fisheries) and the 

Gulf of Mexico, include purse seine fisheries for tuna, harpoon fisheries for tuna and swordfish, 

commercial and recreational rod and reel fisheries, gillnet fisheries for shark, driftnet fisheries, pelagic 

longline fisheries, and bottom longline fisheries. 

Between 1986 and 1995, this fishery captured and killed 1 northern right whale, 2 humpback whales, and 

two sperm whales. Between 1992 and 1998, the longline components of these fisheries are estimated to 

have captured more than 10,000 sea turtles (4,585 leatherback sea turtles and 5,280 loggerhead sea 

turtles), killing 168 of these sea turtles in the process (the latter estimate does not include sea turtles that 

might have died after being released; Johnson et al. 1999, Yeung 1999). Since then, all components of 

these fisheries are estimated to capture about 2,381 sea turtles each year, killing 781 sea turtles in the 

process. 

Portions of the Atlantic sea scallop fisheries also operate in the Action Area (off North Carolina) and 

capture and kill the third highest numbers of sea turtles along the Atlantic coast. These fisheries are 
160

expected to capture about 129 loggerhead sea turtles in 2012 but 49 loggerheads are estimated captured 

and killed in 2013 and beyond. Although these fisheries are only expected to capture 2 green, 

leatherback, and Kemp’s ridley sea turtles each year, all of these turtles might die as a result of their 

capture. 

In addition, sea turtles are captured and killed in several other Federal fisheries that operate along the 

Atlantic coast, although most of these fisheries capture and kill fewer sea turtles than the fisheries 

discussed in the preceding narratives. Of all the factors that influenced NMFS’ decision to list sea turtles 

as threatened or endangered, the most significant sources of injury or mortality of juvenile, subadult, and 

adult sea turtles are those associated with commercial fishing. The fisheries discussed in this section of 

this Opinion are expected to continue into the foreseeable future at levels of effort that are roughly 

equivalent to current levels. As a result, we expect the number of sea turtles that are captured and killed in 

these fisheries to continue for the foreseeable future. 

Climate Variability 

Global climate patterns have a natural year-to-year variability; however, a global warming trend has 

become apparent based on observations of average air and sea surface temperatures, losses of ice and 

snow and rising average sea levels (IPCC 2001, 2007, U.S. Global Change Research Program 2009). 

There is now widespread consensus within the scientific community that atmospheric temperatures on 

earth are increasing (warming) (IPCC 2001, Oreskes 2004). Observational evidence from all continents 

and most oceans shows that many regional ecosystems are also being affected due to factors driving 

global climate change, particularly temperature increases (EPA 2010, IPCC 2007, U.S. Global Change 

Research Program 2009, Walther 2010). The severity of climate change depends not only on the 

magnitude of the change but also on the potential for irreversibility (Solomon et al 2009). Modeling on 

the longevity of climate-driven changes (atmospheric warming) suggest that atmospheric temperatures 

would not drop significantly for at least 1,000 years (even if factors driving the warming climate ceased 

(Solomon et al 2009.) 

Annual average atmospheric temperatures in the Northeastern U.S. have been increasing by 2oF since 

1970 with winter temperatures rising by as much as 4oF (Global Change Research Program 2009). These 

trends are expected to continue. Environmental changes in response to warming atmospheric 

temperatures already taking place include increased frequencies of extreme events (i.e., air temperatures 

above 90oF and heavy precipitation), reduced snow and ice leading to smaller snowpacks, earlier breakup 

of winter ice on lakes and rivers, earlier spring freshets and peak river flows as well as rising sea levels 
161

and oceanic temperatures. In the Southeastern U.S. annual average temperatures since 1970 have risen 

2

o

F with winter temperatures experiencing the greatest increases. Hurricanes with greater intensity 

(greater wind speeds, rainfall and storm surge height and strength) are more likely as projections show 

more northern trajectories towards the mid-Atlantic. With warming temperatures water and oxygen 

availability in lakes, rivers and shallow habitats decrease, particularly in the already warm, humid climate 

of the southeast. 

Atmospheric warming has direct consequences for the oceans as well. Approximately 80 percent of the 

rise in atmospheric temperatures is likely to be absorbed by the oceans (IPCC 2007). A recent study by 

Polyakov et al (2010), suggests that the North Atlantic Ocean has been experiencing a general warming 

trend over the last 80 years of 0.031 ± 0.006oC per decade in the upper 2,000 m of the ocean. Sea surface 

temperatures, in the North Atlantic Ocean are closely related to the North Atlantic Oscillation. The North 

Atlantic Oscillation, which results from variability in pressure differences between a low pressure system 

that lies over Iceland and a high pressure system that lies over the Azore Islands, has been directly linked 

to climate changes in the North Atlantic Oceans as well as all other oceans. As these pressure systems 

shift from east to west, they control the strength of westerly winds and storm tracks across the North 

Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic Oscillation Index, which is positive when both systems are strong 

(producing increased differences in pressure that produce more and stronger winter storms) and negative 

when both systems are weak (producing decreased differences in pressure resulting in fewer and weaker 

winter storms), varies from year to year, but also exhibits a tendency to remain in one phase for intervals 

lasting several years. This variability results in favorable and unfavorable ecological conditions for 

marine species. 

Changes in the oscillation and sea surface temperatures in the North Atlantic Ocean influences the 

abundance of marine mammal prey such as zooplankton and fish. In the 1970s and 1980s, the North 

Atlantic Oscillation Index has been positive and sea surface temperatures increased. These increases are 

believed to have produced conditions that were favorable for the copepod (Calanus finmarchicus), which 

is the principal prey of North Atlantic right whales (Conversi, Piontkovski, & Hameed., 2001) and may 

have increased calving rates of these whales (we cannot verify this association because systematic data on 

North Atlantic right whale was not collected until 1982) (C. Greene, Pershing, Kenney, & Jossi, 2003). In 

the late 1980s and 1990s, the North Atlantic Oscillation Index was mainly positive but exhibited two 

substantial, multi-year reversals to negative values. This was followed by two major, multi-year declines 

in copepod prey abundance (Drinkwater et al., 2003; Pershing, Head, Greene, & Jossi, 2010). Calving 

rates for North Atlantic right whales followed the declining trend in copepod abundance, although there 

was a time lag between the two (C. H. Greene et al., 2003). Copepod abundance then declined again in 
162

1998 with a possible recovery in 1999 and 2000 followed by increased calving rates between 2001 and 

2005 (Hamilton et al 2010). 

Although the North Atlantic Oscillation Index has been positive for the past 25 years, atmospheric models 

suggest that increases in ocean temperature associated with climate change forecasts may produce more 

severe fluctuations in the North Atlantic Oscillation. Such fluctuations would be expected to cause 

dramatic shifts in the reproductive rate of critically endangered North Atlantic right whales (Drinkwater, 

et al., 2003; C. H. Greene, et al., 2003) and possibly a northward shift in the location of right whale 

calving areas (Kenney, 2007). 

Climate-mediated changes in the distribution and abundance of keystone prey species like krill and 

climate-mediated changes in the distribution of cephalopod populations worldwide is likely to affect 

marine mammal populations as they re-distribute throughout the world’s oceans in search of prey. A 

study of relationships between climate and sea-temperature changes and the arrival of squid off 

southwestern England over a 20-year period concluded that veined squid (Loligo forbesi) migrate 

eastwards in the English Channel earlier when water in the preceding months is warmer, and that higher 

temperatures and early arrival correspond with warm phases of the North Atlantic oscillation (Sims, 

Genner, Southward, & Hawkins, 2001). The timing of squid peak abundance advanced by 120 - 150 days 

in the warmest years compared with the coldest. Ocean bottom temperatures were closely linked to the 

extent of squid movement and temperature increases over the five months prior to and during the month 

of peak squid abundance did not differ between early and late years. These authors concluded that the 

temporal variation in peak abundance of squid seen off Plymouth represents temperature-dependent 

movement, which is in turn mediated by climatic changes associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation. 

More recently, squid productivity has also been linked to sea surface temperatures in the South Atlantic, 

the North Pacific and the Sea of Japan indicating a global sensitivity across squid species to temperature 

changes with potential negative consequences if temperatures continue to rise (Postuma and Gasalla 

2010). 

Sperm whales, whose diets can be dominated by cephalopods, would have to re-distribute following 

changes in the distribution and abundance of their prey. This statement assumes that projected changes in 

global climate would only affect the distribution of cephalopod populations, but would not reduce the 

number or density of cephalopod populations. If, however, cephalopod populations collapse or decline 

dramatically, sperm whale populations are likely to collapse or decline dramatically as well. 
163

Changes in global climatic patterns are also projected to have profound effect on the coastlines of every 

continent by increasing sea levels and increasing the intensity, if not the frequency, of hurricanes and 

tropical storms. Based on computer models, these phenomena would inundate nesting beaches of sea 

turtles, change patterns of coastal erosion and sand accretion that are necessary to maintain those beaches, 

and would increase the number of turtle nests that are destroyed by tropical storms and hurricanes. The 

combination of increasing sea levels, changes in patterns of coastal erosion and accretion, and changes in 

rainfall patterns are likely to affect coastal estuaries, submerged aquatic vegetation, and reef ecosystems 

that provide foraging and rearing habitat for several species of sea turtles. Changes in ocean currents 

associated with climate change projections would affect the migratory patterns of sea turtles. The loss of 

nesting beaches, by itself, would have catastrophic effect on sea turtles populations globally if they are 

unable to colonize any new beaches that form of if the beaches that form do not provide the sand depths, 

grain patterns, elevations above high tides, or temperature regimes necessary to allow turtle eggs to 

survive. When combined with changes in coastal habitats and ocean currents, the future climates that are 

forecast place sea turtles at substantially greater risk of extinction than they already face. 

Increasing sea levels, changes in patterns of coastal erosion and accretion, and changes in rainfall patterns 

are likely to affect coastal estuaries and submerged aquatic vegetation, that provide foraging and rearing 

habitat for anadromous fish. Decline in dissolved oxygen in river, stream and shallow aquatic habitats 

may also lead to fish kills and loss of aquatic species diversity. Decreased water availability due to 

increased temperatures and longer periods of time between rainfall events will ultimately affect eggs and 

juvenile survival resulting in changes in recruitment, abundance, distribution and growth (Drinkwater et 

al 2003) as well as changes in the ecosystem functions relating to the timing and availability of prey 

species (Walther 2010). These climate-driven hydrological changes will combine with other pressures on 

water resources, such as population growth and land-use change especially in coastal areas (Kundzewicz 

et al, 2008), and may place Atlantic sturgeon at a greater risk of extinction. 

Habitat Degradation 

Chronic exposure to the neurotoxins associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) from zooplankton 

prey has been shown to have detrimental effects on marine mammals. Estimated ingestion rates are 

sufficiently high to suggest that the PSP toxins are affecting marine mammals, possibly resulting in lower 

respiratory function, changes in feeding behavior and a lower reproductive fitness (Durbin et al. 2002). 

Other human activities, including discharges from wastewater systems, dredging, ocean dumping and 

disposal, aquaculture and additional impacts from coastal development are also known to impact marine 

mammals and their habitat. 
164

Water Pollution 

Coastal runoff and river discharges carry large volumes of petrochemical and other contaminants from 

agricultural activities, cities and industries. Many contaminants can accumulate in marine vertebrates due 

to their persistence in the environment. Although these contaminant concentrations do not likely affect 

the more pelagic waters of the action area, the species of turtles analyzed in this biological opinion travel 

between nearshore and offshore habitats and may be exposed to and accumulate these contaminants 

during their life cycles. The contaminants that pose potential risks to the health of cetaceans, particularly 

North Atlantic right whales (O’ Shea et al. 1994; Reijnders et al. 1999, Montie et al 2010), include 

persistent organic pollutants (Polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, 

polychlorinated dibenzofurans, dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, chlordanes, and 

hexachlorocyclohexane); flame retardants (Polybrominated diphenyl ethers); plasticizers (Phthalate 

esters); surfactants (Alkyphenol ethoxylates such as nonylphenoletoxylates); new-era pesticides and 

herbicides; municipal and industrial effluents (including endocrine-disrupting compounds such as 

synthetic estrogens, natural hormones, pulp byproducts); anti-fouling agents (organotins and replacement 

compounds); dielectric fluids: PCB replacements (e.g., polychlorinated napthalenes, polybrominated 

biphenyls); aquaculture-related chemicals (such as antibiotics and pesticides); and metals such methyl 

mercury (Montie et al 2010). 

Coastal runoff and river discharges carrying large volumes of contaminants are also detrimental to 

Atlantic sturgeon. Both the Hudson and Delaware rivers, as well as other rivers in the New York Bight 

region, were heavily polluted in the past from industrial and sanitary sewer discharges. While water 

quality has improved (Lichter et al. 2006; EPA 2008) and most discharges are limited through 

regulations, many pollutants persist in the benthic environment. This can be particularly problematic if 

pollutants are present on spawning and nursery grounds as developing eggs and larvae are particularly 

susceptible to exposure to contaminants. 

Dredging 

Navigation channels along the U.S. east coast are dredged and maintained to support commerce through 

commercial shipping and other maritime activities. Dredging primarily affects sturgeon by removing 

food resources and homogenizing habitat, eliminating holding areas and other high quality habitat. Also, 

sometimes Atlantic sturgeon are attracted to the sediment plume created during dredging operations and 

are killed by the dredge itself. Dickerson (2005) summarized observed takings of 24 sturgeon from 

dredging activities conducted by the Army Corps of Engineers and observed between 1990 and 2005 (2 
165

Gulf; 11 shortnose; and 11 Atlantic). Hydraulic dredges (e.g., hopper) can lethally harm sturgeon and sea 

turtles directly by entraining them in dredge drag arms and impeller pumps. While some dredging 

projects operate with observers present to document mortalities, many do not. To reduce take of listed 

species, a boat equipped with nets precedes the dredge to capture sturgeon and sea turtles and then 

releases the animals out of the dredge pathway and avoiding lethal take is now standard practice. 

Anthropogenic Noise

The marine mammals that occur in the action area are regularly exposed to several sources of natural and 

anthropogenic sounds. Anthropogenic noises that could affect ambient noise arise from the following 

general types of activities in and near the sea, any combination of which can contribute to the total noise 

at any one place and time. These noises include maritime activities, dredging, construction; mineral 

exploration in offshore areas; geophysical (seismic) surveys; sonars; explosions; and ocean research 

activities. 

Noise in the marine environment has received a lot of attention in recent years and is likely to continue to 

receive attention in the foreseeable future. Several investigators have argued that anthropogenic sources 

of noise have increased ambient noise levels in the ocean over the last 50 years (Jasny et al. 2005; NRC, 

2003, 2005; Richardson et al. 1995). Much of this increase is due to increased shipping as ships become 

more numerous and of larger tonnage (NRC 2003, Hildebrand 2009, McKenna et al. 2012). Commercial 

fishing vessels, cruise ships, transport boats, airplanes, helicopters and recreational boats all contribute 

sound into the ocean (NRC 2003; Richardson et al. 1995). The military uses sound to test the construction 

of new vessels as well as for naval operations. 

Many researchers have described behavioral responses of marine mammals to the sounds produced by 

helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft, boats and ships, as well as dredging and construction. (Richardson et 

al. 1995). Most observations have been limited to short term behavioral responses, which included 

cessation of feeding, resting, or social interactions, however, habitat abandonment can lead to more longterm effects which may have implications at the population level. Because responses to anthropogenic 

noise vary between species and individuals within species, it is difficult to determine long-term effects. 

Carretta et al. (2001), Jasny et al. (2005) and more recently Clark (2009) identified the increasing levels 

of anthropogenic noise as a habitat concern for whales and other cetaceans because of its potential effect 

on their ability to communicate. Masking can reduce the range of communication particularly long-range 

communication, such as that for blue and fin whales. Recent scientific evidence suggests that marine 

mammals, including blue and fin whales, compensate for masking by changing the frequency, source 
166

level, redundancy, or timing of their signals, but the long-term implications of these adjustments are 

currently unknown (McDonald et al. 2006, Parks 2003, 2009).

Surface shipping is the most widespread source of anthropogenic, low frequency (0 to 1,000 Hz) noise in 

the oceans (Simmonds and Hutchinson 1996). Source levels for commercial ships range from 180-195 dB 

re 1 μPa which dominate underwater noise in the 10-500 Hz frequency bands (NRC 2003; Hildebrand 

2009; McKenna et al. 2012). The Navy estimated that the 60,000 vessels of the world’s merchant fleet 

annually emit low frequency sound into the world’s oceans for the equivalent of 21.9 million days, 

assuming that 80 percent of the merchant ships are at sea at any one time (U.S. Navy 2001). Ross (1976) 

has estimated that between 1950 and 1975 shipping had caused a rise in ambient ocean noise levels of 10 

dB with propeller cavitation primarily responsible for the increase. He predicted that this would increase 

by another 5 dB by the beginning of the 21st century. NRC (1997) estimated that the background ocean 

noise level at 100 Hz has been increasing by about 1.5 dB per decade since the advent of propeller-driven 

ships. 

Ambient Noise 

Urick (1983) provided a discussion of the ambient noise spectrum expected in the deep ocean. Shipping, 

seismic activity, and weather are primary causes of deep-water ambient noise (Urick 1983; Hildebrand 

2009). Noise levels between 20 and 500 Hz appear to be dominated by distant shipping noise that usually 

exceeds wind-related noise. Above 300 Hz, the level of wind-related noise might exceed shipping noise. 

Wind, wave, and precipitation noise originating close to the point of measurement dominate frequencies 

from 500 to 50,000 Hz. The frequency spectrum and level of ambient noise can be predicted fairly 

accurately for most deep-water areas based primarily on known shipping traffic density and wind state 

(wind speed, Beaufort wind force, or sea state) (Urick 1983). For frequencies between 100 and 500 Hz, 

Urick (1983) has estimated the average deep water ambient noise spectra to be 73 to 80 dB for areas of 

heavy shipping traffic and high sea states, and 46 to 58 dB for light shipping and calm seas. 

In contrast to deep water, ambient noise levels in shallow waters (i.e., coastal areas, bays, harbors, etc.) 

are subject to wide variations in level and frequency depending on time and location. The primary sources 

of noise include distant shipping and industrial activities, wind and waves, and marine animals (Urick 

1983). At any given time and place, the ambient noise level is a mixture of these noise types. In addition, 

sound propagation is also affected by the variable shallow water conditions, including the depth, bottom 

slope, and type of bottom. Where the bottom is reflective, the sound levels tend to be higher than when 

the bottom is absorptive. 
167

U.S. Navy Activities 

The Navy has conducted military training and testing activities throughout the northwest Atlantic Ocean 

and Gulf of Mexico for decades. In the Atlantic, the U.S. Navy conducts eight types of military training 

and more than 15 types of military testing activities as well as numerous air operations. Typical training 

exercises of the Atlantic Fleet include gunnery, missile, surface fire support, Marine expeditionary unit, 

amphibious assault, bombing, sinking, torpedo, tracking, and mine detection exercises. The Navy 

undertakes a broad spectrum of testing activities including, but not limited to, basic and applied scientific 

research and technology development; testing, evaluation, and maintenance of systems (missiles, radar, 

and sonar), and platforms (surface ships, submarines, and aircraft); and acquisition of systems and 

platforms to support Navy missions and give a technological edge over adversaries. Testing activities 

occur in response to emerging science or Navy Fleet operational needs. Many of the testing and training 

that the Navy routinely undertakes involve the use of both passive and active sonar. Sonar is primarily 

used by the Navy to detect and defend against submarines (anti-submarine warfare) and mines (mine 

warfare); safe navigation and effective communications; and oceanographic surveys.

In 1997, NMFS issued a biological opinion on Navy training activities within and in the vicinity of the 

Atlantic Ocean right whale critical habitat off of the coasts of Georgia and Florida (NMFS 1997). That 

Opinion concluded that Navy training activities were not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of 

North Atlantic right whales and other endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or 

adverse modification of critical habitat that had been designated in the action area for that consultation. 

In the late 1990s, the U.S. Navy implemented several new mitigation measures that were designed to 

protect right whales. Because of these mitigation measures, NMFS concluded that current Navy 

operations out of Mayport, Florida were not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of endangered or 

threatened species under NMFS’ jurisdiction (NMFS 1997). 

Vessel operations and ordnance detonations adversely affect listed species of sea turtles and whales. U.S. 

Navy aerial bombing training in the ocean off the southeast U.S. coast involving drops of live ordnance 

(500 and 1,000-lb bombs) have been estimated to have injured or killed 84 loggerhead, 12 leatherback, 

and 12 green or Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, in combination (NMFS 1997). The Navy ship-shock trials for 

the USS WINSTON S CHURCHILL were conducted in the Action Area, although the U.S. Navy 

employed a suite of measures that appeared to protect marine mammals and sea turtles from being 

exposed to shock waves produced by the underwater detonations associated with the trial (Clarke and 

Norman 2005). 
168

Between July 2006 and July 2008, the U.S. Navy conducted several Composite Training Unit or Joint 

Task Force Exercises in and seaward of the Cherry Point and Jacksonville-Charleston Operating Areas. 

These exercises included antisubmarine warfare training events that employed between 49 and 355 hours 

of mid-frequency active sonar and deployed between 15 and 170 DICASS sonobuoys. All but two of 

these exercises were conducted during the summer (the exceptions were a Expeditionary Strike Group 

Composite Training Unit exercise conducted from mid-May to the first of June 2007 and a Carrier Strike 

Group Joint Task Force exercise conducted from late April to mid-May 2008), which would have avoided 

interactions with North Atlantic right whales and most other large cetaceans. The actual number of marine 

animals that might have been exposed to mid-frequency active sonar during these exercises, and their 

responses to any exposure, remains unknown; however, no marine animals were reported to have been 

struck or killed during any of these exercises 

In August and September 2008, the U.S. Navy conducted a ship shock trial on the MESA VERDE in 

waters east of Jacksonville, Florida, using High Blast Explosive (HBX-1) for the detonations (U.S. Navy 

2008d). NMFS’ biological opinion on the ship shock trial expected up to 36 sea turtles to be injured as a 

result of the ship shock trial and up to 1,727 turtles to be harassed as a result of their behavioral responses 

to the underwater detonations. The after action report for the ship shock trial could neither refute nor 

confirm these estimated number of animals that might have been harassed by the trials; however, surveys 

associated with the trial did not detect any dead or injured marine mammals or sea turtles during the 

shock trial event or during post-mitigation monitoring. In addition, no marine mammal or sea turtle 

stranding events have been attributed to the shock trial. 

In 2002, the U.S. Navy established protective measures for North Atlantic right whales for all Atlantic 

Fleet activities occurring in the Northeast Operating Area. In December 2004, the U.S. Navy issued 

further guidance for all Fleet ships to increase awareness of right whale migratory patterns and implement 

additional protective measures along the mid-Atlantic coast, including areas where ships transit between 

southern New England and northern Florida. The Navy worked with NMFS to identify seasonal patterns 

of right whale occurrence in six major sections of the mid-Atlantic coast, paying particular attention to 

port and coastal areas where efforts to manage vessel traffic might be most appropriate. The Navy’s 

resulting guidance directed Navy personnel to exercise extreme caution and operate at slow, safe speeds 

within 20 nautical mile arcs of specified coastal and port reference points. The guidance reiterated 

previous instructions that Navy ships post two lookouts, one of whom must have completed marine 

mammal recognition training, and emphasized the need for utmost vigilance in performance of these 

watchstander duties. 
169

From 2009 to 2012, NMFS issued a series of biological opinions to the U.S. Navy for training activities 

occurring within their Northeast, Virginia Capes, Cherry Point and Jacksonville Range Complexes that 

anticipated annual levels of take of listed species incidental to those training activities through 2014. On 

June 5, 2009, NMFS issued a biological opinion to the U.S. Navy for training activities occurring within 

their Northeast, Virginia Capes, Cherry Point and Jacksonville Range Complexes from 2009 through 

2010. This biological opinion concluded that while the training activities are not likely to jeopardize 

species of endangered and threatened whales and sea turtles, there would be instances of harassment and 

harm. During the proposed activities 2 fin whales, 2 humpback whales, 2 sperm whales, 344 hardshell 

sea turtles (any combination of green hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea 

turtles), 644 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, 21 leatherback sea turtles and 530 NW Atlantic loggerhead sea 

turtles per year are expected to be harassed as a result of their behavioral responses to mid- and high 

frequency active sonar transmissions. Another six Kemp’s ridley and five Northwest Atlantic loggerhead 

turtles per year are expected to be injured during exposure to underwater detonations. 

On July 28, 2009, NMFS issued a final biological opinion on the U.S. Navy’s proposal to place a network 

of underwater transducer devices and undersea cables in a 1,713-km2 (500 nautical mile2) area of the 

ocean about 93 km (50 nautical miles) offshore of northeastern Florida, beginning in 2012 or 2013 with 

operations scheduled to begin in 2014 or 2015. The instrumented area, which would be called the 

Undersea Warfare Tracking Range (USWTR), would be connected by cable to a facility that would be 

located on shore where the data collected on the range would be used to evaluate the performance of 

participants in shallow water training exercises. 

On June 3, 2010, NMFS issued a biological opinion to the U.S. Navy for training activities occurring 

within their Northeast, Virginia Capes, Cherry Point and Jacksonville Range Complexes for the years 

2010 through 2011. This biological opinion concluded that the training activities are not likely to 

jeopardize species of endangered and threatened whales and sea turtles. During the proposed activities 2 

fin whales, 2 humpback whales, 2 sperm whales, 356 hardshell sea turtles (any combination of green 

hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles), 644 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, 21 

leatherback sea turtles and 522 NW Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles per year are expected to be harassed as 

a result of their behavioral responses to mid- and high frequency active sonar transmissions. Another 

three hardshell, six Kemp’s ridley and five Northwest Atlantic loggerhead turtles per year are expected to 

be injured during exposure to underwater detonations. 

In a biological opinion issued on January 6, 2012, for U.S. Navy for training activities occurring within 

their Northeast, Virginia Capes, Cherry Point and Jacksonville Range Complexes for the years 2011 
170

through 2012, NMFS concluded the training activities are not likely to jeopardize species of endangered 

and threatened whales and sea turtles. During the proposed activities 2 fin whales, 2 humpback whales, 2 

sperm whales, 311 hardshell sea turtles (any combination of green hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley or Northwest 

Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles), 557 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, 20 leatherback sea turtles and 487 NW 

Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles per year are expected to be harassed as a result of their behavioral 

responses to mid- and high frequency active sonar transmissions. Another three hardshell, five Kemp’s 

ridley, one leatherback and nine Northwest Atlantic loggerhead turtles per year are expected to be injured 

during exposure to underwater detonations. 

On May 21, 2012, NMFS issued a biological opinion to the U.S. Navy for training activities occurring 

within their Northeast, Virginia Capes, Cherry Point and Jacksonville Range Complexes for the years 

2012 through 2014. This biological opinion concluded that the training activities are not likely to 

jeopardize species of endangered and threatened whales and sea turtles. During the proposed activities 2 

fin whales, 2 humpback whales, 3 sperm whales, 30 hardshell sea turtles (any combination of green 

hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles), 555 Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, 9 

leatherback sea turtles and 466 NW Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles per year are expected to be harassed as 

a result of their behavioral responses to mid- and high frequency active sonar transmissions. Another 

three hardshell, five Kemp’s ridley, one leatherback and nine Northwest Atlantic loggerhead turtles per 

year are expected to be injured during exposure to underwater detonations. 

Over the same time period (2009 to 2014), the U.S. Navy also conducted mid-frequency active sonar 

training along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf of Mexico for which NMFS issued biological opinions. 

Each year during the proposed activities up to 880 blue whales, 970 fin whales, 4,620 humpback whales, 

730 North Atlantic right whales, 1,163 sei whales and 10,734 sperm whales are expected to be harassed as 

a result of their behavioral responses to mid- and high frequency active sonar transmissions and harassed 

as a result. Because of the frequencies used during the training activities, no sea turtles were expected to 

be harassed. 

Oil and Gas Activities 

Ten oil and gas lease sales were held in the Atlantic between 1976 and 1983. Fifty-one wells were drilled 

in the Atlantic OCS between 1975 and 1984, including one well in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area and 

seven wells in the South Atlantic Planning Area (See Figure 5). Of these 51 wells drilled, five were 

COST wells drilled between 1975 and 1979. Water depths of these wells ranged from 41 to 819 m (136 
171

to 2,686 ft), and total depth (penetration) ranged from 4,040 to 6,667 m (13,254 to 21,874 ft) (USDOI, 

BOEM, 2011a In BOEM 2012a). 

At least one drillable prospect was identified during early Atlantic activity in the 1980s, Manteo, 

approximately 45 mi (72 km) northeast of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, in water approximately about 

820 m (2,700 ft) deep (USDOI, MMS, 1998). As a result of leasing during Sales 56 and 78 in September 

1981 and September 1983, respectively, a 21 OCS block unit was approved by BOEM (then The 

Minerals Management Service) in 1990 for this prospect. 

BOEM’s 2007-2012 5-year leasing program for the OCS (MMS 2008) included one sale (Lease Sale 220) 

offshore the Commonwealth of Virginia, contingent upon the Atlantic drilling moratoria imposed by 

executive order and the U.S. Congress for the Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas being 

lifted at some point within the 5-Year Program. The Program Area for proposed Sale 220 consisted of 

593 whole and partial OCS blocks encompassing approximately 2.9 million acres. Water depths in the 

program area range from 100 to 11,500 ft (30 to 3,500 m). The entire program area was located more than 

50 statute miles from the boundary between the Commonwealth of Virginia and Federal waters, and 

extended seaward to 183 statute miles (Figure 5). Although both moratoria expired and the sale could 

take place, after the Deepwater Horizon event and oil spill in 2010, the Secretary of the Interior reevaluated the decision to hold Lease Sale 220 and cancelled the sale. There are currently no active oil and 

gas leases or oil and gas exploration, development, or production activities on the Atlantic OCS.
172

Figure 5: Locations of 51 Wells Drilled on the Atlantic OCS between 1975 and 1984 and Program 

Area for Lease Sale 220. 
173

Recovery Actions 

Several agencies have engaged in a variety of actions that are designed to reduce the effects of human 

activities on endangered and threatened species in the Action Area. In 1993, NMFS formed the Southeast 

Implementation Team for the Right Whale Recovery Plan to address the goals of the Right Whale 

Recovery Plan within NMFS’ Southeast Region. The recovery plan has identified entanglement in fishing 

gear and ship collisions as the two major direct human impacts affecting both species. Habitat degradation 

through pollution or other major habitat alteration processes caused by either human sources (discharge or 

disposal in the marine environment) or resource management activities (fishery or minerals management) 

is also identified as a major indirect impact requiring attention. 

In 1993, the Government of Canada recognized the importance of a portion of the Roseway Basin by 

designating it as a Right Whale Conservation Area. This basin, which is about 20 nautical miles south of 

Cape Sable Island Nova Scotia, is one of only two known areas where large numbers of North Atlantic 

right whales gather on a seasonal basis in Canadian waters. 

In 1999, the U.S. Coast Guard implemented a Mandatory Ship Reporting System that requires vessels 

larger than 300 gross registered tons (Department of the Navy ships are exempt) to report their location, 

course, speed, and destination upon entering the nursery and feeding areas of the right whale. At the same 

time, ships receive information on locations of right whale sightings, in order to avoid collisions with the 

animals. In the southeastern United States, the reporting system is from November 15 through April 15 of 

each year; the geographical boundaries include coastal waters within roughly 46 kilometers (km) (25 

nautical miles [nm]) of shore along a 167 km (90 nm) stretch of the Atlantic coast in Florida and Georgia. 

In the northeastern United States, the reporting system is year-round and the geographical boundaries 

include the waters of Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts Bay, and the Great South Channel east and southeast 

of Massachusetts; it includes all of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. 

An Early Warning System for right whales has been operational in areas of the southeastern U.S. for 

several years. This system identifies the known location of right whales within and adjacent to the winter 

calving area from Savannah, Georgia, to Sebastian Inlet, Florida, from 1 December through 31 May 

(when right whales are assumed to occur in these waters) and provides this information to mariners. This 

system has successfully diverted shipping to avoid right whales on several occasions, thus decreasing the 

threat of vessel collisions. 

On 1 July 2007, NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard implemented a shift in the Traffic Separation Scheme 

servicing Boston to reduce the threat of vessel collisions with right whales and other whale species. The 
174

realignment is expected to result in a 58% reduction in the risk of ship strikes to right whales, and an 81% 

risk reduction in ship strikes of other large whale species occurring in the area. 

In 2002, the International Maritime Organization unanimously adopted a Canadian proposal to amend the 

Bay of Fundy Traffic Separation Scheme to reducing the relative probability of a ship strike in the 

Roseway Basin by about 80 percent. The Canadian Government proposed establishing a seasonal “Area 

to be Avoided” in the Roseway Basin, which would apply to ships of 300 gross tonnage or greater, during 

the seven-month period from June 1 to December 31 when the largest percentage of Right Whales is 

known to be in the area and when the risk of ship strikes is greatest. The International Maritime 

Organization’s Maritime Safety Committee adopted Canada's proposal at its 83rd session in Copenhagen 

Denmark 3-12 October 2007; the newly designated recommended seasonal “Area to be Avoided” took 

effect six months after it was adopted and was in place prior to the seasonal return of the Right Whales to 

the Roseway Basin in the spring and summer of 2008. 

In October 2008, NMFS established regulations that implement a 10-knot speed restriction for all vessels 

65 ft (19.8 m) or longer in certain locations along the east coast of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard at certain 

times (See Table 7) of the year to reduce the likelihood of deaths and serious injuries to endangered North 

Atlantic right whales that result from collisions with ships. Evidence suggests that the likelihood of death 

and serious injury to large whales struck by ships is related to ship speed. The regulations limit ship speed 

during times and in areas where relatively high right whale and ship densities overlap near a number of 

U.S. east coast ports, at calving/nursery areas in waters off Georgia and Florida, and in New England 

waters (See Table 7). 

The Impact of the Baseline on Listed Resources 

Although listed resources are exposed to a wide variety of past and present state, Federal or private 

actions and other human activities that have already occurred or continue to occur in the action area as 

well as Federal projects in the action area that have already undergone formal or early section 7 

consultation, and State or private actions that are contemporaneous with this consultation, the impact of 

those activities on the status, trend, or the demographic processes of threatened and endangered species 

remains largely unknown. 

Impact on Endangered Whales 

Historically, commercial whaling had occurred in the action area and had caused all of the large whales to 

decline to the point where the whales faced risks of extinction that were high enough to list them as 
175

endangered species. Since the end of commercial whaling, the primary threat to these species has been 

eliminated; however, population sizes of the endangered whales along the Atlantic Coast of the United 

States still remain at fractions of the population sizes that are estimated to have existed prior to whaling. 

Nevertheless, populations of species like humpback whales have increased substantially from postwhaling populations levels and appear to be recovering despite the number of individuals that have been 

killed or injured as a result of ship strikes, interactions with fishing gear, and increased levels of ambient 

sound along the Atlantic coast. Blue, fin, sei, and sperm whales also exist at smaller population sizes as a 

result of the legacy of whaling along the Atlantic Ocean, although we know considerably less about the 

potential effects of many of the stressors associated with the activities considered in this Environmental 

Baseline on growth rates, trend, or age-structure of their populations. 

Recent attention has focused on the emergence of a wide number of anthropogenic sound sources in the 

Action Area and their potential effects on marine animals. Relationships between specific sound sources, 

or anthropogenic sound generally, and the responses of marine mammals to those sources are still subject 

to extensive scientific research and public inquiry but no clear patterns have emerged. As a result, the 

potential consequences of these activities on threatened and endangered marine mammals remain 

uncertain. 

In reviewing studies regarding behavioral responses to human activities, including close approaches by 

ships, researchers have noted changes in respiration, diving, swimming speed, social exchanges, and other 

behavior correlated with the number, speed, direction, and proximity of vessels. Responses were different 

depending on the age, life stage, social status of the whales being observed (i.e., males, cows with calves) 

and context (feeding, migrating, etc.). Beale and Monaghan (2004) concluded that the significance of 

disturbance was a function of the distance of humans to the animals, the number of humans making the 

close approach, and the frequency of the approaches. These results would suggest that the cumulative 

effects of the various human activities in the Action Area would be greater than the effects of the 

individual activity. Several investigators reported behavioral responses to close approaches that suggest 

that individual whales might experience stress responses. Baker et al. (1983) described two responses of 

whales to vessels, including: (1) “horizontal avoidance” of vessels 2,000 to 4,000 meters away 

characterized by faster swimming and fewer long dives; and (2) “vertical avoidance” of vessels from 0 to 

2,000 meters away during which whales swam more slowly, but spent more time submerged. Watkins et 

al. (1981) found that both fin and humpback whales appeared to react to vessel approach by increasing 

swim speed, exhibiting a startled reaction, and moving away from the vessel with strong fluke motions. 

Other researchers have noted changes in respiration, diving, swimming speed, social exchanges, and other 

behavior correlated with the number, speed, direction, and proximity of vessels. Results were different 
176

depending on the social status of the whales being observed (single males when compared with cows and 

calves), but humpback whales generally tried to avoid vessels when the vessels were 0.5 to 1.0 kilometer 

from the whale. Smaller pods of whales and pods with calves seemed more responsive to approaching 

vessels (Bauer 1986 and Bauer and Herman 1986). These stimuli are probably stressful to the humpback 

whales in the Action Area, but the consequences of this stress on the individual whales remains unknown 

(Baker et al. 1983, Baker and Herman 1987). Studies of other baleen whales, specifically bowhead and 

gray whales, document similar patterns of behavioral disturbance in response to a variety of actual and 

simulated vessel activity and noise (Richardson et. al, 1985; Malme et al. 1983). For example, studies of 

bowhead whales revealed that these whales oriented themselves in relation to a vessel when the engine 

was on, and exhibited significant avoidance responses when the vessel’s engine was turned on even at a 

distance of about 900 m (3,000 ft). Jahoda et al. (2003) studied the response of 25 fin whales in feeding 

areas in the Ligurian Sea to close approaches by inflatable vessels and to biopsy samples. They concluded 

that close vessel approaches caused these whales to stop feeding and swim away from the approaching 

vessel. The whales also tended to reduce the time they spent at surface and increase their blow rates, 

suggesting an increase in metabolic rates that might indicate a stress response to the approach. In their 

study, whales that had been disturbed while feeding remained disturbed for hours after the exposure 

ended. They recommended keeping vessels more than 200 meters from whales and having approaching 

vessels move at low speeds to reduce visible reactions in these whales. 

As we discussed in the Status of the Species section of this Opinion, the legacy effects of whaling appear 

to have had and continue to have greatest effect on endangered Northern Atlantic right whales by 

reducing them to a population size that is sufficiently small to experience “small population dynamics” 

(Caughley 1994, Lande 1993, Lande et al. 2003, Melbourne and Hastings 2008). At these population 

sizes, we would expect North Atlantic right whales to have higher probabilities of becoming extinct 

because of demographic stochasticity, demographic heterogeneity (Coulson et al. 2006, Fox et al. 2006) 

—including stochastic sex determination (Lande et al. 2003) — and the effects of phenomena interacting 

with environmental variability. Demographic stochasticity refers to the randomness in the birth or death 

of an individual in a population, which results in random variation on how many young that individuals 

produce during their lifetime and when they die. Demographic heterogeneity refers to variation in lifetime 

reproductive success of individuals in a population (generally, the number of reproductive adults an 

individual produces over their reproductive lifespan), such that the deaths of different individuals have 

different effects on the growth or decline of a population (Coulson et al. 2006). Stochastic sex 

determination refers to the randomness in the sex of offspring such that sexual ratios in population 

fluctuate over time (Melbourne and Hastings 2008). 
177

At small population sizes, populations experience higher extinction probabilities because of their 

population size, because stochastic sexual determination leaves them with all males or all females (which 

occurred to the heath hen and dusky seaside sparrow just before they became extinct), or because the loss 

of individuals with high reproductive success has a disproportionate effect on the rate at which the 

population declines (Coulson et al. 2006). North Atlantic right whales exist at population sizes 

sufficiently low to experience all or some of these forms of stochasticity and the evidence available 

suggests that the death of individual females disproportionately increases the rate at which the population 

declines. Based on the number of other species in similar circumstances that have become extinct (and the 

small number of species that have avoided extinction in similar circumstances), the longer North Atlantic 

right whales remain in these circumstances, the greater their extinction probability becomes. We do not 

yet know to what degree the U.S. and Canadian Traffic Separation Schemes, speed restrictions, and vessel 

routing activities that NOAA has established along the Atlantic Coast of the United States reduces the 

number of North Atlantic right whales that are killed or injured during collisions with ships. 

The same statement does not appear to be true for blue, fin, humpback, sei, or sperm whales in the Action 

Area for this consultation, which appear to be increasing in population size -- or, at least, their population 

sizes do not appear to be declining -- despite their continued exposure to the direct and indirect effects of 

the activities discussed in the Environmental Baseline. Although we do not have information on other 

measures of the demographic status of these species (for example, age structure, gender ratios, or the 

distribution of reproductive success) that would facilitate a more robust assessment of the probable impact 

of the Environmental Baseline2

, we infer from their increasing abundance that the Environmental 

Baseline is not currently preventing their population size from increasing. 

Impact on Endangered and Threatened Sea Turtles 

Several of the categories of activities described in this Environmental Baseline have had significant and 

adverse consequences for nesting aggregations of sea turtles whose individuals occur in the Action Area. 

In particular, the commercial fisheries that have been described have captured substantial numbers of 

green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles each year. 

 

2

 Increases in a population’s abundance is only one piece of evidence that a population is improving in status; however, because populations can 

increase while experiencing low juvenile survival (for example, if low juvenile survival is coupled with reduced adult mortality) or when those 

individuals that are most sensitive to a stress regime die, leaving the most resistant individuals, increases in abundance are not necessarily 

indicative of the long-term viability of a species. 
178

Although only small percentages of these sea turtles are estimated to have died as a result of their capture, 

the actual number of sea turtles that are estimated to have died in these fisheries each year for the past 5 to 

10 years (or longer) is substantial. When we add the percentage of sea turtles that have suffered injuries or 

handling stress sufficient to have caused them to delay the age at which they reach maturity or the 

frequency at which they return to nesting beaches, the consequences of these fisheries on nesting 

aggregations of sea turtles would be greater than we have estimated. 

Even with TED measures in place, in 2002, NMFS (2002) expected these fisheries to capture about 

323,600 sea turtles each year and kill about 5,600 of the turtles captured. Loggerhead sea turtles account 

for most of this total: 163,000 captured, killing almost 4,000 of them. Kemp’s ridleys account for the 

second-most interactions: 155,503 captures with 4,200 of them dying. These are followed by green sea 

turtles: about 18,700 captured with more than 500 of them dying as a result of their capture. Leatherback 

sea turtle interactions were estimated at 3,090 captures with 80 of them dying as a result (NMFS 2002). 

Since 2002, however, effort in the Atlantic shrimp fisheries has declined from a high of 25,320 trips in 

2002 to approximately 13,464 trips in 2009. Since sea turtle takes are directly linked to fishery effort, 

these takes are expected to decrease but are still expected to result in at least hundreds and possibly in the 

low thousands of sea turtle interactions annually, of which hundreds are expected to be lethal (NMFS 

2012). 

Recent data regarding the three largest subpopulations that comprise the Northwest Atlantic loggerhead 

DPS indicated either that these subpopulations do not show a nesting decline significantly different from 

zero (Peninsular Florida and The Greater Caribbean subpopulation) or are showing possible signs of nest 

numbers stabilizing (Northern subpopulation). These trends were declining and have only recently shown 

signs of stability with strong nesting seasons in the last few years. 

Given that we are certain that nest counts of species like Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles have 

been declining in the recent past, these additional mortalities each year along with other impacts remain a 

threat to the survival and recovery of this species. Even if these mortalities did not increase the rate at 

which certain nesting aggregations are declining, merely continuing the rate at which they are currently 

declining would be sufficient to increase the probability of nest counts in these nesting aggregations to 

decline to zero. Because we know that populations of sea turtles cannot increase over time if the number 

of nest counts decline, the mortalities associated with these fisheries could reverse the estimated progress 

of Northwest Atlantic loggerheads and increase the probability of populations of green, Kemp’s ridley, 

hawksbill, leatherback or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles becoming extinct in the wild. 
179

Impact on Endangered Atlantic Sturgeon 

Several activities described in this Environmental Baseline have had significant and adverse 

consequences for Atlantic sturgeon occurring in the Action Area. While commercial fisheries for meat 

and caviar caused the initial decline for populations within the five DPSs, habitat degradation, coastal 

runoff and river discharges carrying contaminates remain some of the challenges for Atlantic sturgeon. 

Atlantic sturgeon are sensitive to pesticides, heavy metals, and other toxins in the aquatic environment. 

Large sturgeon are most often killed by ship strikes because smaller fish often pass through the propellers 

without making contact but larger sturgeon get hit. As shipping increases in the future, using larger, 

deeper draft vessels, as has been predicted, more Atlantic sturgeon are likely to be killed during 

encounters with ships. 

We have been unable to estimate the sizes of the populations for any of the 5 Atlantic sturgeon DPSs; 

however, it is presumed that the Hudson and Altamaha rivers have the most robust of the remaining U.S. 

Atlantic sturgeon spawning populations and that the other U.S. spawning populations were likely less 

than 300 spawning adults per year (ASSRT 2007). At these small population sizes, however, increasing 

mortality rates or even maintaining current mortality rates is likely to be sufficient to increase the 

probability of Atlantic sturgeon populations becoming extinct in the wild. 

Effects of the Proposed Action 

“Effects of the action” means the direct and indirect effects of an action on the species or critical habitat, 

together with the effects of other activities that are interrelated or interdependent with that action, that will 

be added to the environmental baseline (50 CFR §402.02). Indirect effects are those that are caused by the 

proposed action and are later in time, but still are reasonably certain to occur. This effects analyses 

section is organized as stressor – exposure – response – risk assessment framework. 

Each potential stressor associated with the proposed G&G activities proposed by BOEM is discussed in 

greater detail below. That section is followed by the results of NMFS’ exposure and response analyses, 

which are designed to determine whether endangered or threatened individuals or designated critical 

habitat are likely to be exposed to the potential stressor and how those individuals or designated critical 

habitat are likely to respond, given exposure. This section concludes with an Integration and Synthesis of 

Effects that integrates information presented in the Status of the Species and Environmental Baseline
180

sections of this Opinion with the results of the exposure and response analyses to estimate the probable 

risks the proposed action poses to endangered and threatened species.

Stressors Associated with the Proposed Action 

The potential stressors we expect to result from the G&G activities proposed by BOEM within the Action 

Area are represented in Table 9: 

Table 9: Stressors Associated with the Proposed Action.

Potential Stressors

Program Area Use

Survey Type(s)

Oil & Gas Renewable 

Energy

Marine 

Minerals

Sound Fields Produced by Active 

Acoustic Sound Sources

Airguns X -- --

Deep penetration seismic surveys and HRG 

surveys

Electromechanical Sources

(subbottom profilers, side-scan 

sonar, boomers, sparkers, single, 

swath and multi-beam depth 

sounders)

X X X

HRG surveys for Oil and Gas, Renewable 

energy and Marine Mineral sites

Vessel and Equipment Noise (including 

drilling) X X X

All vessel activity; drilling of COST wells and 

shallow test wells

Vessel Traffic (collisions) X X X

All vessel surveys and support vessel 

movements

Aircraft Traffic and Noise X -- --

Aeromagnetic surveys; helicopter support for 

COST well drilling

Trash and Debris X X X

Accidental release of trash or debris into the 

ocean

Seafloor Disturbance

Bottom Sampling

(Temporary placement of cables, 

nodes, sensors, or anchors on or in 

seafloor)

X X X Geotechnical sampling and testing

Cables, Nodes, Anchors X -- --

Certain deep penetration seismic surveys and 

CSEM and MT surveys

COST Wells and Shallow Test 

Drilling X -- -- Drilling of COST wells and shallow test wells

Meteorological Buoys -- X -- Site characterization for renewable energy areas

Drilling Discharges X -- -- Drilling of COST wells and shallow test wells

Accidental Fuel Spills X X X All vessel surveys

Abbreviations: CSEM = controlled source electromagnetic; COST = Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test; CPT= cone penetrometer test; 

HRG = high resolution geophysical; MM = marine minerals; MT=magnetotelluric; OG = oil and gas exploration; RE = renewable energy. 
181

Active Acoustic Sound Sources Associated with the Proposed Action 

BOEM anticipates that operators will employ airguns and electromechanical equipment (boomers, 

sparkers, single, swath and multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonars and chirp subbottom profilers) in 

the program areas under the proposed action as reflected in Table 9 above. HRG surveys are often 

conducted with autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) equipped with electromechanical equipment 

(multibeam depth sounders, side-scan sonars and a chirp subbottom profilers). The following sections 

give an overview and describe the operating principles of both types of acoustic sources. See Table 10

for all source levels and operating frequencies for all active acoustic sound sources proposed for use over 

the duration of the proposed action. 

Airguns function by rapidly venting high-pressure, compressed air into the water. The pressure signature 

of an individual airgun consists of a sharp rise and then fall in pressure, followed by several positive and 

negative pressure oscillations or air bubbles. The best example of this effect is popping a balloon – when 

the air inside the balloon is quickly released into the surrounding medium (in this case, air), a pressure 

pulse is created, which is heard as a loud sound (NSF and USDOI, USGS, 2011). An airgun source can 

consist of a single device, but most often it is made up of an array of airguns. It is considered a lowfrequency source since most of its acoustic energy is radiated at frequencies below 200 Hz; however, 

airgun arrays are broadband emitters, with source spectra spanning a number of third-octave bands from 

10 Hz up to 2 kHz (BOEM 2012b). The main specification of an airgun, which defines its broadband 

source level and spectral (frequency) content, is the volume of the air chamber. 

A single airgun is an omni-directional source where the amplitude of the acoustic wave emitted from the 

source is uniform in all directions. An airgun array, on the other hand, does exhibit directionality because 

of the varying delays between signals from the spatially separated airguns in different directions. The 

sizes, arrangement, and firing times of the individual airguns in an array are designed and synchronized to 

suppress the pressure oscillations (bubbles) subsequent to the pressure release, and coalesce pressure 

levels into one pulse. The resulting downward-directed pulse has a fraction of a second duration, with 

only one strong positive and one strong negative peak pressure (Caldwell & Dragoset, 2000). 

The source levels for airgun arrays are nominal source levels for sound directed downward, which 

represent the theoretical source level close to a single point source emitting the same sound as that 

emitted by the arrays. The actual source for airgun arrays is a distributed sound source (i.e., multiple 

guns) rather than a single point source. In order to communicate an estimate of the levels of sound from 

the array, back calculations must be made from far field measurements to acquire a theoretical value of 
182

the source level. This theoretical source level is never actually realized for airgun arrays because airguns 

are distributed over several meters; the highest sound levels actually measurable in the water close to the 

airgun array (such as one meter) will never be as high as the nominal source level. Given the directional 

nature (downward) of the sound propagating from these airgun arrays, the effective source level for sound 

propagating in near-horizontal directions will be substantially lower than the nominal source level, 

although this horizontal propagation is known to occur over many kilometers from the source. The 

theoretical point source estimates for airgun arrays are useful, however, for accurately reflecting received 

levels in the far-field (at more than 75 to 100 m; Caldwell & Dragoset, 2000) 

The strengths of airgun pulses can be measured in different ways. Peak-to-peak levels (pk-pk) are 

presented in units of dB re 1 μPa. The peak level (0-pk) for the same pulse is typically about 6 dB less. 

In the biological literature, levels of received airgun pulses are often described based on the “average” or 

“root-mean-square (rms)” level over the duration of the pulse. The rms value for a given pulse is 

typically about 10 dB lower than 0-pk, and 16 dB lower than pk-pk (McCauley et al., 1998, 2000b; 

Greene et al. 1997 as cited in NMFS, 2006). A fourth measure – sound exposure level (SEL)– is 

sometimes used and is expressed in dB re 1 μPa2•s; however, because seismic pulses are less than one 

second in duration, the numerical value of the sound energy level is lower than the rms pressure level. 

Some acoustic experts believe that SEL is a better measure of the received levels of total energy marine 

animals might experience when exposed to multiple pulses from sources such as seismic airguns and 

sonar (Southall et al 2007). This measurement becomes less effective in describing the total amount of 

energy received from multiple airgun pulses, however, since a marine animal would not remain 

motionless in the sound field, variable environmental characteristics play a role in determining the 

frequencies and sound levels within a particular sound field and even slight changes in head orientation 

would affect the amount of energy the animal’s auditory system receives. 

Pathways for received seismic sound include direct paths from the source, indirect paths that include 

reflection from the sea surface and bottom, and often indirect paths including segments propagating 

through bottom sediments. Sound propagating via indirect paths travels longer distances and often arrives 

later than sounds received via a direct path. However, sound may also travel faster through sediments 

than in water, and thus may arrive earlier than the direct arrival despite traveling a greater distance. 

Variations in travel time lengthen the duration of a received pulse; seismic pulses of about 10 to 20 ms in 

duration at the source can be longer when received at long horizontal distances lessening the impulsive 

nature of the signal. For example, for an airgun array operating in the Beaufort Sea, pulse duration was 

about 300 ms at a distance of 8 km, 500 ms at 20 km, and 850 ms at 73 km (C. R. Greene, Jr & 

Richardson, 1988). Seasonally and spatially variable environmental characteristics also play a role in 
183

determining the frequencies and sound levels that a marine mammal may experience when exposed to 

propagating airgun sounds. 

Electromechanical sources can be considered low, mid- or high-frequency emitters. They usually have 

operating frequencies, which fall in the range from 200 Hz to 900 kHz. The acoustic energy emitted 

outside the main operating frequency band in most of these devices is negligible; therefore, they can 

usually be considered narrow band sources. These sources may also be employed simultaneously with 

airguns during oil and gas exploration. 

Boomers are electromechanical low frequency sound sources that generate short, broadband acoustic 

pulses useful for high-resolution, shallow-penetration sediment profiling. The acoustic impulse from a 

boomer is generated when two spring-loaded plates are electrically charged causing the plates to repel, 

thus generating an acoustic pulse. The emitting element of the boomer source is a boomer plate mounted 

on a catamaran-like sled and towed alongside or astern of the ship. The boomer is a strongly directive 

source for frequencies above 1 kHz but it becomes omni-directional below 1 kHz. 

Sparkers are electrical seismic sources that generate acoustic pulses by vaporizing seawater using highvoltage electrical currents. Sparkers employ large banks of capacitors to generate high voltages, which are 

then discharged across pairs of underwater electrodes separated by seawater. The spark generated by the 

electrodes creates steam bubbles in the water. The formation, oscillation, and collapse of these bubbles 

generate a strongly spiked acoustic pulse in the water that can penetrate several hundred meters into the 

seafloor. 

Chirp subbottom profilers operate at frequencies ranging from 500 Hz to 24 kHz and 200 kHz. The sonar 

head is mounted at the bottom of the ship’s hull, with the central axes of both transducers oriented 

directly downward. Chirp profilers emit a “swept”-frequency signal, meaning that the transmitted signal 

is emitted over a period of time and over a set range of frequencies. This repeatable (transmitted) 

waveform can be varied in terms of pulse length, frequency bandwidth, and phase/amplitude. A matched 

filter, or correlation process, collapses the swept frequency modulated (FM) received signal into a pulse 

of short duration, maximizing the signal-to-noise-ratio. 

The single, swath, and multi-beam depth sounders emit brief pings of medium- or high-frequency sound 

(3.5 kHz to 540 kHz) in a single or fan-shaped beam, respectively, extending downward and to the sides 

of the ship, but not forward or aft. The pulses are sent down toward the ocean floor by a transducer that is 

mounted to the hull of the ship. In multi-beam echo sounders, the beams produce a fanned arc composed 

of individual beams, each with a width as narrow as one vertical degree by one horizontal degree. The 
184

width of the swath of sonar echo beams produced depends on the water depth as the beams widen as 

water depth increases. Reflected echoes are received by another array that is mounted parallel to the 

vessel track, which records the time required for the acoustic signal to travel to and from the seafloor. 

This number can then be converted into water depth to create a bathymetric (water depth) map. 

The side-scan sonar is a dual-frequency, side-scan sonar with two simultaneously-engaged transducers, 

each producing a full spectrum chirp signal. The sonar can be operated in frequencies ranging from 100

kHz to more than 900 kHz. The sonar is installed inside a streamlined towfish that can be towed behind a 

vessel at different depths. The central axes of the two transducers are oriented perpendicular to the towing 

line in the horizontal plane, i.e., at 90o and 270o relative to the ship’s course. In the vertical plane, the 

central axes are tilted downward at 20o to the horizontal plane. The vertical beam width (across-track) is 

50o for both frequencies. The horizontal beam width (along-track) varies between 0.4 o and 1.26o, 

depending on the frequency and the operating mode. 

Electromagnetic and Other Active Acoustic Sound Sources

Controlled Source Electromagnetic Surveys (CSEM) surveys used to help delineate potential oil and gas 

reservoirs induce very low frequency electromagnetic signals into the upper layers of the seafloor via a 

towed dipole. A vessel tows the dipole (a metal cylinder) that produces, an electrical signal (typically less 

than 2 hertz [Hz]) that is continuous, not pulsed. 

Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ACDPs) are employed on met buoys in the renewable energy 

program can calculate speed of the water current, direction of the current, and the depth in the water 

column of the current. The ADCP measures water currents with sound, using a principle of sound waves 

called the “Doppler” effect and works by transmitting high frequency pings of sound at a constant 

frequency into the water. 
185

Table 10: Representative Acoustic Sound Sources Proposed for Seismic and HRG Surveys in the Oil and 

Gas, Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Programs from 2013-2020.

Source Usage

Broadband Source 

Level 

(dB re 1 Pa at 1m)

Pulse 

Duration Operating 

Frequencies

Large Airgun Array 

(5,400 in2)

Deep penetration seismic 

surveys, (2D, 3D, WAZ, 

VSP, 4D, etc.) 

Oil and Gas Program

230.7

>100 ms 10 Hz-2,000 

Hz

(most energy 

at <200 Hz)

Small Airgun Array 

(90 in2)

HRG surveys

Oil and Gas Program 210.3

>100 ms 10 Hz-2,000 

Hz

(most energy 

at <200 Hz)

Controlled Source 

Electromagnetic Towed 

Dipole

CSEM surveys

Oil and Gas Program Not available

N/A

<2Hz

Boomer

HRG surveys

All Program Areas 212 180 μs 200 Hz–14

kHz

Sparker HRG surveys,

All Program Areas 210-230 - 50 Hz-500 Hz

Side-Scan Sonar HRG surveys,

All Program Areas 226 20 ms 100 kHz-900 kHz

Chirp Subbottom Profiler HRG surveys,

All Program Areas 222 64 ms

500 Hz to 24 

kHz and 200 

kHz

Single Beam Depth 

Sounder

HRG Surveys, 

All Program Areas 213 >100 ms 3.5 kHz to 

540 kHz

Swath Depth Sounder

HRG Surveys, 

All Program Areas Not Available -- 100 to 600 kHz

Multibeam Depth 

Soundera

HRG surveys,

All Program Areas 213

>100 ms 70 kHz-500

kHz

ACDP Renewable Energy 

Program Not available Not available 190 kHz to 2 MHz

a

Single beam and swath interferometric sounders may also be used for seafloor mapping, and the frequencies and source levels may differ. 

The multi-beam depth sounder was selected as a representative source for estimating acoustic impacts. 

Receiving Devices and Passive Equipment 

Hydrophone streamers and geophones act as receiving devices for acoustic sources (i.e., airgun 

array) during seismic surveys. No acoustic or electromagnetic signals are emitted. The 

hydrophones or geophones are encased in plastic tubing and either towed behind the survey 

vessel, positioned on the seafloor as autonomous nodes or cables, or in rare instances spaced at 

various depths in vertically positioned cables depending on the type of survey conducted. 
186

Magnetotelluric, gravity, gravity gradiometry, and marine magnetic surveys are remote sensing 

surveys typically conducted from ships or aircraft used to record the Earth’s natural 

electromagnetic field or gravity gradient. No acoustic or electromagnetic signals are emitted 

from this equipment used during these surveys. 

Vessel and Equipment Noise 

G&G activities within all three program areas would generate vessel and equipment noise. Most 

of the vessel activity and noise is associated with 2D and 3D seismic surveys which could occur 

as early as 2013 and continue until 2020. Other surveys (i.e., WAZ, HRG, CSEM and VSP) 

would occur at lower levels and within the later years of this proposed action . Vessel and 

equipment noise would be generated from G&G vessels and their support vessels along with 

those vessels associated with COST and shallow test well drilling. Broadband source levels for 

vessels involved in oil and gas activities are anticipated to be in the range of 170-180 dB (re 1 

μPa at 1 m) and source levels for boats like those used for renewable energy and marine minerals 

surveys are in the range of 150-170 dB (re 1 μPa at 1 m) (Richardson et al., 1995b). 

Seismic survey vessels could occur anywhere within the Action Area at any time, however, 

vessels for renewable energy and marine minerals would operate in water depths of 60 m and less 

and 30 m and less, respectively. Survey vessels for renewable energy and marine minerals 

projects are expected to make daily round trips to their shore base, whereas the larger seismic 

vessels can remain offshore for weeks or months. It is anticipated that one to three diesel-powered 

survey and support vessels would be associated with any specific G&G activity. 

Equipment related to drilling activities also produces continuous sounds usually in the low 

frequency range. BOEM anticipates completion of up to three COST wells and up to five 

shallow test wells. COST wells are drilled using the same conventional rotary drilling techniques 

as those used for drilling oil and gas exploration and development wells. Well drilling activities 

produce strong tonal components at low frequencies (<500 Hz), including infrasonic frequencies 

in at least some cases (Richardson et al., 1995). Drilling-related noise from jack-up platforms is 

continuous and generally of very low frequencies (near 5 Hz) with source levels from 119 to 127 

dB (re 1 μPa) at nearfield locations. Drilling operations would be supported by crew boats, 

supply vessels, and helicopters traveling between the drilling rig and the onshore support base. 

Drilling from semi-submersible platforms in deeper waters produces an estimated sound source 

level in the range of 154 (re 1 μPa-m) with frequencies from 10 to 4,000 Hz while source levels 
187

for drill ships can be as high as 191 dB re 1 μPa during drilling. At source levels of 154 (re 1 

μPa-m) the 120-dB radius would occur at 50 m. 

Vessel Collisions 

G&G activities within all three program areas would generate vessel and equipment noise. Most 

of the vessel activity is associated with 2D and 3D seismic surveys which could occur as early as 

2013 and continue until 2020. Other surveys (i.e., WAZ, HRG, CSEM and VSP) would occur at 

lower levels and within the later years for this proposed action than the 2D and 3D surveys. A 

total of 125 port visits by survey vessels for the oil and gas seismic exploration program would 

occur during the 2013-2020 period. For the renewable energy program, there would be 

approximately 3,106-9,969 vessel round trips and approximately 93-615 vessel round trips 

associated with marine minerals survey activity within the Action Area between 2013 and 2020. 

These vessels would make port calls at any of the five major ports within the Action Area. 

Survey vessels typically travel from 5.6 km/hr (3 kts) for HRG surveys up to about 11 km/hr (6 

kts) for seismic surveying. Vessels traveling to and from ports, however, could travel at speeds 

considerably more than survey vessels. Vessels deploying and decommissioning bottom-founded 

monitoring buoys also increase vessel traffic. Seven to 38 buoys are proposed for deployment 

over the duration of the proposed action. Estimated round trips for deployment and 

decommissioning is about 64, however, this estimate does not consider maintenance for buoy 

performance. For post-lease engineering studies under the oil and gas program, AUVs are 

sometimes used to deploy survey equipment during HRG surveys. 

BOEM and BSEE propose to include vessel strike avoidance guidance with all authorizations for 

shipboard surveys similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (BOEM and BSEE 2012b) and 

described in the Description of the Proposed Action section of this Opinion. This guidance 

incorporates NMFS Vessel Strike Avoidance Measures and Reporting for Mariners. Shipboard 

survey operators are also required to abide by NMFS’ ship strike reduction rule (50 CFR 

224.105) which limits vessel speeds to 10 kts (18 km/hr) in the Mid-Atlantic from November 1 to 

April 30 annually, and in the Southeast U.S. SMAs from November 15 to April 15, annually, 

during the North Atlantic right whale migration season. Protected Species Observers (PSOs) on 

survey ships to alert vessel operators to the presence of marine animals are also expected to help 

vessels avoid marine mammal strikes. Given the slow speeds associated with the vast majority of 

vessel transits during surveys, the adherence to NMFS’ vessel strike avoidance measures and ship 

strike reduction rule during right whale migration periods and the presence of PSOs, we expect 
188

these measures to be effective in avoiding collisions between vessels and whales in the Action 

Area. 

There is a negligible risk of an AUV striking a marine mammal. Large and/or slow moving 

species would be more at risk of being struck than smaller, faster swimmers. Most AUVs travel 

between 5.6 and 14.8 km/hr (3 to 8 kts) which should allow a marine animal sufficient time to 

avoid the device. 

Aircraft Traffic 

Surveys using aircraft include aeromagnetic surveys and the installation of COST and shallow 

test wells. One or two aeromagnetic surveys may be flown at altitudes of between 61 and 152 m 

(200-500 ft) at speeds of 250 km/hr (135 kts). A typical survey may require 1 to 3 months to 

complete. Helicopters used to support drilling activities for up to three COST wells and up to 

five shallow test wells are anticipated to complete one round-trip daily between the drilling rig 

and the onshore support base. Helicopters are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 213 m 

(700 ft) when flying in transit offshore but in practice, offshore support helicopters typically fly at 

higher altitudes ranging from 229 - 716 m (750-2,350 ft) depending on the distance and direction. 

COST wells and shallow test wells take approximately 5 to 30 days to complete resulting in a 

maximum of 30 round trips per well and 450 round trips over the duration of the proposed action. 

Dominant tones reported for fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters are below 500 Hz generated by 

not only aircraft engines and propellers but also by the airframe itself (Richardson et al 1995b). 

Low-flying aircraft produce sounds that marine mammals can hear when they occur at or near the 

ocean’s surface. Helicopters generally tend to produce sounds that can be heard at or below the 

ocean’s surface more than fixed-wing aircraft of similar size and larger aircraft tend to be louder 

than smaller aircraft. Underwater sounds from aircraft are strongest just below the surface and 

directly under the aircraft. Aircraft noise is typically present for shorter periods of time and 

moves at a greater speed due to the higher travel speed of aircraft as oppose to vessel noise 

(Luksenburg and Parsons 2009). Sounds from aircraft would not have physical effects on marine 

mammals but represent acoustic stimuli (primarily low-frequency sounds from engines and 

rotors) that have been reported to affect the behavior of some marine mammals. 

There are studies of the responses of marine animals to air traffic and the few that are available 

have produced mixed results. Some investigators report some responses while others report no 
189

responses. Richardson et al. (1995) reported that there is no evidence that single or occasional 

aircraft flying above large whales in water cause long-term displacement of these mammals. 

Several authors have reported that sperm whales did not react to fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters 

in some circumstances (Au and Perryman 1982, Clarke 1956, Gambell 1968, Green et al. 1992) 

and reacted in others (Clarke 1956, Fritts et al. 1983, Mullin et al. 1991, Patenaude et al. 2006, 

Richter et al. 2003, 2006, Smultea et al. 2008, Würsig et al. 1998). Richardson et al. (1985) 

reported that bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) responded behaviorally to fixed-wing aircraft 

that were used in their surveys and research studies when the aircraft were less than 457 meters 

above sea level; their reactions were uncommon at 457 m and were undetectable above 610 m. 

They also reported that bowhead whales did not respond behaviorally to helicopter overflights at 

about 153 m above sea level. Leatherwood et al., (1982) reported that minke whales responded to 

helicopters at an altitude of 230 m (750 ft) by changing course or slowly diving.

Smultea et al. (2008) studied the response of sperm whales to low-altitude (233-269 m) flights by 

a small fixed-wing airplane off Kauai and reviewed data available from either other studies. They 

concluded that sperm whales responded behaviorally to aircraft passes in about 12 percent of 

encounters. All of the reactions consisted of sudden dives and occurred when the aircraft was 

less than 360 m from the whales (lateral distance). They concluded that the sperm whales had 

perceived the aircraft as a predatory stimulus and responded with defensive behavior. In at least 

one case, Smultea and et al. (2008) reported that the sperm whales formed a semi-circular “fan” 

formation that was similar to defensive formations reported by other investigators. 

In a review of aircraft noise effects on marine mammals, Luksenburg and Parsons (2009) 

determined that the sensitivity of whales and dolphins to aircraft noise may depend on the 

animals’ behavioral state at the time of exposure (e.g. resting, socializing, foraging or travelling) 

as well as the altitude and lateral distance of the aircraft to the animals. While resting animals 

seemed to be disturbed the most, low flying aircraft with close lateral distances over shallow 

water elicited stronger disturbance responses than higher flying aircraft with greater lateral 

distances over deeper water (Patenaude et al. 2002, Smultea et al. 2008 in Luksenburg and 

Parsons (2009). 

Luksenburg and Parsons (2009) also speculated that areas exposed to repeated and prolonged 

exposure to aircraft may affect the vocalizations of certain (particularly resident) cetacean 
190

populations. Such areas could include coastal airports and whale-watching flight paths as well as 

areas exposed to daily flights for oil and gas drilling and production. 

For sea turtles, sound from low flying aircraft could be heard by a sea turtle at or near the surface 

based on their sensory biology (Ridgway et al. 1969, Lenhardt et al. 1994, Bartol 1999, Bartol 

and Musick 2003, Ketten and Bartol 2006). Sea turtles might also detect low flying aircraft via 

visual cues such as the aircraft's shadow. Hazel et al. (2007) suggested that green sea turtles rely 

more on visual cues than auditory cues when reacting to approaching water vessels. This 

suggests that sea turtles might not respond to aircraft overflights based on noise alone. As such, 

sea turtles may react to fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter overflights only as they can visually 

detect them. We assume that sea turtles would react to overflights in much the same ways as 

marine mammals once an aircraft is detected. 

The effects of aircraft noise on fish include startle, and possibly stress, responses to low flying 

aircraft. However, given the limited coastal distribution of Atlantic sturgeon (within 50 m water 

depths) and wide dispersal along the coast, we do not expect more than occasional exposure of 

these fish to aircraft overflights, if they are exposed at all. 

Richardson et al. (1995b) reported that there is no evidence that single or occasional aircraft 

flying above large whales in water cause long-term displacement of these mammals while 

Luksenburg and Parsons (2009) concluded that marine mammals exposed to aircraft overflights 

may exhibit no response or behavioral reactions such as quick diving. Any behavioral avoidance 

reaction for marine mammals, sea turtles or Atlantic sturgeon would be short-term and would not 

permanently displace animals or result in physical harm. Given this, and the low number of 

aircraft overflights over the duration of the proposed action we conclude that any responses of 

marine mammals, sea turtles or Atlantic sturgeon to disturbance associated with aircraft is likely 

to be short-lived and will not rise to the level of harassment. As such we will not consider aircraft 

disturbance further in this Opinion. 

Seafloor Disturbance

Seafloor disturbance can occur from sediment sampling and placement and removal of equipment 

on the seafloor during oil and gas, renewable energy and marine minerals program activities. 

Sampling includes cone penetrometer tests, geologic coring, grab sampling and vibracoring and 

individual sampling events lasts three days or less. Seafloor disturbance and scour can also occur 

from bottom founded monitoring buoy anchors and anchors associated with VSP and ocean 
191

bottom cable surveys. Anchors associated with monitoring buoys, VSP and ocean bottom cable 

surveys are left in place after buoys are decommissioned or the survey has ended and are 

biodegradable. 

Sampling for renewable energy projects would occur at specific sites (consisting of one or more 

OCS blocks) in water depths less than 100 m (328 ft) with most occurring in water depths less 

than 60 m, and along potential cable routes to shore. Offshore Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 

the likely sampling locations would be within designated WEAs. Designated WEAs in the MidAtlantic Planning Area range in size from 164 nmi2

 (138,788 ac) offshore Virginia, to 94 nmi2

(79,706 ac) offshore Maryland. North Carolina has identified 354 OCS blocks of interest, but it 

is likely that sampling would occur within only a small subset of these blocks. Specific WEAs 

have not been identified for the South Atlantic Planning Area. 

Sampling activities for marine minerals would be conducted at specific borrow areas in water 

depths less than 30 m (98 ft). Much of the marine minerals activity is expected to occur within 

existing borrow areas within the mid-Atlantic and south Atlantic Planning Areas although new 

areas may be identified and used over the duration of this proposed action. 

Sampling for oil and gas exploration would be conducted at specific lease blocks where structures 

(e.g., drilling rigs, platforms, floating production structures, or pipelines) may be installed. The 

blocks could be anywhere within the Mid- or South Atlantic Planning Areas. However, 

requirements for mapping and avoidance, as well as pre-deployment photographic surveys of 

areas where bottom-founded instrumentation and appurtenances are to be deployed, would be 

required for all surveys. 

Bottom sampling activities would primarily take place in soft bottom areas as most bottom 

sampling equipment cannot penetrate hard bottom substrate. Piston and gravity cores are 

approximately 8-cm (3-in) diameter holes in the seafloor and, depending upon the firmness of the 

seafloor, the core or probe weight stand (30-45 cm [12-18 in] diameter footprint) may also impact 

the seafloor. Grab sampling is performed to identify the benthic fauna and penetrates from a few 

inches to a few feet below the seafloor and typically involves 30-40 grabs within an area of 

interest. Piezocone penetrometer testing is performed to determine the sediment engineering 

properties and uses a probe typically 10-1,500 mm2 in diameter, mounted on a frame, and 

lowered to the seafloor. A vibracore survey generally uses a 7-cm (2.8-in) diameter core barrel 

mounted on a 2- to 4-m2 platform and that can penetrate sediments between 6 -15 m (20-50 ft) 
192

below the seafloor. Fifteen to twenty five cores would be obtained in a 1 mi2 (259 ha) area of 

interest. 

Total bottom sampling activities includes 50-300 core or grab samples in the oil and gas program; 

6,914-22,209 core samples and 6,914-22,209 grab samples in the renewable energy program; and 

1-8 geologic cores, 60-320 grab samples, and 90-600 vibracores in the marine minerals program. 

Collection of each sample is estimated to disturb an area of approximately 10 m2, although the 

actual area of the core or grab extracted may be much smaller. 

The total area of seafloor disturbed by bottom sampling and shallow coring activities is estimated 

to be a very small area (0.000005 percent of the Action Area) both individually and cumulatively 

within the Action Area (85,477,900 ha, (211,220,480 ac). Although several thousand cores may 

be collected under the renewable energy program, sampling in soft bottom areas would produce 

only minor, localized turbidity which is expected dissipate when sampling ends. 

The installation of COST wells and shallow test wells has the potential to impact benthic 

resources. For this impact analysis, the area of seafloor disturbance is assumed to average about 2 

ha (5 ac) per well. If all of the COST wells and shallow test wells in the proposed action scenario 

were drilled, the total seafloor disturbance would be about 16 ha (40 ac), or about 0.00002 

percent of the AOI. Requirements for mapping and avoidance, as well as pre-deployment 

photographic surveys of areas where bottom-founded appurtenances are to be deployed, would be 

required. 

Up to 16 ha (40 ac) of soft bottom could be impacted from the installation of COST wells and 

shallow test wells. About 0.00002 percent of the Action Area can be impacted by well drilling 

with each well disturbing up to 2 ha (5 ac) of soft bottom. This disturbance could result in 

changes in species composition, community structure, and/or ecological functioning of these soft 

bottom areas. 

BOEM would implement requirements to ensure protection of sensitive benthic resources, 

including setbacks from sensitive bottom communities similar to those currently required for the 

Gulf of Mexico for activities within the Action Area. Given that BOEM would require prior 

approval of any G&G activities involving seafloor-disturbing activities or placement of bottomfounded equipment or structures (including requiring site-specific information), sensitive benthic 

resources would be avoided. 
193

Under the renewable energy program between 7 and 38 bottom-founded monitoring buoys could 

be installed over the duration of the proposed action. Similarly, the placement and removal of 

bottom cables and anchors would produce localized sediment disturbance to soft bottom 

communities. Anchors for either boat-shaped or discus-shaped buoys are expected to produce a 

footprint of about 0.55 m2 (6 ft2) and an anchor sweep of about 3.4 ha (8.5 ac). Total footprint 

area would range from 3.8 to 20.9 m2 (42 to 228 ft2) for the anchors, while the sweep area would 

range from 23.8 to 129.2 ha (59.5 to 323 ac). 

The maximum, total seafloor disturbance would be about 129 ha (319 ac), or about 0.0002 

percent of the AOI and 0.047 percent of the identified WEAs if all buoys were installed. The 

impact from anchoring and anchor sweep would be spread out over the identified WEAs, as 

typically only one to two buoys are installed per lease. An average lease is approximately 10 

lease blocks. 

Each individual area of impact from a buoy anchor would be small (approximately 0.55 m2 [6 ft2] 

each), and the anchor sweep area (3.4 ha [8.5 ac] per buoy) comprises 0.015 percent of an 

average lease area. In addition, the anchor sweep impacts are caused by the anchor chains or lines 

sweeping the soft bottom substrate; sediments are not removed, and only the surficial sediments 

and associated soft bottom community are impacted, not the soft bottom community present 

beneath the surficial sediments (BOEM 2012b). No overall changes in species composition, 

community structure, and/or ecological functioning of soft bottom communities are expected 

(Grannis, 2005). 

Only localized turbidity is expected to occur as a result of the proposed bottom sampling 

activities. This turbidity is expected to dissipate after sampling activities have ceased. Anchors 

associated with monitoring buoys and VSP and ocean bottom cable surveys are left in place after 

buoys are decommissioned or the survey has ended and are biodegradable. Based on the above, 

we would not expect adverse effects to listed species from bottom sampling activities and we will 

not consider bottom disturbance further in this Opinion. 

Trash and Debris 

G&G survey operations and drilling rigs used during COST and shallow test wells generate trash 

comprised of paper, plastic, wood, glass, and metal mostly from galley and offshore food service 

operations. A substantial amount of waste products could be generated from G&G activities over 

the duration of the proposed action. Because G&G activities can occur anywhere within the 
194

Action Area (within state waters out to the extended continental shelf), the possibility exists that 

trash and debris could be released into the marine environment. 

All survey vessels performing work within U.S. jurisdictional waters are expected to comply with 

Federal regulations that implement the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution 

from Ships (MARPOL) as amended by the 1978 Protocol (MARPOL 73/78). Within MARPOL 

Annex V, Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Garbage from Ships, as implemented by 33 

CFR 151, are requirements designed to protect the marine environment from various types of 

garbage generated on board vessels. These requirements include, a prohibition on the deliberate 

discharge of containers and other similar materials (i.e., trash and debris) into the marine 

environment unless it is passed through a comminutor that breaks up solids and can pass through 

a 25-mm mesh screen; a prohibition on the discharge of plastic regardless of size; markings on 

equipment, tools and containers (especially drums), and other material as well as recording and 

reporting of items lost overboard, and; precautions for handling and disposing of small items and 

packaging materials. 

In addition to MARPOL requirements, BSEE requires that all vessel operators, employees and 

contractors actively engaged in G&G surveys be briefed on marine trash and debris awareness 

elimination as described in BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination). This NTL (BOEM and BSEE 2012) requires operators to ensure that its employees 

and contractors are made aware of the environmental and socioeconomic impacts associated with 

marine trash and debris and their responsibilities for ensuring that trash and debris are not 

intentionally or accidentally discharged into the marine environment. 

Because operators must comply with Federal regulations, BOEM’s trash and debris guidance, the 

vastness of the Action Area, the amount of trash and debris occurring within the Action Area is 

expected to be minimal and distributed over a wide area. As such we do not expect exposure of 

listed species to trash and debris and will not consider this further in this Opinion. 

Drilling Discharges 

Drilling discharges consist of drilling fluids used during well drilling and drill cuttings from 

seafloor bedrock. Water-based drilling fluids (WBFs) are used in shallow wells (shallow test 

wells) or the shallow segment of deeper wells (COST wells) while synthetic-based drilling fluids 

(SBFs) are used in deeper wells (COST wells). Although COST wells or shallow test drilling 

activity is infrequent, they are expected in the Blake Plateau region of the South Atlantic Planning 
195

Area. A deep stratigraphic test well is defined as a well of at least 152 m (500 ft) in depth; 

otherwise it is classified as a shallow test well. 

During drilling, fluid and cuttings would be discharged, disperse in the water column, and 

accumulate on the seafloor around the well. Synthetic-based drilling fluids s are recycled and are 

not discharged directly; however, some fluid is retained on cutting particles that are discharged 

and deposited on the seafloor at and near the wellsite. Assuming an average of 2,000 bbl of 

cuttings and 8,350 bbl of drilling fluid discharged per well, the total volume for one to three 

COST wells would range from 2,000 to 6,000 bbl of cuttings and 8,350 to 25,050 bbl of drilling 

fluid (U.S. DOI, BOEM 2012a).

In general, cuttings with adhering SBFs tend to clump together and form piles close to the drill 

site. SBF cuttings may cause elevated levels of organic carbon concentrations resulting in anoxic 

conditions (Continental Shelf Associates, Inc., 2006). Where cuttings have accumulated as a 

result of drilling multiple wells in proximity to one another, concentrations of organic carbon 

have exceeded approximately 1,000 mg/kg. In these instances, benthic infaunal communities 

have been affected by drilling fluid toxicity and organic enrichment that can cause anoxia (Neff et 

al., 2000). However, within 3-5 years after SBF discharges, a complete recovery of the benthic 

community is possible (Neff et al., 2000). The areal extent of impacts from drilling discharges 

during the proposed action would be small. Assuming a typical effect radius of 500 m (1,640 ft), 

the affected area around each wellsite would represent about 3 percent of the seafloor within an 

OCS lease block. Because shallow test wells and COST wells are expected to occur in the deeper 

waters of the South Atlantic Planning Area, the small radius of the area affected by drilling fluids 

and cuttings and because of the limited number of proposed wells, (0-5 hallow test wells and 0-3 

COST wells) we expect that any toxic effects associated with SBFs and cuttings will be limited to 

a small area (500 m) of an OCS block. Given the small area affected within the Action Area we 

do not expect adverse effects to listed species from drilling discharges, and we will not consider 

drilling discharges further in this Opinion. 

Accidental Fuel Spills 

There are few drilling events planned over the duration of the proposed action. Although up to 

three COST wells and up to five shallow test wells will be drilled, these wells will not be drilled 

in areas where there are suspected reservoirs of oil or gas. Any accidental fuel spills that may 

result from G&G activities will result from accidental release of fuel or diesel from survey vessel 
196

groundings or other accidents. A spill could occur anywhere within the Action Area as G&G 

surveys could occur anywhere within the Action Area. While considered relatively rare events, 

spills when they occur can result in acute effects of short duration and limited impact, or they 

may have long-term population- or ecosystem-level impacts depending on the timing, spill size 

and duration and the numbers and types of organisms affected (NRC 2003). 

Vessel fuel capacities generally depend on vessel size, which varies according to the nature of the 

survey (for example, 3D surveys use larger vessels than 2D surveys). A large seismic survey 

vessel may carry between 100,000-1.1 million gal (2,380-27,000 barrels, bbl) of fuel, including 

diesel and fuel oil (CGGVeritas, 2011; Geophysical Service, Inc., 2011a,b). Smaller coastal 

vessels may carry several thousand gallons. Spill size would depend on the type of vessel, the 

severity of the event, and whether the fuel storage is compartmentalized. 

BOEM evaluated a spill scenario for a release of 1.2-7.1 bbl of diesel fuel caused by either a 

vessel collision or an accident during fuel transfer. The volume is based on spill statistics for the 

period 2000-2009 developed by the USDHS, USCG (2011b in DOI, BOEM 2012a). During this 

period, there were 1,521-5,220 spills per year from vessels other than tankers and tank barges. 

Total annual spill volumes from these vessels ranged from 92,388-453,901 gal, resulting in 

average spill sizes ranging between 49.6 and 297.3 gal, or 1.2-7.1 bbl. 

Spilled oil, including refined diesel, can lead to a range of effects including brain lesions, stress, 

and disorientation from inhalation (NRC 2003) to modification of swimming speed and direction 

or reduced surface time in oiled waters with no obvious ill effects (Geraci 1990). Marine 

mammals and sea turtles surfacing within or near a diesel release would be expected to inhale 

petroleum vapors, causing respiratory stress. Transfer of hydrocarbons through the food chain is 

initiated by single-cell organisms, such as phytoplankton, which are exposed to hydrocarbons 

primarily through attachment to organic-rich particles, including plankton and detritus and which 

are ingested by higher trophic levels (i.e., filter feeders, fish, and mammals). Ingested diesel fuel, 

particularly the lighter fractions, can be acutely toxic to marine species. The extent of 

hydrocarbon levels within an organism is controlled by the breakdown rate of the hydrocarbons in 

the organism after ingestion (NRC 2003). Oil on the skin and shell of a marine turtle can affect 

respiration, salt gland functions, digestive and immune systems, and blood chemistry (NOS, 

2003). Oil exposure can increase egg mortality and lead to developmental defects, as well as 

cause direct mortality in hatchlings, juveniles, and adults (NOS, 2003). Although major oil spills 
197

are relatively rare events, chronic exposure to low levels of oil may impair a sea turtle’s overall 

level of fitness and reduce its ability to withstand other stresses in the environment (NOS, 2003). 

Effects of spilled oil on fishes have been studied extensively (Hose et al., 1996; Kocan et al., 

1996; Carls et al., 1999; Couillard et al., 2005; Ramachandran, 2005; Schein et al., 2009 in U.S. 

DOI, BOEM 2012a). Schein et al. (2009 in U.S. DOI, BOEM 2011a) showed that the 

constituents of diesel remaining 18 hr after simulated weathering and solubilization were 

chronically toxic to rainbow trout. Additional studies have shown significant reduction in growth 

of embryos, a cessation of development, or both, as indicated by a smaller size and reduced 

absorption of yolk. Release and dissolution of spilled diesel may also decrease ambient oxygen 

concentrations in the water column. 

Only subadult and adult Atlantic sturgeon are expected to occur within the Action Area for this 

consultation as juvenile and young-of-the-year sturgeon habitat occurs within their natal rivers 

well away from the influence of oil spills further offshore. Atlantic sturgeon are demersal and are 

unlikely to be contacted by a diesel spill which is expected to float and disperse on the sea 

surface. There is the potential for a small proportion of the heavier fuel components to adhere to 

particulate matter in the upper portion of the water column and sink. However, due to the 

assumed small size of the spill, it is unlikely that benthic habitats would be contaminated to an 

extent that would significantly affect any Atlantic sturgeon. 

In many oil spills, evaporation is the most important process in terms of amount of oil remaining 

in the water column over time. Oxygen concentrations, nutrients, water temperature, salinity, the 

physical properties of the oil and the energy level of the environment all play a role in 

biodegradation rates of oil in water (NRC 2003, 2005). Diesel fuel is a refined petroleum product 

that is lighter than water. It may float on the water’s surface or be dispersed into the water 

column by waves. It is assumed that spilled fuel would rapidly spread to a layer of varying 

thickness and break up into narrow bands or windrows parallel to the wind direction. This 

process is expected to increase the weathering and breakdown of the fuel. Diesel is a distillate of 

crude oil and does not contain the heavier components that contribute to crude oil’s longer 

persistence in the environment. Diesel fuel is a refined petroleum product that is lighter than 

water. It may float on the water’s surface or be dispersed into the water column by waves. An 

accidental diesel fuel spill from a G&G survey vessel would be expected to disperse quickly in 

the open ocean with small diesel spills (500-5,000 gal) typically evaporating and dispersing 

within a day (U.S. DOC, NOAA, 2006). Marine diesel, however, is often a heavier intermediate 
198

fuel oil that will persist longer when spilled. When spilled on water, diesel oil spreads very 

quickly to a thin film of rainbow and silver sheens, except for marine diesel, which may form a 

thicker film of dull or dark colors (U.S., DOC, NOAA, 2006). There is the potential for a small 

proportion of the heavier fuel components to adhere to particulate matter in the upper portion of 

the water column and sink.

The only wells proposed within this proposed action are COST and shallow test wells that are 

drilled away from suspected oil and gas reserves. Oil spills that could occur would be those 

resulting from accidental release of oil or fuel from vessel operations or collisions. All G&G 

vessels are required to comply with USCG requirements relating to prevention and control of oil 

spills and the likelihood of a fuel spill during seismic surveys or other G&G activities is expected 

to be remote. There has never been a recorded oil/fuel spill during more than 54,000 nmi 

(100,000 km) of previous NSF-funded seismic surveys (NSF and USDOI, USGS, 2011). 

Because of the low expected likelihood of a spill, the small extent of any accidental spill, the 

weathering process of spilled oil and the vastness of the Action Area, we do not expected listed 

species to be adversely affected by a spill; therefore we will not consider accidental fuel spills 

further in this Opinion. 

Exposure Analysis 

Marine Mammals 

Endangered whales occur throughout the Action Area for this. As the specific spatial and 

temporal aspects of individual G&G activities are unknown at this time, we assume, based on the 

best scientific and commercial data available, that G&G activities can co-occur with endangered 

whales in the Action Area as indicated below. 

Blue Whales. In the western North Atlantic Ocean, blue whales are found from the Arctic to at 

least the mid-latitude waters of the North Atlantic (CeTAP 1982, Wenzel et al.1988, Yochem and 

Leatherwood 1985, Gagnon and Clark 1993). Yochem and Leatherwood (1985) suggested an 

occurrence of this species south to Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. Blue whales have been 

observed frequently off eastern Canada, particularly in waters off Newfoundland, during the 

winter. In the summer months, they have been observed in Davis Strait (Mansfield 1985), the 

Gulf of St. Lawrence (from the north shore of the St. Lawrence River estuary to the Strait of Belle 

Isle), and off eastern Nova Scotia (Sears et al. 1987). 
199

Fin Whales. Fin whales are common off the Atlantic coast of the United States in waters 

immediately off the coast seaward to the continental shelf (about the 1,000-fathom contour) but 

are less concentrated in nearshore environments. In this region, they tend to occur north of Cape 

Hatteras, where they accounted for about 46 percent of the large whales observed in surveys 

conducted between 1978 and 1982. During the summer months, fin whales in this region tend to 

congregate in feeding areas between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, from shore seaward to the 1,000-

fathom contour. Clark (1995) reported a general southward pattern of fin whale migration in the 

fall from the Labrador and Newfoundland region, south past Bermuda, and into the West Indies. 

Humpback Whales. Humpback whales migrate seasonally between warmer, tropical or subtropical waters in winter months (where they reproduce and give birth to calves) and cooler, 

temperate or sub-Arctic waters in summer months (where they feed). During seasonal migrations, 

humpback whales disperse widely in deep, pelagic waters and tend to avoid shallower coastal 

waters (Winn and Reichley 1985). Most humpback whales in the western North Atlantic Ocean 

migrate to the West Indies to mate (e.g., Dominican Republic); however, some whales do not 

make the annual winter migration (Waring et al., 2010). Sightings data show that humpback 

whales traverse through coastal waters of the southeastern U.S., including the Action Area 

(Waring et al., 2010). Swingle et al. (1993) and Barco et al. (2002) reported humpback sightings 

off Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay during the winter, which suggests the mid-Atlantic region 

may also serve as wintering grounds for some Atlantic humpback whales. This region has also 

been suggested as important area for juvenile humpbacks (Wiley et al., 1995). 

North Atlantic Right Whales. North Atlantic right whales are most abundant in Cape Cod Bay 

between February and April (Hamilton and Mayo 1990 Schevill et al. 1986, Watkins and Schevill 

1982), in the Great South Channel in May and June (Kenney et al. 1986, Payne et al. 1990), and 

off Georgia and Florida from mid-November through March (Slay et al. 1996). Right whales also 

use mid-Atlantic waters as a migratory pathway between the winter calving grounds and their 

spring and summer nursery and feeding areas in the Gulf of Maine. 

Sei Whales. Sei whales are often associated with deeper waters and areas along the continental 

shelf edge (Hain et al. 1985); however, this general offshore pattern of sei whale distribution is 

disrupted during occasional incursions into more shallow and inshore waters (Waring et al.

2004). In the western Atlantic Ocean, sei whales occur from Labrador, Nova Scotia, and 

Labrador in the summer months and migrate south to Florida and the northern Caribbean in the 

winter months (Gambell 1985, Mead 1977). 
200

Sperm Whales. In the western Atlantic Ocean, sperm whales are distributed in a distinct seasonal 

cycle, concentrated east-northeast of Cape Hatteras in winter and shifting northward in spring 

when whales are found throughout the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Distribution extends further northward 

to areas north of Georges Bank and the Northeast Channel region in summer and then south of 

New England in fall, back to the Mid-Atlantic Bight. Sperm whales have a strong preference for 

the shelf break and seaward but have been observed in water between 41-55 meters deep; 

therefore sperm whales could be exposed to seismic surveys and HRG surveys. 

Exposure to Seismic and HRG Surveys 

The narratives that follow present the results of the approach the BOEM used to estimate the 

number of marine mammals that might be “taken” (as that term is defined pursuant to the 

MMPA) during seismic and electromechanical survey activities proposed for 2013-2020 within 

and adjacent to the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas (which are also described in the 

Approach to the Assessment section of this Opinion) and the results of our independent analyses 

of BOEM’s estimates. 

Marine Mammal Take Estimates 

In the past, the geophysical community and NOAA Fisheries have estimated the potential impacts 

of exposing marine mammals to airguns employed during seismic surveys by (1) determining the 

estimated distance from a source to a particular isopleth that corresponded to harassment under 

the MMPA (the 160 dB received level for Level B harassment and the 180 dB received levels for 

Level A harassment of cetaceans); (2) assume that a source propagated cylindrically to estimate 

the range to these isopleths; (3) calculate the surface area ensonified by this cylinder as the source 

moved along its track; and (4) multiply the resulting surface area by the density of each marine 

mammal species present to estimate the number of the different species that would be “taken” 

through Level A and Level B harassment (as those terms are defined pursuant to the MMPA). 

In their Programmatic EIS, BOEM used a different approach to estimate the number of the 

different species that would be “taken” through Level A and Level B harassment (as those terms 

are defined pursuant to the MMPA). First, BOEM modeled the different sources and their 

properties, the acoustic propagation field in 3D, and 3D animal placement and movement to 

better calculate the potential impacts to marine mammals. The first step of this methodology - 

propagation - is largely controlled by properties of the source, such as its movement in time and 

space, the sound field it generates at any point in time, and the effect of the physical properties of 
201

the ocean on the sound field as it propagates out from the source. The second step of BOEM’s 

approach relied on the Acoustic Integration Model (AIM), which integrates acoustic exposures 

over time and exposed virtual representations of marine animals to the results of the integrated 

acoustic exposures, to estimate the number of the different species that would be “taken” through 

Level A and Level B harassment (as those terms are defined pursuant to the MMPA). 

Although this methodology produces more precise sound fields than approaches that have been 

used in the past, the virtual animals it relies on do not closely approximate the behavior of real, 

free-ranging animals. Specifically, the model oversimplifies animal hearing, animal movement 

(the virtual animals primarily move vertically in the water column and do not actively or 

passively avoid a sound field), and animal behavior (in addition to not trying to avoid a sound 

field, the model assumes that the virtual animals are not exposed to other competing stimuli, that 

their behavior is unaffected by experience or physiological state, etc.). More importantly, the 

model assumes that seismic surveys primarily affect marine animals by affecting their hearing 

sensitivity rather than through their behavioral responses to acoustic exposures. 

However, acoustic stimuli can represent two different kinds of stressors: a systemic stressor, 

which usually elicit direct physical or physiological responses and, therefore, do not require highlevel cognitive processing of sensory information and a processive stressor, which require highlevel cognitive processing of sensory information (Anisman and Merali 1999, de Kloet et al. 

2005, Herman and Cullinan 1997, Johnson 2011). Our concern for noise produced by seismic 

surveys as systemic stressors would lead us to focus on effects such as permanent and temporary 

threshold shift and acoustic resonance. Our concern for those noises as processive stressors would 

lead us to focus on whether an animal is likely to attend to the sound (as opposed to competing 

sounds), how an animal categorizes the sound, the behavior of the signal’s source, the animal’s 

behavioral state, and motivations, among other variables. The approach BOEM used in their 

modeling analyses focuses on sound as a systemic stressor only and not its role as a processive 

stressor. 

BOEM estimated the number of endangered and threatened species that might be “taken,” as that 

term is defined pursuant to the MMPA, not the number of those species that might be exposed to 

sounds produced by seismic and HRG survey activities. Obviously, an animal that is “taken” by 

these sounds must first be exposed to the sounds; however, not every animal that is exposed 

responds in a way that would constitute “take” regardless of how we define that term (for 

example, many animals exposed at low received levels are not likely to respond to those sounds). 
202

The MMPA defines “harassment” as “any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance which has the 

potential to injure a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild or has the potential to 

disturb a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild by causing disruption of 

behavioral patterns, including, but not limited to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, 

or sheltering” [16 U.S.C. 1362(18)(A)]. Level A harassment is defined as “any act that injures or 

has the significant potential to injure a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild.” 

Level B harassment is defined as “any act that disturbs or is likely to disturb a marine mammal or 

marine mammal stock in the wild by causing disruption of natural behavioral patterns, including, 

but not limited to, migration, surfacing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering, to a point where 

such behavioral patterns are abandoned or significantly altered.” 

The ESA defines “take” as harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture or collect 

or attempt to engage in any such conduct” (16 USC 1532(19)). NOAA Fisheries has not 

promulgated a regulatory definition of “harass”; however, it has promulgated regulations that 

further define “harm” to mean “an act which actually kills or injures fish or wildlife. Such an act 

may include significant habitat modification or degradation which actually kills or injures fish or 

wildlife by significantly impairing essential behavioral patterns, including, breeding, spawning, 

rearing, migrating, feeding or sheltering” (50 CFR 222.102). 

We use BOEM’s estimates as a rough estimate of the number of instances in which endangered 

and threatened species might be exposed to and “taken” by sounds produced by seismic and HRG 

survey activities along the Atlantic seaboard. However, these “take” estimates will underestimate 

the number of instances in which these species would have been exposed to those sounds and 

would have responded in ways that we would consider “adverse” even if those adverse responses 

did not constitute one or more forms of “take.” 

The number of whales BOEM estimates would be “taken” during the G&G activities BOEM 

plans to authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 2020 depends on the acoustic 

criteria being used. (1) NMFS’ current 180 dB criterion for “level A harassment” under the 

MMPA where a listed whale within a 180 dB radial distance from an acoustic source has a 

potential to be injured as a result of their exposure to the acoustic source or Southall et al’s (2007) 

proposed criteria for level A harassment”, which is based on information regarding the lowest 

received levels of impulsive sounds (e.g., airgun pulses) that might elicit slight auditory injury. 

These received levels are measured by a cumulative energy-based metric, sound exposure level 

(SEL), of 198 dB re 1μPa

2

-s and an instantaneous peak sound pressure level exceeding 230 dB re 
203

1 μPa (flat-weighted). Exceeding either criterion may potentially elicit auditory injury. NMFS’ 

criterion for “level B harassment” defines the radial distance from an acoustic source that 

potentially induces behavioral harassment. 

NMFS is currently updating and revising all of its acoustic criteria and thresholds. Since that 

process in not complete, for this Opinion we will consider NMFS’ 160 and 180 dB re 1μPa 

thresholds during our analysis. We recognize, however, that individual marine mammals will 

change their behavioral state in ways that may constitute harassment at received levels that are 

higher and lower than 160 re 1μPa and we discuss these changes in our response analysis. 

BOEM’s take estimates represent the annual numbers of individuals taken. For each year, these 

estimates were calculated to three decimal places, and values were rounded to the nearest whole 

number of animals. The total number of takes is the sum of the rounded annual values. NMFS, 

in using BOEM’s take estimates, estimated mean values and confidence intervals based on the tdistribution and using the procedures and formulae described by Cumming (2012). NMFS 

estimated mean values and confidence intervals associated with annual as well as cumulative 

(through 2020) takes for each species of whale. In some instances, NMFS’ take estimates 

differed from BOEM’s take estimates. BOEM’s original proposed action included seismic and 

HRG surveys in 2012, however, BOEM plans to redistribute 2012 effort between 2013 and 2020, 

although it is not known where or when surveys will occur. Estimated takes have also been 

redistributed but within any year, takes should remain within confidence intervals. BOEM 

estimated takes for G&G surveys in two categories based on acoustic sources employed: 

1. Airgun: seismic surveys and those HRG surveys that use airguns along with 

electromechanical equipment. These surveys are used under the Oil and Gas Program; 

and, 

2. Non-airgun HRG: These surveys are used under the Renewable Energy and Marine 

Mineral Resource Programs and only involve electromechanical equipment. 

These take estimates are presented in Table 11 for takes anticipated as a result of exposure to 

seismic airgun activities and Table 12 for takes anticipated as a result of exposure to non-airgun 

HRG surveys. 

Blue Whales. The estimated number of blue whales that would be “taken” during the seismic and 

HRG survey activities BOEM plans to authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 
204

2020 depends on the acoustic criteria being used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB criterion for “level A 

harassment,” resulted in a total of 15 instances in which a blue whale would be “taken” by all 

active sound sources associated with the G&G surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed 

action. All of the blue whales “taken” by this form of harassment would be “taken” as a result of 

their exposure to airguns associated with the surveys. However, using criteria for “level A 

harassment” proposed by Southall et al. (2007), 5 blue whales would be “taken” by exposure to 

sounds produced by the airgun surveys that BOEM proposes between 2013 and 2020. 

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 1,433 instances in 

which a blue whale would be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and 

HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action. Based on the models BOEM used, all 

but 1 of these instances of “level B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns associated 

with the surveys; a single instance in which a blue whale would be “taken” by “level B 

harassment” by non-airgun HRG surveys over the 8-year period, although the probability of a 

blue whale being “taken” by this form of harassment in any particular year is less than 100%. 

That is, if we treat any estimate of the number of blue whales that might be “taken” that is smaller 

than 1.0 as a probability, the probability of blue whales being “taken” range from a low of 8.7% 

in 2019 to a high of 25.7% in 2020. In cases where a take estimate is non-zero and equal to or 

greater than 0.001, NMFS treats this as take of an individual animal since take of a portion of an 

individual is not possible. 

Blue whales would primarily be exposed to the more offshore seismic and HRG surveys under 

the oil and gas program, not the more coastal surveys such as those under the renewable energy 

and marine mineral resource surveys. 

Fin Whales. Like blue whales, the number of fin whales BOEM estimated would be “taken” 

during the seismic and HRG survey activities BOEM plans to authorize off the Atlantic seaboard 

from 2013 through 2020 depends on the acoustic criteria being used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB 

criterion for “level A harassment,” resulted in a total of 30 instances in which a fin whale would 

be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and HRG surveys over the 8-

year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All of the fin whales “taken” by this 

form of harassment would be “taken” as a result of their exposure to airguns. As with the blue 

whales, criteria for “level A harassment” proposed by Southall et al. (2007) produced different 

estimates: no fin whales would be “taken” by exposure to sounds produced by the seismic airgun 

surveys BOEM proposes between 2013 and 2020 (see Tables 11 and 12). 
205

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 3,025 instances in 

which a fin whale would be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and 

HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All but 1 of 

these instances of “level B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns; a single fin whale 

would be “taken” by “level B harassment” by non-airgun HRG surveys over the 8-year period, 

although the probability of a fin whale being “taken” by this form of harassment in any particular 

year is less than 100% (probabilities range from a low of 16.0% in 2013 to a high of 53.8% in 

2020). 

Fin whales would primarily be exposed in the mid-Atlantic Planning Area mostly in the fall, 

winter and spring. 

Humpback Whales. The number of humpback whales BOEM estimated would be “taken” 

during the G&G activities BOEM plans to authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 

2020 depends on the acoustic criteria being used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB criterion for “level A 

harassment,” resulted in a total of 38 instances in which a humpback whale would be “taken” by 

all active sound sources associated with the seismic and HRG survey activities over the 8-year 

period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All of the humpback whales “taken” by this 

form of harassment would be “taken” as a result of their exposure to airguns associated with the 

survey activities. As with the other whales, criteria for “level A harassment” proposed by Southall 

et al. (2007) produced different estimates: 17 instances in which a humpback whale would be 

“taken” by exposure to sounds produced by the airgun surveys BOEM proposes between 2013 

and 2020 (see Tables 11 and 12). 

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 3,829 humpback 

whales being “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and HRG surveys 

over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All but 3 of these instances 

of “level B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns associated with the survey 

activities; a single humpback whale would be “taken” by “level B harassment” by non-airgun 

HRG surveys over the 8-year period, although the probability of a humpback whale being “taken” 

by this form of harassment in any particular year is less than 100% (probabilities range from a 

low of 21.9% in 2019 to a high of 64.9% in 2020). 

Humpback whales would be exposed primarily during the winter months and in the mid-Atlantic 

Planning Area rather than the South Atlantic Planning Area. 
206

North Atlantic Right Whales. As with all of the whales discussed thus far, the number of North 

Atlantic right whales BOEM estimated would be “taken” during the G&G activities BOEM plans 

to authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 2020 depends on the acoustic criteria 

being used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB criterion for “level A harassment,” resulted in a total of 9 

instances in which a North Atlantic right whale would be “taken” by all active sound sources 

associated with the seismic and HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see 

Tables 11 and 12). All of the North Atlantic right whales “taken” by this form of harassment 

would be “taken” as a result of their exposure to airguns associated with the surveys. As with the 

other whales, criteria for “level A harassment” proposed by Southall et al. (2007) produced 

different estimates: no North Atlantic right whales would be “taken” by exposure to sounds 

produced by the airgun surveys BOEM proposes between 2013 and 2020 (see Tables 11 and 12). 

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 957 instances in 

which a North Atlantic right whale would be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with 

seismic and HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). 

All but 4 of these instances of “level B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns 

associated with the surveys; four North Atlantic right whales would be “taken” by “level B 

harassment” by non-airgun High Resolution Geophysical Surveys over the 8-year period, 

although the probability of a North Atlantic right whale being “taken” by this form of harassment 

in any particular year is less than 100% (probabilities range from a low of 19.5% in 2019 to a 

high of 87.0% in 2020). 

Right whales would primarily be exposed to seismic and HRG survey activities in the midAtlantic Planning Area. 

Sei Whales. As with the other whales discussed thus far, the number of sei whales BOEM 

estimated would be “taken” during the seismic and HRG survey activities BOEM plans to 

authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 2020 depends on the acoustic criteria being 

used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB criterion for “level A harassment,” resulted in a total of 14 sei whales 

being “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and HRG surveys over the 

8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All of the sei whales “taken” by this 

form of harassment would be “taken” as a result of their exposure to airguns associated with the 

surveys. As with the other whales discussed thus far, criteria for “level A harassment” proposed 

by Southall et al. (2007) produced different estimates: no sei whales would be “taken” by 
207

exposure to sounds produced by airgun surveys BOEM proposes between 2013 and 2020 (see 

Tables 11 and 12). 

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 1,321 sei whales 

being “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and HRG surveys over the 

8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). .All but 1 of these instances of “level 

B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns associated with the surveys; four sei whales 

would be “taken” by “level B harassment” by non-airgun HRG surveys over the 8-year period, 

although the probability of a sei whale being “taken” by this form of harassment in any particular 

year is less than 100% (probabilities range from a low of 19.5% in 2019 to a high of 87.0% in 

2020). 

Sei whales would primarily be exposed in spring and fall possibly in both Planning Areas to 

seismic and HRG surveys. 

Sperm Whales. As with the other whales discussed thus far, the number of sperm whales BOEM 

estimated would be “taken” during the seismic and HRG survey activities BOEM plans to 

authorize off the Atlantic seaboard from 2013 through 2020 depends on the acoustic criteria being 

used. Using NMFS’ 180 dB criterion for “level A harassment,” resulted in a total of 979 instances 

in which a sperm whale would be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic 

and HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All of the 

sperm whales “taken” by this form of harassment would be “taken” as a result of their exposure 

to airguns associated with the surveys. As with the other whales discussed thus far, criteria for 

“level A harassment” proposed by Southall et al. (2007) produced different estimates: no sperm 

whales would be “taken” by exposure to sounds produced by airgun surveys BOEM proposes 

between 2013 and 2020 (see Tables 11 and 12). 

Using NMFS’ 160 dB criterion for “level B harassment,” resulted in a total of 95,941 instances in 

which sperm whales would be “taken” by all active sound sources associated with the seismic and 

HRG surveys over the 8-year period of the proposed action (see Tables 11 and 12). All but 1 of 

these instances of “level B harassment” would result from exposure to airguns associated with the 

surveys; four sperm whales would be “taken” by “level B harassment” by non-airgun HRG 

surveys over the 8-year period, although the probability of a sperm whale being “taken” by this 

form of harassment is less than 100% in every year except for 2018, 2019, and 2020 (excluding 
208

these three years, probabilities range from a low of 22.0% in 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016, to a 

high of 40.0% in 2017). 

Sperm whales would be exposed primarily in the fall, winter and spring in the mid-Atlantic 

Planning Area. 
209

Table 11: BOEM Take Estimates for Seismic and HRG Oil and Gas Surveys.

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to 

compute confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean 

Annual Estimate and Confidence 

Intervals based on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per 

Year

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

Total 

Takes 

Over 8 

Years

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

Level A Harassment Takes (180-dB NMFS criterion)

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 1 2 0 2 1 1 1 1 9 1 0.42 1.58 8 4 13

0 1.162 2.291 0.269 1.883 1.394 1.294 0.874 0.595 1 0.48 1.69 9 4 14

Blue 

Whale 

0 2 4 0 3 2 2 1 1 15 2 0.59 2.75 14 5 22

0 2.182 4.274 0.451 2.753 2.001 1.540 0.882 0.537 2 0.53 2.72 13 5 22

Fin Whale 

0 4 9 1 6 4 3 2 1 30 3 1.03 5.64 27 9 46

0 4.399 8.637 0.949 5.896 4.342 3.475 1.924 1.223 3 1.19 5.66 28 10 46

Sei Whale 

0 2 4 0 3 2 1 1 1 14 2 0.47 2.64 13 4 22

0 1.966 3.855 0.417 2.565 1.880 1.476 0.818 0.502 1 0.50 2.49 12 5 20

Humpback 

Whale 

0 6 12 1 7 5 4 2 1 38 4 1.12 7.32 34 9 59

0.0

01

5.897 11.543 1.207 7.333 5.315 4.043 2.319 1.385 4 1.37 7.30 35 11 59

Sperm 

Whale 

0 159 310 30 180 127 89 55 30 980 109 29.45 188.33 872 236 1,507
210

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to 

compute confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean 

Annual Estimate and Confidence 

Intervals based on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per 

Year

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

Total 

Takes 

Over 8 

Years

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

0.0

03

158.828 309.724 30.401 179.960 126.956 89.342 54.729 29.855 109 29.51 188.22 871 237 1,506

Level A Harassment Takes (Southall et al. 2007 criterion)

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0 0.036 0.071 0.008 0.044 0.034 0.025 0.009 0.001 0 0.01 0.04 1 1 1

Blue 

Whale 

0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 5 1 0.00 1.15 5 0 10

0 0.831 1.623 0.164 0.915 0.664 0.439 0.208 0.043 1 0.11 0.97 5 1 8

Fin Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Sei Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0 0.019 0.403 0.033 0.176 0.113 0.057 0.060 0.030 0 0.00 0.20 1 0 2

Humpback 

Whale 

0 3 6 1 3 2 1 1 0 17 2 0.34 3.44 16 3 28

0 3.046 5.931 0.567 3.153 2.226 1.402 0.779 0.235 2 0.38 3.48 16 4 28

Sperm 

Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0 0.095 0.184 0.015 0.076 0.050 0.021 0.019 0.001 0 0.00 0.10 1 1 1
211

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to 

compute confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean 

Annual Estimate and Confidence 

Intervals based on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per 

Year

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

Total 

Takes 

Over 8 

Years

Lower 

95% CI

Upper 

95% CI

Level B Harassment Takes (160-dB NMFS criterion)

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 114 224 26 185 137 127 86 58 957 106 47.28 165.39 851 379 1,324

0 113.846 224.490 26.343 184.517 136.675 126.832 85.613 58.299 106 47.28 165.30 851 379 1,323

Blue Whale 

0 214 419 44 270 196 151 86 53 1,433 159 51.58 266.86 1,274 413 2,135

0 213.901 418.875 44.160 269.777 196.065 150.849 86.408 52.630 159 51.60 266.77 1,274 413 2,135

Fin Whale 

0 431 847 93 578 426 341 189 120 3,025 336 117.15 555.08 2,689 938 4,441

0 431.204 846.583 93.001 577.906 425.583 340.532 188.600 119.857 336 117.02 554.82 2,688 937 4,439

Sei Whale 

0 193 378 41 251 184 145 80 49 1,321 147 49.20 244.36 1,175 394 1,955

0 192.624 377.801 40.850 251.322 184.254 144.678 80.220 49.182 147 49.22 244.32 1,175 394 1,955

Humpback 

Whale 

0 578 1,131 118 719 521 396 227 136 3,826 425 134.57 715.65 3,401 1,07

7

5,726

0 577.965 1131.23

1

118.26

4

718.610 520.862 396.287 227.280 135.768 425 134.62 715.67 3,402 1,07

7

5,726

Sperm 

Whale 

0 15,567 30,356 2,980 17,549 12,443 8,756 5,364 2,926 95,941 1066

0

2889.35 18430.

88

85,28

1

23,1

15

147,448

0 15566.7

06

30355.9

97

2979.6

12

17548.7

41

12442.986 8756.40

3

5363.975 2926.098 1066

0

2889.31 18430.

80

85,28

1

23,1

15

147,447

*BOEM’s estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to Seismic and HRG Oil and Gas Surveys. Source: Modified from Appendix E of the Programmatic EIS. NMFS’s take 

estimates (in white) are the annual numbers of individuals taken, calculated to three decimal places and values were rounded to the nearest whole number of animals. The total is the sum of the rounded 

annual values. Mean values and confidence intervals were estimated based on the t-distribution and using the procedures and formulae described by Cumming (2012).
212 

Table 12: BOEM Take Estimates for Non-Airgun HRG Surveys for Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Program

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to compute 

confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean Annual 

Estimate and Confidence Intervals based 

on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per Year

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

Total 

Takes Over 

9 Years

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

Level A Harassment Takes (180-dB NMFS criterion)

North 

Atlantic Right 

Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.003 0.009 0 0.00 0.01 1 1 1

Blue Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.003 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Fin Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.006 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Sei Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Humpback 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.007 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Sperm Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.004 0.043 0.038 0.121 0 0.00 0.06 1 0 1
213

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to compute 

confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean Annual 

Estimate and Confidence Intervals based 

on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per Year

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

Total 

Takes Over 

9 Years

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

Level A Harassment Takes (Southall et al. 2007 criterion)

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Blue Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Fin Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.016 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.019 0.005 0.000 0.000 0 0.01 0.02 1 1 1

Sei Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Humpback 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

Sperm 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.000 0 0.00 0.00 1 1 1

Level B Harassment Takes (160-dB NMFS criterion)
214

Species 

BOEM Annual Estimates (2012 - 2020)

Total *

2012-2020

Annual Estimates based on BOEM 

Estimates (using t-distribution to compute 

confidence interval)

8-Year Estimate Based on Mean Annual 

Estimate and Confidence Intervals based 

on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Mean 

"Takes" 

Per Year

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

Total 

Takes Over 

9 Years

Lower 95% 

CI

Upper 95% 

CI

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 0.00 0.58 2 0 5

0.195 0.246 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.269 0.502 0.300 0.870 0 0.17 0.52 3 2 5

Blue Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.066 0.098 0.104 0.104 0.104 0.105 0.145 0.087 0.247 0 0.07 0.16 1 1 2

Fin Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0.00 0.38 1 0 4

0.115 0.160 0.167 0.167 0.167 0.172 0.308 0.185 0.538 0 0.11 0.33 2 1 3

Sei Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00 0 0 0

0.036 0.048 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.056 0.115 0.078 0.233 0 0.03 0.13 1 1 2

Humpback 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0.00 0.38 1 0 4

0.245 0.329 0.344 0.344 0.344 0.331 0.360 0.219 0.649 0 0.25 0.45 3 3 4

Sperm 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 12 20 2 0.00 5.53 18 0 45

0.018 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.405 4.213 3.697 11.891 2 0.00 5.51 19 0 45

*BOEM’s estimated Annual Incidental Takes of Listed Marine Mammals Due to Non-Airgun Surveys for Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Programs. Source: Modified from Appendix E 

of the Programmatic EIS. The total is the sum of the annual values, rounded to the nearest whole number of animals.NMFS’s take estimates (in white) are the annual numbers of individuals taken, 

calculated to three decimal places and values were rounded to the nearest whole number of animals. Annual numbers of individuals taken were calculated to three decimal places, and values were 

rounded to the nearest whole number of animals. The total is the sum of the rounded annual values. Estimates over 0.001 in the Total Mean Takes Column are treated as 1 take. Mean values and 

confidence intervals were estimated based on the t-distribution and using the procedures and formulae described by Cumming (2012).
215

Exposure of Sea Turtles to G&G Activities 

Neither BOEM nor NMFS was able to estimate takes from exposure to seismic and HRG surveys for sea 

turtles. As mentioned previously, estimated takes rely not only on the sound field as it propagates out 

from the source but also on virtual representations of the movements of individual animals within a sound 

field and the densities of those different species to be exposed to the sound field. Data upon which the 

models could be run for sea turtles is lacking, including behavioral parameters to run exposure models 

(i.e., dive patterns) and density estimates. 

Without more specific information on the actual exposure of the endangered and threatened sea turtle 

species that we consider in this Opinion, we had to rely on the best scientific and commercial data 

available on sea turtles within the Action Area that indicates that green, hawksbill, Kemp's ridley, 

leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerheads can co-occur with G&G survey activities. Because we 

do not know the temporal or spatial aspects of individual G&G activities, we assume that sea turtles could 

be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys. Nesting, foraging and migrating turtles of all ages and life 

stages can occur within the Action Area. 

In the western North Atlantic, green sea turtles can be found on various coastal beaches during the nesting 

season and at other times feeding or swimming along nearshore waters including embayments or other 

inshore habitats as well as offshore waters from Florida to Massachusetts (USDOC, NMFS and USDOI, 

USFWS, 2007a). Green turtles are also reported to use not only the coastal waters of North Carolina as 

summer foraging habitat, but the waters of Virginia as well (Mansfield et al., 2009). The Florida east 

coast is a prime foraging area for green turtles as well as possible sites in Virginia and south to Florida 

where macroalgae is found. Juvenile green turtles north of Florida must migrate south in autumn (Musick 

and Limpus, 1997). Therefore, neritic juvenile green turtles may occur within nearshore and inshore 

habitats throughout the Action Area. Green sea turtles could be exposed to seismic and HRG survey 

activities within the mid-Atlantic and south Atlantic Planning Areas during any time of the year. 

Hawksbill sea turtles have stranded along almost the entire Atlantic coast of the United States, although 

most stranding records occur south of Cape Canaveral, Florida, particularly in Palm Beach, Broward and 

Miami-Dade counties (Florida Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage database). Hawksbill sea turtles are very 

rare north of Florida, although they have been recorded as far north as Massachusetts. During their 

pelagic-stage, hawksbills disperse from the Gulf of Mexico and southern Florida in the Gulfstream 

Current, which could carry them offshore of Georgia and the Carolinas. There are records of hawksbill 

sea turtles stranding on the coast of Georgia (Ruckdeschel et al. 2000), being captured in pound nets off 
216

Savannah, and being captured in summer flounder trawls (Epperly et al. 1995), gillnets (Epperly et al.

1995), and power plants off Georgia and the Carolinas. 

Adult, female Kemp’s ridleys rarely leave the Gulf of Mexico and adult males do not migrate. Juveniles 

feed along the east coast of the United States up to the waters off Cape Cod, Massachusetts (Spotila 

2004). Juvenile Kemp’s ridley sea turtles are the second most abundant sea turtle in the mid-Atlantic 

region from New England, New York, and the Chesapeake Bay, south to coastal areas off North Carolina 

(Morreale et al. 2007; TEWG 2000; Schmid 1998; Wibbels et al. 2005). The Mid Atlantic Bight is an 

important foraging area for juvenile Kemp’s ridley turtles during spring through fall. Satellite tracking 

data document seasonal migration along the inner shelf of the eastern U.S. from New England to Florida. 

Wintering habitats for Kemp’s ridley turtles in the northwestern Atlantic include shelf habitats off Florida 

and waters south of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (Gitschlag, 1996). Kemp’s ridley turtles display some 

seasonal and coastal migratory behavior; satellite tagging data indicate that Kemp’s ridley turtles transit 

between nearshore and offshore waters (within 28 km [50 mi]) from spring/summer to fall/winter, which 

coincides with seasonal water temperature changes (USDOC, NMFS et al., 2010). The home ranges of 

Kemp’s ridley turtles may be similar to those of loggerhead turtles (Shaver et al., 2005). 

Leatherback turtles display wide ranging coastal and transoceanic movements (NMFS et al., 2010) and 

have the most wide-ranging distribution of any sea turtle. They regularly occur throughout the Action 

Area from coastal areas to deeper waters (>328 ft). Leatherbacks are reported from the North Sea, along 

the east coast of the U.S. and into the Gulf of Mexico and in the Caribbean Sea. Shrimp trawlers 

operating in the coastal waters from Cape Canaveral, Florida through North Carolina have interacted with 

leatherback sea turtles as they make their annual spring migration north. In April through June 

leatherbacks are found off South Carolina when cannonball jellyfish (Stomolophus meleagris) are 

abundant, and again in October and November during their fall migration (SCDNR, 2005b). 

Northwest Atlantic Loggerheads 

In U.S. Atlantic waters, loggerheads commonly occur from the beach to beyond the continental shelf from 

Florida to Cape Cod, Massachusetts, although their presence varies with the seasons due to changes in 

water temperature (Shoop and Kenney 1992; Mitchell et al. 2003; Braun-McNeill et al. 2008; Mansfield 

et al. 2009; Hawkes et al. 2006, 2011). Loggerhead sea turtles occur year round in ocean waters off North 

Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. As coastal water temperatures warm in the spring, 

loggerheads begin to migrate to inshore waters of the Southeast United States (e.g., Pamlico and Core 

Sounds) and also move up the U.S. Atlantic Coast (Epperly et al. 1995a, 1995b, 1995c; Braun-McNeill 
217

and Epperly 2004), occurring in Virginia foraging areas as early as April/May and on the most northern 

foraging grounds in the Gulf of Maine in June (Shoop and Kenney 1992). The trend is reversed in the fall 

as water temperatures cool. The large majority leave the Gulf of Maine by mid-September but some 

turtles may remain in Mid-Atlantic and Northeast areas until late fall. By December, loggerheads have 

migrated from inshore and more northern coastal waters to waters offshore of North Carolina, particularly 

off of Cape Hatteras, and waters further south where the influence of the Gulf Stream provides 

temperatures favorable to sea turtles (Shoop and Kenney 1992; Epperly et al. 1995b). 

Atlantic Sturgeon 

Neither BOEM nor NMFS was able to estimate takes for Atlantic sturgeon. As mentioned previously, 

estimated takes rely not only on the sound field as it propagates out from the source but also on virtual 

representations of the movements of individual animals within a sound field and the densities of those 

different species to be exposed to the sound field. Data upon which the models could be run for sea 

turtles is lacking, including behavioral parameters (i.e., dive patterns) and density estimates. 

Without more specific information on the actual exposure of the endangered on Atlantic sturgeon, we had 

to rely on the best scientific and commercial data available on Atlantic sturgeon within the Action Area 

that indicates that these fish can co-occur with G&G survey activities, primarily HRG surveys. 

Atlantic sturgeon remain in the natal estuary for months to years before emigrating to open ocean as 

subadults (Holland and Yelverton 1973; Dovel and Berggen 1983; Waldman et al. 1996; Dadswell 2006; 

ASSRT 2007). Subadults and adults travel within the marine environment, where they may undergo 

extensive movements usually confined to shelly or gravelly bottoms in 10-50 m (33-164 ft) water depths 

(Stein et al., 2004; Erickson et al., 2011). 

Evidence of seasonal movements are apparent from tag returns: Atlantic sturgeon originating from the 

Delaware River estuary were recapture during the fall in nearshore waters along the Atlantic coast as far 

south as Cape Hatteras, North Carolina from November through early March. In the spring, a portion of 

the tagged fish reentered the Delaware River estuary, however, many fish continued a northerly coastal 

migration into southern New England waters where they were recovered throughout the summer months. 

Movements as far north as Maine were documented. A southerly coastal migration was apparent from tag 

returns reported in the fall. The majority of these tag returns were reported from relatively shallow near 

shore fisheries with few fish reported from waters in excess of 25 m (C. Shirey, Delaware Department of 

Fish and Wildlife, unpublished data reviewed in ASMFC, 2009). Areas where migratory Atlantic 

sturgeon commonly aggregate include Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and from the Virginia/North 
218

Carolina border to Cape Hatteras at depths up to 24 m. Based on this information about migrating 

Atlantic sturgeon, individuals originating from all of the 5 listed DPSs may occur in the Action Area. 

Fish distribution varies seasonally within this depth range. During summer months (May to September) 

fish are primarily found in the shallower depths of 10-20 m (33-66 ft). In winter and early spring 

(December to March), fish move to depths between 20 and 50 m (66 and 165 ft) (Erickson et al., 2011). 

Shelf areas <18 m (59 ft) deep off Virginia and the sandy shoals offshore of Oregon Inlet, North Carolina, 

appear to be areas of concentration during summer months (Laney et al., 2007). The area of high 

concentration offshore of Virginia was centered from 15 to 37.5 km (9.3 to 23.3 mi) from shore, and the 

maximum distance from shore during winter was about 112.5 km (70 mi). 

Response Analyses 

As discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this biological opinion, response analyses 

determine how listed resources are likely to respond after being exposed to an Action’s effects on the 

environment or directly on listed species themselves. For the purposes of consultations on seismic and 

HRG surveys, our assessments try to detect the probability of lethal responses, sensory impairment 

(permanent and temporary threshold shifts and acoustic masking), physiological responses (particular 

stress responses), behavioral responses, and social responses that might result in reducing the fitness of 

listed individuals. Ideally, our response analyses consider and weigh evidence of adverse consequences, 

beneficial consequences, or the absence of such consequences. 

Without more specific empirical information on the actual responses of the endangered and threatened 

species that we consider in this Opinion upon being exposed to sounds produced by equipment employed 

during seismic surveys, we had to rely on the best scientific and commercial data available to assess the 

probable responses of endangered and threatened species to these sounds. In the narratives that follow this 

introduction, we summarize the best scientific and commercial data on the responses of marine animals to 

sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys and other acoustic stimuli. 

Then we use that information to make inferences about the probable responses of the endangered and 

threatened species we are considering in this Opinion. 

Potential Responses of Listed Species to Vessel Traffic 

Numerous studies of interactions between vessels and marine mammals have demonstrated that freeranging marine mammals engage in avoidance behavior when vessels move toward them. It is not clear 

whether these responses are caused by the physical presence of a surface vessel, the underwater noise 
219

generated by the vessel, or an interaction between the two (Goodwin and Green 2004; Lusseau 2006). 

However, several authors suggest that the noise generated during motion is probably an important factor 

(Blane and Jackson 1994, Evans et al. 1992, 1994). These studies suggest that marine mammal behavioral 

responses to vessels are similar to their behavioral responses to predators. 

As we discussed previously, based on the suite of studies of cetacean behavior to vessel approaches (Au 

and Green 1990, Au and Perryman 1982, Bain et al. 2006, Bauer 1986, Bejder 1999, 2006a, 2006b; 

Bryant et al. 1984, Corkeron 1995, David 2002, Erbé 2000, Félix 2001, Magalhães et al. 2002, Goodwin 

and Cotton 2004, Hewitt 1985, Lusseau 2003, 2006; Lusseau and Bejder 2007, Ng and Leung 2003, 

Nowacek et al. 2001, Richter et al. 2003, 2006; Scheidat et al. 2004, Simmonds 2005, Watkins 1986, 

Williams and Ashe 2007, Williams et al. 2002, 2006a, 2006b; Würsig et al. 1998), the set of variables 

that help determine whether marine mammals are likely to be disturbed by vessels include: 

1. number of vessels. The behavioral repertoire marine mammals have used to avoid interactions 

with surface vessels appears to depend on the number of vessels in their perceptual field (the area 

within which animals detect acoustic, visual, or other cues) and the animal’s assessment of the 

risks associated with those vessels (the primary index of risk is probably vessel proximity relative 

to the animal’s flight initiation distance). 

 Below a threshold number of vessels (which probably varies from one species to another, 

although groups of marine mammals probably share sets of patterns), studies have shown that 

whales will attempt to avoid an interaction using horizontal avoidance behavior3

. Above that 

threshold, studies have shown that marine mammals will tend to avoid interactions using vertical 

avoidance behavior, although some marine mammals will combine horizontal avoidance behavior 

with vertical avoidance behavior (Bryant et al. 1984, Cope et al. 2000, David 2002, Lusseau 

2003, Kruse 1991, Nowacek et al. 2001, Stensland and Berggren 2007, Williams and Ashe 2007); 

2. the distance between vessel and marine mammals when the animal perceives that an approach has 

started and during the course of the interaction (Au and Perryman 1982, David 2002, Hewitt 

1985, Kruse 1991); 

3. the vessel’s speed and vector (David 2002); 

4. the predictability of the vessel’s path. That is, cetaceans are more likely to respond to 

approaching vessels when vessels stay on a single or predictable path (Acevedo 1991, Angradi et 

 

3

 As discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this Opinion, we distinguish between “avoidance,” “evasion,” 

and “escape” using the distinctions proposed by Weihs and Webb (1984): “avoidance” is a shift in position by prey before 

a potential predator begins an attack; “evasion” is a response by potential prey to a perceived attack from a potential 

predator; and “escape” is the most acute form of evasive behavior.
220

al. 1993; Browning and Harland 1999; Lusseau 2003, 2006; Williams et al. 2002, 2006a, 2006b) 

than when it engages in frequent course changes (Evans et al. 1994, Lusseau 2006, Williams et 

al. 2002) 

5. noise associated with the vessel (particularly engine noise) and the rate at which the engine noise 

increases (which the animal may treat as evidence of the vessel’s speed; David 2002, Lusseau 

2003, 2006); 

6. the type of vessel (displacement versus planing), which marine mammals may interpret as 

evidence of a vessel’s maneuverability (Goodwin and Cotton 2004); 

7. the behavioral state of the marine mammals (David 2002, Lusseau 2003, 2006; Würsig et al.

1998). For example, Würsig et al. (1998) concluded that whales were more likely to engage in 

avoidance responses when the whales were “milling” or “resting” than during other behavioral 

states. 

Most of the investigations cited earlier reported that animals tended to reduce their visibility at the water’s 

surface and move horizontally away from the source of disturbance or adopt erratic swimming strategies 

(Corkeron 1995, Lusseau 2003, Lusseau 2004, 2005a; Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 1996, Nowacek et al.

2001, Van Parijs and Corkeron 2001, Williams et al. 2002). In the process, their dive times increased, 

vocalizations and jumping were reduced (with the exception of beaked whales), individuals in groups 

move closer together, swimming speeds increased, and their direction of travel took them away from the 

source of disturbance (Edds and Macfarlane 1987, Baker and Herman 1989, Kruse 1991, Polacheck and 

Thorpe 1990, Evans et al. 1992, Lütkebohle 1996, Nowacek et al. 1999). Some individuals also dove and 

remained motionless, waiting until the vessel moved past their location. Most animals finding themselves 

in confined spaces, such as shallow bays, during vessel approaches tended to move towards more open, 

deeper waters (Stewart et al. 1982, Kruse 1991). We assume that this movement would give them greater 

opportunities to avoid or evade vessels as conditions warranted. 

Although most of these studies focused on small cetaceans (for example, bottlenose dolphins, spinner 

dolphins, spotted dolphins, harbor porpoises, beluga whales, and killer whales), studies of large whales 

have reported similar results for fin and sperm whales (David 2002, Notarbartolo di Sciara et al. 1996, 

2002). Baker et al. (1983) reported that humpbacks in Hawai’i responded to vessels at distances of 2 to 4 

km. Richardson et al. (1985) reported that bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) swam in the opposite 

direction of approaching seismic vessels at distances between 1 and 4 km and engage in evasive behavior 

at distances under 1 km. Fin whales also responded to vessels at a distances of about 1 km (Edds and 

Macfarlane 1987). 
221

Some cetaceans detect the approach of vessels at substantial distances. Finley et al. (1990) reported that 

beluga whales seemed aware of approaching vessels at distances of 85 km and began to avoid the 

approach at distances of 45-60 km. Au and Perryman (1982) studied the behavioral responses of eight 

schools of spotted and spinner dolphins (Stenella attenuata and S. longirostris) to an approaching ship 

(the NOAA vessel Surveyor: 91.4 meters, steam-powered, moving at speeds between 11 and 13 knots) in 

the eastern Pacific Ocean (10°15 N lat., 109°10 W long.). They monitored the response of the dolphin 

schools to the vessel from a Bell 204 helicopter flying a track line ahead of the ship at an altitude of 366 – 

549 meters (they also monitored the effect of the helicopter on dolphin movements and concluded that it 

had no observable effect on the behavior of the dolphin schools). All of the schools continuously adjusted 

their direction of swimming by small increments to continuously increase the distance between the school 

and the ship over time. The animals in the eight schools began to flee from the ship at distances ranging 

from 0.9 to 6.9 nm. When the ship turned toward a school, the individuals in the school increased their 

swimming speeds (for example, from 2.8 to 8.4 knots) and engaged in sharp changes in direction. 

Hewitt (1985) reported that five of 15 schools of dolphin responded to the approach of one of two ships 

used in his study and none of four schools of dolphin responded to the approach of the second ship (the 

first ship was the NOAA vessel David Jordan Starr; the second ship was the Surveyor). Spotted dolphin 

and spinner dolphins responded at distances between 0.5 to 2.5 nm and maintained distances of 0.5 to 2.0 

nm from the ship while striped dolphins allowed much closer approaches. Lemon et al.(2006) reported 

that bottlenose dolphins began to avoid approaching vessels at distances of about 100 m. 

Würsig et al. (1998) studied the behavior of cetaceans in the northern Gulf of Mexico in response to 

survey vessels and aircraft. They reported that Kogia species and beaked whales (ziphiids) showed the 

strongest avoidance reactions to approaching ships (avoidance reactions in 11 of 13 approaches) while 

spinner dolphins, Atlantic spotted dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, false killer whales, and killer whales 

either did not respond or approached the ship (most commonly to ride the bow). Four of 15 sperm whales 

avoided the ship while the remainder appeared to ignore its approach. 

Because of the number of vessels involved in seismic and HRG surveys, their slow speeds, the 

predictability of their track lines (which involve limited course changes), and sounds associated with their 

engines and displacement of water along their bowline, the available evidence leads us to expect marine 

mammals to treat survey vessels as potential stressors. Animals that perceive an approaching potential 

predator, predatory stimulus, or disturbance stimulus have four behavioral options (see Blumstein 2003 

and Nonacs and Dill 1990): 
222

a. ignore the disturbance stimulus entirely and continue behaving as if a risk of predation did not 

exist; 

b. alter their behavior in ways that minimize their perceived risk of predation, which generally 

involves fleeing immediately; 

c. change their behavior proportional to increases in their perceived risk of predation which requires 

them to monitor the behavior of the predator or predatory stimulus while they continue their 

current activity, or 

d. take proportionally greater risks of predation in situations in which they perceive a high gain and 

proportionally lower risks where gain is lower, which also requires them to monitor the behavior 

of the predator or disturbance stimulus while they continue their current activity. 

The latter two options are energetically costly and reduce benefits associated with the animal’s current 

behavioral state. As a result, animals that detect a predator or predatory stimulus at a greater distance are 

more likely to flee at a greater distance (see Holmes et al. 1993, Lord et al. 2001). Some investigators 

have argued that short-term avoidance reactions can lead to longer term impacts such as causing marine 

mammals to avoid an area (Salden 1988, Lusseau 2005) or alter a population’s behavioral budget 

(Lusseau 2004) which could have biologically significant consequences on the energetic budget and 

reproductive output of individuals and their populations. 

Based on knowledge of the sensory biology of sea turtles (Bartol and Musick, 2003; Levenson et al., 

2004; Ketten and Bartol, 2006; Moein Bartol and Ketten, 2006), they are likely to detect approaching 

water vessels via auditory or visual cues, however, there is limited information on how sea turtles are 

likely to respond to vessel approaches. Hazel et al. (2007) reported that sea turtles reacted to approaching 

vessels in a variety of ways. Benthic turtles launched upwards at a shallow angle and began swimming. 

The majority of the turtles swam away from the vessel while some swam along the vessel’s track and 

some crossed in front of the vessel’s track before swimming away. Sea turtle reaction time was greatly 

dependent on the speed of the vessel; sea turtles were able to react faster to slower moving vessels than to 

faster moving vessels. All of these responses were short-term responses that did not seem likely to have 

adverse long-term consequences for the individual sea turtles. Hazel et al. (2007) suggested that green 

sea turtles rely more on visual cues than auditory cues when reacting to approaching water vessels. Of 

the endangered and threatened species that occur in the Action Area for this consultation, the endangered 

and threatened sea turtles are most likely to ignore seismic survey vessels entirely and continue behaving 

as if the vessels and any risks associated with those vessels did not exist. 
223

Vessel noise produces sounds in the general hearing range of fishes (Amoser et al., 2004). Additionally, 

vessels (i.e., trawlers, ferries, small boats) can change fish behavior (e.g., induce avoidance, alter 

swimming speed and direction, and alter schooling behavior) (Sarà et al. 2007). The sounds produced by 

motor-driven ships causes herring to dive and swim away from the vessel (Mitson and Knudsen, 2003). 

Sand et al. (2008) have pointed out that passing ships produce high levels of infrasonic and low-frequency 

noise (>10-1,000 Hz), and that infrasonic frequencies may be responsible for the observed avoidance 

reactions. 

Review of Literature on the Potential Responses of Listed Species to Acoustic Stimuli 

As discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this Opinion, we conduct response analyses to 

determine whether and how listed species and designated critical habitat are likely to respond after being 

exposed to an Action’s effects. For the purposes of consultations on activities that involve seismic 

surveys, our assessments try to detect the probability of lethal responses, sensory impairment (permanent 

and temporary threshold shifts and acoustic masking), physiological responses (particular stress 

responses), behavioral responses, and social responses that are likely to directly or indirectly reduce the 

fitness of listed individuals. 

Our response analyses consider and weigh all of the evidence available on the response of marine animals 

upon being exposed to seismic and electromechanical survey activities and the probable fitness 

consequences for the animals that exhibit particular responses or sequence of responses. It is important to 

acknowledge, however, that the empirical evidence on how endangered or threatened marine animals 

respond upon being exposed to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic surveys in 

natural settings is very limited. Therefore, the narratives that follow this introduction summarize the best 

scientific and commercial data available on the responses of other species to sounds produced by 

equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys. Based on those data, we identify the probable 

responses of endangered and threatened marine animals to seismic and HRG transmissions. 

Figure 3 illustrates the conceptual model we use to assess the potential responses of marine animals when 

they are exposed to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic surveys. The narratives that 

follow are generally organized around the items listed in the column titled “Proximate Responses by 

Category” in that Figure. These analyses examine the evidence available to determine if exposing 

endangered and threatened species to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic surveys is 

likely to cause responses that might reduce the fitness of individuals that might be exposed. 
224

Physical Damage 

For the purposes of this assessment, “injuries” represents physical trauma or damage that is a direct result 

of an acoustic exposure, regardless of the potential consequences of those injuries to an animal (we 

distinguish between injuries that result from an acoustic exposure and injuries that result from an animal’s 

behavioral reaction to an acoustic exposure, which is discussed later in this section of the Opinion). Based 

on the literature available, sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic surveys might injure 

marine animals through two mechanisms (see “Box P” in Figure 3): acoustic resonance and noise-induced 

loss of hearing sensitivity (more commonly-called “threshold shift”). 

ACOUSTIC RESONANCE. Acoustic resonance results from hydraulic damage in tissues that are filled with 

gas or air that resonates when exposed to acoustic signals (Box P1 of Figure 2 illustrates the potential 

consequences of acoustic resonance; see Rommel et al. 2007). Based on studies of lesions in beaked 

whales that stranded in the Canary Islands and Bahamas associated with exposure to naval exercises that 

involved sonar, investigators have identified two physiological mechanisms that might explain some of 

those stranding events: tissue damage resulting from resonance effects (Ketten 2004, Cudahy and Ellison 

2001) and tissue damage resulting from “gas and fat embolic syndrome” (Fernandez et al. 2005, Jepson et 

al. 2003, 2005). Fat and gas embolisms are believed to occur when tissues are supersaturated with 

dissolved nitrogen gas and diffusion facilitated by bubble-growth is stimulated within those tissues (the 

bubble growth results in embolisms analogous to the “bends” in human divers). 

Cudahy and Ellison (2001) analyzed the potential for resonance from low frequency sonar signals to 

cause injury and concluded that the expected threshold for in vivo (in the living body) tissue damage for 

underwater sound is on the order of 180 to 190 dB. There is limited direct empirical evidence (beyond 

Schlundt et al. 2000) to support a conclusion that 180 dB is “safe” for marine mammals; however, 

evidence from marine mammal vocalizations suggests that 180 dB is not likely to physically injure 

marine mammals. For example, Frankel (1994) estimated the source level for singing humpback whales 

to be between 170 and 175 dB; McDonald et al. (2001) calculated the average source level for blue whale 

calls as 186 dB, Watkins et al. (1987) found source levels for fin whales up to 186 dB, and Møhl et al. 

(2000) recorded source levels for sperm whale clicks up to 223 dBrms. Because whales are not likely to 

communicate at source levels that would damage the tissues of other members of their species, this 

evidence suggests that these source levels are not likely to damage the tissues of the endangered and 

threatened species being considered in this consultation. 
225

Crum and Mao (1996) hypothesized that received levels would have to exceed 190 dB in order for there 

to be the possibility of significant bubble growth due to super-saturation of gases in the blood. Jepson et 

al. (2003, 2005) and Fernández et al. (2004, 2005) concluded that in vivo bubble formation, which may be 

exacerbated by deep, long-duration, repetitive dives may explain why beaked whales appear to be 

particularly vulnerable to exposure to mid-frequency active sonar (as opposed to low-frequency seismic 

sound sources). 

Based on the information available, the endangered or threatened marine mammals and sea turtles that we 

are considering in this Opinion are not likely to experience acoustic resonance. All of the evidence 

available suggests that this phenomenon poses potential risks to smaller cetaceans like beaked whales 

rather than the larger cetaceans that have been listed as endangered. Thus far, this phenomenon has not 

been reported for or associated with sea turtles, perhaps because they do not engage in dive patterns that 

are similar to those of beaked whales. 

NOISE-INDUCED LOSS OF HEARING SENSITIVITY. Noise-induced loss of hearing sensitivity4 or “threshold 

shift” refers to an ear’s reduced sensitivity to sound following exposure to loud noises; when an ear’s 

sensitivity to sound has been reduced, sounds must be louder for an animal to detect and recognize it. 

Noise-induced loss of hearing sensitivity is usually represented by the increase in intensity (in decibels) 

sounds must have to be detected. These losses in hearing sensitivity rarely affect the entire frequency 

range an ear might be capable of detecting, instead, they affect the frequency ranges that are roughly 

equivalent to or slightly higher than the frequency range of the noise itself. Nevertheless, most 

investigators who study TTS in marine mammals report the frequency range of the “noise,” which would 

change as the spectral qualities of a waveform change as it moves through water, rather than the 

frequency range of the animals they study. Without information on the frequencies of the sounds we 

consider in this Opinion at the point at which it is received by endangered and threatened marine 

mammals, we assume that the frequencies are roughly equivalent to the frequencies of the source. 

Acoustic exposures can result in three main forms of noise-induced losses in hearing sensitivity: 

permanent threshold shift, temporary threshold shift, and compound threshold shift (Miller 1974, Ward 

1998, Yost 2007). When permanent loss of hearing sensitivity, or PTS, occurs, there is physical damage to 

the sound receptors (hair cells) in the ear that can result in total or partial deafness, or an animal’s hearing 

 

4

 Animals can experience losses in hearing sensitivity through other mechanisms. The processes of aging and several 

diseases cause some humans to experience permanent losses in their hearing sensitivity. Body burdens of toxic chemicals 

can also cause animals, including humans, to experience permanent and temporary losses in their hearing sensitivity (for 

example, see Mills and Going 1982 and Fechter and Pouyanos 2005). 
226

can be permanently impaired in specific frequency ranges, which can cause the animal to be less sensitive 

to sounds in that frequency range. Traditionally, investigations of temporary loss of hearing sensitivity, or 

TTS, have focused on sound receptors (hair cell damage) and have concluded that this form of threshold 

shift is temporary. Hair cell damage does not accompany TTS and loss in hearing sensitivity are shortterm and are followed by a period of recovery to pre-exposure hearing sensitivity that can last for 

minutes, days, or weeks. More recently, however, Kujawa and Liberman (2009) reported on noiseinduced degeneration of the cochlear nerve that is a delayed result of acoustic exposures that produce TTS, 

that occurs in the absence of hair cell damage, and that is irreversible. They concluded that the 

reversibility of noise-induced threshold shifts, or TTS, can disguise progressive neuropathology that would 

have long-term consequences on an animal’s ability to process acoustic information. If this phenomenon 

occurs in a wide range of species, TTS may have more permanent effects on an animal’s hearing 

sensitivity than earlier studies would lead us to recognize. 

Compound threshold shift or CTS, occurs when some loss in hearing sensitivity is permanent and some is 

temporary (for example, there might be a permanent loss of hearing sensitivity at some frequencies and a 

temporary loss at other frequencies or a loss of hearing sensitivity followed by partial recovery). 

Although the published body of science literature contains numerous theoretical studies and discussion 

papers on hearing impairments that can occur with exposure to a strong sound, only a few studies provide 

empirical information on noise-induced loss in hearing sensitivity in marine mammals. Most of the few 

studies available have reported the responses of captive animals exposed to sounds in controlled 

experiments. Schlundt et al. (2000; see also Finneran et al. 2001, 2003) provided a detailed summary of 

the behavioral responses of trained marine mammals during TTS tests conducted at the Navy’s SPAWAR 

Systems Center with 1-second tones. Schlundt et al. (2000) reported on eight individual TTS experiments 

that were conducted in San Diego Bay. Fatiguing stimuli durations were 1 second. Because of the variable 

ambient noise in the bay, low-level broadband masking noise was used to keep hearing thresholds 

consistent despite fluctuations in the ambient noise. 

Finneran et al. (2001, 2003) conducted TTS experiments using 1-second duration tones at 3 kHz. The test 

method was similar to that of Schlundt et al. except the tests were conducted in a pool with a very low 

ambient noise level (below 50 dB re 1 μPa2/Hz), and no masking noise was used. The signal was a 

sinusoidal amplitude modulated tone with a carrier frequency of 12 kHz, modulating frequency of 7 Hz, 

and SPL of approximately 100 dB re 1 μPa. Two separate experiments were conducted. In the first, 

fatiguing sound levels were increased from 160 to 201 dB SPL. In the second experiment, fatiguing sound 

levels between 180 and 200 dB re 1 μPa were randomly presented. 
227

There is no empirical evidence that exposure to seismic or sonar transmissions with this kind of intensity 

can cause PTS in any marine mammals; instead the probability of PTS has been inferred from studies of 

TTS (see Richardson et al 1995). However, Kujawa and Liberman (2009) argued that traditional testing of 

threshold shifts, which have focused on recovery of threshold sensitivities after exposure to noise, would 

miss acute loss of afferent nerve terminals and chronic degeneration of the cochlear nerve, which would 

have the effect of permanently reducing an animal’s ability to perceive and process acoustic signals. 

Based on their studies of small mammals, Kujawa and Liberman (2009) reported that two hours of 

acoustic exposures produced moderate temporary threshold shifts but caused delayed losses of afferent 

nerve terminals and chronic degeneration of the cochlear nerve in test animals. 

Although sea turtles detect low frequency sound, the potential effects on sea turtle biology remain largely 

unknown (Samuel, 2005). TTS in loggerhead sea turtles is reported to have been observed during studies 

by Moein et al. (1994). Turtle hearing was tested before, within 24 hours after, and two weeks after 

exposure to pulses of airgun sound. Moein et al. (1994) used an evoked potential method to test sea turtle 

hearing and concluded that the turtles exhibited some change in their hearing when tested within 24 hours 

after exposure (relative to pre-exposure hearing). The authors found that hearing had reverted to normal 

when tested two weeks after exposure. The size of the airgun used or the received sounds levels were not 

provided; therefore, the levels of airgun sounds that apparently elicited TTS are not known. These 

findings indicate that TTS may occur in sea turtles exposed to seismic sources; however, turtles in the 

study were confined. Sea turtles at sea might exhibit avoidance behavior and, thus, reduced exposure to 

seismic pulses. For any sea turtles that exhibit little or no behavioural avoidance, or if turtles habituate to 

seismic noise such that avoidance reactions cease, these individuals could sustain hearing loss if exposed 

to high enough sound levels from seismic airguns. 

The sensory cells responsible for hearing in the mammalian ear and the fish ear are the same. The 

difference between fishes and mammals is that fishes retain a regenerative mechanism in the ear for when 

cells are lost, whereas no such capacity is found in mammals (BOEM 2012a). Popper and Hastings 

(2009b) reviewed data on TTS in fishes which suggest that TTS occurs after long-term exposure to 

sounds that are as high as 170-180 dB re 1 μPa (rms), but only in species that have specializations that 

result in their having relatively wide hearing bandwidths (to over 2 kHz) and lower hearing thresholds 

than fishes without specializations (which Atlantic sturgeon do not). If TTS occurs as a result of exposure 

to loud sounds, it is not necessarily very great and recovery seems to be within 24 hrs in most cases 

(Popper et al., 2005, 2007; Hastings et al., 2008; Hastings and Miskis-Olds, 2011). However, if the 

hearing ability of an affected fish decreases, then the likelihood of detecting predators, prey, or mates 

decline, thus decreasing the potential fitness of the receiver until normal hearing returns (BOEM 2012a).
228

Several variables affect the amount of loss in hearing sensitivity: the level, duration, spectral content, and 

temporal pattern of exposure to an acoustic stimulus as well as differences in the sensitivity of individuals 

and species. All of these factors combine to determine whether an individual organism is likely to 

experience a loss in hearing sensitivity as a result of acoustic exposure (Miller 1974, Ward 1998, Yost 

2007). In free-ranging species, an animal’s behavioral responses to a single acoustic exposure or a series 

of acoustic exposure events would also determine whether the animal is likely to experience losses in 

hearing sensitivity as a result of acoustic exposure. Unlike humans whose occupations or living 

conditions expose them to sources of potentially-harmful noise, in most circumstances, free-ranging 

animals are not likely to remain in a sound field that contains potentially harmful levels of noise unless 

they have a compelling reason to do so (for example, if they must feed or reproduce in a specific 

location). Any behavioral responses that would take an animal out of a sound field entirely or reduce the 

intensity of an exposure would reduce the animal’s probability of experiencing noise-induced losses in 

hearing sensitivity. 

More importantly, the data on captive animals and the limited information from free-ranging animals 

suggests that temporary noise-induced hearing losses do not have direct or indirect effect on the longevity 

or reproductive success of animals that experience permanent, temporary, or compound threshold shifts 

(Box P2 of Figure 2 illustrates the potential consequences of noise-induced loss in hearing sensitivity). 

Like humans, free-ranging animals might experience short-term impairment in their ability to use their 

sense of hearing to detect environmental cues about their environment while their ears recover from the 

temporary loss of hearing sensitivity. Although we could not locate information about how animals that 

experience noise-induced hearing loss alter their behavior or the consequences of any altered behavior on 

the lifetime reproductive success of those individuals, the limited information available would not lead us 

to expect temporary losses in hearing sensitivity to incrementally reduce the lifetime reproductive success 

of animals. 

Behavioral Responses 

Marine mammals, sea turtles and fish have not had the time and have not experienced the selective 

pressure necessary for them to have evolved a behavioral repertoire containing a set of potential responses 

to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic surveys or human disturbance generally. 

Instead, marine animals invoke behavioral responses that are already in their behavioral repertoire to 

decide how they will behaviorally respond to airguns or electromechanical equipment, other potential 

stressors associated with seismic or HRG surveys or human disturbance generally. An extensive number 

of studies have established that these animals will invoke the same behavioral responses they would 
229

invoke when faced with predation and will make the same ecological considerations when they 

experience human disturbance that they make when they perceive they have some risk of predation (Beale 

and Monaghan 2004, Bejder et al. 2009, Berger et al. 1983, Frid 2003, Frid and Dill 2002, Gill et al. 

2000, 2001; Gill and Sutherland 2000, 2001; Harrington and Veitch 1992, Lima 1998, Lima & Dill 1990, 

Madsen 1994, Romero 2004). Specifically, when animals are faced with a predator or predatory stimulus, 

they consider the risks of predation, the costs of anti-predator behavior, and the benefits of continuing a 

pre-existing behavioral pattern when deciding which behavioral response is appropriate in a given 

circumstance (Bejder et al. 2009, Gill et al. 2001, (Houston and McNamara 1986, Lima 1998, Lima and 

Bednekoff 1999, Ydenberg and Dill 1996). Further, animals appear to detect and adjust their responses to 

temporal variation in predation risks (Kat and Dill 1998, Lima and Bednekoff 1999, Rodriguez-Prieto et 

al. 2008). 

The level of risk an animal perceives results from a combination of factors that include the perceived 

distance between an animal and a potential predator, whether the potential predator is approaching the 

animal or moving tangential to the animal, the number of times the potential predator changes its vector 

(or evidence that the potential predator might begin an approach), the speed of any approach, the 

availability of refugia, and the health or somatic condition of the animal, for example, along with factors 

related to natural predation risk (e.g., Frid 2001, Frid and Dill 2002, Papouchis et al. 2001). In response to 

a perceived threat, animals can experience physiological changes that prepare them for flight or fight 

responses or they can experience physiological changes with chronic exposure to stressors that have more 

serious consequences such as interruptions of essential behavioral or physiological events, alteration of an 

animal’s time budget, or some combinations of these responses (Frid and Dill 2002, Romero 2004, 

Sapolsky et al. 2000, Walker et al. 2005). 

The behavioral responses of animals to human disturbance have been documented to cause animals to 

abandon nesting and foraging sites (Bejder et al. 2009, Gill et al. 2001, Sutherland and Crockford 1993), 

cause animals to increase their activity levels and suffer premature deaths or reduced reproductive success 

when their energy expenditures exceed their energy budgets (Daan et al. 1996, Feare 1976, Giese 1996, 

Mullner et al. 2004, Waunters et al. 1997), or cause animals to experience higher predation rates when 

they adopt risk-prone foraging or migratory strategies (Frid and Dill 2002). 

Based on the evidence available from empirical studies of animal responses to human disturbance, marine 

animals are likely to exhibit one of several behavioral responses upon being exposed to sounds produced 

by equipment employed during seismic surveys: (1) they may engage in horizontal or vertical avoidance 

behavior to avoid exposure or continued exposure to a sound that is painful, noxious, or that they perceive 
230

as threatening (Boxes BR1.1 and BR1.2 of Figure 2); (2) they may engage in evasive behavior to escape 

exposure or continued exposure to a sound that is painful, noxious, or that they perceive as threatening, 

which we would assume would be accompanied by acute stress physiology (Box BR1.3 of Figure 2); (3) 

they may remain continuously vigilant of the source of the acoustic stimulus, which would alter their time 

budget. That is, during the time they are vigilant, they are not engaged in other behavior (Box BR1.4 of 

Figure 2); and (4) they may continue their pre-disturbance behavior and cope with the physiological 

consequences of continued exposure. 

Marine animals might experience one of these behavioral responses, they might experience a sequence of 

several of these behaviors (for example, an animal might continue its pre-disturbance behavior for a 

period of time, then abandon an area after it experiences the consequences of physiological stress) or one 

of these behaviors might accompany responses such as permanent or temporary loss in hearing 

sensitivity. The narratives that follow summarize the information available on these behavioral responses. 

BEHAVIORAL AVOIDANCE OF INITIAL EXPOSURES OR CONTINUED EXPOSURE (HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL 

AVOIDANCE. As used in this Opinion, behavioral avoidance refers to animals that adjusts their spatial 

position relative to the source of the stimulus (in this case, sounds produced by a seismic survey vessel or 

the survey vessel itself) to avoid an adverse event, experience, or outcome they associate with the 

stimulus. Specifically, behavioral avoidance might consist of animals leaving an area ensonified by 

sounds produced by seismic surveys, avoid being exposed to the entire sound field produced by seismic 

surveys, or avoid being exposed to particular received levels within a sound field. We distinguish this 

from evasion, which occurs when an animal is already experiencing the adverse event, experience, or 

outcome. An evasive movement occurs when the animal adjusts its spatial position relative to the source 

of the stimulus to avoid continued exposure. 

Richardson et al. (1995) noted that avoidance reactions are the most obvious manifestations of 

disturbance in marine mammals. There are few empirical studies of avoidance responses of free-living 

cetaceans to mid-frequency sonar. However, Kvadsheim et al. (2007) conducted a controlled exposure 

experiment in which killer whales (Orcinus orca) that had been fitted with D-tags were exposed to midfrequency active sonar (Source A: was a 1.0 s upsweep 209 dB @ 1 - 2 kHz every 10 seconds for 10 

minutes; Source B: was a 1.0 s upsweep 197 dB @ 6 - 7 kHz every 10 s for 10 min). 

When exposed to Source A, a tagged killer whale and the group it was traveling with did not appear to 

avoid the source. When exposed to Source B, the tagged whales along with other whales that had been 

carousel feeding, ceased feeding during the approach of the sonar and moved rapidly away from the 
231

source (the received level associated with this response was not reported). When exposed to Source B, 

Kvadsheim and his co-workers reported that a tagged killer whale seemed to try to avoid further exposure 

to the sound field by immediately swimming away (horizontally) from the source of the sound; by 

engaging in a series of erratic and frequently deep dives that seemed to take it below the sound field; or 

by swimming away while engaged in a series of erratic and frequently deep dives. Although the sample 

sizes in this study are too small to support statistical analysis, the behavioral responses of the orcas were 

consistent with the results of other studies. 

Maybaum (1993) conducted sound playback experiments to assess the effects of mid-frequency active 

sonar on humpback whales in Hawai’ian waters. Specifically, he exposed focal pods to sounds of a 3.3-

kHz sonar pulse, a sonar frequency sweep from 3.1 to 3.6 kHz, and a control (blank) tape while 

monitoring the behavior, movement, and underwater vocalizations. The two types of sonar signals 

differed in their effects on the humpback whales, the whales exhibited avoidance behavior when exposed 

to both sounds. The whales responded to the pulse by increasing their distance from the sound source and 

responded to the frequency sweep by increasing their swimming speeds and track linearity. 

In the Caribbean, sperm whales avoided exposure to mid-frequency submarine sonar pulses, ranging from 

1,000 Hz to 10,000 Hz (IWC 2005). Sperm whales in the Gulf of Mexico seemed to avoid exposure to 

seismic surveys using mid- and low-frequency sound sources by increasing their distance from surveys 

vessles (Barkaszi et al 2012). Blue and fin whales have occasionally been reported in areas ensonified by 

airgun pulses; however, there have been no systematic analyses of their behavioral reactions to airguns. 

Sightings by observers on seismic vessels off the United Kingdom suggest that, at times of good 

sightability, the number of blue, fin, sei, and humpback whales seen when airguns are shooting are similar 

to the numbers seen when the airguns are not shooting (Stone 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001). However, fin and 

sei whale sighting rates were higher when airguns were shooting, which may result from their tendency to 

remain at or near the surface at times of airgun operation (Stone 2003). The analysis of the combined data 

from all years indicated that baleen whales stayed farther from airguns during periods of shooting (Stone 

2003). Baleen whales also altered course more often during periods of shooting and more were headed 

away from the vessel at these times, indicating some level of localized avoidance of seismic activity 

(Stone 2003). 

Sperm whales responded to military sonar, apparently from a submarine, by dispersing from social 

aggregations, moving away from the sound source, remaining relatively silent and becoming difficult to 

approach (Watkins et al. 1985). Brownell (2004) reported the behavioral responses of western gray 

whales off the northeast coast of Sakhalin Island to sounds produced by seismic activities in that region. 
232

In 1997, the gray whales responded to seismic activities by changing their swimming speed and 

orientation, respiration rates, and distribution in waters around the seismic surveys. In 2001, seismic 

activities were conducted in a known feeding area of these whales and the whales left the feeding area and 

moved to areas farther south in the Sea of Okhotsk. They only returned to the feeding area several days 

after the seismic activities stopped. The potential fitness consequences of displacing these whales, 

especially mother-calf pairs and “skinny whales,” outside of their the normal feeding area is not known; 

however, gray whales, like other large whales, must gain enough energy during the summer foraging 

season to last them the entire year. Sounds or other stimuli that cause them to abandon a foraging area for 

several days seems almost certain to disrupt their energetics and force them to make trade-offs like 

delaying their migration south, delaying reproduction, reducing growth, or migrating with reduced energy 

reserves. 

Captive bottlenose dolphins and a white whale exhibited changes in behavior when exposed to 1 second 

pulsed sounds at frequencies similar to those emitted by the multi-beam sonar that is used by geophysical 

surveys (Ridgway et al. 1997, Schlundt et al. 2000), and to shorter broadband pulsed signals (Finneran et 

al. 2000, 2002). Behavioral changes typically involved what appeared to be deliberate attempts to avoid a 

sound exposure or to avoid the location of the exposure site during subsequent tests (Schlundt et al. 2000, 

Finneran et al. 2002). Dolphins exposed to 1-sec intense tones exhibited short-term changes in behavior 

above received sound levels of 178 to 193 dB re 1 Pa rms and belugas did so at received levels of 180 to 

196 dB and above. Received levels necessary to elicit such responses to shorter pulses were higher 

(Finneran et al. 2000, 2002). Test animals sometimes vocalized after exposure to pulsed, mid-frequency 

sound from a watergun (Finneran et al. 2002). In some instances, animals exhibited aggressive behavior 

toward the test apparatus (Ridgway et al. 1997, Schlundt et al. 2000). It is not clear whether or to what 

degree the responses of captive animals might be representative of the responses of marine animals in the 

wild. For example, wild cetaceans sometimes avoid sound sources well before they are exposed to 

received levels such as those used in these experiments. Further, the responses of marine animals in the 

wild may be more subtle than those described by Ridgway et al. (1997) and Schlundt et al. (2000). 

Richardson et al. (1995a) and Richardson (1997, 1998) used controlled playback experiments to study the 

response of bowhead whales in Arctic Alaska. In their studies, bowhead whales tended to avoid drill ship 

noise at estimated received levels of 110 to 115 dB and seismic sources at estimated received levels of 

110 to 132 dB. Richardson et al. (1995) concluded that some marine mammals would tolerate continuous 

sound at received levels above 120 dB re 1 Pa for a few hours. These authors concluded that most 

marine mammals would avoid exposures to received levels of continuous underwater noise greater than 

140 dB when source frequencies were in the animal’s most sensitive hearing range. 
233

Several authors noted that migrating whales are likely to avoid stationary sound sources by deflecting 

their course slightly as they approached a source (LGL and Greenridge 1987 in Richardson et al. 1995). 

Malme et al. (1983, 1984) studied the behavioral responses of gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) that 

were migrating along the California coast to various sound sources located in their migration corridor. 

The whales they studied showed statistically significant responses to four different underwater playbacks 

of continuous sound at received levels of approximately 120 dB. The sources of the playbacks were 

typical of a drillship, semisubmersible, drilling platform, and production platform. 

Morton et al. (2004) exposed killer whales (Orcinus orca) to sounds produced by acoustic harassment 

devices (devices that were designed to harass harbor seals, source levels were 194 dB at 10 kHz re 1Pa 

at 1 meter). They concluded that observations of killer whales declined dramatically in the experimental 

area (Broughton Archipelago) during the time interval the harassment devices had been used (but not 

before or after the use). Other investigators have concluded that gray whales and humpback whales 

abandoned some of their coastal habitat in California and Hawai’i, respectively, because of underwater 

noise associated with extensive vessel traffic (Gard 1974, Reeves 1977, Salden 1988). 

Nowacek et al. (2004) conducted controlled exposure experiments on North Atlantic right whales using 

ship noise, social sounds of con-specifics, and an alerting stimulus (frequency modulated tonal signals 

between 500 Hz and 4.5 kHz). Animals were tagged with acoustic sensors (D-tags) that simultaneously 

measured movement in three dimensions. Whales reacted strongly to alert signals at received levels of 

133-148 dB SPL, mildly to conspecific signals, and not at all to ship sounds or actual vessels. The alert 

stimulus caused whales to immediately cease foraging behavior and swim rapidly to the surface. 

Several studies have demonstrated that cetaceans will avoid human activities such as vessel traffic, 

introduced sounds in the marine environment, or both. Lusseau (2003) reported that bottlenose dolphins 

in Doubtful Sound, New Zealand, avoided approaching tour boats by increasing their mean diving 

interval. Male dolphins began to avoid tour boats before the boats were in visible range, while female 

dolphins only began to avoid the boats when the boats became intrusive (he attributed the differential 

responses to differences in energetics: the larger body size of male dolphins would allow them to 

compensate for the energy costs of the avoidance behavior more than female dolphins). Bejder et al. 

(2006) studied the effects of vessel traffic on bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay, Australia, over three 

consecutive 4.5-year periods. They reported that the dolphins avoided the bay when two tour operators 

began to operate in the bay. 
234

Marine mammals may avoid or abandon an area temporarily during periods of high traffic or noise, 

returning when the source of the disturbance declines below some threshold (Lusseau 2004, Allen and 

Read 2000). Alternatively, they might abandon an area for as long as the disturbance persists. For 

example, Bryant et al. (1984 in Polefka 2004) reported that gray whales abandoned a calving lagoon in 

Baja California, Mexico following the initiation of dredging and increase in small vessel traffic. After the 

noise-producing activities stopped, the cow-calf pairs returned to the lagoon; the investigators did not 

report the consequences of that avoidance on the gray whales. Gard (1974) and Reeves (1977) reported 

that underwater noise associated with vessel traffic had caused gray whales to abandon some of their 

habitat in California for several years. Salden (1988) suggested that humpback whales avoid some 

nearshore waters in Hawai’i for the same reason. 

As Bejder et al. (2006 and 2009) argued, animals that are faced with human disturbance must evaluate the 

costs and benefits of relocating to alternative locations; those decisions would be influenced by the 

availability of alternative locations, the distance to the alternative locations, the quality of the resources at 

the alternative locations, the conditions of the animals faced with the decision, and their ability to cope 

with or “escape” the disturbance (citing Beale and Monaghan 2004a, 2004b; Gill et al. 2001, Frid and Dill 

2002, Lima and Dill 1990). Specifically, animals delay their decision to flee from predators and predatory 

stimuli that they detect, or until they decide that the benefits of fleeing a location are greater than the costs 

of remaining at the location or, conversely, until the costs of remaining at a location are greater than the 

benefits of fleeing (Ydenberg and Dill 1996). Ydenberg and Dill (1996) and Blumstein (2003) presented 

an economic model that recognized that animals will almost always choose to flee a site over some short 

distance to a predator; at a greater distance, animals will make an economic decision that weighs the costs 

and benefits of fleeing or remaining; and at an even greater distance, animals will almost always choose 

not to flee. 

Based on a review of observations of the behavioral responses of 122 minke whales, 2,259 fin whales, 

833 right whales, and 603 humpback whales to various sources of human disturbance, Watkins (1986) 

reported that fin, humpback, minke, and North Atlantic right whales ignored sounds that occurred at 

relatively low received levels, that had the most energy at frequencies below or above their hearing 

capacities appeared not to be noticed, or that were from distant human activities, even when those sounds 

had considerable energies at frequencies well within the whale’s range of hearing. Most of the negative 

reactions that had been observed occurred within 100 m of a sound source or when sudden increases in 

received sound levels were judged to be in excess of 12 dB, relative to previous ambient sounds 
235

From these observations, we would have to conclude that the distance between marine mammals and a 

source of sound, as well as the received level of the sound itself, will help determine whether individual 

animals are likely to respond to the sound and engage in avoidance behavior. At the limits of the range of 

audibility, endangered and threatened marine mammals are likely to ignore cues that they might otherwise 

detect. At some distance that is closer to the source, endangered marine mammals may be able to detect a 

sound produced by seismic and HRG survey activities, but they would not devote attentional resources to 

the sound (that is, they would filter it out as background noise or ignore it). We would not expect 

endangered marine mammals that find themselves within a sound field produced by a seismic shot or a 

HRG sonar ping where received levels might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that 

stimulus because those individuals are more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and 

environmental cues that are considerably closer, even if they were aware of the signal. 

Those animals that are closer to the source and not engaged in activities that would compete for their 

attentional resources (for example, mating or foraging) might engage in low-level avoidance behavior 

(changing the direction or their movement to take them away from or tangential to the source of the 

disturbance) possibly accompanied by short-term vigilance behavior, but they are not likely to change 

their behavioral state (that is, animals that are foraging or migrating would continue to do so). For 

example, we would expect endangered or threatened marine mammals that find themselves within a 

sound field produced by a seismic or HRG survey activities where received levels might range from 140 

and 150 dB to engage in low-level avoidance behavior or short-term vigilance behavior, but they are not 

likely to change their behavioral state as a result of that exposure. The 150 dB isopleths for seismic and 

HRG equipment ranged from further than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3

array, 3.4 km from the chirp sub-bottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer or sparker. 

At some distance that is closer still, these species are likely to engage in more active avoidance behavior 

followed by subsequent low-level avoidance behavior that does not bring them closer to the training 

activity. At the closest distances, we assume that endangered and threatened marine mammals would 

engage in vertical and horizontal avoidance behavior unless they have a compelling reason to remain in a 

location (for example, to feed). In some circumstances, this would involve abrupt vertical or horizontal 

movement accompanied by physiological stress responses. Within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and 

South-Atlantic Planning Areas, we would expect these kind of responses at distances between 0 and 21 

km for the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array for seismic and HRG surveys for 

the oil and gas program and for HRG surveys for the renewable energy and marine minerals programs 

0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 0.042 km (for the chirp subbottom profiler), where received 

levels from these acoustic sources would equal or exceed 180 dB. However, at these distances endangered 
236

or threatened marine mammals would be aware of a wide array of visual and acoustic cues associated 

with seismic survey vessels (including sound associated with a ship’s engines, the bow wake, etc.) and an 

animal’s decision to change its behavior might be a response to an airgun shot, one of these other cues, or 

the entire suite of cues. 

The evidence available also suggests that marine mammals might experience more severe consequences if 

an acoustic cue associated with a seismic or HRG survey leads them to perceive they face an imminent 

threat, but circumstances do not allow them to avoid or “escape” further exposure. At least six 

circumstances might prevent an animal from escaping further exposure to a seismic survey and could 

produce any of one the following outcomes: 

1. when swimming away (an attempted “escape”) brings marine mammals into a shallow coastal 

feature that causes them to strand; 

2. they cannot swim away because the exposure occurred in a coastal feature that leaves marine 

mammals no “escape” route (for example, a coastal embayment or fjord that surrounds them with 

land on three sides, with the sound field preventing an “escape”); 

3. they cannot swim away because the marine mammals are exposed to multiple sound fields in a 

coastal or oceanographic feature that act in concert to prevent their escape; 

4. they cannot dive “below” the sound field while swimming away because of shallow depths; 

5. to remain “below” the sound field, they must engage in a series of very deep dives with 

interrupted attempts to swim to the surface (which might lead to pathologies similar to those of 

decompression sickness); 

6. any combination of these phenomena. 

Because seismic surveys are generally conducted in deeper waters well away from the coastline, 

endangered or threatened species are not likely to be exposed to sounds produced by seismic surveys 

under any of these conditions. For the HRG surveys in which acoustic sources can be heard by 

endangered or threatened species, the more limited sound fields and greater attenuation in more coastal 

environments should allow these animals to avoid or “escape” further exposure.

VIGILANCE. Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of an animal’s 

environment while ignoring other things (Posner 1994). Because animals (including humans) have limited 

cognitive resources, there is a limit to how much sensory information they can process at any time. The 

phenomenon called “attentional capture” occurs when a stimulus (usually a stimulus that an animal is not 

concentrating on or attending to) “captures” an animal’s attention. This shift in attention can occur 

consciously or unconsciously (for example, when an animal hears sounds that it associates with the 
237

approach of a predator) and the shift in attention can be sudden (Dukas 2002, van Rij 2007). Once a 

stimulus has captured an animal’s attention, the animal can respond by ignoring the stimulus, assuming a 

“watch and wait” posture, or treat the stimulus as a disturbance and respond accordingly, which includes 

scanning for the source of the stimulus or “vigilance” (Cowlishaw et al. 2004). 

Vigilance is normally an adaptive behavior that helps animals determine the presence or absence of 

predators, assess their distance from conspecifics, or to attend to cues from prey (Bednekoff and Lima 

1998, Treves 2000). Despite those benefits, however, vigilance has a cost of time: when animals focus 

their attention on specific environmental cues, it is not attending to other activities such as foraging. 

These costs have been documented best in foraging animals, where vigilance has been shown to 

substantially reduce feeding rates (Saino 1994, Beauchamp and Livoreil 1997, Fritz et al. 2002). 

Animals will spend more time being vigilant, which translates into less time foraging or resting, when 

disturbance stimuli approach them more directly, remain at closer distances, have a greater group size (for 

example, multiple surface vessels), or when they co-occur with times that an animal perceives increased 

risk (for example, when they are giving birth or accompanied by a calf). Most of the published literature, 

however, suggests that direct approaches will increase the amount of time animals will dedicate to being 

vigilant. For example, bighorn sheep and Dall’s sheep dedicated more time being vigilant, and less time 

resting or foraging, when aircraft made direct approaches over them (Frid 2001, Stockwell et al. 1991). 

Several authors have established that long-term and intense disturbance stimuli can cause population 

declines by reducing the body condition of individuals that have been disturbed, followed by reduced 

reproductive success, reduced survival, or both (Daan et al. 1996, Madsen 1994, White 1983). For 

example, Madsen (1994) reported that pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus) in undisturbed habitat 

gained body mass and had about a 46% reproductive success compared with geese in disturbed habitat 

(being consistently scared off the fields on which they were foraging) which did not gain mass and has a 

17% reproductive success. Similar reductions in reproductive success have been reported for mule deer 

(Odocoileus hemionus) disturbed by all-terrain vehicles (Yarmoloy et al. 1988), caribou disturbed by 

seismic exploration blasts (Bradshaw et al. 1998), caribou disturbed by low-elevation military jet-fights 

(Luick et al. 1996), and caribou disturbed by low-elevation jet flights (Harrington and Veitch 1992). 

Similarly, a study of elk (Cervus elaphus) that were disturbed experimentally by pedestrians concluded 

that the ratio of young to mothers was inversely related to disturbance rate (Phillips and Alldredge 2000). 

The primary mechanism by which increased vigilance and disturbance appear to affect the fitness of 

individual animals is by disrupting an animal’s time budget and, as a result, reducing the time they might 
238

spend foraging and resting (which increases an animal’s activity rate and energy demand). For example, a 

study of grizzly bears (Ursus horribilis) reported that bears disturbed by hikers reduced their energy 

intake by an average of 12 kcal/min (50.2 x 103kJ/min), and spent energy fleeing or acting aggressively 

toward hikers (White et al. 1999). 

CONTINUED PRE-DISTURBANCE BEHAVIOR, HABITUATION, OR NO RESPONSE. Under some circumstances, 

some individual animals that would be exposed to seismic and electromechanical transmissions (for 

sources within the range of audibility of listed species in this Opinion) and other sounds associated with 

seismic and HRG survey activities will continue the behavioral activities they were engaged in before 

they were exposed (Richardson et al. 1995). For example, Watkins (1986) reviewed data on the 

behavioral reactions of fin, humpback, right and minke whales that were exposed to continuous, 

broadband low-frequency shipping and industrial noise in Cape Cod Bay. He concluded that underwater 

sound was the primary cause of behavioral reactions in these species of whales and that the whales 

responded behaviorally to acoustic stimuli within their respective hearing ranges. Watkins also noted that 

whales showed the strongest behavioral reactions to sounds in the 15 Hz to 28 kHz range, although 

negative reactions (avoidance, interruptions in vocalizations, etc.) were generally associated with sounds 

that were either unexpected, too loud, suddenly louder or different, or perceived as being associated with 

a potential threat (such as an approaching ship on a collision course). In particular, whales seemed to react 

negatively when they were within 100 m of the source or when received levels increased suddenly in 

excess of 12 dB relative to ambient sounds. At other times, the whales ignored the source of the signal 

and all four species habituated to these sounds. 

Nevertheless, Watkins concluded that whales ignored most sounds in the background of ambient noise, 

including the sounds from distant human activities even though these sounds may have had considerable 

energies at frequencies well within the whale’s range of hearing. Further, he noted that fin whales were 

initially the most sensitive of the four species of whales, followed by humpback whales; right whales 

were the least likely to be disturbed and generally did not react to low-amplitude engine noise. By the end 

of his period of study, Watkins (1986) concluded that fin and humpback whales had generally habituated 

to the continuous, broad-band, noise of Cape Cod Bay while right whales did not appear to change their 

response. 

Aicken et al. (2005) monitored the behavioral responses of marine mammals to a new low-frequency 

active sonar system that was being developed for use by the British Navy. During those trials, fin whales, 

sperm whales, Sowerby’s beaked whales, long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas), Atlantic whitesided dolphins, and common bottlenose dolphins were observed and their vocalizations were recorded. 
239

These monitoring studies detected no evidence of behavioral responses that the investigators could 

attribute to exposure to the low-frequency active sonar during these trials (some of the responses the 

investigators observed may have been to the vessels used for the monitoring). 

There are several reasons why such animals might continue their pre-exposure activity: 

1. RISK ALLOCATION. When animals are faced with a predator or predatory stimulus, they consider 

the risks of predation, the costs of anti-predator behavior, and the benefits of continuing a preexisting behavioral pattern when deciding which behavioral response is appropriate in a given 

circumstance (Bejder et al. 2008, Gill et al. 2001, (Houston and McNamara 1986, Lima 1998, 

Lima and Bednekoff 1999, Ydenberg and Dill 1996). Further, animals appear to detect and adjust 

their responses to temporal variation in predation risks (Kat and Dill 1998, Lima and Bednekoff 

1999, Rodriguez-Prieto et al. 2008). As a result, animals that decide that the ecological costs of 

changing their behavior exceeds the benefits of continuing their behavior, would be expected to 

continue their pre-existing behavior. For example, baleen whales, which only feed during part of 

the year and must satisfy their annual energetic needs during the foraging season, are more likely 

to continue foraging in the face of disturbance. Similarly, a cow accompanied by her calf is less 

likely to flee or abandon an area at the cost of her calf’s survival. 

 This does not mean, however, that there are no costs involved with continuing pre-disturbance 

behavior in the face of predation or disturbance. When animals make risk allocation decisions, 

they tolerate some exposure to a stressor, which means they accept some risk. We assume that 

individual animals that are exposed to sounds associated with seismic and HRG survey activities 

will apply the economic model we discussed earlier (Ydenberg and Dill 1996). By extension, we 

assume that animals that choose to continue their pre-disturbance behavior would have to cope 

with the costs of doing so, which will usually involve physiological stress responses and the 

energetic costs of stress physiology (Frid and Dill 2002). 

2. HABITUATION. When free-ranging animals do not appear to respond when presented with a 

stimulus, they are commonly said to have become habituated to the stimulus (Bejder et al. 2008, 

Rodriguez-Prieto et al. 2008, and the example cited earlier from Watkins 1986). Habituation has 

been given several definitions, but we apply the definition developed by Thompson and Spencer 

(1966) and Groves and Thompson (1970), which are considered classic treatments of the subject, 

as modified by Rankin et al. (2009): an incremental reduction in an animal’s behavioral 

response to a stimulus that results from repeated stimulation to that stimulus and that does not 
240

involve sensory adaptation, sensory fatigue, or motor fatigue. The value of this definition, when 

compared with other definitions (for example, Bejder et al. 2009 citing Thorpe 1963), is that it 

would lead us to establish that an animal did not experience reduced sensory sensitivity to a 

stimulus (which would be accompanied by threshold shifts, for example) before we would 

conclude that the animal had become habituated to the stimulus. Habituation has been 

traditionally distinguished from sensory adaptation or motor fatigue using dishabituation 

(presentation of a different stimulus that results in an increase of the decremented response to the 

original stimulus), by demonstrating stimulus specificity (the response still occurs to other 

stimuli), or by demonstrating frequency dependent spontaneous recovery (more rapid recovery 

following stimulation delivered at a high-frequency than following stimulation delivered at a low 

frequency). 

 Animals are more likely to habituate (and habituate more rapidly) to a stimulus, the less intense 

the stimulus (Rankin et al. 2009). Conversely, numerous studies suggest that animals are less 

likely to habituate (that is, exhibit no significant decline in their responses) as the intensity of the 

stimulus increases (Rankin et al. 2009). Further, after animals have become habituated to a 

stimulus, their responses to that stimulus recover (a process that is called “spontaneous recovery”) 

over time, although habituation becomes more rapid and pronounced after a series of habituationrecovery events (a process that is called “potentiation of habituation”). 

3 The individuals that might be exposed may have lowered sensitivity to the stimulus. This might 

occur because the animals are naïve to the potential risks associated with seismic and HRG 

survey activities (which would be more common among juveniles than adults) or they have 

limited sensory sensitivity by physiological constitution or constitutional endowment. 

The results reported by Watkins (1986) and Aicken et al. (2005) could be explained either by concluding 

that the marine mammals had habituated to the sounds or they could be explained by concluding that the 

animals had made a decision to continue their pre-disturbance behavior despite the potential risks 

represented by the sounds (that is, the animals tolerated the disturbance). The results reported by Watkins 

(1986) are better explained using risk allocation than habituation because he associated the strongest, 

negative reactions (avoidance, interruptions in vocalizations, etc.) with sounds that were either 

unexpected, too loud, suddenly louder or different, were perceived as being associated with a potential 

threat (such as an approaching ship on a collision course), or were from distant human activities despite 
241

having considerable energy at frequencies well within the whale’s range of hearing (whales would be less 

likely to respond to cues they would associate with a predator if their distance from the predator preserved 

their ability to escape a potential attack). 

Responses of North Atlantic Right Whale cow/calf pairs to HRG Surveys within Critical Habitat 

Critical habitat off the southeastern U.S. coast has the lowest ambient sound level amongst three areas 

investigated within the range of North Atlantic right whales (72-85 dB re: 1 μPa/Hz over the frequency 

range of 50-350 Hz, with peak frequencies on the bottom of the spectrum and variation of 30 dB within 

24 hours) (Parks et al. 2009). Right whales may adjust their vocal behavior based upon this ambient 

sound field (Parks et al. 2009). This suggests the possibility of masking issues for North Atlantic right 

whales, even in relatively quiet areas. 

Data on the impacts of the proposed activities on right whales, particularly acoustic sources (excluding 

vessel noise) that may reduce the quality of critical habitat are few (Doug Nowacek, Duke University, 

pers. comm., 2013). Southern right whales moved away from 200 Hz tonal signals, humpback whale 

playbacks, as well as water noise when played from a loudspeaker (Clark and Clark 1980). However, 

ensonification of right whales within 100 m using a sonar transmitting at frequencies greater than 80 kHz 

did not elicit responses (Miller and Potter 2000). A seminal manuscript by Nowacek et al. (2004) found 

that North Atlantic right whales, carrying tags that record received sound levels and whale movements, 

responded strongly to a signal designed to be unique and audible to right whales at received levels of 134-

148 dB re 1 μPamrms, but did not respond to vessel noise. The alert signal contained three different 

components: alternating 1 s pure tones at 500 and 850 Hz; a 2 s logarithmic down-sweep from 4,500 to 

500 Hz; and a pair of low-high (1,500 and 2,000 Hz) sine wave tones amplitude modulated at 120 Hz and 

each 1 s long. It is unknown which of these signals (individually or in combination) whales responded to. 

Responses included cessation of foraging, low-angle, high speed ascent, and remaining at or near the 

surface for the duration of the alert signal exposure (18 min). A North Pacific right whale was observed 

from 1 km away, approaching to within 400 m while a 40 in3 airgun (modeled to have a 160 dB re 1 

μPamrms radius of 385 m) was discharging before being recognized as a right whale and the airgun was 

shutdown (Davis et al. 2011). The individual did not appear to respond to the vessel or its acoustic 

sources, but continued feeding behavior from the time of first sighting to when it could no longer be 

observed (Davis et al. 2011). A sub-bottom profiler (3.5 kHz dominant frequency, maximum source level 

of 204 dB re 1 μPam) and multibeam echosounder (10.5-13 kHz, maximum source level of 242 dB re 1 

μPamrms) were operating at the time of the encounter (Meagan Cummings, Lamont-Doherty Earth 

Observatory, pers. comm., 2013). However, environmental noise at the time was likely high (Beaufort 4 
242

conditions)(Davis et al. 2011). Dr. Peter Best (University of Pretoria, pers. comm., 2013) suggested high 

levels of seismic survey activity associated with oil and gas exploration may be leading to a shift in nonmother-calf groups from South African waters to Namibia, although he could not discount this as a 

natural re-distribution to a former wintering site. 

Responses of right whales to vessel approaches (and the probable acoustic stressors they present) have 

been described in more detail, particularly in southern right whales nursery habitat. Slow, standardized 

approaches of small vessels to southern right whales in their nursery habitat off Argentina while in 

resting, traveling, or socializing behavioral states and solitary, surface active, and non-surface active 

groups produced mixed results (Alejandro and Els 2010). Time spent socializing decreased notably as did 

aerial behavior (from 21 to 2%) (Alejandro and Els 2010). Traveling appeared undisturbed, but traveling 

individuals doubled their time spent resting after approaches stopped (Alejandro and Els 2010). Mothercalf pairs were specifically avoided in the study (Alejandro and Els 2010). Another study in the same 

area found very close boat approaches and swimmers entering the water with southern right whales 

resulted in decreases in resting, socializing, and surface active behavior, while traveling and reorientation 

increased (Lundquist et al. 2012). In 17% of cases (27% for mother-calf pairs), boats could not approach 

closely enough to put swimmers in the water due to whale evasion, with mother-calf pairs typically 

swimming away quickly, reorienting, and staying underwater for relatively long periods (Lundquist et al. 

2012). Mother-calf pairs showed the strongest responses of all group and sex categories, avoiding the 

boat and swimmers 61% of the time (Lundquist et al. 2012). Faster swimming was first observed when 

the vessel approached to within 500 m (Lundquist et al. 2012). Individuals and groups frequently 

returned to baseline behavior after the vessel’s departure (Lundquist et al. 2012). Rivarola et al. (2001) 

hypothesized that the impacts of extensive, impactful whale watching on southern right whales in 

Argentina may have contributed to mothers switching to a different habitat 30-40 km away, although 

movement between years and disparate nursery grounds has been documented (Rowntree et al. 2001), and 

whale numbers appearing in the whale watching areas corresponded with increasing whale watch activity 

(Rivarola et al. 2001). Vermuelen et al. (2012) found that southern right whales in Argentina shortened 

social interactions 13% when vessels were near (following slow, controlled approaches and frequent 

swimmer deployment), while propensity to travel increased and whales rested less. These responses 

ended shortly after close vessel approaches ended (Vermeulen et al. 2012). Approaches of mother-calf 

pairs on a Brazilian southern right whale nursery in which whale watching only recently began found 

responses to be generally “uninterested”, although more than a third of individuals approached the vessel 

and 10% displayed a “negative” response (Groch 2001). Southern right whales in South African nursery 

habitat approached vessels approaching them in almost half of cases, with idling motors possibly 
243

attracting individuals (Findlay 1999). Swimming speeds appeared to change from baseline only when 

active pursuit of right whales occurred (Findlay 1999). 

North Atlantic right whales may not respond at all to kayaks, sailing sloops, or steel-hulled dieselpowered vessels approaching within five meters, although other individuals (possibly under different 

contexts) have responded to the same diesel-powered vessel from 50 m away, usually by turning away 

from the path of the ship (Goodyear 1993). Baumgartner and Mate (2003) found that 71% of 42 North 

Atlantic right whales approached (and sometimes tagged) in a rigged inflatable boat within 10 m did not 

overtly respond. Of those that did respond, behaviors included head lifts and lunges, back arching, 

rolling, and fluke beats. Feeding dive durations were also shorter by 13-17% in the dive following 

approach/tagging, but no difference was found in the duration of subsequent dives. Mate et al. (1997) 

found that although North Atlantic right whales generally responded to and avoided close approach, the 

level of response varied. Watkins (1986) found that whales are more responsive to approach when they 

are inactive and less responsive when feeding or socializing. Researcher effort in North Atlantic right 

whale critical habitat supports a variety of responses to closely approaching small vessels, ranging from 

immediate evasion to non-response, with most responses in between consisting of initial tolerance 

followed by eventual slow movement away (Clay George, George Department of Natural Resources, 

pers. comm. 2013). Cumulative annual report data for a variety of North Atlantic right whale researchers 

(including Mr. George) utilizing diverse methodologies between 1995 and 2010 and over 5,000 vessel 

approaches support an overall response rate of roughly 4%. Reductions in ambient sound associated with 

vessel noise were associated with reductions in stress hormone metabolites in North Atlantic right whales 

(Rolland et al. 2012). 

Non-acoustic stressors can help us understand right whale responses to anthropogenic stressors in general. 

Responses of southern right whales to biopsy were equal for males and females, but singletons were more 

responsive than groups (Best et al. 2005). However, cows with calves were more responsive than 

singletons. Cows appeared to sensitive to repeated biopsy over the course of two months, but calves were 

not (Best et al. 2005). Responses consisted of minor, ephemeral behavioral changes (Best et al. 2005). 

Similar responses were found in North Atlantic right whales, which responded 19% of biopsy attempts 

(Brown et al. 1991). Reeb and Best (2006) also documented generally no or low- to moderate-level 

responses of right whales to pole biopsy techniques. Follow-up work over the following decade failed to 

identify any change in calf survival or intercalving interval for cows, although power to detect changes 

was low (Best et al. 2005). 
244

Sea Turtles 

Available studies suggest some sea turtles exhibit an avoidance reaction to airgun-generated sounds. 

McCauley et al. (2000b; 2000a) investigated the effects of airguns on sea turtle behavior. The authors 

found that green and loggerhead sea turtles show avoidance to airgun arrays at 2 km (1.1 nm) and at 1 km 

(0.54 nm) with received levels of 166 dB re 1 μPa and 175 dB re 1 μPa, respectively. Individual sea 

turtles responded consistently by noticeably increasing swimming activity above a level of approximately 

166 dB re 1 μPa (rms), as compared to swimming during non-airgun operation periods. The increase in 

swimming behavior tracked the received airgun level, by increasing at increasing levels. Above 175 dB 

re 1 μPa, turtle behavior became more erratic, possibly indicating the turtles were in an agitated state. In 

studies by Lenhardt (1994) and Lenhardt et al. (1983), loggerhead and Kemp’s ridley turtles responded to 

airgun pulses and low-frequency sound – e.g., by becoming active and swimming to the surface upon 

exposure. Moein et al. (1994) used an evoked potential method to test sea turtle hearing and reported 

avoidance behavior in loggerhead sea turtles at the beginning of airgun exposure trials; however, repeated 

airgun exposures days after the initial tests did not elicit a statistically significant avoidance response. 

The authors concluded this may be due to either habituation or temporary threshold shift in the turtles 

hearing capability. Based on a review of sea turtle data from 11 L-DEO seismic surveys since 2003, 

Holst et al. (2006) concluded that turtles exhibited localized avoidance during both large- and smallsource seismic surveys. 

Although studies suggest sea turtles are most likely to avoid seismic airgun pulses, monitoring reports 

from seismic surveys indicate occasions when sea turtles were likely exposed to seismic airgun pulses – 

e.g., green, leatherback, and olive ridley turtles during surveys in the Hess Deep area of the eastern 

tropical Pacific Ocean (Smultea and Holst 2003 as cited in NMFS, 2006h). Of six sea turtles that were 

sighted during those surveys, five were seen while airguns were active. In at least one instance, an olive 

ridley sea turtle was sighted within ten meters of the array while active. This turtle was reported to 

exhibit visible responses to either exposure to the seismic pulses or to the physical presence of the array 

and floats. Although the turtle swam away from the vessel and was not reported to suffer physical injury, 

it is assumed the turtle experienced a stress response to its exposure that may have risen to the level of 

harassment. Similarly, Holst et al. (2005b) report during seismic operations in the southern Gulf of 

Mexico off the Yucatán Peninsula, that seven sea turtles were sighted within the 180 dB safety radius in 

shallow water (< 40 m). One of these turtles was reported to be actively swimming away from the 

seismic source. Six of these turtles were seen < 200 m from the operating airguns before the airguns were 

powered- or shut-down (Holst, et al., 2005b). 
245

A more recent study by DeRuiter and Doukara (2012) reported on the observed reactions of loggerhead 

sea turtles during a seismic survey in the Mediterranean Sea off Algeria. The seismic survey was 

conducted with a 13-airgun array (nominal source level of 252 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak)), towed at a 

depth of 11.5m at 5 kts. All but 3 (swimming underwater) of the 164 loggerheads observed (98 percent), 

were motionless at the surface when observed and ranged from 10s of meters to nearly 2 km from the 

vessel when sighted. Observed reactions included head raising (6), flipper agitation (7), air bubble 

production around head (2) or diving. Of the 86 turtles whose dive behavior could be visually tracked 

until their passage more than 100 m behind the array, 49 (57 percent) dove (dove before passing behind 

the airgun array) and 37 (43 percent) did not dive (were in view at the surface until they had passed more 

than 100 m behind the airgun array). At least 6 turtles dove immediately following an airgun shot 

indicating a startle response. The authors suggest that loggerhead turtles interrupted basking behavior and 

dove (an avoidance response) in response to airgun sounds at relatively close ranges (130 m median 

distance, 839 m maximum distance) and exposure levels estimated at about 191 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak) 

at 130 m and 175 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak) at 839 m. 

As noted above for marine mammals, Bejder et al. (2006 and 2009) argued, animals that are faced with 

human disturbance must evaluate the costs and benefits of relocating to alternative locations; those 

decisions would be influenced by the availability of alternative locations, the distance to the alternative 

locations, the quality of the resources at the alternative locations, the conditions of the animals faced with 

the decision, and their ability to cope with or “escape” the disturbance (citing Beale and Monaghan 

2004a, 2004b; Gill et al. 2001, Frid and Dill 2002, Lima and Dill 1990). Animals delay their decision to 

flee from predators and predatory stimuli that they detect, or until they decide that the benefits of fleeing a 

location are greater than the costs of remaining at the location or, conversely, until the costs of remaining 

at a location are greater than the benefits of fleeing (Ydenberg and Dill 1996). Ydenberg and Dill (1996) 

and Blumstein (2003) presented an economic model that recognized that animals will almost always 

choose to flee a site over some short distance to a predator; at a greater distance, animals will make an 

economic decision that weighs the costs and benefits of fleeing or remaining; and at an even greater 

distance, animals will almost always choose not to flee. 

Sea turtle hearing thresholds appear to be higher than those for mammals and DFO (2004) concluded it is 

unlikely that sea turtles would be more sensitive to seismic operations than cetaceans, based on available 

studies. Sea turtles are expected to be less sensitive to sounds; however, behavioral responses to 

environmental sounds are documented in several controlled experiments. Some possible reactions to low 

frequency sounds include startle responses and rapid swimming (M. Lenhardt, 2002; McCauley 2001 as 
246

cited in NMFS, 2006h), as well as swimming towards the surface at the onset of the sound (M. L. 

Lenhardt, 1994). 

Because it would be difficult to distinguish between animals that continue their pre-disturbance behavior 

when exposed to seismic and HRG transmissions because of a risk-decision and animals that habituate to 

disturbance (that is, they may have experienced low-level stress responses initially, but those responses 

abated over time), we do not assume that endangered or threatened sea turtles that do not appear to 

respond to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys will become 

habituated to those sounds. Without more evidence of actual habituation, such an assumption would lead 

us to fail to protect these species when protection was warranted. 

Atlantic Sturgeon

Sturgeon in general can be classified as fishes that detect sounds from below 50 Hz to perhaps 800-1,000 

Hz (though several probably only detect sounds to 600-800 Hz). These fishes have a swim bladder but no 

known structures in the auditory system that would enhance hearing, and sensitivity (lowest sound 

detectable at any frequency) is not very great. Sounds would have to be more intense to be detected 

compared to fishes with swim bladders that enhance hearing. Sturgeon can detect both particle motion 

and pressure. 

Impaired Communication 

Communication is an important component of the daily activity of animals and ultimately contributes to 

their survival and reproductive success. Animals communicate to find food (Elowson et al. 1991, Marler 

et al. 1986, Stokes 1971), acquire mates (Patricelli et al. 2002, Ryan 1985, Stokes 1971), assess other 

members of their species (Owings et al. 2002, Parker 1974, Sullivan 1984), evade predators (Greig-Smith 

1980, Marler 1955, Vieth et al. 1980), and defend resources (Alatalo et al. 1990, Falls 1963, 

Zuberbuehler et al. 1997). Human activities that impair an animal’s ability to communicate effectively 

might have significant effects on the animals experiencing the impairment. 

Communication usually involves individual animals that produce vocalizations or visual or chemical 

displays for other individuals. Masking, which we discuss separately (below), affects animals that are 

trying to receive acoustic cues in their environment, including vocalizations from other members of the 

animals’ species or social group (Dunlop et al. 2010). However, anthropogenic noise presents separate 

challenges for animals that are vocalizing. This subsection addresses the probable responses of individual 

animals whose attempts to vocalize or communicate are affected by seismic and HRG transmissions. 
247

When they vocalize, animals are aware of environmental conditions that affect the “active space” of their 

vocalizations, which is the maximum area within which their vocalizations can be detected before it drops 

to the level of ambient noise (Brenowitz 2004, Brumm et al. 2004, Lohr et al. 2003). Animals are also 

aware of environment conditions that affect whether listeners can discriminate and recognize their 

vocalizations from other sounds, which are more important than detecting a vocalization (Brenowitz 

1982, Brumm et al. 2004, Dooling 2004, Dunlop et al. 2010, Marten and Marler 1977, Patricelli et al. 

2006). 

Most animals that vocalize have evolved with an ability to make vocal adjustments to their vocalizations 

to increase the signal-to-noise ratio, active space, and recognizability of their vocalizations in the face of 

temporary changes in background noise (Brumm et al. 2004, Cody and Brown 1969, Dunlop et al. 2010, 

Patricelli et al. 2006). Vocalizing animals will make one or more of the following adjustments to preserve 

the active space and recognizability of their vocalizations: 

1. Adjust the amplitude of vocalizations (Box BR2.1 of Figure 3). Animals responding in this way 

increase the amplitude or pitch of their calls and songs by placing more energy into the entire 

vocalization or, more commonly, shifting the energy into specific portions of the call or song. 

This response is called the “Lombard reflex” or “Lombard effect” and represents a short-term adaptation 

to vocalizations in which a signaler increases the amplitude of its vocalizations in response to an increase 

in the amplitude of background noise (Lombard 1911). This phenomenon has been studied extensively in 

humans, who raise the amplitude of the voices while talking or singing in the face of high, background 

levels of sound (Lombard 1911, Dunlop et al. 2010, Tonkinson 1990). 

Other species experience the same phenomenon when they vocalize in the presence of high levels of 

background sound. Brumm (2004) studied the songs of territorial male nightingales (Luscinia 

megarhynchos) in the city of Berlin, Germany, to determine whether and to what degree background 

noise (from automobile traffic) produced a Lombard effect in these birds. Based on his studies, the birds 

increased the volume of their songs in response to traffic noise by 14 dB (their songs were more than 5 

times louder than birds vocalizing in quiet sites). Cynx et al. (1998) reported similar results based on their 

study of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) exposed to white noise. 

Although this type of response also has not been studied extensively in marine animals, Holt et al. (2007) 

reported that endangered southern resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Haro Strait off the San Juan 

Islands in Puget Sound, Washington, increased the amplitude of their social calls in the face of increased 

sounds levels of background noise. 
248

2. Adjust the frequency structure of vocalizations (Box BR2.2 of Figure 3). Animals responding in 

this way adjust the frequency structure of their calls and songs by increasing the minimum 

frequency of their vocalizations while maximum frequencies remain the same. This reduces the 

frequency range of their vocalizations and reduces the amount of overlap between their 

vocalizations and background noise. 

Slabbekorn and Ripmeister (2008), Slabbekorn and den Boer-Visser (2006), and Slabbekorn and Peet 

(2003) studied patterns of song variation among individual great tits (Parus major) in an urban population 

in Leiden, The Netherlands, and among 20 different urban and forest populations across Europe and the 

United Kingdom. Adult males of this species that occupied territories with more background noise 

(primarily traffic noise) sang with higher minimum frequencies than males occupying non-urban or 

quieter sites. Peak or maximum frequencies of these songs did not shift in the face of high background 

noise. 

3. Adjust temporal structure of vocalizations (Box BR2.3 of Figure 3). Animals responding this way 

adjust the temporal structure of their vocalizations by changing the timing of modulations, notes, 

and syllables within vocalizations or increasing the duration of their calls or songs. 

Cody and Brown (1969) studied the songs of adult male Bewick wrens and wrentits that occupied 

overlapping territories and whose songs had similar physical characteristics (similar song lengths, 

frequency structure, and amplitude). They reported that wrentits adjusted the timing of their songs so they 

occurred when the songs of the Bewick wrens subsided. 

Ficken et al. (1974) studied vocalizations of ten red-eyed vireos (Vireo olivaceus) and least flycatchers 

(Empidonax minimus) at Lake Itasca, Minnesota (a total of 2283 songs). They reported that flycatchers 

avoided acoustic interference from red-eyed vireos by inserting their shorter songs between the longer 

songs of the vireos. Although there is some mutual avoidance of acoustic interference, the flycatcher 

tends more strongly to insert its short songs in between the longer songs of the vireo rather than vice 

versa. Indeed, most of the overlap occurred when the flycatcher began singing just after the vireo had 

begun, suggesting that the flycatcher had not heard the vireo begin singing. 

Two studies reported that some mysticete whales stopped vocalizing when exposed to active sonar. Miller 

et al. (2000) recorded the vocal behavior of singing humpback whales continuously for several hours 

using a towed, calibrated hydrophone array. They recorded at least two songs in which the whales were 

exposed to low-frequency active sonar transmissions (42 second signals at 6 minute intervals; sonar was 

broadcast so that none of the singing whales were exposed at received levels greater than 150 dB re 
249

1μPa). They followed sixteen singing humpback whales during 18 playbacks. In nine follows, whales 

sang continuously throughout the playback; in four follows (or 0.2778; 95% CI: 0.1250 to 0.5087), the 

whale stopped singing when he joined other whales (a normal social interaction); and in five follows, the 

singer stopped singing, presumably in response to the playback. Of the six whales whose songs they 

analyzed in detail, songs were 29% longer, on average, during the playbacks. Song duration returned to 

normal after exposure, suggesting that the whale’s response to the playback was temporary. Melcón et al. 

(2012) reported that during 110 of the 395 d-calls they recorded during mid-frequency active sonar 

transmissions, blue whales stopped vocalizing at received levels ranging from 85 to 145 dB, presumably 

in response to the sonar transmissions. The proportion of blue whales that stopped vocalizing during their 

study was 0.2785 (95%CI: 0.2366 to 0.3247). Combining the results of these two studies would lead us to 

expect 0.2784 (95%CI: 0.1800 to 0.4040) of mysticete vocalizations to stop when vocalizations coincide 

with active sonar transmissions. We assume the same proportion of whales would stop vocalizing when 

exposed to sounds produced by equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys. 

Foote et al. (2004) compared recordings of endangered southern resident killer whales that were made in 

the presence or absence of boat noise in Puget Sound during three time periods between 1977 and 2003. 

They concluded that the duration of primary calls in the presence of boats increased by about 15% during 

the last of the three time periods (2001 to 2003). They suggested that the amount of boat noise may have 

reached a threshold above which the killer whales need to increase the duration of their vocalization to 

avoid masking by the boat noise. 

4. Adjust the temporal delivery of vocalizations (Boxes BR2.4 and BR2.5 of Figure 3). Animals 

responding in this way change when they vocalize or change the rate at which they repeat calls or 

songs. 

For example, tawny owls (Strix aluco) reduce the rate at which they call during rainy conditions 

(Lengagne and Slater 2002). Brenowitz (1982) concluded that red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius 

phoeniceus) had the largest active space, or broadcast area, for their calls at dawn because of relatively 

low turbulence and background noise when compared with other times of the day. Brown and Handford 

(2003) concluded that swamp and white-throated sparrows (Melospiza georgiana and Zonotrichia 

albicollis, respectively) tended to sing at dawn, as opposed to other times of the day, because they 

encountered the fewest impediments to acoustic transmissions during that time of the day. 

Many animals will combine several of these strategies to compensate for high levels of background noise. 

For example, Brumm et al. (2004) reported that common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) increased the 
250

median amplitude of the twitter calls as well as the duration of the calls in response to increased 

background noise. King penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) increase the number of syllables in a call 

series and the rate at which they repeat their calls to compensate for high background noise from other 

penguins in a colony or high winds (Lengagne et al. 1999). California ground squirrels (Spermophilus 

beecheyi) shifted the frequencies of their alarm calls in the face of high ambient noise from highway 

traffic (Rabin et al. 2003). However, they only shifted the frequency of the second and third harmonic of 

these alarm calls, without changing the amount of energy in the first harmonic. By emphasizing the higher 

harmonics, the ground squirrels placed the peak energy of their alarm calls above the frequency range of 

the masking noise from the highway. Wood and Yezerinac (2006) reported that song sparrows (Melospiza 

melodus) increased the frequency of the lowest notes in their songs and reduced the amplitude of the low 

frequency range of their songs. Fernandez-Juricic et al. (2005) reported that house finches (Carpodacus 

mexicanus) adopted the same strategy to compensate for background noise. 

Although this form of vocal adjustment has not been studied extensively in marine animals, Dahlheim

(1987) studied the effects of man-made noise, including ship, outboard engine and oil-drilling sounds, on 

gray whale calling and surface behaviors in the San Ignacio Lagoon, Baja, California. She reported 

statistically significant increases in the calling rates of gray whales and changes in calling structure (as 

well as swimming direction and surface behaviors) after exposure to increased noise levels during 

playback experiments. Although whale responses varied with the type and presentation of the noise 

source, she reported that gray whales generally increased their calling rates, the level of calls received, the 

number of frequency-modulated calls, number of pulses produced per pulsed-call series and call repetition 

rate as noise levels increased. Melcón et al. (2012) reported that 0.4287 (95%CI: 0.3583 to 0.5020) of 

blue whale vocalizations (d-calls) stopped when the whales were exposed to ship noise off Southern 

California. 

Parks et al. (2007) reported that surface active groups of North Atlantic right whales would adopt this 

strategy as the level of ambient noise increased. As ambient noise levels increased from low to high, the 

minimum frequency of right whale “scream calls” increased from 381.4 Hz (± 16.50), at low levels of 

ambient noise, to 390.3 Hz (± 15.14) at medium noise levels, to 422.4 Hz (± 15.55) at high noise levels. 

Surface active groups of North Atlantic right whales would also increase the duration and the inter-call 

interval of their vocalizations as the level of ambient noise increased. As noise levels increased from low 

to high, the duration of right whale “scream calls” would increase from 1.18 seconds (± 0.08) at low 

levels of ambient noise to 1.22 seconds (± 0.08) at high noise levels (durations decreased to 1.11 seconds 

± 0.07 at medium noise levels). The inter-call intervals of these vocalizations would increase from 17.9 

seconds (± 5.06) at low levels of ambient noise, to 18.5 seconds (± 4.55) at medium noise levels, to 28.1 
251

seconds (± 4.63) at high noise levels. In a more recent study, Parks et al (2011) investigated the noise 

dependent amplitude modification of individual right whale calls. The study indicates that right whales 

were able to maintain communication in moderate noise levels (92-143 dB in 20 Hz-8 Hz frequency 

bands) measured from the tag. 

FITNESS CONSEQUENCES OF VOCAL ADJUSTMENTS. Although the fitness consequences of these vocal 

adjustments remain unknown, like most other trade-offs animals must make, some of these strategies 

probably come at a cost (Dunlop et al. 2010, Patricelli et al. 2006). For example, vocalizing more loudly 

in noisy environments may have energetic costs that decrease the net benefits of vocal adjustment and 

alter the bird’s energy budget (Brumm 2004, Wood and Yezerinac 2006). Lambrechts (1996) argued that 

shifting songs and calls to higher frequencies was also likely to incur energetic costs. 

In addition, Patricelli et al. (2006) argued that females of many species use the songs and calls of males to 

determine whether a male is an appropriate potential mate (that is, the animal must recognize the singer as 

a member of their species); if males must adjust the frequency or temporal features of their vocalizations 

to avoid masking by noise, they may no longer be recognized by conspecific females (Brumm 2004, 

Slabbekoorn and Peet 2003, Wood and Yezerinac 2006). Although this line of reasoning was developed 

for bird species, the same line of reasoning should apply to marine mammals, particularly for species like 

fin and sei whales whose song structures appear to be very similar. 

However, if an animal fails to make vocal adjustments in presence the of masking noise, that failure 

might cause the animal to experience reduced reproductive success or longevity because it fails to 

communicate effectively with other members of its species or social group, including potential mates. 

Based on the evidence available, endangered blue, fin, humpback, north Atlantic right, sei and sperm 

whales may experience impaired communication because they vocalize at frequencies that overlap with 

those of the acoustic equipment employed during seismic surveys. As a result, we assume that some of 

the whales that are exposed to sound transmissions during seismic surveys might experience impaired 

communication as a result of that exposure. Sperm whales may also experience impaired communication 

during HRG surveys that use subbottom profilers and boomers, however, these surveys are expected to 

occur within the more coastal waters; therefore, exposure to HRG surveys would be limited. To preserve 

the saliency of their vocalizations, these whales may have to make one or more of the vocal adjustments 

discussed in this subsection. Because any reductions in the active space of whale vocalizations that result 

from sounds produced by seismic surveys would be temporary and episodic, vocal adjustments these 

whales would have to make would also be temporary.
252

MASKING. Marine mammals use acoustic signals for a variety of purposes, which differ among species, 

but include communication between individuals, navigation, foraging, reproduction, and learning about 

their environment (Dunlop et al. 2010, Erbé and Farmer 2000, Tyack 2000). Masking, or auditory 

interference, generally occurs when sounds in the environment are louder than and of a similar frequency 

to, auditory signals an animal is trying to receive. Masking, therefore, is a phenomenon that affects 

animals that are trying to receive acoustic information about their environment, including sounds from 

other members of their species, predators, prey, and sounds that allow them to orient in their environment. 

Masking these acoustic signals can disturb the behavior of individual animals, groups of animals, or entire 

populations (Box BR2 of Figure 3 illustrates the potential responses of animals to acoustic masking). 

Richardson et al. (1995) argued that the maximum radius of influence of an industrial noise (including 

broadband low frequency sound transmission) on a marine mammal is the distance from the source to the 

point at which the noise can barely be heard. This range is determined by either the hearing sensitivity of 

the animal or the background noise level present. Industrial masking is most likely to affect some species’ 

ability to detect communication calls and natural sounds (i.e., vocalizations from other members of its 

species, surf noise, prey noise, etc.; Richardson et al. 1995). 

Masking affects primarily the weaker sound signals received from distant sound sources (Richardson et al 

1995). The echolocation calls of toothed whales are subject to masking by high frequency sound. Blue 

and fin whales whose calls are capable of long-distance communication would also be subject to masking 

by the low frequencies emitted during seismic surveys. Human data indicate low frequency sound can 

mask high frequency sounds (i.e., upward masking). Studies on captive odontocetes by Au et al. (1974, 

1985, 1993) indicate that some species may use various processes to reduce masking effects (e.g., 

adjustments in echolocation call intensity or frequency as a function of background noise conditions). 

These same coping mechanisms should be available to mysticetes as they would have to compete with the 

variability in natural background noise. The limits of these abilities, however, are unknown. There is also 

evidence that the directional hearing abilities of odontocetes are useful in reducing masking at the high 

frequencies these cetaceans use to echolocate, but not at the low-to-moderate frequencies they use to 

communication (Zaitseva et al. 1980). 

For sea turtles and Atlantic sturgeon, hearing capabilities are centered in the low frequency range, as are 

the dominant frequencies of seismic pulses. However, it is not clear whether sea turtles or Atlantic 

sturgeon produce biologically significant sounds. If they do, and given the overlap of seismic frequencies 

and their hearing capabilities, it would not be unreasonable to anticipate some masking may result from 

the proposed seismic activities. Given the frequency overlap between seismic frequencies and hearing 
253

capabilities masking can occur, however, we do not have enough information to determine the extent of 

any masking should it occur. 

Allostasis 

Classic stress responses begin when an animal’s central nervous system perceives a potential threat to its 

homeostasis. That perception triggers stress responses regardless of whether a stimulus actually threatens 

the animal; the mere perception of a threat is sufficient to trigger a stress response (Moberg 2000, 

Sapolsky et al. 2005, Seyle 1950). Once an animal’s central nervous system perceives a threat, it mounts 

a biological response or defense that consists of a combination of the four general biological defense 

responses: behavioral responses, autonomic nervous system responses, neuroendocrine responses, or 

immune response. 

In the case of many stressors, an animal’s first and most economical (in terms of biotic costs) response is 

behavioral avoidance of the potential stressor or avoidance of continued exposure to a stressor (Box S1 of 

Figure 3). An animal’s second line of defense to stressors involves the autonomic nervous system and the 

classical “fight or flight” response which includes the cardiovascular system, the gastrointestinal system, 

the exocrine glands, and the adrenal medulla to produce changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and 

gastrointestinal activity that humans commonly associate with “stress.” These responses have a relatively 

short duration and may or may not have significant long-term effect on an animal’s welfare. 

An animal’s third line of defense to stressors involves its neuroendocrine or sympathetic nervous systems; 

the system that has received the most study has been the hypothalmus-pituitary-adrenal system (also 

known as the HPA axis in mammals). Unlike stress responses associated with the autonomic nervous 

system, virtually all neuro-endocrine functions that are affected by stress – including immune 

competence, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior – are regulated by pituitary hormones. Stressinduced changes in the secretion of pituitary hormones have been implicated in failed reproduction 

(Moberg 1987, Rivier 1995, Box S2 of Figure 3) and altered metabolism (Elasser et al. 2000), reduced 

immune competence (Blecha 2000) and behavioral disturbance. Increases in the circulation of 

glucocorticosteroids (cortisol, corticosterone, and aldosterone in marine mammals; see Romano et al. 

2004) have been equated with stress for many years. 

The primary distinction between stress (which is adaptive and does not normally place an animal at risk) 

and distress is the biotic cost of the response. During a stress response, an animal uses glycogen stores 

that can be quickly replenished once the stress is alleviated. In such circumstances, the cost of the stress 

response would not pose a risk to the animal’s welfare. However, when an animal does not have sufficient 
254

energy reserves to satisfy the energetic costs of a stress response, energy resources must be diverted from 

other biotic functions which impairs those functions that experience the diversion. For example, when 

mounting a stress response diverts energy away from growth in young animals, those animals may 

experience stunted growth. When mounting a stress response diverts energy from a fetus, an animal’s 

reproductive success and its fitness will suffer. In these cases, the animals will have entered a pre-pathological or pathological state which is called “distress” (sensu Seyle 1950) or “allostatic loading” (sensu 

McEwen and Wingfield 2003). This pathological state will last until the animal replenishes its biotic 

reserves sufficient to restore normal function. 

Relationships between these physiological mechanisms, animal behavior, and the costs of stress responses 

have also been documented fairly well through controlled experiment; because this physiology exists in 

every vertebrate that has been studied, it is not surprising that stress responses and their costs have been 

documented in both laboratory and free-living animals (for examples see, Holberton et al. 1996, Hood et 

al. 1998, Jessop et al. 2003, Krausman et al. 2004, Lankford et al. 2005, Reneerkens et al. 2002, 

Thompson and Hamer 2000). Although no information has been collected on the physiological responses 

of marine mammals upon exposure to anthropogenic sounds, studies of other marine animals and 

terrestrial animals would lead us to expect some marine mammals to experience physiological stress 

responses and, perhaps, physiological responses that would be classified as “distress” upon exposure to 

mid-frequency and low-frequency sounds. 

For example, Jansen (1998) reported on the relationship between acoustic exposures and physiological 

responses that are indicative of stress responses in humans (for example, elevated respiration and 

increased heart rates). Jones (1998) reported on reductions in human performance when faced with acute, 

repetitive exposures to acoustic disturbance. Trimper et al. (1998) reported on the physiological stress 

responses of osprey to low-level aircraft noise while Krausman et al. (2004) reported on the auditory and 

physiology stress responses of endangered Sonoran pronghorn to military overflights. Smith et al. (2004a, 

2004b) identified noise-induced physiological stress responses in hearing-specialist fish that accompanied 

short- (TTS) and long-term (PTS) hearing losses. Welch and Welch (1970), reported physiological and 

behavioral stress responses that accompanied damage to the inner ears of fish and several mammals. 

Sea turtles exposed to seismic sound may possibly experience a physiological stress response, but 

available studies are inconclusive (DFO, 2004), and the magnitude or effects of any response remain 

largely unknown. Given evidence suggesting sea turtles likely avoid seismic sources, and those that are 

known to be exposed are not reported to have suffered a detectable physical injury, we assume that sea 
255

turtles exposed to seismic pulses during the proposed activities would not experience physical effects 

beyond a possible stress response. 

There have been few studies on fishes (e.g., Smith et al., 2004b; Remage-Healey et al., 2006; Wysocki et 

al., 2006, 2007). There is some indication of physiological effects on fishes, such as a change in hormone 

levels and altered behavior, in some (Pickering, 1981; Smith et al., 2004a,b) but not all species tested to 

date (e.g., Wysocki et al., 2007). Sverdrup et al., 1994 found that Atlantic salmon subjected to up to 10 

explosions to simulate seismic airguns released primary stress hormones, adrenaline and cortisol, as a 

biochemical response. There was no mortality. All experimental subjects returned to their normal 

physiological levels within 72 hrs of exposure. 

Hearing is one of the primary senses marine mammals, sea turtles and fish use to gather information about 

their environment and to communicate with other members of their species. Although empirical 

information on the relationship between sensory impairment (TTS, PTS, and acoustic masking) on 

cetaceans remains limited, it seems reasonable to assume that reducing an animal’s ability to gather 

information about its environment and to communicate with other members of its species would be 

stressful for animals that use hearing as their primary sensory mechanism. Therefore, we assume that 

acoustic exposures sufficient to trigger onset PTS or TTS would be accompanied by physiological stress 

responses because terrestrial animals exhibit those responses under similar conditions (NRC 2003). More 

importantly, marine mammals, sea turtles and fish might experience stress responses at received levels 

lower than those necessary to trigger onset TTS. Based on empirical studies of the time required to recover 

from stress responses (Moberg 2000), we also assume that stress responses are likely to persist beyond the 

time interval required for animals to recover from TTS and might result in pathological and prepathological states that would be as significant as behavioral responses to TTS. 

Strandings 

Available information indicates that marine mammals close to underwater detonations can be killed or 

severely injured, with auditory organs especially susceptible to injury (D.R. Ketten, Lien, & Todd, 1993; 

Ketten 1995 as cited in L-DEO, 2006). However, seismic airgun pulses are less energetic and have 

slower rise times, and there is no evidence available conclusively linking airguns to serious injury, death, 

or stranding even in the case of large airgun arrays (Gordon et al., 2003; L-DEO, 2006). Evidence 

implicating seismic airguns in the stranding of marine mammals does exist for two beaked whales in the 

Gulf of California (Ziphius cavirostris – not listed under the ESA nor currently considered a candidate for 

such listing), and possibly for four Z. cavirostris in the Galápagos Islands (Gentry, 2002; Gordon, et al., 
256

2003). There appeared to be a temporal correlation between these events and seismic operations by the 

vessel R/V Maurice Ewing in the vicinity; however, a causal link could not be established for either event. 

Other strandings of beaked whales have also occurred, associated with military mid-frequency sonar 

transmissions – e.g., in the Bahamas, Canary Islands, and eastern Mediterranean Sea (Frantzis, 1998). 

These other strandings were associated with military mid-frequency sonar (generally 2-10 kHz and 

relatively narrow bandwidth), which differs from the sound produced by seismic arrays (broadband and 

below 1 kHz). However, evidence that sonar pulses can lead to physical damage or mortality (even if 

indirectly) (Fernández et al., 2005; Jepson et al., 2003; U.S. Department of Commerce & U.S. 

Department of the Navy, 2001) suggests that caution is still warranted when considering the effects on 

marine mammals from any high-intensity pulsed sound, such as from seismic airguns. 

For sea turtles, no available information definitively links seismic airgun activities with any sea turtle 

mortalities (e.g., see 60 FR 21745; May 3, 1995) or strandings, although studies are limited. Anecdotal 

evidence from early 2004 indicates that more than 30 sea turtles stranded dead in Yucatán, Mexico (Jaszy 

& Horowitz, 2005). Guzman-Hernandez (pers. comm. in NMFS, 2006c) stated that one of the sea turtles 

had burst lungs, internal bleeding, and auditory damage. This event occurred during a time when seismic 

testing had been conducted nearby in very shallow waters. However, no definitive causal link is noted 

and seismic activity during the proposed study would be conducted with monitoring to allow an 

opportunity to keep leatherback sea turtles from exposures to the highest received levels. 

Effects on Prey 

In addition to the responses discussed above, surveys using active acoustics could have indirect, adverse 

effects on whales and sea turtles by reducing the abundance or availability of prey or changing the 

structure or composition of the fish community. Sperm whales and all species of sea turtles are likely to 

forage in some portion of the Action Area. The indirect effects of surveys could occur if fish or 

invertebrates experience lethal or sub-lethal damage, stress responses, or alterations in their behavior or 

distribution in response to acoustic energy produced by seismic surveys. Because fish and invertebrate 

species such as squid and jellyfish are pelagic prey for whales and sea turtles, such effects might have 

adverse consequences for individuals foraging in the Action Area. 

Several studies have shown that short, sharp sounds can cause overt or subtle changes in fish behavior and 

distribution. Chapman and Hawkins (1969) tested the reactions of whiting (hake) in the field to an 

airgun. When the airgun was fired, the fish showed a sudden downward movement, changing their 

distribution from being dispersed between 25 m (80 ft) and 55 m (180 ft) depth, to forming a compact 
257

layer below 55 m (180 ft). Toward the end of an hour-long exposure to the airgun pulses the fish had 

habituated to the sound and risen back upward in the water column, despite the continued presence of 

sound pulses. However, when the airgun resumed firing after a dormant period, the fish exhibited another 

downward response. Pearson et al. (1992) conducted a controlled experiment to determine the effects of 

strong sound pulses on several species of rockfish off California. Exposing rockfish to an airgun with a 

source level of 223 dB re 1 μPa, the authors reported startle and alarm responses in these fish. Popper et

al. (2005) report the occurrence of threshold shifts in some fish after exposure to airguns, with recovery in 

24 hours. In other airgun experiments, catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) of demersal fish was reported to 

decline when airgun pulses were emitted (Skalski et al. 1992; Dalen and Knutsen 1986, Dalen and Raknes 

1985). Reductions in the catch may have resulted from a change in the behavior of the fish. Fish schools 

descended to near the bottom when the airgun was firing, and the fish may have changed their swimming 

and schooling behavior. Fish behavior returned to normal minutes after the sounds ceased. In the Barents 

Sea, abundance of cod and haddock measured acoustically was reduced by 44 percent within 9.2 km (5 

nm) of an area where airguns operated (Engås et al. 1993). Actual catches declined by 50 percent 

throughout the trial area and 70 percent within the shooting area. This reduction in catch decreased with 

increasing distance until 30-33 km (16-18 nm), where catches were unchanged. 

McCauley et al. (2003) also conducted an experiment on the effects of airgun sounds on fish. Several fish 

were exposed to an operating airgun, over 1.5 hours at 10-second intervals with received levels varying 

from less than 100 dB to over 160 dB re 1 μPa. The exposure resulted in apparent permanent, extensive 

damage to their sensory epithelia. Although this study demonstrates fish can be injured from repeated 

exposure to airgun sounds, fish in the wild are likely to move away from a seismic source and are not 

expected to be exposed in such a manner. Other studies of the behavioral responses of fish and fishing 

success to seismic sources report similar responses – e.g., see Dalen and Knutsen (1986), Turnpenny and 

Nedwell (1994), LaBella et al. (1996), Kenchington (1999), Santulli et al. (1999), Hirst and Rodhouse 

(2000), Thomson et al. (2001), Wardle et al. (2001), and Engås and Løkkeborg (2002). Egg and larval 

stages would not be able to escape such exposures, and Gausland (2000) reported that seismic signal 

levels of 230-240 dB re 1μPa pk-pk (or 16 dB lower: 214-224 dB rms) are sufficient for harm to occur to 

fish eggs and larvae (see also Kostyuchenko 1973). 

A range of invertebrates are reported to be sensitive to low-frequency (10–150 Hz) hydroacoustic 

disturbances induced by sound waves or other sources – e.g., jelly fish, crustaceans, arrow worms, 

octopus, and squid (Western Australian Department of Industry and Resources 2002 in BOEM 2012a). 

This sensitivity overlaps the dominant frequency range of seismic pulses, indicating that invertebrates 

could likely perceive seismic activity (Western Australian Department of Industry and Resources 2002 in 
258

BOEM 2012a). Available studies report responses to airgun shots as being limited to transient alarm 

responses such as tail-flicks (lobsters) or siphon closing (ascidians) (Western Australian Department of 

Industry and Resources 2002), although mortality of giant squid in the Bay of Biscay may possibly have 

been linked to seismic airgun activity in the area (Guerra et al. 2004). McCauley et al. (2000a; 2000b) 

examined the effect of marine seismic surveys on captive squid and cuttlefish and reported a strong startle 

response or directed movement away from airguns during sudden, nearby start-ups at received levels of 

ng gradual ramp-up 

of airguns once levels exceeded 156-161 dB re 1 μPa mean squared pressure. Squid in these trials 

appeared to make use of the sound shadow measured near the water surface. These responses for captive 

squid suggest that behavioral changes and avoidance of operating airguns would likely occur. The 

authors concluded squid significantly alter their behavior at an estimated distance of 2–5 km (1.1–2.7 nm) 

from an approaching large seismic source. A more recent study by André et al (2011) exposed four 

species of squid and octopus in a tank to two hours of intense sounds. The authors reported tissue 

degeneration cause by the sounds. However, this study had substantial design and control problems and 

the results could have been attributed to those problems. Based on a review of airgun impacts on 

invertebrates by Christian and Bocking (2010), studies to date have not revealed any consistent evidence 

of serious pathological or physiological effects on invertebrates. With the seismic source vessel moving 

at speeds of about 4.5 kts (8.3 km/hr), the seismic vessel and its streamers would pass any given point 

within about an hour. 

These studies indicate that seismic airgun activity has the potential to affect fish and invertebrates. Fish 

appear to exhibit startle responses and avoidance of seismic sources, recovering or habituating after a 

short time period. Squid also appear to exhibit alarm responses and avoidance of seismic sources. 

Limited data on the physiological effects of seismic sound on fish and invertebrates indicate these effects 

are short-term and most apparent after exposure at very close range. Although, disturbance of these prey 

species has the potential to negatively affect listed whales and sea turtles foraging in the Action Area, we 

expect such responses would have temporary effects on the feeding ability of whales and sea turtles in the 

immediate survey area. 

Probable Responses of the Proposed Seismic and HRG Surveys 

Thus far, this Opinion has identified the endangered and threatened species that might be exposed to 

sounds produced during seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and SouthAtlantic Planning Areas and the potential responses of those species given that exposure. The narratives 

that follow discuss the probable responses of these species to those surveys. 
259

BLUE WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the potential stressors blue 

whales might be exposed to during seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and 

South-Atlantic Planning Areas: blue whales are likely to respond to low- to mid-frequency sound sources 

associated with seismic surveys because those sounds are currently believed to occur within the best 

hearing sensitivity of blue whales. Blue whales have also been observed responding to sonar within the 

frequency ranges of 1-8 kHz (Melcón et al 2012). 

While we recognize that animal hearing evolved separately from animal vocalizations and, as a result, it 

may be inappropriate to make inferences about an animal’s hearing sensitivity from their vocalizations, 

we have no data on blue whale hearing so we assume that blue whale vocalizations are partially 

representative of their hearing sensitivities. Those vocalizations include a variety of sounds described as 

low frequency moans or long pulses in the 10-100 Hz band (Cummings and Thompson 1971; Edds 1982; 

Thompson and Friedl 1982; McDonald et al. 1995; Clark and Fristrup 1997; Rivers 1997). The most 

typical signals are very long, patterned sequences of tonal infrasonic sounds in the 15-40 Hz range. Ketten 

(1997) reports the frequencies of maximum energy between 12 and 18 Hz. Short sequences of rapid calls 

in the 30-90 Hz band are associated with animals in social groups (Clark personal observation and 

McDonald personal communication cited in Ketten 1997). The context for the 30-90 Hz calls suggests 

that they are used to communicate but do not appear to be related to reproduction. Blue whale moans 

within the frequency range of 12.5-200 Hz, with pulse duration up to 36 seconds, have been recorded off 

Chile (Cummings and Thompson 1971). The whale produced a short, 390 Hz pulse during the moan. 

Nevertheless, we do not expect blue whales that find themselves within a sound field where received 

levels might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that stimulus because those 

individuals are more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and environmental cues that are 

considerably closer, even if they were aware of the signal. Similarly, we would not expect blue whales 

that find themselves more than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3 array, 3.4 

km from the chirp sub-bottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer or sparker to change their behavioral 

state (animals that are foraing, mating, or migrating will consintue to do so), despite being exposed to 

received levels ranging from 140 and 150 dB. These whales might engage in low-level avoidance 

behavior or short-term vigilance behavior. Blue whales that might occur between 0 and 21 km for the 

5,400 in3 airgun array, 0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array 0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 

0.042 km (for the chirp subbottom profiler), are likely to change their behavioral state, although such a 

change is less likely if they are actively foraging. However, as we discussed previously, we do not assume 

that these blue whales would respond to only one sound source rather than all of the sounds produced by 

equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys. 
260

FIN WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses of fin 

whales exposed to seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic 

Planning Areas: like blue whales, fin whales are likely to respond to the low-frequency sound sources 

associated with seismic surveys because those sounds are currently believed to occur within the best 

hearing sensitivity of fin whales. While we recognize that animal hearing evolved separately from animal 

vocalizations and, as a result, it may be inappropriate to make inferences about an animal’s hearing 

sensitivity from their vocalizations, we have no data on fin whale hearing so we assume that fin whale 

vocalizations are partially representative of their hearing sensitivities. Those vocalizations include a 

variety of sounds described as low frequency moans or long pulses in the 10-100 Hz band (Cummings 

and Thompson 1971; Edds 1982; Thompson and Friedl 1982; McDonald et al. 1995; Clark and Fristrup 

1997; Rivers 1997). The most typical signals are very long, patterned sequences of tonal infrasonic 

sounds in the 15-40 Hz range. Ketten (1997) reported the frequencies of maximum energy lie between 12 

and 18 Hz. Short sequences of rapid calls in the 30-90 Hz band are associated with animals in social 

groups (Clark personal observation and McDonald personal communication cited in Ketten 1997). The 

context for the 30-90 Hz calls suggests that fin whales use them to communicate but do not appear to be 

related to reproduction. Fin whale moans within the frequency range of 12.5-200 Hz, with pulse duration 

up to 36 seconds, have been recorded off Chile (Cummings and Thompson 1971). The whale produced a 

short, 390 Hz pulse during the moan. 

Nevertheless, we do not expect fin whales that find themselves within a sound field where received levels 

might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that stimulus because those individuals are 

more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and environmental cues that are considerably closer, 

even if they were aware of the signal. Similarly, we do not expect fin whales that find themselves more 

than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3 array, 3.4 km from the chirp subbottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer or sparker to change their behavioral state (animals that are 

foraing, mating, or migrating will consintue to do so), despite being exposed to received levels ranging 

from 140 and 150 dB. These whales might engage in low-level avoidance behavior or short-term 

vigilance behavior. Fin whales that might occur between 0 and 2.1 km for the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 

0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array 0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 0.042 km (for the chirp 

subbottom profiler), are likely to change their behavioral state, although such a change is less likely if 

they are actively foraging. However, as we discussed previously, we do not assume that these whales 

would respond to only one sound source rather than all of the sounds produced by equipment employed 

during seismic and HRG surveys. 
261

HUMPBACK WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses 

of humpback whales exposed to seismic surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and SouthAtlantic Planning Areas: as with blue and fin whales, humpback whales are also likely to respond to the 

low- to mid-frequency sound sources associated with seismic surveys because those sounds are currently 

believed to overlap with the best hearing sensitivity of these whales. As discussed in the Status of the 

Species narrative for humpback whales, these whales produce a wide variety of sounds. During the 

breeding season males sing long, complex songs, with frequencies in the 25-5000 Hz range and intensities 

as high as 181 dB (Payne 1970, Thompson et al. 1986, Winn et al. 1970). Source levels average 155 dB 

and range from 144 to 174 dB (Thompson et al. 1979). The songs appear to have an effective range of 

approximately 10 to 20 km. Animals in mating groups produce a variety of sounds (Silber 1986, Tyack 

1981; Tyack and Whitehead 1983). 

Humpback whales produce sounds less frequently in their summer feeding areas, which occur primarily 

north of the Action Area for this consultation. Feeding groups produce distinctive sounds ranging from 20 

Hz to 2 kHz, with median durations of 0.2-0.8 seconds and source levels of 175-192 dB (Thompson et al.

1986). These sounds are attractive and appear to rally animals to the feeding activity (D’Vincent et al.

1985, Sharpe and Dill 1997). In summary, humpback whales produce at least three kinds of sounds: 

1. Complex songs with components ranging from at least 20Hz – 4 kHz with estimated source levels 

from 144 – 174 dB; these are mostly sung by males on the breeding grounds (Payne 1970; Winn 

et al. 1970a; Richardson et al. 1995); 

2. Social sounds in the breeding areas that extend from 50Hz – more than 10 kHz with most energy 

below 3 kHz (Tyack and Whitehead 1983, Richardson et al. 1995); and 

3 Feeding area vocalizations that are less frequent, but tend to be 20Hz – 2 kHz with estimated 

sources levels in excess of 175 dB re 1 uPa-m (Thompson et al. 1986, Richardson et al. 1995). 

Sounds often associated with possible aggressive behavior by males (Silber 1986,Tyack 1983) are 

quite different from songs, extending from 50 Hz to 10 kHz (or higher), with most energy in 

components below 3 kHz. These sounds appear to have an effective range of up to 9 km (Tyack 

and Whitehead 1983). 

More recently, Au et al. (2006) conducted field investigations of humpback whale songs led these 

investigators to conclude that humpback whales have an upper frequency limit reaching as high as 24 

kHz. Based on this information, it is reasonable to assume that sounds produced by equipment employed 

during seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic Planning 

Areas are within the hearing and vocalization ranges of humpback whales. 
262

Humpback whales have been known to react to low frequency industrial noises at estimated received 

levels of 115-124 dB (Malme et al. 1985), and to calls of other humpback whales at received levels as 

low as 102 dB (Frankel et al. 1995). Malme et al. (1985) found no clear response to playbacks of drill 

ship and oil production platform noises at received levels up to 116 dB re 1 Pa. Studies of reactions to 

airgun noises were inconclusive (Malme et al. 1985). Humpback whales on the breeding grounds did not 

stop singing in response to underwater explosions (Payne and McVay 1971). Humpback whales on 

feeding grounds did not alter short-term behavior or distribution in response to explosions with received 

levels of about 150dB re 1 Pa/Hz at 350Hz (Lien et al. 1993, Todd et al. 1996). However, at least two 

individuals were probably killed by the high-intensity, impulsed blasts and had extensive mechanical 

injuries in their ears (Ketten et al. 1993, Todd et al. 1996). The explosions may also have increased the 

number of humpback whales entangled in fishing nets (Todd et al. 1996). Frankel and Clark (1998) 

showed that breeding humpbacks showed only a slight statistical reaction to playbacks of 60 - 90 Hz 

sounds with a received level of up to 190 dB. Although these studies have demonstrated that humpback 

whales will exhibit short-term behavioral reactions to boat traffic and playbacks of industrial noise, the 

long-term effects of these disturbances on the individuals exposed to them are not known. 

Based on this information, we do not expect humpback whales that find themselves within a sound field 

where received levels might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that stimulus because 

those individuals are more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and environmental cues that are 

considerably closer, even if they were aware of the signal. Similarly, we do not expect humpback whales 

that find themselves more than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3 array, 3.4 

km from the chirp sub-bottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer or sparker to change their behavioral 

state (animals that are foraing, mating, or migrating will consintue to do so), despite being exposed to 

received levels ranging from 140 and 150 dB. These whales might engage in low-level avoidance 

behavior or short-term vigilance behavior. Humpback whales that might occur between 0 and 2.1 km for 

the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array 0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 

0.042 km (for the chirp subbottom profiler), are likely to change their behavioral state, although such a 

change is less likely if they are actively foraging. However, as we discussed previously, we do not assume 

that these whales would respond to only one sound source rather than all of the sounds produced by 

equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys. 

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the 

probable responses of North Atlantic right whales exposed to seismic and HRG surveys within and 

adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic Planning Areas: as with the other whales we have 

discussed thus far, North Atlantic right whales are also likely to respond to the low-to mid-frequency 
263

sound sources associated with seismic surveys because those sounds are currently believed to occur 

within the best hearing sensitivity of right whales. The information available on right whales 

vocalizations suggests that right whales produce moans less than 400 Hz in frequency (Watkins and 

Schevill 1972; Thompson et al. 1979; Spero 1981), However, Nowacek et al. (2004) conducted 

controlled exposure experiments on North Atlantic right whales using ship noise, social sounds of conspecifics, and an alerting stimulus (frequency modulated tonal signals between 500 Hz and 4.5 kHz). 

Animals were tagged with acoustic sensors (D-tags) that simultaneously measured movement in three 

dimensions. Whales reacted strongly to alert signals at received levels of 133-148 dB SPL, mildly to 

conspecific signals, and not at all to ship sounds or actual vessels. Although the alert stimulus caused 

whales to immediately cease foraging behavior and swim rapidly to the surface, Nowacek et al. offer no 

information on whether the whales were probably responding to the low- or mid-frequency components 

of the signals. 

Based on this information, we do not expect North Atlantic right whales that find themselves within a 

sound field where received levels might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that 

stimulus because those individuals are more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and 

environmental cues that are considerably closer, even if they were aware of the signal. Similarly, we do 

not expect North Atlantic right whales that find themselves more than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun 

array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3 array, 3.4 km from the chirp sub-bottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer 

or sparker to change their behavioral state (animals that are foraing, mating, or migrating will consintue to 

do so), despite being exposed to received levels ranging from 140 and 150 dB. These whales might 

engage in low-level avoidance behavior or short-term vigilance behavior. North Atlantic right whales 

that might occur between 0 and 2.1 km for the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array 

0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 0.042 km (for the chirp subbottom profiler), are likely to 

change their behavioral state, although such a change is less likely if they are actively foraging. We do 

not believe that right whales are actively foraging in the ActionArea for this consultation as this area is a 

known migratory corridor for these whales. However, as we discussed previously, we do not assume that 

these whales would respond to only one sound source rather than all of the sounds produced by 

equipment employed during seismic and HRG surveys. 

SEI WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses of sei 

whales exposed to seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic 

Planning Areas: Sei whales are also likely to respond to mid- to high-frequency sound sources associated 

with seismic surveys because of what we assume is their hearing sensitivity to low-frequency sounds. As 

discussed in the Status of the Species section of this opinion, we have no specific information on the 
264

sounds produced by sei whales or their sensitivity to sounds in their environment. Based on their 

anatomical and physiological similarities to both blue and fin whales, we assume that the hearing 

thresholds of sei whales will be similar as well and will be centered on low-frequencies in the 10-200 Hz. 

This information would lead us to conclude that, like blue and fin whales, sei whales exposed to these 

received levels of active mid-frequency sonar are not likely to respond if they are exposed to midfrequency (1 kHz–10 kHz) sounds. 

Based on this information, we do not expect sei whales that find themselves within a sound field where 

received levels might be as high as 140 dB to devote attentional resources to that stimulus because those 

individuals are more likely to be focusing their attention on stimuli and environmental cues that are 

considerably closer, even if they were aware of the signal. Similarly, we would not expect sei whales that 

find themselves more than 20 km from the 5,400 in3 airgun array, 6.4 km from the 90 in3 array, 3.4 km 

from the chirp sub-bottom profiler or 8.2 km from the boomer or sparker to change their behavioral state 

(animals that are foraing, mating, or migrating will consintue to do so), despite being exposed to received 

levels ranging from 140 and 150 dB. These whales might engage in low-level avoidance behavior or 

short-term vigilance behavior. Sei whales that might occur between 0 and 21 km for the 5,400 in3 airgun 

array, 0.186 km for the 90 in3 airgun array 0.045 km (for the boomer and sparker) and 0.042 km (for the 

chirp subbottom profiler), are likely to change their behavioral state, although such a change is less likely 

if they are actively foraging. However, as we discussed previously, we do not assume that these whales 

would respond to only one sound source rather than all of the sounds produced by equipment employed 

during seismic and HRG surveys. 

SPERM WHALE. Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses of 

sperm whales exposed to seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and SouthAtlantic Planning Areas: sperm whales are also likely to respond to sounds associated with the proposed 

HRG and seismic surveys. Although there is no published audiogram for sperm whales, sperm whales 

would be expected to have good, high frequency hearing because their inner ear resembles that of most 

dolphins, and appears tailored for ultrasonic (>20 kHz) reception (Ketten 1994). The only data on the 

hearing range of sperm whales are evoked potentials from a stranded neonate, which suggest that neonatal 

sperm whales respond to sounds from 2.5 to 60 kHz. Most of the energy of sperm whales clicks is 

concentrated at 2 to 4 kHz and 10 to 16 kHz, which overlaps with the mid-frequency sonar. Other studies 

indicate sperm whales’ wide-band clicks contain energy between 0.1 and 20 kHz (Weilgart and 

Whitehead 1993, Goold and Jones 1995). Ridgway and Carder (2001) measured low-frequency, high 

amplitude clicks with peak frequencies at 500 Hz to 3 kHz from a neonate sperm whale. Nevertheless, 
265

several studies have demonstrated that sperm whales respond when exposed to sounds produced by 

seismic airguns, which suggests that sperm whales can hear spectral components of those sounds. 

There is some evidence of disruptions of clicking and behavior from sonars (Goold 1999, Watkins and 

Scheville1975, Watkins et al. 1985), pingers (Watkins and Scheville 1975), the Heard Island Feasability 

Test (Bowles et al. 1994), and the Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (Costa et al.1998). Sperm 

whales have been observed to frequently stop echolocating in the presence of underwater pulses made by 

echosounders (Watkins and Scheville 1975). Goold (1999) reported six sperm whales that were driven 

through a narrow channel using ship noise, echosounder, and fishfinder emissions from a flotilla of 10 

vessels. Watkins and Scheville (1975) showed that sperm whales interrupted click production in response 

to pinger (6 to 13 kHz) sounds. They also stopped vocalizing for brief periods when codas were being 

produced by other individuals, perhaps because they can hear better when not vocalizing themselves 

(Goold and Jones 1995). 

Sperm whales have been reported to have reacted to mid-frequency active sonar, apparently produced by 

a submarine, by dispersing from social aggregations, moving away from the sound source, remaining 

relatively silent and becoming difficult to approach (Watkins et al. 1985). Captive bottlenose dolphins 

and a white whale exhibited changes in behavior when exposed to 1 sec pulsed sounds at frequencies 

similar to those emitted by multi-beam sonar that is used in geophysical surveys (Ridgway et al. 1997, 

Schlundt et al. 2000), and to shorter broadband pulsed signals (Finneran et al. 2000, 2002). Behavioral 

changes typically involved what appeared to be deliberate attempts to avoid the sound exposure or to 

avoid the location of the exposure site during subsequent tests (Schlundt et al. 2000, Finneran et al.

2002). Dolphins exposed to 1-sec intense tones exhibited short-term changes in behavior above received 

sound levels of 178 to 193 dB re 1 Pa rms and belugas did so at received levels of 180 to 196 dB and 

above. Received levels necessary to elicit such reactions to shorter pulses were higher (Finneran et al.

2000, 2002). Test animals sometimes vocalized after exposure to pulsed, mid-frequency sound from a 

watergun (Finneran et al. 2002). In some instances, animals exhibited aggressive behavior toward the test 

apparatus (Ridgway et al. 1997, Schlundt et al. 2000). The relevance of these data to free-ranging 

odontocetes is uncertain. In the wild, cetaceans some-times avoid sound sources well before they are 

exposed to the levels listed above, and reactions in the wild may be more subtle than those described by 

Ridgway et al. (1997) and Schlundt et al. (2000). 

Other studies identify instances in which sperm whales did not respond to anthropogenic sounds. Sperm 

whales did not alter their vocal activity when exposed to levels of 173 dB re 1 Pa from impulsive sounds 

produced by 1 g TNT detonators (Madsen and Mohl 2000). Richardson et al. (1995) citing a personal 
266

communication with J. Gordon suggested that sperm whales in the Mediterranean Sea continued calling 

when exposed to frequent and strong military sonar signals. When Andre et al. (1997) exposed sperm 

whales to a variety of sounds to determine what sounds may be used to scare whales out of the path of 

vessels, sperm whales were observed to have startle reactions to 10 kHz pulses (180 db re 1 Pa at the 

source), but not to the other sources played to them. 

Published reports identify instances in which sperm whales may have responded to an acoustic source and 

other instances in which they did not appear to respond behaviorally when exposed to seismic surveys. 

Mate et al. (1994) reported an opportunistic observation of the number of sperm whales to have decreased 

in an area after the start of airgun seismic testing. However, Davis et al. (2000) noted that sighting 

frequency did not differ significantly among the different acoustic levels examined in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico, contrary to what Mate et al. (1994) reported. In one DTAG deployment in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico on July 28, 2001, researchers documented that the tagged whale moved away from an operating 

seismic vessel once the seismic pulses were received at the tag at roughly 137 dB re 1 Pa (Johnson and 

Miller 2002). Sperm whales may also have responded to seismic airgun sounds by ceasing to call during 

some (but not all) times when seismic pulses were received from an airgun array >300 km away (Bowles 

et al. 1994). 

A recent study offshore of northern Norway indicated that sperm whales continued to call when exposed 

to pulses from a distant seismic vessel. Received levels of the seismic pulses were up to 146 dB re 1 Pa 

peak-to-peak (Madsen et al. 2002). Similarly, a study conducted off Nova Scotia that analyzed recordings 

of sperm whale sounds at various distances from an active seismic program did not detect any obvious 

changes in the distribution or behavior of sperm whales (McCall Howard 1999). Recent data from vesselbased monitoring programs in United Kingdom waters suggest that sperm whales in that area may have 

exhibited some changes in behavior in the presence of operating seismic vessels (Stone 1997, 1998, 2000, 

2001, 2003). However, the compilation and analysis of the data led the author to conclude that seismic 

surveys did not result in observable effects to sperm whales (Stone 2003). The results from these waters 

seem to show that some sperm whales tolerate seismic surveys. 

Data from an experimental study of sperm whale reactions to seismic surveys in the Gulf of Mexico and a 

study of the movements of sperm whales with satellite-linked tags in relation to seismic surveys show that 

during two controlled exposure experiments in which sperm whales were exposed to seismic pulses at 

received levels up to 148 dB re 1 Pa over the octave band with the most energy, the whales did not avoid 

the vessel ((see A. Jochens et al., 2006; A. E. Jochens & Biggs, 2003; 2004). In a later publication 

concerning the experiments, Madsen et al. (2006) report that seven of eight tagged sperm whales 
267

continued to perform foraging dives throughout exposure to seismic airguns at levels up to 147 dB (rms) 

(the eighth whale remained at the surface during exposure). Although the sample size is small (4 whales 

in 2 experiments), the results are consistent with those off northern Norway. 

These studies suggest that the behavioral responses of sperm whales to anthropogenic sounds are highly 

variable, but do not appear to result in the death or injury of individual whales or result in reductions in 

the fitness of individuals involved. Responses of sperm whales to anthropogenic sounds probably depend 

on the age and sex of animals being exposed, as well as other factors. There is evidence that many 

individual sperm whales are likely to respond to seismic surveys while other individuals will not. 

Sea Turtles 

Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses of sea turtles exposed 

to seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic Planning Areas: 

The available information on sea turtle hearing thresholds is limited; however, we assume that sea turtles 

have a practical hearing range from about 50 Hz upwards to a practical limit of 1,600 Hz where 

sensitivity sharply declines. Given the frequencies emitted by airguns and electromechanical equipment, 

the low frequency components emitted by airguns (50 Hz to 2 kHz), boomers (200 Hz to 16 kHz) and 

sparkers (50-200 Hz) and possibly the chirp depth sounder would be audible to sea turtles. Continuous 

sounds from drilling equipment would also be audible to sea turtles. Sea turtles are not expected to hear 

the chirp subbottom profilers at any frequency (3.5, 12 and 200 kHz), the side-scan sonars (100 kHz to 

900 kHz), the single or multibeam depth sounders (240 kHz) or the dipole used during CSEM surveys 

(<2 Hz).

Avoidance of seismic sources by sea turtles is likely, but some turtles may not avoid the source vessel and 

may be exposed to seismic sound at levels of concern. Based on available information on captive turtles, 

avoidance may begin at received levels above 166 dB re 1 μPa. Avoidance behavior may shorten the 

exposure period, and the ramping-up of airguns during the proposed activities would provide opportunity 

for avoidance by sea turtles, thereby minimizing exposure to received levels of concern. Avoidance or 

any disruptions in sea turtle behavior are expected to be temporary and are not expected to cause any 

injury. For those turtles that might be exposed to seismic pulses at levels above 166 dB re 1 μPa during 

the proposed activities, we expect this could result in a stress response that rises to the level of 

harassment. 

Atlantic Sturgeon 
268

Our analyses led us to reach the following conclusions about the probable responses of sea turtles exposed 

to seismic and HRG surveys within and adjacent to the Mid-Atlantic and South-Atlantic Planning Areas: 

Sturgeon are categorized as fishes that detect sounds from below 50 Hz to perhaps 800-1,000 Hz (though 

several probably only detect sounds to 600-800 Hz). These fishes have a swim bladder but no known 

structures in the auditory system that would enhance hearing, and sensitivity (lowest sound detectable at 

any frequency) is not very great. Sounds would have to be more intense to be detected compared to fishes 

with swim bladders that enhance hearing. Sturgeon can detect both particle motion and pressure. 

Atlantic sturgeon are expected to primarily be exposed to HRG surveys conducted under the renewable 

energy and the marine minerals programs. Seismic survey activities are conducted in the more offshore 

waters but may still be heard at lower intensities. Given the frequencies emitted by airguns and 

electromechanical equipment, the low frequency components emitted by airguns (50 Hz to 2 kHz), 

boomers (200 Hz to 16 kHz) and sparkers (50-200 Hz) would be audible to Atlantic sturgeon. 

Continuous sounds from drilling equipment would also be audible but because drilling activities are 

further offshore than Atlantic sturgeon known occurrence, we do not expect them to be exposed to these 

sounds. Atlantic sturgeon are not expected to hear the chirp subbottom profilers at any frequency (3.5, 

12 and 200 kHz), the side-scan sonars (100 kHz and 400 kHz), the single or multibeam depth sounders 

(240 kHz) or the dipole used during CSEM surveys (<2 Hz).

Atlantic sturgeon are expected to avoid seismic or HRG sources, but some may not avoid the source 

vessel and may be exposed to seismic sound at levels of concern. Avoidance behavior may shorten the 

exposure period. Avoidance or any disruptions in Atlantic sturgeon behavior are expected to be 

temporary and are not expected to cause any injury. Stress responses that rise to the level of harassment 

are not expected. 

Effects Resulting from Interactions of the Potential Stressors 

Several organizations have argued that several of our previous biological opinions on the U.S. Navy’s use 

of active sonar failed to consider the “cumulative impact” (in the NEPA sense of the term) of active sonar 

on the ocean environment and its organisms, particularly endangered and threatened species and critical 

habitat that has been designated for them. In this Opinion, we have explained how biological opinions 

consider “cumulative impacts” (in the NEPA sense of the term; see Approach to the Assessment for a 

complete treatment of this issue). There is a nuance to the idea of “cumulative impacts,” however, that we 

have chosen to address explicitly in this Opinion: potential interactions between stressors associated with 

G&G activities and other physical, chemical, and biotic stressors that pre-exist in the environment. 
269

Exposing living organisms to individual stressors or a suite of stressors that are associated with a specific 

action may be insignificant or minor when considered in isolation, but may have significant adverse 

consequences when they are added to other stressors, operate synergistically in combination with other 

stressors, or magnify or multiply the effects of other stressors. Further, the effects of life events, natural 

phenomena, and anthropogenic phenomena on an individual’s performance will depend on the 

individual’s phenotypic state when the individual is exposed to these phenomena. Disease, dietary stress, 

body burden of toxic chemicals, energetic stress, percentage body fat, age, reproductive state, and social 

position, among many other phenomena can “accumulate” to have substantial influence on an organism’s 

response to subsequent exposure to a stressor. That is, exposing animals to individual stressors associated 

with a specific action can interact with the animal’s prior condition (can “accumulate” and have additive, 

synergistic, magnifying, and multiplicative effect) and produce significant, adverse consequences that 

would not occur if the animal’s prior condition had been different. 

An illustrative example of how a combination of stressors interact was provided by Relyea (2000, 2009) 

who demonstrated that exposing several different amphibians to a combination of pesticides and chemical 

cues of natural predators, which induced stress, increased the mortality rates of the amphibians (see also 

Sih, Bell, & Kerby, 2004). For some species, exposing the amphibians to the combination of stressors 

produced mortality rates that were twice as high as the mortality rates associated with each individual 

stressor. This section considers the evidence available to determine if interactions associated with seismic 

and HRG survey activities are likely to produce responses we have not considered already or if 

interactions are likely to increase the severity —and, therefore, the potential consequences — of the 

responses we have already considered. 

The seismic and HRG survey activities BOEM proposes to authorize within and adjacent to the mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 would add approximately 90,000 hours of seismic and 

HRG transmissions combined (assuming a vessel speed of 4.5kts (8.3km/hr), under the oil and gas 

program, approximately 75, 000 hours of HRG tranismissions under the renewable energy program and 

approximately 1,450 hours of HRG transmissions under the marine minerals program) to ambient oceanic 

noise levels, which, in turn, could have cumulative impacts on the ocean environment in the Action Area 

and any endangered or threatened species that occur in that area. The behavioral responses of any 

endangered whales that occur in those sound fields are likely to result from their response to low and midfrequencies associated with seismic and electromechaniceal equipment, per se, as well as other salient 

cues in their environment, including their perception of their distance from a sound source and their 

perception of whether the sound source is approaching them, moving parallel to them, or moving away 

from them. The behavioral response of endangered whales that are likely to be exposed to seismic and 
270

electromechanical equipment during G&G activities considered in this Opinion would also be shaped by 

their reproductive condition, their state of health, and their prior experience. 

With the possible exception of hatchling sea turtles or new-born calves, the prior experience of any 

individual endangered whales or listed sea turtles that occur off the Atlantic coast of the United States 

would include regular exposure to a wide variety of natural and anthropogenic stressors produced by 

commercial fisheries in Federal and State waters, vessel traffic, whale-watch vessels and researchers, and 

human occupation of coastal areas. Whales that occur in the Action Area are almost certain to have been 

exposed to ship traffic entering and leaving major ports like Baltimore, Virginia Beach, and Jacksonville. 

As we discussed in the Environmental Baseline section of this Opinion, these whales will also have been 

exposed to the continuous, low-frequency sounds produced by commercial vessels, may have interacted 

with commercial fishing gear, may have prior experience with mid-frequency active sonar from surface 

vessels, sonobuoys, or submarines in other geographic areas or during previous U.S. Navy training 

exercises, and given their long life spans may have prior experience with oil and gas drilling activities 

within the Action Area between 1975 and 1984. 

Any individual humpback or sperm whales that have high body burdens of some antibiotics and other 

prescription drugs (which are introduced to marine environments in sewage discharges and freshwater 

run-off), organic solvents, metals, and chemical asphyxiants may be more susceptible to noise-induced 

loss of hearing sensitivity (Fechter, Chen, Rao, & Larabee, 2000). Nevertheless, none of the information 

available suggests that the responses of whales to the cumulative effects of these stressors or their prior 

experience with these stressors is likely to produce consequences other than those we have already 

considered in this Opinion although it is important to note that this statement probably results from the 

limits in the information available more than the absence of interactive effects. 

Sea turtles that occur in the Action Area are almost certain to have been exposed to ship traffic entering 

and leaving ports like Boston, New York, Baltimore, Virginia Beach, and Jacksonville (if they arrive 

from the north) or Port Everglades and Fort Lauderdale (if they arrive from the south). As we discussed in 

the Environmental Baseline section of this Opinion, these sea turtles will also have been exposed to the 

continuous, low-frequency sounds produced by commercial vessels, are likely to have been captured at 

least once in commercial fishing gear (given that almost twice the estimated population of loggerhead sea 

turtles has been estimated to be captured in shrimp trawls each year for the past five years, every 

loggerhead sea turtle in the western Atlantic has had some probability of being captured in these 

fisheries), and may have prior experience with surface vessels, sonobuoys, or submarines in other 

geographic areas or during U.S. Navy exercises within the Action Area. Nevertheless, none of the 
271

information available suggests that the responses of sea turtles to these stressors or their prior experience 

with these stressors is likely to produce consequences other than those we have already considered in this 

Opinion, although it is important to note that this statement probably results from the limits in the 

information available more than the absence of interactive effects. 

Similarily, Atlantic sturgeon that occur in the Action Area are almost certain to have been exposed to ship 

traffic entering and leaving ports like Boston, New York, Baltimore and Virginia Beach. As we discussed 

in the Environmental Baseline section of this Opinion, Atlantic sturgeon will also have been exposed to 

the continuous, low-frequency sounds produced by commercial vessels and dredging operations and are 

likely to have been captured in commercial fishing gear. Nevertheless, none of the information available 

suggests that the responses of Atlantic sturgeon to these stressors or their prior experience with these 

stressors is likely to produce consequences other than those we have already considered in this Opinion, 

although it is important to note that this statement probably results from the limits in the information 

available more than the absence of interactive effects. 

Cumulative Effects 

Cumulative effects include the effects of future state, tribal, local or private actions that are reasonably 

certain to occur in the action area considered by this Opinion. Future federal actions that are unrelated to 

the proposed action are not considered in this section because they require separate consultation pursuant 

to section 7 of the ESA. 

During this consultation, NMFS searched for information on future State, tribal, local, or private actions 

that were reasonably certain to occur in the action area. Most of the action area includes federal military 

reserves or is outside of territorial waters of the United States of America, which would preclude the 

possibility of future state, tribal, or local action that would not require some form of federal funding or 

authorization. NMFS conducted electronic searches of business journals, trade journals, and newspapers 

using First Search, Google, and other electronic search engines. Those searches produced no evidence of 

future private action in the action area that would not require federal authorization or funding and is 

reasonably certain to occur. As a result, NMFS is not aware of any actions of this kind that are likely to 

occur in the action area during the foreseeable future. 

Integration and Synthesis of Effects 

In the Assessment Approach section of this Opinion, we stated that we measure risks to individuals of 

endangered or threatened species using changes in the individual’s “fitness” or the individual’s growth, 
272

survival, annual reproductive success, and lifetime reproductive success. When we do not expect listed 

plants or animals exposed to an action’s effects to experience reductions in fitness, we would not expect 

the action to have adverse consequences on the viability of the populations those individuals represent or 

the species those populations comprise (Anderson 2000, Mills and Beatty 1979, Brandon 1978, Stearns 

1977, 1992). As a result, if we conclude that listed species are not likely to experience reductions in their 

fitness, we would conclude our assessment. If, however, we conclude that listed species are likely to 

experience reductions in their fitness, we assess the potential effects of the action on the viability of the 

population or populations’ those individuals represent. At the population level, we would generally 

assume that an action that increased a population’s probability of becoming extinct would place an 

endangered or threatened species at greater risk of extinction because species become extinct as a result of 

the extinction of the populations that comprise them. 

The following discussions separately summarize the probable risks seismic and HRG activities pose to 

threatened and endangered species that are likely to be exposed to those transmissions. These summaries 

integrate the exposure profiles presented previously with the results of our response analyses for each of 

the actions considered in this Opinion. 

Marine Mammals 

BLUE WHALES. We did not estimate the number of blue whales that might be exposed to vessel traffic 

independent of the number of individuals that might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys because the 

data we would have needed to support those analyses were not available. 

Blue whales would primarily be exposed to the more offshore seismic and HRG surveys under the oil and 

gas program; not the more coastal surveys such as those under the renewable energy and marine mineral 

resource surveys. Blue whales migrate out of the Action Area to the more northerly waters outside of the 

Action Area to feed. Based on the BOEMs models, each year we would expect that numbers of blue 

whales might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys and be “taken” as a result of that exposure (see 

Tables 13 and 14 later in this section). Most of these exposures are expected in the mid-Atlantic Planning 

Area. 

Blue whales appear to be able to hear mid-frequency (1 kHz–8 kHz) sounds as well as low frequency 

sounds. Blue whales vocalizations include a variety of sounds described as low frequency moans or long 

pulses in the 10-100 Hz band (Cummings and Thompson 1971; Edds 1982; Thompson and Friedl 1982; 

McDonald et al. 1995; Clark and Fristrup 1997; Rivers 1997). The most typical signals are very long, 

patterned sequences of tonal infrasonic sounds in the 15-40 Hz range. Ketten (1997) reports the 
273

frequencies of maximum energy between 12 and 18 Hz. Short sequences of rapid calls in the 30-90 Hz 

band are associated with animals in social groups (Clark personal observation and McDonald personal 

communication cited in Ketten 1997). The context for the 30-90 Hz calls suggests that they are used to 

communicate but do not appear to be related to reproduction. Blue whale moans within the frequency 

range of 12.5-200 Hz, with pulse duration up to 36 seconds, have been recorded off Chile (Cummings and 

Thompson 1971). The whale produced a short, 390 Hz pulse during the moan. Based on this information 

blue whales exposed to received levels of active mid-frequency sonar are not likely to respond 

physiologically or behaviorally to sounds in this frequency range. 

Blue whales in the action area seem likely to respond to the ship traffic associated with seismic and HRG 

survey activities in ways that approximate their responses to whale watch vessels. As discussed in the 

Environmental Baseline section of these Opinions, those responses are likely to depend on the distance of 

a whale from a vessel, vessel speed, vessel direction, vessel noise, and the number of vessels involved in a 

particular maneuver. Blue whales seem most likely to try to avoid being exposed to the activities and their 

avoidance response is likely to increase as survey activities increase. We do not have the information 

necessary to determine which of the many sounds associated with a seismic or HRG survey is likely to 

trigger avoidance behavior in blue whales (for example, engine noise, airguns, electromechanical 

equipment, or some combination of these) or whether blue whales would avoid being exposed to specific 

received levels, the entire sound field associated with a survey, or the general area in which a survey 

would occur. However, blue whales are not likely to respond to the side-scan sonar, single and multibeam 

echo sounders or the 200 kHz chirp subbottom profiler because they are not likely to hear those 

transmissions. 

Individual blue whales might not respond to the vessels, while in other circumstances, whales are likely to 

change their surface times, swimming speed, swimming angle or direction, respiration rates, dive times, 

feeding behavior, and social interactions (Amaral and Carlson 2005; Au and Green 2000, Cockeron 1995, 

Erbe 2002, Félix 2001, Magalhães et al. 2002, Richter et al. 2003, Scheidat et al. 2004, Simmonds 2005, 

Watkins 1986, Williams et al. 2002). Some of these whales might experience physiological stress (but not 

“distress”) responses to seismic surveys. 

Several authors have established that long-term and intense disturbance stimuli can cause population 

declines by reducing the body condition of individuals that have been disturbed, followed by reduced 

reproductive success, reduced survival, or both (Daan et al. 1996, Madsen 1994, White 1983). For 

example, Madsen (1994) reported that pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus) in undisturbed habitat 

gained body mass and had about a 46% reproductive success compared with geese in disturbed habitat 
274

(being consistently scared off the fields on which they were foraging) which did not gain mass and has a 

17% reproductive success. Similar reductions in reproductive success have been reported for mule deer 

(Odocoileus hemionus) disturbed by all-terrain vehicles (Yarmoloy et al. 1988), caribou disturbed by 

seismic exploration blasts (Bradshaw et al. 1998), caribou disturbed by low-elevation military jet-fights 

(Luick et al. 1996), and caribou disturbed by low-elevation jet flights (Harrington and Veitch 1992). 

Similarly, a study of elk (Cervus elaphus) that were disturbed experimentally by pedestrians concluded 

that the ratio of young to mothers was inversely related to disturbance rate (Phillips and Alldredge 2000). 

The primary mechanism by which increased vigilance and disturbance appear to affect the fitness of 

individual animals is by disrupting an animal’s time budget and, as a result, reducing the time they might 

spend foraging and resting (which increases an animal’s activity rate and energy demand). For example, a 

study of grizzly bears (Ursus horribilis) reported that bears disturbed by hikers reduced their energy 

intake by an average of 12 kcal/min (50.2 x 103kJ/min), and spent energy fleeing or acting aggressively 

toward hikers (White et al. 1999). 

Despite seismic survey concentrated off the coast of Southern California, since 1968 and a total of 

157,420 km of 2D surveys between 1968 and 2002, blue whales started being recorded in California 

waters in the 1970s. Although blue whales distribution has shifted, prey abundance shifts are believed to 

be the cause (Caretta et al 2009b in Thomsen et al 2011). 

Because primary blue whale foraging habitat is in more northerly waters outside of the Action Area, we 

do not expect costly time and energy budget reductions due to lost foraging opportunities where the 

fitness of blue whales is reduced. Blue whales that are resting at the start of seismic or HRG survey 

activities will try to avoid the sound sources, if the sources are close enough to be perceived as a potential 

threat. While some changes in behavioral state, such as resting to traveling, incurs some energetic cost, 

these changes are not likely to alter the physiology, behavioral ecology and social dynamics of individual 

whales in ways or to a degree that would reduce the fitness of these whales. 

Based on the evidence available, we conclude that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE propose in the 

mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013 June 2020 is not likely to adversely affect the 

population dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of individual blue whales in ways or to a 

degree that would reduce their fitness. As we discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this 

Opinion, an action that is not likely to reduce the fitness of individual whales would not be likely to 

reduce the viability of the populations those individual whales represent (that is, we would not expect 

reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution of those populations). As a result, we conclude 
275

that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE propose from 2013 to 2020 would not appreciably reduce the 

blue whales’ likelihood of surviving and recovering in the wild. 

FIN WHALES. We did not estimate the number of fin whales that might be exposed to vessel traffic 

independent of the number of individuals that might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys because the 

data we would have needed to support those analyses were not available. 

Based on the BOEM’s models, each year we would expect that numbers of fin whales might be exposed 

to seismic and HRG surveys and be “taken” as a result of that exposure (see Tables 13 and 14). Most of 

these exposures are expected in the mid-Atlantic Planning Area. Fin whales would primarily be exposed 

in the more offshore areas of the mid-Atlantic Planning Area mostly in the fall, winter and spring. During 

the summer months, fin whales tend to congregate in feeding areas between 41°20'N and 51°00'N, to 

northern Areas outside of the Action Area to feed. 

As discussed in the Status of the Species section of these Opinions, fin whales produce a variety of lowfrequency sounds in the 10-200 Hz band (Watkins 1981; Watkins et al. 1987a; Edds 1988; Thompson et 

al. 1992). The most typical signals are long, patterned sequences of short duration (0.5-2s) infrasonic 

pulses in the 18-35 Hz range (Patterson and Hamilton 1964). Estimated source levels are as high as 190 

dB (Patterson and Hamilton 1964; Watkins et al. 1987a; Thompson et al. 1992; McDonald et al. 1995). In 

temperate waters intense bouts of long patterned sounds are very common from fall through spring, but 

also occur to a lesser extent during the summer in high latitude feeding areas (Clark and Charif 1998). 

Short sequences of rapid pulses in the 20-70 Hz band are associated with animals in social groups 

(McDonald et al. 1995). Each pulse lasts on the order of one second and contains twenty cycles (Tyack 

1999). This information would lead us to conclude that fin whales exposed to these received levels of 

active mid-frequency sonar are not likely to respond physiologically or behaviorally. 

Fin whales in the action area seem likely to respond to the ship traffic associated with seismic and HRG 

survey activities in ways that approximate their responses to whale watch vessels. As discussed in the 

Environmental Baseline section of these Opinions, those responses are likely to depend on the distance of 

a whale from a vessel, vessel speed, vessel direction, vessel noise, and the number of vessels involved in a 

particular maneuver. Fin whales seem most likely to try to avoid being exposed to the activities and their 

avoidance response is likely to increase as survey activities increase. We do not have the information 

necessary to determine which of the many sounds associated with a seismic or HRG survey is likely to 

trigger avoidance behavior in fin whales (for example, engine noise, airguns, electromechanical 

equipment, or some combination of these) or whether fin whales would avoid being exposed to specific 
276

received levels, the entire sound field associated with a survey, or the general area in which a survey 

would occur. However, fin whales are not likely to respond to the side-scan sonar, single and multibeam 

echo sounders or the 200 kHz chirp subbottom profiler because they are not likely to hear those 

transmissions. 

Particular whales might not respond to the vessels, while in other circumstances, fin whales are likely to 

change their vocalizations, surface time, swimming speed, swimming angle or direction, respiration rates, 

dive times, feeding behavior, and social interactions (Amaral and Carlson 2005; Au and Green 2000, 

Cockeron 1995, Erbe 2002, Félix 2001, Magalhães et al. 2002, Richter et al. 2003, Scheidat et al. 2004, 

Simmonds 2005, Watkins 1986, Williams et al. 2002). Some of these whales might experience 

physiological stress (but not “distress”). Some of these whales might experience physiological stress (but 

not “distress”) responses to seismic surveys and HRG surveys. 

Several authors have established that long-term and intense disturbance stimuli can cause population 

declines by reducing the body condition of individuals that have been disturbed, followed by reduced 

reproductive success, reduced survival, or both (Daan et al. 1996, Madsen 1994, White 1983). For 

example, Madsen (1994) reported that pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus) in undisturbed habitat 

gained body mass and had about a 46% reproductive success compared with geese in disturbed habitat 

(being consistently scared off the fields on which they were foraging) which did not gain mass and has a 

17% reproductive success. Similar reductions in reproductive success have been reported for mule deer 

(Odocoileus hemionus) disturbed by all-terrain vehicles (Yarmoloy et al. 1988), caribou disturbed by 

seismic exploration blasts (Bradshaw et al. 1998), caribou disturbed by low-elevation military jet-fights 

(Luick et al. 1996), and caribou disturbed by low-elevation jet flights (Harrington and Veitch 1992). 

Similarly, a study of elk (Cervus elaphus) that were disturbed experimentally by pedestrians concluded 

that the ratio of young to mothers was inversely related to disturbance rate (Phillips and Alldredge 2000). 

The primary mechanism by which increased vigilance and disturbance appear to affect the fitness of 

individual animals is by disrupting an animal’s time budget and, as a result, reducing the time they might 

spend foraging and resting (which increases an animal’s activity rate and energy demand). For example, a 

study of grizzly bears (Ursus horribilis) reported that bears disturbed by hikers reduced their energy 

intake by an average of 12 kcal/min (50.2 x 103kJ/min), and spent energy fleeing or acting aggressively 

toward hikers (White et al. 1999). 

Despite seismic surveys concentrated off the coast of Southern California, since 1968 and a total of 

157,420 km of 2D surveys between 1968 and 2002, fin whale abundance indicate that numbers in that 

area have remained the same since the 1990s. No definitive statement can be made for fin whale 
277

abundance trends because of uncertainty in the assessments (Caretta et al 2009b in Thomsen et al 2011). 

Bowhead whales in the Arctic have been exposed to seismic surveys due to oil and gas exploration, oil 

and gas development and production and decommissioning activities since the late 1960s. Despite this 

exposure, the western Arctic stock of bowhead whales has been increasing at a rate of approximately 3.4 

percent per year (George et al 2004). 

Because primary fin whale foraging habitat is in more northerly waters outside of the Action Area, we do 

not expect costly time and energy budget reductions due to lost foraging opportunities where the fitness of 

fin whales is reduced. Fin whales that are resting at the start of seismic or HRG survey activities will try 

to avoid the sound sources, if the sources are close enough to be perceived as a potential threat. While 

some changes in behavioral state, such as resting to traveling, incurs some energetic cost, these changes 

are not likely to alter the physiology, behavioral ecology and social dynamics of individual whales in 

ways or to a degree that would reduce the fitness of these whales. As a result, we conclude that the G&G 

activities BOEM and BSEE proposes from 2013 to 2020 would not appreciably reduce the fin whales’ 

likelihood of surviving and recovering in the wild. 

HUMPBACK WHALES. We did not estimate the number of humpback whales that might be exposed to 

vessel traffic independent of the number of individuals that might be exposed to seismic and HRG 

surveys because the data we would have needed to support those analyses were not available. 

Humpback whales would be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys primarily during the winter months and 

in the mid-Atlantic Planning Area rather than the South Atlantic Planning Area. Juvenile humpbacks tend 

to congregate in the mid-Atlantic region during winter months. Adults migrate through the mid- and 

South Atlantic Planning area to their winter breeding/calving area in the West Indies and back in the 

spring to the more northerly waters outside of the Action Area to feed. Based on the BOEM’s models, 

each year we would expect that numbers of humpback whales might be exposed to seismic and HRG 

surveys and be “taken” as a result of that exposure (see Tables 13 and 14 later in this section).

Humpback whales produce a wide variety of sounds. During the breeding season males sing long, 

complex songs, with frequencies in the 25-5000 Hz range and intensities as high as 181 dB (Payne 1970; 

Winn et al. 1970a; Thompson et al. 1986). Source levels average 155 dB and range from 144 to 174 dB 

(Thompson et al. 1979). The songs appear to have an effective range of approximately 10 to 20 km. 

Animals in mating groups produce a variety of sounds (Tyack 1981; Tyack and Whitehead 1983, Silber 

1986). 
278

Humpback whales produce sounds less frequently in their summer feeding areas. Feeding groups produce 

distinctive sounds ranging from 20 Hz to 2 kHz, with median durations of 0.2-0.8 sec and source levels of 

175-192 dB (Thompson et al. 1986). These sounds are attractive and appear to rally animals to the 

feeding activity (D’Vincent et al. 1985; Sharpe and Dill 1997). In summary, humpback whales produce at 

least three kinds of sounds: 

1. Complex songs with components ranging from at least 20Hz – 4 kHz with estimated source 

levels from 144 – 174 dB; these are mostly sung by males on the breeding grounds (Payne 1970; 

Winn et al. 1970a; Richardson et al. 1995) 

2. Social sounds in the breeding areas that extend from 50Hz – more than 10 kHz with most 

energy below 3kHz (Tyack and Whitehead 1983, Richardson et al. 1995); and 

3. Feeding area vocalizations that are less frequent, but tend to be 20Hz – 2 kHz with estimated 

sources levels in excess of 175 dB re 1 uPa-m (Thompson et al. 1986; Richardson et al. 1995). 

Sounds often associated with possible aggressive behavior by males (Tyack 1983; Silber 1986) 

are quite different from songs, extending from 50 Hz to 10 kHz (or higher), with most energy in 

components below 3 kHz. These sounds appear to have an effective range of up to 9 km (Tyack 

and Whitehead 1983). 

More recently, Au et al. (2006) conducted field investigations of humpback whale songs that led these 

investigators to conclude that humpback whales have an upper frequency limit reaching as high as 24 

kHz. Based on this information, it is reasonable to assume that the active mid-frequency sonar the U.S. 

Navy would employ during the proposed active sonar training activities are within the hearing and 

vocalization ranges of humpback whales. There is limited information on how humpback whales are 

likely to respond upon being exposed to mid-frequency active sonar (most of the information available 

addresses their probable responses to low-frequency active sonar or impulsive sound sources). Humpback 

whales responded to sonar in the 3.1–3.6 kHz by swimming away from the sound source or by increasing 

their velocity (Maybaum 1990, 1993). The frequency or duration of their dives or the rate of underwater 

vocalizations, however, did not change. 

Humpback whales have been known to react to low frequency industrial noises at estimated received 

levels of 115- 124 dB (Malme et al. 1985), and to conspecific calls at received levels as low as 102 dB 

(Frankel et al. 1995). Malme et al. (1985) found no clear response to playbacks of drill ship and oil 

production platform noises at received levels up to 116 dB re 1 Pa. Studies of reactions to airgun noises 

were inconclusive (Malme et al. 1985). Humpback whales on the breeding grounds did not stop singing 

in response to underwater explosions (Payne and McVay 1971). Humpback whales on feeding grounds 
279

did not alter short-term behavior or distribution in response to explosions with received levels of about 

150dB re 1 Pa/Hz at 350Hz (Lien et al. 1993; Todd et al. 1996). Frankel and Clark (1998) showed that 

breeding humpbacks showed only a slight statistical reaction to playbacks of 60 - 90 Hz sounds with a 

received level of up to 190 dB. Although these studies have demonstrated that humpback whales will 

exhibit short-term behavioral reactions to boat traffic and playbacks of industrial noise, the long-term 

effects of these disturbances on the individuals exposed to them are not known. 

Because their hearing range appears to overlap with the frequency range of low and mid-frequencies, we 

assume that some of the humpback whales that are exposed to seismic and HRG surveys might 

experience physiological stress responses as a result of their exposure. Acoustic masking and impairment 

of acoustic communication may also occur, although seismic and HRG surveys are a considerable 

distance from humpback foraging grounds. We expect humpback whale to adjust their vocalizations to 

compensate for the reduced communication space. 

The evidence available suggests that humpback whales are likely to detect low and mid-frequency seismic 

and HRG transmissions. In most circumstances, humpback whales are likely to try to avoid that exposure 

or are likely to avoid specific areas. As a result, we do not expect these disruptions to reduce the fitness 

(reproductive success or longevity) of any individual animal or to result in physiological stress responses 

that rise to the level of distress. 

The strongest evidence of the probable impact of the Environmental Baseline on humpback whales 

consists of the estimated growth rate of the humpback whale population in the Atlantic Ocean. Despite 

small numbers that are entangled in fishing gear in the action area, this increase in the number of 

humpback whales suggests that the stress regime these whales are exposed to in the Atlantic Ocean have 

not prevented these whales from increasing their numbers in the action area. As discussed in the 

Environmental Baseline section of this Opinion, humpback whales have been exposed to active sonar 

training activities along the Atlantic Coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico, including 

vessel traffic, aircraft traffic, active sonar, and underwater detonations, for more than a generation. 

Although we do not know if more humpback whales might have used the action area or the reproductive 

success of humpback whales in the North Atlantic Ocean would be higher absent their exposure to these 

activities, the rate at which humpback whales occur in the Gulf of Maine suggests that humpback whale 

numbers have increased substantially in these important calving areas despite exposure to these stress 

regimes. Given this, we do not expect that BOEM and BSEE’s proposed seismic and HRG surveys are 

likely to affect the rate at which humpback whales, in the North Atlantic Ocean are increasing. Bowhead 

whales in the Arctic have been exposed to seismic surveys due to oil and gas exploration, oil and gas 
280

development and production and decommissioning activities since the late 1960s. Despite this exposure, 

the western Arctic stock of bowhead whales has been increasing at a rate of approximately 3.4 percent per 

year (George et al 2004). 

Based on the evidence available, we conclude that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the 

mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 are not likely to adversely affect the population 

dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of individual humpback whales in ways or to a degree 

that would reduce their fitness. As we discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this 

Opinion, an action that is not likely to reduce the fitness of individual whales would not be likely to 

reduce the viability of the populations those individual whales represent (that is, we would not expect 

reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution of those populations). As a result, we conclude 

that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE propose from 2013 to 2020 would not appreciably reduce 

humpback whales’ likelihood of surviving and recovering in the wild. 

NORTH ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALES. We did not estimate the number of North Atlantic right 

whales that might be exposed to vessel traffic independent of the number of individuals that might be 

exposed to seismic and HRG surveys because the data we would have needed to support those analyses 

were not available. 

Right whales would primarily be exposed to seismic and HRG survey activities in the mid-Atlantic 

Planning Area but could also be exposed to a degree during their seasonal migrations. Right whales may 

also be exposed to limited HRG surveys within their southeastern critical habitat off Georgia and Florida. 

Right whales use mid-Atlantic waters as a migratory pathway between the winter calving grounds and 

their spring and summer nursery and feeding areas in the Gulf of Maine. Right whales also use critical 

habitat in the southeast as nursing and calving habitat. Based on the BOEM’s models, each year we 

would expect that numbers of North Atlantic right whales might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys 

and be “taken” as a result of that exposure (see Tables 13 and 14 later in this section).

North Atlantic right whales are likely to respond to low frequency transmission from seismic surveys, 

however, the evidence is equivocal on whether North Atlantic right whales are likely to respond upon 

being exposed to the mid-frequency transmissions from HRG surveys, or the nature of any responses they 

might exhibit if they respond at all. The information available on right whales vocalizations suggests that 

right whales produce moans less than 400 Hz in frequency (Watkins and Schevill 1972; Thompson et al. 

1979; Spero 1981). However, Nowacek et al. (2004) conducted controlled exposure experiments on North 

Atlantic right whales using ship noise, social sounds of conspecifics, and an alerting stimulus (frequency 
281

modulated tonal signals between 500 Hz and 4.5 kHz). Animals were tagged with acoustic sensors (Dtags) that simultaneously measured movement in three dimensions. Whales reacted strongly to alert 

signals at received levels of 133-148 dB SPL, mildly to conspecific signals, and not at all to ship sounds 

or actual vessels. Although the alert stimulus caused whales to immediately cease foraging behavior and 

swim rapidly to the surface, Nowacek et al. offer no information on whether the whales were probably 

responding to the low- or mid-frequency components of the signals. 

Although North Atlantic right whales appear to be able to hear mid-frequency (1 kHz–10 kHz) sounds, 

the limited evidence available suggests that sounds in this frequency range appear to lie at the periphery 

of their hearing range. The tonal vocalizations right whales produce can be divided into simple, lowfrequency, stereo-typed calls and more complex, frequency-modulated, higher-frequency calls (Parks and 

Clark 2007). Most of these sounds range in frequency from 0.02 to 15 kHz, with dominant frequency 

ranges from 0.02 to less than 2 kHz with some sounds having multiple harmonics (Parks and Tyack 

2005). Assuming that right whales will focus their attentional resources on the frequency ranges of their 

vocalizations, right whales seem less likely to devote attentional resources to stimuli in the frequency 

ranges of mid-frequency sonar. As a result, they are not likely to respond physiologically or behaviorally 

to sounds in this frequency range. 

Mother/calf pairs, and particularly mothers, are the mostly highly sensitive group to anthropogenic 

disturbance and respond more frequently than other sex, age, and activity classes. Calves are less 

experienced, possess fewer metabolic reserves, and are less capable of rapid travel than are their mothers, 

making responses such as rapid evasion or movement from the area a significant concern due to the 

potential for mother/calf separation and subsequent fitness consequences to the calf. Mothers are also 

sensitive to metabolic expenses, such as those involved with evasive behavior, due to the high demands 

placed upon them from simultaneous fasting and nursing. This means that exposure to stressors in critical 

habitat may produce greater impacts here to the subset of individuals most critical for the survival and 

recovery of the species than would be expected elsewhere. 

North Atlantic right whales occurring within southeastern and mid-Atlantic U.S. SMAs and DMAs are 

likely to be migrating and possibly mating. These coastal corridors are established as areas to protect 

right whales along their migratory routes or in areas where temporarily high abundances occur. If 

migrating individuals were exposed to ephemeral sound sources like the ones proposed that elicited 

responses similar to those found in the Response Analysis, then we might expect a brief deflection from 

the direction of travel. Although this may entail a small metabolic expense and a possible stress response, 

we expect these would be so small as to not pose a concern for the individual’s overall fitness. We 
282

expect that individuals involved in mating or courtship would be highly motivated to continue this 

behavior and ignore a mild stimulus that would elicit a response in other behavioral states. Individuals 

are expected to attend to higher-level exposure, such as that which would be expected upon a vessel 

closely approaching with its acoustic equipment operating, and avoid potential collisions with a slowmoving vessel, such as those proposed for use. 

Given the significance of right whale response, the reasonably likely exposure that right whales will 

receive while in critical habitat is critical to establish and minimize. BOEM provided detailed 

documentation as to the level of effort expected in and near critical habitat. This effort will be limited to 

a few surveys lasting a few days at most, although most would be one or two days. No more than two 

surveys using acoustic sources with frequencies within the audible range for right whales will be 

scheduled each year only if they are critical to the Renewable Energy or Marine Minerals programs. 

BOEM provided detailed acoustic characterization of these sources. This information led us to conclude 

that several sources would not be audible to right whales. Other sources could or would be audible, 

including vessel noise, boomer, sub-bottom profiler, and chirp seismic systems. BOEM also provided 

modeling results for acoustic sources that suggested that the potential for sound to propagate to 160 dB 

show less than ~100 m; some show < 10 meter (Martin et al 2012; Zykov and MacDonnell 2013).

However, use of these acoustic sources, and thus exposure to these sources, would occur very 

infrequently (up to twice annually). BOEM acknowledges that take could occur as a result of these 

activities in SMAs, DMAs and critical habitat collectively. A mother-calf pair, could be exposed during 

surveys within critical habitat but responses would be similar to those described in the Response Analysis

(temporary behavioral responses consisting of movement away from the source). Based upon responses 

of mother/calf pairs to other acoustic stressors identified in the response analysis, we do not expect the 

source to be so disturbing as to result in extensive movements away such that energy demands on mothers 

or calves would produce a fitness consequence for the individuals. 

Based on the evidence available, we conclude that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the 

mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 are not likely to adversely affect the population 

dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of individual North Atlantic right whales in ways or 

to a degree that would reduce their fitness. As we discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of 

this Opinion, an action that is not likely to reduce the fitness of individual whales would not be likely to 

reduce the viability of the populations those individual whales represent (that is, we would not expect 

reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution of those populations). As a result, we conclude 

that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 
283

2013-2020 would not appreciably reduce the North Atlantic right whale’s likelihood of surviving and 

recovering in the wild. 

SEI WHALES. We did not estimate the number of sei whales that might be exposed to vessel traffic 

independent of the number of individuals that might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys because the 

data we would have needed to support those analyses were not available. 

Sei whales would primarily be exposed in spring and fall possibly in both Planning Areas to seismic and 

HRG surveys and primarily in the more offshore waters of the Action Area. In the western Atlantic 

Ocean, sei whales occur from Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Labrador in the summer months and migrate 

south to Florida and the northern Caribbean in the winter months. Based on the BOEM’s models, each 

year we would expect that numbers of sei whales might be exposed to seismic and HRG surveys and be 

“taken” as a result of that exposure (see Tables 13 and 14 later in this section). 

Like fin whales, sei whales in the Action Area seem likely to respond to the ship traffic associated with 

the activities the U.S. Navy plans to conduct in the Action Area in ways that approximate their responses 

to whale watch vessels. As discussed in the Environmental Baseline section of this Opinion, those 

responses are likely to depend on the distance of a whale from a vessel, vessel speed, vessel direction, 

vessel noise, and the number of vessels involved in a particular maneuver. Sei whales also seem most 

likely to try to avoid being exposed to the survey activities .We do not have the information necessary to 

determine which of the many sounds associated with an exercise is likely to trigger avoidance behavior in 

sei whales (for example, engine noise, airguns, electromechanical equipment or some combination of 

these) or whether sei whales would avoid being exposed to specific received levels, the entire sound field 

associated with a survey, or the general area in which a survey would occur. 

Particular whales might not respond to the vessels, while in other circumstances, sei whales are likely to 

change their vocalizations, surface time, swimming speed, swimming angle or direction, respiration rates, 

dive times, feeding behavior, and social interactions (Amaral and Carlson 2005; Au and Green 2000, 

Cockeron 1995, Erbe 2002, Félix 2001, Magalhães et al. 2002, Richter et al. 2003, Scheidat et al. 2004, 

Simmonds 2005, Watkins 1986, Williams et al. 2002). Some of these whales might experience 

physiological stress (but not “distress”) responses to seismic surveys and HRG surveys. 

Based on the evidence available, we conclude that that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in 

the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 are not likely to adversely affect the 

population dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of individual sei whales in ways or to a 

degree that would reduce their fitness. As we discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of this 
284

Opinion, an action that is not likely to reduce the fitness of individual whales would not be likely to 

reduce the viability of the populations those individual whales represent (that is, we would not expect 

reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution of those populations). As a result, we conclude 

that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 

2013-2020 and the activities they would authorize each year would not appreciably reduce the sei whale’s 

likelihood of surviving and recovering in the wild. 

SPERM WHALES. Sperm whales would be exposed to seismic and HRG survey activity primarily in 

the fall, winter and spring in the mid-Atlantic Planning Area and would migrate to northern Areas outside 

of the Action Area in the spring/summer to feed. 

If exposed to low- and mid-frequency seismic and HRG transmissions, sperm whales are likely to hear 

and respond to those transmissions. The only data on the hearing range of sperm whales are evoked 

potentials from a stranded neonate (Carder and Ridgway 1990). These data suggest that neonatal sperm 

whales respond to sounds from 2.5-60 kHz. Sperm whales also produce loud broad-band clicks from 

about 0.1 to 20 kHz (Weilgart and Whitehead 1993, 1997; Goold and Jones 1995). These have source 

levels estimated at 171 dB re 1 Pa (Levenson 1974). Current evidence suggests that the disproportionately 

large head of the sperm whale is an adaptation to produce these vocalizations (Norris and Harvey 1972; 

Cranford 1992; but see Clarke 1979). This suggests that the production of these loud low frequency clicks 

is extremely important to the survival of individual sperm whales. The function of these vocalizations is 

relatively well-studied (Weilgart and Whitehead 1993, 1997; Goold and Jones 1995). Long series of 

monotonous regularly spaced clicks are associated with feeding and are thought to be produced for 

echolocation. Distinctive, short, patterned series of clicks, called codas, are associated with social 

behavior and interactions within social groups (Weilgart and Whitehead 1993). 

Based on the frequencies of their vocalizations, which overlap the frequency range of mid-frequency 

acoustic sources, HRG transmissions might temporarily reduce the active space of sperm whale 

vocalizations. Airguns also produce frequencies up to 2,000 Hz, however, these frequencies are not the 

frequencies with most energy and should not reduce the active space of a sperm whale unless the whale is 

in close proximity to the source, if at all. Most of the energy of sperm whales clicks is concentrated at 2 

to 4 kHz and 10 to 16 kHz, which overlaps with the mid-frequency transmission of HRG equipment. 

Other studies indicate sperm whales’ wide-band clicks contain energy between 0.1 and 20 kHz (Weilgart 

and Whitehead 1993, Goold and Jones 1995). Ridgway and Carder (2001) measured low-frequency, high 

amplitude clicks with peak frequencies at 500 Hz to 3 kHz from a neonate sperm whale. 
285

There is some evidence of disruptions of clicking and behavior from echosounders and submarine sonars 

(Goold 1999, Watkins and Scheville1975, Watkins et al. 1985), pingers (Watkins and Scheville 1975), 

the Heard Island Feasability Test (Bowles et al. 1994), and the Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate 

(Costa et al.1998). Sperm whales have been observed to frequently stop echolocating in the presence of 

underwater pulses made by echosounders (Watkins and Scheville 1975). Goold (1999) reported six sperm 

whales that were driven through a narrow channel using ship noise, echosounder, and fishfinder emissions 

from a flotilla of 10 vessels. Watkins and Scheville (1975) showed that sperm whales interrupted click 

production in response to pinger (6 to 13 kHz) sounds. They also stopped vocalizing for brief periods 

when codas were being produced by other individuals, perhaps because they can hear better when not 

vocalizing themselves (Goold and Jones 1995). 

As discussed previously, sperm whales have been reported to have reacted to military sonar, apparently 

produced by a submarine, by dispersing from social aggregations, moving away from the sound source, 

remaining relatively silent and becoming difficult to approach (Watkins et al. 1985). Captive bottlenose 

dolphins and a beluga whale exhibited changes in behavior when exposed to 1 sec pulsed sounds at 

frequencies similar to those emitted by multi- beam sonar that is used in geophysical surveys (Ridgway et 

al. 1997, Schlundt et al. 2000), and to shorter broadband pulsed signals (Finneran et al. 2000, 2002). 

Behavioral changes typically involved what appeared to be deliberate attempts to avoid the sound 

exposure or to avoid the location of the exposure site during subsequent tests (Schlundt et al. 2000, 

Finneran et al. 2002). Dolphins exposed to 1-sec intense tones exhibited short-term changes in behavior 

above received sound levels of 178 to 193 dB re 1 Pa rms and belugas did so at received levels of 180 to 

196 dB and above. Received levels necessary to elicit such reactions to shorter pulses were higher 

(Finneran et al. 2000, 2002). Test animals sometimes vocalized after exposure to pulsed, mid-frequency 

sound from a watergun (Finneran et al. 2002). In some instances, animals exhibited aggressive behavior 

toward the test apparatus (Ridgway et al. 1997, Schlundt et al. 2000). The relevance of these data to freeranging odontocetes is uncertain. In the wild, cetaceans sometimes avoid sound sources well before they 

are exposed to the levels listed above, and reactions in the wild may be more subtle than those described 

by Ridgway et al. (1997) and Schlundt et al. (2000). 

Published reports identify instances in which sperm whales may have responded to an acoustic source and 

other instances in which they did not appear to respond behaviorally when exposed to seismic surveys. 

Mate et al. (1994) reported an opportunistic observation of the number of sperm whales to have decreased 

in an area after the start of airgun seismic testing. However, Davis et al. (2000) noted that sighting 

frequency did not differ significantly among the different acoustic levels examined in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico, contrary to what Mate et al. (1994) reported. In one DTAG deployment in the northern Gulf of 
286

Mexico on July 28, 2001, researchers documented that the tagged whale moved away from an operating 

seismic vessel once the seismic pulses were received at the tag at roughly 137 dB re 1 Pa (Johnson and 

Miller 2002). Sperm whales may also have responded to seismic airgun sounds by ceasing to call during 

some (but not all) times when seismic pulses were received from an airgun array >300 km away (Bowles 

et al. 1994). 

A recent study offshore of northern Norway indicated that sperm whales continued to call when exposed 

to pulses from a distant seismic vessel. Received levels of the seismic pulses were up to 146 dB re 1 Pa 

peak-to-peak (Madsen et al. 2002). Similarly, a study conducted off Nova Scotia that analyzed recordings 

of sperm whale sounds at various distances from an active seismic program did not detect any obvious 

changes in the distribution or behavior of sperm whales (McCall Howard 1999). Recent data from vesselbased monitoring programs in United Kingdom waters suggest that sperm whales in that area may have 

exhibited some changes in behavior in the presence of operating seismic vessels (Stone 1997, 1998, 2000, 

2001, 2003). However, the compilation and analysis of the data led the author to conclude that seismic 

surveys did not result in observable effects to sperm whales (Stone 2003). The results from these waters 

seem to show that some sperm whales tolerate seismic surveys. 

Preliminary data from an experimental study of sperm whale reactions to seismic surveys in the Gulf of 

Mexico and a study of the movements of sperm whales with satellite-linked tags in relation to seismic 

surveys show that during two controlled exposure experiments in which sperm whales were exposed to 

seismic pulses at received levels up to 148 dB re 1 Pa over octave band with most energy, the whales did 

not avoid the vessel or change their feeding efficiency (National Science Foundation 2003). In a later 

publication concerning the experiments, Madsen et al. (2006) report that seven of eight tagged sperm 

whales continued to perform foraging dives throughout exposure to seismic airguns at levels up to 147 dB 

(rms) (the eighth whale remained at the surface during exposure). Although the sample size is small (4 

whales in 2 experiments), the results are consistent with those off northern Norway (Madsen et al. 2002). 

Other studies identify instances in which sperm whales did not respond to anthropogenic sounds. Sperm 

whales did not alter their vocal activity when exposed to levels of 173 dB re 1 Pa from impulsive sounds 

produced by 1 g TNT detonators (Madsen and Mohl 2000). Richardson et al. (1995) citing a personal 

communication with J. Gordon suggested that sperm whales in the Mediterranean Sea continued calling 

when exposed to frequent and strong military sonar signals. When Andre et al. (1997) exposed sperm 

whales to a variety of sounds to determine what sounds may be used to scare whales out of the path of 

vessels, sperm whales were observed to have startle reactions to 10 kHz pulses (180 db re 1 Pa at the 

source), but not to the other sources played to them. 
287

These studies suggest that the behavioral responses of sperm whales to anthropogenic sounds are highly 

variable, but do not appear to result in the death or injury of individual whales or result in reductions in 

the fitness of individuals involved. Responses of sperm whales to anthropogenic sounds probably depend 

on the age and sex of animals being exposed, as well as other factors. There is evidence that many 

individuals respond to certain sound sources, provided the received level is high enough to evoke a 

response, while other individuals do not. 

The evidence available suggests that sperm whales are likely to detect low and mid-frequency seismic and 

HRG transmissions. In most circumstances, sperm whales are likely to try to avoid that exposure or are 

likely to avoid specific areas. For example, sperm whales have moved out of areas after the start of air 

gun seismic testing (Davis et al. 1995). Those sperm whales that do not avoid the sound field might 

interrupt communications, echolocation, or foraging behavior. In either case, sperm whales that avoid 

these sound fields, stop communicating, echolocating or foraging might experience significant disruptions 

of normal behavior patterns that are essential to their individual fitness. We do not, however, expect these 

disruptions to result in the death or injury of any individual animal or to result in physiological stress 

responses that rise to the level of distress. 

Like fin and sei whales, individual sperm whales are also likely to respond to the ship traffic associated 

with the maneuvers might approximate their responses to whale watch vessels. As discussed in the 

Environmental Baseline section of these Opinions, those responses are likely to depend on the distance of 

a whale from a vessel, vessel speed, vessel direction, vessel noise, and the number of vessels involved in a 

particular maneuver. The closer sperm whales are to these maneuvers and the greater the number of times 

they are exposed, the greater their likelihood of being exposed and responding to that exposure. Particular 

whales might not respond to the vessels, while in other circumstances, sperm whales are likely to change 

their vocalizations, surface time, swimming speed, swimming angle or direction, respiration rates, dive 

times, feeding behavior, and social interactions (Amaral and Carlson 2005; Au and Green 2000, Cockeron 

1995, Erbe 2002, Félix 2001, Magalhães et al. 2002, Richter et al. 2003, Scheidat et al. 2004, Simmonds 

2005, Watkins 1986, Williams et al. 2002). Some of these whales might experience physiological stress 

(but not “distress”) responses. However, we do not expect these responses to continue long enough to 

have fitness consequences for individual sperm whales because these whales are likely to have energy 

reserves sufficient to meet the demands of their normal behavioral patterns and those of a stress 

physiology. 

Based on the evidence available, we conclude that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE propose to 

authorize in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 are not likely to adversely affect 
288

the population dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of individual sperm whales in ways or 

to a degree that would reduce their fitness. As we discussed in the Approach to the Assessment section of 

this Opinion, an action that is not likely to reduce the fitness of individual sperm whales is not likely to 

reduce the viability of the populations those individual whales represent by reducing the population 

dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics of those populations (that is, we would not expect 

reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution of those populations). As a result, we conclude 

that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 

2013-2020 and the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE conducts each year would not appreciably reduce 

the sperm whale’s likelihood of surviving and recovering in the wild.

Table 13: Expected number of instances in which individual members of endangered whale species are 

likely to be “taken” as a result of their exposure to seismic airgun and HRG survey activities. See the 

Approach to the Assessment and the “Exposure Analyses” and “Response Analyses” subsections of the Effects of the 

Action section of this Opinion for an explanation of the methods used to produce these estimates. 

Species 

Annual Take Estimates from Surveys Using Airguns Under the Oil and Gas Program (2013 – 2020)

8-Year Estimate 

Based on Mean 

Annual Estimate 

and Confidence 

Intervals based 

on t-distribution

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Total Takes Over 

8 Years

(95% Confidence 

Interval)

Harass

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

0 114 224 26 185 137 127 86 58

851

(379-1,323)

Blue 

Whale 0 214 419 44 270 196 151 86 53

1,274

(413-2,135

Fin Whale 0 431 847 93 578 426 341 189 120

2,668

(937-4,439)

Sei Whale 0 193 378 41 251 184 145 80 49

1,175

(394-1,955)

Humpback 

Whale 0 578 1,131 118 719 521 396 227 136

3,402

(1,077-5,726)

Sperm 

Whale 0 15,567 30,356 2,980 17,549 12,443 8,756 5,364 2,926

85,281

(23,115-147-

447)
289

Table 14: Expected number of instances in which individual members of endangered whale species are likely to be 

“taken” as a result of their exposure to Non-airgun HRG survey activities under the Renewable Energy and Marine 

Minerals Programs. See the Approach to the Assessment and the “Exposure Analyses” and “Response Analyses” 

subsections of the Effects of the Action section of this Opinion for an explanation of the methods used to produce these 

estimates. 

Species 

Annual Take Estimates Using Non-Airgun HRG Surveys (2013 - 2020)

8-Year Estimate Based 

on Mean Annual 

Estimate and 

Confidence Intervals 

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Total Takes Over 8 

Years

(Confidence Interval)

Harass

North Atlantic Right 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

3

(2-5)

Blue Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1

(1-2)

Fin Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

2

(1-3)

Sei Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(1-2)

Humpback Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

3

(3-4)

Sperm Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 12

19

(0-45)
290

SEA TURTLES. 

The information available has not allowed us to estimate the probability of the different sea turtles being 

exposed to vessel traffic, seismic or HRG survey activities associated with the G&G activities BOEM and 

BSEE proposed in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020. 

Further, the information on the hearing capabilities of sea turtles is limited, although the information 

available suggests that the auditory capabilities of sea turtles are centered in the low-frequency range (<1 

kHz) (Ridgway et al. 1969; Lenhardt et al. 1983; Bartol et al. 1999, Lenhardt 1994, O’Hara and Wilcox 

1990). Ridgway et al. (1969) studied the auditory evoked potentials of three green sea turtles (in air and 

through mechanical stimulation of the ear) and concluded that their maximum sensitivity occurred from 

300 to 400 Hz with rapid declines for tones at lower and higher frequencies. They reported an upper limit 

for cochlear potentials without injury of 2000 Hz and a practical limit of about 1000 Hz. This is similar to 

estimates for loggerhead sea turtles, which had most sensitive hearing between 250 and 1000 Hz, with 

rapid decline above 1000 Hz (Bartol et al. 1999). No audiometric data are available for leatherback sea 

turtles. We assume, however, that all sea turtle hearing sensitivities will be similar to those of green and 

loggerhead sea turtles with their best hearing sensitivity in the low frequency range: from 50 to 400 Hz 

with rapid declines for tones at lower and higher frequencies and a practical upper limit of about 1600 Hz 

in water (Piniak et al. 2012).

Because the side scan sonar, depth sounders and subbottom profilers (at frequencies above 2 kHz) that 

would be used during the proposed G&G activities transmit at frequencies above hearing thresholds for 

sea turtles, sea turtles that are exposed to those transmissions are not likely to respond to that exposure. 

As a result, HRG surveys using those sound sources ―may affect, but are not likely to adversely affect 

green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles. 

Available studies suggest some sea turtles exhibit an avoidance reaction to airgun-generated sounds. 

McCauley et al. (2000b; 2000a) investigated the effects of airguns on sea turtle behavior. The authors 

found that green and loggerhead sea turtles show avoidance to airgun arrays at 2 km (1.1 nm) and at 1 km 

(0.54 nm) with received levels of 166 dB re 1 μPa and 175 dB re 1 μPa, respectively. Individual sea 

turtles responded consistently by noticeably increasing swimming activity above a level of approximately 

166 dB re 1 μPa (rms), as compared to swimming during non-airgun operation periods. The increase in 

swimming behavior tracked the received airgun level, by increasing at increasing levels. Above 175 dB 

re 1 μPa, turtle behavior became more erratic, possibly indicating the turtles were in an agitated state. In 

studies by Lenhardt (1994) and Lenhardt et al. (1983), loggerhead and Kemp’s ridley turtles responded to 
291

airgun pulses and low-frequency sound – e.g., by becoming active and swimming to the surface upon 

exposure. Moein et al. (1994) used an evoked potential method to test sea turtle hearing and reported 

avoidance behavior in loggerhead sea turtles at the beginning of airgun exposure trials; however, repeated 

airgun exposures days after the initial tests did not elicit a statistically significant avoidance response. 

The authors concluded this may be due to either habituation or temporary threshold shift in the turtles 

hearing capability. Based on a review of sea turtle data from 11 L-DEO seismic surveys since 2003, 

Holst et al. (2006) concluded that turtles exhibited localized avoidance during both large- and smallsource seismic surveys. 

Although studies suggest sea turtles are most likely to avoid seismic airgun pulses, monitoring reports 

from seismic surveys indicate occasions when sea turtles were likely exposed to seismic airgun pulses – 

e.g., green, leatherback, and olive ridley turtles during surveys in the Hess Deep area of the eastern 

tropical Pacific Ocean (Smultea and Holst 2003 as cited in NMFS, 2006h). Of six sea turtles that were 

sighted during those surveys, five were seen while airguns were active. In at least one instance, an olive 

ridley sea turtle was sighted within ten meters of the array while active. This turtle was reported to 

exhibit visible responses to either exposure to the seismic pulses or to the physical presence of the array 

and floats. Although the turtle swam away from the vessel and was not reported to suffer physical injury, 

it is assumed the turtle experienced a stress response to its exposure that may have risen to the level of 

harassment. Similarly, Holst et al. (2005b) report during seismic operations in the southern Gulf of 

Mexico off the Yucatán Peninsula, that seven sea turtles were sighted within the 180 dB safety radius in 

shallow water (< 40 m). One of these turtles was reported to be actively swimming away from the 

seismic source. Six of these turtles were seen < 200 m from the operating airguns before the airguns were 

powered- or shut-down (Holst, et al., 2005b). 

A more recent study by DeRuiter and Doukara (2012) reported on the observed reactions of loggerhead 

sea turtles during a seismic survey in the Mediterranean Sea off Algeria. The seismic survey was 

conducted with a 13-airgun array (nominal source level of 252 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak)), towed at a 

depth of 11.5m at 5 kts. All but 3 (swimming underwater) of the 164 loggerheads observed (98 percent), 

were motionless at the surface when observed and ranged from 10s of meters to nearly 2 km from the 

vessel when sighted. Observed reactions included head raising (6), flipper agitation (7), air bubble 

production around head (2) or diving. Of the 86 turtles whose dive behavior could be visually tracked 

until their passage more than 100 m behind the array, 49 (57 percent) dove (dove before passing behind 

the airgun array) and 37 (43 percent) did not dive (were in view at the surface until they had passed more 

than 100 m behind the airgun array). At least 6 turtles dove immediately following an airgun shot 

indicating a startle response. The authors suggest that loggerhead turtles interrupted basking behavior and 
292

dove (an avoidance response) in response to airgun sounds at relatively close ranges (130 m median 

distance, 839 m maximum distance) and exposure levels estimated at about 191 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak) 

at 130 m and 175 dB re 1μPa at 1 m (peak) at 839 m. 

Sea turtle hearing thresholds appear to be higher than those for mammals and DFO (2004) concluded it is 

unlikely that sea turtles would be more sensitive to seismic operations than cetaceans, based on available 

studies. Sea turtles are expected to be less sensitive to sounds; however, behavioral responses to 

environmental sounds are documented in several controlled experiments. Some possible reactions to low 

frequency sounds include startle responses and rapid swimming (M. Lenhardt, 2002; McCauley 2001 as 

cited in NMFS, 2006h), as well as swimming towards the surface at the onset of the sound (M. L. 

Lenhardt, 1994). 

Seismic airgun surveys conducted off of heavily used nesting beaches during the nesting season could 

temporarily displace adult turtles that are approaching or departing nesting beaches or resting in offshore 

waters between nesting events. Beaches of southeast Florida have been identified as the most important 

nesting area for loggerhead turtles The northern segment of the Archie Carr NWR borders the Action 

Area, and it has been estimated that 25 percent of all loggerhead nesting in the U.S. occurs there (USDOI, 

FWS, 2011). It is likely that large numbers of sea turtles would be present in nearshore and inner shelf 

during the nesting season. Breeding adults and nesting adult females could be exposed to airgun seismic 

survey-related sounds. Hatchlings may be somewhat insulated from the highest sound levels because of 

their occurrence at or near the sea surface. However, avoidance behavior may shorten the exposure 

period, and the ramping-up of airguns during the proposed activities would provide opportunity for 

avoidance by sea turtles, thereby minimizing exposure to received levels of concern. Avoidance or any 

disruptions in sea turtle behavior are expected to be temporary and are not expected to cause any injury. 

For those turtles that might be exposed to seismic pulses at levels above 166 dB re 1 μPa during the 

proposed activities, we expect this could result in a stress response. 

Nevertheless, we conclude that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE proposed in the mid-and South 

Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020 are not likely to reduce the viability of the nesting aggregations 

those sea turtles represent by reducing the population dynamics, behavioral ecology, and social dynamics 

of those populations (that is, we would not expect reductions in the reproduction, numbers, or distribution 

of those populations). As a result, those activities would not be expected to appreciably reduce the 

likelihood of green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, or Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles 

surviving and recovering in the wild by reducing their reproduction, numbers, or distribution. 
293

Atlantic Sturgeon 

The information available has not allowed us to estimate the probability of Atlantic sturgeon being 

exposed to vessel traffic, seismic or HRG survey activities associated with the G&G activities BOEM and 

BSEE proposed in the mid-and South Atlantic Planning Areas from 2013-2020. Because of their coastal 

distribution, only subadult and adult Atlantic sturgeon would be exposed to HRG surveys. Exposure to 

seismic surveys can occur since they can be conducted within 50 m of water; however, it is unclear how 

much ambient sound levels will increase in the shallow, coastal environment. 

Sturgeon in general can be classified as fishes that detect sounds from below 50 Hz to perhaps 800-1,000 

Hz (though several probably only detect sounds to 600-800 Hz). These fishes have a swim bladder but no 

known structures in the auditory system that would enhance hearing, and sensitivity (lowest sound 

detectable at any frequency) is not very great. Sounds would have to be more intense to be detected 

compared to fishes with swim bladders that enhance hearing. Sturgeon can detect both particle motion 

and pressure. 

Vessel noise produces sounds in the general hearing range of fishes (Amoser et al., 2004). Additionally, 

vessels (i.e., trawlers, ferries, small boats) can change fish behavior (e.g., induce avoidance, alter 

swimming speed and direction, and alter schooling behavior) (Sarà et al., 2007). The sounds produced by 

motor-driven ships causes herring to dive and swim away from the vessel (Mitson and Knudsen, 2003). 

Sand et al. (2008) have pointed out that passing ships produce high levels of infrasonic and low-frequency 

noise (>10-1,000 Hz), and that infrasonic frequencies may be responsible for the observed avoidance 

reactions. 

Atlantic sturgeon are expected to avoid seismic or HRG sources, but some may not avoid the source 

vessel and may be exposed to seismic sound at levels of concern. Avoidance behavior may shorten the 

exposure period. Avoidance or any disruptions in Atlantic sturgeon behavior are expected to be 

temporary and are not expected to cause any injury. Stress responses that rise to the level of harassment 

are not expected.

Conclusion 

After reviewing the current status of blue, fin, sei, humpback, north Atlantic right and sperm whales, 

green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles and Atlantic 

sturgeon; the environmental baseline for the Action Area; the anticipated effects of the proposed 

activities; and the cumulative effects, it is NMFS’ biological opinion that the proposed action, as 
294

described in this Opinion, is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species. It is also 

NMFS’ opinion that the proposed action, as described is not likely to destroy or adversely modify 

designated North Atlantic right whale critical habitat. 
295

INCIDENTAL TAKE STATEMENT 

Section 9 of the ESA and federal regulation pursuant to section 4(d) of the ESA prohibit the “take” of 

endangered and threatened species, respectively, without special exemption. “Take” is defined as to 

harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture or collect, or to attempt to engage in any such 

conduct. Harm is further defined by NMFS to include significant habitat modification or degradation that 

results in death or injury to listed species by significantly impairing essential behavioral patterns, 

including breeding, feeding, or sheltering. Incidental take is defined as take that is incidental to, and not 

the purpose of, the carrying out of an otherwise lawful activity. Under the terms of sections 7(b)(4) and 

7(o)(2), taking that is incidental and not intended as part of the agency action is not considered to be 

prohibited taking under the ESA provided that such taking is in compliance with the terms and conditions 

of this Incidental Take Statement (ITS). 

The measures described below are nondiscretionary, and must be undertaken by the Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) so that 

they become binding conditions for the exemption in section 7(o)(2) to apply. Section 7(b)(4) of the ESA 

requires that when a proposed agency action is found to be consistent with section 7(a)(2) of the ESA and 

the proposed action may incidentally take individuals of listed species, NMFS will issue a statement that 

specifies the impact of any incidental taking of endangered or threatened species. To minimize such 

impacts, reasonable and prudent measures, and term and conditions to implement the measures, must be 

provided. Only incidental take resulting from the agency actions and any specified reasonable and 

prudent measures and terms and conditions identified in the incidental take statement are exempt from the 

taking prohibition of section 9(a), pursuant to section 7(o) of the ESA. 

Section 7(b)(4)(C) of the ESA provides that if an endangered or threatened marine mammal is involved, 

the taking must first be authorized by Section 101(a)(5) of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, as 

amended (MMPA). Accordingly, this opinion does not exempt incidental take for North Atlantic right 

whales (Eubalaena glacialis), blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), 

humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis) and sperm whales 

(Physeter macrocephalus), at this time. In order to be exempt from the Section 9 take prohibitions, an 

MMPA authorization to take those marine mammals is required. NMFS will reinitiate this consultation 

as appropriate on NMFS Permits and Conservation Division’s proposed issuance of any MMPA 

incidental take authorization and may exempt the take of listed marine mammals at that time. 
296

Based on the analyses contained in the Effects of the Action section of this Opinion, NMFS anticipates 

the incidental harassment of blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus), fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus), 

humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis), sei 

whales (Balaenoptera borealis) and sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus), as well as green sea turtles 

(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata), Kemp’s ridley sea turtles 

(Lepidochelys kempii), leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea), and Northwest Atlantic 

loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) as a result of the proposed seismic and HRG activities. 

Amount or Extent of Take 

The section 7 regulations require NMFS to specify the impact of any incidental take of endangered or 

threatened species; that is, the amount or extent, of such incidental taking on the species (50 CFR § 

402.14(i)(1)(i)). The amount of take represents the number of individuals that are expected to be taken by 

the proposed action while the extent of take or “the extent of land or marine area that may be affected by 

an action” may be used if we cannot assign numerical limits for animals that could be incidentally taken 

during the course of an action (51 FR 19953). 

The effects analysis contained in this Opinion concluded that individual blue whales, fin whales, 

humpback whales, North Atlantic right whales, sei whales and sperm whales; green sea turtles, hawksbill 

sea turtles, Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, leatherback sea turtles and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles 

have small probabilities of being exposed to sound fields associated with seismic and HRG equipment or 

noise and other environmental cues associated with the movement of survey and support vessels. When 

we concluded that an exposure was likely to result in evasive behavior or changes in behavioral state, we 

treated those behavioral responses as “harassment” for the purposes of this incidental take statement. 

Based on our analyses, we did not expect any whales, sea turtles or sturgeon to be struck by survey 

vessels or entangled in survey equipment, so this Incidental Take Statement does not exempt “take” 

resulting from vessel strikes or entanglement in equipment. 

The instances of harassment identified in Table 1 and Table 2 are expected to result from changes from 

foraging, resting, milling, and other behavioral states that require lower energy expenditures to traveling, 

avoidance, and behavioral states that require higher energy expenditures and, therefore, would represent 

significant disruptions of the normal behavioral patterns of the animals that have been exposed. No 

whales are likely to die or be wounded as a result of their exposure to the G&G activities BOEM and 

BSEE propose from 2013 to 2020. Therefore, for the purposes of this biological opinion and incidental 

take statement, we assume that the G&G activities BOEM and BSEE propose to conduct within and 
297

adjacent to the mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas are likely to result in the following 

incidental “take” (by harassment) due to seismic and HRG survey activities under the Oil and Gas 

program (Table 1) and under the Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Programs (Table 2): 

Table 1: Expected number of instances in which individual members of endangered whale species are likely to be “taken” 

(by harassment) as a result of their exposure to seismic survey activities under the Oil and Gas Program. See the 

Approach to the Assessment and the “Exposure Analyses” and “Response Analyses” subsections of the Effects of the 

Action section of this Opinion for an explanation of the methods used to produce these estimates. 

Species 

Annual Take Estimates from Seismic and HRG Surveys Using Airguns the Oil and Gas 

Program (2013 – 2020)

8-Year Estimate (Mean 

Annual Estimate based on 

t-distribution)

(Confidence Interval)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Total Takes Over the 8-

Year Duration of the 

Proposed Action

(95% Confidence Interval)

Harass

North 

Atlantic 

Right 

Whale 

114 224 26 185 137 127 86 58

851

(379-1,323)

Blue Whale 214 419 44 270 196 151 86 53

1,274

(413-2,135)

Fin Whale 431 847 93 578 426 341 189 120

2,688

(937-4,439)

Sei Whale 193 378 41 251 184 145 80 49

1,175

(394-1,955)

Humpback 

Whale 578 1,131 118 719 521 396 227 136

3,402

(1,077-5,726)

Sperm 

Whale 15,567 30,356 2,980 17,549 12,443 8,756 5,364 2,926

85,281

(23,115-147,447)

Table 2 : Expected number of instances in which individual members of endangered whale species are likely to be 

“taken” (by harassment) as a result of their exposure to Non-Airgun HRG survey activities under the Renewable Energy 

and Marine Minerals Programs. See the Approach to the Assessment and the “Exposure Analyses” and “Response 

Analyses” subsections of the Effects of the Action chapter of this Opinion for an explanation of the methods used to 

produce these estimates.

Species 

Annual Take Estimates Using Non-Airgun HRG Surveys for the Renewable 

and Marine Minerals Programs (2013 - 2020)

8-Year Estimate (Mean 

Annual Estimate based 

on t-distribution)

(Confidence Interval)

2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Total Takes Over the 8-

Year Duration of the 

Proposed Action

(95% Confidence 

Interval)
298

Harass

North Atlantic Right 

Whale 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

3

(2-5)

Blue Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1

(1-2)

Fin Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

2

(1-3)

Sei Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1

(1-2)

Humpback Whale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

3

(3-4)

Sperm Whale 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 12

19

(0-45)

Determining the take of marine mammals requires knowledge of density of each endangered whale 

species in the areas where seismic and HRG surveys would occur, propagation of the sound fields in 

space and time, survey effort in tracklines or hours and spatial distribution of surveys. Because density 

estimates of blue whales, fin whales, humpback whales, North Atlantic right whales, sei whales and 

sperm whales in the survey area are uncertain; “take” of these species will have been exceeded if the 

density estimates used to produce these “take” estimates are exceeded, if the monitoring program 

associated with seismic and HRG survey activities detects any individuals of these species that have been 

harmed, wounded, or killed as a result of exposure to seismic and HRG transmissions, if survey effort (in 

number of tracklines or hours) is exceeded or if the spatial distribution of surveys change. 

We also expect the proposed action might also take (by harassment) individual green, hawksbill, Kemp’s 

ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles as a result of exposure to acoustic 

energy during seismic and HRG surveying using boomer and sparkers. Harassment of green, hawksbill, 

Kemp’s ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles is expected to occur at received 

levels of seismic energy above 166 dB re 1 μPa. Available studies suggest some sea turtles show 

avoidance to airgun arrays with received levels of 166 dB re 1 μPa. This incidental take would result 

from exposure to acoustic energy during seismic surveys and HRG surveys using boomers and sparkers, 

would be in the form of harassment, and is not expected to result in the death or injury of any individuals 

that are exposed. 

Determining the take of sea turtles requires knowledge of density of each sea turtle species in the areas 

where seismic surveys would occur, propagation of the sound field in space and time, survey effort in 

tracklines or hours and spatial distribution of surveys. Because density estimates of green, hawksbill, 
299

Kemp’s ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles in the survey area are unknown; 

we cannot reliably quantify the anticipated amount of take of sea turtles during seismic surveys. “Take” 

of these species will have been exceeded if the monitoring program associated with seismic and HRG 

survey activities detects any individuals of these species that have been harmed, injured, or killed as a 

result of exposure to seismic and HRG transmissions, if survey effort (in number of tracklines or hours) 

are exceeded or if the spatial distribution of surveys change. 

While Atlantic sturgeon may be disturbed by survey activities, we do not expect that this disturbance will 

rise to the level of harassment. We do not expect green, hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback or 

northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles to be taken by operation of side-scan sonars, chirp, subbottomprofilers, and single beam, swath or multibeam depth sounders as these are outside of the hearing ranges 

of these sea turtles. However, if overt adverse reactions (for example, dive reactions, or rapid departures 

from the area) by listed sea turtles are observed while these HRG sources are in operation, this may 

constitute take that is not covered in this Incidental Take Statement. If such overt adverse reactions are 

observed BOEM and/or BSEE must contact the Chief, Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation 

Division within 48 hours of the incident at 301-427-8403 and/or by email to kellie.fostertaylor@noaa.gov to determine whether reinitiation of consultation is required. 

Any incidental “take” of blue, fin, humpback, North Atlantic right, sei or sperm whales, or green, 

hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback and Northwest Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles is restricted to the 

action as proposed. If the incidental “take” meets or exceeds the predicted level as specified in this ITS 

by increases in survey effort in tracklines or hours or changes in the spatial distribution of surveys where 

surveys are not evenly distributed throughout the Action Area as BOEM has assumed in their modeling, 

BOEM and BSEE must reinitiate consultation. 

Effect of the Take

In the accompanying Opinion, NMFS determined that this level of harassment is not likely to jeopardize 

the continued existence of the endangered or threatened species for which “take” (by harassment) would 

be exempted by this Incidental Take Statement. Studies of marine mammals, sea turtles and seismic and 

HRG equipment transmissions have shown behavioral responses by these species to airgun and sonar 

transmissions. Although the biological significance of the animal’s behavioral responses remains 

uncertain, the best scientific and commercial data available leads us to conclude that exposing these 

endangered and threatened species to seismic and HRG equipment transmissions might disrupt one or 

more behavioral patterns that are essential to an individual animal’s life history or to the animal’s 
300

contribution to a population. For the proposed action, behavioral responses that result from seismic and 

HRG equipment transmissions and any associated disruptions are expected to be temporary and would 

not affect the reproduction, survival, or recovery of these species. 

Reasonable and Prudent Measures 

NMFS believes the reasonable and prudent measures described below are necessary and appropriate to 

minimize the impacts of incidental take on threatened and endangered species: 

1. BOEM shall condition the permits or leases it issues as part of the proposed action to require that 

each seismic or HRG vessel operator obtain an authorization under section 101(a)(5) of the 

MMPA as necessary and that this authorization be provided by the operator to BOEM prior to 

commencing activities under a BOEM permit or authorization. 

2. BOEM and/or BSEE shall condition the permits or leases it issues as part of the proposed action 

to require operators to implement the mitigation measures described in the Terms and Conditions 

of this Opinion, as appropriate. 

3. BOEM and BSEE must monitor the effectiveness of the mitigation measures described in the 

Terms and Conditions of this ITS. As methods to standardize data collection methods are 

available, BOEM will insure that data its collects or requires operators to collect comply with 

those standards (see NOAA Fisheries Service 2012 National Standards for a Protected Species 

Observer and Data Management Program: A model for Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, 

unpublished)) across survey types for moving (i.e., 2D, 3D), stationary and continuous sound 

sources (i.e., VSP surveys, shallow test and COST well drilling) and Planning Areas to allow for 

comparison between differences in survey design and different geographic locations. 

4. BOEM and/or BSEE shall submit reports that identify the location, timing, number of hours, and 

other aspects of the seismic and HRG activities conducted during seismic and HRG survey 

activities that describe the implementation and results of monitoring and mitigation. These 

reports will also be standardized as methods become available (see NOAA Fisheries Service 2012 

National Standards for a Protected Species Observer and Data Management Program: A model 

for Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, unpublished). 
301

Terms and Conditions 

To be exempt from the prohibitions of section 9 of the ESA, BOEM and BSEE must comply with the 

following terms and conditions, which implement the Reasonable and Prudent Measures described above 

and outlines the mitigation, monitoring and reporting measures required by the section 7 regulations (50 

CFR 402.14(i)). These terms and conditions are non-discretionary. If BOEM and/or BSEE fail to ensure 

compliance with these terms and conditions and their implementing reasonable and prudent measures, the 

protective coverage of section 7(o)(2) may lapse. 

1. BOEM shall condition the permits or leases it issues as part of the proposed action to require each 

seismic or HRG vessel operator to obtain an authorization under section 101(a)(5) of the MMPA 

as necessary and that this authorization be provided by the operator to BOEM prior to 

commencing activities under a BOEM permit or authorization. 

General Mitigation and Monitoring Requirements 

1. Airgun Surveys: BOEM and BSEE shall not authorize any surveys using airguns within North 

Atlantic right whale critical habitat in the southeast United States from November 15 through 

April 15 of each year or within the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic seasonal management areas 

(SMAs) from November 1 through April 30 of each year or within any established Dynamic 

Management Areas (DMAs). Any surveys authorized outside of critical habitat, SMA boundaries 

or DMAs are required to remain at a distance such that received levels at these boundaries are no 

more than 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) as determined by field verification or modeling. 

2. All Surveys: All G&G survey vessel operators must comply with requirements for vessel 

strike avoidance. See Vessel Strike Avoidance below. 

3. All Surveys: BOEM shall condition all G&G authorizations for shipboard surveys to 

include guidance for marine debris awareness which includes the safe disposal of trash 

and debris. All vessel operators, employees and contractors actively engaged in G&G 

surveys must be briefed on marine trash and debris awareness elimination as described in 

BSEE NTL No. 2012-G01 (Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and Elimination) 

(USDOI, BSEE, 2012a). G&G operators will be required to ensure that its employees 

and contractors are made aware of the environmental and socioeconomic impacts 

associated with marine trash and debris and their responsibilities for ensuring that trash 

and debris are not intentionally or accidentally discharged into the marine environment. 
302

4. Airgun Surveys: BOEM and BSEE must require operators to ramp-up airgun arrays. Ramp-up 

procedures apply specifically to airguns, not electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, 

boomers, sparkers, chirp subbottom- profilers and single beam, swath or multibeam depth 

sounders that may be operating concurrently during seismic airgun surveys. Protocols for 

initiating ramp-up procedures during all seismic airgun survey operations, including airgun 

testing, are as follows: 

a. Operators must visually monitor the exclusion zone and adjacent waters for the absence of 

ESA-listed marine mammals and sea turtles for at least 60 minutes before initiating ramp-up 

procedures. If no ESA-listed marine mammals or sea turtles are detected, ramp-up 

procedures may commence. Ramp-up at night or when the exclusion zone cannot be visually 

monitored is prohibited if the minimum source level drops below 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) 

(see measure iv). 

i. Initiate ramp-up procedures by firing a single airgun. The preferred airgun to 

begin with should be the smallest airgun, in terms of energy output (dB) and 

volume (in.3). 

ii. Continue ramp-up by gradually activating additional airguns over a period of 

at least 20 min, but no longer than 40 min, until the desired operating level of 

the airgun array is obtained. 

iii. Immediately shut down all airguns, ceasing seismic operations at any time an 

ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is detected entering or within the 

exclusion zone. After a shutdown, ramp-up and seismic operations may 

recommence only when the exclusion zone has been visually inspected for at 

least 60 minutes to ensure the absence of ESA-listed marine mammals and 

sea turtles. 

iv. Array source levels may be reduced using the same shot interval as that used 

during the seismic airgun survey, to maintain a minimum source level of 160 

dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) for the duration of certain activities. The 60-minute 

visual clearance of the exclusion zone before ramp-up to full power is not 

required if the minimum source level of 160 dB re 1 μPa-m (rms) is 

maintained. Activities that are appropriate for maintaining the minimum 

source level are (1) all turns between transect lines, when a survey using the 

full array is being conducted immediately prior to the turn and will be 

resumed immediately after the turn; and (2) unscheduled, unavoidable 

maintenance of the airgun array that requires the interruption of a survey to 
303

shut down the array. The survey should be resumed immediately after the 

repairs are completed, but should not exceed 20 minutes. Use of the 

minimum source level to avoid the 60-minute visual clearance of the 

exclusion zone is only for events that occur during a survey using the full 

power array. The minimum sound source level is not to be used to allow a 

later ramp-up after dark or in conditions when ramp-up would not otherwise 

be allowed. 

5. Airgun Surveys: BOEM and BSEE must require operators to establish Exclusion Zones for 

airgun seismic surveys. The exclusion zone is the area at and below the sea surface within a 

radius within which animals could be exposed to a received SPL of 180 dB re 1 μPa. The 180 dB 

re 1 μPa distance is calculated from the center of an airgun array and validated through field 

verification or modeling. The radius of the exclusion zone must be calculated independently for 

each survey based on the configuration of the airgun array and the ambient acoustic environment, 

but must not be less than 500 m (1640 ft). This exclusion zone applies specifically to airguns, not 

electromechanical sources such as side-scan sonars, boomers, sparkers and chirp subbottomprofilers, and single beam or multibeam depth sounders that may be operating concurrently 

during seismic airgun surveys. 

6. All Surveys: BOEM and BSEE must require operators to visually monitor for ESA-listed marine 

mammals and sea turtles. For surveys that require exclusion zones protected species observers 

must monitor for ESA-listed marine mammals and sea turtles within the survey exclusion zone. 

The main tasks of protected species observers are to monitor the exclusion zone for protected 

species and to observe and document their presence and behavior. Observers search the area 

around the vessel using hand-held reticle binoculars, and the unaided eye. If BOEM authorizes 

nighttime operations or if operations continue during periods of reduced visibility, operators must 

monitor the waters around the exclusion zone using available, effective monitoring technologies 

that may include, shipboard lighting, enhanced vision equipment, night-vision equipment and/or 

passive acoustic monitoring (See Passive Acoustic Monitoring below). 

7. All surveys: Protected species observers who possess extensive, relevant experience as protected 

species observers and/or have completed a protected species observer training program as 

described below, or similar to the program described below, are required on all vessels 

conducting seismic and HRG operations that require exclusion zones. 

8. Airgun Surveys: At least two protected species visual observers will be required onboard seismic 

airgun vessels, and undertake watches at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk) when 
304

operations are being conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, darkness) make sea surface 

observations impossible. If conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such that the sea surface 

observations are halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions permit. Seismic 

airgun operations may continue as long as minimum source levels are maintained. If ramp-up is 

required then seismic airgun operations cannot commence until the full exclusion zone can be 

monitored unless the vessel is utilizing PAM (See PAM section below). 

9. Airgun Surveys: Operators must engage trained third party observers. During these observations, 

the following guidelines shall be followed: (a) other than brief alerts to bridge personnel of 

maritime hazards, no additional duties may be assigned to the observer during his/her visual 

observation watch (if conditions warrant more vigilant look-outs when navigating around or near 

maritime hazards, additional personnel must be used to ensure that watching for protected species 

remains the primary focus of the on-watch observers); (b) no observer will be allowed more than 

4 consecutive hours on watch as a visual observer; (c) a “break” time of no less than 2 hours must 

be allowed, after a 4 hour watch rotation, before an observer begins another visual monitoring 

watch rotation (break time means no other assigned duties); and (d) no person on watch as a 

visual observer will be assigned a combined watch schedule of more than 12 hrs in a 24-hr 

period. 

10. All Surveys: When BOEM requires the use of a PAM system, a qualified operator will be 

assigned to monitor that station and communicate with the observer on the visual observing 

platform. Data are recorded on paper sheets and/or a laptop computer that has direct input from 

the vessel’s GPS navigation system. Observers rotate among the duty stations at regular 

intervals, and alternate work and rest periods. In the event an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea 

turtle is sighted or otherwise detected within the exclusion zone, operations are suspended until 

the animal leaves the area and at least 60 minutes have passed, with no ESA-listed marine 

mammals or turtles having been observed within the exclusion zone. 

Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance 

BOEM shall condition the permits or leases it issues as part of the proposed action to require all lessees 

and/or operators to abide by vessel strike avoidance measures for all shipboard surveys as specified 

below. The guidance would be similar to Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 (Vessel Strike Avoidance 

and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting) (USDOI, BOEM and BSEE, 2012b). These measures are 

required for lessees and/or operators except under extraordinary circumstances when the safety of the 

vessel or crew in doubt or the safety of life at sea is in question: 
305

1. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that vessel operators and crews maintain a vigilant watch 

for ESA-listed whales and sea turtles and slow down or stop their vessel to avoid striking 

protected species. 

2. The lessee and/or operators must ensure that all vessel operators must comply with 10 knot (18.5 

km/h) speed restrictions in any Dynamic Management Area (DMA). In addition, the lessee 

and/or operator must ensure that all vessels, operate at speeds of 10 knots (18.5 km/h) or less in 

the mid-Atlantic Seasonal Management Areas (SMAs) from November 1 through April 30, and in 

the southeast SMA from November 15 to April 15 (See 50 CFR 224.105 for specific locations of 

SMAs). 

3. For North Atlantic right whales: 

a. The lessee and/or operator must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 500 

m (1,640 ft) or greater from any sighted North Atlantic right whale(s). 

b. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that the following avoidance measures are taken 

if a vessel comes within 500 m (1,640 ft) of a right whale(s): 

i. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that while underway, any vessel must 

steer a course away from the right whale(s) at 10 knots (18.5 km/h) or less until 

the minimum separation distance has been established (unless (ii) below applies). 

ii. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that when a North Atlantic right whale is 

sighted in a vessel’s path, or within 100 m (328 ft) of an underway vessel, the 

underway vessel must reduce speed and shift the engine to neutral. The lessee 

and/or operator must not engage the engines until the right whale(s) has moved 

outside of the vessel’s path and beyond 100 m (328 ft). 

iii. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that if a vessel is stationary, the vessel 

must not engage engines until the North Atlantic right whale(s) has moved 

beyond 100 m (328 ft), at which time refer to point 3(b)(i). 

4. ESA-listed whales other than North Atlantic right whales 

a. The lessee and/or operator must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 100 

m (328 ft) or greater from any sighted ESA-Listed whale (s): 

b. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that the following avoidance measures are taken 

if a vessel comes within 100 m (328 ft) of an ESA-Listed whale (s): 

i. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that if an ESA-Listed whale (s) (other 

than a North Atlantic right whale) is sighted, the vessel underway must reduce 

speed and shift the engine to neutral, and must not engage the engines until the 
306

whale(s) has moved outside of the vessel’s path and the minimum separation 

distance has been established. 

ii. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that if a vessel is stationary, the vessel 

must not engage engines until the ESA-Listed whale (s) has moved out of the 

vessel’s path and beyond 100 m (328 ft). 

5. Sea turtles. The lessee and/or operator must ensure all vessels maintain a separation distance of 

50 m (164 ft) or greater from any sighted sea turtle. 

6. The lessee and/or operator must ensure that vessel operators are briefed to ensure they are 

familiar with the above requirements. 

Training for Seismic Airgun Surveys 

BOEM and BSEE shall require all visual observers to qualify for, and complete a protected species 

observer training course, as per the recommendations described in NOAA Fisheries Service 2012 

National Standards for a Protected Species Observer and Data Management Program: A model for 

Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, unpublished) that includes the requirements below. All protected species 

observer training programs must: 

1. Furnish BSEE a course information packet that includes the name and qualifications (i.e., 

experience, training completed, or educational background) of the instructor(s), the course outline 

or syllabus, and course reference material; 

2. Furnish each trainee with a document stating successful completion of the course; and 

3. Provide BSEE with names, affiliations, course completion dates for trainees. 

The training course must include the following topics: 

i. Brief overview of the MMPA and the ESA as they relate to seismic acquisition 

and protection of marine mammals and sea turtles in the Atlantic Ocean. 

ii. Brief overview of seismic acquisition operations. 

iii. Overview of seismic mitigation measures and the protected species observer 

program. 

iv. Discussion of the role and responsibilities of the protected species observer, 

including: 

a. Legal requirements (why you are here and what you do); 

b. Professional behavior (code of conduct); 

c. Integrity; 
307

d. Authority of protected species observer to call for shutdown of seismic 

acquisition operations; 

e. Assigned duties; 

f. What can be asked of the observer; 

g. What cannot be asked of the observer; and 

h. Reporting of violations and coercion; 

i. Identification of Atlantic marine mammals and sea turtles; 

j. Cues and search methods for locating marine mammals and sea turtles; and, 

k. Distance determination techniques and training. 

l. Data collection and reporting requirements: 

1. Forms and reports to BSEE via email on the 1st and 15th of each month; 

and, 

2. Marine mammal or sea turtle in exclusion zone/shutdown report within 

24 hr. 

Visual Monitoring Methods for Seismic Airgun Surveys 

All observers on duty will look for ESA-listed marine mammals and sea turtles using the naked eye and 

reticle, hand-held binoculars provided by the vessel operator. The observers will stand watch in a suitable 

location that will not interfere with navigation or operation of the vessel and that affords the observers an 

optimal view of the sea surface. Observers will adjust their positions to have a 360o view of the entire 

area around the vessel, where possible, but ensure complete coverage of the exclusion zone. 

1. Visual monitoring will begin no less than 60 minutes prior to the beginning of airgun ramp-up 

and continue until operations cease or sighting conditions do not allow observation of the sea 

surface (e.g., fog, rain, darkness). 

2. If an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is observed, the observer should note and monitor 

the position (including latitude/longitude of the vessel and relative bearing and estimated distance 

to the animal) until the animal dives or moves out of visual range of the observer. Continue to 

observe for additional animals that may surface in the area, as often there are numerous animals 

that may surface at varying time intervals. 

3. At any time an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, 

whether due to the animal’s movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced 

inside the exclusion zone, the observer will call for the immediate shutdown of the operation, 
308

including airgun firing (the vessel may continue on its course but all airgun discharges must 

cease). The vessel operator must comply immediately with such a call by an on-watch visual 

observer. Any disagreement or discussion should occur only after shutdown. 

4. After a shutdown, when no ESA-listed marine mammals or sea turtles are sighted for at least a 

60-minute period, airgun ramp-up of the source array may begin. Ramp-up cannot begin unless 

conditions allow the sea surface to be visually inspected for ESA-listed marine mammals and sea 

turtles for 60 minutes prior to commencement of ramp-up. Ramp-up cannot begin after dark or in 

conditions that prohibit visual inspection (e.g., fog, rain, etc.) of the exclusion zone unless PAM 

is utilized. 

5. Any shutdown due to an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle sighting within the exclusion 

zone must be followed by a 60-minute all-clear period and then a standard, full ramp-up. Any 

shutdown for other reasons, including, but not limited to, mechanical or electronic failure, 

resulting in the cessation of the sound source for a period greater than 20 minutes, must also be 

followed by full ramp-up procedures. 

6. Periods of airgun silence not exceeding 20 minutes in duration will not require ramp-up for the 

resumption of seismic operations if (a) visual surveys are continued diligently throughout the 

silent period (requiring daylight and reasonable sighting conditions), and (b) no ESA-listed 

marine mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone. If ESA-listed marine 

mammals or sea turtles are observed in the exclusion zone during the short silent period, 

resumption of seismic survey operations must be preceded by ramp-up only after no ESA-listed 

marine mammals or turtles have been observed in the exclusion zone for a period of 60 minutes. 

Airgun Shutdown Requirements 

The seismic airgun survey protocol will require shutdown of the airgun array any time an ESA-listed 

marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s 

movement, the vessel’s movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone. In the event 

of a shutdown, seismic operations and ramp-up of airguns would resume only when the sighted animal 

has cleared the exclusion zone and no other ESA-listed marine mammals or sea turtles have been sighted 

within the exclusion zone for at least 60 minutes. 

Passive Acoustic Monitoring for Airgun Seismic Surveys 

BOEM shall condition the permits or leases it issues as part of the proposed action to require operators to 

include passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) as part of the protected species observer program for airgun 

seismic surveys. Operators using passive acoustic array devices are required to employ an observer 
309

proficient in passive acoustic monitoring operations and methods to detect vocalizing cetaceans. By 

using PAM devices, operators can ramp-up and start/resume a seismic survey during times of reduced 

visibility (e.g., darkness, fog, rain, etc.) when such ramp-up otherwise would not be permitted using only 

visual observers. All other mitigation measures required for seismic surveys remain applicable to seismic 

survey operations. A description of the passive acoustic system, the software used, and the monitoring 

plan should also be reported to BSEE and NMFS prior to its use. NMFS will work with operators to 

determine which PAM systems are adequate for use. 

Non-Airgun HRG Survey Protocol for Renewable Energy and Marine Minerals Sites

The HRG surveys for renewable energy and marine minerals sites would use only electromechanical 

sources such as side-scan sonar, boomer and chirp subbottom profilers, and single beam, swath and 

multibeam depth sounders. All authorizations for non-airgun HRG surveys would include the 

requirements listed for all surveys under the General Monitoring and Mitigation Requirements section 

and the Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance sections as applicable above. All authorizations for nonairgun HRG surveys using sound sources below 200 kHz would include requirements for visual 

monitoring of an exclusion zone by protected species observers and start-up and shut-down requirements 

as described below. The HRG surveys for oil and gas exploration typically, but not always, use 

electromechanical sources operating concurrently with airgun arrays. If seismic airguns are used, these 

surveys would be subject to the seismic airgun survey protocol described above. 

Non-Airgun HRG Protocol Requirements

1. All non-airgun HRG surveys must comply with the requirements for vessel strike 

avoidance (See Guidance for Vessel Strike Avoidance above). The recommended 

separation distance for North Atlantic right whales of 500 m (1,640 ft) would remain 

in effect during HRG surveys since it exceeds the exclusion zone radius specified 

below. Recommended separation distances for other ESA-listed whales are less than 

the exclusion zone radius of 200 m (656 ft) required for these species and, therefore, 

would be superseded by the exclusion zone radius during HRG surveys. 

2. All non-airgun HRG surveys within Southeast Right Whale Critical Habitat during the 

calving and nursing season shall operate sound sources at frequencies above 30 kHz except 

for surveys meeting critical program needs. Surveys BOEM determines to be critical to 

program needs can be authorized to use frequencies at and below 30 kHz (within the 

audibility range of North Atlantic right whales). This determination will consider whether 
310

survey planning could have scheduled survey activities outside of the calving and nursing 

season and how the particular survey fills a critical need of the program. For these surveys, 

BOEM will only authorize the use of sound sources at and below 30 kHz during daylight 

hours (Marine Minerals Program) or use of sound sources above 200 kHz at night and sound 

sources at and below 30 kHz and within the audibility range of North Atlantic right whales 

during daylight hours (Renewable Energy Program). Only 1-2 surveys that may require the 

use of sound sources at and below 30 kHz are anticipated to occur per year within North 

Atlantic right whale critical habitat in the southeast during the calving and nursing season. 

3. All non-airgun HRG surveys within or adjacent to North Atlantic right whale critical habitat 

in the southeastern United States, within or adjacent to SMAs or within established DMAs, 

BOEM and BSEE must require operators to implement the following measures : 

a. Vessel Strike Avoidance: A distance of 500 m (1,640 ft) from right whales must be 

maintained during transit and the Early Warning System, Sighting Advisory System, 

and Mandatory Ship Reporting System data notifying mariners of right whale 

presence must be monitored during transit and operation. 

b. A 200-m (656 ft) radius exclusion zone would be monitored by a protected species 

observer that would encompass the 180 dB re 1 μPamrms isopleth of any acoustic 

source. If the source produces a wider radius than this, than the exclusion zone 

would be increased to the field verification or modeled distance. 

c. Non-airgun HRG transmissions within a DMA must cease within 24 hours of the 

DMA’s establishment. 

d. At least one protected species observer would be required on watch aboard 

HRG survey vessels at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk – i.e., 

from about 30 minutes before sunrise to 30 minutes after sunset) when 

survey operations are being conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, fading 

light) make sea surface observations impossible. If conditions deteriorate 

during daylight hours such that the sea surface observations are halted, visual 

observations must resume as soon as conditions permit. Ongoing activities 

may continue but may not be initiated under such conditions (i.e., without 

appropriate pre-activity monitoring), unless as provided for under General 

Mitigation and Monitoring Requirements #6. 
311

i. Visual monitoring will begin no less than 60 minutes prior to start-up and 

continue until operations cease or sighting conditions do not allow 

observation of the sea surface (e.g., fog, rain, fading light). 

ii. At any time an ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is observed within 

the exclusion zone, whether due to the animal’s movement, the vessel’s 

movement, or because the animal surfaced inside the exclusion zone, the 

observer will call for the immediate shutdown of the operation. The vessel 

operator must comply immediately with such a call by an on-watch visual 

observer. Any disagreement or discussion should occur only after shutdown. 

The following additional requirements apply to non-airgun HRG surveys in which one or 

more active acoustic sound sources will be operating at frequencies less than 200 kHz. 

1. A 200-m (656-ft) radius exclusion zone will be established and monitored around the 

sound source. However, if this exclusion zone does not encompass the 180-dB 

radius, as validated through field verification or modeling, for any acoustic source 

proposed for use, BOEM may authorize, with NMFS’ concurrence, surveys having a 

larger exclusion zone to encompass the 180-dB radius. Effectiveness can be 

evidenced by monitoring studies that have been carried out (i.e., Barkaszi et al 2012). 

Demonstration may also be in the class of boat used for the survey work, some of 

which may not have flying bridges or an observer height on deck that easily allows 

visual observation of the larger exclusion zone. 

2. At least one protected species observer would be required on watch aboard HRG 

survey vessels at all times during daylight hours (dawn to dusk – i.e., from about 30 

minutes before sunrise to 30 minutes after sunset) when survey operations are being 

conducted, unless conditions (fog, rain, fading light) make sea surface observations 

impossible. If conditions deteriorate during daylight hours such that the sea surface 

observations are halted, visual observations must resume as soon as conditions 

permit. Ongoing activities may continue but may not be initiated under such 

conditions (i.e., without appropriate pre-activity monitoring), unless as provided for 

under General Mitigation and Monitoring Requirements #6. 

3. Active acoustic sound sources must not be activated until the protected species 

observer has reported the exclusion zone clear of all ESA-listed marine mammals 

and sea turtles for 60 minutes. 
312

4. If any ESA-listed marine mammal or sea turtle is sighted at or within the 

exclusion zone, operators are required to immediately shutdown the equipment. 

Subsequent restart of the equipment may only occur following a confirmation that 

the exclusion zone if clear of ESA-listed marine mammals and sea turtles for 60 

minutes. 

Borehole Seismic Surveys 

Borehole seismic surveys (completed during VSP surveys) differ from surface seismic surveys in a 

number of ways, including the use of much smaller airgun arrays, having an average survey time of 12-24 

hours, utilizing a sound source that may or may not move at 7.4-9.3 km/hr (4-5 kn), and requiring the 

capability of moving the receiver in the borehole between shots. Due to these differences, the following 

altered mitigation measures apply only to borehole seismic surveys: 

1. During daylight hours, when visual observations of the exclusion zone are being performed 

as required in this protocol, borehole seismic operations will not be required to ramp-up for 

shutdowns of 30 min or less in duration, as long as no ESA-listed marine mammals or sea 

turtles are observed in the exclusion zone during the shutdown. If an ESA-listed marine 

mammal or sea turtle is sighted in the exclusion zone, ramp-up is required and may begin 

only after visual surveys confirm that the exclusion zone has been clear for 60 minutes. 

2. Nighttime or poor visibility ramp-up is allowed only when passive acoustics are used to 

ensure that no ESA-listed marine mammals are present in the exclusion zone (as for all other 

seismic surveys). Operators are strongly encouraged to acquire the survey in daylight hours 

when possible. 

3. Protected species observers must be used during daylight hours, as required in this protocol, 

and may be stationed either on the source boat or on the associated drilling rig or platform if a 

clear view of the exclusion zone and adjacent waters is available. 

4. All other mitigations and provisions for seismic surveys as set forth in this protocol will apply 

to borehole seismic surveys. 

Reporting Requirements for Seismic Airgun Surveys 

BOEM and BSEE shall require operators to submit observer effort reports and survey reports for each 

seismic airgun survey conducted. In order to accommodate various vessels’ bridge practices and 

preferences, vessel operators and observers may design data reporting forms in whatever format they 

deem convenient and appropriate. Alternatively, observers or vessel operators may adopt the United 
313

Kingdom’s JNCC forms (available at their website, http://www.jncc.gov.uk). At a minimum, the 

following items should be recorded and included in reports to the BOEM and BSEE (see NOAA Fisheries 

Service 2012 National Standards for a Protected Species Observer and Data Management Program: A 

model for Seismic Surveys (Baker et al, unpublished). 

Observer Effort Report: BOEM requires the submission of observer effort reports to BSEE on the 1st

and the 15th of each month for each day seismic acquisition operations are conducted. These reports must 

include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Observers’ names and affiliations; 

3. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

4. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for “onlease seismic surveys”); 

5. Date; 

6. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey began; 

7. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey ended; and 

8. Average environmental conditions while on each visual survey rotation and session as well as 

when any conditions change during the rotation ,each session, including: 

a. Wind speed and direction; 

b. Sea state (glassy, slight, choppy, rough, or Beaufort scale); 

c. Swell (low, medium, high, or swell height in meters); and 

d. Overall visibility (poor, moderate, good). 

Survey Report: BOEM requires the submission of survey reports to BSEE on the 1st and the 15th of the 

month for each day seismic acquisition operations are conducted and airguns are discharged. These 

reports must include:

1. Vessel name; 

2. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

3. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for 

“on-lease seismic surveys”), if applicable; 

4. Date; 

5. Time pre-ramp-up survey begins; 

6. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during pre-ramp-up surveys 

7. Time ramp-up begins; 
314

8. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during ramp-up;

9. Time sound source (airguns or HRG equipment) is operating at the desired intensity; 

10. Observations of marine mammals and sea turtles seen during surveys; 

11. If marine mammals or sea turtles were seen, was any action taken (i.e., survey delayed, 

guns shut down)? 

12. Reason that marine mammals and sea turtles might not have been observed (e.g., swell, 

glare, fog); and 

13. Time sound source (airgun array or HRG equipment) stops firing. 

Sighting Report: BOEM shall require the submission of reports to BSEE for marine mammals and sea 

turtles sighted during seismic and HRG surveys on the 1st and the 15th of each month except as indicated 

below. These reports are in addition to any reports required as a condition of the geophysical permit and 

must include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Survey type (e.g., site, 3D, 4D); 

3. BOEM Permit Number (for “off-lease seismic surveys”) or OCS Lease Number (for “onlease seismic surveys”); 

4. Date; 

5. Time; 

6. Watch status (Were you on watch or was this sighting made opportunistically by you or 

someone else?); 

7. Observer or person who made the sighting; 

8. Latitude/longitude of vessel; 

9. Bearing of vessel; (true compass direction); 

10. Bearing (true compass direction) and estimated range to animal(s) at first sighting; 

11. Water depth (meters); 

12. Species (or identification to lowest possible taxonomic level); 

13. Certainty of identification (sure, most likely, best guess); 

14. Total number of animals; 

15. Number of juveniles; 

16. Description (as many distinguishing features as possible of each individual seen, 

including length, shape, color and pattern, scars or marks, shape and size of dorsal fin, 

shape of head, and blow characteristics); 

17. Direction of animal’s travel – compass direction; 
315

18. Direction of animal’s travel – related to the vessel (drawing preferably); 

19. Behavior (as explicit and detailed as possible; note any observed changes in behavior); 

20. Activity of vessel; 

21. Airguns firing? (yes or no); and 

22. Closest distance (meters) to animals from center of airgun or airgun array (whether firing 

or not). 

BOEM shall also require operators to report sightings of ESA-listed marine mammals or sea turtles within 

the exclusion zone that resulted in a shutdown of the airguns within 24 hours of the shut-down to BSEE. 

The sighting report must include the observed behavior of the animal(s) before shutdown, the observed 

behavior following shutdown (specifically noting any change in behavior), and the length of time between 

shutdown and subsequent ramp-up to resume the seismic survey (note if seismic survey was not resumed 

as soon as possible following shutdown). These sightings should also be included in the first regular 

semi-monthly report following the incident. Sighting forms should be scanned (or data typed) and sent via 

email to the BOEM and BSEE. If passive acoustic monitoring is used, an assessment must be included of 

the usefulness, effectiveness, and problems encountered with the use of that method of marine mammal 

detection in the reports described in this protocol. 

Non Airgun HRG and Geotechnical Survey Reporting Requirements 

Protected Species Observer Reports: Data on all protected species observations must be recorded by the 

protected species observer based on standard marine mammal observer data collection protocols. This 

information must include: 

1. Vessel name; 

2. Observers’ names, affiliations and resumes; 

3. Date; 

4. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey began; 

5. Time and latitude/longitude when daily visual survey ended; and 

6. Average environmental conditions during visual surveys including: 

a. Wind speed and direction; 

b. Sea state (glassy, slight, choppy, rough, or Beaufort scale); 

c. Swell (low, medium, high, or swell height in meters); and 

d. Overall visibility (poor, moderate, good). 
316

7. Species (or identification to lowest possible taxonomic level); 

8. Certainty of identification (sure, most likely, best guess); 

9. Total number of animals; 

10. Number of calves, and juveniles (if distinguishable); 

11. Description (as many distinguishing features as possible of each individual seen, 

including length, shape, color and pattern, scars or marks, shape and size of dorsal fin, 

shape of head, and blow characteristics); 

12. Direction of animal’s travel – related to the vessel (drawing preferably); 

13. Behavior (as explicit and detailed as possible; note any observed changes in behavior); 

14. Activity of vessel when sighting occurred. 

Non-Airgun and Geotechnical Reporting Requirements: The lessee/operator must provide BOEM 

with a report within ninety (90) calendar days following the commencement of HRG and/or geotechnical 

sampling activities that includes all protected species observer reports, a summary of the survey activities 

and an estimate of the number of listed marine mammals and sea turtles observed or taken during these 

survey activities. 

General Reporting to NMFS 

1. BOEM and/or BSEE shall deliver a report of data collected during the first year and every year, 

thereafter delivered in March of the following year for which survey activities are conducted. These 

reports must include the information contained in Observer Reports, Survey Reports and the Sighting 

Reports submitted by all survey operators (Seismic Airgun, Non-airgun HRG and Geotechnical). 

These reports shall also include the results, if any, of coordination with coastal marine mammal 

stranding networks. The annual report must address all affected threatened and endangered species as 

well as critical habitat (including the number and durations of surveys authorized) addressed in this 

Opinion. The annual reports shall be submitted to: (1) Chief, Endangered Species Act Interagency 

Cooperation Division, 1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910. 

2. BOEM and BSEE shall deliver a 4-year report (covering the years 2013-2016) by September 2017 

and a final comprehensive report (covering the years 2013-2020) by September 2021, to the Chief, 

Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation Division, Office of Protected Resources, containing 

the same information cited in condition 1 of this section. These reports will also address the 

effectiveness of all mitigation and monitoring, including PAM systems. This report will also address 

any conservation recommendations BOEM and/or BSEE have adopted and their progress to date. 
317

3. In the unanticipated event that the specified activity clearly causes the take of an ESA-listed marine 

mammal or sea turtle in a manner not exempted by this Incidental Take Statement, such as serious 

injury or mortality (e.g., ship-strike, gear interaction, and/or entanglement), survey operators shall 

immediately report the incident to BOEM and BSEE and the Chief, Endangered, Species Act 

Interagency Cooperation Division, Office of Protected Resources, NMFS, at 301-427-8403 and/or by 

email to kellie.foster-taylor@noaa.gov and the appropriate NMFS Regional Stranding Coordinator 

(NMFS Northeast Regional Stranding Coordinator for the mid-Atlantic Planning Area and NMFS 

Southeast Regional Stranding Coordinator for South Atlantic Planning Area). The report must 

include the following information: 

(a) Time, date, and location (latitude/longitude) of the incident; the name and type of vessel 

involved; the vessel’s speed during and leading up to the incident; description of the incident; 

status of all sound source use in the 24 hours preceding the incident; water depth; environmental 

conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction, Beaufort sea state, cloud cover, and visibility); 

description of marine mammal and sea turtle observations in the 24 hours preceding the incident; 

species identification or description of the animal(s) involved; the fate of the animal(s); and 

photographs or video footage of the animal (if equipment is available). 

Following the submittal of this incident report, BOEM and BSEE should contact NMFS to determine 

whether the incident requires reinitiation of formal consultation. NMFS shall work with BOEM/BSEE 

and the operator to determine what is necessary to minimize the likelihood of further prohibited take. 

Activities may continue while NMFS reviews the circumstances of the incident. NMFS will work with 

BOEM/BSEE and the operator to determine whether modifications in the activities are appropriate. 

In the event that an operator discovers an injured or dead marine mammal, and the lead PSO determines 

that the cause of the injury or death is unknown and the death is relatively recent (i.e., in less than a 

moderate state of decomposition as described in the next paragraph), BOEM and/or BSEE shall report the 

incident to the Chief, Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation Division, Office of Protected 

Resources, NMFS, at 301-427-8403, and/or by email to kellie.foster-taylor@noaa.gov, and to the 

appropriate NMFS Stranding Coordinator (Northeast Regional Office for surveys in the mid-Atlantic 

Planning Area, or Southeast Regional Office for surveys in the South Atlantic Planning Area) within 24 

hours of the discovery. Photographs or video footage (if available) or other documentation of the 

stranded animal sighting should be sent to NMFS and the Marine Mammal Stranding Network. The 

report must include the same information identified in Condition 3(a) of this section. Activities may 
318

continue while NMFS reviews the circumstances of the incident. NMFS will work with BOEM/BSEE 

and the operator to determine whether modifications in the activities are appropriate. 

In the event that an operator discovers an injured or dead marine mammal, and the lead PSO determines 

that the injury or death is not associated with or related to the activities authorized in ITS (e.g., 

previously wounded animal, carcass with moderate to advanced decomposition, or scavenger damage), 

BOEM and/or BSEE shall report the incident to the Chief, Endangered Species Act Interagency 

Cooperation Division, Office of Protected Resources, NMFS, at 301-427-8403, and/or by email to 

kellie.foster-taylor@noaa.gov, and to the appropriate NMFS Stranding Coordinator (Northeast Regional 

Office for surveys in the mid-Atlantic Planning Area, or Southeast Regional Office for surveys in the 

South Atlantic Planning Area) within 24 hours of the discovery. Photographs or video footage (if 

available) or other documentation of the stranded animal sighting should be sent to NMFS and the 

Marine Mammal Stranding Network. Activities may continue while NMFS reviews the circumstances 

of the incident. 
319

CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS 

Section 7(a)(1) of the ESA directs federal agencies to use their authorities to further the purposes of the 

ESA by carrying out conservation programs for the benefit of endangered and threatened species. 

Conservation recommendations are discretionary agency activities to minimize or avoid adverse effects of 

a proposed action on listed species or critical habitat, to help implement recovery plans, or to develop 

information. We recommend the following conservation recommendations, which would provide 

information for future consultations involving G&G activities that may affect endangered or threatened 

species: 

1. BOEM and BSEE should work with NMFS Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation 

Division and other relevant stakeholders (the Marine Mammal Commission, International Whaling 

Commission, and the marine mammal research community) to develop a method for assessing the 

cumulative impacts of anthropogenic noise on cetaceans, pinnipeds, sea turtles, and other marine 

animals. This includes the cumulative impacts on the distribution, abundance, and the physiological, 

behavioral and social ecology of these species. 

2. BOEM and BSEE should review reports submitted for seismic and HRG surveys and compile and 

analyze information to improve agency estimates of the number of the different species of marine 

mammals and sea turtles that are likely to be exposed to sounds from seismic surveys, the response of 

those species to this exposure, and the probable consequences of those responses on the life history of 

individual animals. The results should be provided to the Endangered Species Act Interagency 

Cooperation Division as part of requests for consultation on future proposals to authorize incidental 

harassment. 

3. To the maximum extent practicable, BOEM and BSEE should encourage operators to schedule 

seismic operations (i.e., shooting airguns) during daylight hours and deploy/retrieve equipment to 

nighttime hours. 

4. To the maximum extent practicable, BOEM should require survey operators to plan survey tracklines 

(especially when near land) starting from the coast (inshore) and proceeding towards the sea 

(offshore) to avoid trapping marine mammals in shallow water. 

5. BOEM and BSEE should monitor ambient sound levels within the Action Area as well as elevated 

sound levels due to seismic and HRG activities to gain insight into the incremental impact of 

increasing sound levels on listed species in the Northwest Atlantic. 

6. BOEM and BSEE should partner with other entities that conduct seismic and sonar activities such as 

the U.S. Navy and the National Science Foundation to coordinate the timing and spatial arrangement 

of surveys and training exercises. 
320

7. BOEM and BSEE should also partner with the National Science Foundation and other agencies as 

opportunities arise to explore sharing in situ propagation measurements used for marine mammal 

exposure models. 

In order for NMFS’ Office of Protected Resources Endangered Species Act Interagency Cooperation 

Division to be kept informed of actions minimizing or avoiding adverse effects on, or benefiting, ESAlisted species or their habitats, BOEM and/or BSEE should notify the Endangered Species Act 

Interagency Cooperation Division of any conservation recommendations they implement in their final 

action. 

REINITIATION NOTICE 

This concludes formal consultation on BOEM’s and BSEE’s proposed geological and geophysical 

activities in the Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas. As provided in 50 CFR §402.16, reinitiation of 

consultation is required where control over the action has been retained (or is authorized by law) and if: 

(1) the amount or extent of incidental take is exceeded; (2) new information reveals effects of the agency 

action that may affect listed species or critical habitat in a manner or to an extent not considered in this 

opinion; (3) the agency action is subsequently modified in a manner that causes an effect to the listed 

species or critical habitat not considered in this opinion; or (4) a new species is listed or critical habitat 

designated that may be affected by the action. In instances where the amount or extent of authorized take 

is exceeded, section 7 consultation must be reinitiated immediately. 

The analyses that form the basis for the conclusions of this biological opinion are based on estimates of 

survey effort specified in applications BOEM submitted previously for seismic surveys along the eastern 

seaboard of the United States. Similarly, the estimates of the number of listed species that are likely to be 

“taken” as a result of the proposed seismic surveys are based on those same estimates. 

Because of the limited number of samples, there is considerable uncertainty associated with those “take” 

estimates, particularly with estimates of the number of surveys that would actually occur, the total number 

of hours active sources associated with those surveys would operate, and where the surveys would occur. 

Estimates associated with future surveys, when combined with existing estimates, would increase the 

sample size as well as the level of confidence associated with any new estimates we generate from the 

accumulated data. Based on our analyses, data from 12 additional seismic surveys would provide a 

sample size large enough to make us more confident of the data on which the conclusions of this opinion 

are based. If the mean values of new estimates based on those 12 additional surveys exceed the mean 

values of the estimates contained in this opinion (for example, estimates of total number of operating 
321

hours, operating hours associated with different kinds of survey equipment, spatial distribution of 

operating hours, and variability in survey effort) by 25% or more (we estimated mean values and 

confidence intervals based on the t-distribution and using the procedures and formulae described by 

Cumming (2012)), we would treat that new data as significant new information that reveals effects we 

have not considered in this opinion. Those new data would also be evidence that the amount or extent of 

incidental take would have been exceeded. In either case, reinitiation of formal consultation would be 

required. 

Similarly, existing density estimates of large whales are the basis for the exposure estimates contained in 

this opinion and for the take estimates contained in the Incidental Take Statement of this opinion. New 

density estimates are expected in the near future through the Cetacean Sound Mapping Program. Any new 

density estimates may also constitute significant new information that would require reinitiation of 

consultation. 
322

Literature Cited 

Abgrall, P., V.D. Moulton and W.J. Richardson. 2008. Updated review of scientific information on 

impacts of seismic survey sound on marine mammals, 2004-present. LGL Rep. SA973-1. Rep. 

from LGL Limited, St. John's, NL and King City, ON, for Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 

Habitat Science Branch, Ottawa, ON. 27 p. + appendices 

Acevedo-Gutierrez, A., D. A. Croll, and B. R. Tershy. 2002. High feeding costs limit dive time in the 

largest whales. The journal of Experimental Biology 205:1747-1753. 

Acevedo-Guttierrez, A., B. Brennan, P. Rodriguez, and M. Thomas. 1997. Resightings and behavior of 

false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens) in Costa Rica. Marine Mammal Science 13:7. 

Agler, B. A., R. L. Schooley, S. E. Frohock, S. K. Katona, and I. E. Seipt. 1993. Reproduction of 

photographically identified fin whales, Balaenoptera physalus, from the Gulf of Maine. Journal 

of Mammalogy 74:577-587. 

Aguilar, A. 2000. Population biology, conservation threats and status of Mediterranean striped dolphins 

(Stenella coeruleoalba). Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2. 

Aguilar, A. and A. Borrell. 1990. Patterns of lipid content and stratification in the blubber of fin whales 

(Balaenoptera physalus). Journal of Mammalogy 71:544-554. 

Aguilar, R., J. Mas and X. Pastor (1995). Impact of Spanish swordfish longline fisheries on the 

loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, population in the western Mediterranean. 12th Annual 

Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, Jekyll Island, Georgia. 

Akamatsu, T., T. Okumura, N. Novarini, and H. Y. Yan. 2002. Empirical refinements applicable to the 

recording of fish sounds in small tanks. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:10. 

Akamatsu, T., D. Wang, K. Nakamura, and K. Wang. 1998. Echolocation range of captive and freeranging baiji (Lipotes vexillifer), finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides), and bottlenose 

dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 104:2511. 

Alava, J. J., M. J. Barragan, C. Castro, and R. Carvajal. 2005. A note on strandings and entanglements of 

humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Ecuador. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 7:163 - 168. 

Alfano, G., A. D. Maio, and A. Farina. 2004. Model-based adaptive detection of range-spread targets. IEE 

Proceedings, Radar, Sonar, and Navigation 151:9. 

Alfaro-Shigueto J, P.H. Dutton, J. Mangel, and D. Vega. 2004. First confirmed occurrence of loggerhead 

turtles in Peru. Marine Turtle Newsletter 103:7-11. 

Allen, B. M., and R. P. Angliss. 2012. Alaska marine mammal stock assessments, 2011. U.S. Dep. 

Commer., NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-AFSC-234, 288 p. 

Allen, R. C. and I. A. N. Keay. 2004. Saving the whales: lessons from the extinction of the eastern Arctic 

bowhead. The Journal of Economic History 64:400 - 432.

Alonso, M. K., S. N. Pedraza, A. C. M. Schiavini, R. N. P. Goodall, and E. A. Crespo. 1999. Stomach 

contents of false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens) stranded on the coasts of the Strait of 

Magellan, Tierra del Fuego. Marine Mammal Science 15:13. 

Amano, M. and M. Yoshioka. 2003. Sperm whale diving behavior monitored using a suction-cupattached TDR tag. Marine Ecology Progress Series 258:6. 

Anderson, R. C. 2005. Observations of cetaceans in the Maldives, 1990-2002. Journal of Cetacean 

Research and Management 2. 
323

André, M., E. Degollada, and A. Fernández. 2001. Hearing loss in long-term low frequency sounds 

exposed sperm whales. Pages 6-7 in 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine 

Mammals, Vancouver, Canada. 

André, M. and C. Kamminga. 2000. Rhythmic dimension in the echolocation click trains of sperm 

whales: a possible function of identification and communication. Journal of the Marine Biological 

Association of the UK 80:7. 

André, M., M. Terada, and Y. Watanabe. 1997. Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) behavioral 

response after the playback of artificial sounds. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 

47:499 - 504. 

Anonymous. 1994. 94/C 300/37: Protection of the monk seal (Monachus Monachus). Official Journal of 

the European Communities. Information and Notices 37:19. 

Anonymous. 1996. 96/C 161/65: The monk seal and the threat of extinction. Official Journal of the 

European Communities. Information and Notices 39:38. 

Anonymous. 1998. 98/C 82/128: Monk seal catastrophe off the coast of Mauritania. Official Journal of 

the European Communities. Information and Notices 41:77 

Anonymous. 2000. Report of the 1999 Annual Meeting of the scientific committee of the International 

whaling commission. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2. 

Anonymous. 2001. Report of the workshop on status and trends of Western North Atlantic right whales. 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management Supplement 2:61 - 87.

Anonymous. 2001. Report of the workshop on the comprehensive assessment of right whales: a 

worldwide comparison. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management Supplement 2:1 - 60. 

Anonymous. 2002. Navy to limit sonar testing thought to hurt sea mammals. Page 25 New York Times. 

Anonymous. 2002. Report of the third workshop on the development of an aboriginal subsistence whaling 

management procedure. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4. 

Anonymous. 2003. Report of the sub-committee on bowhead, right and gray whales. Journal of Cetacean 

Research and Management 5:226-247. 

Anonymous. 2003. Report of the sub-committee on the comprehensive assessment of humpback whales. 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5: suppl., 293-323. Apr 

Anonymous. 2005. Annex K. Report of the standing working group on environmental concerns. Journal 

of Cetacean Research and Management 7:267 - 281. 

Anonymous. 2005. Report of the Scientific Committee. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 

7:411. 

Antonelis, G. A., J. D. Baker, and J. J. Polovina. 2003. Improved body condition of weaned Hawaiian 

monk seal pups associated with El Nino events: Potential benefits to an endangered species. 

Marine Mammal Science 19:9. 

Aono, S., K. Takagi, and H. Takinami. 1999. The effect of some amusement sounds on hearing in terms 

of temporary threshold shift. Noise control engineering journal 47:3. 

Apple, T. C. 2001. Spatial and temporal variation of sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) codas in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2390. 

Armstrong, J. L. and J. E. Hightower. 2002. Potential for restoration of the Roanoke River population of 

Atlantic sturgeon. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 18:475-480. 
324

Armstrong, P. S. 2001. Conservation genetics of the Hawai'ian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi). 

Dissertation Abstracts International 62:95. 

Aron, W., W. Burke, and M. t. Freeman. 2002. Scientists versus whaling: Science, advocacy, and errors 

of judgment. Bioscience 52:1137-1140. 

Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC). 1998. Amendment 1 to the interstate fishery 

management plan for Atlantic sturgeon. Management Report No. 31, 43 pp. 

Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC). 2007. Estimation of Atlantic Sturgeon Bycatch 

in Coastal Atlantic Commercial Fisheries of New England and the Mid-Atlantic. Special Report 

to the ASMFC Atlantic Sturgeon Management Board, August 2007. 

Atlantic Sturgeon Status Review Team (ASSRT). 2007. Status Review of Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser 

oxyrinchus oxyrinchus). Report to National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast Regional Office. 

February 23, 2007. 174 pp. 

Attias, J., S. Sapir, I. Bresloff, I. Reshef-Haran, and H. Ising. 2004. Reduction in noise-induced temporary 

threshold shift in humans following oral magnesium intake. Clinical Otolaryngology 29:635-641. 

Au, W. and M. Green. 2000. Acoustic interaction of humpback whales and whale-watching boats. Marine 

Environmental Research 49:469-481. 

Au, W., P. E. Nachtigall, and J. Pawloski. 1997. Acoustic effects of the ATOC signal (75 Hz, 195 dB) on 

dolphins and whales. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101:2973-2977. 

Au, W. W. L. 1997. Some hot topics in animal bioacoustics. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 101:10. 

Au, W. W. L. 2002. Snapping shrimps: The bane of bioacoustics monitoring of coral reefs. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 112:2202. 

Au, W. W. L., L. N. Andersen, A. R. Rasmussen, H. L. Roitblat, and P. E. Nachtigall. 1995. Neural 

network modeling of a dolphin's sonar discrimination capabilities. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 98:8. 

Au, W. W. L. and K. J. Benoit-Bird. 2003. Automatic gain control in the echolocation system of dolphins. 

Nature 423:861-863. 

Au, W. W. L., A. Frankel, D. A. Helweg, and D. H. Cato. 2001. Against the humpback whale sonar 

hypothesis. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 26:5. 

Au, W. W. L., R. A. Kastelein, T. Rippe, and N. M. Schooneman. 1999. Transmission beam pattern and 

echolocation signals of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 106:3699. 

Au, W. W. L. and P. E. Nachtigall. 1997. Acoustics of echolocating dolphins and small whales. Marine 

Behaviour and Physiology 29:36. 

Au, W. W. L., J. L. Pawloski, P. E. Nachtigall, M. Blonz, and R. C. Gisner. 1995. Echolocation signals 

and transmission beam pattern of a false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 98:51. 

Au, D., and W. Perryman. 1982. Movement and speed of dolphin schools responding to an approaching 

ship. Fishery Bulletin 80:371-379. 

Augier, H., S. Gulbasdian, and G. Ramonda. 1998. Heavy metal contents of the sperm whale Physeter 

macrocephalus and the bottle-nosed dolphin Tursiops truncatus beached on LanguedocRoussillon seaside (Mediterranean, France). Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 67:6. 
325

Aurioles-Gamboa, D. 1992. Notes on a mass stranding of Baird's beaked whales in the Gulf of California, 

Mexico. California Fish and Game 78:116-123. 

Bain, M. B., D. L. Peterson, K. K. Arend, and N. Haley. 1999. Atlantic Sturgeon Population Monitoring 

for the Hudson River Estuary: Sampling Design and Gear Recommendations. Hudson Rivers 

Fisheries Unit, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, New Paltz, NY and 

The Hudson River Foundation, New York, NY. 

Baird, R. and H. Whitehead. 2000. Social organization of mammal-eating killer whales: group stability 

and dispersal patterns. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:10. 

Baird, R. W. 2000. The killer whale: foraging specializations and group hunting. Pages 127-153 in J. 

Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of 

dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Baird, R. W. and L. M. Dill. 1995. Occurrence and behaviour of transient killer whales: Seasonal and 

pod-specific variability, foraging behaviour, and prey handling. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 

73:12. 

Baird, R. W., M. B. Hanson, and L. M. Dill. 2005. Factors influencing the diving behaviour of fish-eating 

killer whales: sex differences and diel and interannual variation in diving rates. The Canadian 

Journal of Zoology 83:257-267.

Baird, R. W., G. S. Schorr, D. L. Webster, S. D. Mahaffy, A. B. Douglas, A. M. Gorgone, and D. J. 

McSweeney. 2006. A survey for odontocete cetaceans off Kaua'i and Ni'ihau, Hawai'i, during 

October and November 2005: evidence for population structure and site fidelity. Unpublished 

report prepared by Cascadia Collective of Olympia, Washington, under Order No. 

AB133F05SE5197, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Pacific 

Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

Baker, A. N. and A. L. Van Helden. 1999. New records of beaked whales, Genus Mesoplodon, from New 

Zealand (Cetacea: Ziphiidae). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 29:235. 

Baker, C. S., G. M. Lento, F. Cipriano, and S. R. Palumbi. 2000. Predicted decline of protected whales 

based on molecular genetic monitoring of Japanese and Korean markets. Proceedings of the 

Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 267:1191-1199.

Balazs, G. 2006. Pelagic research of Pacific loggerhead sea turtles in partnership with Japan and Taiwan. 

Pages 31-33 in Kinan, I. (compiler). Proceedings of the Second Western Pacific Sea Turtle 

Cooperative Research & Management Workshop. Volume II: North Pacific Loggerhead Sea 

Turtles. Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, Honolulu, Hawaii. 

Baldwin, R.M. 1992. Nesting turtles on Masirah Island: Management issues, options, and research 

requirements. Report, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Environment, Oman. 

Baldwin, R., G.R. Hughes, and R.I.T. Prince. 2003. Loggerhead turtles in the Indian Ocean. Pages 218-

232 in Bolten, A.B. and B.E. Witherington (editors). Loggerhead Sea Turtles. Smithsonian 

Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Balcomb, K. C. and D. E. Claridge. 2001. Mass whale mortality: U.S. Navy exercises cause strandings. 

Bahamian Journal of Science 8:1 - 12. 

Ballance, L. T., R. C. Anderson, R. L. Pitman, K. Stafford, A. Shaan, Z. Waheed, and R. L. Brownell, Jr. 

2001. Cetacean sightings around the Republic of the Maldives, April 1998. Journal of Cetacean 

Research and Management 3:213 - 218. 

Barkaszi, M.J., M. Butler, R. Compton, A. Unietis, and B. Bennet. 2012. Seismic Survey Mitigation 

Measures and Marine Mammal Observer Reports. Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA. 
326

OCS Study BOEM 2012-015. 28 pp w Appendices. Available at: 

http://www.data.boem.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/5/5177.pdf

Barlow, J. 1994. Abundance of large whales in California coastal waters: a comparison of ship surveys in 

1979/80 and in 1991. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 44:399-406.

Barlow, J. 2006. Cetacean abundance in Hawaiian waters estimated from a summer/fall survey in 2002. 

Marine Mammal Science 22: 446–464. 

Barlow, J. 2010. Cetacean abundance in the California Current from a 2008 ship-based line-transect 

survey. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-456. 19 p. 

Barlow, J. and R. Gisiner. 2006. Mitigating, monitoring, and assessing the effects of anthropogenic sound 

on beaked whales. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 7:239 - 249. 

Barlow, J. and B. L. Taylor. 2005. Estimates of sperm whale abundance in the northeastern temperate 

Pacific from a combined acoustic and visual survey. Marine Mammal Science 21:429-445. 

Barrenas, M. L. 1994. The influence of a melanin-binding drug on temporary threshold shift in humans. 

Scandinavian audiology 23:93-98. 

Barrett-Lennard, L. G., T. G. Smith, and G. M. Ellis. 1996. A cetacean biopsy system using lightweight 

pneumatic darts, and its effect on the behavior of killer whales. Marine Mammal Science 12:14. 

Bartol, S.M. and D.R. Ketten. 2006. Turtle and tuna hearing. In: Swimmer, Y. and R. Brill, eds. Sea 

turtle and pelagic fish sensory biology: Developing techniques to reduce sea turtle bycatch in 

longline fisheries. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-PIFSC-7. Pp. 98-105. Available at: 

http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov/tech/NOAA_Tech_Memo_PIFSC_7.pdf. 

Bartol, S. M., Musick, J. A. and Lenhardt, M. L. (1999). Auditory evoked potentials of the loggerhead sea 

turtle (Caretta caretta). Copeia. 1999(3), 836-840. 

Bass, A.L., S.P. Epperly, and J. Braun-McNeill. 2004. Multiyear analysis of stock composition of a 

loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) foraging habitat using maximum likelihood and Bayesian 

methods. Conservation Genetics 5:783-796. 

Bearhop, S., G. M. Hilton, S. C. Votier, and S. Waldron. 2004. Stable isotope ratios indicate that body 

condition in migrating passerines is influenced by winter habitat. Proceedings of the Royal 

Society Biological Sciences Series B 271, Suppl. 4:S215-S218. 

Beedholm, K. and B. Mo-hl. 2006. Directionality of sperm whale sonar clicks and its relation to piston 

radiation theory. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119:EL14. 

Benoit-Bird, K., W. Au, C. Kelley, and C. Taylor. 2002. Measuring acoustic backscattering of deepwater 

fish in situ using a manned submersible. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

112:2207. 

Bentivegna, F., G. Treglia, and S. Hochscheid. 2005. The first report of a loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta 

nest on the central Tyrrhenian coast (western Mediterranean). Journal of the Marine Biological 

Association of the United Kingdom - Biodiversity Records 85(6):1555. 

Berrow, S. D., P. G. H. Evans, and M. L. Sheldrick. 1993. An analysis of sperm whale Physeter 

macrocephalus stranding and sighting records, from Britain and Ireland. Journal of Zoology 

230:333-337. 

Best, P. B., R. A. Rademeyer, C. Burton, D. Ljungblad, S. Keiko, S. Hiroyuki, D. Thiele, D. Reeb, and D. 

S. Butterworth. 2003. The abundance of blue whales on the Madagascar Plateau, December 1996. 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5:253-260.
327

Best, P. B., D. Reeh, M. B. Rew, P. J. Palsboll, C. Schaeff, and A. Brandao. 2005. Biopsying southern 

right whales: their reactions and effects on reproduction. The Journal of Wildlife Management 

69:1171 - 1180. 

Best, P. B. and H. Ruther. 1992. Aerial photogrammetry of southern right whales, Eubalaena australis. 

Journal of Zoology 228:595. 

Biassoni, N., P. J. O. Miller, and P. L. Tyack. 2001. Humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, alter 

their song to compensate for man-made noise.in 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of 

Marine Mammals, Vancouver, Canada. 

Bjerager, P., S. Heegaard, and J. Tougaard. 2003. Anatomy of the eye of the sperm whale (Physeter 

macrocephalus L ). Aquatic Mammals 29:31-36. 

Bjorndal, K. A., A. B. Bolten and Southeast Fisheries Science Center (U.S.) (2000). Proceedings of a 

workshop on Assessing Abundance and Trends for In-Water Sea Turtle Populations : held at the 

Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 24-26 

March 2000. Miami, Fla., U.S. Department of commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southeast Fisheries Science Center. 

Blackmer, A. L., S. K. Anderson, and M. T. Weinrich. 2000. Temporal variability in features used to 

photo-identify humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). Marine Mammal Science 16:17. 

Bland, K. P. and A. C. Kitchener. 2001. The anatomy of the penis of a sperm whale (Physeter catodon L., 

1758). Mammal Review 31:239-244. 

Blees, M. K., K. G. Hartin, D. S. Ireland, and D. Hannay, editors. 2010. Marine mammal monitoring and 

mitigation during open water seismic exploration by Statoil USA E&P Inc. in the Chukchi Sea, 

August–October 2010: 90-day report. Report P1119 prepared by LGL Alaska Research 

Associates Inc., LGL Ltd., and JASCO Research Ltd. for Statoil USA E&P Inc., U.S. National 

Marine Fisheries Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Bloch, D., G. Desportes, A. Petersen, and J. Sigurjonsson. 1996. Strandings of striped dolphins (Stenella 

coeruleoalba) in Iceland and the Faroe Islands and sightings in the northeast Atlantic, north of 

50°N. Marine Mammal Science 12:8. 

Blumenthal, J.M., J.L. Solomon, C.D. Bell, T.J. Austin, G. Ebanks-Petrie, M.S. Coyne, A.C. Broderick, 

and B.J. Godley. (2006). Satellite tracking highlights the need for international cooperation in 

marine turtle management. Endangered Species Research 2:51-61. 

Boer, M. 2000. A note on cetacean observations in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary and the South China Sea, 

Mauritius to the Philippines, April 1999. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2. 

Bolten, A. B., K. A. Bjorndal and H. R. Martins (1994). Life history model for the loggerhead sea turtle 

(Caretta caretta) populations in the Atlantic: Potential impacts of a longline fishery. NOAA 

Technical Memo, U.S. Department of Commerce. 

Bonte, D., L. Lens, J.-P. Maelfait, M. Hoffmann, and E. Kuijken. 2003. Patch quality and connectivity 

influence spatial dynamics in a dune wolfspider. Oecologia 135:227-233.

Boon, J. P., W. E. Lewis, and A. Goksoyr. 2001. Immunochemical and catalytic characterization of 

hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450 in the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Aquatic 

Toxicology 52:14. 

Bor, P. H. F. and M. B. Santos. 2003. Findings of elasmobranch eggs in the stomachs of sperm whales 

and other marine organisms. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83:3. 
328

Boran, J. R. and S. L. Heimlich. 1999. Part 5: Dolphins and whales: Communication and foraging in 

aquatic environments - 16 Social learning in cetaceans: Hunting, hearing and hierarchies. 

Symposia of the Zoological Society of London:26. 

Borsani, J. F. and C. W. Clark. 2003. Does shipping noise in the Ligurian sea compete with fin whale 

song?in 17th Conference of the European Cetacean Society. European Cetacean Society, Las 

Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain. 

Bowen, B.W., and S.A. Karl. (2007). Population genetics and phylogeography of sea turtles. Molecular 

Ecology 16:4886-4907. 

Bowen, B.W., F.A. Abreu-Grobois, G.H. Balazs, N. Kamezaki, C.J. Limpus, and R.J. Ferl. (1995). TransPacific migrations of the loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) demonstrated with mitochondrial 

DNA markers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 

92:3731-3734. 

Bowen, B.W., A.L. Bass, S.-M. Chow, M. Bostrom, K.A. Bjorndal, A.B. Bolten, T. Okuyama, B.M. 

Bolker., S. Epperly, E. Lacasella, D. Shaver, M. Dodd, S.R. Hopkins-Murphy, J.A. Musick, M. 

Swingle, K. Rankin-Baransky, W. Teas, W.N. Witzell, and P.H. Dutton. (2004). Natal homing in 

juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta). Molecular Ecology 13:3797- 3808. 

Bowles, A. E., M. Smultea, B. Wuersig, and D. P. DeMaster. 1994. Relative abundance and behavior of 

marine mammals exposed to transmissions from the Heard Island Feasibility Test. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 96:2469. 

Bowles, D. 1999. An overview of the concentrations and effects of metals in cetacean species. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management Supplement Part 1:125 - 148. 

Boyle, M.C., N.N. FitzSimmons, C.J. Limpus, S. Kelez, X. Velez-Zuazo, and M. Waycott. (2009). 

Evidence for transoceanic migrations by loggerhead sea turtles in the southern Pacific Ocean. 

Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276:1993-1999. 

Brabyn, M. W. and I. G. McLean. 1992. Oceanography and coastal topography of herdstranding sites for 

whales in New Zealand. Journal of Mammalogy 73:469-476.

Branch, T. A. and D. S. Butterworth. 2001. Estimates of abundance south of 60°S for cetacean species 

sighted frequently on the 1978/79 to 1997/98 IWC/IDCR-SOWER sighting surveys. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management 3:251 - 270. 

Branch, T. A. and D. S. Butterworth. 2001. Southern Hemisphere minke whales: standardised abundance 

estimates from the 1978/79 to 1997/98 IDCR-SOWER surveys. Journal of Cetacean Research 

and Management 3. 

Braun-McNeill, J., and S.P. Epperly. (2004). Spatial and temporal distribution of sea turtles in the western 

North Atlantic and the U.S. Gulf of Mexico from Marine Recreational Fishery Statistics Survey 

(MRFSS). Marine Fisheries Review 64(4):50-56. 

Braun-McNeill J., S.P. Epperly, L. Avens, M.L. Snover, and J.C. Taylor. (2008). Life stage duration and 

variation in growth rates of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles from the western North 

Atlantic. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 3(2):273-281. 

Brennin, R., B. W. Murray, M. K. Friesen, L. D. Maiers, J. W. Clayton, and B. N. White. 1997. 

Population genetic structure of beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas): Mitochondrial DNA 

sequence variation within and among North American populations. The Canadian Journal of 

Zoology 75:8. 

Brian, C. (2007). Loggerhead nesting in Angola: personal communication. Page 42 in State of the 

World’s Sea Turtles: Volume II. Conservation International, Crystal City, Virginia. 
329

Briggs, J.C. (1974). Marine Zoogeography. McGraw-Hill, New York. 475 pages. 

Brill, R. L., J. L. Pawloski, D. A. Helweg, W. W. Au, and P. W. B. Moore. 1992. Target detection, shape 

discrimination, and signal characteristics of an echolocating false killer whale (Pseudorca 

crassidens). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 92:1324. 

Brodie, P. F. 1993. Noise generated by the jaw actions of feeding fin whales. The Canadian Journal of 

Zoology 71:2546-2550. 

Brown, M. W., R. Helbig, P. T. Boag, D. Gaskin, and B. N. White. 1991. Sexing beluga whales 

(Delphinapterus leucas) by means of DNA markers. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 69:1971-

1976. 

Brown, J.J. and G. M. Murphy. 2007. Atlantic sturgeon vessel-strike mortalities in the Delaware Estuary. 

Fisheries, Vol 35:2, 72-83.

Brownell, R. L., Jr., P. J. Clapham, T. Miyashita, and T. Kasuya. 2001. Conservation status of North 

Pacific right whales. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management Supplement 2:269 - 286. 

Brownell, R. L., T. Yamada, J. G. Mead, and A. L. van Helden. 2004. Mass strandings of Cuvier’s beaked 

whales in Japan: US Naval acoustic link? Unpublished paper SC/56/E37 presented to the 

International Whaling Commission's Scientific Committee, July 2004, International Whaling 

Commission, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 

Bryant, P. J. 1995. Dating remains of gray whales from the eastern North Atlantic. Journal of 

Mammalogy 76:5. 

Buck, J. R. and P. L. Tyack. 2000. Response of gray whales to low-frequency sounds. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 107:2774. 

Buckland, S. T. and J. M. Breiwick. 2002. Estimated trends in abundance of eastern Pacific gray whales 

from shore counts (1967/68 to 1995/96). Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4. 

Bulger, A. J., B. J. Cosby, and J. R. Webb. 2000. Current, reconstructed past, and projected future status 

of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) streams in Virginia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Sciences 57:1515-1523.

Burdett, L. G. and W. E. McFee. 2004. Bycatch of bottlenose dolphins in South Carolina, USA, and an 

evaluation of the atlantic blue crab fishery categorisation. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 6:231 - 240. 

Butterworth, D. S., J. L. Korrubel, and A. E. Punt. 2002. What is needed to make a simple densitydependent response population model consistent with data for eastern North Pacific gray whales? 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4. 

Bushnoe T. M., J. A. Musick, D. S. Ha. 2005. Essential spawning and nursery habitat of Atlantic sturgeon 

(Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) in Virginia. VIMS special Scientific Report #145. 44pp. 

Calambokidis, J., T. Chandler, and A. E. Douglas. 2002. Marine mammal observations and mitigation 

associated with USGS seismic-reflection surveys in the Santa Barbara Channel 2002. 

Unpublished report prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Menlo 

Park, California, Cascadia Research, Olympia, Washington. 

Calambokidis, J., T. E. Chandler, D. P. Costa, C. W. Clark, and H. Whitehead. 1998. Effects of ATOC 

sound source on the distribution of marine mammals observed from aerial surveys off central 

California.in World Marine Mammal Science Conference. Society for Marine Mammalogy, 

Monaco. 
330

Calambokidis, J., E. Falcone, A. Douglas, L. Schlender, and J. Huggins. 2010. Photographic identification 

of humpback and blue whales off the U.S. West Coast: results and updated abundance estimates 

from 2008 field season. National Marine Fisheries Service Southwest Fisheries Science Center, 

La Jolla, CA. 

Calambokidis, J., G. H. Steiger, J. R. Evenson, K. R. Flynn, K. C. Balcomb, D. E. Claridge, P. Bloedel, J. 

M. Straley, C. S. Baker, O. v. Ziegesar, M. E. Dahlheim, J. M. Waite, J. D. Darling, G. Ellis, and 

G. A. Green. 1996. Interchange and isolation of humpback whales off California and other North 

Pacific feeding grounds. Marine Mammal Science 12:12. 

Calford, M. B., R. Rajan, and D. R. F. Irvine. 1993. Rapid changes in the frequency tuning of neurons in 

cat auditory cortex resulting from pure-tone-induced temporary threshold shift. Neuroscience 

55:953. 

Calvez, L. 2000. Deafness in the depths. Ecologist 30:58-59.

Caron, F., D. Hatin, and R. Fortin. 2002. Biological characteristics of adult Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser 

oxyrinchus) in the Saint Lawrence River estuary and the effectiveness of management rules. 

Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 18:580-585.

Carpenter, B. 2002. Sound and fury. Pages 50-52 U S News & World Report. 

Carr, S. M., H. D. Marshall, K. A. Johnstone, L. M. Pynn, and G. B. Stenson. 2002. How to tell a sea 

monster: Molecular discrimination of large marine animals of the North Atlantic. The Biological 

Bulletin 202:1-5.

Carretta, J.V., K.A. Forney, E. Oleson, K. Martien, M.M. Muto, M.S. Lowry, J. Barlow, J. Baker, B. 

Hanson, D. Lynch, L. Carswell, R.L. Brownell Jr., J. Robbins, D.K. Mattila, K. Ralls, and Marie 

C. Hill. 2012. U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal Stock Assessments: 2011. U.S. Department of 

Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-SWFSC-488, 356 p. 

Carrier, D. R., S. M. Deban, and J. Otterstrom. 2002. The face that sank the Essex: potential function of 

the spermaceti organ in aggression. The journal of Experimental Biology 205:1755-1763. 

Cassens, I., S. Vicario, V. G. Waddell, H. Balchowsky, D. Van Belle, W. Ding, C. Fan, R. S. Lal Mohan, 

P. C. Simoes-Lopes, R. Bastida, A. Meyer, M. J. Stanhope, and M. C. Milinkovitch. 2000. 

Independent adaptation to riverine habitats allowed survival of ancient cetacean lineages. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97:11343-

11347. 

Castellini, M. T. 2000. History of polar whaling: Insights into the physiology of the great whales. 

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology 

126A:153-159. 

Cerchio, S., J. K. Jacobsen, D. M. Cholewiak, E. A. Falcone, and D. A. Merriwether. 2005. Paternity in 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae: assessing polygyny and skew in male reproductive 

success. Animal Behaviour 70:267-277. 

Cerchio, S., J. K. Jacobsen, and T. F. Norris. 2001. Temporal and geographical variation in songs of 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae: Synchronous change in Hawaiian and Mexican 

breeding assemblages. Animal Behaviour 62:313-329. 

Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program (CeTAP). 1982. A characterization of marine mammals and 

turtles in the mid- and north Atlantic areas of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf. Report prepared 

by the University of Rhode Island School of Oceanography for the U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Bureau of Land Management; Washington, D.C. 
331

CGGVeritas. 2011. Typical seismic vessel specifications. Available at: 

http://oilandgastraining.org/data/gp21/P0728.asp?Code=6043. 

Chambers, M. 2010. Atlantic Coast U.S. Seaports. Research and Innovative Technology Administration, 

Bureau of Transportation Statistics. 

http://www.bts.gov/publications/bts_fact_sheets/2010_002/pdf/entire.pdf

Childerhouse, S. J. and S. M. Dawson. 1996. Stability of fluke marks used in individual 

photoidentification of male sperm whales at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science 

12:5. 

Childerhouse, S. J., S. M. Dawson, and E. Slooten. 1995. Abundance and seasonal residence of sperm 

whales at Kaikoura, New Zealand. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:9. 

Ching, P. 1994. The Hawaiian monk seal. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 

Christal, J. and H. Whitehead. 1997. Aggregations of mature male sperm whales on the Galapagos Islands 

breeding ground. Marine Mammal Science 13:11. 

Christal, J. and H. Whitehead. 2001. Social affiliations within sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 

groups. Ethology 107:18. 

Christal, J., H. Whitehead, and E. Lettevall. 1998. Sperm whale social units: variation and change. The 

Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:1431-1440. 

Christensen, I. 1990. A note on recent strandings of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) and other 

cetaceans in Norwegian waters. Report of the International Whaling Commission 40:513-515. 

Christian, J. R. and R. C. Bocking. 2010. Appendix D: Review of the effects of air gun sounds on marine 

invertebrates and fish. Programmatic EIS/OEIS NSF-Funded Marine Seismic Research. 

Chu, D., A. Lavery, and J. M. Jech. 2001. Inference of size and orientation of swim-bladdered fish from 

high-frequency acoustic echograms. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2336. 

Ciano, J. N. and R. Huele. 2001. Photo-identification of sperm whales at Bleik Canyon, Norway. Marine 

Mammal Science 17:5. 

Chapman, C. J. and A. D. Hawkins 1969. The importance of sound in fish behaviour in relation to capture 

by trawls. FAO Fisheries Report 62(3):717-729. 

Clapham, P. J., C. Good, S. E. Quinn, R. R. Reeves, J. E. Scarff, and R. L. Brownell, Jr. 2004. 

Distribution of North Pacific right whales (Eubalaena japonica) as shown by 19th and 20th 

century whaling catch and sighting records. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 6:1 - 

6.

Clapham, P. J. and I. E. Seipt. 1991. Resightings of independent fin whales, Balaenoptera physalus, on 

maternal summer ranges. Journal of Mammalogy 72:788-790. 

Clapham, P. J., S. B. Young, and R. L. Brownell, Jr. 1999. Baleen whales: Conservation issues and the 

status of the most endangered populations. Mammal Review 29:35-60. 

Clark, C. W. 1999. On the subject of the potential impact of human-made noise on whales. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management 1:207 - 209. 

Clarke, R. 1956. Sperm whales of the Azores. Discovery Reports 28, 237-298. 
332

Clark, C. W. and N. S. Altman. 2006. Acoustic detections of blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) and fin 

whale (B physalus) sounds during a SURTASS LFA exercise. IEEE Journal of Oceanic 

Engineering 31:9. 

Clark, C. W., J. F. Borsani, and G. Notarbartolo-di-Sciara. 2002. Vocal activity of fin whales, 

Balaenoptera physalus, in the Ligurian Sea. Marine Mammal Science 18:9. 

Clark, C. W. and W. T. Ellison. 2000. Calibration and comparison of the acoustic location methods used 

during the spring migration of the bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus, off Pt. Barrow, Alaska, 

1984-1993. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:3509. 

Clarke, M. R. 2003. Production and control of sound by the small sperm whales, Kogia breviceps and K 

sima and their implications for other Cetacea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the 

UK 83:23. 

Clay, C. S. and J. K. Horne. 1994. Acoustic models of fish: The Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96:1661. 

Coakes, A., S. Gowans, P. Simard, J. Giard, C. Vashro, and R. Sears. 2005. Photographic identification of 

fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) off the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, Canada. Marine 

Mammal Science 21:4. 

Coakes, A. and H. Whitehead. 2004. Social structure and mating system of sperm whales off northern 

Chile. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 82:10. 

Cockcroft, V. G. 1999. Organochlorine levels in cetaceans from South Africa: a review. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management Supplement Part 1:169 - 176. 

Colegrove, K. M., D. J. Greig, and F. M. D. Gulland. 2005. Causes of live strandings of northern elephant 

seals (Mirounga angustirostris) and Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) along the central 

California coast, 1992-2001. Aquatic Mammals 31:1-10.

Collins, M.R., S.G. Rogers, T.I.J. Smith, and M.L. Moser. 2000. Primary factors affecting sturgeon 

populations in the southeastern United States: fishing mortality and degradation of essential 

habitats. Bulletin of Marine Science 66(3):917-928.

Connor, R. C. 2000. Group living in whales and dolphins. Pages 199-218 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. 

Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. 

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Connor, R. C., J. Mann, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead. 2000. Introduction: the social lives of whales and 

dolphins. Pages 1-6 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean 

societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Connor, R. C., A. n. J. Read, and R. Wrangham. 2000. Male reproductive strategies and social bonds. 

Pages 247-269 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean 

societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Connor, R. C., R. S. Wells, J. Mann, and A. n. J. Read. 2000. The bottlenose dolphin: social relationships 

in a fission-fusion society. Pages 91-126 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. 

Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of 

Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Constantine, R. and D. Brunton. 2001. Boats and bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in the Bay of 

Islands, New Zealand. Page 46 in 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, 

Vancouver, Canada. 

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. 2006. Effects of oil and gas exploration and development at selected 

continental slope sites in the Gulf of Mexico. Volume II: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of the 
333

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS 

Study MMS 2006-045. 636 pp. Available at: 

http://www.gomr.mms.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/3/3875.pdf. 

Conversi, A., S. Piontkovski, and S. Hameed. 2001. Seasonal and interannual dynamics of Calanus 

finmarchicus in the Gulf of Maine (Northeastern US shelf) with reference to the North Atlantic 

Oscillation. Deep Sea Research Part Ii: Topical studies in Oceanography 48(1-3)519-530.

Corkeron, P. J. 1995. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in Hervey Bay, Queensland - 

behavior and responses to whale-watching vessels. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:1290-

1299. 

Corkeron, P. J. and R. C. Connor. 1999. Why do baleen whales migrate? Marine Mammal Science 15:18. 

Cox, T. M., T. J. Ragen, A. J. Read, E. Vos, R. W. Baird, K. C. Balcomb, J. Barlow, J. Caldwell, T. 

Cranford, L. Crum, A. D'Amico, G. D. D'Spain, A. Fernandez, J. J. Finneran, R. L. Gentry, W. 

Gerth, F. M. D. Gulland, J. Hildebrand, D. Houser, T. Hullar, P. D. Jepson, D. R. Ketten, C. D. 

MacLeod, P. Miller, S. Moore, D. C. Mountain, D. Palka, P. Ponganis, S. Rommel, T. Rowles, P. 

L. Tyack, D. Wartzok, R. Gisiner, J. Mead, and L. Benner. 2006. Understanding the impacts of 

anthropogenic sound on beaked whales. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 7:177 - 

187.

Cox, T. M., A. J. Read, A. Solow, and N. Trengenza. 2001. Will harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) 

habituate to pingers? Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3. 

Craig, A. S., L. M. Herman, and A. A. Pack. 2002. Male mate choice and male-male competition coexist 

in the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). The Canadian Journal of Zoology 80:745-

755.

Cranford, T. W. 1999. The sperm whale's nose: Sexual selection on a grand scale? Marine Mammal 

Science 15:25. 

Croll, D. A., A. Acevedo-Gutierrez, B. R. Tershy, and J. Urban-Ramirez. 2001. The diving behavior of 

blue and fin whales: Is dive duration shorter than expected based on oxygen stores? Comparative 

Biochemistry and Physiology Part A Molecular & Integrative Physiology 129A:797-809. 

Croll, D. A., C. W. Clark, A. Acevedo, B. Tershy, S. Flores, J. Gedamke, and J. Urban. 2002. Only male 

fin whales sing loud songs. Page 809 Nature (London). 

Croll, D. A., C. W. Clark, J. Calambokidis, W. T. Ellison, and B. R. Tershy. 2001. Effect of 

anthropogenic low-frequency noise on the foraging ecology of Balaenoptera whales. Animal 

Conservation 4:15. 

Crouse, D. T. (1999). "Population modeling implications for Caribbean hawksbill sea turtle management. 

" Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3(2): 185-188. 

Crum, L. A., M. R. Bailey, J. Guan, P. R. Hilmo, S. G. Kargl, Matula, T.J., and O. A. Sapazhnikov. 2005. 

Monitoring bubble growth in supersaturated blood and tissue ex vivo and the relevance to marine 

mammal bioeffects. Acoustic Research Letters Online 6:214-220. 

Crum, L. A. and Y. Mao. 1996. Acoustically enhanced bubble growth at low frequencies and its 

implications for human diver and marine mammal safety. The Journal of the Acoustical Society 

of America 99:2898-2907. 

Cumming, G. 2012. Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and metaanalysis. New York: Routledge. Taylor & Francis Group, 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 

10017.
334

Cummings, W. C. and P. O. Thompson. 1971. Underwater sounds from the blue whale, Balaenoptera 

musculus. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 50:1193-1198. 

Cummings, W. C. and P. O. Thompson. 2000. First known study, identification, and characteristics of fin 

and blue-whale vocalizations in the Northeast Pacific with historical notes and anecdotes. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2612. 

Curry, B. E. 1999. Stress in mammals: the potential influence of fishery-induced stress on dolphins in the 

eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Science 

Center, La Jolla, California. 

Curtis, K. B., B. M. Howe, and J. A. Mercer. 1999. Low-frequency ambient sounds in the North Pacific 

long time series observations. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:3189-3200. 

D’Amico, A. and W. Verboom. 1998. Summary record and report of the SACLANTCEN Bioacoustics, 

Marine Mammal Policy, and Mitigation Procedures Panels, 15-19 June 1998. SACLANTCEN 

Marine Mammal Environmental Policy and SACLANTCEN Marine Mammal and Human 

Divers: Risk Mitigation Rules. SACLANTCEN M-133, SACLANCT Undersea Research Center, 

La Spezia, Italy. 

Dabelsteen, T., O. N. Larsen, and S. B. Pedersen. 1993. Habitat-induced degradation of sound signals: 

Quantifying the effects of communication sounds and bird location on blur ratio, excess 

attenuation, and signal-to-noise ratio in blackbird song. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America:2206. 

D'Amico, A., A. Bergamasco, P. Zanasca, S. Carniel, E. Nacini, N. Portunato, V. Teloni, C. Mori, and R. 

Barbanti. 2003. Qualitative correlation of marine mammals with physical and biological 

parameters in the Ligurian Sea. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 28:29 - 43. 

Dancer, A., P. Grateau, A. Cabanis, T. Vaillant, and D. Lafont. 1991. Delayed temporary threshold shift 

induced by impulse noises (weapon noises) in men. Audiology 30:345-356. 

De Rosny, J. and P. Roux. 2001. Multiple scattering in a reflecting cavity: Application to fish counting in 

a tank. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:11. 

Debrot, A. O. and N. B. Barros. 1992. Notes on a Gervais' beaked whale, Mesoplodon europaeus, and a 

dwarf sperm whale, Kogia simus, stranded in Curaco, Netherlands Antilles. Marine Mammal 

Science 8:172-177.

Delaugerre, M. and C. Cesarini. (2004). Confirmed nesting of the loggerhead turtle in Corsica. Marine 

Turtle Newsletter 104:12. 

Dalen, J. and G.M. Knutsen. 1986. Scaring effects in fish and harmful effects on eggs, larvae and fry by 

offshore seismic explorations. Symposium on Underwater Acoustics, Halifax. 

Dalen, J. and A. Raknes. 1985. Scaring effects on fish from three dimensional seismic surveys. Institute 

of Marine Research Report FO 8504/8505, Bergen, Norway. 

Deecke, V. B., J. K. B. Ford, and P. J. B. Slater. 2005. The vocal behaviour of mammal-eating killer 

whales: communicating with costly calls. Animal Behaviour 69:395-405.

Deecke, V. B., J. K. B. Ford, and P. Spong. 1999. Quantifying complex patterns of bioacoustic variation: 

Use of a neural network to compare killer whale (Orcinus orca) dialects. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 105:2499. 

Deecke, V. B., J. K. B. Ford, and P. Spong. 2000. Dialect change in resident killer whales: Implications 

for vocal learning and cultural transmission. Animal Behaviour 60:629-638. 
335

Demmer, B. 2001. Time to turn off the LFA sonar. The Humanist 61:2. 

DeNardo, C., M. Dougherty, G. Hastie, R. Leaper, B. Wilson, and P. M. Thompson. 2001. A new 

technique to measure spatial relationships within groups of free-ranging coastal cetaceans. The 

Journal of Animal Ecology 38:888-895. 

DeRuiter, S.L and K.L. Doukara. 2012. Loggerhead turtles dive in response to airgun sound exposure. 

Endangered Species Research Vol. 16:55-63.

Dew, L. A., R. G. Owen, Jr., and M. J. Mulroy. 1993. Changes in size and shape of auditory hair cells in 

vivo noise-induced temporary threshold shift. Hearing research 66:99. 

DFO 2004. Review of scientific information on impacts of seismic sound on fish, invertebrates, marine 

turtles and marine mammals. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada. Habitat Status Report 

2004/002. 15p. 

Diachok, O. 1999. Effects of absorptivity due to fish on transmission loss in shallow water. The Journal 

of the Acoustical Society of America 105:22. 

Diachok, O. 2000. Comparison of measured and calculated absorption spectra due to ensembles of fish 

with swim bladders. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:1. 

Diachok, O. 2002. Sound absorption due to fish: From David Weston's discoveries to recent 

developments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:2206. 

Diachok, O. 2003. Acoustic method and system for measuring fish population data in littoral 

environments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 114:23. 

Ding, L. 1997. Direct laboratory measurement of forward scattering by individual fish. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 101:7. 

Ding, L., Y. Takao, K. Sawada, T. Okumura, Y. Miyanohana, M. Furusawa, and D. M. Farmer. 1998. 

Laboratory measurements of forward and bistatic scattering of fish at multiple frequencies. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103:4. 

Dodd, C. K. (1988). Synopsis of the biological data on the loggerhead sea turtle: Caretta caretta 

(Linnaeus, 1758). Washington, D.C., Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 

Domenici, P., R. S. Batty, T. Simila, and E. Ogam. 2000. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) feeding on 

schooling herring (Clupea harengus) using underwater tail-slaps: Kinematic analyses of field 

observations. The journal of Experimental Biology 203:283-294. 

Donoso, M. and P.H. Dutton. (2006). Distribution and stock origin of sea turtles caught incidentally in the 

Chilean longline fishery for swordfish, 2001-2004. Pages 242-243 in Frick, M., A. Panagopoulou, 

A.F. Rees, and K. Williams (compilers). Book of Abstracts of the Twenty-sixth Annual 

Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. International Sea Turtle Society, Athens, 

Greece. 

Donoso, M. and P.H. Dutton. (2007). Numbers, distribution and stock origin of sea turtles caught 

incidentally in the Chilean longline fishery for swordfish, 2001-2002. Pages 15-16 in Mast, R.B., 

B.J. Hutchinson, and A.H. Hutchinson (compilers). Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual 

Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFSSEFSC-567.

Dos Santos, R. A. and M. Haimovici. 2002. Cephalopods in the trophic relations off southern Brazil. 

Bulletin of Marine Science 71:753-770. 

Dovel, W. L., and T. J. Berggren. 1983. Atlantic sturgeon of the Hudson River estuary, New York. New 

York Fish and Game Journal 30:140-172. 
336

Drinkwater, K. F., and coauthors. 2003. The response of marine ecosystems to climate variability 

associated with the North Atlantic oscillation. Geophysical Monograph 134:211-234.

Drouot, V., M. Berube, A. Gannier, J. C. Goold, R. J. Reid, and P. J. Palsboll. 2004. A note on genetic 

isolation of Mediterranean sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) suggested by mitochondrial 

DNA. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 6:29 - 32.

Drouot, V., A. Gannier, and J. C. Goold. 2004. Diving and feeding behaviour of sperm whales (Physeter 

macrocephalus) in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Aquatic Mammals 30:419-426. 

Drouot, V., A. Gannier, and J. C. Goold. 2004. Summer social distribution of sperm whales (Physeter 

macrocephalus) in the Mediterranean Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the 

UK 84:6. 

Drouot, V., J. C. Goold, and A. Gannier. 2004. Regional diversity in the social vocalizations of sperm 

whale in the Mediterranean Sea. Revue d'âecologie : la terre et la vie 59:545-558. 

D'Spain, G. D., A. D'Amico, and D. M. Fromm. 2006. Properties of the underwater sound fields during 

some well documented beaked whale mass stranding events. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 7:223 - 238. 

Dufault, S. and H. Whitehead. 1995. An assessment of changes with time in the marking patterns used for 

photoidentification of individual sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus. Marine Mammal 

Science 11:9. 

Dufault, S. and H. Whitehead. 1995. An encounter with recently wounded sperm whales (Physeter 

macrocephalus). Marine Mammal Science 11:4. 

Dufault, S. and H. Whitehead. 1998. Regional and group-level differences in fluke markings and notches 

of sperm whales. Journal of Mammalogy 79:514-520. 

Dufault, S., H. Whitehead, and M. Dillon. 1999. An examination of the current knowledge on the stock 

structure of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) worldwide. Journal of Cetacean Research 

and Management 1:1-10.

Duncan, A. J., R. D. McCauley, and A. L. Maggi. 2004. Predicting the environmental impact of active 

sonar. AIP Conference Proceedings 728:280-287. 

Edds, P. L. 1987. Occurrence and general behavior of balaenopterid cetaceans summering in the St. 

Lawrence estuary, Canada. Canadian Journal of Zoology 65:1363 - 1376. 

Eguchi, T. 2002. A method for calculating the effect of a die-off from stranding data. Marine Mammal 

Science 18:12. 

Ehrenberg, J. E. and T. W. Steig. 2000. A method for estimating the accuracy of the three-dimensional 

position of acoustically tagged fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2459. 

Ehrhart, L.M., D.A. Bagley, and W.E. Redfoot. (2003). Loggerhead turtles in the Atlantic Ocean: 

geographic distribution, abundance, and population status. Pages 157-174 in A.B. Bolten and 

B.E. Witherington, eds. Loggerhead Sea Turtles. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution 

Press. 

Ellis, R. 1999. Battle of the Titans: What happens when a sperm whale clashes with a giant squid in the 

depths of the sea? Despite fanciful stories to the contrary, the mysterious squid inevitably comes 

out on the losing end. National wildlife 37:28. 

Ellison, W. T., K. Weixel, and C. W. Clark. 1993. Variation in received level from man-made lowfrequency underwater noise sources as a function of diving animal depth. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 94:1850. 
337

Elwen, S. H. and P. B. Best. 2004. Environmental factors influencing the distribution of southern right 

whales (Eubalaena australis) on the south coast of South Africa I: Broad scale patterns. Marine 

Mammal Science 20:16. 

Elwen, S. H. and P. B. Best. 2004. Environmental factors influencing the distribution of southern right 

whales (Eubalaena australis) on the south coast of South Africa II: Within bay distribution. 

Marine Mammal Science 20:19. 

Engås, A., S. Løkkeborg, E. Ona, and A.V. Soldal. 1996. Effects of seismic shooting on local abundance 

and catch rates of cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus). Canadian Journal 

of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 53:2238-2249. 

Environmental Protection Ageny (EPA). 2003. Biological Evaluation for the Issuance of Ambient Water 

Quality Criteria for Dissolved Oxygen, Water Clarity and Chlorophyll a for the Chesapeake Bay and 

Its Tidal Tributaries U.S. Environmental Protection Office. 

EPA. 2010. Future Climate Change. http://epa.gov/climatechange/science/future.html. 

Encalada, S.E., K.A. Bjorndal, A.B. Bolten, J.C. Zurita, B. Schroeder, E. Possardt, C.J. Sears, and B.W. 

Bowen. (1998). Population structure of loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting colonies in the 

Atlantic and Mediterranean as inferred from mitochondrial DNA control region sequences. 

Marine Biology 130:567-575. 

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, and A.J. Chester. (1995a). Aerial surveys for sea turtles in North Carolina inshore 

waters. Fishery Bulletin 93:254-261. 

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner, and P.A. Tester. (1995b). Winter 

distribution of sea turtles in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras and their interactions with the summer 

flounder trawl fishery. Bulletin of Marine Science 56(2):547-568.

Epperly, S. P., J. Braun, A. J. Chester, F. A. Cross, J. V. Merriner, P. A. Tester, and J. H. Churchill. 1996. 

Beach strandings as an indicator of at-sea mortality of sea turtles. Bulletin of Marine Science 

59:289-297. 

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, and A. Veishlow. (1995c). Sea turtles in North Carolina waters. Conservation 

Biology 9(2):384-394. 

Erbe, C. 2002. Underwater noise of whale-watching boats and potential effects on killer whales (Orcinus 

orca), based on an acoustic impact model. Marine Mammal Science 18:394-418. 

Erbe, C. and D. M. Farmer. 2000. A software model to estimate zones of impact on marine mammals 

around anthropogenic noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:1327. 

Erbe, C. and D. M. Farmer. 2000. Zones of impact around icebreakers affecting beluga whales in the 

Beaufort Sea. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:1332. 

Erbe, C., A. R. King, M. Yedlin, and D. M. Farmer. 1999. Computer models for masked hearing 

experiments with beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas). The Journal of the Acoustical Society 

of America 105:2967. 

Evans, K., M. Hindell, and G. Hince. 2004. Concentrations of organochlorines in sperm whales (Physeter 

macrocephalus) from Southern Australian waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48:486-503. 

Evans, K. and M. A. Hindell. 2004. The age structure and growth of female sperm whales (Physeter 

macrocephalus) in southern Australian waters. Journal of Zoology 263:14. 

Evans, K., M. A. Hindell, K. Robertson, C. Lockyer, and D. Rice. 2002. Factors affecting the precision of 

age determination of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 4:193 - 201. 
338

Evans, K., M. A. Hindell, and D. Thiele. 2003. Body fat and condition in sperm whales, Physeter 

macrocephalus, from southern Australian waters. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part 

A Molecular & Integrative Physiology 134A:847-862. 

Evans, K., M. Morrice, M. Hindell, and D. Thiele. 2002. Three mass strandings of sperm whales 

(Physeter macrocephalus) in southern Australian waters. Marine Mammal Science 18:22. 

Evans, K. and K. Robertson. 2001. A note on the preparation of sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) 

teeth for age determination. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3:101 - 107. 

Evans, P. G. H. and P. S. Hammond. 2004. Monitoring cetaceans in European waters. Mammal Review 

34:131-156. 

Farmer, D. M., M. V. Trevorrow, and B. Pedersen. 1999. Intermediate range fish detection with a 12-kHz 

sidescan sonar. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:10. 

Félix, F. 2001. Observed changes of behavior in humpback whales during whalewatching encounters off 

Ecuador.in 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, Vancouver, Canada. 

Ferber, D. 2005. Sperm whales bear testimony to worldwide pollution. Science 309:1166. 

Fernandez, A. 2004. Pathological findings in stranded beaked whales during the naval military 

manoeuvers near the Canary Islands. Pages 37-40 European Cetacean Society Newsletter. 

Fernandez, A., M. Arbelo, R. Deaville, I. A. P. Patterson, P. Castro, J. R. Baker, E. Degollada, H. M. 

Ross, P. Herraez, A. M. Pocknell, E. Rodriguez, F. E. Howie, A. Espinosa, R. J. Reid, J. R. Jaber, 

V. Martin, A. A. Cunningham, and P. D. Jepson. 2004. Pathology: Whales, sonar and 

decompression sickness (reply). Nature 428:n. 

Fernandez, A., M. Arbelo, R. Deaville, I. A. P. Patterson, P. Castro, J. R. Baker, E. Degollada, H. M. 

Ross, P. Herraez, A. M. Pocknell, F. Rodriguez, F. E. Howie, A. Espinosa, R. J. Reid, J. R. Jaber, 

V. Martin, A. A. Cunningham, and P. D. Jepson. 2004. Beaked whales, sonar and decompression 

sickness. Nature 428:U1 - 2.

Fernandez, A., J. F. Edwards, F. Rodriguez, A. Espinosa de los Monteros, P. Herraez, P. Castro, J. R. 

Jaber, V. Martin, and M. Arbelo. 2005. "Gas and fat embolic syndrome" involving a mass 

stranding of beaked whales (Family Ziphiidae) exposed to anthropogenic sonar signals. 

Veterinary Pathology 42:446 - 457. 

Ferrero, R. C., J. Hodder, and J. Cesarone. 1994. Recent strandings of rough-toothed dolphins (Steno 

bredanensis) on the Oregon and Washington coasts. Marine Mammal Science 10:114-115. 

Feuillade, C. and R. W. Nero. 1998. A viscous-elastic swimbladder model for describing enhancedfrequency resonance scattering from fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

103:11. 

Feuillade, C., R. W. Nero, and R. H. Love. 1996. A low-frequency acoustic scattering model for small 

schools of fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99:13. 

Feuillade, C., R. W. Nero, C. H. Thompson, and R. H. Love. 2002. Three applications of David Weston's 

work to studies of scattering from fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

112:2206. 

Finkbeiner, E.M., B.P. Wallace, J.E. Moore, R.L. Lewison, L.B. Crowder, and A.J. Read. (2011). 

Cumulative estimates of sea turtle bycatch and mortality in USA fisheries between 1990 and 

2007. Biological Conservation 144(11):2719-2727. 

Finneran, J. J. 2003. Whole-lung resonance in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and white whale 

(Delphinapterus leucas). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 114:7. 
339

Finneran, J. J., D. A. Carder, and S. H. Ridgway. 2002. Low-frequency acoustic pressure, velocity, and 

intensity thresholds in a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and white whale (Delphinapterus 

leucas). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 111:10. 

Finneran, J. J., D. A. Carder, C. E. Schlundt, and S. H. Ridgway. 2005. Temporary threshold shift in 

bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) exposed to mid-frequency tones. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 118:10. 

Finneran, J. J. and M. C. Hastings. 2000. A mathematical analysis of the peripheral auditory system 

mechanics in the goldfish (Carassius auratus). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:14. 

Finneran, J. J., C. W. Oliver, K. M. Schaefer, and S. H. Ridgway. 2000. Source levels and estimated 

yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) detection ranges for dolphin jaw pops, breaches, and tall 

slaps. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:8. 

Finneran, J. J., C. E. Schlundt, D. A. Carder, and S. H. Ridgway. 2002. Auditory filter shapes for the 

bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the white whale (Delphinapterus leucas) derived 

with notched noise. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:7. 

Finneran, J. J., C. E. Schlundt, R. Dear, D. A. Carder, and S. H. Ridgway. 2000. Masked temporary 

threshold shift (MTTS) in odontocetes after exposure to single underwater impulses from a 

seismic watergun. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2515. 

Flinn, R. D., A. W. Trites, E. J. Gregr, and R. I. Perry. 2002. Diets of fin, sei, and sperm whales in British 

Columbia: An analysis of commercial whaling records, 1963-1967. Marine Mammal Science 

18:17. 

Florida Marine Research Institute. (2003). What is red tide? Florida Marine Research Institute web page. 

Foote, A. D., R. W. Osborne, and A. R. Hoelzel. 2004. Whale-call response to masking boat noise. Nature 

428:1. 

Foote, K. G., E. Ona, and R. Toresen. 1992. Determining the extinction cross section of aggregating fish. 

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 91:1983-1989. 

Forcada, J., A. Aguilar, P. Hammond, and X. Pastor. 1996. Distribution and abundance of fin whales 

(Balaenoptera physalus) in the western Mediterranean sea during the summer. Journal of 

Zoology 238:23. 

Forney, K.A. 2007. Preliminary estimates of cetacean abundance along the U.S. west coast and within 

four National Marine Sanctuaries during 2005. U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA Technical 

Memorandum, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-406. 27p. 

Fossi, M. C., L. Marsilli, and G. Notarbartolo di Sciara. 2003. The role of skin biopsy in the detection of 

exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in Mediterranean cetaceans. Journal of Cetacean 

Research and Management 5:55-60.

Fowler, G. S. 1999. Behavioral and hormonal responses of Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus 

magellanicus) to tourism and nest site visitation. Biological Conservation 90:143-149.

Francis, D. T. I. and K. G. Foote. 2001. The fish swimbladder as an acoustic waveguide. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 109:2359. 

Frankel, A. S. and C. L. Clark. 2000. Behavioral responses of humpback whales (Megaptera 

novaeangliae) to full-scale ATOC signals. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:1930-1937. 
340

Frankel, A. S. and C. W. Clark. 1998. Results of low-frequency m-sequence noise playbacks to 

humpback whales in Hawaii. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:521-535. 

Frankel, A. S. and C. W. Clark. 2002. ATOC and other factors affecting the distribution and abundance of 

humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) off the north shore of Kauai. Marine Mammal 

Science 18:19. 

Frankel, A. S., C. W. Clark, L. M. Herman, and C. M. Gabriele. 1995. Spatial distribution, habitat 

utilization, and social interactions of humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, off Hawai'i, 

determined using acoustic. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:13. 

Frankel, A. S. and J. Straley. 2000. Comparison of Alaskan and Hawaiian humpback whale song at the 

song-unit level. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2634. 

Frantzis, A. 1998. Does acoustic testing strand whales? Nature 392:29. 

Frantzis, A. 2001. Sperm whales: the animals of superlatives! Acta Astronautica 49:557-561. 

Frantzis, A. 2004. The first mass stranding that was associated with the use of active sonar (Kyparissiakos 

Gulf, Greece, 1996).in P. G. H. Evans and L. A. Miller, editors. Proceedings of a Workshop on 

Active Sonar and Cetaceans. European Cetacean Society's 17th Annual Conference, Auditorio 

Alfredo Kraus. European Cetacean Society Newsletter No. 42 - Special Issue, Las Palmas, Gran 

Canaria. 

Frantzis, A., P. Alexiadou, G. Paximadis, E. Politi, A. Gannier, and M. Corsini-Foka. 2003. Current 

knowledge of the cetacean fauna of the Greek Seas. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 5: 3, 219-232. . 

Frantzis, A., J. C. Goold, E. K. Skarsoulis, M. I. Taroudakis, and V. Kandia. 2002. Clicks from Cuvier's 

beaked whales, Ziphius cavirostris (L). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:4. 

Frantzis, A., O. Nikolaou, J. M. Bompar, and A. Cammedda. 2004. Humpback whale (Megaptera 

novaeangliae) occurrence in the Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 6:25 - 28.

Frazer, L. N. and E. Mercado III. 2000. A sonar model for humpback whale song. IEEE Journal of 

Oceanic Engineering 25:23. 

Friday, N. A. and T. D. Smith. 2003. The effect of age and sex selective harvest patterns for baleen 

whales. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5: 23-28.

Friedlaender, A. S., W. A. McLellan, and D. A. Pabst. 2001. Characterising an interaction between 

coastal bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and the spot gillnet fishery in southeastern North 

Carolina, USA. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3. 

Fristrup, K. M. and G. R. Harbison. 2002. How do sperm whales catch squids? Marine Mammal Science 

18:13. 

Fristrup, K. M., L. T. Hatch, and C. W. Clark. 2003. Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera 

novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 113:14. 

Fritts, T.H. 1983. Turtles, birds, and mammals in the northern Gulf of Mexico and nearby Atlantic 

waters. FWS/OBS-82/65. Report prepared for the U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and 

Wildlife Service; Washington, D.C. 

Fujiwara, M. and H. Caswell. 2002. A general approach to temporary emigration in mark-recapture 

analysis. Ecology 83:3266-3275. 
341

Funk, D., D. Hannay, D. S. Ireland, R. Rodrigues, and W. Koski, editors. 2008. Marine mammal 

monitoring and mitigation during open water seismic exploration by Statoil USA E&P Inc. in the 

Chukchi Sea, July - November 2007: 90-day report. Report P969-1 prepared by LGL Alaska 

Research Associates Inc., LGL Ltd., and JASCO Research Ltd. for Shell Offshore Inc., U.S. 

National Marine Fisheries Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Furusawa, M., K. Ishii, and Y. Miyanohana. 1992. Attenuation of sound by schooling fish. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 92:987. 

Gabriele, C. M., J. M. Straley, S. A. Mizroch, C. S. Baker, A. S. Craig, L. M. Herman, D. GlocknerFerrari, M. J. Ferrari, S. Cerchio, O. von Ziegesar, J. Darling, D. McSweeney, T. J. Quinn, II, and 

J. K. Jacobsen. 2001. Estimating the mortality rate of humpback whale calves in the central North 

Pacific Ocean. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 79:589-600. 

Gagnon, C. J. and C. W. Clark. 1993. The use of U.S. Navy IUSS passive sonar to monitor the movement 

of blue whales. Abstracts of the 10th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals, 

Galveston, Texas. November 1993. 

Gales, N. J., M. L. Dalebout, and J. L. Bannister. 2002. Genetic identification and biological observation 

of two free-swimming beaked whales: Hector's beaked whale (Mesoplodon hectori, Gray, 1871), 

and Gray's beaked whale (Mesoplodon grayi, von Haast, 1876). Marine Mammal Science 18:7. 

Gales, R., D. Pemberton, M. Clarke, and C. C. Lu. 1992. Stomach contents of long-finned pilot whales 

(Globicephala melas) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Tasmania. Marine 

Mammal Science 8:405-413. 

Gannon, D. P., A. J. Read, J. E. Craddock, and J. G. Mead. 1997. Stomach contents of long-finned pilot 

whales (Globicephala melas) stranded on the U S mid-Atlantic coast. Marine Mammal Science 

13:14. 

Gardner, S. C. and S. Chavez-Rosales. 2000. Changes in the relative abundance and distribution of gray 

whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in Magdalena Bay, Mexico during an El Nino event. Marine 

Mammal Science 16:11. 

Gauthier, J. and R. Sears. 1999. Behavioral response of four species of balaenopterid whales to biopsy 

sampling. Marine Mammal Science 15:17. 

Gauthier, J. M., H. Dubeau, E. Rassart, W. M. Jarman, and R. S. Wells. 1999. Biomarkers of DNA 

damage in marine mammals. Mutation Research 444:427-439. 

Gauthier, S. and G. A. Rose. 2000. Some problems and solutions for the measurement of fish target 

strength: A study case with Atlantic redfish (Sebastes spp ). The Journal of the Acoustical Society 

of America 108:2458. 

Gedamke, J., D. P. Costa, and A. Dunstan. 2001. Localization and visual verification of a complex minke 

whale vocalization. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:3038. 

Geiszinger, A., S. Khokiattiwong, W. Goessler, and K. A. Francesconi. 2002. Identification of the new 

arsenic-containing betaine, trimethylarsoniopropionate, in tissues of a stranded sperm whale 

Physeter catodon. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 82:4. 

Gendron, D., S. Aguiniga, and J. D. Carriquiry. 2001. delta 15N and delta 13N in skin biopsy samples: a 

note on their applicability for examining the relative trophic level in three rorqual species. Journal 

of Cetacean Research and Management 3. 

Geophysical Service, Inc. 2011a. Marine seismic survey vessel: M/V GSI Admiral, vessel 

specifications. Available at: 
342

http://www.geophysicalservice.com/Site_Files/My_Files/Seismic%20Fleet/GSI%20Admiral%20

Spec%20Sheet.pdf. 

Geophysical Service, Inc. 2011b. Marine seismic survey vessel: M/V GSI Pacific, vessel specifications. 

Available at: 

http://www.geophysicalservice.com/Site_Files/My_Files/Seismic%20Fleet/GSI%20Pacific%20S

pec%20Sheet,%20Updated%20May%202008.pdf. 

Gerstein, E. R., L. Gerstein, S. E. Forsythe, and J. E. Blue. 1999. The underwater audiogram of the West 

Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

105:3575. 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. 1990. Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. San Diego, CA: 

Academic Press.Gibson, K. R. and H. O. Box. 1999. Part 5: Dolphins and whales: 

Communication and foraging in aquatic environments - Editors' comments. Symposia of the 

Zoological Society of London:3. 

Gill, P. C. 2002. A blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) feeding ground in a southern Australian coastal 

upwelling zone. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4:179 - 184.

Gisiner, R. C. 1998. Workshop on the effects of anthropogenic noise in the marine environment. U.S. 

Navy, Office of Naval Research, Marine Mammal Research Program, Washington, D.C. 

Glass AH, Cole TVN, Garron M (2009) Mortality and serious injury determinations for baleen whale 

stocks along the United States eastern seaboard and adjacent Canadian Maritimes, 2003-2007. 

Northeast Fisheries Science Center Reference Document 09-04. U.S. Department of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast 

Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Gonzalez, A. F., A. Lopez, and X. Valeiras. 2000. First recorded mass stranding of short-finned pilot 

whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus Gray, 1846) in the northeastern Atlantic. Marine Mammal 

Science 16:6. 

Goodyear, J. D. 1993. A sonic/radio tag for monitoring dive depths and underwater movements of 

whales. The Journal of Wildlife Management 57:503-513.

Goold, J. C. 1996. Signal processing techniques for acoustic measurement of sperm whale body lengths. 

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 100:3431. 

Goold, J. C. 1999. Behavioural and acoustic observations of sperm whales in Scapa Flow, Orkney 

Islands. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 79:10. 

Goold, J. C. and M. R. Clarke. 2000. Sound velocity in the head of the dwarf sperm whale, Kogia sima, 

with anatomical and functional discussion. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the 

UK 80:8. 

Goold, J. C. and S. E. Jones. 1995. Time and frequency domain characteristics of sperm whale clicks. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 98:1279. 

Goold, J. C., H. Whitehead, and R. J. Reid. 2002. North Atlantic sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus, 

strandings on the coastlines of the British Iles and eastern Canada. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 

116:18. 

Gordon, J., J. Gillespie, J. Potter, A. Frantzis, M.P. Simmonds, R. Swift, and D. Thompson. 2004. A 

review of the effects of seismic surveys on marine mammals. Marine Technology Society 

Journal 37(4):16-34. 
343

Gowans, S., M. Dalebout, S. Hooker, and H. Whitehead. 2000. Reliability of photographic and molecular 

techniques for sexing northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus). The Canadian 

Journal of Zoology 78:6. 

Gowans, S. and L. Rendell. 1999. Head-butting in northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus): 

A possible function for big heads? Marine Mammal Science 15:9. 

Gowans, S. and H. Whitehead. 2001. Photographic identification of northern bottlenose whales 

(Hyperoodon ampullatus): Sources of heterogeneity from natural marks. Marine Mammal 

Science 17:18. 

Gowans, S., H. Whitehead, J. K. Arch, and S. K. Hooker. 2000. Population size and residency patterns of 

northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon ampullatus) using the Gully, Nova Scotia. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management 2. 

Gowans, S., H. Whitehead, and S. K. Hooker. 2001. Social organization in northern bottlenose whales, 

Hyperoodon ampullatus: Not driven by deep-water foraging? Animal Behaviour 62:369-377. 

Greene, C., A. J. Pershing, R. D. Kenney, and J. W. Jossi. 2003a. Impact of climate variability on the 

recovery of endangered North Atlantic right whales. Oceanography 16(4):98-103. 

Greene, C. H., and coauthors. 2003b. Trans-Atlantic responses of Calanus finmarchicus populations to 

basin-scale forcing associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation. Progress in Oceanography 

58(2-4):301-312. 

Greene, C. R., Jr and W. J. Richardson 1988. Characteristics of marine seismic survey sounds in the 

Beaufort Sea. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 83(6):2246-2254. 

Green, G. A., J. J. Brueggeman, R. A. Grotefendt, C. E. Bowlby, M. L. Bonnell, and K. C. Balcomb, III. 

1992. Chapter 1. Cetacean distrubition and abundance off Oregon and Washington, 1989-1990. 

In: J. J. Brueggeman, (ed). Oregon and Washington marine mammal and seabird surveys. U.S. 

Deparrtment of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Pacific Outer Continental Shelf 

Region, Los Angeles, California. 

Gregr, E. J., L. Nichol, J. K. B. Ford, G. Ellis, and A. W. Trites. 2000. Migration and population structure 

of northeastern Pacific whales off coastal British Columbia: An analysis of commercial whaling 

records from 1908-1967. Marine Mammal Science 16:29. 

Gregr, E. J. and A. W. Trites. 2001. Predictions of critical habitat for five whale species in the waters of 

coastal British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58:1265-1285. 

Greig, A. P., E. R. Secchi, A. N. Zerbini, and L. Dalla Rosa. 2001. Stranding events of southern right 

whales, Eubalaena australis, in southern Brazil. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 

Special Issue 2:157 - 160. 

Griffin, R. B. 1999. Sperm whale distributions and community ecology associated with a warm-core ring 

off Georges Bank. Marine Mammal Science 15:33-51. 

Guigne, J. Y. and T. J. McKeever. 2002. Fish sizing sonar system. The Journal of the Acoustical Society 

of America 111:6. 
344

Guinet, C., L. G. Barrett-Lennard, and B. Loyer. 2000. Co-ordinated attack behavior and prey sharing by 

killer whales at Crozet Archipelago: Strategies for feeding on negatively-buoyant prey. Marine 

Mammal Science 16:5. 

Guinet, C. and J. Bouvier. 1995. Development of intentional stranding hunting techniques in killer whale 

(Orcinus orca) calves at Crozet Archipelago. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:7. 

Hanni, K. D., D. J. Long, R. E. Jones, P. Pyle, and L. E. Morgan. 1997. Sightings and strandings of 

Guadalupe fur seals in central and northern California, 1988-1995. Journal of Mammalogy 

78:684-690. 

Harris, C. M. 1998. Chapter 1. Introduction. Pages 1.1 - 1.29 in C. M. Harris, editor. Handbook of 

acoustical measurements and noise control. Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New 

York. 

Harris, C. M. 1998. Chapter 2. Definitions, abbreviations, and symbols. Pages 2.1 - 2.23 in C. M. Harris, 

editor. Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. Acoustical Society of America, 

Woodbury, New York. 

Harris, C. M., editor. 1998. Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. Acoustical Society 

of America, Woodbury, New York. 

Harris, R. E., G. W. Miller, and W. J. Richardson. 2001. Seal responses to airgun sounds during summer 

seismic surveys in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Marine Mammal Science 17:795. 

Hastie, G. D., R. J. Swift, J. C. D. Gordon, G. Slesser, and W. R. Turrell. 2003. Sperm whale distribution 

and seasonal density in the Faroe Shetland Channel. Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 5: 3, 247-252. . 

Hastings, M. C., A. N. Popper, J. J. Finneran, and P. J. Lanford. 1996. Effects of low-frequency 

underwater sound on hair cells of the inner ear and lateral line of the teleost fish Astronotus 

ocellatus. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99:8. 

Hatch, L. T. 2004. Male genes and male song: Integrating genetic and acoustic data in defining fin whale, 

Balaenoptera physalus, management units. Dissertation Abstracts International 65:277. 

Hazel, J., I.R. Lawler, H. Marsh and S. Robson. 2007. Vessel speed increases collision risk for the green 

sea turtle Chelonia mydas. Endangered Species Research 3:105-113. 

Hecht, J. 2002. Navy accepts blame for whale deaths. Page 15 New scientist. 

Hedgepeth, J. B. and G. E. Johnson. 2000. An active fish tracking split-beam sonar to study salmon smolt 

behavior. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2459. 

Heide-Jorgensen, M. P., L. Kleivane, N. Oien, K. L. Laidre, and M. V. Jensen. 2001. A new technique for 

deploying satellite transmitters on baleen whales: Tracking a blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) 

in the North Atlantic. Marine Mammal Science 17:949. 

Hellstrom, P.-A. 1993. The relationship between sound transfer functions from free sound field to 

eardrum and temporary threshold shift. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

94:1301. 

Henry AG, Cole TVN, Garron M, Hall L, Ledwell W, Reid A. 2012. Mortality and Serious Injury 

Determinations for Baleen Whale Stocks along the Gulf of Mexico, United States East Coast and 

Atlantic Canadian Provinces, 2006-2010. US Dept Commer, Northeast Fish Sci Cent Ref Doc. 

12-11; 24 p. Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, 

MA 02543-1026, or online at http://nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/
345

Henshaw, M. D., R. G. LeDuc, S. J. Chivers, and A. E. Dizon. 1997. Identifying beaked whales (family 

Ziphiidae) using mtDNA sequences. Marine Mammal Science 13:8. 

Herube, M., C. Berchok, and R. Sears. 2001. Observation of a male-biased sex ratio in the Gulf of St. 

Lawrence fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus): Temporal, geographical, or group structure 

segregation? Marine Mammal Science 17:371. 

Heyning, J. E. and T. D. Lewis. 1990. Entanglements of baleen whales in fishing gear off southern 

California. Report of the International Whaling Commission 40:427-431. 

Hildebrand, J. A. 2005. Annex K: Report of the standing working group on environmental concerns. 

Appendix 3. Introduction to acoustics. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 7:284 - 

286.

Hildebrand, J. A. 2009. Anthropogenic and natural sources of ambient noise in the ocean. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 395:5-20. 

Hildebrand, S.F. and W.C. Schroeder. 1928. Fishes of the Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bureau Fish, 43 

(1):1-38.

Hinkelman, L. M., T. D. Mast, L. A. Metlay, and R. C. Waag. 1998. The effect of abdominal wall 

morphology on ultrasonic pulse distortion. Part I. Measurements. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 104:3635. 

Hoekstra, P. F., L. A. Dehn, J. C. George, K. R. Solomon, D. C. G. Muir, and T. M. O'Hara. 2002. 

Trophic ecology of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) compared with that of other arctic 

marine biota as interpreted from carbon-, nitrogen-, and sulfur-isotope signatures. The Canadian 

Journal of Zoology 80:223-231.

Hoekstra, P. F., C. S. Wong, T. M. O'Hara, K. R. Solomon, S. A. Mabury, and D. C. G. Muir. 2002. 

Enantiomer-specific accumulation of PCB atropisomers in the bowhead whale (Balaena 

mysticetus). Environmental Science & Technology 36:1419-1425. 

Hoelzel, A. R., A. Natoli, M. E. Dahlheim, C. Olavarria, R. W. Baird, and N. A. Black. 2002. Low 

worldwide genetic diversity in the killer whale (Orcinus orca): Implications for demographic 

history. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B 269:1467-1473. 

Holt, S. J. 2003. The tortuous history of "scientific" Japanese whaling. Bioscience 53:204-206. 

Hooker, S. K. and R. W. Baird. 1999. Deep-diving behaviour of the northern bottlenose whale, 

Hyperoodon ampullatus (Cetacea: Ziphiidae). Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological 

Sciences Series B 266:671-676.

Hooker, S. K. and R. W. Baird. 2001. Diving and ranging behaviour of odontocetes: A methodological 

review and critique. Mammal Review 31:81-105. 

Hooker, S. K. and H. Whitehead. 2002. Click characteristics of northern bottlenose whales (Hyperoodon 

ampullatus). Marine Mammal Science 18:12. 

Horne, J. and C. Clay. 1998. Sonar systems and aquatic organisms: matching equipment and model 

parameters. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 55:11. 

Houde, M., L. N. Measures, and J. t. Huot. 2003. Experimental transmission of Pharurus pallasii 

(Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea), a lungworm of the cranial sinuses of the beluga whale 

(Delphinapterus leucas), to fish. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:364-370. 

Houde, M., L. N. Measures, and J. t. Huot. 2003. Lungworm (Pharurus pallasii: Metastrongyloidea: 

Pseudaliidae) infection in the endangered St. Lawrence beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas). 

The Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:543-551.
346

Houser, D. S., R. Howard, and S. Ridgway. 2001. Can diving-induced tissue nitrogen supersaturation 

increase the chance of acoustically driven bubble growth in marine mammals? Journal of 

Theoretical Biology 213:183 - 195. 

Huang, C. C., T. N. Wu, and J. Y. Tung. 1994. The dose-response relationship with noise-induced 

temporary threshold shift (NITTS). Inter-Noise Proceedings 3:1085. 

Huele, R. and H. U. D. Haes. 1998. Identification of individual sperm whales by wavelet transform of the 

trailing edge of the flukes. Marine Mammal Science 14:3. 

Iga, K., Y. Fukui, A. Miyamoto, H. Ishikawa, and S. Ohsumi. 1996. Endocrinological observations of 

female minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). Marine Mammal Science 12:5. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: The synthesis report. 

Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K. and Reisinger, 

A. (Eds.). IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. pp 104. Available at: www.ipcc.ch. 

International Whaling Commission (IWC). 2012L. Annual Report of the International Whaling 

Commission 2011. Available at: www.iwcoffice.org. 

IWC. 2012m. Report of the Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling Sub-Committee. IWC/64/Rep3. June 27, 

2012, Panama. Available at: www.iwcoffice.org. 

IWC 2012n—Proposed schedule amendment: Greenland catch limits (Denmark) IWC/64/12. May 22, 

2012. Available at:http://www.iwcoffice.org/iwc64docs. 

IWC 2012o. Catches taken: Under Objection. Available at: http://www.iwcoffice.org/table_objection..

IWC. 2012x. Report of the Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling Sub-Committee. IWC/64/Rep3. June 27, 

2012, Panama. www.iwcoffice.org. 

Ioup, J. W. and G. E. Ioup. 2004. Sperm whale identification using self-organizing maps. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 115:1. 

Jansen, G. 1998. Chapter 25. Physiological effects of noise. Pages 25.21 - 25.19 in C. M. Harris, editor. 

Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. Acoustical Society of America, 

Woodbury, New York. 

Jaquet, N., S. Dawson, and E. Slooten. 2000. Seasonal distribution and diving behaviour of male sperm 

whales off Kaikoura: Foraging implications. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:407-419. 

Jaquet, N. and D. Gendron. 2002. Distribution and relative abundance of sperm whales in relation to key 

environmental features, squid landings and the distribution of other cetacean species in the Gulf 

of California, Mexico. Marine Biology 141:591-601. 

Jaquet, N., D. Gendron, and A. Coakes. 2003. Sperm whales in the Gulf of California: residency, 

movements, behavior, and the possible influence of variation in food supply. Marine Mammal 

Science 19:18. 

Jasny, M., J. Reynolds, C. Horowitz, and A. Wetzler. 2005. Sounding the depths II: The rising toll of 

sonar, shipping and industrial ocean noise on marine life. Natural Resources Defense Council, 

New York, New York. 

Jefferson, T. A. and A. J. Schiro. 1997. Distribution of cetaceans in the offshore Gulf of Mexico. 

Mammal Review 27:27-50. 

Jensen, H., B.-E. Saether, T. H. Ringsby, J. Tufto, S. C. Griffith, and H. Ellegren. 2004. Lifetime 

reproductive success in relation to morphology in the house sparrow Passer domesticus. The 

Journal of Animal Ecology 73:599-611. 
347

Jepson, P. D., M. Arbelo, R. Deaville, I. A. P. Patterson, P. Castro, J. R. Baker, E. Degollada, H. M. Ross, 

P. Herráez, A. M. Pocknell, F. Rodriguez, F. E. Howie, A. Espinosa, R. J. Reid, J. R. Jaber, V. 

Martin, A. A. Cunningham, and A. Fernández. 2003. Gas-bubble lesions in stranded cetaceans. 

Nature 425:575-576. 

Johnson, A., G. Salvador, J. Kenney, J. Robbins, S. Kraus, S. Landry, and P. Clapham. 2005. Fishing gear 

involved in entanglements of right and humpback whales. Marine Mammal Science 21:11. 

Johnson, M., P. Tyack, D. Nowacek, and A. Shorter. 2000. A digital acoustic recording tag for measuring 

the response of marine mammals to sound. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:2582. 

Jones, D. M. and D. E. Broadbent. 1998. Chapter 24. Human peformance and noise. Pages 24.21 - 24.24 

in C. M. Harris, editor. Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. Acoustical 

Society of America, Woodbury, New York. 

Jones, N. 2003. Is undersea noise harming whales? Page 8 New scientist. 

Jørgensen, R., K. K. Olsen, I.-B. Falk-Petersen, and P. Kanapthippilai. 2005. Investigations of potential 

effects of low frequency sonar signals on survival, development and behavior of fish larvae and 

juveniles. The Norwegian College of Fishery Science, University of Tromso, Tromso, Norway. 

Kahnle, A. W., K. A. Hattala, and K. McKown. 2007. Status of Atlantic sturgeon of the Hudson River 

estuary, New York, USA. 

Kastak, D., R. J. Schusterman, B. L. Southall, and C. J. Reichmuth. 1999. Underwater temporary 

threshold shift induced by octave-band noise in three species of pinniped. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 106:1142. 

Kastelein, R. A., W. W. L. Au, H. T. Rippe, and N. M. Schooneman. 1999. Target detection by an 

echolocating harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 105:2493. 

Kastelle, C. R., K. E. W. Shelden, and D. K. Kimura. 2003. Age determination of mysticete whales using 

210Pb/226Ra disequilibria. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 81:21-32.

Kasuya, T. 1991. Density dependent growth in North Pacific sperm whales. Marine Mammal Science 

7:230-257. 

Kato, H., and T. Miyashita. 1998. Current status of North Pacific sperm whales and its preliminary 

abundance estimates. Unpubl. report submitted to Int. Whal. Comm. (SC/50/CAWS/52). 6 pp. 

Kemper, C. M. and P. Leppard. 1999. Estimating body length of pygmy right whales (Caperea 

marginata) from measurements of the skeleton- and baleen. Marine Mammal Science 15:18. 

Kenney, R. D. 2007. Right whales and climate change: Facing the prospect of a greenhouse future. The 

Urban Whale: North Atlantic Right Whales at the Crossroads. S. D. Kraus AND R. Rolland 

(eds.). p.436-459. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. ISBN 0-674-02327-7. 543pp. 

Ketten, D. R. 2005. Annex K: Report of the standing working group on environmental concerns. 

Appendix 4. Marine mammal auditory systems: a summary of audiometric and anatomical data 

and implications for underwater acoustic impacts. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 

7:286 - 289. 

Kinas, P. G. 2002. The impact of incidental kills by gill nets on the Franciscana dolphin (Pontoporia 

blainvillei) in southern Brazil. Bulletin of Marine Science 70:409-421. 
348

Klimley, A. P. and S. C. Beavers. 1998. Playback of acoustic thermometry of ocean climate (ATOC) -like 

signal to bony fishes to evaluate phonotaxis. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

104:2506. 

Kloser, R. J. 2000. In situ target strength measurements of a deep-water fish, orange roughy. The Journal 

of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2458. 

Knowlton, A. R., J. Sigurjosson, J. N. Ciano, and S. D. Kraus. 1992. Long-distance movements of North 

Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis). Marine Mammal Science 8:397-404. 

Kopelman, A. H. and S. S. Sadove. 1995. Ventilatory rate differences between surface-feeding and nonsurface-feeding fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) in the waters off eastern Long Island, New 

York, U S A , 1981-1987. Marine Mammal Science 11:9. 

Koski, W. R. and S. R. Johnson. 1987. Behavioral studies and aerial photogrammetry. Section 4., Report 

from LGL Limited and Greeneridge Science, Inc. for Shell Western Exploration and Production, 

Inc., Santa, Barbara, California and Anchorage, Alaska. 

Kraus, S. D. 1990. Rates and potential causes of mortality in North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena 

glacialis). Marine Mammal Science 6:278-291. 

Kuczaj, S., R. Paulos, J. Ramos, R. Thames, G. Rayborn, G. Ioup, and J. Newcomb. 2003. Anthropogenic 

noise and sperm whale sound production.in 17th Conference of the European Cetacean Society, 

Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain. 

Kujawa, S. G. and M. C. Liberman. 1997. Conditioning-related protection from acoustic injury: Effects of 

chronic deefferentation and sham surgery. Journal of Neurophysiology 78:3095-3106.

Kundzewicz, Z.W., L. J. Mata, N. W. Arnell, P. Döll, B. Jimenez, K. Miller, T. Oki, Z. Şen and I. 

Shiklomanov. The implications of projected climate change for freshwater resources and their 

management. Hydrological Sciences–Journal–des Sciences Hydrologiques, 53(1) February 2008. 

Lagerquist, B. A., K. M. Stafford, and B. R. Mate. 2000. Dive characteristics of satellite-monitored blue 

whales (Balaenoptera musculus) off the central California coast. Marine Mammal Science 16:17. 

Laist, D. W., A. R. Knowlton, J. G. Mead, A. S. Collet, and M. Podesta. 2001. Collisions between ships 

and whales. Marine Mammal Science 17:35-75.

Lambertsen, R. H. 1983. Crassicaudiasis of the North Atlantic fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus): 

Prevalence, pathogenesis, transmission, and life cycle. Fifth Biennial Conference on the Biology 

of Marine Mammals, 27 November-1 December New England Aquarium Boston MA. p.59. 

Lambertsen, R. H. 1986. Disease of the common fin whale (Balaenopters physalus): Crassicaudiosis of 

the urinary system. Journal of Mammalogy 67(2):353-366.

Lambertsen, R. H. 1992. Crassicaudosis: A parasitic disease threatening the health and population 

recovery of large baleen whales. (Balaenoptera musculus, Balaenoptera physalus, Megaptera 

novaeangliae). Revue Scientifique Et Technique Office International Des Epizooties 11(4):1131-

1141. 

Lambourn, D. M., S. J. Jeffries, and J. P. Dubey. 2001. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in harbor 

seals (Phoca vitulina) in Southern Puget Sound, Washington. The Journal of Parasitology 

87:1196-1197. 

Laplanche, C., O. Adam, M. Lopatka, and J.-F. Motsch. 2005. Male sperm whale acoustic behavior 

observed from multipaths at a single hydrophone. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 118:11. 
349

Larue, J. P., G. E. Ioup, and J. W. Ioup. 2004. Detecting sperm whale clicks in the presence of ambient 

and shipping noise using higher order moments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 115:1. 

Lawson, G., M. Barange, and P. Freon. 2000. Species identification of pelagic fish schools using acoustic 

descriptors and ancillary information. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:2490. 

Le Duc, R. G., W. L. Perryman, J. W. Gilpatrick Jr, J. Hyde, C. Stinchcomb, J. V. Carretta, and R. L. 

Brownell Jr. 2001. A note on recent surveys for right whales in the southeastern Bering Sea. 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2:287-289.

Leaper, R., D. Gillespie, and V. Papastavrou. 2000. Results of passive acoustic surveys for odontocetes in 

the Southern Ocean. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 2:187 - 196. 

Leatherwood, S., R.R. Reeves, W.F. Perrin, and W.E. Evans. 1982. Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of 

the eastern North Pacific and adjacent arctic waters: a guide to their identification. NOAA 

Technical Report National Marine Fisheries Service Circular 444. 

Lecchini, D., J. Shima, B. Banaigs, and R. Galzin. 2005. Larval sensory abilities and mechanisms of 

habitat selection of a coral reef fish during settlement. Oecologia 143:326-334. 

Lees, S., D. B. Hanson, and E. A. Page. 1996. Some acoustical properties of the otic bones of a fin whale. 

The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 99:2421. 

Lenhardt, M. 2002. Sea turtle auditory behavior. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

112:2314. 

Lenhardt, M.L. 1994. Auditory behavior of the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta). Page 89. In: 

K.A. Bjorndahl, A.B. Bolten, D.A. Johnson, and P.J. Eliazar (compilers), Proceedings of the 14th 

Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum 

NMFS-SEFC-351.

Lettevall, E., C. Richter, N. Jaquet, E. Slooten, S. Dawson, H. Whitehead, J. Christal, and P. M. Howard. 

2002. Social structure and residency in aggregations of male sperm whales. The Canadian Journal 

of Zoology 80:1189-1196. 

Lobel, P. 2002. Diversity of fish courtship and spawning sounds and application for monitoring 

reproduction. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:1. 

Lord, A., J. R. Waas, J. Innes, and M. J. Whittingham. 2001. Effects of human approaches to nests of 

northern New Zealand dotterels. Biological Conservation 98:233-240. 

Lu, Z., A. N. Popper, and R. R. Fay. 1996. Behavioral detection of acoustic particle motion by a teleost 

fish (Astronotus ocellatus): sensitivity and directionality. Journal of Comparative Physiology A 

179:227-233. 

Luksenburg J.A. and E.C.M. Parsons. 2009. The effects of aircraft on cetaceans: implications for aerial 

whalewatching. SC/61/WW2. Available at: 

http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/sci_com/SC61docs/SC-61-WW2.pdf

Lynch, J. F. 2001. Marine mammals and low-frequency sound: progress since 1994. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 110:649. 

Lynn, S. K. and D. L. Reiss. 1992. Pulse sequence and whistle production by two captive beaked whales, 

Mesoplodon species. Marine Mammal Science 8:299-305.
350

Lyrholm, T., O. Leimar, B. Johanneson, and U. Gyllensten. 1999. Sex-biased dispersal in sperm whales: 

contrasting mitochondrial and nuclear genetic structure of global populations. Proceedings of the 

Royal Society of London, Series B Biological Sciences 266:347-354. 

Macleod, C. D. 2000. Review of the distribution of Mesoplodon species (order Cetacea, family Ziphiidae) 

in the North Atlantic. Mammal Review 30:1-8.

Madsen, P. T., D. A. Carder, K. Bedholm, and S. H. Ridgway. 2005. Porpoise clicks from a sperm whale 

nose - convergent evolution of 130 kHz pulses in toothed whale sonars? Bioacoustics 15:12. 

Madsen, P. T., M. Johnson, N. A. de Soto, W. M. X. Zimmer, and P. Tyack. 2005. Biosonar performance 

of foraging beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris). The journal of Experimental Biology 

208:181-194. 

Madsen, P. T., M. Johnson, P. L. Tyack, N. Aguilar de Soto, and W. M. X. Zimmer. 2004. Biosonar 

performance of foraging Blainvilles beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris). The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 115:2406. 

Madsen, P. T., I. Kerr, and R. Payne. 2004. Echolocation clicks of two free-ranging, oceanic delphinids 

with different food preferences: false killer whales Pseudorca crassidens and Risso's dolphins 

Grampus griseus. The journal of Experimental Biology 207:1811-1823. 

Madsen, P. T. and B. Mohl. 2000. Sperm whales (Physeter catodon L 1758) do not react to sounds from 

detonators. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:668-671. 

Madsen, P. T., R. Payne, N. U. Kristiansen, M. Wahlberg, I. Kerr, and B. Mohl. 2002. Sperm whale 

sound production studied with ultrasound time/depth-recording tags. The journal of Experimental 

Biology 205:1899-1906. 

Madsen, P. T., M. Wahlberg, and B. Mohl. 2002. Male sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) acoustics 

in a high-latitude habitat: Implications for echolocation and communication. Behavioral Ecology 

and Sociobiology 53:31-41. 

Malakoff, D. 2001. A roaring debate over ocean noise. Science 291:576-578. 

Malakoff, D. 2002. Suit ties whale deaths to research cruise. Pages 722-723 Science (Washington D C). 

Malik, S., M. W. Brown, S. D. Kraus, and B. N. White. 2000. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA diversity 

within and between North and South Atlantic right whales. Marine Mammal Science 16:14. 

Mann, D. A., Z. Lu, M. C. Hastings, and A. N. Popper. 1998. Detection of ultrasonic tones and simulated 

dolphin echolocation clicks by a teleost fish, the American shad (Alosa sapidissima). The Journal 

of the Acoustical Society of America 104:7. 

Mann, J. 2000. Unraveling the dynamics of social life: long-term studies and observational methods. 

Pages 45-64 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean 

societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Mann, J., R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. 2000. Ceracean societies. Field studies of 

dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Mansour, A. A. H., D. W. McKay, J. Lien, J. C. Orr, J. H. Banoub, N. Oien, and G. Stenson. 2002. 

Determination of pregnancy status from blubber samples in minke whales (Balaenoptera 

acutorostrata). Marine Mammal Science 18:9. 

Marini, L., C. Consiglio, B. Catalano, T. Valentini, and G. Villetti. 1996. Aerial behavior in fin whales 

(Balaenoptera physalus) in the Mediterranean Sea. Marine Mammal Science 12:7. 

Martensson, P. E., A. R. Lager Gotaas, E. S. Nordoy, and A. S. Blix. 1996. Seasonal changes in energy 

density of prey of Northeast Atlantic seals and whales. Marine Mammal Science 12:6. 
351

Martin, A. R. and T. G. Smith. 1999. Strategy and capability of wild belugas, Delphinapterus leucas, 

during deep, benthic diving. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:1783-1793. 

Martin, B., J. MacDonnell, N. E. Chorney, and D. Zeddies. 2012. Sound source verification of Fugro 

Geotechnical Sources: Final report: Boomer, sub-bottom profiler, multibeam sonar, and the R/V 

Taku. JASCO. 

Marvit, P. and J. D. Crawford. 2000. Auditory discrimination in a sound-producing electric fish 

(Pollimyrus): Tone frequency and click-rate difference detection. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 108:7. 

Marvit, P. and J. D. Crawford. 2000. Auditory thresholds in a sound-producing electric fish (Pollimyrus): 

Behavioral measurements of sensitivity to tones and click trains. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 107:6. 

Mast, T. D., L. M. Hinkelman, M. J. Orr, and R. C. Waag. 1998. The effect of abdominal wall 

morphology on ultrasonic pulse distortion. Part II. Simulations. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 104:3651. 

Mate, B. R., B. A. Lagerquist, and J. Calambokidis. 1999. Movements of North Pacific blue whales 

during the feeding season off southern California and their southern fall migration. Marine 

Mammal Science 15:12. 

Matsuoka, K., P. Ensor, T. Hakamada, H. Shimada, S. Nishiwaki, F. Kasamatsu, and H. Kato. 2003. 

Overview of minke whale sightings surveys conducted on IWC/IDCR and SOWER Antarctic 

cruises from 1978/79 to 2000/01. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 5: 2, 173-201. . 

Matthews, J. N., S. Brown, D. Gillespie, M. Johnson, R. McLanaghan, A. Moscrop, D. Nowacek, R. 

Leaper, T. Lewis, and P. Tyack. 2001. Vocalisation rates of the North Atlantic right whale 

(Eubalaena glacialis). Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3. 

Matthews, J. N., L. Steiner, and J. Gordon. 2001. Mark-recapture analysis of sperm whale (Physeter 

macrocephalus) photo-id data from the Azores (1987-1995). Journal of Cetacean Research and 

Management 3. 

Maybaum, H. L. 1990. Effects of a 3.3 kHz sonar system on humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, 

in Hawaiian waters. EOS 71:92. 

Maybaum, H. L. 1993. Responses of humpback whales to sonar sounds. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 94:1848-1849. 

McCarthy, S. 2002. Do we kill whales with sound? Discover 23:60-65.

McCauley, R. D. and D. H. Cato. 2001. The underwater noise of vessels in the Hervey Bay (Queensland) 

whale watch fleet and its impact on humpback whales. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 109:2455. 

McCauley, R. D., J. Fewtrell, A. J. Duncan, C. Jenner, M.-N. Jenner, J. D. Penrose, R. I. T. Prince, A. 

Adhitya, J. Murdoch and K. McCabe 2000b. Marine seismic surveys: analysis and propagation of 

air-gun signals; and effects of air-gun exposure on humpback whales, sea turtles, fishes and 

squid. Prepared for the Australian Petroleum Production Exploration Association by the Centre 

for Marine Science and Technology, Project CMST 163, Report R99-15. 203p. 

McCauley, R. D., M.-N. Jenner, C. Jenner, K. A. McCabe and J. Murdoch. 1998. The response of 

humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to offshore seismic survey noise: preliminary 
352

results of observations about a working seismic vessel and experimental exposures. APPEA 

Journal 38:692-707.

McCauley, R. D., J. Fewtrell, and A. N. Popper. 2003. High intensity anthropogenic sound damages fish 

ears. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 113:638-642. 

McCauley, R. D., C. Jenner, J. L. Bannister, and D. H. Cato. 2001. Blue whale calling off the Western 

Australian coast. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2391. 

McClatchie, S., G. Macaulay, R. F. Coombs, P. Grimes, and A. Hart. 1999. Target strength of an oily 

deep-water fish, orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus). I. Experiments. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 106:12. 

McClatchie, S. and Z. Ye. 2000. Target strength of an oily deep-water fish, orange roughy (Hoplostethus 

atlanticus). II. Modeling. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:6. 

McDonald, M. A. and C. G. Fox. 1999. Passive acoustic methods applied to fin whale population density 

estimation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105:2643. 

McDonald, M. A., J. A. Hildebrand, and S. C. Webb. 1995. Blue and fin whales observed on a seafloor 

array in the northeast Pacific. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 98:712-721. 

McDonald, M. A. and S. E. Moore. 2002. Calls recorded from North Pacific right whales (Eubalaena 

japonica). Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 4. 

McKibben, J. R. and A. H. Bass. 1998. Behavioral assessment of acoustic parameters relevant to signal 

recognition and preference in a vocal fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

104:14. 

McMahon, C. R., H. R. Burton, and M. N. Bester. 2003. A demographic comparison of two southern 

elephant seal populations. The Journal of Animal Ecology 72:61-74. 

Melcón, M. L., A. J. Cummins, S. M. Kerosky, L. K. Roche, S. M. Wiggins, and J. A. Hildebrand. 2012. 

Blue whales respond to anthropogenic noise. PLoS ONE 7:e32681. 

Mellinger, D. K. and C. W. Clark. 2000. Recognizing transient low-frequency whale sounds by 

spectrogram correlation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:3518. 

Mellinger, D. K., K. Stafford, C. G. Fox, and S. E. Moore. 2002. Automatic detection of sperm whale 

sounds from the Gulf of Alaska. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:2399. 

Mellinger, D. K., K. M. Stafford, and C. G. Fox. 2004. Seasonal occurrence of sperm whale (Physeter 

macrocephalus) sounds in the Gulf of Alaska, 1999-2001. Marine Mammal Science 20:15. 

Mercado III, E. and L. N. Frazer. 1999. Environmental constraints on sound transmission by humpback 

whales. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:3004. 

Miller, C. A., D. Reeb, P. B. Best, A. R. Knowlton, M. W. Brown and M. J. Moore. 2011. Blubber 

thickness in right whales Eubalaena glacialis and Eubalaena australis related with reproduction, 

life history status and prey abundance. Marine Ecology Progress Series 438: 267-283. 

Miller, P. J. O. 2002. Mixed-directionality of killer whale stereotyped calls: A direction of movement 

cue? Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 52:262-270. 

Miller, P. J. O. and D. E. Bain. 2000. Within-pod variation in the sound production of a pod of killer 

whales, Orcinus orca. Animal Behaviour 60:617-628. 

Miller, P. J. O., N. Biassoni, A. Samuels, and P. L. Tyack. 2000. Whale songs lengthen in response to 

sonar. Page 903 Nature (London). 
353

Mitchell, E. 1974. Present status of northwest Atlantic fin and other whale stocks. Pages 108-169 The 

Whale Problem: A Status Report. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 

Mitchell, E. and V. M. Kozicki. 1984. Reproductive condition of male sperm whales, Physeter 

macrocephalus, taken off Nova Scotia. Rep. int Whal. Commn. (Special Issue 6):243-252. 

Mitson, R. B. 1995. Underwater noise of research vessels. Review and recommendations. Cooperative 

Research Report No. 209, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Copenhagen, 

Denmark. 

Miyakita, T., P. A. Hellstrom, E. Frimanson, and A. Axelsson. 1992. Effect of low level acoustic 

stimulation on temporary threshold shift in young humans. Hearing research 60:149-155. 

Moberg, G. P. 2000. Biological response to stress: implications for animal welfare. Pages 1 - 21 in G. P. 

Moberg and J. A. Mench, editors. The biology of animal stress. Basic principles and implications 

for animal welfare. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. 

Mobley, J. R., Jr., L. M. Herman, and A. S. Frankel. 1988. Responses of wintering humpback whales 

Megaptera noveaeangliae to playback of recordings of winter and summer vocalizations and of 

synthetic sound. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23:211-224. 

Mohl, B. 2001. Sound transmission in the nose of the sperm whale Physeter catodon. A post mortem 

study. Journal of Comparative Physiology A Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology 187:335-

340.

Mohl, B., M. Wahlberg, P. T. Madsen, A. Heerfordt, and A. Lund. 2003. The monopulsed nature of 

sperm whale clicks. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 114:12. 

Montie, E.W., R.J. Letcher, C.M. Reddy, M.J. Moore, B. Rubinstein and M.E. Hahn. 2010. Brominated 

flame retardants and organochlorine contaminants in winter flounder, harp and hooded seals, and 

North Atlantic right whales from the Northwest Atlantic Ocean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

60(8):1160-9.

Moore, K. E., W. A. Watkins, and P. L. Tyack. 1993. Pattern similarity in shared codas from sperm 

whales (Physeter catodon). Marine Mammal Science 9:1-9.

Moore, M. J., S. D. Berrow, B. A. Jensen, P. Carr, R. Sears, V. J. Rowntree, R. Payne, and P. K. 

Hamilton. 1999. Relative abundance of large whales around South Georgia (1979-1998). Marine 

Mammal Science 15:16. 

Moore, M. J., C. A. Miller, M. S. Morss, R. Arthur, W. A. Lange, K. G. Prada, M. K. Marx, and E. A. 

Frey. 2001. Ultrasonic measurement of blubber thickness in right whales. Journal of Cetacean 

Research and Management Supplement 2:301 - 309. 

Mossbridge, J. A. and J. A. Thomas. 2001. An ''acoustic niche'' for Antarctic killer whale and leopard seal 

sounds. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2390. 

Muchnik, C., E. Sahartov, E. Peleg, and M. Hildesheimer. 1992. Temporary threshold shift due to noise 

exposure in guinea pigs under emotional stress. Hearing research 58:101-106. 

Mullin, K. D., T. A. Jefferson, L. J. Hansen, and W. Hoggard. 1994. First sightings of melon-headed 

whales (Peponocephala electra) in the Gulf of Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 10:342. 

Murphy, W. J. and L. E. van Campen. 2001. Temporary threshold shift in ABRs and DPOAEs following 

noise exposure in Long-Evans rats. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2373. 

Murray, S. O., E. Mercado, and H. L. Roitblat. 1998. Characterizing the graded structure of false killer 

whale (Pseudorca crassidens) vocalizations. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

104:1679. 
354

Murray, S. O., E. Mercado, and H. L. Roitblat. 1998. The neural network classification of false killer 

whale (Pseudorca crassidens) vocalizations. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

104:3626. 

Mutlu, E. 2000. Detection of harbor porpoises and white whales (Beluga) sound using the high frequency 

bioacoustics and their echo structures. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:2584. 

Nachtigall, P. E., J. L. Pawloski, and W. W. L. Au. 2003. Temporary threshold shifts and recovery 

following noise exposure in the Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 113:5. 

Nachtigall, P. E., A. Y. Supin, J. Pawloski, and W. W. L. Au. 2004. Temporary threshold shifts after 

noise exposure in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) measured using evoked auditory 

potentials. Marine Mammal Science 20:15. 

Nachtigall, P. E., M. M. L. Yuen, T. A. Mooney, and K. A. Taylor. 2005. Hearing measurements from a 

stranded infant Risso's dolphin, Grampus griseus. The journal of Experimental Biology 

208:4181. 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). 1998. Recovery Plan for the Shortnose Sturgeon (Acipenser 

brevirostrum). Prepared by the Shortnose Sturgeon Recovery Team for the National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland. 104p. 

NMFS. 2000. Status Review of Smalltooth Sawfish (Pristis pectinata). December 2000. 

NMFS 2006. Biological Opinion on the Funding and Permitting of Seismic Surveys by the National 

Science Foundation and the National Marine Fisheries Service in the Eastern Tropical Pacific 

Ocean from March to April 2006. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, Maryland. 

76p.NMFS. 2010. Recovery plan for the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 121 pp. 

NMFS. 2012. Reinitiation of Endangered Species Act (ESA) Section 7 Consultation on the Continued 

Implementation of the Sea Turtle Conservation Regulations, as Proposed to Be Amended, and the 

Continued Authorization of the Southeast U.S. Shrimp Fisheries in Federal Waters under the 

Magnuson-Stevens Act. NMFS SER. May 8, 2012. 

National Ocean Service. 2003. Oil and sea turtles, biology, planning and response. S. Shigenake (ed.) 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Ocean Service, Office of Response 

and Restoration. 111 pp. 

National Research Council. 1990. Decline of the sea turtles: causes and prevention. National Academy 

Press, Washington, D.C. 

National Research Council. 1995. Science and the Endangered Species Act. National Academy Press, 

Washington, D.C. 

National Research Council. 2000. Marine mammals and low-frequency sound: progress since 1994. 

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 

National Research Council. 2003. Ocean noise and marine mammals. National Academies Press, 

Washington, D.C. 

National Research Council. 2005. Marine mammal populations and ocean noise : determining when noise 

causes biologically significant effects. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 

National Science Foundation and U.S. Dept. of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 2011. Final 

Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement/Overseas Environmental Impact Statement for 

Marine Seismic Research Funded by the National Science Foundation or conducted by the U.S. 
355

Geological Survey. June 2011. 514 pp. Available at: 

http://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/envcomp/usgs-nsf-marine-seismic-research/nsf-usgs-final-eisoeis_3june2011.pdf. 

Nawojchik, R., D. J. S. Aubin, and A. Johnson. 2003. Movements and dive behavior of two stranded, 

rehabilitated long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) in the Northwest Atlantic. Marine 

Mammal Science 19:8. 

Neff, J.M., S. McKelvie and R.C. Ayers, Jr. 2000. Environmental impacts of synthetic based drilling 

fluids. Report prepared for MMS by Robert Ayers & Associates, Inc. August 2000. U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2000-064. 118 pp. 

Nelson M, Garron M, Merrick RL et al. 2007. Mortality and Serious Injury Determinations for Baleen 

Whale Stocks along the United States Eastern Seaboard and Adjacent Canadian Maritimes, 2001-

2005. In: Northeast Fisheries Science Center Reference Document 07- 05. U.S. Department of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries 

Service, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, MA. 

Nero, R. W., C. H. Thompson, and R. H. Love. 2002. Fish schools as potential clutter and false targets: 

Observations on the New Jersey shelf. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:1. 

Newcomb, J., R. Fisher, R. Field, G. Rayborn, S. Kuczaj, G. Ioup, J. Ioup, and A. Turgut. 2002. 

Measurements of ambient noise and sperm whale vocalizations in the northern Gulf of Mexico 

using near bottom hydrophones. Ocean 3:1365-1371. 

Newcomb, J. J., A. J. Wright, S. Kuczaj, R. Thames, W. R. Hillstrom, and R. Goodman. 2004. 

Underwater ambient noise and sperm whale click detection during extreme wind speed 

conditions. AIP Conference Proceedings 728:296-306. 

Niklitschek E. S. and D. H. Secor. 2009. Dissolved oxygen temperature and salinity effects on the 

ecophysiology and survival of juvenile Atlantic sturgeon in estuarine waters. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. 

Ecol. 381: Suppl. 1: 150-172. 

Niklitschek, E. J. and D.H. Secor. 2005. Modeling spatial and temporal variation of suitable nursery 

habitats for Atlantic sturgeon in the Chesapeake Bay. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 64 

135-148. 

Niklitschek, E.S. and D.H. Secor. 2010. Experimental and field evidence of behavioral habitat selection 

by juvenile Atlantic (Acipenser oxyrinchus) and shortnose (Acipenser brevirostrum) sturgeons. J. Fish 

Biol. 77: 1293-1308. 

Nolan, C. P., G. M. Liddle, and J. Elliot. 2000. Interactions between killer whales (Orcinus orca) and 

sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) with a longline fishing vessel. Marine Mammal Science 

16:6. 

Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012. Effects of noise on fish, fisheries, and invertebrates in the U.S. 

Atlantic and Arctic from energy industry sound-generating activities. A literature synthesis for 

the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. Contract # 

M11PC00031. 153 pp. 

Normile, D. and J. t. Mervis. 2000. Japan's whaling program carries heavy baggage. Pages 2264-2265 

Science (Washington D C). 

Norris, S. 2002. Creatures of culture? Making the case for cultural systems in whales and dolphins. 

Bioscience 52:9-14. 
356

Norris, T. F. 1994. Effects of boat noise on the acoustic behavior of humpback whales. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 96:3251. 

Norris, T. F., M. M. Donald, and J. Barlow. 1999. Acoustic detections of singing humpback whales 

(Megaptera novaeangliae) in the eastern North Pacific during their northbound migration. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 106:9. 

Norton, S. B., S. B. Cormier, G. W. Suter II, B. Subramanian, E. Lin, D. Altfater, and B. Counts. 2002. 

Determining probable causes of ecological impairment in the Little Scioto River, Ohio, USA: 

Part 1. listing candidate causes and analyzing evidence. Environmental Toxicology and 

Chemistry 21:1112-1124. 

Notarbartolo-di-Sciara, G., M. Zanardelli, M. Jahoda, S. Panigada, and S. Airoldi. 2003. The fin whale 

Balaenoptera physalus (L. 1758) in the Mediterranean Sea. Mammal Review 33:105-150. 

Nottestad, L. and B. E. Axelsen. 1999. Herring schooling manoeuvres in response to killer whale attacks. 

The Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:1540-1546. 

Nowacek, D. P., M. P. Johnson, and P. L. Tyack. 2004. North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) 

ignore ships but respond to alerting stimuli. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences 

Series B 271:227-231. 

Nowacek, D.P, L.H. Thorne, D.W. Johnston and P.L. Tyack. 2007. Reponses of cetaeans to 

anthropogenic noise. Mammalian Review, 37(2), 81-115.

O'Brien, W. D., Jr, L. A. Frizzell, R. M. Weigel, and J. F. Zachary. 2000. Ultrasound-induced lung 

hemorrhage is not caused by inertial cavitation. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:1290. 

Ohsumi, S., and S. Wada. 1974. Status of whale stocks in the North Pacific, 1972. Reports of the 

International Whaling Commission 24:114-126. 

Oleson, E. M., J. Barlow, J. Gordon, S. Rankin, and J. A. Hildebrand. 2003. Low frequency calls of 

Bryde's whales. Marine Mammal Science 19:406. 

Olson, T. L., B. K. Gilbert, and R. C. Squibb. 1997. The effects of increasing human activity on brown 

bear use of an Alaskan River. Biological Conservation 82:95-99.

Ona, E. and I. Svellingen. 2001. Target strength analysis in high fish densities using a probing split beam 

transducer. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 109:2305. 

Orians, G., F. Briand, J. Diamond, T. Colborn, E. Gomez, R. Guillemin, A. Klug, M. Konishi, J. 

Lubchenco, L. Mee, E. Norse, G. N. Di Sciara, R. Payne, C. Safina, D. Suzuki, E. O. Wilson, and 

G. t. Woodwell. 2003. "Scientists versus Whaling": Whose errors of judgment? Bioscience 

53:200; 202-203.

Palacios, D. M. and B. R. Mate. 1996. Attack by false killer whales (Pseudorca crassidens) on sperm 

whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in the Galapagos Islands. Marine Mammal Science 12:6. 

Palka, D.L. 2006. Summer abundance estimates of cetaceans in US North Atlantic Navy Operating Areas. 

Northeast Fish. Sci. Cent. Ref. Doc. 06-03; 41 p. 

Parks, S. E. 2003. Response of North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) to playback of calls 

recorded from surface active groups in both the North and South Atlantic. Marine Mammal 

Science 19:18. 

Parks, S. E., P. K. Hamilton, S. D. Kraus, and P. L. Tyack. 2005. The gunshot sound produced by male 

North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) and its potential function in reproductive 

advertisement. Marine Mammal Science 21:18. 
357

Patenaude, N. J., C. S. Baker, and N. J. Gales. 1998. Observations of southern right whales on New 

Zealand's subantarctic wintering grounds. Marine Mammal Science 14:5. 

Patenaude, N. J., W. J. Richardson, M. A. Smultea, W. R. Koski, G. W. Miller, B. Wursig, and C. R. 

Greene Jr. 2002. Aircraft sound and disturbance to bowhead and beluga whales during spring 

migration in the Alaskan beaufort Sea. Marine Mammal Science 18:309-335. 

Patro, R., L. Zedel, and C. Spanu-Tollefsen. 2000. Monitoring fish movement using an ADCP. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2489. 

Pavan, G., T. J. Hayward, J. F. Borsani, M. Priano, M. Manghi, C. Fossati, and J. Gordon. 2000. Time 

patterns of sperm whale codas recorded in the Mediterranean Sea 1985-1996. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 107:3487. 

Payne, R. 1986. Long term behavioral studies of the southern right whale (Eubalaena australis). Report of 

the International Whaling Commission Special Issue 10:161-167.-Right Whales Past and Present 

status. Proceedings of the Workshop on the status of Right Whales. Robert L. Brownell, Peter B. 

Best, John H. Prescott-Eds.). 

Payne, P. M., and coauthors. 1990. Recent fluctuations in the abundance of baleen whales in the southern 

Gulf of Maine in relation to changes in prey abundance. Fishery Bulletin 88(4):687-696. 

Pearson, W. H., J. R. Skalski and C. I. Malme 1992. Effects of sounds from a geophysical survey device 

on behavior of captive rockfish (Sebastes spp.). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic 

Sciences 49:1343-1356. 

Pedersen, B. and M. V. Trevorrow. 1999. Continuous monitoring of fish in a shallow channel using a 

fixed horizontal sonar. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 105:10. 

Perry, S. L., D. P. DeMaster, and G. K. Silber. 1999a. The Great Whales: History and Status of Six 

Species Listed as Endangered Under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973. Marine Fisheries 

Review 61(1):1-74.

Pershing, A. J., E. H. J. Head, C. H. Greene, and J. W. Jossi. 2010. Pattern and scale of variability among 

Northwest Atlantic Shelf plankton communities. Journal of Plankton Research 32(12):1661-1674. 

Peterson, D. L., M. B. Bain and N. Haley. 2000. Evidence of declining recruitment of Atlantic sturgeon in 

the Hudson River. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 20:231-238. 

Peterson, D.L., P. Schueller, R. DeVries, J. Fleming, C. Grunwald, I. Wirgin. 2008. Annual run size and 

genetic characteristics of Atlantic sturgeon in the Altamaha River. Transactions of the American 

Fisheries Society 137:393-401.

Piantadosi, C. A. and E. D. Thalmann. 2004. Pathology: Whales, sonar and decompression sickness. 

Nature 428:n. 

Pietraszek, J. and S. Atkinson. 1994. Concentrations of estrone sulfate and progesterone in plasma and 

saliva, vaginal cytology, and bioelectric impedance during the estrous cycle of the Hawaiian 

monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Marine Mammal Science 10:430. 

Pike, D. and J.C. Stiner. 2007. Sea turtle species vary in their susceptibility to tropical cyclones. 

Oecologia, 153:471–478. 

Pirotta, E., R. Milor, N. Quick, D. Moretti, N. Di Marzio, P. Tyack, I. Boyd, and G. Hastie. 2012. Vessel 

noise affects beaked whale behavior: results of a dedicated acoustic response study. PLoS ONE 

7:e42535. 

Pitman, R. L., L. T. Ballance, S. L. Mesnick, and S. J. Chivers. 2001. Killer whale predation on sperm 

whales: observations and implications. Marine Mammal Science 17:494. 
358

Polyakov, I.V., C.A. Alexeev, U.S. Bhatt, E.I. Polyakova and X. Zhang. 2010. North Atlantic warming: 

patterns of long-term trend and multidecadal variability. Climate Dynamics, 34:439-457. 

Ponganis, P. J., G. L. Kooyman, and M. A. Castellini. 1995. Multiple sightings of Arnoux's beaked 

whales along the Victoria Land coast. Marine Mammal Science 11:4. 

Popper, A.N. and M. C. Hastings. 2009. The effects of human-generated sounds on fish. Integrative 

Zoology 2009; 4: 43-52.

Popper, A. N., R. D. McCauley, and J. Fewtrell. 2002. Impact of anthropogenic sounds on fishes. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:2431. 

Popper, A. N., M. E. Smith, P. A. Cott, B. W. Hanna, A. O. Macgillivray, M. E. Austin, and D. A. Mann. 

2005. Effects of exposure to seismic airgun use on hearing of three fish species. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 117:3958. 

Postuma, F. A. and Gasalla, M. A. 2010. On the relationship between squid and the environment: 

artisanal jigging for Loligo plei at São Sebastião Island (24°S), southeastern Brazil. – ICES 

Journal of Marine Science, 67: 1353–1362. 

Pyzik, L., J. Caddick, and P. Marx. 2004. Chesapeake Bay: introduction to an ecosystem. Chesapeake 

Bay Program, EPA Publication 903-R-04-003. Annapolis, Maryland 

Rankin, S., D. Ljungblad, C. Clark, and K. Hiderhiro. 2005. Vocalisations of Antarctic blue whales, 

Balaenoptera musculus intermedia, recorded during the 2001/2002 and 2002/2003 IWC/SOWER 

circumpolar cruises, Area V, Antarctica. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 7:13-20.

Ratilal, P. and N. C. Makris. 2002. Coherent versus diffuse surface and volume reverberation in an ocean 

wave guide: Reverberation rings, modal decoupling, and possible fish scattering in Geoclutter 

2001. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:2280. 

Read, A. J. and P. R. Wade. 2000. Status of marine mammals in the United States. Conservation Biology 

14:929-940. 

Reeder, D. B., T. K. Stanton, D. Chu, and J. M. Jech. 2000. Broadband acoustic backscattering from 

alewife fish: Experiment and analysis. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:2457. 

Reeves, R. R. 1992. Whale responses to anthropogenic sounds: a literature review. Science and Research 

Series No. 47, New Zealand Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. 

Reeves, R. R., B. D. Smith, E. Crespo, and G. Notobartolo di Sciara. 2003. Dolphins, whales and 

porpoises: 2002-2010 Conservation action plan for the world's cetaceans. IUCN - The World 

Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. 

Reeves, R. R., T. D. Smith, E. A. Josephson, P. J. Clapham, and G. Woolmer. 2004. Historical 

observations of humpback and blue whales in the North Atlantic Ocean: Cities to migratory 

routes and possibly additional feeding grounds. Marine Mammal Science 20:13. 

Reid, K., A. S. Brierley, and G. A. Nevitt. 2000. An initial examination of relationships between the 

distribution of whales and Antarctic krill Euphausia superba at South Georgia. Journal of 

Cetacean Research and Management 2. 

Reif, J. S., A. Bachand, A. A. Aguirre, D. L. Borjesson, L. Kashinsky, R. Braun, and G. Antonelis. 2004. 

Morphometry, hematology, and serum chemistry in the Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus 

schauinslandi). Marine Mammal Science 20:10. 

Rendell, L. and H. Whitehead. 2004. Do sperm whales share coda vocalizations? - Insights into coda 

usage from acoustic size measurement. Animal Behaviour 67:865-874.
359

Rendell, L. and H. Whitehead. 2005. Coda playbacks to sperm whales in Chilean waters. Marine 

Mammal Science 21:10. 

Rendell, L., H. Whitehead, and A. Coakes. 2005. Do breeding male sperm whales show preferences 

among vocal clans of females? Marine Mammal Science 21:6. 

Rendell, L. E. and J. C. D. Gordon. 1999. Vocal response of long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala 

melas) to military sonar in the Ligurian Sea. Marine Mammal Science 15:198-204. 

Rendell, L. E., J. N. Matthews, A. Gill, J. C. D. Gordon, and D. W. Macdonald. 1999. Quantitative 

analysis of tonal calls from five odontocete species, examining interspecific and intraspecific 

variation. Journal of Zoology 249:403-410. 

Rendell, L. E. and H. Whitehead. 2003. Comparing repertoires of sperm whale codas: a multiple methods 

approach. Bioacoustics 14:61 - 81. 

Rendell, L. E. and H. Whitehead. 2003. Vocal clans in sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). 

Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B 270:225-231. 

Richardson, W. J., R. A. Davids, C. R. Evans, and P. Norton. 1985. Distribution of bowheads and 

industrial activity. Report prepared by LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc. for U.S. 

Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Bryan, Texas, and Reston, Virginia. 

Richardson, W. J., K. J. Finley, G. W. Miller, and R. A. Davis. 1995. Feeding, social and migration 

behavior of bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, in Baffin Bay vs the Beaufort Sea - regions 

with different amounts of human activity. Marine Mammal Science 11:1. 

Richardson, W. J., C. R. Greene Jr, C. I. Malme, and D. H. Thomson. 1995b. Marine mammals and noise. 

Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, California. 

Richardson, W. J., R. S. Wells, and B. Würsig. 1985. Disturbance responses of bowheads, 1980-84. Pages 

89-196 in W. J. Richardson, editor. Behavior, disturbance and distribution of bowhead whales 

Balaena mysticetus in the eastern Beaufort Sea, 1980-84. Report from LGL Ecological Research 

Associates, Inc. for U.S. Minerals Management Service, Bryan, Texas, and Reston, Virginia. 

Richardson, W. J., B. Würsig, and C. R. Greene Jr. 1990. Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena 

mysticetus, to drilling and dredging noise in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. Marine Environmental 

Research 29:135-160. 

Richardson, W. J., B. Würsig, and C. R. Greene Jr. 1986. Reactions of bowhead whales, Balaena 

mysticetus, to seismic exploration in the Canadian Beaufort Sea. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 79:1117-1128. 

Richter, C., S.M. Dawson and E. Slooten. 2003. Sperm whale watching off Kaikoura, New Zealand: 

effects of current activities on surfacing and vocalization patterns. Science for Conservation 219. 

New Zealand Department of Conservation; Wellington, New Zealand. 

Richter, C., S. Dawson, and E. Slooten. 2006. Impacts of commercial whale watching on male sperm 

whales at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Marine Mammal Science 22:46-63. 

Ridgway, S. H., D. A. Carder, T. Kamolnick, R. R. Smith, C. E. Schlundt, and W. R. Elsberry. 2001. 

Hearing and whistling in the deep sea: depth influences whistle spectra but does not attenuate 

hearing by white whales (Delphinapterus leucas) (Odontoceti, Cetacea). The journal of 

Experimental Biology 204:3829-3841. 

Ridgway, S. H., E. G. Wever, J. G. McCormick, J. Palin and J. H. Anderson 1969. Hearing in the giant 

sea turtle, Chelonia mydas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United 

States of America 64:884-890.
360

Ridoux, V., C. Guinet, C. Liret, P. Creton, R. Steenstrup, and G. Beauplet. 1997. A video sonar as a new 

tool to study marine mammals in the wild: Measurements of dolphin swimming speed. Marine 

Mammal Science 13:11. 

Robbins, M. W. 2003. Will the Navy's new sonar harm whales? Page 75 Discover (New York). 

Robineau, D. and M. Vely. 1993. Stranding of a specimen of Gervais' beaked whale (Mesoplodon 

europaeus) on the coast of West Africa (Mauritania). Marine Mammal Science 9:438-440. 

Robinette, M. 2004. Effects of N-acetylcysteine on noise-induced temporary threshold shift and 

temporary emission shift. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 115:2388. 

Robinson, C. 2002. Ten years of hydroacoustical observations of the behavior and distribution of small 

pelagic fish in the west coast of Baja California, Mexico. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 112:2207. 

Romero, A., K. T. Hayford, and J. Romero. 2002. The marine mammals of Grenada, W.I., and their 

conservation status. Mammalia 66:479-494.

Rommel, S. A., A. M. Costidis, A. Fernandez, P. D. Jepson, D. A. Pabst, W. A. McLellan, D. S. Houser, 

T. W. Cranford, A. L. van Helden, D. M. Allen, and N. B. Barros. 2006. Elements of beaked 

whale anatomy and diving physiology, and some hypothetical causes of sonar-related stranding. 

Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 7:189 - 209.

Rooney, A. P., R. L. Honeycutt, S. K. Davis, and J. N. Derr. 1999. Evaluating a putative bottleneck in a 

population of bowhead whales from patterns of microsatellite diversity and genetic disequilibria. 

Journal of Molecular Evolution 49:682-690.

Rooney, A. P., R. L. Honeycutt, and J. N. Derr. 2001. Historical population size change of bowhead 

whales inferred from DNA sequence polymorphism data. Evolution 55:1678-1685. 

Rossi, G., P. Solero, M. Rolando, and M. Olina. 1991. Recovery time of the temporary threshold shift for 

delayed evoked otoacoustic emissions and tone bursts. Journal for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology and 

its Borderlands 53:15-18.

Saegusa, A. t. 2000. Japan squares up to conservationists over grey whale's status. Pages 531-532 Nature 

(London). 

Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Limited. 2002. Western gray whale protection plan: framework for 

monitoring and mitigation measures related to Sakhalin energy oil and gas operations on the 

northeast coast of Sakhalin Island, Russia. Unpublished report prepared by Sakhalin Energy 

Investment Company Limited, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Russia. 

Salden, D. R., L. M. Herman, M. Yamaguchi, and F. t. Sato. 1999. Multiple visits of individual humpback 

whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) between the Hawaiian and Japanese winter grounds. The 

Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:504-508. 

Samuels, A. and P. L. Tyack. 2000. Flukeprints: a history of studying cetacean societies. Pages 9-44 in J. 

Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of 

dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Schlundt, C. E., J. J. Finneran, D. A. Carder, and S. H. Ridgway. 2000. Temporary shift in masked 

hearing thresholds of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, and white whales, Delphinapterus 

leucas, after exposure to intense tones. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

107:3496. 

Scholik, A. R. and H. Y. Yan. 2002. Effects of boat engine noise on the auditory sensitivity of the fathead 

minnow, Pimephales promelas. Environmental Biology of Fishes 63:7. 
361

Scholz, N. L., N. K. Truelove, B. L. French, B. A. Berejikian, T. P. Quinn, E. Casillas, and T. K. Collier. 

2000. Diazinon disrupts antipredator and homing behaviors in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus 

tshawytscha). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57:1911-1918. 

Schrope, M. 2002. Whale deaths caused by US Navy's sonar. Page 106 Nature (London). 

Schueller, P. and D. L. Peterson. 2010. Abundance and recruitment of juvenile Atlantic sturgeon in the 

Altamaha River, Georgia. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 139:1526-1535. 

Schusterman, R. J., D. Kastak, D. H. Levenson, C. J. Reichmuth, and B. L. Southall. 2000. Why 

pinnipeds don't echolocate. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 107:2256. 

Scott, T. M. and S. Sadove. 1997. Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus, sightings in the shallow shelf 

waters off Long Island, New York. Marine Mammal Science 13:4. 

Secor, D.H. 2002. Atlantic sturgeon fisheries and stock abundances during the late nineteenth century. 

Biology, Management, and Protection of North American Sturgeon. American Fisheries Society 

Symposium 28: 89-98.

Secor, D.H. and E.J. Niklitschek. 2002. Sensitivity of sturgeons to environmental hypoxia: A review of 

physiological and ecological evidence, p. 61-78 In: R.V. Thurston (Ed.) Fish Physiology, 

Toxicology, and Water Quality. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium, La Paz, MX, 

22-26 Jan. 2001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development, 

Ecosystems Research Division, Athens, GA. EPA/600/R-02/097. 372 pp. 

Secor, D. H. and J. R. Waldman. 1999. Historical abundance of Delaware Bay Atlantic sturgeon and 

potential rate of recovery. American Fisheries Society Symposium 23:203-216. 

Shelden, K. E. W., S. E. Moore, J. M. Waite, P. R. Wade, and D. J. Rugh. 2005. Historic and current 

habitat use by North Pacific right whales Eubalaena japonica in the Bering Sea and Gulf of 

Alaska. Mammal Review 35:129-155. 

Sibly, R. M. and J. Hone. 2002. Population growth rate and its determinants: an overview. Philosophical 

Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences 357:1153-1170. 

Sibly, R. M. and J. Hone. 2003. Population growth rate and its determinants: an overview. Pages 11 - 40 

in R. M. Sibly, J. Hone, and T. H. Clutton-Brock, editors. Wildlife population growth rates. 

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 

Sibly, R. M., J. Hone, and T. H. Clutton-Brock, editors. 2003. Wildlife population growth rates. 

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 

Sidorovskaia, N. A., G. E. Ioup, J. W. Ioup, and J. W. Caruthers. 2004. Acoustic propagation studies for 

sperm whale phonation analysis during LADC experiments. AIP Conference Proceedings 

728:288-295. 

Sidorovskaia, N. A., I. A. Udovydchenkov, I. I. Rypina, G. E. Ioup, J. W. Ioup, J. W. Caruthers, J. 

Newcomb, and R. Fisher. 2004. Propagation modeling for sperm whale acoustic clicks in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 115:2556. 

Silber, G. K., J. Slutsky and S. Bettridge. 2010. Hydrodynamics of a ship/whale collision. Journal of 

Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 391(2010) 10-19.

Silvers, L. E., P. E. Rosel, and D. R. Salden. 2002. DNA sequence analysis of a North Pacific humpback 

whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) placenta. The Canadian Journal of Zoology 80:1141-1144. 

Simard, Y., J. K. Horne, D. Lavoie, and I. McQuinn. 2000. Capelin TS: Effect of individual fish 

variability. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:2458. 
362

Sims, D. W., M. J. Genner, A. J. Southward, and S. J. Hawkins. 2001. Timing of squid migration reflects 

North Atlantic climate variability. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series BBiological Sciences 268(1485):2607-2611. 

Simmonds, M. P. and L. F. Lopez-Jurado. 1991. Whales and the military. Nature 351:448. 

Sinclair, E. H. 1992. Stomach contents of four short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) 

from the Southern California Bight. Marine Mammal Science 8:76-81.

Skals, N., D. Plepys, and C. Lofstedt. 2003. Foraging and mate-finding in the silver Y moth, Autographa 

gamma (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) under the risk of predation. Oikos 102:351-357. 

Skalski, J. R., W. H. Pearson and C. I. Malme 1992. Effects of sounds from a geophysical survey device 

on catch-per-unit-effort in a hook-and-line fishery for rockfish (Sebastes spp.). Canadian Journal 

of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 49:1357-1365. 

Smith, M. E., A. S. Kane, and A. N. Popper. 2004. Acoustical stress and hearing sensitivity in fishes: does 

the linear threshold shift hypothesis hold water? The journal of Experimental Biology 207:3591 - 

3602. 

Smith, M. E., L. E. Wysocki, and A. N. Popper. 2006. Effects of background sound on fish. The Journal 

of the Acoustical Society of America 119:1. 

Smith, S. C. and H. Whitehead. 2000. The diet of Galapagos sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus as 

indicated by fecal sample analysis. Marine Mammal Science 16:11. 

Smith, T.I.J. 1985. The Fishery, Biology, and Management of Atlantic sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrhynchus, 

in North America. Environmental Biology of Fishes 14(1): 61-72. 

Smith, T.I.J. and J.P. Clugston. 1997. Status and Management of Atlantic Sturgeon, Acipenser 

oxyrinchus, in North America. Environmental Biology of Fishes 48: 335-346. 

Smultea, M., Mobley, J.R., Fertl, D. and Fulling, G.L. 2008. An unusual reaction and other observations 

of sperm whales near fixed-wing aircraft. Gulf and Caribbean Research 20: 75-80.

Solomon, S., G-K. Plattner, R. Knutti and P. Friedlingstein. 2009. Irreversible climate change due to 

carbon dioxide emissions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol 106(6): 1704-

1709. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0812721106 

Southall, B.L., and co-authors. 2007. Marine Mammal Noise Exposure Criteria: Initial Scientific 

Recommendations. Aquatic Mammals, Volume 33, Number 4, 2007. 

Southall, B. L., R. J. Schusterman, and D. Kastak. 2000. Masking in three pinnipeds: underwater, lowfrequency critical ratios. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 108:1322. 

Spitz, S. S., L. M. Herman, A. A. Pack, and M. H. Deakos. 2002. The relation of body size of male 

humpback whales to their social roles on the Hawaiian winter grounds. The Canadian Journal of 

Zoology 80:1938-1947. 

Squiers, T.S., M. Smith. 1979. Distribution and abundance of shortnose and Atlantic sturgeon in the 

Kennebec River Estuary. Report. Compl. Rep. Maine Mar. Resour. 53 pages. 

Stafford, K. 2000. Blue whale calls recorded in the Gulf of Alaska. The Journal of the Acoustical Society 

of America 108:2614. 

Stafford, K. M., C. G. Fox, and D. S. Clark. 1998. Long-range acoustic detection, localization of blue 

whale calls in the northeast Pacific Ocean. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

104:3616. 
363

Stafford, K. M., S. L. Nieukirk, and C. G. Fox. 1999. An acoustic link between blue whales in the eastern 

tropical Pacific and the Northeast Pacific. Marine Mammal Science 15:11. 

Stafford, K. M., S. L. Nieukirk, and C. G. Fox. 1999. Low-frequency whale sounds recorded on 

hydrophones moored in the eastern tropical Pacific. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 106:3687. 

Stafford, K. M., S. L. Nieukirk, and C. G. Fox. 2001. Geographic and seasonal variation of blue whale 

calls in the North Pacific. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3. 

Steig, T. W. and S. V. Johnston. 2000. The development of a system for remotely monitoring the threedimensional movement of acoustically tagged fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 108:1. 

Stein, A. B., K. D. Friedland, and M. Sutherland. 2004. Atlantic sturgeon marine distribution and habitat 

use along the northeastern coast of the United States. Transactions of the American Fisheries 

Society 133:527-537. 

Stevenson, J. T. and D. H. Secor. 1999. Age determination and growth of Hudson River Atlantic 

sturgeon, Acipenser oxyrinchus. Fishery Bulletin 97:153-166. 

Stevick, P. T. 1999. Age-length relationships in humpback whales: A comparison of strandings in the 

western North Atlantic with commercial catches. Marine Mammal Science 15:13. 

Stevick, P. T., J. Allen, M. Berube, P. J. Clapham, S. K. Katona, F. Larsen, J. Lien, D. K. Mattila, P. J. 

Palsboll, J. Robbins, J. Sigurjonsson, T. D. Smith, N. Oien, and P. S. Hammond. 2003. 

Segregation of migration by feeding ground origin in North Atlantic humpback whales 

(Megaptera novaeangliae). Journal of Zoology 259:231-237. 

Stocker, M. 2002. Fish, mollusks and other sea animals' use of sound, and the impact of anthropogenic 

noise in the marine acoustic environment. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

112:2431. 

Stocker, M. 2002. Sounding the alarm on underwater noise. Nature 420:740. 

Sugahara, K., H. Shimogori, T. Okuda, T. Takemoto, M. Hashimoto, and H. Yamashita. 2004. Cochlear 

administration of adenosine triphosphate facilitates recovery from acoustic trauma (temporary 

threshold shift). Journal for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology and its Borderlands 66:80-84. 

Supin, A. Y., P. E. Nachtigall, and W. W. L. Au. 2002. Evoked-potential study of echolocation in whales 

and dolphins. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 112:2313. 

Sutherland, W. J. 1996. From individual behavior to population ecology. Oxford University Press, 

Oxford, United Kingdom. 

Swartzman, G. L., D. V. Holliday, K. O. Coyle, and J. M. Napp. 2000. Comparison and evaluation of 

methods for distinguishing among several functional classes of zooplankton and fish using 

acoustic backscatter data at four frequencies. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 

108:2490. 

Swingle, W. M., S. G. Barco, T. D. Pitchford, W. A. McLellan, and D. A. Pabst. 1993. Appearance of 

juvenile humpback whales feeding in the nearshore waters of Virginia. Marine Mammal Science 

9:309-315. 

Szymanski, M. D., D. E. Bain, K. Kiehl, S. Pennington, S. Wong, and K. R. Henry. 1999. Killer whale 

(Orcinus orca) hearing: Auditory brainstem response and behavioral audiograms. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 106:1134. 
364

Talpalar, A. and Y. Grossman. 2005. Sonar versus whales: Noise may disrupt neural activity in deepdiving cetaceans. Undersea & Hyperbaric Medicine 32:135. 

Teloni, V. 2005. Patterns of sound production in diving sperm whales in the northwestern Mediterranean. 

Marine Mammal Science 21:12. 

Teloni, V., W. M. X. Zimmer, and P. L. Tyack. 2005. Sperm whale trumpet sounds. Bioacoustics 15:12. 

Thewissen, J. G. M. and E. M. Williams. 2002. The early radiations of Cetacea (Mammalia): 

Evolutionary pattern and developmental correlations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 

33:73-90.

Thode, A. 2004. Tracking sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) dive profiles using a towed passive 

acoustic array. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 116:9. 

Thode, A. 2005. Three-dimensional passive acoustic tracking of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) 

in ray-refracting environments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 118:10. 

Thode, A., D. K. Mellinger, S. Stienessen, A. Martinez, and K. Mullin. 2002. Depth-dependent acoustic 

features of diving sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in the Gulf of Mexico. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 112:14. 

Thode, A. M., G. L. D'Spain, and W. A. Kuperman. 2000. Matched-field processing, geoacoustic 

inversion, and source signature recovery of blue whale vocalizations. The Journal of the 

Acoustical Society of America 107:1286. 

Thode, A. M., D. K. Mellinger, S. Stienessen, A. Martinez, and K. Mullin. 2001. Analysis of frequency 

structure of sperm whale clicks as a function of dive depth and animal orientation. The Journal of 

the Acoustical Society of America 109:2390. 

Thompson, P. O., L. T. Findley, O. Vidal, and W. C. Cummings. 1996. Underwater sounds of blue 

whales, Balaenoptera musculus, in the Gulf of California, Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 

12:5. 

Tiemann, C., A. Thode, J. Straley, K. Folkert, and V. O'Connell. 2005. Model-based passive acoustic 

tracking of sperm whale foraging behavior in the Gulf of Alaska. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 118:1909. 

Todd, S., P. T. Stevick, J. Lien, F. Marques, and D. Ketten. 1996. Behavioral effects of exposure to 

underwater explosions in humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). The Canadian Journal of 

Zoology 74:1661-1672. 

Trevorrow, M. V. 1996. Multifrequency acoustic investigations of juvenile and adult fish in Lake Biwa, 

Japan. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 100:11. 

Turnpenny, A.W.H. and J.R. Nedwell. 1994. The effects on marine fish, diving mammals and birds of 

underwater sound generated by seismic surveys. Fawley Aquatic Research laboratories Ltd. 

FCR 089/94. October 1994. 40 pp. 

Tyack, P. L. 2000. Functional aspects of cetacean communication. Pages 270-307 in J. Mann, R. C. 

Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and 

whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Tyack, P. L., R. C. Connor, J. Mann, and H. Whitehead. 2000. Epilogue: the future of behavioral research 

on cetaceans in the wild. Pages 333-339 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. 

Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of 

Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 
365

U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2006. Fact sheet: Small 

diesel spills (500-5,000 gallons). NOAA Scientific Support Team, Hazardous Materials 

Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, 

WA. 2 pp. Available at: http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/974_diesel.pdf. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service (MMS). 1998. North Carolina/Minerals 

Management Service Technical Workshop on Manteo Unit Exploration. February 4-5, 1998. 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Report MMS 

98-0024. Available at: http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/3/3225.pdf 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, (MMS). 2008. Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2009-2012; 

Central Planning Area Sales 208, 213, 216, and 222; Western Planning area Sales 210, 215, and 

218 – Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA MMS 2008-

041.

U.S. Department of the Interior, BOEM. 2012a. Atlantic OCS Proposed Geological and Geophysical 

Activities Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas Draft Programmatic Environmental 

Impact Statement, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, New Orleans, LA, OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2012-005. Available at: 

http://www.boem.gov/BOEM-Newsroom/Library/Publications/2012/BOEM-2012-005-vol1-

pdf.aspx

U.S. Department of the Interior, BOEM. 2012b. Biological Assessment for Atlantic OCS Proposed 

Geological and Geophysical Activities Mid-Atlantic and South Atlantic Planning Areas, May 22, 

2012. 225 pp. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, BOEM and BSEE. 2012a. Joint NTL 2012-G02. Notice to Lessees and 

Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the 

OCS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Implementation of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and 

Protected Species Observer Program. Available at: http://www.bsee.gov/Regulations-andGuidance/Notices-to-Lessees/2012/2012-JOINT-G02-pdf.aspx. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and Bureau of Safety and 

Environmental Enforcement (BSEE). 2012b. Joint NTL 2012-G01. Notice to Lessees and 

Operators (NTL) of Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the 

OCS, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species 

Reporting. Available at: http://www.boem.gov/Regulations/Notices-To-Lessees/2012/2012-

JOINT-G01-pdf.aspx. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, BSEE. 2012. BSEE NTL 2012-G01. Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) of 

Federal oil, gas, and sulphur leases and pipeline right of-way holders in the OCS, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region. Marine trash and debris awareness and elimination. Available at: 

http://www.bsee.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Notices-to-Lessees/2012/2012-BSEE-G01-

pdf.aspx

U.S. Marine Mammal Commission. 2003. Annual Report to Congress 2002. Marine Mammal 

Commission, Bethesda, Maryland. 

U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2009—Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. 

Thomas R. Karl, Jerry M. Melillo, and Thomas C. Peterson, (eds.). Cambridge University Press, 

2009. Available at: www.globalchange.gov/usimpacts. 

U.S. Department of Interior (DOI), BOEM and BSEE. 2012b. Joint BOEM-BSEE NTL 2012-G01 

(Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting. Available at:

http://www.bsee.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Notices-to-Lessees-and-Operators.aspx
366

U.S. Department of Transportation. 2011. Vessel Calls Snapshot, 2010. U.S. Department of 

Transportation, Maritime Administration, May 2011. http://www.marad.dot.gov/). 

U.S. Department of Transportation. 2010. Atlantic Coast U.S. Seaports Fact Sheet. U.S. Department of 

Transportation, Research and Innovative Technology Administration. October 2010. Available 

at: www.bts.gov 

U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration. 2009. America’s Ports and Intermodal 

Transportation System. Available at: www.marad.dot.gov 

Urban, J., V. F. d. Sahagun, M. L. Jones, S. L. Swartz, B. Mate, A. Gomez-Gallardo, and M. GuerreroRuiz. 2004. Gray whales with loss of flukes adapt and survive. Marine Mammal Science 20:4. 

Urban-R, J., S. Ramirez-S, and J. C. Salinas-V. 1994. First record of bottlenose whales, Hyperoodon sp , 

in the Gulf of California. Marine Mammal Science 10:471. 

Van Eenennaam, J.P., S.I. Doroshov, G.P. Moberg, J.G. Watson, D.S. Moore, and J. Linares. 1996. 

Reproductive conditions of the Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus) in the Hudson River. 

Estuaries 19(4):769-777.

Van Parijs, S. M. and P. J. Corkeron. 2001. Boat traffic affects the acoustic behaviour of Pacific 

humpback dolphins, Sousa chinensis. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 

81:533-538. 

Van Waerebeek K and R. Leaper. 2008. Second Report of the IWC Vessel Strike Data Standardisation 

Working Group. Paper SC/60/BC5 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee, May 2008 

(unpublished). 8pp. 

Van Waerebeek, K., M.F. Van Bressem, F. Felix, J. Alfaro-Shigueto, A. Garcia-Godos, L. ChavezLisambart, K. Onton, D. Montes, and R. Bello. 1997. Mortality of dolphins and porpoises in 

coastal fisheries off Peru and southern Ecuador in 1994. Biological Conservation 81:43-49.

Vladykov, V. D. and J. R. Greely. 1963. Order Acipenseroidei. In: Fishes of Western North Atlantic. 

Sears Foundation. Marine Research, Yale Univ. 1 630 pp. 

von Gierke, H. E. and W. D. Ward. 1998. Chapter 26. Criteria for noise and vibration exposure. Pages 

26.21 - 26.17 in C. M. Harris, editor. Handbook of acoustical measurements and noise control. 

Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New York. 

Wade, P. R. and T. Gerrodette. 1993. Estimates of cetacean abundance and distribution in the eastern 

tropical Pacific. Rep. Int. Whal. Commn. 43:477-493. 

Wahlberg, M. 2002. The acoustic behaviour of diving sperm whales observed with a hydrophone array. 

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 281:53-62. 

Wahlberg, M., A. Frantzis, P. Alexiadou, P. T. Madsen, and B. Mo-hl. 2005. Click production during 

breathing in a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 118:3404-3407. 

Walker, R. J., E. O. Keith, A. E. Yankovsky, and D. K. Odell. 2005. Environmental correlates of cetacean 

mass stranding sites in Florida. Marine Mammal Science 21:9. 

Walker, W. A. and M. B. Hanson. 1999. Biological observations on Stejneger's beaked whale, 

Mesoplodon stejnegeri, from strandings on Adak Island, Alaska. Marine Mammal Science 15:15. 

Walker, W. A., J. G. Mead, and R. L. Brownell Jr. 2002. Diets of Baird's beaked whales, Berardius 

hairdii, in the southern Sea of Okhotsk and off the Pacific coast of Honshu, Japan. Marine 

Mammal Science 18:18. 
367

Wardle, C.S., T.J. Carter, G.G. Urquhart, A.D.F. Johnstone, A.M. Ziolkowski, G. Hampson, and D. 

Mackie. 2001. Effects of seismic airguns on marine fish. Continental Shelf Research 21:1005-

1027. 

Waring, G. T., T. Hamazaki, D. Sheehan, G. Wood, and S. Baker. 2001. Characterization of beaked 

whale (Ziphiidae) and sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) summer habitat in shelf-edge and 

deeper waters off the northeast U.S. Marine Mammal Science 17:703. 

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, C.P. Fairfield-Walsh, K. Maze-Foley. 2007. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico Marine Mammal Stock Assessments—2007. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-205. 410 

p.

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, C.P. Fairfield-Walsh, K. Maze-Foley. 2009. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico Marine Mammal Stock Assessments—2008. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-210. 440 p 

Waring GT, Josephson E, Maze-Foley K, Rosel, PE, editors. 2011. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 

Marine Mammal Stock Assessments -- 2010. NOAA Tech Memo NMFS NE 219; 595 p. 

Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543-

1026, or online athttp://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/nefsc/publications/

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, K. Maze-Foley, and P. E. Rosel. 2012. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico 

Marine Mammal Stock Assessments—2011. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-NE-221. 319 p. 

Walther, G. 2010. Community and ecosystem responses to recent climate change. Philosophical 

Transaction of the Royal Society of London, B. 365: 2019-2024. 

Watkins, W. A. 1986. Whale reactions to human activities in Cape Cod waters. Marine Mammal Science 

2:251-262. 

Watkins, W. A., M. A. Daher, N. A. DiMarzio, A. Samuels, D. Wartzok, K. M. Fristrup, D. P. Gannon, P. 

W. Howey, and R. R. Maiefski. 1999. Sperm whale surface activity from tracking by radio and 

satellite tags. Marine Mammal Science 15:23. 

Watkins, W. A., M. A. Daher, N. A. DiMarzio, A. Samuels, D. Wartzok, K. M. Fristrup, P. W. Howey, 

and R. R. Maiefski. 2002. Sperm whale dives tracked by radio tag telemetry. Marine Mammal 

Science 18:14. 

Watkins, W. A., M. A. Daher, K. M. Fristrup, T. J. Howald, and G. N. di Sciara. 1993. Sperm whales 

tagged with transponders and tracked underwater by sonar. Marine Mammal Science 9:55-67. 

Watkins, W. A., K. E. Moore, and P. L. Tyack. 1987. Sperm whale acoustic behaviors in the southeast 

Caribbean. Cetology 49:1-15.

Watkins, W. A., J. Sigurjonsson, D. Wartzok, R. R. Maiefski, P. W. Howey, and M. A. Daher. 1996. Fin 

whale tracked by satellite off Iceland. Marine Mammal Science 12:5. 

Watkins, W. A. and P. Tyack. 1991. Reaction of sperm whales (Physeter catadon) to tagging with 

implanted sonar transponder and radio tags. Marine Mammal Science 7:409-412. 

Watwood, S. L., P. J. O. Miller, M. Johnson, P. T. Madsen, and P. L. Tyack. 2006. Deep-diving foraging 

behaviour of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus). The Journal of Animal Ecology 75:814-

825.

Weilgart, L. and H. Whitehead. 1997. Group-specific dialects and geographical variation in coda 

repertoire in South Pacific sperm whales. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 40:277-285. 

Weller, D. W., B. Wursig, H. Whitehead, J. C. Norris, S. K. Lynn, R. W. Davis, N. Clauss, and P. Brown. 

1996. Observations of an interaction between sperm whales and short-finned pilot whales in the 

Gulf of Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 12:6. 
368

Weston, D. E. 1992. Mechanisms of ocean acoustic attenuation: Scattering by internal solitons, by sea 

surface waves, and by fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 92:3435. 

Whitehead, H. 1999. Variation in the visually observable behavior of groups of Galapagos sperm whales. 

Marine Mammal Science 15:17. 

Whitehead, H. 2000. Density-dependent habitat selection and the modeling of sperm whale (Physeter 

macrocephalus) exploitation. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57:223-230. 

Whitehead, H. 2001. Analysis of animal movement using opportunistic individual identifications: 

Application to sperm whales. Ecology 82:1417-1432. 

Whitehead, H. 2001. Direct estimation of within-group heterogeneity in photo-identification of sperm 

whales. Marine Mammal Science 17:11. 

Whitehead, H. 2003. Sperm whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Whitehead, H., J. Christal, and S. Dufault. 1997. Past and distant whaling and the rapid decline of sperm 

whales off the Galapagos Islands. Conservation Biology 11:1387-1396. 

Whitehead, H., J. Christal, and P. L. Tyack. 2000. Studying cetacean social structure in space and time: 

innovative techniques. Pages 65-87 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, 

editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, 

Chicago, Illinois. 

Whitehead, H., J. Gordon, E. A. Mathews, and K. R. Richard. 1990. Obtaining skin samples from living 

sperm whales. Marine Mammal Science 6:316-326.

Whitehead, H., S. Gowans, A. Faucher, and S. W. McCarrey. 1997. Population analysis of northern 

bottlenose whales in the Gully, Nova Scotia. Marine Mammal Science 13:13. 

Whitehead, H. and J. Mann. 2000. Female reproductive strategies of cetaceans: life histories and calf care. 

Pages 219-246 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean 

societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Whitehead, H., R. R. Reeves, and P. L. Tyack. 2000. Science and the conservation, protection, and 

management of wild cetaceans. Pages 308-332 in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. 

Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field studies of dolphins and whales. University of 

Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Whitehead, H. and L. Weilcart. 2000. The sperm whale: social females and roving males. Pages 154-172 

in J. Mann, R. C. Connor, P. L. Tyack, and H. Whitehead, editors. Cetacean societies. Field 

studies of dolphins and whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 

Wiedenmann, J., K.A. Cresswell, J. Goldbogen, J. Potvin, M. Mangel. 2011. Exploring the effects of 

reductions in krill biomass in the Southern Ocean on blue whales using a state-dependent 

foraging model. Ecological Modelling 222(18), 3366-3379. 

Weilgart, L.S. 2007. A brief review of known effects of noise on marine mammals. International 

Journal of Compparative Psychology, 20, 159-168. 

Wenzel, F. W., D. K. Mattila and P. J. Clapham 1988. Balaenoptera musculus in the Gulf of Maine. 

Marine Mammal Science 4(2):172-175. 
369

Wiley, D.N., M. Thompson, R.M. pace III, and J. Levenson. 2011). Modeling speed restrictions to 

mitigate lethal collisions between ships and whales in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine 

Sanctuary, USA. Biological Conservation 144(2011) 2377-2381. 

Williams, R. M., A. W. Trites, and D. E. Bain. 2002. Behavioral responses of killer whales (Orcinus 

orca) to whale-watching boats: Opportunistic observations and experimental approaches. Journal 

of Zoology 256:255-270. 

Williams, T. M., R. W. Davis, L. A. Fuiman, J. Francis, B. J. Le Boeuf, M. Horning, J. Calambokidis, and 

D. A. Croll. 2000. Sink or swim: strategies for cost-efficient diving by marine mammals. Science 

288:133-136. 

Wysocki, L. E., J. P. Dittami, and F. Ladich. 2006. Ship noise and cortisol secretion in European 

freshwater fishes. Biological Conservation 128:501-508. 

Würsig, B., S. K. Lynn, T. A. Jefferson, and K. D. Mullin. 1998. Behavior of cetaceans in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico relative to survey ships and aircraft. Aquatic Mammals 24:41-50. 

Ye, Z. 1995. Theoretical description of possible detection of swimbladdered fish in forward scatter. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 98:9. 

Ye, Z. 1996. Acoustic scattering from fish swimbladders. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 99:8. 

Ye, Z. 1996. On acoustic attenuation by swimbladder fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of 

America 100:4. 

Ye, Z. 1997. Erratum: "On acoustic attenuation by swimbladder fish" (J Acoust Soc Am 100, 669-672 

(1996)). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 101:1. 

Ye, Z. and D. Chu. 2003. Comment on "Multiple scattering in a reflecting cavity: Application to fish 

counting in a tank" (J Acoust Soc Am 109, 2587-2597 (2001)) (L). The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 113:2. 

Ye, Z. and D. M. Farmer. 1994. Acoustic scattering from swim-bladder fish at low frequencies. The 

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 96:951. 

Yochem, P. K. and S. Leatherwood 1985. Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus (Linnaeus, 1758). In: 

Ridgway SH, Harrison R, editors. Handbook of Marine Mammals, vol. 3: The Sirenians and 

Baleen Whales.:London: Academic Press. p 193-240. 

Yoshida, H. and H. Kato. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of Bryde's whales in the western North Pacific 

and adjacent waters inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Marine Mammal Science 

15:18. 

Yurk, H., L. Barrett-Lennard, J. K. B. Ford, and C. O. Matkin. 2002. Cultural transmission within 

maternal lineages: Vocal clans in resident killer whales in southern Alaska. The Canadian Journal 

of Zoology 63:1103-1119. 

Zimmer, W. M. X., M. P. Johnson, A. D'Amico, and P. L. Tyack. 2003. Combining data from a 

multisensor tag and passive sonar to determine the diving behavior of a sperm whale (Physeter 

macrocephalus). IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering 28:16. 
370

Zimmer, W. M. X., P. L. Tyack, M. P. Johnson, and P. T. Madsen. 2005. Three-dimensional beam pattern 

of regular sperm whale clicks confirms bent-horn hypothesis. The Journal of the Acoustical 

Society of America 117:13. 

Zykov, M., and J. MacDonnell. 2013. Sound source characterizations for the collaborative baseline 

survey offshore Massachusetts Final report: Side-scan sonar, sub-bottom profiler, and the R/V 

Small Research Vessel experimental. JASCO. 
The Department of the Interior Mission

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior 

has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural 

resources. This includes fostering the sound use of our land and water 

resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the 

environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; 

and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The 

Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure 

that their development is in the best interests of all our people by encouraging 

stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a 

major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in island communities. 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Mission 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) promotes energy 

independence, environmental protection, and economic development through 

responsible, science-based management of offshore conventional and 

renewable energy.