Glossary of Terms

for Conflict Management

and Peacebuilding

Dan Snodderly

Editor

Academy for International Conflict 

Management and Peacebuilding

United States Institute of Peace 

Washington, DC
United States Institute of Peace

1200 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036-3011

www.usip.org

© 2011 by the Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace. All rights reserved.

First published 2011
Foreword by Richard H. Solomon 5

Preface 7

Glossary 9

Sources Consulted 56

Contents

5

Foreword

The construction blocks of peacebuilding take many forms. But perhaps the most basic is 

language. If we are to be successful in what inevitably is a collective enterprise, we must 

communicate in terms that are direct and operationally useful. But the language of peacemaking is not always clear. The meanings of diplomacy, mediation, and negotiation are 

relatively straightforward. But what exactly is a “resource curse,” and what do we mean 

by “social media”? What is the difference between autonomy and sovereignty, between 

proximity talks and shuttle diplomacy, and perhaps most pertinent, between peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding?

To help answer these questions, USIP’s Academy for International Conflict Management 

and Peacebuilding, under the leadership of Pamela Aall, has produced this compendium 

of Peace Terms. As the Academy has developed, it has become apparent that we need to 

create a common set of terms that could be used across the spectrum of textbooks and 

courses. In order to develop this set of terms, we turned to writer and editor Dan Snodderly, whose tenure as USIP’s director for publications from 1993 to 2004 gave him a thorough understanding of the complex task he was undertaking. He has succeeded admirably. Indeed, without his skill with words and facilitation as an editor, we would still be 

discussing what should go under the A’s rather than presenting this extensive glossary.

The Institute’s Academy was established in 2009 as the education and training arm of 

the United States Institute of Peace. It encompasses and builds upon both the domestic 

and international programs of the Institute’s former Education and Training Center. The 

Academy offers practitioner-oriented courses at the Institute’s headquarters in Washington and elsewhere; conducts conflict management workshops and training in conflict 

zones abroad; and makes many of its courses and other resources available online to 

professionals, teachers, and students around the world.

Participants in the Academy’s offerings come from diverse backgrounds: U.S. civilian 

and military agencies, international organizations, the nonprofit sector, schools and 

universities, and civil society groups and officials in conflict zones, among others. 
6

Similarly, the definitions in this glossary have been drawn from many sources, not least 

of which are the Institute’s own publications. Notable among these are the volumes by 

Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall—Herding Cats: Multiparty 

Mediation in a Complex World, Leashing the Dogs of War: Conflict Management in a Divided 

World, and Taming Intractable Conflicts: Mediation in the Hardest Cases—and Chas. W. 

Freeman Jr.’s Diplomat’s Dictionary, second edition, which coincidentally quotes Drazen 

Pehar as describing diplomacy as “primarily words that prevent us from reaching for 

our swords.”

Other relevant Institute books include Raymond Cohen’s Negotiating Across Cultures: 

International Communication in an Interdependent World; Bill Zartman’s Peacemaking in International Conflict; and Guiding Principles for Stabilization and Reconstruction, project director 

Beth Cole.

Finally, please note that we intend this glossary to be a living document. We welcome 

feedback from our readers, and we will update the web version as needed. Peace Terms is 

by no means the last word, and we look forward to a conversation with our audience as 

we refine this linguistic guide to conflict management and peacebuilding.

Richard H. Solomon, President

United States Institute of Peace
7

Preface

Peace Terms grew out of the development of courses for the Institute’s new Academy for 

International Conflict Management and Peacebuilding. During this process, we soon 

realized that we needed to reach broad agreement on terminology, especially given the 

cross-disciplinary nature of the field. You have at your fingertips the result of that ambitious endeavor.

A wide range of online and print sources, as well as the senior staff at USIP, were consulted in producing this glossary. Because it is intended for a broad audience, I did not 

footnote the text but instead listed the major sources at the end of the glossary. I had intended to use as many existing definitions as possible but found that there were surprisingly few agreed-upon definitions. One colleague went so far as to say that every term in 

the field was contested in some way.

Accordingly, definitions are sometimes original, sometimes composites of existing definitions, and sometimes existing definitions that I tightened or reframed. For reasons of time 

and space, we decided not to include foreign words, nor to address the difficult question 

of how and whether English terms would translate into other languages. 

I want to thank USIP senior staff for their thorough and constructive comments on the 

draft definitions, and especially Institute president Richard Solomon, executive vice 

president Tara Sonenshine, and USIP board member Chester Crocker for their encouragement and advice. Also invaluable has been the support of the Academy team and 

everyone else who encouraged the project and commented on various drafts. Finally, I 

would like to thank the staffs of the Institute library, publications, and communications 

programs for their many contributions. 

—Dan Snodderly

9

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Accountability: The notion that individuals, including public officials, should be held 

responsible for their actions. Political accountability means the responsibility or obligation of government officials to act in the best interests of society or face consequences. 

Legal accountability concerns the mechanisms by which public officials can be held liable 

for actions that go against established rules and principles. In cases of crimes against 

humanity, accountability means that individuals should be held accountable by the state 

they occurred in or by the international community.

Active listening: A way of listening that focuses on both the content of statements or 

responses in a dialogue and the underlying emotions. It means asking open-ended questions, seeking clarification, asking for specificity, and confirming your understanding of 

what the other party has said.

Adjudication: In international relations, adjudication involves the referral of a dispute to 

an impartial third-party tribunal—normally either an international court or an arbitration tribunal—for a binding decision. However, the state or states concerned must give 

their consent to participate either through special agreement or existing treaty. Referral to 

an international court for judicial settlement involves a permanent judicial body, which 

means that the method for selecting judges and procedures of the court are already established. Probably the best known such court is the International Court of Justice. For more 

on referral to an arbitration tribunal, see Arbitration.

Alternative dispute resolution (ADR): In general, ADR refers to an approach to the 

resolution of conflicts that does not involve litigation and seeks an outcome at least minimally satisfactory to all parties concerned. ADR tends to involve greater direct negotiation on the part of disputants than does litigation, takes much less time and money, and 

seeks consensus. Many analysts no longer include the word “alternative.” Others use the 

term “appropriate dispute resolution.”

Arbitration: A form of international adjudication that involves the referral of a dispute 

or disputes to an ad hoc tribunal—rather than to a permanently established court—for 

binding decision. By agreement, the parties define the issues to be arbitrated, the method 
10 Arms control

for selecting arbitrators, and the procedures for the tribunal. Because the parties have 

committed in advance (often by treaty) to accept the results, most states comply with 

arbitral awards. Perhaps the best-known recent example of conflict-related arbitration 

concerned control of the Brcko area, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of the Dayton 

Peace Agreement. Arbitration differs from mediation, in which a third party helps the 

disputants develop a solution on their own. See also Adjudication and Mediation.

Arms control: A process of cooperation among states aimed at reducing the likelihood or 

scope of military action by adopting reciprocal measures to assure against surprise attack, 

to limit deployments, or to reduce armaments or the size and structure of armed forces.

Asymmetry: In describing relationships, asymmetry refers to a situation where one 

person or party has more power or leverage than another. That power could be political, economic, or military, for example, but it also could result from greater experience or 

knowledge. See also Leverage.

Autonomy: Literally meaning self-government, autonomy was traditionally considered 

synonymous with self-determination and sometimes with sovereignty. Today it more 

frequently refers to an arrangement whereby a region of a country is granted extensive 

self-governance or de facto self-rule. In many cases, the region has demanded independence but agreed to autonomy in certain sectors such as police or education. Regions 

with autonomous arrangements include Aceh, Indonesia; Basque Country, Spain; Jammu 

and Kashmir, India; Muslim Mindanao, Philippines; Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Zanzibar, Tanzania.
11

Back-channel negotiation: Communications carried out in secret, usually as part of a 

larger negotiation, so as to avoid public disclosure of especially sensitive matters.

BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Settlement): The measure against which 

parties should judge the proposed terms of any mediated or negotiated agreement.

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12

Capacity: The ability of people, institutions, and societies to perform functions, solve 

problems, and set and achieve objectives. The term was originally applied to institutions—

hence the related term institution building—but more recently it has been applied to a 

wide range of stakeholders, including individuals. At the individual level, capacity refers 

to the knowledge and skills that people have acquired by study or experience. At the 

organizational level, capacity refers to management structures, processes, systems, and 

practices as well as an institution’s relationships with other organizations and sectors including public, private, and community organizations. Absorptive capacity refers to the 

amount of new information or aid that a country or institution can make effective use of.

Capacity building: Enabling people, organizations, and societies to develop, strengthen, 

and expand their abilities to meet their goals or fulfill their mandates. Capacity is 

strengthened through the transfer of knowledge and skills that enhance individual and 

collective abilities to deliver services and carry out programs that address challenges 

in a sustainable way. It is a long-term and continuous process that focuses on developing human resources, organizational strength, and legal structures, and it involves all 

stakeholders including civil society. Related terms include capacity development and 

capacity strengthening. The latter term emphasizes the need to build upon existing 

capacity as much as possible.

Cease-fire: A suspension of armed conflict agreed to by both sides. It may be aimed 

at freezing the conflict in place, in which case it is often called a cessation of hostilities 

agreement. Or it may be a formal cease-fire with more elaborate terms and provisions 

including external monitoring, often undertaken as part of a larger negotiated settlement. 

A cease-fire is sometimes referred to as a truce. A cease-fire marking the permanent end 

of war is referred to as an armistice. Moving beyond an armistice, parties can enter into a 

disengagement or separation of forces agreement.

Chapters 6 and 7: Sections of the United Nations Charter that deal most directly with 

dispute resolution. Chapter 6, “Pacific Settlement of Disputes,” stipulates that parties to 

a dispute should use peaceful methods of resolving disputes, such as negotiation and 

mediation. It authorizes the Security Council to issue recommendations, but they are 

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Civil society 13

generally considered advisory and not binding. Chapter 7, “Action with Respect to 

Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of Aggression,” authorizes more 

forceful methods such as economic coercion and severance of diplomatic relations. 

Should those measures prove inadequate, the Security Council may then “take such 

action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international 

peace and security.” The informal term Chapter 6 and a Half refers to traditional UN 

peacekeeping operations that fall between the two. See also Peace enforcement, Peacekeeping, and Peacemaking.

Child soldier: An individual, typically between the ages of 15 and 18, in the armed forces 

of the state or of an armed group, whether or not the child is armed or is used in combat. 

Often conscripted by coercion or manipulation.

Citizen diplomacy: Unofficial contacts between people of different countries, as differentiated from official contacts between governmental representatives. Citizen diplomacy includes exchanges of people (such as student exchanges); international religious, 

scientific, and cultural activities; and unofficial dialogues, discussions, or negotiations 

between citizens of opposing countries, which is usually referred to as track II diplomacy. 

In the latter case, citizens in the United States may seek authorization from the federal 

government, to comply with the Logan Act, which prohibits unauthorized U.S. citizens 

from interfering in relations between the United States and foreign governments.

Civil-military cooperation: A broad term that covers a variety of collaborative relationships between civilian and military actors in a conflict environment. Civilian actors may 

include government officials, staff from international organizations, and representatives 

of nongovernmental organizations. Civ-mil cooperation ranges from occasional informational meetings to comprehensive programs where civilian and military partners share 

planning and implementation. Cooperation can be controversial, as the military may see 

civilians as unduly complicating their mission, and civilians—especially in the humanitarian field—may think that any association with the military will compromise their impartiality and threaten their personal safety. However, most experts see civ-mil cooperation as necessary to provide the security, knowledge, and skills needed to help transform 

a conflict into an enduring peace.

Civil society: A collective term for a wide array of nongovernmental and nonprofit groups 

that help their society at large function while working to advance their own or others’ 

well-being. It can include civic, educational, trade, labor, charitable, media, religious, 

recreational, cultural, and advocacy groups, as well as informal associations and social 

movements. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family, and 

market, though in practice, the boundaries are often blurred. A strong civil society, or “public space,”can protect individuals and groups against intrusive government and positively 

influence government behavior. Most definitions do not include commercial enterprises 

but do include business associations. Some definitions do not consider the media, most of 

which is for profit, to be part of civil society but rather a tool that can promote civil society.
14 Civil war

Civil war: A large-scale armed conflict within a country fought either for control of all 

or part of the state, for a greater share of political or economic power, or for the right to 

secede. Analysts differ on how to define “large-scale,” but several sources say a conflict 

must cause at least 1,000 war-related deaths a year to be labeled a civil war.

Coercive diplomacy: Use of threats or limited application of force to persuade an opponent to call off or undo an action—for example, to halt an invasion or give up territory 

that has been occupied. It differs from deterrence, which employs threats to dissuade an 

opponent from undertaking an action that has not yet been initiated. It can be coupled 

with positive inducements or “carrots.” It is sometimes referred to as compellance or 

more colloquially as mediation with muscle.

Communication styles: Communication occurs in a range of styles in all cultures but 

can be broadly defined as low context (individualistic) or high context (relationshiporiented). In low-context communication, meaning is explicitly expressed and indirectness is considered evasive and potentially dishonest. By contrast, a listener must figure 

out the implicit meaning at play within high-context communication, being sure to 

observe the nonverbal subtleties that enhance speech. Directness and confrontation are 

considered offensive and rude. It is often challenging for low-context professionals from 

countries like the United States to communicate effectively with officials from countries 

like Japan, Egypt, or India who have more high-context styles of interaction.

Conciliation: In international relations, the term “conciliation” is often used as a synonym 

for mediation. Some authors argue that there are substantive differences concerning 

impartiality and level of involvement, for example, but analysts tend to disagree on these 

issues. Mediation seems to be the more common term.

Confidence-building measure (CBM): Agreement to exchange information about and 

allow monitoring of political and, more frequently, military activities. Some measures 

establish rules regarding the movement of military forces. CBMs typically rely on tools 

for maintaining direct and quick communication and monitoring among governments 

and military forces. Such measures include hotlines, regularly scheduled exchange 

of information about military missions, and pre-notification about troop exercises or 

missile tests. Some analysts use the broader term confidence- and security-building 

measure (CSBM).

Conflict: An inevitable aspect of human interaction, conflict is present when two or more 

individuals or groups pursue mutually incompatible goals. Conflicts can be waged violently, as in a war, or nonviolently, as in an election or an adversarial legal process. When 

channeled constructively into processes of resolution, conflict can be beneficial. See also 

Violence and War.

Conflict analysis: The systematic study of conflict in general and of individual or group 

conflicts in particular. Conflict analysis provides a structured inquiry into the causes and 
Conflict transformation 15

potential trajectory of a conflict so that processes of resolution can be better understood. 

For specific conflicts, the terms conflict assessment or conflict mapping are sometimes 

used to describe the process of identifying the stakeholders, their interests and positions, 

and the possibility for conflict management.

Conflict curve: The curve of conflict is a conceptual tool that helps illustrate how 

conflicts tend to evolve over time. The curve helps in visualizing how different phases 

of conflict relate to one another, as well as to identify kinds of third-party intervention. 

Practitioners can use this knowledge in the determination of effective strategies for intervention, along with the timing of those strategies.

Conflict entrepreneur: Any group or individual whose profits depend on conditions 

that promote conflict. Most often used to describe those who engage in or directly benefit 

from illegal economic activity that promotes violence or undermines efforts for good 

governance and economic development. These actors can exist inside or outside of 

government.

Conflict management: A general term that describes efforts to prevent, limit, contain, or 

resolve conflicts, especially violent ones, while building up the capacities of all parties involved to undertake peacebuilding. It is based on the concept that conflicts are a normal 

part of human interaction and are rarely completely resolved or eliminated, but they can 

be managed by such measures as negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. 

Conflict management also supports the longer-term development of societal systems 

and institutions that enhance good governance, rule of law, security, economic sustainability, and social well-being, which helps prevent future conflicts. A closely related term 

is peacemaking, although peacemaking tends to focus on halting ongoing conflicts and 

reaching partial agreements or broader negotiated settlements.

Conflict prevention: This term is used most often to refer to measures taken to keep 

low-level or long-festering disputes from escalating into violence, but it can also apply 

to efforts to limit the spread of violence if it does occur, or to avoid the reoccurrence of 

violence. It may include early warning systems, confidence-building measures (hotlines, 

notification of troop movements), preventive deployment, and sanctions. Sometimes 

referred to as preventive diplomacy.

Conflict resolution: Efforts to address the underlying causes of a conflict by finding 

common interests and overarching goals. It includes fostering positive attitudes and 

generating trust through reconciliation initiatives, and building or strengthening the 

institutions and processes through which the parties interact peacefully.

Conflict transformation: A recently developed concept that emphasizes addressing 

the structural roots of conflict by changing existing patterns of behavior and creating a 

culture of nonviolent approaches. It proposes an integrated approach to peacebuilding 

that aims to bring about long-term changes in personal, relational, structural, and 

cultural dimensions. Recognizing that societies in conflict have existing systems that 
16 Constabulary force

still function, conflict transformation focuses on building up local institutions as well as 

reducing drivers of conflict.

Constabulary force: A specialized unit trained and equipped to operate in peace operations, providing police-type functions like crowd control in high-threat environments 

where traditional police tactics would be ineffective but the use of military forces would 

be too lethal. The unit is equipped in military fashion but operates as police. In some 

countries, constabulary units are permanent forces that deal with such high-violence 

situations as fighting the mafia or terrorism.

Constitution making: The drafting of a new constitution, especially when seen as a 

key element of democratization and state building. This process is crucial to outlining 

the vision of a new society, defining the fundamental principles by which a state will 

be organized, and distributing or redistributing political power. Moreover, the constitution making process itself can be a vehicle for national dialogue and the consolidation of 

peace. The term constitution building is sometimes used to encompass the entire process 

of making and implementing a new constitution; it may include peace agreements, new 

laws and institutions, and civic education.

Constructive ambiguity: If two parties to a negotiation cannot agree on an issue, they 

may be able to paper over their disagreement by using ambiguous language. The negotiation can then proceed, in the hope that the issue will be resolved at a later time or cease 

to be a concern.

Contact group: Ad hoc grouping of influential countries that have a significant interest in 

policy developments in a particular country or region, such as the one on the Balkans and 

the one on piracy off the coast of Somalia. The term is usually associated with some form 

of peace process or negotiation in which contact group members play a supportive role.

Convention: See Treaty.

Corporate social responsibility: The notion that a business should take responsibility 

for the impact of its activities on its employees, customers, communities, and the environment. Perhaps the best-known international example concerns the violent disputes 

over control of oil production in Nigeria. The foreign companies have been accused not 

of committing violence but of benefitting from and doing little to stop attacks against 

the protestors by government forces. Some analysts argue that it is unrealistic to expect 

corporations to play this kind of role, which is properly the domain of government.

Corruption: The abuse of power for private gain, including bribery, extortion, fraud, nepotism, embezzlement, falsification of records, kickbacks, and influence peddling. Although 

commonly associated with the public sector, it also exists in the business and NGO sectors.

Crimes against humanity: Mass killings and targeted attacks against civilians, including 

systematic rape. These crimes are described more fully in the Rome Statute of the 
Cyber-attacks 17

International Criminal Court, article 7. To be found guilty, an individual must have 

developed or carried out a policy of widespread or systematic violations. Crimes against 

humanity do not require the specific intent that genocide does.

Crisis management: The attempt to control events during a crisis to prevent significant 

and systematic violence from occurring or escalating. It usually involves finding a balance 

between coercion and accommodation.

Culture: The shared beliefs, traits, attitudes, behavior, products, and artifacts common to 

a particular social or ethnic group. The term cross-cultural refers to interactions across 

cultures and reflects the fact that different cultures may have different communication 

styles and negotiating behavior. The term multicultural refers to the acceptance of different ethnic cultures within a society. Cultural sensitivity means being aware of cultural 

differences and how they affect behavior, and moving beyond cultural biases and preconceptions to interact effectively. See also Communication styles.

Cyber-attacks: The use of computers and the Internet to disrupt computer networks and 

telecommunications infrastructure. These attacks range from low-level vandalism to efforts to disable major electric power grids. Most attacks have caused only minor disruptions but some analysts see the potential for far greater damage.
18

Declaration of principles: A negotiating framework that provides the overall structure 

for a subsequent detailed peace agreement. It usually contains the broad outlines of an 

agreement, stated in general terms and acceptable to the parties at the table, political 

leaders, and the general public.

Democracy: A state or community in which all adult members of society partake in a 

free and fair electoral process that determines government leadership, have access to 

power through their representatives, and enjoy universally recognized freedoms and 

liberties. Democracy building or democratization is the exercise of consolidating and 

strengthening institutions that help to support democratic government. These institutions may relate to rule of law initiatives, political party development, constitution building, public administration development, and civil society education programs.

Deterrence: An effort by one actor to persuade an opponent not to take an action by 

convincing the opponent that the costs and risks of doing so will outweigh what might 

be gained. See also Coercive diplomacy.

Developed and developing countries: There is no consensus on the standard for categorizing countries as developed or developing. In general, developed countries have a 

higher per capita income, and developing countries have a lower per capita income and 

a less developed industrial base. Related terms include underdeveloped countries and 

least developed countries.

Development: In general, development is the process of improving people’s lives. Originally, the term focused on the goal of greater economic prosperity and opportunity. But it 

now typically includes efforts at human development that take into account such issues 

as governance, education, the environment, and human rights.

Development aid: Assistance given to developing countries to support their economic, 

social, and political development. Such assistance usually comes from individual countries or from international organizations such as the UN Development Program and the 

World Bank Group. Development aid tends to be aimed at long-term problems such 

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Do no harm 19

as poverty, whereas humanitarian aid is usually aimed at short-term problems such as 

providing clean water or food. Tied aid refers to the practice by most donors of insisting 

that aid be spent on goods and services from the donor country. Conditional aid refers 

to assistance that comes with specific requirements that the recipient must meet, such as 

reducing corruption or fighting terrorism; it is meant to change behavior.

Dialogue: A conversation or exchange of ideas that seeks mutual understanding through 

the sharing of perspectives. Dialogue is a process for learning about another group’s beliefs, feelings, interests, and needs in a nonadversarial, open way, usually with the help of 

a third-party facilitator. Facilitated dialogue is a face-to-face process, often among elites. 

It takes place at a meeting site, whereas other third-party assisted processes may occur 

indirectly or by means of proximity talks.

Diaspora: The movement, migration, or scattering of a people away from an established 

or ancestral homeland. Also, a group of such people.

Diplomacy: The fundamental means by which foreign policy is implemented. Official 

or track I diplomacy is typically carried out by government officials, who use bargaining, negotiation, and other peaceful means to negotiate treaties, trade policies, and other 

international agreements, including agreements to prevent, limit, manage, or settle 

conflicts. Unofficial or nonofficial (also called citizen or track II) diplomacy refers to the 

use of nontraditional diplomatic agents, including business executives, religious figures, 

nongovernmental organizations, academics, and other private citizens who are typically 

conducting dialogue and problem-solving activities. The term preventive diplomacy is 

sometimes used as a synonym for conflict prevention. See also Citizen diplomacy, Public 

diplomacy, and Tracks of diplomacy.

Disappearances: A euphemism for politically motivated murders or abductions, usually 

performed by or with the support of government or political organizations.

Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR): The process of disarming 

soldiers or other fighters, disbanding their military units, and helping them integrate 

socially and economically into society by finding civilian livelihoods. This can be done 

by comprehensive programs offering skills training, job creation, housing, psychological 

assistance, and re-socialization.

Displaced person: See Internally displaced person and Refugee.

Do no harm: A maxim that acknowledges that any intervention carries with it the risk 

of doing harm. Practitioners should proceed with programs only after careful consideration and widespread consultation, including with other institutions in the field so as not 

to duplicate or undercut their efforts. In assistance activities, the maxim recognizes that 

resources inevitably represent the distribution of power and wealth and will create tensions if careful attention is not given to how they are distributed and delivered.
20 Donor coordination

Donor coordination: A term that describes efforts to integrate the work of donors, the 

host government, and local nongovernmental organizations so as to avoid duplication 

and inefficiencies.
21

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Early warning: The assessment of high-risk situations so as to provide timely notice 

of escalating violence. Early warning systems have been used to assess environmental 

threats, the risk of nuclear accident, natural disasters, mass movements of populations, 

the threat of famine, and the spread of disease, as well as violent conflict.

Elections: The process by which citizens typically choose their representatives to the 

legislature and sometimes to the executive and judiciary branches. Voting systems vary 

widely, but most are either proportional or majoritarian. It is important to note that holding elections is only one part of democracy building.

Eminent persons: A group of distinguished and well-respected individuals typically 

gathered together for a specific task, such as the Panel of Eminent Persons on United 

Nations–Civil Society Relations, the OSCE Panel of Eminent Persons asked to draw up a 

new vision for OSCE, and the ASEAN Eminent Persons Group tasked to create a charter 

for ASEAN.

Environmental security: A relatively new field that focuses on the connections among 

environment, resources, security, conflict, and peacemaking.

Escalation: An increase in intensity or scope of a conflict. The number of parties tends to 

increase, as does the number and breadth of the issues. De-escalation is the lessening of 

the intensity of a conflict as parties tire out or begin to realize that the conflict is doing them 

more harm than good, or as conflict management efforts begin to take effect. The ultimate 

intent of de-escalation is to create space for more intensive efforts to resolve the conflict.

Ethics: The principles of conduct—right and wrong behavior—governing an individual 

or a group.

Ethnic cleansing: Deliberate, organized, and usually violent expulsion of people from an 

area on the basis of their perceived ethnic, communal, sectarian, or religious identity.
22 Evaluation

Evaluation: The systematic collection and analysis of data on a program, both as to the 

process and outputs (materials and activities) and the impact or outcome (immediate and 

longer term effects). See also Metrics, Monitoring, and Outputs and outcomes.
23

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Facilitation: The process or set of skills by which a third party attempts to help the disputants move toward resolution of their dispute. Facilitation can operate at many levels, 

from providing good offices to a more active role as a mediator. It may mean helping the 

parties set ground rules and agendas for meetings, helping with communication between 

the parties, and analysis of the situation and possible outcomes—in general, helping the 

participants keep on track and working toward their mutual goals. It may also mean 

helping them set those goals. See also Dialogue and Mediation.

Fact finding: An investigation of a dispute by an impartial third party that examines 

the issues and facts in the case and may issue a report and recommended settlement (for 

example, the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia 

established by the Council of the European Union). A related term is Commission of 

Inquiry (for example, the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur established by 

the United Nations).

Failed state: A state that is unable to provide reasonable public services, often because 

of war, genocide, corruption, mismanagement, or criminal threats. Some analysts use the 

term collapsed state to refer to a situation where national structures have essentially 

dissolved and there is an almost complete vacuum of authority. A weak or fragile state

may be on the verge of failure because of instability and weak governance.

Federalism: A system of governance characterized by two or more levels of government, 

each directly elected by its citizens and constitutionally empowered with legislative authority sufficient to achieve a degree of genuine autonomy. It is a power-sharing arrangement especially favored by large, culturally diverse countries such as India, Nigeria, the 

United States, and, formerly, Yugoslavia.

Foreign aid: A technique of statecraft whereby economic and technical assistance are 

used as instruments of policy in order to achieve certain goals. There are three main types 

of foreign aid—humanitarian, military, and development. Aid may be bilateral or multilateral, the latter usually being channeled through an international body.
24 Fragility

Fragility: The term fragility can refer to humans, states, or the environment. A fragile 

state typically suffers from weak authority, legitimacy, and capacity. The drivers of fragility can be economic and social inequalities, lack of effective channels for the peaceful 

expression of people’s demands and expectations, economic decline, and competition 

over natural resources. See also Failed state.
25

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Gacaca: The Rwandan government’s community-based judicial process, established in 

2001 to help deal with the massive number of detainees accused of committing crimes 

against humanity during the 1994 genocide. These courts were closed in 2009.

Game theory: See Win-win versus zero-sum.

Gender-based violence: Violence directed against individuals or groups on the basis of 

their gender or sex. It includes acts or threats of acts that inflict physical or mental harm or 

suffering, coercion, and other deprivations of liberty, including rape, torture, mutilation, 

sexual slavery, forced impregnation, and murder. Although men and boys can be victims 

of gender-based violence, women and girls are the primary victims. See also Gender sensitivity and Sexual violence.

Gender sensitivity: The ability to recognize gender issues, especially the ability to 

recognize women’s different perspectives and interests arising from their different social 

situations and different gender roles. Gender sensitivity is considered the beginning stage 

of gender awareness, leading to efforts to address gender-related impacts of conflict and 

peacebuilding. See also Gender-based violence and Sexual violence.

Geneva Conventions: The Geneva Conventions consist of four treaties, with subsequent 

additions and revisions. They set the widely accepted legal standards for humane treatment 

of noncombatants (medical and religious personnel and civilians) and combatants who are 

no longer able to fight, including the sick, wounded, and prisoners of war. The first convention was adopted in 1864 and the fourth in 1949; the most recent protocol was added in 2005.

Genocide: The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide defines genocide as “any of a number of acts committed with the intent to destroy, 

in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group: killing members of the 

group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately 

inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction 

in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group, and 

forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.”
26 Good offices

Good offices: Typically, low-key actions by a third party to bring opposing parties to 

dialogue or negotiation. Good offices may include informal consultations to facilitate 

communication; offer of transportation, security, or site of venue; or fact-finding. The 

third party may suggest ways into negotiations and a settlement but usually stops short 

of participating in negotiations. Norway’s role in the 1993 Oslo Accords concerning the 

Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a classic example of good offices. Mediation and conciliation 

tend to be more active roles than good offices.

Governance: The exercise of authority to implement rules and policies in an effort to 

bring order to the social, political, economic, and judicial processes that allow a society to 

develop. Good governance involves a process that is informed and to a degree monitored by, and ultimately serves, all members of society. Good governance also implies a 

level of accountability and transparency, both of which will help to ameliorate the risk of 

corruption, a corrosive and destabilizing practice.

Guarantor: A state, group of states, international organization, or other entity such as an 

alliance that is obliged to ensure the maintenance of an agreement, in some cases by the 

use of force. In its original usage, the term usually referred to a formal, legal commitment 

to take action in the event of a breach of obligations by a party to a treaty. In recent years, 

the term has been used more loosely to refer to a party that monitors or bears witness to 

an accord.

Guerrilla war: Warfare conducted by an irregular military or paramilitary unit using 

techniques such as harassment, sabotage, and surprise attacks against a more powerful 

force. Guerrilla groups may seize control of and live among unarmed civilian populations that are influenced to provide labor, food, and other supplies. Successful guerrilla 

campaigns are usually protracted and have the support of the local population as well as 

external assistance.
27

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Hate speech: Speech that is intended to foster hatred against groups based on race, 

religion, gender, sexual preference, national origin, or other traits. At the least it fosters 

hatred and discrimination, and at its worst it promotes violence and killing.

Holocaust: When capitalized, the term refers specifically to the genocide of European 

Jews and others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during the 1930s and 1940s.

Host country ownership: See Local ownership.

Human capital: The stock of knowledge and skill embodied in the population of an 

economy. It can be increased through investments in education, healthcare, and job training. A related term is social capital, the resources that create a strong network of institutionalized relationships in society. These connections between individuals and between 

social networks facilitate civic engagement and encourage bargaining, compromise, and 

pluralistic politics, as well as contributing to economic and social development.

Humanitarian aid/assistance: Traditionally associated with natural disasters such as 

floods, fires, and famines, but more recently applied to other disasters such as social 

or political unrest, usually with the consent of the host country. Assistance can include 

providing food, shelter, clothing, and medicine and medical personnel; evacuating the 

most vulnerable; and restoring basic amenities (water, sewage, power supplies). Aid can 

be given during the emergency itself and in the rehabilitation phase.

Humanitarian intervention: An intervention undertaken to protect unarmed civilian 

populations at risk. Some analysts use the term interchangeably with “military intervention”; others argue it should be reserved for the delivery of humanitarian aid. Broadly 

speaking, the term includes non-military as well as military interventions. See also International humanitarian law.

Human rights: The basic prerogatives and freedoms to which all humans are entitled. Supported by the United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and several 
28 Human security

international agreements, these rights include the right to life, liberty, education, and equality before law, and the right of association, belief, free speech, religion, and movement.

Human security: See Security.
29

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Identity: Identity refers to the way people see themselves—the groups they feel a part of, 

the aspects of themselves that they use to describe themselves. Some theorists distinguish between collective identity, social identity, and personal identity. However, all are 

related in one way or another to a description of who one is, and how one fits into his or 

her social group and society overall. Identity conflicts are conflicts that develop when a 

person or group feels that their sense of self is threatened or denied legitimacy or respect. 

Religious, ethnic, and racial conflicts are examples of identity conflicts. Identity politics 

tries to exploit those conflicts for political advantage.

Ideology: A system of beliefs or theories, usually about politics or culture, held by an 

individual or a group.

Impartiality: Regarding foreign aid, impartiality means assistance must be based on 

need alone, without regard to nationality, race, religion, class, or politics; it does not 

imply equal provision of aid, however. In mediation or peacekeeping, impartiality means 

treating the contending sides equitably and with fairness. See also Neutrality.

Individualism versus collectivism: Broadly speaking, individualism refers to societies that 

stress individual identity over group identity. Individualism is associated with values 

like self-sufficiency, individual responsibilities, and personal autonomy. Collectivism, 

on the other hand, is the norm in societies that tend to emphasize “we” over “I.” Here, 

group rights predominate over individual rights and in-group oriented needs over individual wants and desires.

Informal economy: The exchange of goods and services that is usually neither taxed nor 

regulated by the government. It may be done through barter or sale, and may include 

such activities as day care, tutoring, and street trading as well as illegal or black market 

exchanges. Also called the parallel, shadow, or underground economy.

Information and communication technologies (ICTs): A diverse set of tools used to 

create, disseminate, and manage information. These technologies include the Internet, intranets, wireless networks, and cell phones, as well as such services as videoconferencing 
30 Infrastructure

and distance learning. The new ICTs have led to the development of a new vocabulary, 

including such terms as blogosphere (the connected community of blogs), citizen journalism (nonprofessionals creating their own media to report and disseminate the news), and 

crowd sourcing (outsourcing a task to a group of people through a collaborative open call).

Infrastructure: The system of public works of a country, state, or region, including buildings and equipment to support highways, airports, and facilities for waste treatment and 

water supply, electricity, and communications. Some analysts use the term more broadly 

to include political and socioeconomic aspects.

Instability: A situation in which the parties perceive one another as enemies and maintain deterrent military capabilities, although armed force is not deployed. The threat of 

violence is absent or only sporadic. A balance of power may discourage aggression, but 

crisis and war are still possible. On the conflict curve, instability is located between peace 

and violent conflict.

Insurgency: Paramilitary, guerrilla, or other uprisings directed against a state from 

within in order to achieve political objectives. Insurgencies typically aim to either replace 

the current regime, or to secede from the state. Successful insurgencies have the support 

of the local population. For that reason, counter-insurgency efforts seek to separate the 

insurgents from the population by winning their “hearts and minds,” typically by undertaking badly needed reforms.

Interests: See Positions versus Interests.

Interfaith dialogue: Efforts to promote understanding of and cooperation among 

different faiths, especially as a tool to advance peacemaking and peacebuilding.

Internally displaced person (IDP): A person who has been forced to leave their home, in 

particular as a result of armed conflict, generalized violence, violations of human rights, 

or natural or human-made disasters, but has not crossed an internationally recognized 

state border. See also Refugee.

International financial institution (IFI): Generic term referring to international and 

regional development banks such as the World Bank Group and the African Development Bank, as well as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which focuses primarily 

on trade and currency issues that threaten financial stability. A related term is Bretton 

Woods institutions, named after the 1944 conference that established the World Bank 

and the IMF.

International humanitarian law (IHL): The law of war that is outlined in the Geneva 

Conventions, the Hague Conventions, and customary international law, and supported 

by other documents. It defines the conduct and responsibilities of nations and individuals 

engaged in warfare, especially as relates to the protection of civilians. It is generally applicable to international conflicts but a small subset of rules also applies to internal conflicts.
Intractable conflict 31

International organization (IO) or intergovernmental organization (IGO): A formal 

institutional structure generally created by international agreement with the goal of 

fostering cooperation in specific areas. In the conflict management field, the primary 

international organization is the United Nations, but regional organizations such as the 

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Organization of American 

States, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, to name a few, also play an increasingly active role in peace and security.

Intervention: Involvement by a third party or parties in the internal affairs of a country. 

It may be military or nonmilitary, requested or imposed. Traditionally, nonintervention 

was the norm in international relations, but recently the international community has 

become more willing to undertake humanitarian intervention to alleviate widespread 

human suffering where the state is unwilling or unable to address such conditions. Other 

examples of coercive actions might include punishing aggression by one state against 

another, enforcing violations of international agreements, and preventing an impending 

ecological catastrophe. See also Responsibility to protect.

Intractable conflict: A conflict that goes on for a long time, resisting attempts to resolve 

it. Typically, intractable conflicts involve fundamental value disagreements, high-stakes 

distributional questions, domination issues, and denied human needs—usually the most 

difficult kinds of problems.
32

Justice: The minimum form of justice is fair and equal treatment before the law—

a system of rule of law based on legal procedures that apply to all members of society. 

Social justice refers to a situation characterized by rule of law and fair distribution of 

resources and opportunities in society. Some see justice as a prerequisite for a stable and 

lasting order, others argue that there can be no justice without order. Access to justice

refers to efforts to make the justice system accessible to those who are otherwise excluded. 

Non-state justice, also called customary or traditional justice, refers to the settlement 

of disputes outside the formal state justice system, for example through tribal and community councils. Such mechanisms are widely used in rural and poor urban areas but 

sometimes reinforce local inequities and social exclusion, especially concerning women.

Just war theory: The belief that the use of military force is acceptable only if it meets 

certain standards: right authority, just cause, right intention, last resort, proportional 

means, and reasonable prospects of success. The actual conduct of the war must meet 

the standards of proportional means and discrimination (immunity for noncombatants). 

Note that different sources cite somewhat different standards.

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33

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Knowledge transfer: The process of sharing information and skills with a target audience and enabling them to integrate that knowledge into their daily practice. Full integration occurs when they can pass the knowledge along to others. Knowledge transfer 

can be accomplished by such methods as education, training, mentoring, advising, and 

shadowing.
34

Legitimacy: In terms of an intervention, legitimacy refers to the degree to which: (a) the 

operation is authorized by an appropriate international or regional body, and (b) the operation’s mandate and conduct are accepted or at least tolerated by the affected population and the host country government.

Leverage: The power that one party has to influence the behavior of another. Leverage 

can come from many sources, such as being able to wait longer than the other party, or 

having something the other party wants or needs. Leverage can be raised through facilitation, communication (providing translation or intelligence), or manipulation (reframing, rearranging, relocating).

Liberalism: A school of thought that argues that peace can best be achieved by the spread 

of democracy, freedom and equality, a market economy, the rule of law, and collective 

security. Traditionally, liberalism focused on limiting government power, but more recently 

it became associated with government efforts to ensure individual welfare, and to use international law to promote liberty and justice abroad. Liberalism is often contrasted with 

realism. Neo-liberalism adds to the traditional view an emphasis on institution building 

and the work of international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, and other nonstate actors. See also Realism.

Local ownership: The notion that the affected country must drive its own development 

needs and priorities even if transitional authority is in the hands of outsiders. Also called 

host country ownership.

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35

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Mass atrocities: Large-scale and deliberate attacks on civilians. The victims of mass 

atrocities are typically targeted because of their identification as members of a group. 

See also the related terms genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and ethnic 

cleansing, but note that the distinctions between these related terms are not always clear.

Media peacebuilding: The notion that it is desirable and possible to enhance the capacity 

of media for building peace. Conflict-sensitive journalism goes beyond this by encouraging journalists to be aware of what effects their language and reporting can have on the 

conflict. Peace journalism is a more agenda-driven reporting style. It approaches activism, 

as it focuses attention on the search for nonviolent solutions to conflict. Media strategies 

include citizen media (blogs, wikis, etc.), social marketing, and media regulation.

Mediation: A mode of negotiation in which a mutually acceptable third party helps the 

parties to a conflict find a solution that they cannot find by themselves. It is a three-sided 

political process in which the mediator builds and then draws upon relationships with 

the other two parties to help them reach a settlement. Unlike judges or arbitrators, 

mediators have no authority to decide the dispute between the parties, although powerful mediators may bring to the table considerable capability to influence the outcome. 

Mediators are typically from outside the conflict. Sometimes mediators are impartial 

and neutral, in other cases they have a strategic interest that motivates them to promote 

a negotiated outcome. Mediators may focus on facilitating communication and negotiation but they also may offer solutions and use leverage, including positive and negative 

incentives, to persuade the parties to achieve an agreement. 

Metrics: Measurable indicators of progress, typically to assist in implementing an agreement. The most useful metrics gauge impact or outcomes, such as fewer weapons-related 

deaths, reduced child mortality, increased literacy, and reduced gender disparity in 

education, rather than input.

Monitoring: The close observation of an activity or process, usually by an independent party or party from another country. It can refer to elections, to military or 

political actions as part of confidence-building measures, or, in capacity building, to 
36 Multitrack diplomacy

the ongoing evaluation of a project to assess the process and impact and to redirect the 

project if necessary.

Multitrack diplomacy: See Tracks of diplomacy.

Mutually hurting stalemate: A situation in which neither party thinks it can win a given 

conflict without incurring excessive loss, and in which both are suffering from a continuation of fighting. The conflict is judged to have entered a period of ripeness, a propitious 

moment for third party mediation. There is substantial literature concerning the conditions, implications, and utility of “ripeness” as an analytical tool.
37

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Narrative versus story: In the context of international relations, narrative means much 

more than just a story. It might be understood as a people’s most strongly held beliefs 

about the way history has unfolded. This is not only an explanation of events, but also a 

separate view of reality. In divided societies—where there has been protracted conflict—

there are often parallel narratives. The differing peoples do not agree on what occurred 

in the distant past and this core disagreement often causes them to dispute what has 

happened in recent times.

Nationalism: A sentiment of loyalty toward the nation that is shared by people. Elements 

of cohesion are provided by such factors as language, religion, historical experience, and 

physical closeness, although no one factor seems to be necessary. Such bonds subjectively 

define a group of people as different from their neighbors. See also State versus nation.

Nation versus state: See State versus nation. 

Negotiation: The process of communication and bargaining between parties seeking to 

arrive at a mutually acceptable outcome on issues of shared concern. The process typically 

involves compromise and concessions and is designed to result in an agreement, although 

sometimes a party participates in negotiations for other reasons (to score propaganda 

points or to appease domestic political forces, for example). Prenegotiation refers to 

preliminary talks to agree on such issues as the format, procedures, time frame, who will 

participate, and sometimes the scope of the formal talks. Endgame refers to the final 

stages of a negotiation, when substantive progress has been made but important details 

remain to be ironed out and the agreement hammered into final form. 

Neutrality: A deliberate policy of not taking sides in hostilities or, for many NGOs, of not 

engaging in controversies involving politics, race, religion, or ideology. See also Impartiality.

Nongovernmental organization (NGO): A private, self-governing, nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing an objective or objectives such as alleviating human suffering; promoting education, health care, economic development, environmental protection, 

human rights, and conflict resolution; and encouraging the establishment of democratic 
38 Nonprofit versus not-for-profit

institutions and civil society. Some people use the term international nongovernmental 

organization (INGO) to differentiate those organizations that transcend national boundaries from local NGOs. Also known as private voluntary organizations, civic associations, nonprofits, and charitable organizations.

Nonprofit versus not-for-profit: These terms are generally used interchangeably, 

although some analysts use the term nonprofit only for those organizations that have a 

formal legal existence or charter.

Nonstate actor: A large category that includes nongovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, media, terrorist groups, warlords, insurgents, criminal organizations, religious groups, trade unions, universities, and diaspora communities. Most types 

of nonstate actors would be considered part of civil society. Also called nonofficial actors.

Nonviolent civic action: Action, usually undertaken by a group of people, to persuade 

someone else to change their behavior. Examples include strikes, boycotts, marches, and 

demonstrations. Nonviolent civic action can be categorized into three main classes: protest and persuasion, noncooperation, and intervention. It operates on the precept that all 

political relationships require varying degrees of cooperation or acquiescence, which can 

be withdrawn. Nonviolent civic action is also known as strategic nonviolence, nonviolent resistance, direct action, and civil resistance. Gandhi used the term Satyagraha, 

roughly translated as “firmness in truth,” to describe his concept of nonviolent action.
39

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Outputs and outcomes: In performance assessment, outputs are the products or services 

delivered (often called deliverables); outcomes are the impacts on social, economic, or 

other indicators arising from the delivery of outputs. See also Evaluation and Metrics.
40

Pacifism: The rejection of war or violence as a means of resolving conflict. Some pacifists 

reject violence under all circumstances, even self-defense. Others make exceptions for 

certain circumstances such as the Holocaust. Some pacifists will take part in noncombat 

activities such as providing medical care. For some, pacifism includes nonviolent action 

to promote justice and human rights, but it is not a pre-condition.

Parties to the conflict: The disputants can be divided into first or primary parties, those 

who have decision-making power and must be involved in any negotiation, and secondary parties, those who have a less direct stake but can affect the outcome by supporting 

or repudiating actions of the first parties.

Peace: The word “peace” evokes complex, sometimes contradictory, interpretations and 

reactions. For some, peace means the absence of conflict. For others it means the end of 

violence or the formal cessation of hostilities; for still others, the return to resolving conflict by political means. Some define peace as the attainment of justice and social stability; 

for others it is economic well-being and basic freedom. Peacemaking can be a dynamic 

process of ending conflict through negotiation or mediation. Peace is often unstable, as 

sources of conflict are seldom completely resolved or eliminated. Since conflict is inherent 

in the human condition, the striving for peace is particularly strong in times of violent 

conflict. That said, a willingness to accommodate perpetrators of violence without resolving the sources of conflict—sometimes called “peace at any price”—may lead to greater 

conflict later.

Peacebuilding: Originally conceived in the context of post-conflict recovery efforts to 

promote reconciliation and reconstruction, the term peacebuilding has more recently 

taken on a broader meaning. It may include providing humanitarian relief, protecting 

human rights, ensuring security, establishing nonviolent modes of resolving conflicts, 

fostering reconciliation, providing trauma healing services, repatriating refugees and 

resettling internally displaced persons, supporting broad-based education, and aiding 

in economic reconstruction. As such, it also includes conflict prevention in the sense of 

preventing the recurrence of violence, as well as conflict management and post-conflict 

recovery. In a larger sense, peacebuilding involves a transformation toward more 

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Peace studies 41

manageable, peaceful relationships and governance structures—the long-term process 

of addressing root causes and effects, reconciling differences, normalizing relations, and 

building institutions that can manage conflict without resorting to violence.

Peace dividend: The benefit a country receives from cutting back military spending, 

especially after the end of a war. The “dividend” comes when the money is redirected to 

social programs or to tax reductions.

Peace enforcement: Coercive action undertaken with the authorization of the United 

Nations Security Council to end armed hostilities, restore a cease-fire, or enforce a peace 

agreement. It includes diplomatic and military measures, the latter usually being carried 

out by a third-party or multinational force. Enforcement operations do not require the 

consent of the affected parties.

Peacekeeping: Traditionally, action undertaken to preserve peace where fighting has 

been halted and to assist in implementing agreements achieved by the peacemakers. 

Typically authorized by the UN Security Council under Chapter 6 or 7 of the UN Charter, 

these operations usually include lightly armed military personnel and have the consent 

of the parties. The scope of peacekeeping activities has gradually broadened since the end 

of the Cold War to include civilian and humanitarian activities such as food distribution, 

electoral assistance, refugee return and reintegration, civilian protection and prevention of 

gender-based violence, restoration of transportation and other basic services, and establishing safe havens. In recent years, peacekeepers have been placed in areas where fighting is continuing, and their role is more to position themselves between hostile parties, a 

situation in which there is often a mismatch between their mandate and their capability.

Peacemaking: Activities to halt ongoing conflicts and bring hostile parties to agreement, essentially through such peaceful means as those foreseen in Chapter 6 of the 

Charter of the United Nations: “negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or agreements, or other peaceful 

means.” Peacemaking typically involves the process of negotiating an agreement 

between contending parties, often with the help of a third-party mediator. A closely 

related term is conflict management.

Peace operation: A generic term sometimes used to encompass peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and peacebuilding, the lines between which are not always clear.

Peace process: Series of steps or phases in a negotiation or mediation that are necessary 

in order to eventually reach a peace agreement and sometimes to implement one. These 

steps are not necessarily sequential or linear. They may include confidence-building measures, risk-reduction strategies, good offices, fact-finding or observer missions, conciliation and mediation efforts, and deployment of international forces.

Peace (and conflict) studies: An interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on conflict analysis, conflict management, and conflict transformation; nonviolent sanctions; 
42 Political violence

peacebuilding, peacekeeping, and peace enforcement; social and economic justice; war’s 

causes and conduct; and international and domestic security. Peace research is a constituent element of peace studies, drawing on the work of academicians and nongovernmental organizations alike. Although peace studies generally refers to college-level work, the 

term peace education encompasses all levels of students.

Political violence: Organized or systematic use of force, the motive for which is primarily political, that is, aimed at influencing government policy, rather than criminal. It can 

include terrorism, rebellion, war, conquest, revolution, oppression, and tyranny.

Positions versus interests: Broadly speaking, positions are what parties say they want. 

Interests are what they really need. Interests are frequently unstated and may be difficult 

to identify. Often parties’ interests are compatible, and hence negotiable, even when their 

positions do not seem to be. Focusing on underlying interests can help parties identify 

which issues are of most concern to them and to find solutions that might not be evident 

from their stated positions. Some analysts distinguish between interests and needs, arguing that needs such as identity and security are more fundamental than interests. Some 

analysts also distinguish between interests and values, the ideas we have about what is 

good or worthwhile.

Post-conflict recovery: The long-term rebuilding of a society in the aftermath of violent 

conflict. It includes political, socioeconomic, and physical aspects such as disarming and 

reintegrating combatants, resettling internally displaced persons, reforming governmental 

institutions, promoting trauma work and reconciliation, delivering justice, restarting the 

economy, and rebuilding damaged infrastructure. Related terms include war-to-peace 

transitions and post-conflict reconstruction. The term “recovery” has a broader connotation than reconstruction, which implies an emphasis on physical aspects. 

Power: The ability to influence others to get a particular outcome. It may involve coercing them with threats, providing inducements, or coopting them. Hard power refers to 

the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior of others through coercion or inducements. Soft power refers to the ability to attract or coopt others through 

one’s values, policies, and performance. The term smart power encompasses both hard 

and soft power, emphasizing the need to employ whatever tools—diplomatic, economic, 

military, political, legal, scientific, and cultural—are appropriate for the situation. 

Power sharing: A system of governance in which different segments of society are provided a share of power. Traditionally that has meant coalition governments, minimum 

representation in government institutions, and decision making requiring a high threshold or consensus. Power-sharing arrangements often increase the legitimacy of governments, especially in diverse societies, but because of their emphasis on group rights and 

consensus, some power-sharing arrangements lead to deadlock.

Preventive diplomacy: See Conflict prevention.
Public diplomacy 43

Prisoner of war: A combatant captured in war, especially a member of the armed forces 

of a country who is taken by the enemy during combat.

Problem-solving workshop: An informal, confidential dialogue workshop that brings 

together adversaries to reevaluate their attitudes and think creatively about joint solutions. These face-to-face meetings occur outside the context of diplomatic negotiations, 

but may feed into them. As such, they are a kind of track II diplomacy.

Proliferation: Traditionally, the term “proliferation” has referred to the spread of nuclear 

weapons. In conflict management, however, proliferation also refers to the illicit trade 

in small arms and light weapons (everything from pistols to machine guns to anti-tank 

missiles and landmines), the kinds of weapons that fuel most violent conflicts. But the 

term can also refer to all conventional weapons (meaning all weapons short of weapons 

of mass destruction).

Proximity talks: Diplomatic discussions conducted through an intermediary, usually because the disputants are unwilling to meet face to face but are in separate locations close 

to each other. The hope is that proximity talks will lead to direct negotiations. A closely 

related term is shuttle diplomacy, which usually means that the intermediary travels 

back and forth between the disputants’ places of business.

Public diplomacy: Advocacy openly directed at foreign publics in support of negotiations or broad policy positions and to enlist their backing for a particular position or 

outcome.
44

Rapprochement: Restoration or establishment of improved relations between states and 

governments that were previously estranged.

Rational choice theory: From the field of economics, the theory that people act rationally, that is, they try to maximize gains and minimize losses. Consequently, it should be 

possible to build models to make predictions about future actions. 

Readiness: In mediation, readiness means having operational and political capacity (requisite people and skills, necessary resources and institutional support, solid and durable 

mandate, and the right leadership) and strategic and diplomatic capacity (the ability to 

catalyze international coalitions and orchestrate initiatives).

Realism, or realpolitik: A school of thought that views the international system as inherently chaotic and sees the state as the primary actor in international politics; the state’s 

goal is therefore the pursuit of power to protect its interests and ensure its survival. 

Neo-realism, or structural realism, adds to this traditional view an emphasis on how 

the structural constraints of the international system (for example, alliances, international 

agreements, accepted norms, globalization, dependency) affect the behavior of individual 

states. See also Liberalism.

Reconciliation: The long-term process by which the parties to a violent dispute build 

trust, learn to live cooperatively, and create a stable peace. It can happen at the individual 

level, the community level, and the national level. It may involve dialogue, admissions 

of guilt, judicial processes, truth commissions, ritual forgiveness, and sulha (a traditional 

Arabic form of ritual forgiveness and restitution).

Reconstruction: The process of rebuilding degraded, damaged, or destroyed political, 

socioeconomic, and physical infrastructure of a country or territory to create the foundation for long-term development. See also Post-conflict recovery.

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Resource curse 45

Reframing: To look at a problem from new perspectives in order to find ways to reduce 

tensions or break a deadlock. Reframing is the process of redefining a situation—seeing a 

conflict in a new way, usually based on input from other people.

Refugee: A person who has been forced to leave their home, in particular as a result of 

armed conflict, generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural or humanmade disasters, and has crossed an internationally recognized state border. Some sources 

restrict use of the term refugee to individuals with a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a social group, or political 

opinion. See also Internally displaced person.

Regime type: The set of political institutions by which a government of a state is organized. Regime types include democracy, dictatorship, monarchy, and theocracy. Many 

governments include in their official name a specific government type, for example: commonwealth, emirate, federation, kingdom, republic. 

Regional organization: Intergovernmental organizations that focus on a specific geographic area or group of countries, such as the African Union, Arab League, Association 

of Southeast Asian Nations, European Union, and Organization of American States.

Religion: Like peace, religion is difficult to define. It has been described as a personal set 

or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Religion could be 

thought of as a kind of “deep culture,” sometimes shaping a society in ways that people 

do not realize. For example, the language of a development or justice program that 

western professionals believe to be neutral might be seen as too “Christian” by a local 

Buddhist, Hindu, or Muslim person.

Rent seeking: A somewhat confusing term that does not refer to rent in the usual sense 

but instead refers to lobbying the government for special privileges such as a subsidy, a 

tariff on competing goods, or a regulation that hampers competition.

Reparations: Compensation for war damage by a defeated state, or compensation to 

victims of mass crime committed by a former regime.

Resource curse or the paradox of plenty: The argument that mismanagement of 

natural resource abundance often produces weak states, little to no growth, and conflict. 

In the Dutch disease, abundant natural resources contribute to economic stagnation 

because capital and labor only focus on the booming natural resources for tradeable 

exports. In the honey pot effect, abundant supplies of valuable local resources create 

incentives for rebel groups to form and fight to capture the resource. In rentier states,

governments that take in a significant amount of revenue (“rents,” or excess profits) from 

natural resource exports are prone to corruption because they can afford to buy off or 

intimidate opponents.
46 Responsibility to protect

Responsibility to protect (R2P or RTP): A recently developed concept, R2P asserts that 

states have an ethical and legal responsibility to protect their people against genocide, 

war crimes, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing, but if a state is unable or 

unwilling to do so, that responsibility falls to the international community, which may 

intervene militarily in extreme cases. A controversial concept, R2P can be applied to all 

parts of the conflict curve, for those who accept its far-reaching implications.

Right of return: The right of any person to re-enter his or her country of origin. The 

Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that “everyone has the right to leave any 

country, including his own, and to return to his country.” Many countries have enacted 

laws concerning the right of return, mostly to facilitate the immigration of members of 

diaspora communities. 

Ripeness: Period in a conflict where parties are most likely to be open to negotiation, 

usually due to conditions of a mutually hurting stalemate. A conflict is said to be ripe 

when it has reached such a stalemate and all the parties have determined that their 

alternatives to negotiation will not get them what they want or need. It is also possible 

for third parties to help create a perception of ripeness by introducing alternative ways of 

framing a conflict or by providing actual incentives or disincentives.

Risk management: The identification of risks to an organization and the development of 

strategies and techniques to confront them. Such risks might include accidents, natural 

disasters, wars, and financial issues.

Rule of law: A principle of governance in which all persons and institutions, public and 

private, including the state itself, are accountable to laws that are publicly announced, 

equally enforced and independently adjudicated, and consistent with international 

human rights norms and standards. The drafting of laws must be transparent, and they 

must be applied fairly and without arbitrariness. In addition, all persons must have 

access to justice—the ability to seek and obtain a remedy through informal or formal 

institutions of justice.

Rules of engagement (ROE): The rules delineating the circumstances and limitations 

under which force should be used by the military or police, including when, where, and 

against whom.
47

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Sanctions: Actions typically taken by countries to influence the behavior of other parties. Sanctions can be diplomatic (reduction of diplomatic ties, for example), economic 

(embargoes, freezing of assets), personal (targeted travel bans), or cultural (limits on 

educational exchanges). The effectiveness of sanctions has been much debated, as have 

the detrimental effects on innocent civilians.

Security: Traditionally, security has meant freedom from military attack and has been 

synonymous with national security. In addition, a state could enter into alliances 

that provided collective security. More recently, the concept has expanded to include 

environmental and economic concerns. And the term human security has been used to 

emphasize the need to focus on the needs of the individual, including freedom from fear 

and freedom from want, as well as specific needs such as food security.

Security sector: The security sector is defined as those who are, or should be, responsible for protecting the state and communities within the state. This includes military, 

paramilitary, intelligence, border control, and police services as well as those civilian 

structures responsible for oversight and control of the security forces and for the administration of justice.

Security sector reform (SSR): The set of policies, plans, programs, and activities that a 

government undertakes to improve the way it provides safety, security, and justice.

Self-determination: The right of a people to determine their own political status. That 

could mean full independence, or it could mean a greater degree of autonomy and linguistic or religious identity within an existing state. See also Autonomy.

Sexual violence: A form of gender-based violence, sexual violence refers to any act, attempt, or threat of a sexual nature that results, or is likely to result in, physical or psychological harm. It includes all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse, such as rape, spousal 

battering, sexual abuse of children, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital 

mutilation, sexual harassment and intimidation at work and in educational institutions, 

and trafficking and forced prostitution. Sexual violence has also been used as a tool of 
48 Shuttle diplomacy

ethnic cleansing, as has been recently documented in Bosnia and Darfur. See also Genderbased violence and Gender sensitivity.

Shuttle diplomacy: See Proximity talks.

Side payment: A payment made to a party or parties to induce them to join an agreement. Such inducements frequently take the form of aid or trade preferences.

Social capital: See Human capital.

Social contract: An implicit agreement among individuals or between them and their 

government in which they give up part of their freedom in exchange for such benefits as 

social order and security.

Social media: Internet-based applications that allow users with little technical knowledge to create and share content. They include blogs, wikis, social networking websites 

like Facebook and LinkedIn, photo- and video-sharing sites like Flickr and YouTube, 

news aggregation sites, and social bookmarking sites (for sharing web bookmarks). This 

use of the web as a social platform is sometimes referred to as Web 2.0. See also Media 

peacebuilding.

Social well-being: A situation in which basic human needs are met and people are able 

to coexist peacefully in communities with opportunities for advancement. It is characterized by access to basic services (water, food, shelter, and health services), provision 

of primary and secondary education, return or resettlement of displaced persons, and 

restoration of social fabric and community life. Social well-being is considered critical for 

societies emerging from conflict—equally as important as security, rule of law, economic 

development, and good governance.

Soft power: See Power.

Sovereignty: The principle that states have primacy over their internal affairs. It is the 

basis for the international norm of noninterference in the affairs of independent and 

self-governing states. In practice, however, state sovereignty is not absolute and states 

restrict or share authority either through their own volition (for example, through treaties 

or consent to peacekeeping) or through the exercise of UN Security Council authority. See 

also Autonomy and Responsibility to Protect.

Spoiler: Anyone who seeks to block or sabotage a peace process or the implementation 

of an agreement, usually because it threatens their power and interests. See also Conflict 

entrepreneur.

Stability: The ability of a state to recover from disturbances and resist sudden change 

or deterioration. Stabilization is the process of ending or preventing the recurrence of 

violent conflict and creating the conditions for normal economic activity and nonviolent 
Sustainability 49

politics. Stability operations work to restore stability in post-conflict situations. See also 

Instability and Post-conflict recovery.

State versus nation: A state, or country, is a sovereign, self-governing political entity, for 

example any state in the United Nations. (The term state is also used to refer to a division 

of a federal system, as in the United States.) A nation is a group of people who feel bound 

by a common language, culture, religion, history, or ethnicity, such as the Kurds, who 

reside mostly in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, and the Basque, who inhabit parts of northern Spain and southern France. A nation-state occurs when a nation and a state largely 

coincide, for example Egypt, Hungary, and Japan. The terms state building and nation 

building are most often used these days as synonyms to refer to the process of building 

or rebuilding state institutions to create a legitimate and sustainable state.

Strategy versus tactics: Strategy is the activity, process, or plan to attain desired objectives as efficiently as possible, usually in competition with others who are developing 

similar activities. Tactics are limited and particular actions decided on short-term bases. If 

conducted efficiently, the choice of tactics will be informed by a strategy. For example, the 

strategy might call for a boycott, but the tactics might include picketing.

Summit meeting: A gathering of heads of government. At most summit meetings, the 

principals’ main role is to put the finishing touches on agreements that have already been 

negotiated at a lower level. Summits are also useful in giving leaders opportunities to 

judge first-hand each other’s character and mode of operating.

Sustainability: In general, the ability to maintain something indefinitely. In capacity 

building, sustainability means creating capacity that will remain in place and effective 

even after the initiative ends or the intervener departs. In development, it means meeting 

the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet 

their own needs. In the context of natural resources, sustainability refers to harnessing 

natural resources without depleting them. In the broader context of the environment, it 

means satisfying basic human needs while maintaining environmental quality.
50

Terrorism: The use of violence, typically against civilians, for the purpose of attracting 

attention to a political cause, encouraging others to join in, or intimidating opponents 

into concessions. Some terrorists aim to produce a harsh reaction by their opponents that 

will in turn generate support for the terrorists’ issues. Although the distinctions are not 

always clear, state terrorism generally refers to acts committed by governments either 

domestically or abroad, while state-sponsored terrorism refers to support for nonstate 

actors that commit terrorist acts.

Third party: An individual or group that gets involved to help disputants resolve their 

problem, typically as mediators, arbitrators, or conciliators. Third parties can be insiders 

or outsiders, impartial or partial. Neutrality is required in some cases, but the ability to 

put pressure on one or both sides through carrots or sticks can be useful.

Time, attitudes toward: Time management in a post-conflict environment is often 

affected by attitudes or values not always shared by westerners, such as a need to 

cultivate personal relationships before completing a task, a strong belief in fate or the 

inability to control one’s destiny, or a general focus on the past instead of the future. 

Temporal orientation can also be understood in terms of the difference between monochronicity and polychronicity—preferring to do one thing at a time versus engaging 

in several things simultaneously, which often involves a blurring of personal and professional space.

Tracks of diplomacy: Over the years, scholars have delineated several levels of diplomacy. Tracks I and II are the most frequently used terms. A composite term is multitrack 

diplomacy.

Track I diplomacy: Formal discussions typically involving high-level political 

and military leaders and focusing on cease-fires, peace talks, and treaties and 

other agreements. Third-party interveners are almost always official—a government or international organization, for example.

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Transnational actors 51

Track II diplomacy: Unofficial dialogue and problem-solving activities aimed 

at building relationships and encouraging new thinking that can inform the 

formal process. Track II activities typically involve influential academic, religious, and NGO leaders and other civil society actors who can interact more 

freely than high-ranking officials. The range of unofficial interveners is similarly 

broad—religious institutions, academics, former government officials, nongovernmental organizations, and think tanks, among others. Some analysts use the 

term track 1.5 to denote informal dialogue and problem-solving formats with 

high ranking politicians and decision makers. These activities involve track I 

participants but employ track II approaches in an attempt to bridge the gap 

between official government efforts and civil society. Track 1.5 can also refer 

to situations where official representatives give authority to nonstate actors to 

negotiate or act as intermediaries on their behalf.

Track III diplomacy: People-to-people diplomacy undertaken by individuals 

and private groups to encourage interaction and understanding between hostile 

communities and involving awareness raising and empowerment within these 

communities. Normally focused at the grassroots level, this type of diplomacy 

often involves organizing meetings and conferences, generating media exposure, 

and political and legal advocacy for marginalized people and communities.

Multitrack diplomacy: A term for operating on several tracks simultaneously, 

including official and unofficial conflict resolution efforts, citizen and scientific exchanges, international business negotiations, international cultural and 

athletic activities, and other cooperative efforts. These efforts could be led by 

governments, professional organizations, businesses, churches, media, private 

citizens, training and educational institutes, activists, and funders.

Transitional justice: Efforts to address a legacy of large-scale human rights abuses that 

cannot be fully addressed by existing judicial and nonjudicial structures. Government 

responses have included criminal prosecutions, truth commissions, reparations, gender 

justice, security system reform, memorialization, and other reconciliation efforts.

Translation versus interpreting: Translation refers to the production of a written text 

in another language, while interpreting refers to oral or sign-language communication. 

Both require skilled professionals, since cultural differences are reflected in differences in 

the meaning of seemingly equivalent words across languages. These differences are often 

lost in translation, which can lead to confusion.

Transnational actors: Actors whose actions cross borders. They include intergovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, international nongovernmental organizations, and many religious organizations, as well as international terrorist networks and 

criminal networks.
52 Transparency

Transparency: Visibility or accessibility of information regarding decision-making and 

financial practices, such that stakeholders not only have access to the decision-making 

process but also the ability to influence it. 

Treaty: A formal and mutually binding written agreement between two or more states 

or other political authorities. Treaties are usually ratified by the lawmaking authority of 

the state. The term accord also refers to a formal agreement, but it sometimes implies a 

status below that of a treaty. A convention typically addresses major interstate issues, for 

example the Geneva Conventions on the rules of warfare or the Convention on Biological Diversity. Some conventions have enforcement mechanisms, others do not. The term 

protocol is sometimes used to refer to an original draft of a document, the record of an 

agreement, or an amendment to a agreement.

Tribunal: In international law, this term is sometimes used for courts set up for special purposes, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda or the International Criminal 

Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, which were established by the UN Security Council.

Trigger: An event that initiates or accelerates the outbreak of a conflict (for example, the 

assassination of a leader, election fraud, or a political scandal).

Truth (and reconciliation) commission or truth and justice commission: An official 

body, usually set up by states after periods of state-perpetrated violence, whose main 

task is to establish a record of wrongdoing as part of an overall process of catharsis and 

reconciliation. Such commissions are sometimes empowered to grant full or partial 

amnesty in exchange for full disclosure, but this practice is rare. Some commissions also 

address issues of reparation and rehabilitation. See also Reconciliation.
53

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Violence: Psychological or physical force exerted for the purpose of threatening, injuring, 

damaging, or abusing people or property. In international relations, violent conflict typically refers to a clash of political interests between organized groups characterized by a 

sustained and large-scale use of force. Structural violence refers to inequalities built into 

the social system, for example, inequalities in income distribution. See also Conflict and War.
54

War: Clausewitz famously described war as the “continuation of politics by other means.” 

War is sustained fighting between conventional military forces, paramilitary forces, or 

guerrillas. It may vary from low-intensity but continuing conflict or civil anarchy to all-out 

“hot” war. Some sources say that an armed conflict must cause 1,000 or more reported 

battle deaths in a calendar year to be considered a war. Conventional war uses the arsenal 

of official armed forces (for example, small arms, bombs, missiles) but excludes the use 

of weapons of mass destruction. Limited war is war for objectives declared by those conducting it to be narrow and limited. See also Civil war and Guerrilla war.

War crimes: Crimes committed during armed conflict in violation of the laws of war or 

international humanitarian law, described more fully in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 8. Most war crimes are perpetrated against noncombatant 

and civilian populations; they include murder, torture, deportation, rape, the taking of 

hostages, and forced labor.

Watchlist: Lists of countries at risk for specific concerns, maintained by government 

agencies or nongovernmental organizations as early-warning mechanisms. There are 

watchlists for crimes against humanity, for terrorism, for famines, and for humanitarian 

emergencies, among others. Some watchlists focus on individuals or groups suspected of 

planning crimes, other lists focus on countries that might be at risk.

Weapons of mass destruction (WMD): A term that typically refers to nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons. Weapons that do not fit into this category are generally called 

conventional weapons, regardless of their destructive power.

Whole-of-government approach: An approach that integrates the collaborative efforts 

of the departments and agencies of a government to achieve unity of effort toward a 

shared goal. Also known as interagency approach. The terms unity of effort and unity 

of purpose are sometimes used to describe cooperation among all actors, government 

and otherwise.

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World Bank 55

Window of opportunity: A short period of time during which the chances of success in 

an endeavor are greatly increased. In negotiations, such an opportunity is often produced 

by a change of leadership, an altered military situation, or an external event that impacts 

the conflict (for example, after the devastating 2004 tsunami the Aceh rebels were more 

willing to negotiate with the Indonesian government).

Win-win versus zero-sum: A win-win or positive-sum outcome means everyone wins, 

usually through cooperation and joint problem solving. A win-lose or zero-sum outcome 

means that one side wins only if the other side loses; it is an adversarial approach. A 

lose-lose or negative-sum outcome means all the parties lose. These terms originated 

in game theory, which comes from the field of mathematics and analyzes behavior in 

specific situations. 

World Bank: According to the World Bank website, the term “World Bank” refers only to 

the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International 

Development Association (IDA). The IBRD aims to reduce poverty in middle-income and 

creditworthy poorer countries, while IDA focuses on the world’s poorest countries. The 

term “World Bank Group” incorporates those two institutions plus three closely associated entities: the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment 

Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment 

Disputes (ICSID).
56

Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking, and Peacekeeping. New York: United Nations, 1992.

Cohen, Raymond. Negotiating Across Cultures: International Communication in an Interdependent World, 2d ed. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.

“Commonly Used Terms.” Search for Common Ground. 

http://www.sfcg.org/resources/resources_terms.html

Confronting Crimes Against Humanity. Study Guide Series on Peace and Conflict. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2008.

Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds. Herding Cats: Multiparty 

Mediation in a Complex World. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1999.

Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds. Leashing the Dogs of War: 

Conflict Management in a Divided World. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace 

Press, 2007.

Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall. Taming Intractable Conflicts: Mediation in the Hardest Cases. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2004.

Evans, Graham, and Jeffrey Newnham. The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations.

London: Penguin, 1998.

Fisher, Roger, William Ury, and Bruce Patton. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without 

Giving In, 2d ed. New York: Penguin, 1991. 

Freeman, Chas. W., Jr. The Diplomat’s Dictionary, 2d ed. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2010.

“Glossary.” Berghof Foundation for Conflict Studies, Berlin. 

http://www.berghof-foundation.de/en/glossary

“Glossary.” Beyond Intractability Knowledge Base Project, Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess, 

co-directors and editors. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. 

http://www.beyondintractability.org/resources/glossary.jsp?nid=5098

“Glossary.” Department for International Development, United Kingdom. 

http://www.dfid.gov.uk/About-DFID/Glossary

“Glossary.” Program on Negotiation, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA. 

http://www.pon.harvard.edu/glossary

Guiding Principles for Stabilization and Reconstruction, project director Beth Cole. Washington, 

DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2009.

Kurtz, Lester R., editor in chief. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict, 2d ed. Oxford: 

Academic Press/Elsevier, 2008. 3 vols.

Sources Consulted
57

Liddy, A. Martin, and Daniel R. Langberg. Glossary of Key Civilian and Military Terms for U.S. 

National Security Management. Alexandria, VA: Institute for Defense Analyses. Working Draft 

Version 3.0, September 25, 2009.

Lund, Michael S. Preventing Violent Conflicts: A Strategy for Preventive Diplomacy. Washington, 

DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com

Miller, Christopher E., and Mary E. King. Glossary of Terms and Concepts in Peace and Conflict 

Studies. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, University for Peace Africa Programme: 2005.

Mini-Atlas of Human Security. Vancouver: World Bank and Human Security Report Project, 

2008.

Natural Resources, Conflict, and Conflict Resolution. Study Guide Series on Peace and Conflict. 

Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2007.

“ReliefWeb Glossary of Humanitarian Terms.” United Nations Office for the Coordination 

of Humanitarian Affairs, 2008. 

http://www.sheltercentre.org/library/glossary+humanitarian+terms

Schmid, Alex P. Thesaurus and Glossary of Early Warning and Conflict Prevention Terms. 

London: Forum on Early Warning and Early Response, 2000. Abridged version on web.

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States Institute of Peace Press, 2008.

United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines, annex 2: Selected Glossary of 

Acronyms and Terms. New York: United Nations, 2008.1

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1. “The list does not provide authoritative United Nations definitions. It is intended to 

assist with understanding the usage of terms in this document only. Official United Nations definitions are being considered in the context of the ongoing terminology deliberations of the General Assembly’s Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations on the 

basis of the DPKO Interim Glossary of Terms.”
58

About the Academy

The Academy for International Conflict Management and Peacebuilding is the education 

and training arm of the United States Institute of Peace. Begun in 2009, the Academy now 

encompasses and builds upon both the domestic and international programs that the 

Institute has provided for more than two decades.

Among other activities, the Academy offers a full curriculum of practitioner-oriented 

courses at the Institute’s headquarters in Washington and elsewhere; conducts conflict 

management workshops and training in Afghanistan, Sudan, Pakistan, Colombia, Iraq, 

Rwanda, and other conflict zones; and makes many of its courses and other resources 

available online to professionals, teachers, and students around the world. By combining 

its domestic education programs, its practitioner courses, and its overseas work in zones 

of conflict, the Academy has emerged as a truly global conflict management training and 

education center.

Participants in the Academy’s offerings come from diverse backgrounds: U.S. civilian 

and military agencies, international organizations, the nonprofit sector, schools and universities, and civil society groups and officials in conflict zones, among others.

The primary objectives of the Academy are to

•	 strengthen the knowledge and skills of U.S. and international conflict management 

practitioners—both civilian and military—in ways that increase the impact of their 

actions;

•	 train local citizens to help build peace in zones of conflict, and feed the real-world 

lessons from those programs back into curriculum for U.S. and international students, teachers, and practitioners; 

•	 build the capacity of other institutions and their faculties to educate and train about 

conflict prevention, management, and resolution; 
59

•	 provide support for educational systems in fragile states and societies emerging 

from war to promote nonviolent resolution of conflict; 

•	 create and disseminate supporting materials, including case studies; simulations, 

role plays, and other interactive exercises; reports and books; and study guides and 

other lessons; and

•	 develop courses and activities for U.S.-based students, teachers, and professors, 

including the National Peace Essay Contest.
60

About the Institute

The United States Institute of Peace is an independent, nonpartisan institution established and funded by Congress. Its goals are to help prevent and resolve violent conflicts; 

promote post-conflict peacebuilding; and increase conflict-management tools, capacity, 

and intellectual capital worldwide. The Institute does this by empowering others with 

knowledge, skills, and resources, as well as by its direct involvement in conflict zones 

around the globe. 

Chairman of the Board: J. Robinson West

Vice Chairman: George E. Moose

President: Richard H. Solomon

Executive Vice President: Tara Sonenshine

Chief Financial Officer: Michael Graham

Board of Directors

J. Robinson West (Chair), Chairman, PFC Energy 

George E. Moose (Vice Chairman), Adjunct Professor of Practice, The George Washington University

Anne H. Cahn, Former Scholar in Residence, American University

Chester A. Crocker, James R. Schlesinger Professor of Strategic Studies, School of 

Foreign Service, Georgetown University

Kerry Kennedy, President, Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights

Ikram U. Khan, President, Quality Care Consultants, LLC

Stephen D. Krasner, Graham H. Stuart Professor of International Relations, Stanford 

University

Jeremy A. Rabkin, Professor, George Mason School of Law

Judy Van Rest, Executive Vice President, International Republican Institute

Nancy Zirkin, Executive Vice President, Leadership Conference on Civil Rights

Members ex officio

Michael H. Posner, Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor

James N. Miller, Principal Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Policy

Ann E. Rondeau, Vice Admiral, U.S. Navy; President, National Defense University

Richard H. Solomon, President, United States Institute of Peace (nonvoting)
About the Institute

The United States Institute of Peace is an independent, nonpartisan institution established and 

funded by Congress. Its goals are to help prevent 

and resolve violent conflicts, promote post-conflict 

peacebuilding, and increase conflict management 

tools, capacity, and intellectual capital worldwide. 

The Institute does this by empowering others 

with knowledge, skills, and resources, as well as 

by its direct involvement in conflict zones around 

the globe.