U.S. Department of Commerce Economics and Statistics Administration

Current Dynamics of Economic Well-Being:

Program Participation, 1992-1993

Who Gets Assistance?

By Jan Tin

C E N S U S B U R E A U

Population Reports

 P70-58

 July 1996

Household Economic Studies

Introduction

How to improve the welfare

system has been the subject of intense debate in recent years and

many States are modifying their

programs substantially under

waivers granted by Federal Government. These changes and

proposed ones have intensified

the interest in information on

people who participate in welfare

programs. This report uses data

from the Survey of Income and

Program Participation (SIPP) to

examine who receives assistance

from the major means-tested government programs—namely, Aid

to Families With Dependent Children (AFDC), General Assistance,

food stamps, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Medicaid, and

housing assistance—over the 28-

month period from October 1991

through January 1994.1

Because SIPP provides monthly information on the program participation of individuals, as well as

on many demographic and socioeconomic characteristics that can

vary over time such as family and

labor force status, differences in

patterns of participation can be

analyzed.2 Specifically, this report

examines similarities and differences in: (1) average monthly program participation in 1993; (2) the

percent of people who participated

in at least one of these programs

1Means-tested programs are those that 

require the income and/or assets of the individual or family to be below specified 

thresholds in order to qualify for benefits.

These programs provide cash and non- cash assistance to portions of the low- income population.

2Efforts were made during the life of the

panel to follow people who moved to en- sure that the sample remained representative of the noninstitutional population of the

United States.

at some time during the

1992-1993 period; (3) the percent

who participated in at least one

program in all 24 months of 1992

and 1993; and (4) the length of

time participants stayed in the programs (the duration of the spell).

Highlights

 Approximately 1 in 7 Americans

participated in major meanstested assistance programs in

1993. On average, 36.0 (±0.8)

million persons or 14.0 (±0.3)

percent of the population were

assisted that year, an increase

of 8.6 million program participants from the 1987 level of

27.4 (±0.9) million.3

 In 1993, over one-third of

Blacks (35.5 ± 0.8 percent) participated in major means-tested

assistance programs, compared with 10.6 (±0.3) percent

of Whites. The proportion of

Hispanics receiving this assistance was 28.9 (±0.4) percent.4

 Nearly a quarter of the Nation’s

children participated in at least

one of these means-tested programs in 1993. About 23.7

(±0.8) percent of children under

18 years of age received assistance, while only 10.0 (±0.3)

percent of persons age 18 to 64

years and 12.0 (±0.8) percent

of the elderly (65 and older)

were participants.

 Over half of the poor in 1993

received means-tested assistance—57.3 (±1.2) percent

compared with 6.5 (±0.3) percent of the nonpoor.

 Persons in married-couple families were less likely than those

3The figures in parentheses denote the

90-percent confidence intervals of the estimates.

4Hispanics may be of any race.

in families with female householders, no spouse present, 

to participate in means-tested 

programs—7.7 (±0.3) percent

compared with 42.9 (±1.2) 

percent in 1993.

 The median length of time participants received benefits from

these programs was 7.7 (±0.3)

months during the 1992-1993

period, similar to that of the

1990-1992 period.

One in Seven Americans 

Receive Means-Tested 

Assistance

Of the estimated 258 million 

civilians living in the United States,

approximately 36 million or 14.0

percent participated in one or

more of the major means-tested

assistance programs. As shown

in figure 1, the average monthly

program participation rate has 

Figure 1.

Average Monthly Participation in Means-Tested

Programs: 1987-1988

and 1990-1993

(In percent)

11.4

Source: U.S. Bureau of the

Census, Survey of Income and

Program Participation (SIPP).

11.2 11.5

12.7

13.5 14.0

1987 ’88 ’90 ’91 ’92 ’93
1993 monthly average

1 or more months in 1992 or 1993

All 24 months of 1992 and 1993

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Survey of Income and

Program Participation (SIPP).

Figure 2.

Participation Rates for

Means-Tested Programs

(In percent)

Medicaid

Food

stamps

AFDC/

GA

Housing

SSI

10.3

14.5

5.9

8.7

13.1

4.7

5.0

7.5

2.6

4.2

6.6

2.7

1.9

2.5

1.5

2 P70-58

increased noticeably, from 11.4

percent in 1987 to 14.0 percent 

in 1993.5

A substantial proportion of the

recipients, however, participated in

major government programs only

on a short-term basis. Only 8.6

percent of persons participated in

these programs all 24 months of

the 1992-1993 period. These

long-term recipients were likely to

be children or at least 65 years

old. The proportions of children

and the elderly that participated in

these means-tested programs in

each month of 1992 and 1993

were 14.1 percent and 9.7 percent, respectively, compared with

6.0 percent of people who were

18 to 64 years old.

Generally, program participation

rates are related to poverty and

business cycles—rising along with

poverty rates during periods of

economic contraction, and both

falling during periods of economic

expansion. During the expansionary period of 1987 and 1989, the

official poverty rate dropped slightly from 13.4 percent to 12.8 percent. The poverty rate then rose

to 13.5 percent in 1990 and

reached 15.1 percent in 1993—

a period when participation rates

rose from 11.5 percent to 

14 percent.6

Medicaid Has the Highest

Participation Rate

As shown in table A and figure 2, individuals were more likely

to participate in Medicaid than in

any other program. In 1993, the

average monthly participation rate

for Medicaid, 10.3 percent, was

5SIPP average program participation rates

from 1987 to 1991 were obtained from pre- vious Census Bureau reports, specifically,

Current Population Reports, Household

Economic Studies, Series P70-31, P70-41, and P70-46. The program participation

rate for 1989 was not available for compari- son. The 1993 program participation rate was not significantly different from that of

1992.

6Estimates of the poverty rates were obtained from Current Population Reports,

Consumer Income, series P60-188. The

1988 poverty rate did not differ statistically

from those of 1987 and 1989. Both pover- ty and program participation rates might

have peaked in 1993.

higher than that of food stamps,

AFDC or General Assistance,

housing assistance, or SSI. A 

similar pattern existed for persons who were long-term participants, that is, who participated 

in these programs all 24 months

of the 1992-1993 period.7

However, while a higher proportion participated in Medicaid,

the length of stay on each of

these programs was similar. Specifically, the median durations of

participation for Medicaid, food

stamps, and AFDC were not significantly different from one another (see table B). The median

spells for SSI and housing assistance were not available for analysis, because more than half of

their spells continued in the last

month of data collection. This 

situation is especially likely to 

occur for elderly recipients whose

incomes are likely to be stable 

over time.

Over 1 in 3 Black 

Americans Receive 

Means-Tested Assistance 

In 1993, the average monthly

number of Whites receiving

means-tested assistance was far

7The long-term participants receiving AFDC and housing assistance were not significantly different.

greater than of Blacks, 22.9 million

compared with 11.6 million. However, Blacks and Hispanics had

higher average participation rates

than Whites and non-Hispanics,

respectively, both overall and for

the individual programs as well.

More than one-third (35.5 percent)

of Blacks participated in these

means-tested programs, compared with only 10.6 percent of

Whites (see table A). The proportion of Hispanics who received

benefits was 28.9 percent, significantly higher than the 12.3 percent of non-Hispanics who

participated.

Additionally, in the 1992-1993

period, the median number of

months Blacks received benefits

was larger than for Whites (see

table B). However, the median

duration for Hispanics was not 

significantly different from the 

medians for non-Hispanics,

Whites, and Blacks.8

Blacks tended to receive higher

monthly benefits than Whites, a

reflection of their relatively lower

incomes and larger families. As

indicated in table A, the median

monthly benefit for Black families

8The median number of months Whites

received benefits was not significantly 

different from that of Non-Hispanics.
Total number of recipients (thousands) 34,464 35,968 12,366 12,790 4,721 4,987 . . . . 

As percent of the population 13.5 14.0 4.8 5.0 1.9 1.9 . . . . . . . . . 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN2

White 10.3 10.6 3.1 3.1 1.4 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not of Hispanic origin 8.6 8.7 2.4 2.4 1.3 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Black 34.2 35.5 16.3 16.4 4.4 4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Hispanic origin 27.0 28.9 10.4 10.9 2.6 2.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not of Hispanic origin 12.0 12.3 4.2 4.3 1.8 1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

AGE

Under 18 years 22.7 23.7 11.1 11.4 0.0 0.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

18 to 64 years 9.8 10.0 3.0 3.0 1.8 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

65 years and over 11.8 12.0 0.2 0.2 6.1 5.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

(PERSONS 18 YEARS AND OVER)

Under 4 years of high school 22.8 23.6 5.3 5.3 7.6 7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 

High school graduate, no college 9.9 10.1 2.7 2.8 1.7 2.0 . . . . . . . . 

1 or more years of college 4.0 4.1 1.0 1.0 0.7 0.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DISABILITY STATUS 

(PERSONS 15 TO 69 YEARS)

Wiith work disability 24.6 25.2 5.4 5.0 10.3 11.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

With no work disability 7.5 7.8 2.7 2.8 0.3 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

RESIDENCE

Metropolitan 12.8 13.3 5.0 5.1 1.7 1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Central city 19.9 19.8 8.6 8.5 2.5 2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Noncentral city 8.2 8.8 2.5 2.8 1.2 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Nonmetropolitan 15.9 16.2 4.5 4.5 2.4 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

REGION

Northeast 13.2 13.8 5.6 5.7 1.7 1.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Midwest 11.6 11.9 4.7 4.7 1.2 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

South 15.0 15.5 4.2 4.4 2.2 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

West 13.7 14.2 5.5 5.5 2.1 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FAMILY STATUS

In families 13.6 14.2 5.5 5.7 1.3 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

In married-couple families 7.3 7.7 1.6 1.7 0.8 0.9 . . . . . . . . . . . 

In families with a female householder, no spouse present 41.6 42.9 23.6 23.9 3.3 3.6 . . . . . . . 

Unrelated individuals 13.3 12.8 0.9 0.8 5.0 5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR FORCE

STATUS (PERSONS 18 YEARS

AND OVER)

Employed full time 3.4 3.5 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Employed part time 8.4 8.6 1.6 1.8 1.0 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Unemployed 24.5 24.3 9.5 9.3 1.4 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not in the labor force 19.6 20.2 5.5 5.6 6.9 7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FAMILY INCOME-TO-POVERTY RATIO

Less than 1.00 56.2 57.3 26.8 26.8 6.0 6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1.00 and over 6.2 6.5 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Table A.

Average Monthly Participation Rates and Median Monthly Family

Benefits by Selected Characteristics: 1992 and 1993

Characteristic

1992 1993 1992 1993 1992 1993

Means-tested

programs1

Participation rates (in percent)

AFDC/General

Assistance SSI

10For disabled persons, the average

monthly participation rates of food stamps and SSI were not statistically different, neither were those of AFDC and housing as- sistance. For persons with no work disabilities, the average monthly participation rate of Medicaid was not significantly different

from that of food stamps. Their average

monthly participation rates of AFDC and

housing assistance were also not significantly different.

 See footnotes at end of table.

P70-58 3

($526) was significantly higher

than the median for White families

($399) in 1993, whereas the median benefit of Hispanics was not

significantly different from that 

of non-Hispanics.

About One-Quarter of 

Children Under Age 18 

Receive Means-Tested 

Assistance

Program participation is closely

associated with the age of an individual, as shown in figure 3. In

1993, nearly 1 in 4 (23.7 percent)

children younger than 18 received

some type of means-tested assistance, compared with only 1 in 10

(10.0 percent) persons age 18 to

64 years and 1 in 8 (12.0 percent)

of the elderly.

Recipients Have Lower 

Educational Levels

For people age 18 and over,

lower educational attainment is

associated with greater program

participation (see table A). In

1993, about 1 in 4 (23.6 percent)

of those with less than 4 years of

high school received meanstested benefits, compared with 

1 in 10 (10.1 percent) of those

who completed high school but

did not attend college, and only

4.1 percent of those with at 

least 1 year of college.

As expected, individuals who

had not graduated from high

school stayed in these programs

longer than those with more

education. The median duration 

of receipt for those without a high

school degree (11.7 months) was

higher than the medians for high

school graduates (7.7 months)

and persons with some college

experience (7.4 months).9

One-Quarter of Those With

Work Disabilities Receive

Means-Tested Benefits

In 1993, on average, 25.2 

percent of people 15 to 69 years

old with a work disability received

9The median spell durations of receipt for high school graduates and persons with some college experience were not statistically different.

means-tested benefits, compared

with only 7.8 percent of those with

no work disability. Although SSI

was designed for the disabled and

automatically confers eligibility 

for Medicaid, people with work disabilities were also more likely than

others without work disabilities to

participate in General Assistance

and housing assistance.10
Food

stamps

Participation rates (in percent)

Medicaid

Housing

assistance

Monthly family benefits3 (in dollars)

1992 1993

Table A.

Average Monthly Participation Rates and Median Monthly Family

Benefits by Selected Characteristics: 1992 and 1993—Con.

 X Not applicable.

1Major means-tested programs include AFDC, General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance.

2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

3Median monthly family benefits are the total received from AFDC, General Assistance, food stamps, and SSI.

Characteristic

Standard Standard

1992 1993 1992 1993 1992 1993 Median error Median error

Total number of recipients (thousands) 21,757 22,553 24,590 26,453 10,749 10,759 (X) (X) (X) (X) . . . . 

As percent of the population 8.5 8.7 9.6 10.3 4.2 4.2 452 3.0 454 4.5 . . . . . . . . . 

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN2

White 6.2 6.2 7.1 7.7 2.8 2.7 400 9.5 399 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not of Hispanic origin 5.0 4.9 5.8 6.2 2.4 2.3 359 4.5 365 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . 

Black 24.3 25.4 26.1 27.0 13.4 13.7 536 6.0 526 3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Hispanic origin 17.7 18.9 19.8 21.6 7.7 7.9 490 7.5 478 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not of Hispanic origin 7.5 7.6 8.5 9.0 3.8 3.8 448 4.5 443 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

AGE

Under 18 years 16.4 16.9 18.0 19.5 6.6 6.6 565 7.0 555 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

18 to 64 years 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.6 3.1 3.0 425 4.5 426 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

65 years and over 3.8 3.9 7.9 8.1 4.7 4.8 202 4.5 197 6.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

(PERSONS 18 YEARS AND OVER)

Under 4 years of high school 13.0 13.5 15.8 16.5 7.1 7.2 386 8.0 380 8.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . 

High school graduate, no college 5.8 5.8 6.1 6.5 3.2 3.1 359 10.0 373 10.5 . . . . . . . . 

1 or more years of college 1.9 1.9 2.4 2.4 1.6 1.6 415 10.0 436 13.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DISABILITY STATUS

(PERSONS 15 TO 69 YEARS)

With work disability 13.4 13.2 18.6 19.5 6.2 6.2 417 6.5 412 10.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

With no work disability 4.9 5.1 4.4 4.7 2.6 2.6 434 7.5 438 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

RESIDENCE

Metropolitan 7.9 8.1 9.4 10.0 4.2 4.3 498 9.0 493 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Central city 13.0 12.8 14.7 14.9 7.3 7.3 551 7.0 551 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Noncentral city 4.5 4.9 5.9 6.6 2.2 2.3 428 6.0 430 5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Nonmetropolitan 10.7 10.9 10.5 11.2 4.2 3.7 349 6.0 345 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

REGION

Northeast 8.0 8.2 9.9 10.5 5.6 5.8 552 11.5 548 12.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Midwest 7.5 7.7 8.4 8.9 4.0 3.8 486 9.0 481 6.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

South 10.3 10.7 9.4 10.3 4.1 4.0 362 7.0 362 8.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

West 7.3 7.3 11.3 11.7 3.4 3.4 625 7.5 600 2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FAMILY STATUS

In families 9.1 9.4 9.9 10.6 3.9 3.9 489 3.0 482 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

In married–couple families 4.2 4.3 4.7 5.2 1.6 1.6 355 5.0 340 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . 

In families with a female house–

holder, no spouse present 31.7 32.6 33.4 34.8 14.5 14.4 571 5.5 564 4.5 . . . . . . . 

Unrelated individuals 5.1 4.9 8.1 8.1 6.0 5.7 184 6.5 188 8.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR FORCE

STATUS (PERSONS 18 YEARS

AND OVER)

Employed full time 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.5 233 6.5 231 6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Employed part time 4.8 4.8 4.6 4.9 3.1 2.9 277 9.0 282 9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Unemployed 18.1 18.6 14.7 14.2 6.8 7.3 400 19.5 411 20.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not in the labor force 10.9 11.2 14.8 15.5 5.9 5.8 434 0.0 433 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FAMILY INCOME–TO–POVERTY RATIO

Less than 1.00 45.0 45.7 43.6 44.9 17.6 18.0 496 7.0 496 7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1.00 and over 2.3 2.4 3.9 4.3 1.9 1.8 334 6.5 349 4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

4 P70-58

When we examine program

participation over time, those 

with disabilities were more likely 

to be long-term recipients than

others—19.2 percent of them 

collected benefits in all 24 months,

compared with 4.0 percent of

those without work disabilities.

Over Half of the Poor 

Receive Means-Tested 

Assistance

Not surprisingly, 57.3 percent 

of the poor received means-tested

benefits in 1993, compared with

6.5 percent of the nonpoor (see

figure 4). Over half (53.5 percent)

of the poor participated in all 24

months of 1992 and 1993, as did

only 3.0 percent of the nonpoor. 

In addition, the median duration 

of receipt for the poor was about

twice that of the nonpoor
Stand- Stand- Stand- Stand- Stand- Standard ard ard ard ard ard

Median error Median error Median error Median error Median error Median error

All recipients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 0.310 8.5 1.110 (X) (X) 8.0 0.444 8.1 1.505 (X) (X)

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN2

White 7.3 0.317 7.3 0.581 (X) (X) 7.2 0.534 7.9 0.288 14.5 2.072 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 1.173 7.5 0.591 (X) (X) 6.6 0.951 7.9 0.388 11.9 0.973

Black 13.3 1.894 13.8 1.888 (X) (X) 13.3 0.563 11.5 0.924 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 1.567 7.5 1.717 (X) (X) 9.5 1.464 7.9 0.436 18.1 0.475

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 0.384 8.8 1.109 (X) (X) 7.8 0.529 8.4 1.878 (X) (X)

AGE3

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.438 10.0 1.870 (B) (B) 8.5 1.141 7.1 0.375 (X) (X)

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 0.397 7.8 0.641 (X) (X) 7.5 0.520 11.4 0.660 14.6 2.063

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (X) (X) (B) (B) (X) (X) (X) (X) (X) (X) (X) (X)

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

(PERSONS 18 YEARS AND OVER)

Under 4 years of high school . . . . . . . . . 11.7 1.061 7.9 1.194 (X) (X) 10.3 1.936 17.5 2.733 (X) (X)

High school graduate, no college . . . . . 7.7 0.608 7.6 0.811 (X) (X) 7.3 0.808 11.1 0.897 11.5 1.194

1 or more years of college . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.713 7.8 1.559 14.3 3.6 5.6 1.264 9.9 3.231 14.3 1.644

DISABILITY STATUS 

(PERSONS 15 TO 69 YEARS)

With work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 2.035 8.3 4.155 (X) (X) 7.3 1.354 19.1 2.133 (X) (X)

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.434 7.5 0.957 7.8 1.646 7.5 0.574 7.9 0.360 13.6 5.416

RESIDENCE

Metropolitan 7.9 0.328 9.5 1.772 (X) (X) 8.4 1.015 7.9 0.301 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 4.551 9.8 3.873 (X) (X) 9.7 1.679 7.8 0.384 (X) (X)

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 0.406 9.3 1.772 (X) (X) 7.5 0.781 8.0 0.479 (X) (X)

Nonmetropolitan 7.4 0.803 7.4 0.572 (X) (X) 7.4 1.095 9.3 2.235 14.0 3.697 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

REGION

Northeast 7.9 0.491 7.5 0.699 (X) (X) 7.5 0.876 8.0 0.479 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Midwest 7.4 0.844 10.9 1.552 17.4 2.619 7.9 1.463 11.5 1.297 19.4 1.888 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

South 8.9 1.800 9.7 1.965 (X) (X) 9.5 1.571 7.8 0.487 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

West 7.3 0.466 7.5 2.404 (X) (X) 6.9 0.896 7.8 0.487 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

FAMILY STATUS

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.332 8.5 1.124 (X) (X) 7.9 0.459 7.9 0.274 (X) (X)

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . 6.3 1.569 5.0 3.544 19.7 5.531 6.7 0.858 7.2 0.306 15.1 1.668

In families with a female householder, no spouse present . . . . 13.1 6.196 12.3 1.726 (X) (X) 11.5 1.556 12.6 1.843 (X) (X)

Unrelated individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 0.898 13.1 2.057 (X) (X) 10.6 3.512 12.1 1.746 11.2 1.123

EMPLOYMENT AND LABOR 

FORCE STATUS (PERSONS

18 YEARS AND OVER)

Employed full time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 1.091 3.7 0.293 7.0 2.624 4.2 0.709 7.0 0.554 10.6 2.949

Employed part time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 1.162 7.0 1.340 (B) (B) 7.2 1.745 7.8 0.525 (X) (X)

Unemployed 9.0 1.353 6.1 1.641 (B) (B) 7.8 0.709 12.2 1.938 (X) (X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Not in the labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 0.549 11.5 1.462 (X) (X) 12.8 2.677 19.7 0.788 (X) (X)

FAMILY INCOME-TO-POVERTY 

RATIO

Less than 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 0.831 9.6 1.402 (X) (X) 9.8 1.461 11.9 0.568 (X) (X)

1.00 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 1.118 5.5 1.627 (X) (X) 5.9 1.076 7.1 0.294 (X) (X)

 X Not applicable. B Base less than 200,000. 1Means-tested programs include AFDC and General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance.

2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

3Age, educational attainment, and other variables are measured at the time the spells begin, excluding those who are already on programs at the start of the survey.

Table B.

Median Duration of Participation and Standard Errors by Program: 1992-1993

(In months. Median duration cannot be computed when more than half of the spells are continuing in the last

month of data collection. This situation is especially likely to occur for elderly recipients whose income from other

sources is unlikely to rise over time.)

Characteristic

Major

assistance

programs1

AFDC/

General

Assistance SSI

Food

stamps Medicaid

Housing

assistance

P70-58 5

(11.5 months compared with 

6.0 months).11

11The poverty status of a person in a given

period is defined by dividing the sum of his/

her monthly family incomes by the sum of

his/her monthly family poverty thresholds.

The person is considered “poor” if the ratio

is less than one and is considered “non- poor” otherwise. This implies that individuals who are considered “poor” in a year may not necessarily be “poor” in every

month of the year.

Families Maintained 

by Women Have Higher 

Participation Rates 

Reflecting their relatively 

low incomes, individuals in families maintained by women were

much more likely to participate 

in means-tested programs than

those in married-couple families—

42.9 percent compared with 

7.7 percent in 1993. Moreover,

over half (51.1 percent) of those

in families maintained by women

participated in means-tested programs during at least 1 month of

1992 and 1993, compared with

13.8 percent of those in marriedcouple families. Similarly, a higher

proportion of families maintained

by women received means-tested
Figure 4.

Participation Rates by

Poverty Status

(In percent)

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP).

Poor Nonpoor

1993 monthly average

1 or more months in 1992 or 1993

All 24 months of 1992 and 1993

57.3

80.7

53.5

6.5

12.6

3.0

Figure 3.

Participation Rates by

Age of Individuals

(In percent)

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP).

Under 18 years 18 to 64 years 65 years and over

1993 monthly average

1 or more months in 1992 or 1993

All 24 months of 1992 and 1993

23.7

32.2

14.1

10.0

15.6

6.0

12.0

14.9

9.7

6 P70-58

benefits in all 24 months than 

of married-couple families.

Nearly One-Quarter of 

the Unemployed Receive

Means-Tested Benefits

As shown in figure 5, in an 

average month of 1993, almost

one-quarter of the unemployed 

received means-tested assistance,

as did 1 in 5 individuals not in the

labor force. In contrast, only 3.5

percent of those with full-time jobs

and 8.6 percent of those with parttime jobs received these benefits

at some time during 1993.

The unemployed and those

who were not in the labor force 

received higher monthly benefits

than people with full- or part-time

jobs. The median monthly benefit

from AFDC, General Assistance,

food stamps, and SSI for families

with an unemployed worker was

$411, not significantly different

from that of families with no members who were in the labor force.

The median benefits for full- and

part-time workers were $231 

and $282, respectively. In addition, the median unemployment

compensation benefit among 

recipients was $618 in 1993, 

although only 28.7 percent of 

the unemployed received these

benefits.

Residential and Regional 

Differences

As shown in table A, people living outside metropolitan areas had

a higher average program participation rate in 1993 than those 

living inside metropolitan areas.

However, dividing metropolitan

areas into central cities and noncentral cities reveals a different

picture, with those in central cities

having participation rates significantly higher than either of the

other two groups.

Regionally, the average monthly program participation rate was

highest in the South (15.5 percent)

and lowest in the Midwest (11.9

percent). The average participation rate in the West was similar 

to those of the Northeast and the

South, but the average rates in
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP).

Full time Unemployed

3.5

8.5

1.3

Part time Out of labor force

8.6

14.8

4.8

13.9

20.2

15.1

Figure 5.

Participation Rates by

Employment Status

(In percent)

1993 monthly average

1 or more months in 1992 or 1993

All 24 months of 1992 and 1993

24.3

36.5

13.9

P70-58 7

the Northeast and the South were

significantly different. However,

disaggregation by type of program

shows that people in the West

were more likely to be covered by

Medicaid than those in the South

or the Midwest. People in the

South were more likely to be covered by food stamps than those in

any other region, but less likely to

receive AFDC.12

Source and Accuracy 

of Estimates

All statistics are subject to

sampling error, as well as nonsampling error such as survey

design flaws, respondent classification and reporting errors, data

processing mistakes, and undercoverage. The Census Bureau

has taken steps to minimize errors in the form of quality control

and edit procedures to reduce 

errors made by respondents,

coders, and interviewers. Ratio

estimation to independent agerace-sex population controls partially corrects for bias attributable

to survey undercoverage. However, biases exist in the estimates when missed persons

have characteristics different

from those of interviewed persons in the same age-race-sex

group.

Analytical statements in this 

report have been tested and meet

statistical standards. However, 

because of methodological differences, use caution when comparing these data with data 

from other sources.

Contact Elaine Hock, Demographic Statistical Methods Division, at 301-457-4182 or on the 

internet at ehock@census.gov

12The AFDC participation rates in the

Northeast, Midwest, and West were not

significantly different from one another. The

food stamp participation rates in the Northeast, Midwest, and West were not significantly different from each other. The Medicaid participation rate in the Northeast was not significantly different from those in the

South and West. In the Midwest and

South, the Medicaid participation rate was not significantly different from the food

stamp participation rate.

for information on (1) the source

of the data, (2) the accuracy of

the estimates, (3) the use of standard errors, and (4) the computation of standard errors. 

Note: All demographic surveys, including SIPP, are affected by undercoverage of the population. This

undercoverage results from missed

housing units and missed persons

within sample households. Compared

with the level of the 1980 decennial

census, overall undercoverage in

SIPP is about 7 percent. Undercoverage varies with age, sex, and race.

For some groups, such as 20 to 24

year old Black men, the undercoverage is as high as 27 percent

compared with the census. It is 

important to note that the survey undercoverage is in addition to the decennial census undercoverage, which

in 1980 was estimated to be about 

1 percent overall and about 8.5 percent for Black men. The weighting

procedures used by the Census 

Bureau partially correct for the bias

due to undercoverage, but its final 

impact on estimates is not known.

Comments from Data Users

The Census Bureau welcomes

the comments and advice of data

users. If you have suggestions or

comments, please write to:

Daniel H. Weinberg

Chief, Housing and Household

Economic Statistics Division

U.S. Bureau of the Census

Washington, DC 20233-8500

or contact:

Program Participation StatisticsJan Tin

301-763-8375

JTIN@CENSUS.GOV

Statistical Methods DivisionVicki Huggins

301-457-4192

VHUGGINS@CENSUS.GOV