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57th Congress, ) SENATP1 j Document

1st Session. \ I No. 54. REPORT

OF THE

ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION,

1899-1901.

Rear-Admiral JOHN G. WALKER,

United States Navy,

President.

Hon. SAMUEL PASCO. ALFRED NOBLE, C. E. Mr. GEORGE S. MORISON. Col. PETER C. HAINS,

Lieut. Col. OSWALD H. ERNST, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.

Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. WILLIAM H. BURR, C. E. LEWIS M. HAUPT, C. E. Prof. EMORY R. JOHNSON.

Lieut. Commander SIDNEY A. STAUNTON,

United States Navy,

Secretary.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1901.

S D—57-1—Vol 7-
3Qk
To the Congress of the United States:

I transmit herewith the report, with appendices in three parts, of

the Isthmian Canal Commission, established under section 4 of the river

and harbor act, approved March 3, 1899, of its investigations made in pursuance of section 3 of said act. Theodore Roosevelt.

White House, December %,, 1901.

Department of State,

Washington, November 30, 1901.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit the Report of the Isthmian Canal

Commission, with appendices in three parts, all in duplicate, accompanied by one set of maps, profiles, and illustrations, which have this

day been delivered at this Department by Rear-Admiral John G.

Walker, president of the Commission.

I am, sir, your obedient servant,

John Hay.

The President.

3

62.C9?

CONTENTS.

Sections of act approved March 3, 1899, authorizing the appointment of the Commission 9

Letter of appointment and instructions to commissioners 11 Organization of the Commission hy committees 12 Chapters:

1. Introduction 13

2. History of interoceanic projects and communications 20

3. Dimensions and unit prices 63

4. Other possible routes 69

5. Panama route 80

6. Nicaragua route 104

7. Earthquakes, volcanoes, climate, health 167

8. Rights, privileges, and franchises 172

9. Industrial and commercial value of canal 243

10. Military value 252

11. Cost of maintenance and operation 255

12. Conclusions 257 APPENDICES.

A. Study of locks for Nicaragua and Panama routes, by Mr. S. H. Woodard.

B. Historical notes relative to the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company, 1880-

1894, prior to the organization of the new company.

C. List of documents furnished to the Commission by the New Panama Canal Company.

D. Report on the hydrography of the Panama canal route, by Mr. A. P. Davis,

chief hydrographer.

E. Waste weir dimensions and discharges for Lake Bohio.

F. Description of alternative location for canal between Gatun and Bohio. G. Discussion of the time required for transit through an Isthmian canal by the two routes. H. Discharge of the canalized San Juan River.

I. Report of hydrographic investigations in Nicaragua, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer.

J. Surveys from the Upper San Juan to the Indio River, by Mr. A. B. Nichols,

division engineer. K. Treaty between Nicaragua and the United States, 1867, Dickenson-Ayon.

L. Treaty negotiated between the United States and Nicaragua, December, 1884, Frelinghuysen-Zavala.

M. Treaty between Great Britain and Nicaragua, relative to the Mosquito Indians and the rights and claims of British subjects, February 11, 1860. N. Treaty between Nicaragua and Great Britain, January 28, 1860. O. Treaty between Nicaragua and France, April 11, 1859.

P. List of treaties made or negotiated by Nicaragua with other countries. Q. Treaty between the United States and Great Britain, April 19, 1850, Clayton- Bulwer.

5
6 CONTENTS.

R. Contract between Nicaragua and the Nicaragua Canal Association.

S. Act of Congress incorporating the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua.

T. Contract between Nicaragua and Eyre and Cragin, representing the Inter- oceanic Canal Company.

U. Contract between Nicaragua and the Atlas Steamship Company.

V. Treaty between the United States and Costa Rica, July, 1851. W. Treaty between Spain and Costa Rica, May, 1860. X. Treaty between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, June, 1869. Y. List of treaties made by Costa Rica with other countries.

Z. Contract between Costa Rica and Nicaragua Canal Association. AA. Protocol of agreement between the United States and Costa Rica, December,

1900. BB. Treaty between the United States and New Granada, concluded December,

1846. CC. Treaties between France and New Granada, 1856, and France and Colombia,

1892. DD. Treaty between Spain and Colombia, 1881. EE. List of treaties made by New Granada, or Colombia, with other countries. FF. Amended contract between Colombia and the Panama Railroad Company.

GG. Contract between Colombia and Interoceanic Canal Association, March 20, 1878. (Wyse concession.)

HH. Additional contract modifying that of May 20, 1878, December 10, 1890.

II. Contract granting extension to the Panama Canal Company in liquidation,

April 4, 1893. JJ. Contract granting further extension of time to the New Panama Canal Company, April 25, 1900. KK. Memorandum showing legal status of the New Panama Canal Company, with

laws, decrees of court, and charter. LL. Treaty negotiated by Mr. Hise between the United States and Nicaragua, June,

1849. MM. Contract between Nicaragua and the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, August 27, 1849. NN. Report on industrial and commercial value of canal, by Prof. Emory R. Johnson. PLATES.

1. General map of the Central American isthmus, from Tehuantepec to Buenaventura Bay, showing all the canal routes investigated. Scale ^sTsirwt 40 miles to an inch.

2. General map of the Isthmus of Darien, from Panama to Atrato River, Republic

of Colombia, showing water courses and mountain ranges. Scale sTrcWtb 5 miles to an inch.

3. Map, Mandinga Harbor to mouth of Rio Chepo, Republic of Colombia, showing

proposed San Bias Canal route. Scale ^Ivs4. Profile of possible canal route from Mandinga Harbor, Gulf of San Bias, to Bay

of Panama. Horizontal scale s^ffff> vertical scale 2«Vij5. Map, Caledonia Bay to Rio Sabana, Republic of Colombia, showing topography

to the divide and drainage. Scale gff&Vo. 6. Profile of possible canal routes from Caledonia Bay to San Miguel Bay. Horizontal scale si^tftj, vertical scale jSVtf7. Map, Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from San Bias to Caledonia Bay,

Republic of Colombia, showing elevations observed from sea. Scale 55^5.

8. Map, Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Carreto Bay to the Atrato

Valley, Republic of Colombia, showing elevations observed from sea. Scale ssfonf.
CONTENTS. 7

9. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Rio Mangle

to Rio Mandinga, Gulf of San Bias. Taken from point near Point San Bias. No. 1. 10. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Ratones Cay to Rio Diablo. Taken from a point near Puyadas Cays. No. 2. 11. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Ratones Cay

to Rio Diablo. Taken from sloop going toward Ratones Cay. No. 3. 12. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Piedras Cays to Rio Playa. Taken from a point near Ratones Cay. No. 4. 13. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Rio Tres Bocas to Rio Pitgandi. Taken from a point near Limones Cays. No. 5. 14. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Caledonia

Hills to Rio Grande. Taken from a point near mouth of Rio Tres Bocas. No. 6. 15. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Cape Tibu- ron to Piedras Cays. Taken from points near Isla Pajaros and Isla Pinos. No. 7. 16. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Caledonia

Mountain to Sassardi Gap. Taken from a point in front of Sassardi. No. 8. 17. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, showing the Caledonia Gap. Taken from a point near Isla d'Oro. No. 9. 18. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Cape Tiburon

to Pt. Escoces. Taken from sloop off Pt. Carreto. No. 10. 19 . Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from Tutumate

River to Pt. Tiburon. Taken from point near Piton Island. No. 11. 20. Panoramic view of the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Darien, from the Atrato Flat to Piton Island. Taken from sloop off Point Choco. No. 12. 21. General map of Panama route. Scale rffsW^

22. Profile of Panama route. Horizontal scale tqtststhsj vertical scale ttj

1^-

23. Sheet of sections. Scale tsWa. Colon Harbor.

b. Swamp silt. c. Firm earth.

d. Lake Bohio. Drowned Channel.

e. Culebra.

24. Plan of Bohio Locks. Scale jfa, 407 to an inch.

25. Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. Scale ^5, SO7 to an inch.

26. Bohio Dam. Scales 7oW> :nnn>> *iv

27. Gigante Spillway. Scales ^V<y. 4<r> ?h>-

28. Map No. 1. General Map of Nicaragua Route. Scale r^WirMap No. 2. Canal line and general topography through the canal region, scale sihrn, in 4 sheets.

29. Sheet 1. Carribean Sea to Boca San Carlos.

30. Sheet 2. Boca San Carlos to Lake Nicaragua.

31. Sheet 3. Fort San Carlos to Las Lajas.

32. Sheet 4. Lake Nicaragua to the Pacific Ocean. Map No. 3. Canal line, borings, service railroad, and detail topography, scale

t?2tmx> m 14 sheets, and 1 index sheet, scale xirooff- 33. Index sheet.

34. Sheet 1. Greytown to San Juanillo.

35. Sheet la. Rio Indio to Rio Misterioso.

36. Sheet 2. Rio San Juanillo to Rio Negro.

37. Sheet 3. Rio Negro to Serapiqui Hills.

38. Sheet 4. Lock 2 to Rio San Francisco-
8 CONTENTS.

39. Sheet 5. Rio San Francisco to Cafio Machado.

40. Sheet 6. Conchuda cut-off and dam sites. 41. Sheet 7. La Lucha to Agua Fresca.

42. Sheet 8. Agua Fresca to Santa Cruz cut-off. 43. Sheet 9. Isla Sombrero de Cuero to Isla Grande.

44. Sheet 10. Rio Chico to San Francisco cut-off. 45. Sheet 11. Rio Medio Queso to Lake Nicaragua.

46. Sheet 12. Lake Nicaragua to Cafio Guachipilin.

47. Sheet 13. Cafio Guachipilin to Pacific Ocean.

Profile of Nicaragua Route. Horizontal scale u^w, vertical scale jh^, in 5 sheets.

48. Profile 1. Caribbean Sea to Conchuda.

49. Profile 2. Conchuda to Lake Nicaragua.

49a. Profile 2a. Profile of canal on adopted lines near Rio Sabalos, etc. 50. Profile 3. Lake Nicaragua.

51. Profile 4. Lake Nicaragua to Pacific Ocean. Eight maps of Greytown Harbor, scale t^to52. Puerto y Boca del Rio San Juan de Nicaragua, 1809.

53. San Juan de Nicaragua, by Geo. Peacock, 1832.

54. Greytown Harbor, by Commander Nolloth, 1850.

55. Greytown Harbor, by John Richards, 1853.

56. Greytown Harbor, by John Scott, 1856.

57. Greytown Harbor, by P. C. F. West, 1865.

58. Greytown Harbor, by Lieut. Jas. M. Miller, 1872.

59. Greytown Harbor, by officers of U. S. S. Newport, 1898.

60. One sheet of canal cross sections, scale ^j^.

Two profiles of route from Upper San Juan River, near Machuca, to Indio.

61. 1. Machuca-Negro Line.

62. 2. La Cruz del Norte Line.

63. Map No. 4. Showing borings in Lake Nicaragua, scale ^sros64. Lock No. 1, scale -i\JS

. 65. Locks Nos. 2, 3, and 4, scale ^T. 66. Locks Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, scale -g\-$. 67. Waste ways, Eastern Division, scale T2Vtf- 68. Conchuda waste way, scale yaW

69. Conchuda Dam, scale T2Vo70. Map of Central America and neighboring countries, showing location of volca- noes, active and extinct. Scale sT3STyiny> 100 miles to an inch.

71. Map of Panama Route, showing zones of mean annual rainfall, scale TTTtnnre- 72. Map of Nicaragua, showing rainfall areas, 1890. Scale zszjs-uj 8 miles to 1 inch.

73. Map of Nicaragua, showing rainfall areas, 1900. Same scale as 72.

74. Map of the World, on Mercator projection, showing routes for steam and sail. 75. Map of Western Hemisphere, on Polyconic projection, showing routes, currents, wind areas, etc. Map of Central Chile, showing resources and industries, on two sheets.

76. Sheet 1. 77. Sheet 2. 78. Map of Northwestern South America, showing resources and industries.

79. Map of Japan, showing resources and industries.

80. Map of China, showing resources and industries.

81. Map of Eastern Australia, showing resources and industries.

82. Map of New Zealand, showing resources and industries.

83. Map of the Philippine Islands, showing resources and industries.

84. Map of Central America, showing resources and industries.

85. Map of Mexico, showing resources and industries.

86. Map of Transportation Divides.
AN ACT Making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Untied States of America

in Congress assembled, That * * *

Sec. 3. That the President of the United States of America he, and he is herehy,

authorized and empowered to make full and complete investigation of the Isthmus

of Panama with a view to the construction of a canal by the United States across the same to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; that the President is authorized to make investigation of any and all practicable routes for a canal across said Isthmus

of Panama, and particularly to investigate the two routes known respectively as the Nicaraguan route and the Panama route, with a view to determining the most

. practicable and feasible route for such canal, together with the proximate and probable cost of constructing a canal at each of two or more of said routes; and the Presi- dent is further authorized to investigate and ascertain what rights, privileges, and

franchises, if any, may be held and owned by any corporations, associations, or indi- viduals, and what work, if any, has been done by such corporations, associations, or

individuals in the construction of a canal at either or any of said routes, and particularly at the so-called Nicaraguan and Panama routes, respectively; and likewise to ascertain the cost of purchasing all of the rights, privileges, and franchises held and

owned by any such corporations, associations, and individuals in any and all of such

routes, particularly the said Nicaraguan route and the said Panama route; and like- wise to ascertain the probable or proximate cost of constructing a suitable harbor at each of the termini of said canal, with the probable annual cost of maintenance of said harbors, respectively; and generally the President is authorized to make such

full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route across said isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same

and placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United

States. Sec. 4. To enable the President to make the investigations and ascertainments

herein provided for, he is hereby authorized to employ in said service any of the

engineers of the United States Army at his discretion, and likewise to employ any

engineers in civil life, at his discretion, and any other persons necessary to make such

investigation, and to fix the compensation of any and all of such engineers and other

persons. Sec 5. For the purpose of defraying the expenses necessary to be incurred in making the investigations herein provided for, there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of one million

dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, to be disbursed by order of the

President. Sec 6. That the President is hereby requested to report to Congress the results of such investigations, together with his recommendations in the premises. * * * * -H- * * Approved, March 3, 1899.

Department of State,

Washington., June 10, 1899.

Rear-Admiral John G. Walker, U. S. N., retired,

Member of the Interoceanic Canal Commission appointed tinder

sections 3 and If. of the act of Congress approved March 3,

1899.

Sir: The Congress of the United States passed at its recent session,

and the President, on the 3d of March, 1899, approved, "An act making appropriations for the construction, repair, and preservation

of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes,"

the third, fourth, and sixth sections of which read as follows:

Sec. 3. That the President of the United States of America be, and he is hereby,

authorized and empowered to make full and complete investigation of the Isthmus

of Panama with a view to the construction of a canal by the United States across the same to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; that the President is authorized to make investigation of any and all practicable routes for a canal across said Isthmus

of Panama, and particularly to investigate the two routes known, respectively, as the Nicaraguan route and the Panama route, with a view to determining the most practicable and feasible route for such canal, together with the proximate and probable

cost of constructing a canal at each of two or more of said routes; and the Presi- dent is further authorized to investigate and ascertain what rights, privileges, and

franchises, if any, may be held and owned by any corporations, associations, or indi- viduals, and what work, if any, has been done by such corporations, associations, or

individuals in the construction of a canal at either or any of said routes, and particularly at the so-called Nicaraguan and Panama routes, respectively; and likewise to

ascertain the cost of purchasing all of the rights, privileges, and franchises held and

owned by any such corporations, associations, and individuals in any and all of such

routes, particularly the said Nicaraguan route and the said Panama route, and likewise

to ascertain the probable or proximate cost of constructing a suitable harbor at each

of the termini of said canal, with the probable annual cost of maintenance of said harbors, respectively. And generally the President is authorized to make such full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route

across said isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same and

placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United States. Sec. 4. To enable the President to make the investigations and ascertainments

herein provided for, he is hereby authorized to employ in said service any of the

engineers of the United States Army at his discretion, and likewise to employ any

engineers in civil life, at his discretion, and any other persons necessary to make

such investigation, and to fix the compensation of any and all such engineers and

other persons.

Sec. 6. That the President is hereby requested to report to Congress the results of such investigations, together with his recommendations in the premises.

The President, in pursuance of the provisions of this act, has

appointed you one of the members of the Isthmian Canal Commission

11
12 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

provided for in it. You will be guided in the execution of the trust thus confided to you by the provisions of the act of Congress which I have quoted above, and your eminence in your profession is a sufficient guaranty of the energy and ability which the President is sure you

will bring to the accomplishment of this task. At the same time your

duties will not be limited by the terms of the act, but if any line of

inquiry should suggest itself to you in the course of your work as being of interest or benefit, I am confident }

T ou will not fail to give it whatever attention it may seem to deserve. The President trusts that

the Commission will fulfill the important duties confided to them in such a manner that when their report is prepared it will embrace all the elements required for his own guidance and for the final action of

Congress upon the subject of the location and construction of the

interoceanic canal. I am, sir, with great respect, your obedient servant,

John Hay.

ORGANIZATION OF COMMISSION BY COMMITTEES, THE PRESIDENT

BEING EX OFFICIO A MEMBER OF EACH COMMITTEE.

For the investigation of the Nicaragua route: Mr. Noble. Mr. Burr. Colonel Hains. For the investigation of the Panama route: Mr. Burr. Mr. Morison.

Lieutenant-Colonel Ernst. For the investigation of other possible routes: Mr. Morison. Mr. Noble. Colonel Hains. For the investigation of the industrial, commercial, and military value of an inter- oceanic canal: Mr. Johnson. Mr. Haupt.

Mr. Pasco. For the investigation of rights, privileges, and franchises: Mr. Pascoe. Lieutenant-Colonel Ernst. Mr Johnson.
Department of State,

Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, November 16, 1901.

The President of the United States.

Sir: The Isthmian Canal Commission having completed the investigations with which it was charged under the act of Congress approved

March 3, 1899, and your instructions thereunder, communicated

through the Secretary of State by letter of June 10, 1899, has the

honor to submit the following report:

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.

Organization of Com mis

slon. The Commission was organized in the city of

Washington, with Rear-Admiral John G. Walker

as president, on the 15th day of June, 1899, and

at a subsequent meeting, held on the 6th day of July, Lieut. Commander

Sidney A. Staunton, of the United States Navy, was chosen as secretary. It at once entered upon its duties, taking

as a guide the sections of the act of Congress

entitled "An act making appropriations for the construction, repair,

and preservation of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and

for other purposes," approved March 3, 1899, under which its members

were appointed, and also the instructions commuInstructlons. . 1A .,.

nicated to them by the Secretary ot State in his

letter of June 10, 1899.

The investigations and ascertainments provided for in the law

involved many different lines of inquiry, and in order to promote the

progress of the work and procure the best results it was divided

among several committees, each of which was to

Committees. ° 7 take the lead in examining the particular subject

intrusted to it; but before entering upon its special work each committee was to prepare an outline of its plan of investigation and submit it to the Commission for amendment or approval. The acts and

conclusions of these committees were to be reported to the Commission, subject to modification and amendment before approval and

adoption, so that the final results and determinations represent not only the views and opinions of the several committees, but of the

entire Commission.

13
14 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The following subjects of investigation were

Subjects of Investigation. . . f

3 ° then determined upon, and each was referred to a

separate committee, to be designated accordingly : The Nicaragua route. The Panama route. Other possible routes. The industrial, commercial, and military value of an interoceanic

canal. Rights, privileges, and franchises.

The president of the Commission was made ex officio a member of

each of these committees.

The two canal routes to which the attention of the Commission was

specially directed by the law were in Nicaragua

Appointment of chief j t» j l • j» • • j. i engineers. anc* "anama) and a chief engineer was appointed

for each, to make his headquarters in the country

and take the general control of the field operations to be inaugurated

upon each line. After considering the results of surveys made in the past, it was

judged best to limit the explorations in the search for other possible routes to that part of Colombia known as Darien, extending from

Panama to the Atrato River, and a third chief engineer was appointed

to direct the field work there.

Competent assistants, whose education and trainan^sTn^^borerL

aSSlSt

" m£ had fitted them for the special work to be done, were assigned to service under the chief engineers,

and laborers, boatmen, and other workmen were emploj^ed wherever

their services were required. In all 20 working parties were organized

in Nicaragua, with 159 engineers and other assistants and 155 laborers;

5 in Panama, with 20 engineers and other assistants and 11 laborers;

and 6 in Darien, with 51 engineers and other assistants and 112 laborers,

making a total force of about 850, the number varying from time to time according to the requirements of the work.

The chief engineers were directed, with the aid

Directions for the work. . . ; of these working parties, to examine the geography, topography, hydrology, and other physical features of the dif- ferent countries and to make a special study of the routes in Nicaragua

and Panama. The schemes already planned were to be thoroughly

tested and further surveys were to be made, in order to vary the line and select better locations wherever the conditions were found to be

unsatisfactory. A complete project was to be prepared for each route and the center line of a canal was to be marked upon the ground where

it had not already been done. The cost of a canal in each country,

according to these projects, could then be closely approximated, the

advantages of each be compared, and an intelligent conclusion be

reached as to which of the two routes is the more desirable from an

engineering standpoint.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 15

This study involved examinations of the terminal harbors and

approaches and the locations selected for dams, locks, and other auxiliary works ; a series of borings to determine the nature of the subsurface material at the sites for locks and dams and along the canal

lines, and a continuance of the observations of rainfall and stream

flow, and of the lake fluctuations in Nicaragua. Attention was also

to be given to the supply of rock, timber, and other materials in each

country available for purposes of construction and maintenance.

The results of these examinations and observations and the data and

material obtained were sent from time to time to the headquarters of

the Commission at Washington, where they were arranged and entered

upon the plats and profiles of the canals, under the direction of the

committees, for examination and consideration in reaching their conclusions and making their recommendations.

On the 9th of August, 1899, the Commission left New York for Paris, where the New Panama Canal

Company opened to its members its records, maps, plans, and profiles,

and the results of the surveys made and the data collected by it and

the old Panama Canal Company. Mr. Maurice Hutin, the directorgeneral, Mr. L. Choron, the chief engineer, and other officers of the

company received the commissioners with great courtesy and were

ready at all times to assist them in making a study of this route in all its aspects. A special meeting of the Comite Technique was also called to give the commissioners such oral explanations as they might

desire, some of its members coming from distant parts of "Europe for

the purpose.

While in Europe the Commission also visited and

EaTpe'

Tl8ltS WMle ,n examined the Kiel Canal in Germany, the North

Sea Canal in Holland, and the Manchester Canal

and Liverpool docks in England and returned to New York on the

29th of September.

In accordance with the plan of investigation

sorth

tAm^rica!

ntral ^

determined upon, a visit was afterwards made by

the Commissioners to Central and South America.

The purposes of this visit were to make a personal inspection of the

entire canal lines in Nicaragua and Panama, examine the work already

done by the parties in the field, give instructions as to its continuance,

familiarize themselves with the local surroundings and physical fea- tures of the sections in which these routes are located, and gather such

information as would promote the object for which the Commission was organized.

They left New York on the 6th of January, 1900,

for Greytown, Nicaragua. After spending a week

in inspecting the harbor, the coast line near the eastern terminus of

the canal, the work commenced by the Maritime Canal Company of

Nicaragua, and the dredges, railroad plant, and other property it had
16 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

left there, they passed over the canal line from the mouth of the San

Juan to Brito on the Pacific, stopping at the locations selected or deemed suitable for dams, locks, and other auxiliary works, and at other points where a careful examination was desirable, and making

detours from the main line when necessary. From Brito they returned

to the lake and proceeded to Managua, the capital, where they had

several interviews with President Zela}r a, with reference to the construction of a navigable canal through Niearaguan

territory by the United States. They were cordially welcomed by the President, and he expressed himself favorably

with reference to the proposed maritime communication. They went

from Managua to Corinto, and there took a steamer for Panama,

where they arrived on the 3d of March.

As the disturbed conditions in Colombia renPanama. . . , . /^l dered it inadvisable for the Commission to at- tempt to meet the President at Bogota, the State Department, at the

request of this Commission, communicated with the Colombian authorities through the United States minister there and asked that a representative of the Government be appointed to meet the commissioners

when they reached the country and give them such information and

assistance relative to their mission as he conveniently could. In ac- cordance with this request Mr. J. T. Ford, the consulting engineer of

the Republic in technical matters connected with the Panama Canal, was assigned to this duty. He met them in this official capacity on

their arrival at Panama, courteousl}r expressed an entire willingness

to aid them in their investigations, and accompanied them from day to day upon their visits to different points upon the canal line and else- where during their stay upon the isthmus.

Fifteen days were spent in the department of Panama, during which

an investigation of the route from sea to sea was made, as had been

done in Nicaragua. The work was greatly facilitated by the local

officers of the New Panama Canal Company, who placed two houses in Colon at the service of the commissioners, furnished a special train

each day to take them from point to point as the work progressed,

permitted them to use their maps and plans, informed them as to the

work then going on, accompanied them in their inspection of the line,

and exhibited to them the plant and materials purchased by the old

canal company for construction purposes, much of which was stored

in sheds and warehouses at different points on the isthmus. During

this period the commissioners went over the entire line of the* canal

from Colon to Panama, and examined the sites for the differentiauxiliary works. This included a trip to the upper waters of the Chagres,

in the Alhajuela region, and they returned in boats, so as to have an

opportunity of seeing the river. The Commission is indebted to Mr. Louis Royer, director on the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17

isthmus of the New Panama Canal Company, and to Col. J. R. Shaler,

superintendent of the Panama Railroad Company, for courteous

attentions.

On the 16th of March Mr. George S. Morison

Visit of Mr. Morison to ir-i.ii. j.u tt o o o • DarlolK left the party on the U. S. b. Scorpion to ascertain the progress of the explorations in Darien,

with full authority to give instructions as to the continuance of the

work according to the conditions which he might find upon reaching

the camps of the different working parties. The

The Scorpion. . i i , • i , , -Tt -tv scorpion had been assigned by the Navy Department to aid in the search for other possible routes in Darien, and was commanded h\ Lieut. Commander Nathan Sargent, United States Navy, who rendered valuable assistance in the explorations made in that section, and met the responsibilities which rested upon him creditably and successfully.

From Colon the majority of the commissioners

Costa tilca. went to Limon, in Costa Rica. Here a special

San Jose. . . * train was placed at their disposal to convey them

to San Jose, the capital. During the week that they spent in this city

they conferred freety with President Iglesias upon the subject of an

interoceanic canal and the use of the territory of the Republic, as

far as necessary, in case the United States should desire to use the

Nicaragua route. The President manifested a deep interest in the

canal project and expressed the hope that it would be successfully

accomplished.

In the absence of Mr. William L. Merry, envoy extraordinary and

minister plenipotentiary, accredited to Nicaragua as well as to Costa

Rica, the Commission was greatly aided in accomplishing the purposes

of its visits at San Jose b}^ Mr. Rufus A. Lane, secretary of legation and

charge d'affaires, and at Managua by Mr. Chester Donaldson, United

States consul. The members of the Commission are also indebted to these gentlemen for many personal courtesies which were highly

appreciated.

After returning to the United States, the ComDlraenslons and unit prices. . °

mission took up for consideration certain questions relating to canal construction, which had to be determined before

completing the projects, preparing the plans, and making the calcula- tions and estimates for the principal work at each route and its auxiliaries. The most important of these were the dimensions of such a

canal as was contemplated, its locks and other works, the best method

of constructing the dams and the materials to be used, and the unit

prices of work and materials. The settlement of these questions

required a knowledge not only of vessels then in use but of those

which were being constructed and planned, so as to form a correct judgment as to what the shipping interests will demand by the time

S D—57-1—Vol 7 2
18 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

a canal can be completed; also the cost of excavating and removing

vast quantities of earth and rock, at different depths and under differ- ent conditions, by using the most satisfactory methods and the latest improvements and inventions in machinery. The conclusions reached were used in making the subsequent plans, computations, and estimates.

Besides these questions of a preliminary charered '" qUeS 10nS CM1S

" a°ter, which related to the engineering features of

the canals, there were others which had to be considered. Among them were the treaty relations which the Republics,

within whose boundaries these canal routes are situated, hold toward

the United States and other powers; the grants and concessions made

by them to corporations, associations, and individuals, and the cost of

purchasing those still in force; the industrial and military value of an

interoceanic canal; the cost of operation and maintenance at each

route; also the liability of seismic and other disturbances in the isth- mian country and their probable effect upon a canal and its auxiliaiy

works when completed and in operation.

A second visit was made to Nicaragua by Mr.

su-aragTM.

*"" N°M' *° Alfred Noble to make some special examinations,

inspect the work of the parties in the field, and

give them such further information as he deemed proper. He left New

York February 16, 1901, and returned March 26. The different working parties were disbanded as they finished their

work, the laborers were at once discharged, and the engineers and

other assistants were brought back to the United States, where some

of them have since been employed in office work in Washington

under the direction of the Commission. The field work was not completed till June, 1901, when the last detachment of assistants returned

from Nicaragua.

The results of all these investigations and the

final conclusions of the Commission are embraced

in different chapters of this report. In order that these chapters may

not be incumbered with matter which is useful mainly for reference,

verification, and special study, many of the papers, documents, treaties,

concessions, grants, special reports, and discussions mentioned in the

text are attached as appendixes and are appropriately designated so that eas}T reference may be

made to them when their examination is desired.

_ , ,. . In order to present a fuller view of the indusSpcrlal report on Indus- r

trial and commercial value trial and commercial value of an isthmian canal

than could be conveniently done within the limits

of the report of the Commission, Prof. Emory R. Johnson, a member

of the Commission, whose previous studies had qualified him to deal

with these questions, was requested to make a thorough investigation

of this subject and present the results in a special report. This has
REPORT OB" THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 19

been done, and it i.s submitted in connection with this report, accompanied by appropriate charts and diagrams.

The report is also accompanied by maps of the

canal routes and the countries where they are located, charts of the terminal harbors, plans and profiles of the projects,

sketches and views taken at different points along and in the vicinity

of the canal lines, and diagrams and other representations for purposes

of description and explanation.

A chapter has also been included, giving a his- tory of the early efforts to find a waterway to the

Orient, of the transit routes used and established across the American

isthmus, when no strait could be found there connecting the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans, and of the different plans for establishing an artificial maritime communication.

The explorations and researches of the past have developed the

projects which now exist, and it is believed that this account will add

to the value and completeness of the report and be in harmony with

the purposes of the investigation.
Chapter II. HISTORY OF INTEROCEANIC PROJECTS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

During the fifteenth century the subject of a maritime communication with the countries and people in the far East engaged the earnest

attention of many enterprising and thoughtful men in the European

States bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean

in the belief and expectation that a more direct route to those distant

lands would result in greatly increasing the interchange of productions which had for many centuries contributed to the wealth of the

Western nations, notwithstanding the difficulties and disadvantages

under which commercial intercourse had been maintained.

During this period the art of navigation was largely and continuously developed, the mariner's compass was evolved from the electric

needle, the properties of which had long been known, rough instruments were devised for ascertaining and determining the position of

vessels upon the great deep, and the mariner began to venture beyond

the sight of familiar landmarks; the Portuguese resolutely pushed

forward their explorations southward along and near the west side of

Africa, new capes and headlands and river mouths were passed, and

islands and groups of islands distant from the coast line were discovered, some by those who were driven from their course, others by the more daring who steered from the land and risked for a while the

dangers of the open sea. The diffusion of the geographic knowledge

thus gained and the constant improvement in nautical appliances and

charts inspired increased confidence in the theory of the maritime

communication and its ultimate discovery, and, in the latter part of

the century, brave navigators and seamen voluntarily entered upon

long vo}7 ages, through untried seas, in search of new pathways, east- ward and westward, to India, China, and the spice islands, under the

patronage of enlightened monarchs, who, in addition to their desire to advance the commercial interests of their people, hoped and expected

that new possessions, abounding in wealth, would be added to their

dominions.

It is claimed that Africa had been circumnavigated and was known

to be a great peninsula many centuries before the Christian era. Herodotus states that Pharaoh Necho, who reigned in Egypt from 016

to 600 B. C. , sent out an expedition from the Red

Early voyages. . J , - , . Sea to explore its coast, which passed around the

continent, sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar, and in the third year

20
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 21

returned to Egypt by the Mediterranean. But the evidence upon

which this and other early voyages rest is scarcely more than traditional and they left no permanent impressions and were followed by no

practical results. But if there was a sea route to India eastward it was surely in this direction, and the Portuguese had been persistent

JSS^SS^ST in theil\ efforts to discover it. By 1486 their

explorations along the west coast of Africa had

extended to about the twentieth degree of south latitude. In 1487 an expedition was sent out by John II, under the command of Bartholemew Dias, to continue the explorations until the southern point

of the continent should be reached. Near Cape Voltas, on the south- ern bank of Orange River, he met tempestuous weather and was

driven far below the cape of which he was in search without seeing it. When he regained the land he advanced easterly as far as a point he

named Santa Cruz, near Algoa Bay, where he raised a stone cross, as had been done at other points along the coast, in proof of the fact that he claimed the country for his king. The cape was not seen till he sailed homeward, and in memory of the trying circumstances under

which he had gone by it on the outward voyage he named it the

Stormy Cape, but King John, in full belief that

Cape of (lood Hope (lis- ,i , .-, -17, -,. . -, coyeJ. ed the gateway to the East was now open, directed

that it should be called the Cape of Good Hope.

Notwithstanding the general rejoicing over the successful voyage

nade by Dias, this hope was not realized till eleven years later. Vari- ous causes delayed the sending out of another expedition, but at length

Vasco de Gama sailed with four vessels to follow

Atrill to incmT

At0Um UP ^e results already obtained and, if practicable, to proceed to the eastern countries. He

left Lisbon July 8, 1497, passed safely around the southernmost point

of Africa, crossed the Indian Ocean, touching at various points on his

way, and on the 17th of May, 1498, sighted the high land on the coast

of India. Three days later he anchored his fleet before Calicut on the

Malibar coast. After an eventful voyage he returned to Portugal

in August or September, 1499, and was received with distinguished

honors and magnificent displays. Two of his vessels and more than

half of his men had been lost, but the great problem of opening a maritime communication with the eastern countries had been solved

and the most sanguine expectations that had been indulged in were more than realized. Portugal improved the opportunities which this

Results of maritime com- , j. . ., ,... munication with orient. great discovery opened; other expeditions were

sent by this new route to the Orient; every sea was entered and every coast explored; she planted her colonies and

trading stations wherever desirable locations were found; her arms
22 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. were everywhere triumphant; her ship* opened and maintained a lucrative commerce with India, China, and the Spice Islands. This commerce stimulated her home industries and brought vast wealth to the Kingdom, and for nearly half a century she enjoyed wonderful

prosperity and power and held a foremost place among the nations of

Europe.

But before the discovery of the eastern communication had been completed the studies of Columbus had convinced him that the same countries could be more speedily

reached by sailing westward. He had no correct idea of the size of

the world nor of the distance from Europe to the Asiatic coast and the

neighboring islands, but supposed that it was several thousand miles

less than it afterwards proved to be. He reached this conclusion from

the delineations upon the rude maps of the world then in existence,

based upon actual geographic knowledge when it was available, and

when it was wanting upon hearsay and imagination and conjecture.

When he embarked, under the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella, at Palos on the 3d day of August, 1492, upon the voyage which resulted

in the discovery of America, it was with the confident expectation that a favorable result would carry him to the eastern shores of the Old

World or to some island in those regions which might lie across the

track of his vessels. He was therefore not disappointed when he dis- covered island after island but not the mainland, and be believed that

by sailing beyond these the continent could be found. When upon

his second voyage he passed along the southern coast of Cuba, in 1494,

he announced that it was some part of the Old World far remote from

Europe, and his officers and crew joined in certifying their belief in this opinion. When he felt obliged to turn back, he still believed that

if he could continue his voyage in the same direction some port would

in the end be reached whence he could communicate with the Grand

Khan of Tartary, to whom Ferdinand had given him letters. On his third voyage, in 1498, he discovered South America, near the delta of

the Orinoco. He named it Tierra Firma and regarded it as another part

of the Asiatic continent. When he left Spain in 1502, on his fourth

and last voyage, his intention was to go still farther westward and

endeavor to find a strait that would lead to India. He would thus complete his great discovery and demonstrate the correctness of the theories upon which his expeditions had been undertaken. He reached

Honduras and followed the coast line to Darien, but long-continued

and severe storms, the hostile attitude of the Indians, and the dis- couragement of his followers interfered with his plans and progress,

and with sorrow and regret he turned toward Hispaniola with his

shattered ships before he had accomplished the long-hoped-for result,

in which, however, his faith had not abated. When he died, on the

26th day of May, 1506, he was still fully satisfied that his discoveries
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 23

were in the eastern part of the Old World and never fully realized the extent and grandeur of his achievements.

The success of these voyages aroused the activOther expeditions west- « x » ji •• j t^ 1 i m j ward tor discovery. ]ty oi other nations, and England, b ranee, and

Portugal vied with Spain in this field of enter- prise and adventure. Each expedition returned with reports of

additional discoveries, northward and southward, from Labrador to

Brazil, but no strait was found which opened a wa}r to the Asiatic

coast, and it began to be realized that these newly found islands and

countries did not belong to the Eastern continent, but that a new

world had been discovered.

Strong confirmatory proof in support of this

Balboa discovers the Pa- • j* j i • o i -< k-i r. 1 tr

clfl(, view was afforded in September, 1513, by Vasco

Nunez de Balboa, then governor of a province in Darien known as Castilla del Oro. The Indians had told him of a

great sea beyond the mountains, and he determined to organize an

expedition and go in search of it. He crossed from Santa Maria de

la Antigua, the capital of his province, a city founded in 1509 or 1510, near the Atrato River, to a point near Caledonia Bay, where Acla was

afterwards built; thence he proceeded with a considerable force of

Spaniards and Indians across the divide, and on the 25th day of the

month reached a high ridge above the gulf which he named San Miguel. Advancing beyond his companions to a favorable elevation, he was the first European to behold the great ocean to the south, which

he called the South Sea, from the direction in which he viewed it. The march was continued to the coast, and four days later he entered

the sea and with great ceremony claimed it by the right of discovery

for his royal master, the King of Spain.

Before the news of this great achievement reached the King, Balboa

had been superseded as .governor, through the efforts of his enemies,

by Pedro Arias de Avila, better known as Pedrarias. This was a

bitter disappointment to him, for the Indians had

Balboa hears from In- j. i i u

• i_ i- ij.i-.li ji • l. dians of gold southward. told him when he crossed the isthmus of a rich

country to the south, abounding in the precious

metals, and he had planned the construction of a fleet to navigate the new sea, confident of his abilit}7 to discover this country and make himself master of its wealth. The accomplishment of these results twenty

years later by Pizarro, who was with Balboa upon his famous expedition, shows that his plans and expectations were not unreasonable.

When Ferdinand received the report that a great

Plans expedition south- i ii- • ,i iiii

ward for gold. sea> beyond his possessions in the new world, had

been added to his empire he desired to recognize

the importance of the event by bestowing suitable honors upon the dis- coverer, but was not willing to restore him to the governorship. The

reward came in 1515, when Balboa was appointed adelantado of the
24 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Southern Sea and captain-general, but these distinction were to be

enjoyed under the supervision of Pedrarias as his superior. In the

following year the adelantado obtained the consent of the governor

to enter upon the long desired voyage and he established his headquarters on the north side of Caledonia Bay, at his former starting

point, where he laid out the town of Acla. The expedition required

ships on the opposite side of the isthmus and he undertook their construction.

Suitable trees were abundant only on the Atlantic side, and he con- ceived the project of preparing all his materials there and transporting them over the mountain range on the backs

-ESSSE? "" "* !»>>»«. '<> b<= P"t together at some navigable

point on one of the streams flowing into the

waters of the South Sea. The place selected was on a river, then

called Rio de las Balsas, or River of the Rafts, probably the same as the Savana, though the authorities are not agreed. Thousands of

Indians were brought together from all directions, materials for four

brigantines were prepared, and the work was carried forward under

merciless taskmasters, Spaniards and negroes. When the builders

began to put the timbers together, many of them were found to be

worm-eaten, and a new lot had to be prepared; then a tempest arose, and the deluging rains swept away the materials and buried them with

mud in the swamps and low grounds. Balboa with unshaken resolution sent out the woodcutters again, and dispatched parties for fresh

supplies of provisions, and others to forage on the natives to satisfy

the immediate wants of his force. For months the Indians continued their unac-

^toii and suffering of m- customed toilj through swamps, across streams, over mountain heights, ill fed, under a tropical sun, and if made desperate by their hardships and sufferings any tried to escape bloodhounds were put on their tracks. Bishop Quevado testified before the Spanish court that 500 poor

wretches perished in this work, while Las Casas

Transit of Isthmus. 111 n, Ann • i_ T"> i. says the deaths were nearer 2,000 in number. But

the undertaking was accomplished, the four brigantines, in separate

pieces, were carried from sea to sea, put together on the Balsas, and

Balboa selected Isla Rica, the largest of the Pearl Islands, as his ren- dezvous, and frequent journeys were made thither from Acla in connection with the arrangements for the expedition. A short trip was made to the eastward and the little fleet returned to Isla Rica ready

for the southern voyage; but before he set out Balboa was summoned

by Pedrarias to Acla, charged with treasonable

Execution of Balboa. ^

, ., ,. « „ , . , conduct, and, after the form ot a trial, was con- demned and beheaded in the latter part of 1517. Thus closed the. career of the brave and unfortunate man who first marked out a line

of transit across the isthmus and demonstrated its practicability.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 25

Meanwhile the search for a westward waterway t<> the eastern side

of the old continent had been continued, and after many fruitless

efforts its existence was finally demonstrated by

Voyage of Magellan. , ^ b erdinand Magellan, twenty years alter the famous

voyage of Vasco de Gama around the Cape of Good Hope to India,

and the result was accomplished, as in the case of the eastern passage,

by sailing around the southern point of the continent and not by a

strait connecting the two oceans farther north.

Magellan was a Portuguese navigator in the service of Charles V,

the successor of Ferdinand upon the Spanish throne. He set sail from

San Lucar de Barrameda on the 20th of September, 1519, with five ships, reached the mouth of the La Plata, sailed

Discovers strait.

i i i

. southerly along the coast of Patagonia, -r. -itand dis- covered the strait which still bears his name, which separates the

island of Terra del Fuego from the mainland. He supposed this island

belonged to a southern continent, and this view prevailed until 1616,

when two Dutch navigators, Van Schouten and Le Maire, found

the passage around Cape Horn. Magellan successfully worked his way

through the strait and on the 28th of November, 1520, found the great

sea beyond, which he named the Pacific Ocean, on account of the fine weather which he experienced there. His crews were discouraged and

mutinous and his provisions ran short, but with undaunted resolution

he continued his voyage toward the Asiatic coast, making additional

discoveries on his way, until he reached the Philippine Islands. There, on the island of Matan, near Zebu, he lost his life in an encounter with

the natives on the 27th of April, 1521. One vessel had been wrecked

on the eastern coast of Patagonia, another deserted the expedition and

sailed homeward after the western opening of the strait had been dis- covered but before its passage, arid a third became unseaworthy and was

burned at the Moluccas. The two remaining separated after the death of

Magellan. The Trinidad sailed for Panama and the Victory returned

homeward around the Cape of Good Hope and reached San Lucar, the

port from which the expedition had started three years before, on the 6th

of September, 1522, under the command of John Sebastian del Cano,

having on board only 18 of the 265 persons who had embarked with

Magellan. Espinosa, captain of the Trinidad, and three of his men

returned to Spain five years later in a Portuguese vessel. The voyage to Panama had been abandoned in consequence of continued

storms, and the Trinidad returned to the Moluccas and was seized by

the Portuguese. It finally reached Ternate, a small island of this group, where it went ashore in a squall and went to pieces. For the

first time a continuous voyage had been made

World oircumnavierated. - .. , around toe world, and a new maritime route had

been found to the $x£ etisie'-ri countries a»id islands in both directions, but this western passage did not reduce the" dhs'tsnce nor satisfy
26 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the wishes of those who sought a direct way thither by the discovery

of a connecting strait along the coast line of the new continent.

Though all previous attempts had been baffled, the belief in the exist- ence of such a strait was not entirely abandoned, and efforts to discover

it were still prosecuted, but they were mainly confined to the isthmian

section, from Mexico to Darien, where it had been developed that the

two oceans were least widely separated.

After Charles V came to the throne of Spain in

thanes t is interested in 151g he took great interest in the exploration of

discovery of interoceanic irijiniji-i- <• communication. the South Sea and the discovery ot a connecting

strait. He charged the governors of his American

provinces to have the entire coast line thoroughly examined and every

bay and river mouth that offered a possible solution of the problem was entered and explored. In 1523 the Emperor wrote from Valladolid

to Cortes to make careful search for the passage which would connect

the eastern and western shores of the New World and shorten by twothirds the route from Cadiz to Cathay. Cortes, in replying, assured

him that his wishes would be diligently carried out, and that he had

great hopes of success, adding that such a discovery "would render the

King of Spain master of so many kingdoms that he might call himself

lord of the world."

It was in accordance with this policy that Gil

^Gll Gonzales sent to Fa- Gonzales de Ayila wag sent Qut from Spain to succeed Balboa, with instructions to search along

the coast of the South Sea for the western opening of a strait con- necting with the Atlantic. He had authority to use the vessels that

Balboa had constructed, but Pedrarias refused to deliver them to him,

and in order to carry out the royal commands he took to pieces the

two caravels in which he and his followers crossed

tZZSZSZT* the ocean, transported them across the isthmus

along the route used by Balboa, and rebuilt them

at the Balsas on the Pacific side. These were lost, and he constructed

others with which he sailed northward along the coast from the Bay of

Panama in January, 1522, until they were found to be unseaworthy.

They were repaired and the exploration was continued to the Bay of

Fonseca, but Gil Gonzales proceeded by land with 4 horses and 100

men and discovered Lake Nicaragua, which he

^Discovers Lake Mcar- ^

^^

Nicara()j & cMef whom he met ftt or near the present site of Rivas and from whom he

at first received kind treatment. He found the country rich in gold,

and took formal possession of it for his sovereign. Afterwards,

encountering serious opposition from the Indians, he retreated to the

coast and was so fortunate as to meet tjbe. vessels on their return voyage after an unsuccessful search for the strait, When they reached

Panama the news soon spread that a great inland sea had been dis-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 27

covered only a few leagues from the Pacific. Pcdrarias claimed that

it was within the limits of his jurisdiction and at once undertook its conquest. He established a city at Granada, near

Ufc^icuwra^

11 '" tne shore °f the lake, and reduced the Indians

to subjection. It was at first reported that

there was an opening from the lake to the South Sea, but a careful examination of the surrounding- country failed to develop such

a connecting channel. Among the early settlers was Capt. Diego

Machaca-s expedition Machuca, who, in 1529, undertook a thorough

from Lake Mraniurua down exploration of Lake Nicaragua and its eastern outlet. A felucca and brigantine were constructed on

its shores and were placed under his command with 200 men and some

canoes. His land force kept within reach of his flotilla and he entered

the Desaguadero River, now the San Juan, and attempted its passage. He found the navigation difficult in places

Rapids in the San Juan. & fe

. » , because of the rapids, and those in one part of the

river still bear his name. Overcoming all difficulties, he reached the

Atlantic, but was uncertain as to the locality, and kept along the coast with his vessels in a southeasterly direction till he reached the Spanish

settlement at Nombre de Dios. At a later period sea vessels passed

regularly up and down the river, making voyages between Granada

and Spain, Cuba and South America. This commerce was maintained

as late as 1637, according to Thomas Gage, an English monk, who

visited Nicaragua in that year, but there were delays and difficulties in passing the rapids.

While efforts were being made to find a maritime channel between

the two oceans which washed the shores of the Spanish provinces in the new world, the importance of a permanent communication across the isthmus by land was not overlooked. Soon

isthmus.

P°Stb a°r0SS a^er the discovery by Balboa, Ferdinand ordered

that a line of posts be established from sea to sea, and the plan was carried out by his successor. Acla was first selected

as the Atlantic terminus, but it was afterwards determined that it was too far to the east, and in 1519 Nombre de Dios was founded and

the Atlantic port was there established. After an examination of the

Pacific coast, the site of old Panama was fixed upon as a suitable

place to establish a city upon the western side of the isthmus. A set- tlement was commenced there in August, 1517, and

Panama founded. , ° ' 1 in September, 1521, it was made a city by royal

decree, with special privileges and a coat of arms. It became the

Pacific terminus of the line of posts, and a road was at once constructed between the two cities, crossing the

Construction of road r^-i . ^ rnl . -, . ,, . across isthmus. Cnagres at Cruces. This road was cut through

the forests, the trees often being used to make the

swamps passable; bridges were laid across the streams, and rocks were
28 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

removed from their beds to make the passage over the mountains less

difficult. The way was paved, and according to some accounts was

onl}- wide enough for riders and beasts of burden, but Peter Martyr

says that two carts could pass one another upon it. In 1597 Porto

Bello was made the eastern port of entry instead of Nombre de Dios.

It had a better harbor, was easier of access, was well supplied with

fresh water the year round, was nearer to Panama, and the location was more healthy than Nombre de Dios, which had frequently been

denounced in memorials to the Spanish court as " the sepulcher of

Spaniards.*1 In 1534, or soon after that date, a route by water for boats and lightdraft vessels was established from Nombre de Dios along the coast and

up the Chagres to Cruces. This was accomplished by removing

obstructions which had interfered with the navigation of the river,

but the use of the paved way was not discontinued.

The value of this interoceanic communication increased every year. After the conquest of Pizarro vast quantities of gold and silver were

brought from the mines of Peru to Panama, carmus

mil,erCe lCr0SS S

" rie^ across the isthmus on the king's horses, kept

for that purpose, and transported from the eastern terminus of the paved way in royal galleons to Spain.

As the Spanish colonies and provinces increased in population the commerce and travel across the isthmus grew in importance. At cerFairs at Cartagena tain tmies when vessels were due from Spain fairs

Nombre de Dios, and Porto were held at Cartagena and Nombre de Dios, and

later at Porto Bello, which were attended by the

merchants of the Spanish Main and the countries bordering upon the

Pacific. Caravans from Panama crossed to the Atlantic terminus with

products to be disposed of at these fairs. With the proceeds such

manufactured articles as were needed by the colonists and settlers were

purchased from the Spanish ships and distributed at Panama after

recrossing the isthmus, many of them going to Peru and Central

America, where the abundance of gold assured a ready and profitable

market.

The commerce of the isthmus increased during

Prosperity of Panama. the century and Panama became a place of great

mercantile importance, with a profitable trade extending to the Spice

Islands and the Asiatic coast. It was at the height of its prosperity

in 1585, and was called with good reason the tollgate between western

Europe and eastern Asia. Meanwhile the commerce, whose tolls only

brought such benefits to Panama, enriched Spain, and her people were

generously rewarded for the aid given by Ferdinand and Isabella in the effort to open a direct route westward to Cathay, notwithstanding

the disadvantages of the isthmian transit.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 29

Another of the early transits across the isthmian country was at Tehuantepcc. When Cortes was instructed by

Ti'huantepcc *

, ^ Charles V to search tor the desired strait he pro- ceeded with his usual energy to carry out the wishes of the Emperor.

He had obtained from Montezuma in 1520 a description of the country

to the south, with a drawing of the gulf coast representing the bays and

rivers. The indications at the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos appearing

favorable, he had it examined and, though no strait was discovered,

the isthmus presented advantages for transit which he found serviceable in his subsequent operations. When he had

in search oT'tniir

°"S completed the conquest of Mexico he sent out vessels to explore the coast in all directions, along the

Pacific as well as the Gulf of Mexico, and in 1527 he sent an expedition to the Moluccas, hoping to establish a direct trade with those

regions. The forests of Tarifa, on the Atlantic slope, supplied abundance of timber suitable for shipbuilding, and it was transported to each coast to be used in both seas. With timber from this source he

constructed vessels on the coast near Tehuantepec for his expeditions

in the Pacific, the other materials being carried from the Gulf of

Mexico across the isthmus. The most important result of the coast- wise explorations was the discovery of the Gulf of California and the

adjacent peninsula, but neither along the shore of this gulf nor else- where upon the Pacific side did any channel open a passage to the

Atlantic. But though Cortes failed to find the strait, the course he

marked, up the Coatzacoalcos, across the dividing ridge, and down the

Pacific slope to Tehuantepec, became an important

route of communication between the Atlantic and

Pacific. A port and extensive works were established at the western

terminus, and a profitable trade was opened and maintained with the

Spanish provinces on the Pacific and with the countries and islands in

and near the eastern part of Asia on the one side and with the Atlantic

ports and Spain on the other.

The importance of a maritime connection and the discouraging

results of the efforts to discover a natural channel between the two

oceans suggested to many minds_the idea of a ship

canal, and the successful transits at the different

points mentioned and the relatively short distance across the isthmus

at each caused them to be regarded at an early period as favorable

locations for canal routes. Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, Panama, and

Darien each had its advocates.

According to one authority Charles V directed that the isthmus of

Panama be surveyed with this purpose in view as early as 1520. In February, 1534, a royal decree was confirmed directing that the space

between the Chagres and the Pacific be examined by experienced men
30 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION

and that they ascertain the best and most convenient means of effecting a communication between the navigable waters of

Survey of Isthmus of ^ r[ d th ocean Rnd the difficulties to be

Panama. met in the execution of such a project. The governor, Pascual Andagoya, reported that such a work was impracticable, and that no king, however powerful he might be, was capable

of forming a junction of the two seas or of furnishing the means of

carrying out such an undertaking.

Charles abdicated the throne of Spain in 1555 and was succeeded by

his son, Philip II, who reigned till 1598. Under the

Policy of Philip II. i.i v £ al i

• j u A new monarch the policy ot the kingdom changed,

the search for the strait was abandoned, the number of ports through

which the gold and silver from the mines of his American provinces

flowed to Spain was limited, and the project of a ship canal between

the two oceans, across the American peninsula, was no longer prosecuted. While these new possessions opened a constantly widening

field for commerce and furnished an inexhaustible supply of the

precious metals, why seek for or construct a maritime communication through the continent into the ocean beyond for other explorations in the hope of new discoveries? Here was actual fruition. Why

waste effort and time and money in regions still more remote,

where all was uncertainty? Besides, an opening through the isthmus

would afford rival nations favorable opportunities to visit the shores

of the new possessions, gain information as to their resources and

advantages, and invite aggression and conquest in case of war. It was

also urged that the opening of a canal through the isthmus would be

in opposition to the will of the Almighty, who had placed this barrier

in the way of navigation between the two oceans, and they who should

attempt to remove it would incur the Divine dis- pleasure. The Atrato region offered favorable

conditions for a transit, particularly for the commerce between Peru

and the Spanish main. Some of its tributaries take their rise far to the south and near the Pacific coast, but the policy of Philip prevented

the establishment of a channel of communication there, and the navigation of the river was forbidden under penalty of death.

This policy adopted by Philip II continued for two centuries after

his death. The subject of a maritime connection was an attractive one and was often discussed. In connection with it explorations were made from time to time and much geographic and topographic information relating to the Spanish provinces in the isthmian country was

collected, but it was not published to the world, and if any scientific data valuable for canal purposes were obtained they were not available when the subject was revived in the nineteenth century and the

question of the feasibility of the different projects began to receive

serious consideration.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 31

The most notable event relating to the connecPaterson's colony at New • j> ,i > u • u 1 1 -i ii • Caledonia. tion °* TMie two oceans which occurred while this

policy of King Philip was maintained was the

attempt of William Paterson to establish a Scotch colony in Darien. In 1695 the Scotch Parliament passed an act authorizing the formation

of a company to trade from Scotland to Africa and the Indies. It received the royal sanction June 26, 1695, and William III issued let- ters patent to carry out the terms of the act. The company organized

under this authority is generally known as the Darien Company, and in July, 1698, it sent out an expedition from Edinburgh with three ships

and two tenders, having 1,200 men on board, with the intention of set- tling on the American isthmus. William Paterson was the originator

of this scheme. He had become acquainted with the advantages of the

Darien section while engaged as a merchant in the West Indies, and

from a knowledge of the movements and exploits of the buccaneers.

The vessels arrived safely at Darien and anchored in a bay which they

called Caledonia Bay, a name it still retains. The colonists entered

into friendly relations with the Indians and bought lands from them.

They named the country Caledonia and established a settlement, which

they called New Edinburgh, on a small peninsula, which formed a harbor, which still bears the name of Port Escoces. A fort was

built for the protection of the settlement, which they named New St. Andrews, and a channel was cut across the peninsula, so that the sea might encompass the city and fort. While no attempt was made to construct a canal or to open a communication with the South Sea, the patent under which the company was

organized authorized colonies to be planted in Asia, Africa, or America,

and Paterson's plan contemplated the ultimate establishment of settle- ments and ports on both oceans, so as to open commercial connections

with all parts of the world. One of the first acts of the colonial government was to declare freedom of trade to those

Paterson's plans for In- <• n ,• i

• . , i i .,, ,, teroceanic communication. ot a11 nations who might be concerned with them,

and full and free liberty of conscience in matters

of religion. The success of this first colony would have been fol- lowed by efforts to establish others on the Pacific side, with which a

transit route would then have been opened, but the colonists became

discouraged, the supply of provisions failed, a vessel sent out with

fresh stores foundered off Cartagena, the unhealthfulness of the cli- mate filled their hospitals and graveyard, and in less than eight

c ... . . . . months the survivors abandoned the settlement, Settlement abandoned. ' and only a small remnant lived to return to Scotland. Other vessels were sent out with more emigrants before these

disasters were known, others followed them a few months later, and

fresh attempts were made to establish a permanent colony, but with no better results. In addition to their other troubles and misfor-
32 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tunes, Spain protested that her territory was being invaded, and a

military force was sent to drive them from the country. The few

survivors at length capitulated, and after the loss of more than 2,000

lives and the expenditure of vast sums of money the company abandoned the promising scheme which Paterson had planned and inaugurated.

During this period communication between the two seas was maintained at the locations already mentioned. As Panama declined in importance much of its business was transferred to Nicaragua. The

shortest distance from ocean to ocean was in the

Xrnusit routes Darien section. The general course marked out

by Balboa was followed by the buccaneers in some of their incursions

against the Spanish settlements and posts in the seventeenth century.

Captain Sharp crossed here when he made his successful attack in 1680

upon Villa Maria on the Tu}7 ra River, but no continuous transit was

ever maintained, probably because of the fierce jndia„s hostile to Spa.,- and persistent hostility of the Indians toward the

Spaniards. They aided the buccaneers because

they were warring against their special enemies and not because they

wanted white men to enter their borders. The Indians in this section were never subdued, though forts and strongholds and mission sta- tions were from time to time established on Caledonia Bay and at other

points on the Atlantic side and on the rivers emptying into the Gulf

of San Miguel. They had secret passes through the mountains, caves

in which their canoes could be safely concealed, trails from their vil- lages by which they could pass freel}7 from point to point, and a system

of signals by which the}7 could give notice of the movements and

approach of their enemies; with these advantages they often made

successful raids upon the Spanish settlements, slaughtered the garrisons, and destroyed their works.

Under the administration of Andres de Ariza,

Ariza's road In Darien. . , __, who became governor of the province in 1774,

a determined effort was made to bring the Indians under subjection

to the Spanish. Military posts were again established on both sides

of the isthmus; Puerto Principi, on the Savana River, was fortified and garrisoned, and a trail was cut thence to the Chucunaque, near

the mouth of the La Paz, which was afterwards known as Ariza's road.

It was deemed best to connect these posts on the Atlantic and Pacific

by a military road, and with this purpose in view a reconnaissance was made from Caledonia Bay across the divide to the terminus of Ariza's

road, under the direction of Manuel Milla de Santa Ella, who found

that it was practicable. But the Indians objected to the occupation of

their country for this purpose and threatened resistance. Their opposition was so serious that the plan was abandoned, and no regular communication between the two coasts was ever accomplished. The
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 33

Spaniards became satisfied that their supremacy yielded them no advantages commensurate with its cost, and in 1790

Spaniards .bandon their d

. to ^. with th India j which nillllnry posts. •> ' J they agreed to abandon their military posts and

withdraw from the country.

Toward the latter part of the eighteenth century

Examination or t,.„.:„,. there was a revival of interest in the subject of a

tepee route. J maritime communication between the two oceans through the American isthmus. Some pieces of ancient bronze can- non in the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, at Vera Cruz, in Mexico, were

accidentally discovered in 1771 to have been cast in Manila, in the

Philippine Islands. It seemed improbable that they had been trans- ported thither by water around either continent, as the only commercial intercourse with the islands had been through the Pacific port of

Tehuantepec The subject was investigated and it was satisfactorily

proved by old records and traditions among the inhabitants of the

isthmus that the cannon had been transported from Tehuantepec to the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos by the route established in the days of Cortez. This transit had long been abandoned, but the remembrance

of its former importance had been preserved, though in the lapse

of time the difficulties and obstructions attending the passage had

been forgotton. The viceroy of Mexico, in the hope that it would

afford a favorable location for a canal, determined to have the country

examined, so as to ascertain its topography and the practicability of

opening a maritime communication between the two oceans, and two

engineers, Augustin-Cramer and Miguel del Corral, were directed to survey the isthmus and report the result of their investigations. They

made an exploration up the Coatzacoalcos and found that its source was not near Tehuantepec, as they had been led to suppose; nor did

any river have a channel flowing into each ocean. Instead of a river communication they found a range of mountains of considerable height between the headwaters of

the streams emptying into opposite seas. In one place they reported

that the mountains formed a group rather than a continuous chain,

and that a valley- existed, through which a canal of small dimensions was practicable, connecting two rivers on opposite slopes, which would

form a continuous communication across the isthmus.

Charles III was then upon the throne of Spain and had interested

himself in the work that had been undertaken at Tehuantepec. Not

satisfied with its results, he authorized an investigation to be made in Nicaragua to determine the practicability of connecting the lakes with

the Pacific. The work was undertaken by Manuel Galisteo in 1779,

and a report was made in 1781 full of discourageExamination of Nlcara- t •, i . , % .i_ t i xt- gua route i.y (jaiisteo. ment. In it he stated that Lake Nicaragua was

134 feet higher than the Pacific, and that high

S D—57-1—Vol 7 3
34 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

mountains intervened between the lakes and the ocean which, in his

opinion, made their connection impracticable.

Notwithstanding1 this report, a company was afterwards formed

under the patronage of the Crown to undertake the project, and the route selected was from Lake Nicaragua along the Sanoa River to the

Gulf of Nicoya. The royal fleet in the Pacific was directed to aid this work by further surveys, but the project was never commenced and

no further progress was made in the construction of an interoceanic

communication.

When Galisteo's party set out. in 1779 they were accompanied in a

private capacity b}^ the British agents at Belize, and the territory

claimed in the name of the Mosquito Indians. After their return they

made favorable representations of the countiy they had visited, and

declared that the canal project was entirely feasible. This manifestation of interest in the subject was followed by an invasion of the

country early in 1780, after Spain had declared war

Invasion of Mcaravuii • , f~\ , t> *x • tm • J* i'±. m by British forces. against Great Britain. 1 he invading expedition,

under the command of Captain Poison, set out

from Jamaica. Admiral Horatio Nelson, then a post captain, was in charge of the naval operations. Nelson, in his dispatches, states the

general purpose of the expedition as follows: "In order to give

facility to the great object of government I intend to possess the Lake

of Nicaragua, which for the present may be looked upon as the inland

Gibraltar of Spanish America. As it commands the only water pass between the oceans, its situation must ever render it a principal post

to insure passage to the Southern Ocean, and by* our possession of it Spanish America is divided in two."

The plan of the campaign was to enter the mouth

I'lini nl' rampaiirn. *•

- r of the San Juan River, capture hort San Juan, at Castillo Viejo, take possession of all other fortified positions on the

river and lakes, occupy the cities of Granada and Leon, then push on

to Realejo, by the seizure of which they would complete their control

of the province and the lines of communication between the two

oceans. The attacking party went up the San Juan in boats and met with no

resistance till a small island, named San Bartolome, an outpost of the

enemy, was reached. This was soon captured, and two days later Fort

San Juan at Castillo Viejo was besieged. After a

Capture of Castillo Ylelo. . -, . , ,

.. , , L stubborn resistance, protracted lor ten days, the

fort was surrendered and the garrison was allowed to march out

with the honors of war. The invading force had little protection from

the constant rains, their numbers were daily reduced by deadly fevers

and other prostrating diseases, their situation became distressing,

longer stay was useless and would have been fatal to the few survivors,

and reluctantly the expedition was abandoned. Of the crew of Nel-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 35

son's ship, the Sinchmbrook, 200 in number, 87 fell sick in one night,

only 10 were living soon after the return of the expedition to Jamaica,

and Nelson himself was in such an enfeebled condition that his life was

saved only by careful nursing.

This terminated the effort to weaken the Spanish

K2::;Sr,W" Power in Central America, and in the treaty of

1783, which terminated the war, Great Britain

relinquished whatever territorial rights she may have claimed there. While the privilege of cutting wood for dyeing was granted to English settlers, it was only to be exercised in a part of Honduras with

certain specified boundaries, within which the woodcutters, then dis- persed through the country, were required to retire within eighteen

months. The British agreed to demolish their fortifications within

this district and to instruct their settlers to build no new ones, and

they recognized and declared Spain's rights of sovereignty.

Owing to delays in the retirement of the woodcutters within the

agreed limits by the time specified, new complications arose between

the two powers and the negotiations which followed resulted in another

treaty which was signed at London in July, 1786.

Treaty of 1786. / • i i- • n n i By the new convention the district allotted to the

woodcutters was enlarged and their privileges were increased, but they were not to establish any plantation of sugar, coffee, cocoa, or other

like article, or any manufacture by means of mills or other machines

except sawmills for preparing their timber for use. The reason given

for this restriction was that "all the lands in question being indisputably acknowledged to belong of right to the Crown of Spain, no settle- ment of that kind or the population which would follow could be

allowed." In another article all the restrictions specified in the treat}7

^ of 1783 for the entire preservation of the right of the Spanish sover- eignty over the country were confirmed. Another article related to the Mosquito country, in which England had exercised a protectorate over the Indians and had assisted them in resisting the authority of

Spain. In it Spain was pledged, by motives of humanity, not to exercise any severity against the Mosquitos on account of their former

connection with the English, and his Britannic Majesty agreed to prohibit his subjects from furnishing arms or military supplies to the

Indians.

These treaty obligations were disregarded by Great Britain as no

longer binding after the Spanish provinces acquired their independence. The protectorate over the Mosquito Indians was revived and new territorial rights were set up in Central America. Nicaragua

claimed sovereignty over the Mosquitos and resisted what she regarded

as the encroachment of the British. The latter claimed, on behalf of

the Indians, that their territory extended to the San Juan, and in 1848

took possession of the port at the mouth of the river, raised the Mos-
36 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

quito flag there, and changed its name from San Juan to Greytown.

Treaty between Great In 1859 a treaty was made between Great Britain

Britain and Guatemala of and Guatemala bv which the title of the former to

1859 as to Belize. the settlements made in and near the Bay of Honduras, known as Belize, was recognized and the boundaries were

defined. In 1860 a treaty was made between Great

Treaty between Great . . ., 1

• 1 1 Britain and Nicaragua of Britain and Micaragua by which the protectorate

1860 as to Mosquito in- over the Mosquitos was to cease in three months,

the territory occupied by them was to be under

the sovereignty of Nicaragua, its boundaries were defined, extending no farther south than the river Rama, and Greytown was declared a

free port. But the Indians were to have the right of self-government,

and Nicaragua was pledged to respect their customs and regulations

and not to interfere with them, provided they were not inconsistent

with the sovereign rights of the Republic. It was also provided that

Nicaragua should, for ten years, pay to the Mosquito authorities

$5,000 annually to promote their improvement and provide for the

maintenance of the government they were to establish for themselves

within their district. In another article it was declared by the conMosquito Indians incor- tracting parties that the treaty was not to be conporated into Republic of i .1 t»t t j- Nicaragua in 1894. strued so as to prevent the Mosquito Indians at any time in the future from agreeing to absolute

incorporation into the Republic of Nicaragua, on the same footing

and subject to the same laws as other citizens. This solution of a

long-existing cause of irritation and disturbance was reached in November, 1894, when a convention of the tribes assembled under the

direction of their chief and agreed that their territory should become

a department of the Republic.

At the close of the eighteenth century Spain

tht'Sttcentur

1?.6010860

' continued to maintain her sovereignty over the

entire isthmian country, but the Cordilleras still kept the two oceans apart; the old transits had fallen into disuse and

her intercourse with the western ports of her American provinces was maintained almost entirely by way of Cape Horn and the Cape of

Good Hope; the chief exception being at Tehuantepcc, where a communication across the isthmus had once more been opened.

No actual progress in the way of establishing a maritime communication from the Atlantic to the Pacific had been made during the three

hundred years of Spanish occupation. Baron Von

von Humboldt's state- n ulu boldt, who visited New Spain about this time

III (Til. r and took a great interest in this subject, deplored

the lack of accurate knowledge of the physical features of the isthmian

country. After making his investigations he said that there was not
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37

a single mountain, plain, or city from Granada to Mexico of which

the elevation above the sea was known. It was even a matter of doubt

whether an uninterrupted chain of mountains existed in the provinces

of Veragua and Nicaragua.

The publications of Humboldt were extensively read and revived

the interest of the commercial nations of the world in this subject.

The Spanish Cortes was aroused to action and in April, 1*14, passed a formal decree for the construction of a canal through the peninsula

for vessels of the largest size and provided for the formation of a com- pany to undertake the enterprise, but it led to no results and Spain's

opportunities to obtain the glory of opening this great highwa}7 for

the commerce of the world terminated in 1823, when the last of her

Central and South American provinces succeeded in establishing their ndependence.

The States of New Granada, Venezuela, and

f"ZT

ie °f t " l0n"' la Ecuador united in 1811) in forming the Republic

of Colombia, w

T ith Simon Bolivar as President.

This continued till 1831, when they separated into three independent

republics. In 1823 Gautemala, San Salvador, Honduras,

Formation of Federal , _. . Republic of the united Nicaragua, and Costo Rica, having successfully

provinces <,< central res j sted the efforts of Iturbide to extend the power

America. , , .. . n

. _~- _ . of Mexico over them, established the federal

Republic of the United Provinces of Central America.

The governmental changes wrought by these successful revolutions

and the formation of these new confederations were followed by a

revival of interest in the interoceanic communication. Aaron H.

Palmer, of New York, and his associates made proposals to the new

Republic of Central America with a view to the construction of such

a work, which were favorably regarded. But before any action was

taken Don Antonio Jose Canaz, the envoy extraordinary representing

the Republic at Washington, was instructed to call the attention of

the Government of the United States to the subject. He accordingly

addressed a letter to Mr. Clay, then Secretary of State, on the 8th

day of February, 1825, assuring him that nothing would be more

grateful to "the Republic of the Centre of AmerRepubiic of central j ca" than the cooperation of the American people

America makes proposi- . . » i c

• • tions to United states. in the construction of a canal of communication

through Nicaragua, so that they might share, not

only in the merit of the enterprise, but also in the great advantages

which it would produce. He stated that a company of respectable

American merchants was read}^ to undertake the work as soon as it could be arranged by a treaty between the two governments, and that

if a diplomatic agent were appointed and instructed upon the matter,
38 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

he was prepared to do what he could on the part of the Republic he

represented in the arrangement of the business. Mr. Clay made a favorable response to this communication, assuring

Response of Secretary ... ,

. . . . ciay. the minister that the importance of uniting the two

seas by canal navigation was fully realized and

that the President had determined to instruct the charge d'affaires of

the United States to investigate with the greatest care the facilities which Nicaragua offered. He added that, if this investigation con- tinued the preference which it was believed this route possessed, it would be necessary to consult Congress as to the nature and extent of

the cooperation which should be given toward the completion of the

work.

The proposed instructions were not, however,

Instructions to minister. , given until February, 1826, when a letter was

addressed to Mr. Williams, the charge d'affaires, in which he was

informed that the President desired to be put in possession of such

full information upon the subject as would serve to guide the judgment of the constituted authorities of the United States in determining

their interests and duties in regard to it. The matter was afterwards

referred to in the official correspondence with the Department, but it does not appear that the desired information was ever furnished.

When it was proposed to hold a congress of difCouirress of Panama. • -rt • i ferent nations at Panama in 182b, and President

Adams had appointed commissioners to represent the United States,

they were advised in their letter of instructions that a cut or canal for

purposes of navigation somewhere through the isthmus that connects

the two Americas, to unite the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, would form

a proper subject of consideration at the congress when it should assemble. The opinion was also expressed that, if the work should ever be

executed, the benefits of it ought not to be exclusively appropriated

to any one nation, but should be extended to all parts of the globe

upon the payment of just compensation or reasonable tolls. But without waiting for governmental action on the part of the

United States, the Republic of Central America, on the 16th of June,

1826, decreed that proposals should be received for the right to construct an interoceanic canal, accepted the terms offered by Aaron H.

Palmer and his associates and entered into a contract with them. The

canal was to be for the navigation of vessels of the

central America makes largest burden and was to be commenced twelve

contract for construction "

of canai. months after the signing of the contract, or sooner

if possible, but in case of insurmountable difficulty,

the time for beginning was to be extended for not more than six

months. The contract was to remain in force as long as might be

necessary foi the reimbursement of the capital invested in the construction of the canal and the fortifications for its defense, together
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 39

with interest at tho rate of 10 per cont per annum, and for seven years

after such reimbursement the company of construction was to receive

half of the net proceeds of the canal, the expense of collection and

repairs being deducted. The navigation and passage through the

canal was to be common to all friendly and neutral nations, without any

exclusive privilege. The contract can be seen in full by reference

to Report No. 145, House of Representatives, Thirtieth Congress,

second session, pages 362-367.

Mr. Palmer next attempted to organize a company to undertake

the construction of a canal under this contract, to be called the Central

American and United States Atlantic and Pacific

central American and Canal Company, with a capital stock of $5,000,000.

United States Atlantic and TTT . ... . . ~ , , \ „ ' , Pacific canai company. With this purpose in view, in October, 182b, he

assigned the contract in trust to De Witt Clinton

and four others, to be held by them until an act of incorporation could

be obtained for the proposed company. In December he went to London, furnished with letters of introduction to the American minister and other influential persons, issued a prospectus, and for ten months endeavored to secure the aid of capitalists there in disposing of

tho stock, but was unsuccessful and the contract was never executed.

The Central American Republic afterwards entered into negotiations with a company in the Netherlands for the

iand"co

amPrnyh

" ***"*' construction of a canal across Nicaragua, and a

basis for an agreement was adopted by the two

Houses of Congress in September and December, 1830. When the

Administration at Washington heard that such a contract had been

made or was about to be made, Mr. Edward Livingston, then Secretary of State, directed the United States minister at Guatemala to ascertain the facts and to signify to the Government that the United

States would consider themselves as entitled to the same advantages,

in passing through the canal or using the terminals, as were accorded

to other nations. The effort, however, ended in failure and the proj- ect was abandoned.

After this failure the Congress of the Republic of Central America

again turned to the United States and offered to grant to the Government the right to construct a canal. In response

Further negotiations of to ^g acti n the Senate, on March 3, 1835, passed

Central American Kepub- . , '

• .

' x

lies with united states. a resolution requesting the President to consider

the expediency of opening negotiations with other

nations, particularly with the republics of Central America and New

Granada, for the purpose of protecting by suitable treaty stipulations

such individuals or companies as might undertake to unite the At1 ' and Pacific oceans by the construction of a ship canal across

'

ican isthmus and of securing forever to all nations th

right of navigating it on the payment of reasoD"'
40 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

President Jackson acted upon this resolution by sending Mr.

Charles Biddle to visit Nicaragua and Panama, with instructions to examine the different routes of communication

Mr. Biddie sent to Cen- that had been contemplated, whether by canal or

tral America and Colom- .. ,, . ,. ..

bla. railroad, making such observations and inquiries on his route as would enable him to procure

copious and accurate information in regard to the practicability of the

different projects, and to procure such public documents as were

obtainable relating to the different plans, and copies of all laws and

contracts made and entered into by the two Governments with refer- ence to the construction of such a communication, and an}r surveys

and estimates of cost of any of the projects that could be procured.

But the mission led to no satisfactory results, and on January 9, 1837, a message was sent to the Senate to the effect that it was not expedient at that time to enter into negotiations with foreign governments

with reference to a transisthmian connection. In January, 1838, Aaron Clark, mayor of New

Memorial of Aaron ciark York, and a few other influential citizens prewith reference to canai. sented the subject to the House of Representatives

in a memorial, urging the great national importance of a navigable waterway between the Atlantic and Pacific, and

recommending that negotiations be opened with New Granada and Central America and the great powers of Europe for the purpose of enter- ing into a general agreement for the promotion of this object, and,

as a preliminaiy step, that competent engineers be sent to the sth- mian country to make explorations and surveys, so as to determine

the most eligible route and the cost of constructing such a work.

This memorial was referred to the Committee on Roads and Canals

and led to an interesting and valuable report, which was presented

by Mr. C. F. Mercer March 2, 1839, in the Twenty-fifth Congress,

third session, and is designated as H. R. Report

,.ri°TM£;.°" 322. The value of a canal was fully recognized,

but no action was recommended, except to request

the President to open or continue negotiations with foreign nations

according to the terms of the former Senate resolution and in harmony

with the wishes of the memorialists. The resolution favoring this action was at once adopted.

President Van Buren sent another agent, Mr. John L. Stephens, to the isthmus. He recommended the Nicaragua

Mr. Stephens sent as route as the most desirable, and estimated the cost

agent to Isthmian conn- of & ^^ ^^ ^ ^^^

]mt did not think

the time was favorable for undertaking such a

-^e of the unsettled and revolutionary condition of the

4 these memorials and resolutions were being
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 41

considered by Congress, and efforts were being made to obtain concessions from the States through whose territory

Examination of routes. V

^ the canal routes extended, examinations were made

from time to time to determine the feasibility and cost of the differ- ent projects. In 1824 the Mexican Government and the State

TehuantepeebyOrbesoKo Gf Vera Cruz each appointed a commission to make

a reconnaissance of the isthmus of Tehuantepec,

the former under the supervision of Juan de Orbegoso, the latter under Tadeo Ortiz. Their reports contain much valuable information

relating to the geography, topography, productions, and resources of

the country. But their examinations demonstrated that great difficul- ties opposed the construction of a navigable canal through the isthmus,

and they reported that the only available expedient to be adopted was

a carriage road from the navigable waters of the Coatzacoalcos River

to the lagoons on the south coast. This they considered both easy and

advantageous. The report of Orbegoso is found in House Report 322,

Twenty-fifth Congress, third session.

A survey of the Nicaragua route was made by

Nicaragua, by John Bally. Ml. Jonn Bajl y? who ha(J been sent Qut by afl English company in 1826 to explore the country and negotiate for a

concession. Failing in his main purpose, he had remained in Central

America, and in 1837 was employed by President Morazin to determine the best location for a canal. The route that he favored was from San Juan, now Greytown, to Lake Nicaragua, across the lake to the Lajas, and thence to San Juan del Sur on the Pacific. The harbor of Greytown presented "as many conveniences as would

be required;" it could "be entered at all seasons and in all weathers

without risk;" it furnished good anchorage in 4 or 5 fathoms of

water, and there was no danger within it. San Juan del Sur offered

similar advantages as a Pacific terminus, with a depth of 10 fathoms.

He proposed to use the San Juan through its entire length. This

would require the removal of the rocks at the rapids, the closing of

the Colorado so as to divert its waters through the channel of the San

Juan to Greytown Harbor, and the deepening of this part of the San

Juan.

He stated that the four principal rapids were within a space of 12

miles, and were formed by a transverse elevation of rocks, rising in

sharp and broken masses above the water when low, but leaving a channel on either side sufficient for the passage of boats, with a depth

of from 3 to 6 fathoms. The river was then navigated by piraguas, or large flat-bottom boats of 5 to 8 tons burden, with crews of ten or twelve men, whose chief labor was at the rapids, which, however, were passed without serious hazard. From a series of levels along

his line, taken in 1838, he reported that the lake was 128 feet 3 inches
42 REPORT OF' THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

above the level of the Pacific at low water at San Juan del Sur, and

he accepted the conclusions reached by others that the Pacific at low

water was 6 feet 6 inches lower than the Atlantic. His line from

the mouth of the Lajas was 28,408 yards in length, the summit level was4s7 feet above the lake, and the canal was to be navigable for ships

of 1,200 tons burden, with a depth of 18 feet of water. By straightening the line in a few places it could be shortened 2,000 yards and the

Lajas could be made available for 5,400 yards. He proposed an alter- native plan which would reduce the summit level to 122 feet above the

lake, and the connection of two of his stations by a tunnel 3,833 yards

long. He pointed out the difficulties of the work, and in case it should

not be regarded as an advisable project suggested the consideration of a route through the Tipitapa and Lake Managua to the port of Realejo,

but could not speak of the feasibility of this route with confidence, as

it had not been surveyed. He had, however, traveled over the country between Lake Managua and the ocean, and regarded it as worthy

of examination.

In November, 1827, Mr. J. A. Llovd received a

Panama, bj J. A. Lloyd. . . J commission from President Bolivar to survey the

Isthmus of Panama, in order to ascertain the most eligible line of communication across it, whether by road or canal. At this time neither

the relative height of the two oceans nor the height of the mountain

range between them had been accurately determined, and the geographic

features of the isthmus were imperfectly understood. He spent two

seasons in exploring the country and carried his line of levels from

Panama to La Bruja, a place on the Chagres River about 12 miles

above its mouth. He reported that the mean height of the Pacific at Panama was 3.52 feet higher than that of the Atlantic at Chagres. He

recommended a new line across the isthmus, instead of those in use from Porto Bello and Chagres by Cruces to Panama, beginning at the

Bay of Limon, thence to the Chagres by a canal and up the river to a

favorable situation on the south bank of the Trinidad River, and thence

by a railroad to Panama or Chorrera, the latter being tin 1 nearer ter- minus, but the former being preferable as a better port, and the capital

of the State, where its trade was already centered, lie made no rec- ommendation in favor of a canal, but said that if a time should arrive

when a project of a water communication across the isthmus might be

entertained, the River Trinidad would probably offer the most favorable route. For some distance1 he found it both broad and deep, and

its banks well suited for wharves, especially in the neighborhood of

the place designated as suitable for railroad communication.

After the Republic of Colombia was divided, in

BdaraLbiiBtaedinissi/" November, 1831, the control of the Panama route belonged to New Granada, within whose terri-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 43

torial boundaries it was located. Th,is Republic, in L838, granted to a French company a concession, authorizing- the

(onr,mny!frantt0aFn' , ' ,

' h construction of macadamized roads, railroads, or

canals across the isthmus with the Pacific terminus

at Panama. The company spent several years in making- explorations

and communicated the results to the French Government through M.

M. Salomon, the leading spirit in the enterprise, in the hope of secur- ing its aid in constructing the proposed work. These results presented

the project in an attractive way, and it was stated

o«Bp«^.°TMate!

0ratl0,,S thtlt Jl depression in the mountain range ottered a passage only 11.28 meters, about 37 feet, above

the average level of the sea at Panama. The representations were of a character so surprising that it was decided to send an officer to the

spot to study the subject, and in September, 1813, M. Guizot, minister

of foreign affairs, instructed Napoleon Garella to proceed to Panama

to investigate the question of the junction of both seas by cutting

through the isthmus, and to report the means of effecting it, the

obstacles to be overcome, and the cost of such an enterprise.

He favored a canal as the only means of comExamlned by Garella. . t c munication adequate to the demands or commerce,

and, as the representative of a great commercial nation, directed all his labors to this object. He preferred to establish the Atlantic ter- minus at the Bay of Limon rather than at the mouth of the Chagres,

following the recommendation made by Lloyd; a connection with the

river was to be made somewhat below the mouth of the Gatun. The

low depression, making a sea level canal practicable within a reasonable limit of cost, could not be found, and he proposed to cross the

divide through a tunnel 5,350 meters, a little more than 3^ miles, long,

but he also estimated for a cut through the ridge instead of a tunnel.

The bottom of the tunnel was to be 41 meters, about 134^ feet, above

the ocean; 99 meters, nearly 325 feet, below the summit, and the level of the water 48 meters, nearly 158 feet, above the ocean at extreme

high tide on the Pacific at Panama. The summit level was to be reached

by 18 locks on the Atlantic slope and 16 on the Pacific, with a guard

lock at each extremity to protect the entrance. The supply of water was to be furnished by two lateral canals from the Chagres. The

Pacific terminus was to be in the small bay of Vaca de Monte, about

12 miles southwest of Panama. The estimate of cost was 130,000,000

francs, about $25,000,000, if the summit level was established by means

of a tunnel. By establishing the summit level by means of a trench

of a maximum depth of 84 meters, about 275 feet, the bottom of which

would be 15 meters, nearly 50 feet above that of the tunnel, the cost would be increased to 149,000,000 francs, or about $28,000,000.

These estimates were made for a canal that would accommodate ves-
44 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

sels of 1,200 tons burden, 198|- feet long, with extreme breadth of beam

of 45i feet and a maximum draft when loaded of 21i feet, giving a depth of 23 feet. Garella's report is found in House Report 322, Twenty-fifth Congress, third session. It disappointed the expectations that had been

raised by the projectors; no further steps were taken in the matter

and the concession was forfeited.

About the middle of the century a succession of

Increased importance of . , ±1 • 1 ±u •_ a £

maritime communication. £reat events vastly increased the importance of a maritime connection between the two oceans to the United States. The dispute with Great Britain, as to the boundary

line west of the Rocky Mountains, was settled by the BuchananPackenham treaty in 1846, and in August, 1848, an act of Congress was passed under which Oregon became an organized Territory. The

war with Mexico was commenced early in 1846, and by the terms of

the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty, which closed it in 1848, California was

ceded to the United States. Before the treaty had been ratified gold was discovered there, and in a few months many thousands from the

eastern part of the country were seeking awa}T to the mining regions.

To avoid the hardships and delays of the journey across the plains or

the voyage around the continent, lines of steamers and packets were

established from New York to Chagres and San Juan del Norte and

from Panama to San Francisco, some of the latter touching at the

Pacific ports in Nicaragua. For a while those traveling by these routes had to make arrangements for crossing the isthmus after their

arrival there, and were often subjected to serious personal inconveniences and suffering as well as to exorbitant charges.

The requirements of travel and commerce demanded better methods

of transportation between the Eastern States and the Pacific coast, but

there were other reasons of a more public character for bringing

these sections into closer communication. The establishment and

maintenance of army posts and naval stations in the newly acquired

and settled regions in the Far West, the extension of mail facilities to the inhabitants, and the discharge of other governmental functions, all required a connection in the shortest time and at the least distance

that was possible and practicable. The importance of this connection was so manifest that the Government was aroused to action before all the enumerated causes had come into operation, and negotiations were

entered into with the Republic of New Granada to secure a right of

transit across the Isthmus of Panama. This was

Ne?«

alr;nair«

W,th ^ted by a treaty concluded in December, 1846,

though the ratifications were not exchanged until

June, 1848. A copy of it is attached to this report, marked "'Appendix BB."
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 45

The increased importance of an interoceanic

Resolutions relating to . * nteroceanic conununicii- communication brought the subject also before

tions come before con- Congress. A joint resolution was introduced in the House of Representatives during the Thirtieth

Congress, authorizing the survey of certain routes for a canal or railReferred to select com- l

* oad between the two oceans, which with other

mittee. papers of a like character was referred to a select committee of which Mr. John A. Rockwell was made chairman.

The committee did not feel prepared to say to

JieportofRoclnvelleon,. what

^^ [f ^ ^ ^

q{

^

Government

should be rendered to these projects, but recognized the importance of a communication from ocean to ocean, and

presented such information as was available in relation to the principal routes to which public attention had been directed. The superior

importance of a ship canal was recognized, but it was suggested that

until one could be constructed a railroad would be valuable for earlier use and as an auxiliary to a canal. The passage of the joint resolution was recommended with an amendment, authorizing surveys from some point on the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, in addition to the surveys provided for in the joint

resolution.

The report of this committee was made to the House February 20,

1849, in the second session of this Congress, and is numbered 145. At the same session, William H. Aspinwall,

Pa^l^rliiroT

60* '80

' John L- Stephens, and Henry Chauncey, who, as

will appear a little farther on, had undertaken the

construction of the Panama railroad, presented a memorial, asking that

the Secretary of the Navy be empowered to enter into a contract with

them for the transportation over their road, when completed, for a period of twenty years, of naval and army supplies, troops, munitions

of war, the United States mails, and public agents or officials, at a rate not exceeding the amount then specified by law to be paid for the trans- portation of the mails alone from New York to Liverpool, on condition that they commence within one year, and complete within three

years their proposed road across the isthmus. The memorial was

referred in the House of Representatives to the Committee on Naval

Affairs, and a report was made recommending that they be granted

$250,000 a year to aid in building the road. No action was taken upon

this report, but annual appropriations were made for carrying the mails

across the isthmus after the road was completed.

Soon after the convention with New Granada

with^icaraTua.^ ** y had been ratified and proclaimed, efforts were made

to negotiate a treaty with Nicaragua, so as to obtain favorable transit rights through that country for the Government and citizens of the United States.
46 REPOKT OB THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Advantages of Nicaragua

The advantages which this country offered for an interoceanic canal had been known for centuries, and the desire to secure them led to the

negotiation of a treaty with Nicaragua by Mr. Elijah Hise, charge

d'affaires of the United States, in June, 1849. By

Hise treaty. its terms the Republic undertook to confer upon

the United States, or a company of its citizens, the exclusive right to construct through its territory canals, turnpikes, railways, or any

other kind of roads, so as to open a passage and communication by

land or water, or both, for the transit and passage of ships or vehicles, or both, between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The

terms of the treaty were most liberal, and in return the United States was to aid and protect Nicaragua in all defensive wars, the Army and

Navy and all available means and resources of both countries to be

used, if necessary, to defend the territories of the latter or to recover

such as might have been seized or occupied lyy force. Nicaragua con- sented to these terms because it was desired to secure the aid of the

United States, in resisting the policy which Great Britain was then

pursuing in Central America, with the apparent intention of securing

the permanent control of the lower waters of the San Juan, under a claim already mentioned, that the boundaries of the Mosquito district extended to and included the mouth of that river, where at this time

the Mosquito flag was maintained under British protection.

Mr. Hise had exceeded his authority in making

Hise succeeded by Squier. , . . this treaty and it was not approved by the Administration at Washington. He was afterwards recalled and was succeeded

by Mr. E. G. Squier, who negotiated another treaty upon the subject

and a contract for facilitating the transit from

Contract of American, . . , n , . . Atlantic and Pacific ship the Atlantic to the Pacific, by means ot a ship

Canal Company with Nic canai or railroad, in the interest of the American,

Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, composed of Cornelius Vanderbilt, Joseph L. White, Nathaniel H. Wolfe,

and their associates.

These two treaties were never ratified, but they were subjects of

conference and discussion during the negotiations

Clayton- Bulwer treaty. . .

,

' , T

. which led to the Clayton- bulwer treaty ot Jul}' 5, 1S50. By this it was agreed, among other things, that the two contracting parties would support and encourage such persons or company

as might first commence a ship canal through Nicaragua with the

necessary capital and with the consent of the local authorities and on

principles in accord with tin1 spirit and intention of the convention.

And if any such person or company had already entered into a contract

for the construction of such a canal, with the State through which the same was to pass, it was agreed that such person or company should

have a priority of claim, if the parties to the treaty had no just cause

of objection to such contract.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 47

This provision was understood to be in the interest of the company

for which Mr. Squier had obtained a contract in

Terms of control mtt A t lg49 By its terms thc State had granted

( 11 ii »l Company. & ' J "

to it, for a period of eighty-five years, to be

counted from the completion and opening of the work to public use, the exclusive right and privilege of excavating a ship canal for

vessels of all sizes, from Grey Town, or any other feasible point on

the Atlantic, to the port of Realejo, Gulf of Amapala or Fonseca,

Tamorinda, San Juan del Sur, or any other point on the Pacific,

b}r means of the San Juan River, Lake Nicaragua, the Tipitapa

River, and Lake Managua, or any other waters within its jurisdiction. The contract also gave to the company the exclusive right to construct rail or carriage roads and bridges- and to establish steamboats and other vessels on the rivers and lakes as accessories to and in furtherance of the execution of the canal project. And if the construction of the canal or any part of it should be found to be impracticable, then the company was authorized to establish a railroad or some other communication between the two oceans within the time

limited and subject to the same terms and conditions.

Subsequently in March, 1850, the compan}^ was

r ; .^h,^!r^,r'

,,r " ' incorporated by the Republic of Nicaragua to prevent any embarrassments in the development

and prosecution of its enterprise.

A new arrangement was made in August, 1851, by which the part

of the contract relating to steam navigation upon the waters of the

State was separated from that relating to the canal. This was desired

by the company so as to establish a transit route across the isthmus

connecting with steamship lines at the terminal ports. It was accomplished by a new charter, authorizing the organization of another

company with the same membership, but distinct

So^

r TMnRftconipai.A

y!

CeS and separate, to be known as the Accessory Transit Company, with the understanding, however,

that neither party was to be relieved from the performance of the

obligations imposed ))y the former contract and charter.

The accessory company, during the following

Transit route established -i i •. -ip » <i i

<• , i by accessory company. year, availed itself of the privileges of the new

contract and established a transportation line from

Grey Town up the San Juan River and across Lake Nicaragua by steamboats to Virgin Bay on the western side of the lake, and thence by

stage coaches 13 miles over a good road to San Juan del Sur. In connection with steamship lines in the two oceans, at the ends of the

transit, running to and from New York and San Francisco, a regular

communication was thus maintained between the Atlantic and Pacific

ports. This line was kept up for many years and was traveled by

thousands on their way to and from the gold regions in California; it
48 REPOKT OE' THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. was finally terminated by the disturbed conditions which resulted from

the expeditions of Walker into Central America. At a later date the

transit route was reopened for a short time under

company

er*can raus a new charter in the name of the Central American

Transit Company.

The American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company also took. preliminary steps for the accomplishment of the larger matters involved

in its contract. Though there had been before this time man}^ explorations, reconnoissances, and examinations of this country with a view

to the location and excavation of a ship canal, it does not appear that

any thorough and complete survey had ever been attempted, and if any had ever been made there was no record of its existence, or of

any basis for even the roughest estimate of the cost of such a work

upon any of the proposed lines through Nicaragua. It was now determined that there should be a careful instrumental surve}T from ocean

to ocean and that a line of location should be determined upon. Col.

Orville W. Childs, of Philadelphia, was appointed

Colonel Chillis appointed ,

. j. . . , » ,-, . . to survey ,-anai route.

:ls cmef engineer to take charge of this work in August, 1850, and he completed it in March, 1852.

The results of this survey are given in another chapter of this report,

in connection with the engineering features of the Nicaragua route. At the request of the company the report of the

Report submitted to iSlirvey ami location was submitted by President

Colonel Abert and Lieu- —,.„ /iitt»i it- /-ii

tenant-Colonel Turnbull. 1 llllUOre to Col. J. J. Abeit and LlCUt. Col. V\ . Turnbull, United States topographical engineers,

for their inspection and opinion, and on the 20th of March, 1852, they

reported that the plan proposed by Colonel Childs was practicable, but

recommended some changes and modifications. In view of the joint agreement to protect such a canal entered into

by the United States and Great Britain, it was deemed advisable to

invite the British Government to submit the Childs report to engineers

of well-known skill and experience, and at the

submitted to itritisi. request of Abbott Lawrence, the American minisengineers by request of *

. , American minister. ter, .Lord Malmesbury designated Lieut. Col.

Edward Aldrich, of the royal engineers, and Mr.

James Walker, an eminent civil engineer, to make the desired

examination.

They submitted their report on the L6th day of July, 1852, in which

they expressed the opinion that the Childs project

(1(..^""'

,u was practicable and would not be attended with

engineering difficulties beyond what might be naturally expected in a work of such magnitude; that the survey had every

appearance of accuracy; that the details had been worked out with

great care, and that Colonel Childs had impressed them with a conviction of perfect fairness and candor. They, however, favored an
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 49

increase of the depth to 20 feet, the breadth to 50 feet, and the length

of the locks to 300 feet. These dimensions they said would render the

navigation more efficient for the general purposes of trade, and the

increased expense would be unimportant when compared with the

advantages.

Nothing further was done by the American

Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company toward

the construction of a maritime canal, but the value of the Childs sur- vey and report has ever since been recognized, and the results and

conclusions reached by him have served as a basis for the operations

of his successors. No progress having been made in the eonstruccontracts of companies ^l0n f tne canal, it was claimed by the President

am

." of Nicaragua that the undertaking had been abandoned and that the company had failed to make

the annual payments due under its contract, and the decree was made

on the 18th day of February, 1856, revoking and annulling the contracts made with the ship canal company and the accessory transit

company and all the privileges contained therein, and also the act of

incorporation, and dissolving and abolishing the companies. It was

further decreed that all the company property be seized to secure the

payment of such amount as might be due the State, to be ascertained

by a board appointed to make a thorough examination of its affairs. The company denied the right of the Government to annul the contract and withdraw the charter, and various attempts were made from

time to time to settle their differences, but the decrees were renewed

and reaffirmed and no work was ever done by the company upon the

project which Colonel Childs had prepared.

After the Nicaraguan Government had declared the concession to the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company terminated,

because of noncompliance with its terms, and while the company

claimed that it was still entitled to the privileges it contained, Nicaragua and Costa Rica united, in May, 1858, in granting a like concession to Felix Belly, a citizen of France, to construct a canal from the

mouth of the San Juan, by way of the river and Lake Nicaragua, to the Pacific. This concession was to be executed by a company which he was to organize. The neutrality of the canal was to be maintained by

the great powers, in harmony with the policy of the Clayton-Bulwer

treaty, and the privilege was to continue for ninety-nine years. Another article of the contract provided that the French Government

should have the right to keep two ships of war stationed in Lake Nicaragua for the entire duration of the works. Mr. Cass, then Secretary

of State, declared this arrangement obnoxious, and added that the

equality and security of these interoceanic routes constitute a great portion of their value to the world, and that an exclusive right in one of

6 D—57-1—Vol 7 4
50 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

these powers to exercise a permanent armed intervention would give

serious cause of dissatisfaction to all the others. But no effort was made to carry the obnoxious clause into effect, for the company failed to execute its project and the concession was annulled. In October,

1868, the two Republics entered into a contract with Michel Chevalier,

another citizen of France, with the same purpose in view. They also entered into a treaty with one another in' the following year, in support

of the contract, which is presented more fully in the chapter on "Rights,

privileges, and franchises," and some articles from the treaty are con- tained in Appendix X. This effort to secure the construction of a

canal also failed, and the contract was forfeited.

Before the treaty with New Granada already

New Granada makes con- referred to had been ratified, that Republic, in

tract with French Company 7 L for railroad at Panama. May, 181*, had granted to the Panama Company,

an association of Frenchmen represented by one Mateo Kline, the exclusive privilege of building a railroad between the

two oceans across the isthmus for ninety-nine years, to be counted

from the day of the completion and opening of the road to public use. The company failed to cany out this contract and it was declared forfeited. Subsequently, in December, 1848, the GovernNew contract with Amer- j_> i i.u • - i £ ii. 17-1 ican company. ment transferred the privileges of the Kline contract, with some modifications which will appear

in another chapter of this report, to Aspinwall, Stephens, and Chauncey, who, with their associates, organized the Panama Railroad Company, by which the road was constructed and

Panama Kallroad com- -i, ii- » • -icr*- js a

• 11 pieted in 1855. opened to public use early in 185o from Aspinwall,

or Colon, to Panama, a distance of 17f miles.

But this railroad, valuable and useful as it promised to be, was only

a forward movement. The barrier was more easily passed, but it still remained. The desire for a maritime canal was increased rather than

abated, and further examinations and surveys were

ferelVcrr' ro'ut"r°

f,nf

' diligently prosecuted at different locations in the

isthmian country to ascertain and develop the

advantages and possibilities of the different routes and schemes that

had been from time to time proposed.

The Government and people of the United States. Great Britain, and

France were the most active in these explorations. They were confined

for a time mainly to the Darien country, between

Panama and the Atrato River. It was known

that there were good harbors in this section in both oceans, and in several places the distance across the isthmus was comparatively short,

but only the native Indians were acquainted with the interior. The

early Spanish settlers had often crossed the country, and the bucca- neers had frequently penetrated it successfully in their incursions.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 51

There were traditions and reports of the existence of low depressions

in the mountain range and of passages for canoes used by the Indians

when they wished to cross from sea to sea. So when the difficulties of the Nicaragua and Panama canal routes were made known by the

Childs survey and the survey for the railroad, public attention was

directed to this region in the hope of finding a shorter and easier

transit, where a sea-level canal might be excavated.

Three general lines were examined—the San Bias, Caledonia Ba}%

and the Atrato. The}' derived their names in each case from the

Atlantic terminus, but there were variations of each, following the courses of different rivers, and, in case of the Atrato, reaching the

Pacific at different points from the Gulf of San Miguel to the mouth

of the San Juan at Chirambira Bay, more than 300 miles farther south.

These examinations were made in some cases at

unit«<i states Govern- tne eXpense f private individuals and companies,

ment aids in the examlna- l

, L tions. but the aid of the Government was sometimes

extended through the Navy Department, and parties of officers and men from the United States vessels on the coasts of the isthmus explored the country to determine whether any practicable and desirable canal routes existed there. The country was also visited by other exploring parties from Great Britain and France.

Some of the results of these examinations are

General results.

, ,

. , , . ,. . , . stated and considered in another chapter of this

report. It is sufficient to say here that they added greatly to the topographic and geographic knowledge of these regions and that the

expectations of those who had anticipated that an easy route would

be found where a canal could be constructed at comparatively little cost were not realized, though some of the reports were so favorable

as to encourage further investigation. Accounts of some of these

expeditions are to be found in the report on the isthmus of Darien,

made to the Secretary of the Navy by Lieut. I. G. Strain in 1854,

published during the Thirty-third Congress, second session, as Senate

Ex. Doc. No. 1, and in the report of Lieut. John T. Sullivan, United

States Navy, published during the Forty-seventh Congress, second

session, as House Ex. Doc. No. 107.

senate requests report of ^ In March, 1866, a resolution was adopted by the

results of examinations in Senate, requesting the Secretary of the Navy to furnish, through a report of the Superintendent

of the Naval Observatory, such information as had been collected with

reference to the various proposed lines for interoceanic canals and rail roads between the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and to

state whether the isthmus of Darien had been sufficiently explored

the report to be accompanied with charts, plans, lines of level, and a statement of the authority upon which they were based. The purpose
52 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the resolution was understood to be to obtain a basis for a continu- ance of the examination of the routes not already sufficiently known,

without any useless expenditure of money upon schemes already found

to be infeasible and unpromising.

In response to the resolution, Secretary Welles,

Report of Admiral Davis. . ,

.7 ,, . T , ... i » in the following July, transmitted a report of

Rear-Admiral Charles H. Davis, which was printed as Senate Executive Document No. 62, during the first session of the Thirty-ninth

Congress. It was accompanied with a general map of the American

isthmus and maps and profiles of the different routes included in the

investigations made under the resolution.

The report enumerates 19 canal and 7 road projects in the isthmian

country, extending from Tehuantepec to the Atrato. It excludes from

further consideration the projects in Tehuantepec and Honduras as possessing little merit as practicable canal lines. With reference to the eight routes in Nicaragua, Admiral Davis says:

"It may be safely asserted that no enterprise, presenting such for- midable difficulties, will ever be undertaken with even our present

knowledge of the American isthmuses. Still less is it likely to be

entered upon while such strong and well-founded hopes are entertained

by the promoters of the union of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans of

finding elsewhere a very much easier, cheaper, and more practicable route for a canal in every way suited to the present demands of com- merce and navigation." In speaking of the project of connecting the Upper Atrato with the

San Juan, he says: " The examination of the headwaters of the Atrato, of the intervening watershed, and of the headwaters of the San Juan satisfactorily

proved that nature forbids us altogether to entertain an idea of a union

of the two oceans in this direction."

He gives a general description of the other lines in Panama, Darien,

and the Atrato valley, and favors further examinations for the reason

that, according to his statement, "there does not exist in the libraries

of the world the means of determining, even approximately, the most

practicable route for a ship canal across the isthmus." He further

says, "The Isthmus of Darien has not been satisfactorily explored,"

and afterwards adds, "It is to the Isthmus of Darien that we are first to look for the solution of the great problem of an interoceanic canal." In 1869 General Grant became President and in

President (irant calls attention to subject of in- his first message to Congress commended an Amerteroceanie .anai m his j (

. ;in (. anai on American soil, to the American

first message. , , people. Congress promptly responded to this sentiment by adopting a joint resolution providing for further explorations of the isthmus by officers of the Navy, and Admiral Ammen,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 53

as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, was authorized to organize and

send out expeditions for this purpose. In March.

congress authorizes fur- 1872 Jt further resolution was adopted for the

her explorations. '

, * appointment of a commission to study the results of the explorations and to obtain from other reliable sources all avail- able information regarding the practicability of the construction of a

canal across the American continent. The President appointed on this Interoceanic Canal Commission Gen. A. A. HumApp.ointn.ent of 21 phreys, Chief of Engineers, United States Army; oceaulcl'anaKomnilssioii. f ^J ' ^ o J ' C. P. Patterson, Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and Commodore Daniel Ammen, Chief of the Bureau of Navigation of the Navy.

The commissioners considered the results of investigations which

had been made before their appointment and those still in progress,

and under their directions further explorations and examinations were made in the isthmian country wherever they regarded additional

information as necessaiy to enable them to carry out the purposes of

the law.

Capt. R. W. Shufeldt, United States Navy, had

been placed in charge of an expedition to Tehuantepec in the fall of 1870; he reached the Atlantic terminus of the route

early in November and completed his examination in the latter part of

the following April. A level and transit line was run from Salina

Cruz, on the Pacific, to the dividing ridge at Tarifa, and was continued

from there to the junction of the Upper Coatzacoalcos, or Corte River,

with the Blanco.

The want of sufficient force and the season of the year prevented

the running of the line from Tarifa to the Atlantic, but the party had

the results of former surveys for railroad purposes and careful observations made by those employed in the expedition, during their

frequent journeys along the route, to aid them in reaching their

conclusions.

The canal line, which was recommended in the report of the expedition, commenced at the head of navigation in the Coatzacoalcos, at the island of Tacamichipa, thence through the valley of the river,

utilizing it whenever desirable, to the dividing ridge at Tarifa, thence

descending through Tarifa Pass, probably by the valle}7 of the Chicapa,

to the harbors of Salina Cruz, the Pacific terminus. The proposed

canal was to be 144 miles long, and would require the improvement of

the navigable part of the Coatzacoalcos for about 35 miles. The summit level was 754.4 feet high; this could be reduced to 732 feet; to cross it would require about 140 locks. The harbors at each terminus

would have to be improved. The water supply could only be fur- nished from the Upper Coatzacoalcos, or Corte, near its junction with

the Blanco, through a feeder, about 27 miles long, to the canal at Tarifa.
54 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Captain Shufeldt entered upon his work, maintaining that "with

the advantages of modern science a canal can be built anywhere, in- volving only the question of expense, provided water can be found to

fill it." But when he reported the result of his survey, and con- sidered the difficulties and expense of executing the plan, he expressed

the opinion that it " can only be deemed practicable to the extent of

its political and commercial necessity, measured by the progress of the

age." The report was printed as Senate Executive Document No. 6, in the second session of the Forty-second Congress.

Commander A. F. Crosman, United States Navy, was placed in charge of an expedition to examine the Nicaragua route in 1872, but was drowned on the 12th

of April in attempting to effect a landing at Greytown. The com- mand was then assumed by Commander Chester Hatfield, United

States Navy, the officer next in rank, who began a survey on the west

side of Lake Nicaragua, and continued the work until the rainy

season. In October, 1872, he was relieved by Commander Edward

P. Lull, United States Navy; the expedition was

reorganized in November, and a survey of the

entire route from Gre}7 town to Brito was completed during the following year. Mr. A. G. Menocal served in this expedition as chief civil engineer. An account of this survey will appear in another chapter

of this report. It follows the Childs route, except that on the west

side of the lake it crosses the divide farther to the north and follows

the valley of the Medio to the lake, making a shorter line, but requiring deeper cutting at the divide.

The Hatfield and Lull report was printed as Senate Executive Document No. 57, in the first session of the Forty-third Congress.

The Interoceanic Canal Commission had also

McFarland report. before them a report on the Nicaragua route made

by Maj. Walter McFarland, Corps of Engineers, United States Army,

who was detailed by the War Department to aid in making these

examinations. He went over the country through which the canal

passes in March, 1874, and made a favorable report upon the route,

including a rough estimate of the cost of canal 26 feet deep at $140,-

000,000. The report was printed as Senate Executive Document

No. 46, in the second session of the Fifty-second Congress.

In the absence of any accurate information of

the Panama route along the line of the railroad,

obtained with reference to the construction of a canal, the Commission

deemed it best to have it examined, and the Secretary of the Navy

assigned Capt. Edward P. Lull to this work, with

MenoVaZ ma C * Mr. A. G. Menocal as his principal assistant. They made a careful instrumental examination of

the isthmus in 1875 and reported in favor of a line 41.7 miles long
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 55

from the Bay of Limon to the Chagres, ascending its valley and that

of the Obispo to the divide and descending the Pacific slope by the

valley of the Rio Grande to the Hay of Panama. It follows the general line of the Panama Railroad, and the plan of construction, with some variations, has been adopted in most of the subsequent surveys.

The report was printed as Senate Executive Document No. 75, in the

third session of the Forty-fifth Congress, and the project is more fully

described in another chapter of this report.

The Interoceanic Canal Commission had before it the surveys

which had been made of the various routes in

Diiricn. Darien and the Atrato Valley and further examinations were made of parts of these regions b}^ Captain Lull and

Major McFarland, the results of which are printed

in the volumes already referred to, in connection

with their reports upon the Panama and Nicaragua routes. Prior tb this, Commander T. O. Selfridge,

United States Navy, was engaged for many months

in 1870-1873 in exploring this part of the isthmian country. He was

first placed in command of an expedition by Secretary Robeson in 1870, with a corps of junior officers of the Navy and others from the

Coast Survey and a number of skilled assistants, besides a large guard

of marines, and was directed to make a survey of the isthmus of

Darien to ascertain the point at which to cut a canal from the Atlantic

to the Pacific Ocean. Two vessels were placed under his immediate

command and a third was detailed to cooperate with him on the

Pacific side. A similar expedition under the same principal officers was sent out to continue the work in the following year, and under a

later order from the Navy Department the work was completed in April, 1873. Commander Lull assisted in the work of the expeditions

of 1870 and 1871, and was in command of one of the vessels on the

Atlantic side. The parties working under these orders made tentative surveys

from San Bias Bay to the headwaters of the Chepo, from Caledonia

Bay to the Morti, and from the same vicinity on the eastern coast to the Sucubti across the divide; also the Depuydt route and that of the

Cocarica and Tuyra rivers.

The report of these surveys was printed as House Mis. Doc. No. 113

in the third session of the Fort}^-second Congress.

'"After a long, careful, and minute study of the several surveys of

the various routes across the continent," the Interoceanic Canal Commission, in February, 1876, unanimously reported as follows: " That the route known as the ' Nicaragua route,'

jniEr-* beginning on the Atlantic side at or near Grey

Town; running by canal to the San Juan River;

thence * * * to * * * Lake Nicaragua; from thence across
56 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the lake and through the valleys of the Rio del Medio and the Rio

Grande to * * * Brito, on the Pacific coast, possesses, both for

the construction and maintenance of a canal, greater advantages and

offers fewer difficulties from engineering, commercial, and economic

points of view than an}T one of the other routes shown to be practicable by surveys sufficient in detail to enable a judgment to be formed

of their respective merits."

This report was not transmitted to Congress till April, 1879, when

it was called for by a resolution of the Senate. It was printed as Senate Ex. Doc. No. 15 in the first session of the Forty-sixth Congress.

While the Interoceanic Canal Commission was examining into the

merits of the different canal routes a provisional company was organized in France for the purpose of inaugurating a scheme for the con- nection of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by a navigable waterway

across the American isthmus. Lieut. L. N. B.

Colombia grants eonces- tit ,i , ,• £ ,1 • ,. sion to l. x. b. wyse. Wyse, as the representative of this organization,

visited the Republic of Colombia to examine the

isthmian section there and, if practicable, to negotiate a favorable concession as a basis for their plans. In May, 1876, he entered into a contract with the Colombian Government, which was afterwards, in May, 1878, modified and extended so as to give to the promoters the

exclusive privilege, for ninety-nine years, of constructing and operating a canal across the territory of the Republic, between the two

oceans, without any restrictive stipulations of any kind, provided that

if the company of execution selected a route in that part of the isth- mus in which the Panama Railroad Company already had exclusive

privileges an amicable arrangement must be made with it under

which the new canal company could occupy the territory in which

these privileges existed.

Under this latter contract the general route of the proposed canal was to be determined by an international congress of engineers and

others, to be assembled not later than 1881. In

International Scientific j •,] , 1 • • • iL r . ,• i Confess at Parish. is79. accordance with this provision an International

Scientific Congress " was assembled at Paris in May, 1879, and a decision was reached that the best line for a maritime canal across the American isthmus was from the Gulf of Limon

to the Bay of Panama. An account of this congress will appear in another chapter of this report.

This concession was transferred to La Compagnic

Transfer of concession it- ui/t i t i. ! J T>~

t„ Panama cana. co„, Pany. Universelle dn ( unul Lnteroceamque de Panama,

better known in the United States as the Panama

Canal Company, which was organized early in 1881 to construct a sealevel canal by the proposed route. The history of this company and

of the New Panama Canal Company, which undertook the work after

it failed and went into liquidation, and a description of the engineer-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 57

ing features of the different plans upon which they have operated, will appear in another chapter of this report.

The report of the Interoceanic Canal Commission was generally

accepted with reference to the feasibility of the proposed canal routes

in the Tehuantepec, Darien, and Atrato regions, and no further sur- veys were made under the authority of the United

JSESSST States. But when Mr. James B.Eads, in 1881,

endeavored to carry out his project for a ship

railway, he recognized the advantages of the Tehuantepec transit for

his purposes and obtained a charter from the Government of Mexico

authorizing him to use this route. His plan for transporting vessels

from ocean to ocean had many advocates, who believed that such a communication was entirely practicable, and could be constructed at

less cost than a maritime canal by any of the routes that have been

considered. The plan was brought before Congress in an effort to secure governmental aid, but without success, and since the death of

Mr. Eads, in 1887, no further efforts have been made to carry the

project into execution.

The Nicaragua route was again surveyed in 1885,

^Nicaragua Menocal sur- ^^ ^ ^^^ Qf

^gecretary of

^

Nayy? by

Mr. A. G. Menocal. In his report he recom- mended a plan which is stated in the chapter of this report on the Nicaragua route. + + The report of this survey was printed as Senate Ex. Doc. No. 99 in the first session of the Forty-ninth Congress.

In December, 1884, a treaty had been negotiated

Treaty negotiated «iti, between the United States and Nicaragua, authorMcarasua in 1884. . ~

izing the construction of a canal by the former over

the territory of the latter, to be owned by the two contracting parties.

It is more particularly referred to in another part of this report and

appears as Appendix L. In December, 1885, while the treaty was

still pending in the Senate, it was withdrawn from

further consideration by the Chief Executive, who

stated as a reason for his action that it proposed a perpetual alliance with Nicaragua and the protection of the integrity

of the territoiy of that State, contrary to the declared policy of the

United States. In April, 1887, Nicaragua granted a concession

sion'TMenocarlnnsso" to Mr. A. G. Menocal and others, authorizing the

elates. construction "hi a ship canal from Gre}r Town to Brito, and as the proposed canal would affect the

territory of Costa Rica also the promoters found it necessary to secure a like concession from that Republic, which

costa

eBieTCeSSl °n fr ° n

' was accomplished in August, 1888. These contracts appear as appendices, marked "R" and "" Z."
58 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

A company of execution was organized, under the name of The Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, to construct

Maritime Canal Company. ^

operate a can!ll under these Contracts, and it was incorporated by Congress in February, 1889.

The features of the project adopted by this company, the work it accomplished, the subsequent failure of the construction company

organized in connection with it, and the action of the Government of

Nicaragua in declaring its contract forfeited and terminated because

of the lack of fulfillment of its most essential clauses are stated in another chapter of this report. Propositions to aid the company were

before Congress for several years, through an arrangement by which

the Government was to become a stockholder and an indorser of the

company's bonds, and a bill for the accomplishment of this purpose was passed by the Senate in January, 1895, but failed in the House

of Representatives. Another bill, retaining the company organization, but eliminating the private or individual stockholders, was passed

by the Senate in January, 1899, but no final action was taken upon it by the House before the close of the Congress.

While the former bill was pending in the House an amendment to the sundry civil appropriation bill was adopted in the Senate for the

purpose of ascertaining the feasibilit}T

, permanence, and cost of the

construction and completion of the canal through Nicaragua by

the contemplated route. A board of three engiMcaraifiia Canal Board. *

. , . . . neers was provided tor, to be appointed by the

President—one from the Corps of Engineeers of the Army, one from

the engineers of the Navy, and one from civil life. Under regulations to be made by the Secretary of State,* with the approval of the

President, this board was to visit and personally inspect the route,

examine and consider the plans, profiles, sections, prisms, and specifications for its various parts, and report to the President. In case it should be ascertained that any deviation from the general line of the

proposed route was desirable, the board was directed so to state in its findings and conclusions.

The bill was passed with this amendment and was approved March

2, 1895. The President appointed Lieut. Col. William Ludlow, Corps

of Engineers, United States Army; Civil Engineer M. T. Endicott,

United States Navy, and Alfred Noble, civil engineer, to constitute

this board, which was designated as the Nicaragua Canal Board. The

appointments were made April 25, and the members of the board pro- ceeded early in the following month to Nicaragua and, after their

examinations there, completed their work in time to make their report

by the 1st of November, as required by law. This report was printed

during the first session of the Fifty-fourth Congress as House Doc.

No. 279. The Nicaragua Canal Board found it impracticable within the time
REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 59

fixed in the law, and with the limited means appropriated for the

accomplishment of its work, to make a full and thorough examination

of the route and obtain the necessary data for the formation of a final project of a canal, and in the report a recommendation was included

that there be further explorations and observations, so as to collect the information and data regarded as essential to the comprehension

of the fundamental features of the canal problem, which should

decide the final location and cost of the work.

In accordance with the views of the board, there was included in the sundry civil appropriation act, which was approved June 4, 1897, an appropriation to continue the surveys and examinations in Nicaragua, authorized by the former act, under which the Ludlow Board had

been appointed. By this latter act the President was empowered to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the

Nicaragua Canal Comnils- o x.

• • ± n

glon Senate, a commission to consist of one engineer

from the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army, one officer of the Navy, from the active or retired list, and one

engineer from civil life. This Commission was to have all the powers

and duties conferred upon the former board and was to report upon

the proper route for a canal in Nicaragua and the feasibility and cost of the work, with the view of making complete plans for the construction of such a canal as was contemplated.

Pursuant to this authority, the President appointed Rear-Admiral

John G. Walker, United States Navy, Col. Peter C. Hains, Corps of

Engineers, United States Army, and Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, civil engineer, to constitute the Commission, which was designated as the

Nicaragua Canal Commission, Admiral Walker being named as president. The Commission performed the duties assigned to it and made

its report to the President May 9, 1899; it includes the results of the

latest investigations made of this route prior to the appointment of

the present Commission. A limited number of copies of this report,

including an atlas which was prepared to accompany it, was printed

under the direction of the present Commission for its information,

but it has not yet been published as a Congressional document.

This brings the history of the transits of the American isthmus and

of the efforts to discover or construct a navigable waterway from the

Atlantic to the Pacific to the close of the nineteenth century. Four

hundred years have passed since Columbus sailed westward, hopeful

and confident that his voyage would be continued without interruption

to the Asiatic coast. He reached the shores of Panama and Darien,

where the waters of the two oceans are less than half a degree of lati- tude apart, and no progress has been made since his day in accomplishing his original purpose. The search for the strait was soon

given up and the narrow neck of land which hindered his progress,

fortified by the Cordilleras, has ever since obstructed the advance of

navigation in that direction.
60 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Nor has any line of transportation by land or sea been developed in either hemisphere that has furnished the advantages expected from the

desired waterway.

The passages to the Orient around the Cape of Good Hope, through

the Strait of Magellan and around Cape Horn have not satisfied the

desire for a direct line of communication eastward or westward. The

passage north of the American continent, discovered in 1851, and that

north of Asia, first made in 1879, were valuable onl}7 as contributions

to geographic knowledge, for they are through arctic regions where

the ice seldom permits a continuous voyage. Lines of transcontinental railroad connecting Atlantic and Pacific ports have facilitated travel and commercial intercourse, but the}7 have not filled the place

of a ship canal. The reopening of the ancient communication, mainly

upon a new line, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean

by the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 has made the inter- oceanic connection westward of less importance to the people of

Europe, but it has had little effect on the American continent. The

demand that the American isthmus be opened to navigation from

sea to sea is each }

r ear becoming more imperative. The extension of our territory to include the Hawaiian Islands and afterwards the

Philippines has made this connection most desirable for the proper

exercise of governmental functions wherever they are to be discharged.

The preparatory work has been practically completed. The examinations and surveys, made under the authority of the United States,

have furnished accurate knowledge of the geography, topography,

and other physical features of the isthmian country, nnd dispelled the

exaggerations and fictions which were brought back many years ago

from some sections by credulous travelers and unreliable explorers.

The comparative merits of the different routes are better understood

than ever before, and those involving engineering difficulties and cost disproportionate to their value have been eliminated.

The two remaining routes—the Nicaragua and Panama—have been

carefully studied by the present Commission, and this report will contain a statement of the advantages and disadvantages of each and an approximate estimate of their costs, and also the judgment of the Commission as to which, in view of all the facts, is the more practicable

and feasible route. Time has also developed that the only well-grounded hope of accomplishing the desired result is through the power and resources of a great

nation. The republics, through whose territory they extend, seem to be now impressed with this belief. They have made many contracts with individuals and companies for the construction and operation of

canals, and the general result has been failure, followed by forfeiture

and annulment. These contracts usually contain provisions forbidding

their transfer to foreign Governments, indicating an unwillingness to
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 61

permit the occupation of their territory by another power for the.se purposes; but their great desire to see the two oceans thus connected

and their willingness to promote such an enterprise has, it is believed,

modified their views and policy to such an extent that they are ready

to enter into negotiations with the treaty-making power for the occu- pation of their territoiy by the United States for canal purposes,

provided they receive satisfactory assurance that their rights of

sovereignty will be respected.

When these international questions are definitely settled and Congress has enacted the necessary legislation, the removal of the barrier

between the two oceans and the opening of the long-desired maritime

passage to the ships and navies of the world can be accomplished.
Chapter III. DIMENSIONS AND UNIT PRICES.

In fixing the dimensions of the canal, it is neeessaiy to consider care- fully the dimensions of the ships which will use it; the prevailing as well as the exceptional types of the present day, and the probable

developments of the near future. If the dimensions adopted are too

large, the cost of the work will be augmented Unnecessarily; if too

small, the canal will not fulfill its intended purpose.

The greater part of the world's commerce by sea is carried on by

ships of moderate size. Lloyd's Register for 1900-1901 contains the names and dimensions of 16,264 steam vessels of

Dimension of ships noW alj kinds, of which about 8,900 are more than 200

In use. feet long on the keel. This number may be taken

as approximately the number of cargo vessels. Only 421 seagoing

ships have as great a beam as 50 feet, and only about 800 would require

a lock more than 400 feet long. Until recently the larger ships were employed mainty on the North Atlantic route, and the largest were

fast passenger ships not adapted to any other trade. The building

of large freight ships with more or less passenger accommodations has now become a marked feature of the development

dimenrfU'!

6TM86 '" ^

of shiP

building. In the years 1897 to 1900 there were put in service on the North Atlantic route

several ships of this type, about 600 feet long over all, 63 to 65 feet beam, and drawing, when fully loaded, 30 to 32 feet. These were fol- lowed by the White Star ship Celtic, recently built, said to be 698 feet 8 inches long over all, and 75 feet 4£ inches beam. On other routes

ships of similar dimensions arc being introduced, the largest now in use being the White Star ships of the Afric class, built for the British

colonial service via the Cape of Good Hope, which are about 550 feet long between perpendiculars, 64 feet beam, and have a load draft of

32£ feet, and the Cape mail steamship Saxon, built for the Union Company, which is 585 feet 6 inches long over all, and 64 feet beam. The

ships now building at New London for the Great Northern Railway

Company are particularly noteworthy, being designed for the transpacific trade; they arc to be 630 feet long and 73 feet beam. They

will be in the same class as the Celtic. The steady growth in ships' dimensions, the introduction of large

ships on so many different routes, and the undoubted fact that for long

62
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 63

routes and for freight which can be quickly handled at the ports, the

large ship is the more economical carrier, gives

Depth (if ninal. , i

• • • . . , these ships an importance in determining- canal

dimensions much greater than their relative number or aggregate ton- nage would indicate. A ship drawing 32£ feet in salt water, which is no longer exceptional, will draw nearly 1 foot more in fresh water,

and requires for safe navigation not less than 35 feet of water in the

canal. This depth is therefore fixed as the minimum in all the channels. In fixing the width of locks and prism it is not necessary to take

into account the fast passenger ships of the North Atlantic routes. Such a trade is not likely to develop through the Isthmus. Limiting

the inquiry to freight or combined freight and passenger ships like those mentioned, it will be noted that the maximum

Beam of commercial ships. ' .. ... beam of 73 to Co feet is found in veiy tew ships;

excepting these, the greatest is 63 to 65 feet, which is found in quite

a numerous class. If the canal were intended for commercial uses

only, it might be questioned whether dimensions should be fixed for

the extreme beam of 75 feet or more, with the added cost of construction and minor disadvantages, but the imperative requirement that the

canal shall afford a passage for the largest war ships makes it necessary

to provide for a beam considerably greater. The

Beam of war ships. L

, " ~ - T broadest ships building for the United States .Navy

are those of the Virginia class which have a beam of 76 feet and 2£

inches. The broadest battle ship afloat is the Italian ship Regina Margherita, recently launched, which has a beam of 78.2 feet. While the

increase in beam of war ships has for some years been less rapid than

that of commercial ships, it is unmistakable. For

Width of locks. . . .ill i -Tii ii convenience in operating the locks the width should

be 2 or 3 feet greater than the beam of the ship. The width is therefore fixed at 84 feet with a view to provide for some further increase

in beam of ships.

The largest ships of war are shorter than commercial ships of like

beam, and a clear length of lock chamber of 600 feet would be sufficient for any war ship now afloat or building. In order to make the

canal practicable for the largest existing commercial ships, and also to provide for a considerable increase in size, the only additional expense

to be incurred in the building of the canal, after providing for warship requirements, is to increase the length of the

Length of lock chambers. * ^ , '

, n • • locks. This added cost is so small in comparison

with the advantage gained that it is unquestionably judicious to incur

it, and the length is therefore fixed at 740 feet in the clear. The width of the canal has been fixed after carecanaTM

6180118

° Pr Sm ^

consideration Qf the dimensions adopted and

experience gained elsewhere. The Suez Canal
64 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

had originally a bottom width of 22 meters (72 feet 2 inches). It had

been intended, when the work was projected, to

Prism dimensions of for- i , i • •jji < a. m i \ £ i

• i_ \ t'Un cauais. make this width 44 meters (144 feet 4 inches)

between the Bitter Lakes and the Mediterranean,

and 64 meters (209 feet 11 inches) between the Bitter Lakes and the

Red Sea, but the resources of the company proved insufficient to carry

out the work on this plan. The width finally adopted proved inconveniently small, and it has since been increased to about 115 feet. At

the same time the depth has been increased from 26 feet 3 inches to 27

feet 10 inches. The ratio of present width to depth is about 4:1. In

the Manchester Canal the depth is 26 feet, but is to be increased to 28

feet. When this is done the bottom width will be about 114 feet, and

the ratio of width to depth will also be about 4:1. The Amsterdam

Canal is at present 36 meters (118 feet 1 inch) wide at the bottom and

8.5 meters (27 feet 10 inches) deep, giving- a ratio of width to depth

of 4:2. These dimensions are to be increased to 50 meters (164 feet)

width and 9.8 meters (32 feet 2 inches) depth, with

adopted?

° ** *" tl nx^° or' 5:1. The bottom width of 150 feet,

which has been adopted by the Commission for the

canal sections of the Isthmian routes, gives a ratio of width to depth

of 4:3, which is slightly greater than at the Suez, Manchester, and

Amsterdam canals, and considerably less than the enlarged Amsterdam

Canal will give.

Mention should be made of the Kiel Canal, which

Canai!m * nas the °°tt°m width first given to the Suez Canal,

viz, 72 feet, and has a depth of 29.5 feet, giving a

ratio of width to depth of 2.5. This has not been taken into account

in the preceding comparison, for the reason that the width is clearly

shown to be insufficient for commercial purposes by experience at Suez. The Kiel Canal was built primarily for an outlet to the North

Sea for the German navy, and is adapted for the possible transfer of

warships rather than for the convenience of commercial ones. Few

commercial ships of large size traverse it. The average tonnage of

the vessels passing in 1899 was about 100 tons, which may be compared with the average of nearly 4,000 tons for the ships passing

through the Suez Canal during the same }^ear.

The side slopes of the isthmian canal sections

Prism In soft earth and •,] ,\ ± • 1 t £l l\ j

Han(1 vary with the materials. In sort earth or sand

they arc taken 1 on 3 below water and 1 on 2 above

water; in firm earth, 2 on 3 below a berme 10 feet wide 6 feet under

water and 1 on 1 above such berme. The 1 on 1

Prism In firm earth. . slopes are to be protected by paving from the

berme to 6 feet above water. In rock the sides are vertical from the

bottom to a berme 5 feet above water, with slopes

Prism In rock. , l ol 4 on 1 in hard rock and 2 on 1 in sort rock above
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 65

such berme, the berme being of such width that the extended slopes

would intersect the bottom of the canal at the foot of the vertical

sides. In several places a slope of 1 on 1 is used, as in the Culebra

Cut, on account of the peculiar nature of the material, and in places on the Nicaragua route where rock is underlaid by clay. Where the

material is liable to disintegrate in water, as in the Culebra Cut, or where the rock is shattered or deficient in hardness, as in many places on the Nicaragua route, retaining walls are provided, taking the place

of the vertical sides of rock cuts. Where channels are excavated in open water

Channels In open water. . , , . and the sides will be submerged, the width is made

greater. In Panama Bay the bottom width is to be 200 feet, with side

slopes of 1 on 3, but at mean tide the width 35 feet below water will

be 260 feet and at high tide 320 feet. In the San Juan River the exca- vated channel will be 250 feet wide at bottom with side slopes of 1 on

1, and in Lake Nicaragua 300 feet with side slopes of 1 on 2.in firm

clay and 1 on 6 in overlying mud. In the artificial harbors at Colon

and Greytown it will be 500 feet with turning places 800 feet wide.

The entrance to Brito Harbor will also be 500 feet wide, but the harbor itself, on account of its restricted length, will be 800 feet wide.

The channel widths above given are for straight sections. On curves

of less than 12,000 feet radius, in channels less than 500 feet wide, the

width is increased at the rate of 1 foot for each 200

Widening on curves. . feet reduction ot radius, the widening on a curve

of 6,000 feet radius being 30 feet. This is an arbitrary allowance.

It is the same as the allowance in Kiel Canal for a radius of 5,000 feet;

less than in the Kiel Canal for radii under 5,000 feet and more for

radii over 5, 000 feet. As already stated, the locks are to have a clear

Description of locks. " length ot 740 feet and a width or 84 feet between

the side walls. The depth over the head wall and over the miter sills at the lower end of the locks, which fix the available depth for ships,

is to be 35 feet, the same as in the prism of the canal. The miter sills at the head of the locks are placed 1 foot lower, the slightly greater

safety thus afforded for these sills being secured by merely exchanging

1 foot in height of gate for 1 foot in height of miter sill wall and

without appreciable cost. In order to give the required clear length,

all single locks and the upper locks of combined systems are to be

made 788 feet long from quoin to quoin. The lower locks of combined

systems will be 793 feet from quoin to quoin, the greater length being

due to the greater thickness of the cross wall at the middle gates.

Twin locks are provided in every case. This

Twin locks provided. . . *

, . .

will insure uninterrupted navigation if one lock

at any locality is closed for repairs. To facilitate making these repairs

S D—57-1—Vol 7 5
66 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

with the least possible delay, guard crates of the

Guard gates. *

l J + if *k A * ordinary miter form are placed at both ends of

every lock or flight of locks, those at the foot opening downstream.

"When repairs to the lock are needed, these gates can be closed and the

lock pumped out immediately, thus avoiding the dela}T of building

cofferdams or the uncertainties attending the use of caisson gates.

This provision is not usual, but has been adopted for all the locks of

the St. Marys Falls canals, and its utility has been frequently demonstrated there. These gates are supported by extensions of the lock

walls. The extreme length of the masonry is 1,031.5 feet for a single

lock and 1,829.5 for a flight of two locks. While these locks provide for the passage of the largest ships antici- pated in the near future, it is realized that the larger part of the sea

traffic of the present day is carried on by much smaller ships.

Smaller locks than those adopted could be operated more quickly

and would effect a material aggregate saving of time to the greater

part of the traffic and reduce the amount of water consumed. The

width of the locks can not be reduced without excluding the large

ships. It is practicable, however, to provide a shorter lock by the

introduction of intermediate gates, whereby two smaller chambers

can be obtained and some of the advantages secured of having a small

lock for small ships. By the arrangement shown in the plans the

whole chamber can be used, the intermediate gates remaining open;

by using these gates in connection with the upper lock gates, a chamber is provided having a clear length of 292 feet, and by using them

in connection with the lower lock gates, a chamber is provided having

a clear length of 400 feet, sufficient for most of the freight ships now

in use. With two locks combined in a flight, only one of the smaller

chambers in each lock is available, the intermediate gates being so placed that either the full length of the 100-foot chamber can be used.

It ma}7 be found expedient in construction to make the length of the

reduced chamber 150 feet. All the locks on both routes will have rock founFoundatlons of locks on i . • m i

• ji_ » 1 i a

rocfe dations. I he rock varies greatly from hard to

soft and partially disintegrated. The poorest will carry safely the imposed load, but will permit slow seepage for considerable distances, and will offer little resistance to abrasion. The

floors of the locks are protected by inverts of concrete, the thickness

being greater in soft rock. In the vicinity of the lock gates the floor

is of sufficient thickness to sustain the full hydrostatic head.

The walls are also to be of concrete throughout,

walls to be of concrete. .

. . . , ... ,. except the quoins, the tops of the miter-sill walls,

and exposed angles at the inlets and outlets of the culverts. The use

of concrete for the construction of locks is of comparatively recent

ntroduction. The locks of the Manchester Canal are perhaps the most
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 67

notable example, the great mass of masonry being concrete, granite

being used only for quoins, copings, and exposed angles, and brick

burned to the point of incipient vitrification for facing the walls above

low water and for culvert linings. The moist, warm climate of the

Isthmus is particularly favorable for concrete. In the locks of greatest lift the velocity of

Culvert llnlnsrs. • i , .,1 - water in the culverts will reach 50 to 60 feet per

second, which would severely test any masonry, even of the best brick or cut stone. Even in locks of the smaller lifts some kind of protection for the surfaces of the culverts will probably be necessary. As

a basis for estimates a lining of cast iron of a minimum thickness of 1 inch is provided where the extreme head of water in the culverts

exceeds 30 feet and a lining of vitrified brick for smaller heads.

The gates are designed of steel of the ordinary

miter form. They are based on actual designs of

gates of nearly equal dimensions prepared under the direction of

the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways.

In designing the locks the varying height of rock at each of the

lock sites has been taken into account. The details of the studies con- cerning the stability of the walls, as well as of the loss of water by

leakage, etc., are given in Appendix A.

In order to facilitate the movement of ships into the locks, as well as

Approach walls. ^o aff01'd a safe place for ships to tie up while

awaiting lockage, a vertical approach wall 1,200

feet long is provided on one side of the canal at each end of every

lock or flight.

Unit prices have been fixed by agreement of all the members of the

Unit prices. Commission, on the principle that, whatever dif- ferences of opinion or circumstances may exist,

they are not enough to interfere with a fair and close comparison of

the different routes. These prices are as follows:

Removal of hard rock, per cubic yard $1.15

Removal of soft rock, per cubic yard .80

Remov*al of earth, not handled by dredge, per cubic yard . 45

Removal of dredgable material, per cubic yard .20

Removal of rock, under water, per cubic yard 4. 75

Embankments and back filling, per cubic yard .60

Rock in jetty construction, per cubic yard 2. 50

Stone pitching, including necessary backing, per square

yard 2. 00

Clearing and grubbing, in swamp sections of Nicaragua,

per acre 200. 00

Other clearing and grubbing, on both routes, per acre .

100. 00

Concrete, in place, per cubic }

T ard 8. 00

Finished granite, per cubic yard 60. 00
68 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Brick in culvert lining, per cubic }

T ard $15. 00

All metal in locks, exclusive of machinery and culvert

linings, per pound . 075

All metal in sluices, per pound . 075

Cast iron in culvert lining, per pound .04

Allowance for each lock chamber for operating machinery 50, 000. 00

Additional allowance for each group of locks for power

plant 100, 000. 00

Price of timber in locks, per M. B. M 100. 00

Sheet piling in spillways, per M. B. M 75. 00

Bearing piles in spillways, per linear foot .50

Average price of pneumatic work for the Bohio Dam,

below elevation —30, per cubic yard 29. 50

Caisson work for the Conchuda Dam, in place, per cubic

yard 20. 00

Single-track railroad, complete, with switches, stations,

and rolling stock, per mile of main line 75, 000. 00

It has been determined to add 20 per cent to the estimates of the cost of construction to cover expenses that will be incurred for engineering,

police, sanitation, and general contingencies. The

Contingencies, et«. r

.

I rr> • . .

, prices are based on emcient organization and

thorough equipment, with the understanding that while the work

would be vigorously handled it would not be so driven as to call for

unnecessary duplication of machinery. The cost of the equipment

and plant will be large, but it will be distributed over a very large

work.
Chapter IV.

OTHER POSSIBLE ROUTES.

The American isthmus, in the most extensive

General description meaning, i.s about 1,400 miles long, extending- from

American Isthmus. fe ' '

. /•» i

- t- the seventy-seventh to the ninety-fifth meridian

of longitude and from the eighth to eighteenth parallel of latitude.

It embraces that portion of the Republic of Colombia which lies west

of the Atrato River in South America, the whole of the five republics

which are grouped together as Central America, and so much of Mexico as lies east of Tehuantepec. The general direction of the isthmus

is from southeast to northwest. For the eastern 600 miles the width

of this isthmus is comparatively small, varying from a minimum of

barely 30 miles to a maximum of 120 miles. It then widens to 300

miles near the boundary between Nicaragua and Honduras, narrows

to about 120 miles opposite the Bay of Honduras, widens again into

the great peninsula of Yucatan, and finally narrows to 120 miles at Tehutntepec. A glance at a map indicates that the only possible routes for an interoceanic canal must be at Tehuantepec, at the Bay of

Honduras, or within the eastern 600 miles.

So far as convenience of approach and accesTehuantepec route. .

. sibihty from United States ports on both sides of

the continent are concerned, Tehuantepec is by far the best location.

Practically the whole length of the isthmus is eliminated on the dis- tance to Pacific ports, and while the distance from New York is practically the same to all ports on the Atlantic side of the isthmus,

the mouth of the Mississippi River is only about half as far from

Tehuantepec as from the Atrato. For these reasons Tehuantepec was selected by Capt. James B. Eads as the location for a ship rail- way across the isthmus. If a ship railway is to be built it is probably

the best location. The duties of this Commission, however, are confined to finding a route for a canal between the two oceans. The

Tehuantepec summit is in the neighborhood of 700 feet above tide water. It is, moreover, a broad summit which can not be materially

lowered b}r an}' excavation of practicable dimensions. It is doubtful

whether a water supply can be found for a summit level. It would

require 20 locks of an average lift of nearly 35 feet on each side of the

summit. The cost of these locks alone, on the basis of the estimates

considered in another chapter of this report, would be about

69
70 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

$200,000,000, while the canal would probably at least double this estimate. Attractive as the Tehuantepec route is from its geographical

location, it must be discarded as impracticable for a canal. The next point is at the head of the Bay of HonBay of Honduras. «./, ,. llu , J

.,

, auras. 1 his location would be nearly as accessible

as Tehuantepec on the Atlantic side, but the Pacific terminus would

be 400 miles farther from north Pacific ports. The passage of the

isthmus here b}T a canal, or even by a railroad of moderate grades, is out of the question; it is a mountain region which must be dismissed

from consideration.

There remains the 600-mile stretch at the castisuuuu

<s7

easter,,p0rtl0,,0f ern end of the isthmus, within the limits of which

several routes have been proposed. At the west- ern limit of this stretch lies Lake Nicaragua. The features of the

Nicaragua route are thoroughly considered in another chapter of this

report, and nothing more need be said of it here. From Lake Nicaragua to the promontory Avhich terminates in Mariato Point and Cape

Mala, and which forms the western boundary of the Gulf of Panama,

the isthmus, though narrow, is traversed by a high range of mountains, which prohibits its consideration as a location for a canal. The

Gulf of Panama measures about 120 miles from east to west between

the headlands known as Cape Mala and Pinas Point, which practically form its southern limit, and about 100 miles from a line con- necting these two points to its northern extremity. The southern

limit corresponds closely with the 100-fathom curve. The isthmus

sweeps around this gulf on a curve which forms a rough approximation to a half circle; the narrowest part of the whole isthmus lies north of the center of the Gulf of Panama.

The Atrato River, rising near the fifth degree of

Atrato River. ' f

& north latitude, flows northward about 300 miles at a comparatively short distance from the Pacific and parallel to it, thus

forming what resembles an extension of the Isthmus southward; but

the eastern boundary of this extension is not the ocean. The Atrato

is a silt-bearing river having a considerable fall, and not in itself adapted to the use of ocean-going craft, without large expenditures

for improvement and maintenance. "With the exception of Nicaragua

and Tehuantepec, all the routes which have been proposed for an isth- mian canal terminate in the Gulf of Panama or on the South American

coast south of that gulf, the latter using the Atrato for their Atlantic

approach.

Three routes which terminate on the Gulf of

Routes termlnatinu: on t-> i i ±. n j «• » uuir <»f Panama. Panama have been talked of for many years. They are commonly known as the Panama route,

the San Bias route, and the Caledonia route. The Panama route is the most westerly of the three, and the one of earliest use and occupa-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 71

tion. The old citj7 of Panama was founded in 1517. The Spanish

crossing was by a paved road from Nombrc dc Dios, and later from

Porto Bello, on the Atlantic side, to Panama, on the Pacific. Porto

Bello Harbor was discovered and named by Columbus in 1502, and the

town of Porto Bello was founded in 1584/ The Panama Railroad was

built fifty years ago near this ancient crossing, and its location is practically identical with that selected for a canal. As the Panama route

is treated in full detail in another chapter of this report, nothing further

need be said of it here.

The distance from the mouth of the Atrato River

Atrato routes. . _^ . _ . to tide water on the Pacific at the nearest point is about 70 miles. Anything like a direct passage is entirely out of the

question, and it is manifestly impossible to find a canal line from the

mouth of the Atrato to the Pacific which will be less than 100 miles

long, if the improvements on the Atrato are considered a part of the

canal; the lines which have been suggested for this purpose are generally much longer. While it is not impossible that a practicable line on which to construct a canal can be found with its terminus in the

Atrato Valley, the necessary length of the line, together with the diffi- culties which would attend a terminus at the mouth of a large silt- bearing river, are enough to show that in use it would be inferior to

either the Panama or the Nicaragua location. In the search for other possible routes the field

Limits of field work. . . . , , n work of this Commission has been confined to the

region lying between the Panama route and the Atrato River, not

including the routes which would utilize this river. Throughout the

portion of the Isthmus thus explored the continental divide, which else- where lies near the Pacific, lies close to the Atlantic coast, and there are intermediate valleys separated from the Pacific coast by ranges of less importance. The Chepo River enters the Gulf of Panama 30 miles

east of the city of Panama, coming from the east and draining a valley

nearly 70 miles long. On the easterly side of the Gulf of Panama lies the Gulf of San Miguel, which is an excellent harbor, carrying tide

water halfway across the Isthmus. The Savana River enters this gulf from the north and the Tuyra River from the southeast, while the

Chucunaque, heading near the Chepo and flowing southeaster^, is a

tributary of the Tuyra. The continental divide on this section of the

Isthmus is therefore the divide between the Caribbean Sea on the northeast and the Chepo, the Chucunaque, and the Tuyra rivers successively on the southwest. The divide at the head of the Chepo and the

Chucunaque rivers connects the continental divide with the chains of

hills which separate those rivers from the Pacific. The general situation

is fully shown in pi. 2, accompanying this report. Within these limits

two routes, each of them presenting possibilities of several varieties of

location, have long been suggested. One of these is known as the San

Bias route and the other as the Caledonia route.
72 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The San Bias route was explored under the direcSan Bias route. . , . *„ tion ot Mr. Frederick M. Keller in 1857, and was

subsequently examined by the United States Darien expedition, under

the command of Commander Thomas Oliver Selfridge, jr.. United

States Navy, in 1870. The Kelley examination, starting from the

Pacific, was carried with level and transit up the Chepo and the

Mamoni rivers across the summit to a point on the Carti, following

the valleys of these streams. The Selfridge surveys, starting from

the Atlantic side were carried with level and transit up the Mandinga

Kiver, across the divide, and up the Nercalagua River nearl}T to the

divide, while barometrical reconnaissances were made up the Carti

River overlapping the Kelley surve}7

. This is the narrowest place on

the isthmus, it being less than 31 miles from shore line to shore line and only about two-thirds of this distance from the Atlantic to tide

water in the Chepo River. Furthermore, the Pacific harbor is quite

as good as that at Panama, while Mandinga Harbor, in the Gulf of

San Bias, at the northern end of the route, is all that could be desired.

The difficulty of the line lies in the height of the summit, to cross which tunnels from 8 to 10 miles in length were proposed.

The Caledonia route has the distinction of being

Caledonia route. . . the location where the isthmus was first crossed

by white men. In 1513 Balboa started with his band of followers

from Caledonia Bay and crossed by a tiresome march to San Miguel

Bay. Nearly two hundred years later, in 1698, William Paterson

chose this location for his Scotch colony of New Edinburgh, which by

occupying the line of transit across the isthmus was to control the

trade of the Pacific and the East. The bay, which would be the

northern terminus of the canal, is still known as Caledonia Bay, while

the promontory at the southern end of the bay, near where he founded

his town, is called Point Escoces. All vestiges of Paterson's work

have long since disappeared and it would be hard to find any spot in America where there are fewer signs of the work of the white man.

Caledonia Bay is a beautiful body of water separated from the Caribbean Sea by a series of coral keys and furnishing fairly good anchorages at both ends, though the intermediate portion is shallow. The

route for a canal in this location would be from Caledonia Bay to San

Miguel Bay. As seen from the sea, the Caledonia gap is a very

marked depression in the mountains and the summit is less than 1

miles from the bay. It looks much lower than it really is and (he

first impression made is that it is an ideal location for a transisthniian

line. This route was advocated as early as 1850 by Dr. Edward Cullen, of Dublin. It was explored in 1852 by an English engineer. Mr.

Lionel Gisborne, and it was subsequently examined by Lieut. Isaac Gr. Strain. U. S. N.. in L854. Reconnaissances were subsequently made

by others, the most important being by the United States Darien
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 73

expedition in 1870. It was claimed by Dr. Cullen that the height of

the summit on this line was not more than 150 feet and that from a ridge onty 2 miles wide a level plain extended to the Savana River,

the northern tributary of the Gulf of San Miguel. Mr. Gisborne,

whose examination was not continued completely across the isthmus,

reaffirmed this claim. Strain's examination and all subsequent ones

failed to rind any such condition.

All the examinations of which there is sufficient information to give them any authentic value were made on the principle of following up streams. While this method of examination is permissible when time and means do not allow the use of better ones, conclusive results can not be obtained

in this way. The claims made for some of these routes, especially

in the neighborhood Caledonia Bay, were such that if substantiated

they would be better than any others. It became necessary either to

find these locations or to disprove their existence. The proof derived

from the examinations of the several valleys must always be of

negative character; it can not be conclusive until it is shown that

every stream has been explored. If, however, the divide could be

traced continuously, positive proof would be substituted for negative proof. The Commission therefore organized a force for the purpose of tracing the divide and determining its continuity. It was

at first proposed to trace this divide continuously from the Chagres

to the Atrato. This has not been done, but the divide has been

traced from the Chagres to San Bias and far enough beyond to cover all routes that have been suggested for this location. It has

been traced in both directions from Caledonia Bay far enough to cover

all the locations which have been suggested there. The mountain

range has been examined from the coast continuously from San Bias

to the Atrato. The results of these surveys and this examination are embodied in the maps and sketches which accompany this report.

While they have not been absolutel}r complete, they have proved conclusively that no low summit exists within the limits by which a canal

line would approach either San Bias Bay or Caledonia Bay. Any

canal terminating at either of these harbors will involve the construction of a tunnel. There is a bare possibility that some low summit

may exist in the portion of the range which was only examined from

the sea, but the general topography of the country indicates that this is extremely improbable, while the appearance of the range shows that

if any such low summit can by any possibility exist, it must be

approached by valleys of such crooked and restricted character that it would almost certainly be impracticable for a canal. The divide has been traced continuously from latitude 9° 19' N.,

longitude 78° 59' W., westward to the headwaters of the Chagres

River. The lowest summit found within these limits was 956 feet:
74 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

this elevation was determined by actual leveling. The Chagres River was then followed down to the Panama Railroad, thus connecting this survey with the Panama route. The ridge has been continuously traced from the Carreto summit,

latitude 8° 15' N., longitude 77° 38' W., to the Sassardi summit, lati- tude 8° 58' N., longitude 77° 52' W., covering the entire divide in the

vicinity of Caledonia Bay. The lowest summit within this limit is the

Caledonia gap, with an elevation of 681 feet. Five other gaps, with

elevations respectively of 815, 710, 827, 991, and 1,098 feet, were

observed within these limits. All of these elevations were determined

by actual leveling.

Between -the limit of these two actual surveys

Observations from the sea . , , ^ there is a distance of 81 miles in an air line where

the divide has not been traced. There is also a distance of about 60

miles from the Carreto summit southeast to the Atrato where no actual

surveys have been made. Through these distances the divide has

been carefully reconnoitered from the sea, the elevations of the higher

peaks being ascertained as well as those of the visible gaps, and the

distances being determined by observation made with two sextants. While this method of examination is not absolutely conclusive, the

results are such as to show that there is no probability of any low

summit existing within these limits; this improbability is further

increased by the general character of the watershed of the country.

Examination from Pacific All this summit examination was made from the

8lde" Atlantic side. In addition to this, a survey was made up the Chucunaque and the Chucurti rivers which was not quite

connected with the work done from the Atlantic side, owing to the

threatening attitude of the Indians. The gap of 2 or 3 miles has

been supplied from the Selfridge survey of 1870. These surveys were extended up the Tuyra and Aputi rivers and up the Savana and

Lara rivers, besides running a surve}T from the mouth of the Lara in an easterly course to the Chucunaque.

The explorations of other possible routes, while not entirely complete, have shown that it is practicable to follow the divide in this section of the isthmus and that this is the method of exploring which

is applicable to the isthmus. The good health of the field parties has

shown that this country is not one which is exceptionally unhealthy

to explore.

The result of these examinations and surveys

No canal uitliout a tunnel. . , ....... shows that there is no probability ot the existence

of any practicable canal location between Panama and the mouth of

the Atrato River except by the adoption of a tunnel line. The objections to a tunnel on a canal arc so great that a tunnel loca- tion should not be adopted unless there are manifest advantages of

sufficient weight to overcome these objections. No such advantages
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 7-r

>

appear to exist. The .surveys, however, have shown that there is a

possible tunnel location on the San Bias route and at least three on the

Caledonia route. Each of these four locations, though involving a

tunnel, provides for a sea-level canal. With a view to determine the approximate cost of a canal tunnel a section of tunnel was worked

out, and this section is shown in tig. 1. This section provides for a depth of 35 feet, for a width of 100 feet at the bottom, of 117 feet on

the water line, and for a height of 115 feet from the water surface to the intrados of the lining. The estimate is made on the basis of the

entire tunnel being lined with concrete 5 feet thick. The quantities

and estimated cost of a single foot of this tunnel are as follows:

670.2 cubic yards excavation, at $5 _ _ $3,381

88.7 cubic yards concrete, at $10 887

Total 1,208

This corresponds to $22,535,040 per mile. In the estimates the tunnel has been assumed to cost $22,500,000 per mile.

Tunnel tide level, San Bias The location which seems to promise best for

Canal- such a canal is shown in pi. 3 aecompairying this report. The line starting from Mandinga Harbor follows up the Rio

Carti, passes through a tunnel 1.5 miles long, and descends by the

valle}r of the Chorrah to the Chepo. Open excavations are maintained on both sides of the tunnel to a maximum depth of 100 feet. The

total length of the line of canal is 37 miles, and the length from tide- water to tidewater 21 miles. There has been no actual examination of

the .valley of the Chorrah because of the revolution existing at the

time the attempt was made. A profile of this location is shown in

pi. 1, and the following is a rough estimate of the possible cost of

such a canal. In the absence of an}^ means of classification the soft- rock price has been adopted as a fair average for all dry excavation

outside of the tunnel.

160,000,000 cubic yards excavation, at 80 cents $132, 800, 000

39,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 7, 800, 000

Clearing . 500, 000

4.2 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 94, 500, 000

Tide lock 4, 000, 000

25 miles railroad, at $75,000 _ . 1, 875, 000

Total , 241,475,000

20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc. . 48, 295, 000

Total 289,770,000

., , , , , .... The distance from Caledonia Bav to tide water 1'aleaonla tunnel tide- level canals, on the Savana River is about 30 miles in a straight

line. Studies have been made of three lines across
76 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the divide, all of them striking the same point on the Savana River

near the mouth of the Lara, the approaches on the Atlantic side being

through the three valleys of the Caledonia, the Aglaseniqua, and the

Sassardi. The distance from Caledonia Bay to the mouth of the Lara

varies from 32 miles b}r the Sassardi route to 36 miles by the Caledonia

route. The Sassardi route has not, however, been explored through

its whole length, and it is quite possible that an actual survey would

make it as long as the Caledonia route. Each line would require a

tunnel. If the Sassardi route is taken, the length of this tunnel,

assuming open cuts to be used to a depth of 400 feet at each end, would

betibout 1.6 miles. On either of the other two the tunnel would be

about 2 miles longer, while the approaches on the south side would

be much heavier.

Caledonia Bay is virtually tideless. San Miguel Bay has a tidal range of 20 feet or more. This heavy tide causes currents in the

Savana River strong enough to be a serious menace to navigation, and

it would be necessary to build a tide lock and dam near the mouth of

the Savana. The distance from the mouth of the Lara to the tide lock

is about 11 miles, the upper portion of which is in a narrow river

which would require enlargement for a canal. This makes the total length of canal navigation from Caledonia Bay to the tide lock about

50 miles.

The locations of these three canal routes are given in plate 5 accom- panying this report. Approximate profiles of each location are given

in plate 6, and from these the following estimates of the possible cost of such canals have been made.

The more extended examination of the country gives an indication

of the character of material which has been used in making a rough

classification into hard rock and earth.

Sassardi location.

80,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1.15 $92, 000, 000

137,000,000 cubic yards earth, at 15 cents 61, 650, 000

9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 1, 800, 000

4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $1.75 19, 000, 000

Clearing 1,000,000

1.6 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 . 36, 000, 000

Tide lock and dam 5, 000, 000

10 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 000, 000

Total 219,150,000

20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 43, 890, 000

Total 263, 310, 000
EEPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 77

Aglaseniqua location.

66,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1.15 _ $75, 900, 000

1 K».000,000 cubic yards earth, at 45 cents 49, 500, 000

9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents . _ 1, 800, 000

4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $4.75 19, 000, 000

Clearing 1,000,000

3.6 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 81, 000, 000

Tide lock and dam 5,000,000

40 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 000, 000

Total 236,200,000

20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 47, 240, 000

Total 283,440,000

Caledonia location.

77,000,000 cubic yards hard rock, at $1. 15 $88, 550, 000

129,000,000 cubic yards earth, at 45 cents 58, 050, 000

9,000,000 cubic yards dredging, at 20 cents 1, 800, 000

4,000,000 cubic yards submerged rock, at $4.75 19, 000, 000

Clearing 1,000,000

4 miles tunnel, at $22,500,000 90,000,000

Tide lock and dam 5,000,000

44 miles railroad, at $75,000 3, 300, 000

Total 266,700,000

20 per cent engineering, contingencies, etc 53, 340, 000

Total 320,040,000

These estimates are made without the careful examination which is necessary for accurate figures. They may be

eSumir

imate8minimUm regarded as minimum estimates; favorable material has been assumed for tunnels and favorable

material for excavation in the body of the canal; in fact, these esti- mates represent the best possible results which can be looked for on

either of the four locations. If borings either on the divide or in the

low country south of the divide should show unfavorable material,

these estimates must be increased. It is even possible that material

might be found in the tunnel sections which would render tunnel construction virtually impracticable and compel the adoption of open cuts

of enormous depth.

All these estimates are made on the basis of a tide-level canal. The

only restriction on the length of a ship passing through such a canal
78 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

would be the curves. The tunnels would be as absolute restrictions on

depth and width as the locks of Nicaragua or Panama.

A tide-level canal at Panama would be without a

Harbors the only advan- , i mi 1 j ±. u* u £ j.i_ tage oyer Panama. tunnel. The only advantage which an}' of these

canals would have over the tide-level canal at Panama would be in the superiority of their Atlantic harbors, Mandinga

Harbor in San Bias Bay and Caledonia Bay, both being very much

superior to the harbor at Colon. The advantage of the harbors would

not be enough to overcome the disadvantage of the tunnel.

The only reason for constructing a canal on

itsD

of

r ilTMrco^?s?ionm" either of these locations in preference to Panama

would be that the territory is entirety wild and

the work would be untrammeled by vested rights of occupation.

This advantage is more apparent than real. Many of the legal complications involved in obtaining the right to complete the Panama

Canal would interfere equally with the construction of a canal at San

Bias or Caledonia. The Wyse concession, under w

T hich all the French

operations at Panama have been conducted, confers the exclusive

privilege for excavation and construction of a maritime canal across the territory of the Republic of Colombia between the Atlantic and

Pacific oceans; all possible routes east of Panama, including the vari- ous Atrato lines, come within the limits of the Republic of Colombia.

The contract of 1867, under which the Panama Railroad now holds its concession, gives to that company the exclusive right of isthmian transit west of a line connecting Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic with Point

Garachine on the Pacific; the San Bias and the Caledonia routes both

fall west of this line. No canal can therefore be constructed at either

of these places unless some arrangement is made with the holders of

the Wyse and the Panama Railroad concessions.

The results of the surveys made under the direcMaps and other drawings. • • -i • .- £ -i tion or the Commission on this portion or the

isthmus have been embodied in a series of maps and other plans which

accompany this report. The}' embrace a general map covering the

entire isthmus and the Gulf of Panama, pi. 2; two maps on a larger scale covering, respectively, the San Bias, pis. 3 and 4, and the Caledonia and

San Miguel regions, pi. 5; two maps on same scale as the last showing

the coast and elevation observed from the sea, pis. 7 and S, besides 12

panoramic sketches taken from the sea, pis. 9 to 20, and profiles of the routes already mentioned, pis. 4 and 6. The thanks of the Commission are due to the

^Thanks for u.s.s.scor- Navy Department, which detailed the steamer

Scorpion for service on the Atlantic side of the

isthmus during these surveys, and especially to her commander, Lieut.

Commander Nathan Sargent, her executive officer, Lieut. Roger Welles,

and her other officers. The presence of this vessel rendered practicable a task which otherwise might have been impossible of execution.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 79

Fig.l.
Chapter V.

THE PANAMA ROUTE.

The natural attractions of the Panama route lie in the combination

of a very narrow isthmus with a low summit. The width of the isth mus is less than 36 miles in a straight line, only 5 miles more than at San Bias, the narrowest place, while the original summit was less than

300 feet above tide water, which, though higher than the Nicaragua

summit, is less than half the height of any other summit which has

been investigated. Furthermore, the high portion

General description. . ° . '

V» • of the isthmus is limited to a width ot about 6

miles near the Pacific side, and the Chagres River affords access by

canoe navigation from the Atlantic to within 16 miles of the Pacific. When steamship lines to California were first opened the Atlantic

steamers discharged their passengers at the mouth of the Chagres,

whence they were conveyed up that river in canoes to Las Cruces and

thence overland to Panama, where they took the Pacific steamer. When the Panama Railroad was built, in the early fifties, its Atlantic

terminus was fixed at the Bay of Limon, 7 miles east of the mouth of

the Chagres. The road followed the valley of the Chagres to Obispo,

a few miles below Las Cruces, and thence crossed through the lowest

gap to Panama. This location is almost identical with that subsequently adopted for the canal. (See pi. 21.)

The isthmus here runs nearly east and west, but the course

of the railroad or canal is from northwest to southeast, the Pacific

terminus being about 22 miles farther east than the Atlantic

terminus. The Atlantic port is Colon, and the Pacific port Panama.

At Colon the mean tidal range is about 1 foot; at Panama it is about

20 feet. The harbors are not of the first class. The}r have served the

demands of a limited commerce heretofore. Some improvements at Colon would be necessary if the canal should be built. The defect of

Colon Harbor is that it is exposed to "northers." When these are

severe, ships are now compelled to go to sea. This may occur once

or more each year. Panama Harbor is a roadstead behind islands at the head of a great bay or gulf. For the terminus of a canal it is sufficient, as the stay of vessels is expected to be short. The Panama route was surveyed by Commander E. P. Lull, United

States Navy, in 1875. He recommended a canal

Lull survey, 1876. . . , , J '

. , ,. „ , with locks and with a location generally above the

overflow bottom of the Chagres. It was to have a depth of 26 feet and

80
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 8l

a bottom width of 60 to 72 feet. The locks were to have a length

450 feet between miter .sills and width 65 feet. He fixed his summit

level at 124 feet above tide level and proposed to use 12 locks on each

side. To supply the summit level water was to be impounded by a dam to be built across the Chagres River at a site not far from the one subsequently selected by the new French company at Alhajuela,

from which a feeder of complicated character would lead it to the

canal. He estimated the cost of this canal at $94,511,360. In the year 1876 an association entitled " Societe Civile Internationale

du Canal Interoceanique" was organized in Paris, with Gen. Etienne

Tiirr as president, to make surveys and explorations for a ship canal

across the Isthmus of Panama. An expedition under the direction of

Lieut. L. N. B. Wyse, an officer of the French navy, was sent to the

Isthmus. In May, 1878, Lieutenant Wyse in the

The Wyse concession. . . . name or the association obtained a concession from

the Colombian Government, commonly known as the Wyse concession.

In May, 1879, an international congress, composed of 135 delegates

from various nations, including the United States, Great Britain, and

Germany, but the majority of whom were French, was convened in Paris

under the auspices of Ferdinand de Lesseps to consider the question of

the best location and plan for a canal across the American isthmus.

After. a session of two weeks, the congress decided that the canal should

be located on the Panama route, and should be at the sea level and

without locks. Immediately after the adiournThe old company. _ " " ment or the congress, the Panama Canal Company

was organized under a general law of France with the title "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique," with Ferdinand de

Lesseps as president. It purchased the Wyse concession from the

first-named company, paying therefor 10,000,000 francs. An attempt

to float the stock of this company in August, 1879, failed, but a second

attempt, made in December, 1880, was fully successful. The issue was fixed at 600,000 shares of 500 francs each. It was all sold. The

next two years were devoted to surveys and examinations and preliminary work upon the canal. Operations upon a large scale were

inaugurated in the early part of 1883. The plan adopted was for a sea-level canal having a depth of 29. 5 feet and bottom width

of 72 feet, involving excavation estimated at 157,000,000 cubic

yards. The terminus on the Atlantic side was fixed by the anchorage at Colon and that on the Pacific side by the anchorage at Panama. Leaving Colon the canal passes through low ground by

a direct line for a distance of 6 miles to Gatun, where it intersects

the valley of the Chagres River, passes up that valley a distance of

21 miles to Obispo, where it leaves the Chagres and, following the

S D—57-1—Vol 7 6
82 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

valley of a small tributary, cuts through the continental divide at Culebra and thence descends by the valley of the Rio Grande to Panama Bay. Its total length from 30 feet depth in the Atlantic to 30 feet depth in the Pacific is about 47 miles. Its location is such as to give easy curvature everywhere. To secure this, it was necessary

to select a point for crossing the divide where the height was some- what greater than that of the lowest pass. The maximum height on

the center line in the Culebra cut is about 333 feet above the sea. To

control the floods of the Chagres, various schemes were proposed, the

most prominent being the construction of a dam at Gamboa to impound the water of the upper river and the excavation of independent channels to the sea. The dam was afterwards decided to be

impracticable, and the problem remained unsolved. The cost was

estimated by de Lesseps in 1880 at $127,600,000, and the time required

at eight years. Work under this plan continued until the latter part

of 1887. The fact had by that time become evident to all, which

had for a long time been evident to the well informed, that the

canal could not be completed at the sea level with the resources of

time and money then available. A provisional change of plan was

accordingly made, under which the final completion at the sea level was to be deferred to a future time, and the opening of a canal to navigation was to be hastened by the introduction of locks. This

being considered a temporary expedient, the summit level was to be

supplied with water from the Chagres River by pumps. Work under

this plan was pushed with vigor until 1889, when the company becoming bankrupt it was dissolved by a judgment of the Tribunal Civil de

la Seine, dated February 4, 1889, and a liquidator was appointed by

that court to take charge of its affairs. In the appointment of the liquidator the court kept prominently in view the completion of the canal, and it authorized him to cede to a new association all or part of the assets, to make or ratify agreements

with the contractors which had for their object

Liquidation. the continuation ....of the works, and to borrow

money for that purpose. The liquidator reduced the force gradually

and finally suspended the works May 15, 1889. He then proceeded to

satisfy himself that the canal project was feasible, a question about which

the failure of the company had caused grave doubts. He appointed a "commission d'etudes," composed of French and foreign engineers,

11 in number, having at their head Inspector-General Guillemain,

director of the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees, which, after a study of the entire subject and visiting the isthmus, rendered a report

May 5, 1<S90, in which it submitted a plan for a canal with locks. It expressed the opinion that the canal could be constructed within eight

years. It reported that the plant on hand was in good condition and
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 83

would probably suffice for finishing the canal. It estimated the cost of completion at $112,500,000 for the works, which it thought should

be increased to $174,600,000 (900,000,000 francs) to include administration and financing. It found much difficulty in estimating the

value of the work done and of the plant, but gave as a rough approximation one-half the estimated cost of completing the canal, or $87,300,000 (450,000,000 francs). It called this an "intuitive esti- mate." More weight has been attached to this estimate in recent documents by the New Panama Canal Company than its authors claimed

for it. The time within which the canal was to be completed under the

Wyse concession having nearly expired, the liquidator sought and

obtained from the Colombian Government an extension of ten years. The law of Colombia granting this extension is dated December 26,

1890. It provided that a new company should be formed and work

upon the canal resumed on or before February 28, 1893. This condition not having been fulfilled, a second extension was sought and

obtained April 4, 1893. It provided that the term of ten years granted

by the extension of 1890 should begin to run not later than October

31, 1894. By an agreement dated April 26, 1900, the time was still further extended to October 31, 1910. The validity of the last extension has been called in question. Full copies of the concession and its various extensions will be found in Appendices GG, HH, II, JJ.

The liquidator found himself laboring under special legal difficulties,

from which he obtained relief by the special law of the French Chambers, dated Juty 1, 1893. (See Appendix KK.) He finally secured

the organization of a new company on the 20th, of October, 1894,

with a capital stock of 650,000 shares of 100 francs each. Six

hundred thousand shares had been subscribed to be paid for in cash, and 50,000 shares were given as full-paid stock to the Colombian Government in compliance with the terms of the extension

of the concession, dated December 26, 1890. Thus the cash capital

of the company was 60,000,000 francs, or $11,640,000, a sum deemed

sufficient for the provisional operations contemplated. The scandals

connected with the failure of the old company, which had led to the prosecution and conviction of De Lesseps and other prominent

persons, had made it difficult to secure even that amount. Suits had

been brought against certain loan associations, administrators, contractors, and others who were supposed to have unduly profited by

the extravagant management of the old company. A series of compromises were made with t^ese persons, by which it was agreed that

they should subscribe for stock in the new company on condition that

the suits should be dropped. Whatever amount remained to make up

the 60,000,000 francs, after deducting the sums thus obtained and
84 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

those to be obtained by public subscription, was to be subscribed by

the liquidator. The stock was subscribed as follows, viz : Francs. Ei ffel 10, 000, 000

Credit Lyonnais 4, 000, 000

Societe Generale 4, 000, 000

Credit Industriel et Commercial 2, 000, 000

Administrators of the old company 7, 885, 000

Artigue, Sonderegger & Co " 2, 200, 000

Baratoux, Letellier & Co 2,200,000

Jacob heirs 750, 000

Couvreux, Hersent & Co 500, 000

Various persons to the number of sixty, who had profited

by S}T ndicates created b}7 the old company 3, 285, 700

Hugo Oberndorffer 3, 800, 000

Public subscription 3, 484, 300

The liquidator 15, 895, 000

Total 60, 000, 000

See fourth report of the liquidator to the court, dated November

26, 1895, pages 8, 9, and 13. The old company and the liquidator had raised by the sale of stock

and bonds the sum of $246,706,431.68. The securities issued to raise

this money had a face value of $435,559,332.80. The number of per- sons holding them is estimated at over 200,000/ There have been

excavated in all about 72,000,000 cubic yards.

There had been purchased and transported to the

isthmus an enormous quantity of machinery and other plant, at an

estimated cost of $29,000,000. Nearly all of the stock of the Panama

Railroad—about 68,500 of the 70,000 shares existing—also had been

purchased at a cost of about $18,094,000. A general statement of the

receipts and expenditures and further details of the history of the

enterprise down to the formation of the new company, furnished by

M. Maurice Hutin, director-general New Panama Canal Company,

will be found in Appendix B. The new company took possession of the propThc new company. . , . ., » . . '„ z. n . erty immediately after its organization in 1894—

except the Panama Railroad shares, which are held in trust for its benefit—and proceeded to make a new study of the entire subject of

the canal in its engineering and commercial aspects. It undertook to

finish the canal, if after the completion of these studies that should be

found expedient. It resumed the work of excavation, with a force

large enough to comply with its concession, on a part of the line, the

Emperador and Culebra cuts, where such excavation was sure to conSee second report of the liquidator to the court, dated November 12, 1891.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 85

tribute to the enterprise if completed under any plan. By the middle

of 1895 a force of about 2,000 men had been collected, and the work

has progressed continuously since that time with a force reported as varying between 1,900 and 3,600 men. According to the annual

reports of the compan}7

, the amount of material taken out was about

485,000 cubic yards in 1895, 915,000 in 1896, 1,225,000 in 1897,

1,200,000 in 1898, and about 1,210,000 in 1899, or about 5,000,000

cubic yards in all. The amount expended to June 30, 1899, was about

$7,000,000, besides about $1,284,000 advanced to the Panama Railroad

Company for building a pier at La Boca. The company's charter provided for the appointment by the com- pany and the liquidator of a special engineering commission of five members to report upon the work done and upon the conclusions to be

drawn therefrom, this report to be rendered when the amounts expended

by the new company should have reached about one-half its capital.

The report was to be made public and a special meeting of the

stockholders was then to be held to finalty determine whether or not

the canal should be completed and to provide ways and means. The

time for this report and special meeting arrived in 1898. In the

meantime the company had called to its aid a technical committee

composed of fourteen engineers, European and American, some of

them among the most eminent in their profession. After a stud}^ of

all the data available and of such additional surveys and examinations as it had considered necessary to be made, this committee

rendered an elaborate report dated November 16, 1898. It was reproduced in Senate document No. 188, Fifty-sixth Congress, first session,

pages 43-83. This report was referred to the above-mentioned statu- tory commission of five, which reported in 1899 that the canal could

be built according to that project within the limits of time and money

estimated. The special meeting of stockholders was called immediately after the regular annual meeting of December 30, 1899. It is understood that the liquidator, who is one of the largest stockholders,

refused to take part in it, and that no conclusions were reached as to the expediency of completing the canal or as to providing ways and

means. The engineering questions had been solved to the satisfaction

of the company, but the financial questions had been made extremely

difficult, if not insoluble, by the appearance of the United States Government in the field as a probable builder of an isthmian canal. The

company is conducting its operations in the same provisional way as in

the last five years and has not }^et appealed to the public for capital.

The plan adopted by the company involves two

>ew company's plan. * J

i levels above the sea-level—one of them an artificial lake to be created by a dam at Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic

side by a flight of two locks, and the other, the summit level, to be

reached by another flight of two locks from the preceding; the summit
86 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

level to have its bottom 68 feet above the .sea and to be supplied with

water by a feeder leading from an artificial reservoir to be constructed

at Alhajueala, in the Upper Chagres Valley; the ascent on the Pacific

side to be likewise by four locks, of which the two middle ones are combined in a flight. The canal is to have a depth of 29.5 feet and a bottom width of about 98 feet, with an increased width in certain

specified parts. Its general location is the same as that adopted by

the old company. The dimensions of the lock chambers are 738 feet

in length, 82 feet in width, and 32 feet 10 inches in depth in the clear; the lifts to vary from 26 feet to 33 feet, according to location and

stage of water. The cost was estimated at $101,850,000 for the works,

which does not include administration or financing. While this is the

plan recommended by the French engineers, they worked out in detail a second plan, which is an extension or modification of the foregoing,

which they seemed to prefer in itself, but which they feared would

require more time to execute. The limits of their concession and the

heavy cost of financing led them to attach very great weight to the

consideration of time. Under this second plan the upper level was

omitted, the cut through the continental divide being deepened until

its bottom was 32 feet above the sea; Lake Bohio was made the summit level and was fed directly by the Chagres; one flight of locks on

the Atlantic side and one lock on the Pacific were omitted; the feeder

from Alhajuela was omitted, but the dam at that place was retained.

The estimated cost of completing the canal under this plan was not

much greater than that for the other, being about $105,500,000. All

work done for several years under the first plan would be equally

available under the second plan, and the company contemplates revert- ing to the second plan if the experience of the first few years shows

that time will permit. In both plans the dam at Bohio converted the

river between that point and Obispo into a lake of such dimensions as not to be seriously affected by the partial floods admitted to it, while

diversion channels were to be constructed on both sides of the canal

from this lake to the sea. With a carefully designed system of sluices

and controlling works the violence of the floods was to be checked by

impounding the water both above the Alhajuela dam and Lake Bohio,

so as to keep the flow below the Bohio dam within the capacity of the

two diversion channels.

The old Panama Canal Company began its work

Physical data available. . . . . , , . , without adequate knowledge of the physical conditions at the Isthmus. It inaugurated at an early day some of the

surveys and examinations required to supply the deficiency, and some

of these it maintained as long as it continued to exist. Additional

surveys were made by the liquidator, and very extended additional

surveys and observations have been made by the new company. The

information relating to the topography, hydrography, and geology of
REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 87

the Isthmus is now much more complete than is usual before the inauguration of an engineering enterprise in a new country. The canal

couipain' spared no trouble or expense in laying it all before the Commission. The most important maps, drawings, and documents were

lithographed or printed and systematically arranged for the use of the

Commission, copies being furnished for each member. Many other

documents were supplied in manuscript. In all some 340 documents,

many of them elaborate studies, were furnished. A list of them will be found in Appendix C. These supplied essentially all the data

required for the preparation of plans and estimates, though further

information was desired as to the foundation upon which the great

dam at Bohio must be built, and as to the area of the Chagres River

drainage basin. This additional information was obtained by the field parties of this Commission. It was necessary also for the purpose of

this investigation to verify the French data. Independent lines of

levels, measurements of distances, borings, soundings, and hydrographic observations made by its own parties, supplemented by personal observation, enable this Commission to state that the data

furnished by the canal company are essentially correct. The circumstances under which the Commission

pian for the United states approaches the study of a plan for the canal differ

differs from that for a com- „ , 1 n i

• merciai corporation. from those of the h rench engineers in two important particulars. The question of the time required

for completion is of less vital importance, since a new concession from

the Colombian Government must be obtained in any event, and since the

cost of financing would be much diminished if the United States should

provide the funds, that question would not be decisive against a plan

which is otherwise preferable. In a plan prepared for a government

seeking the permanent development of its possessions, and content to receive its returns in an indirect wa}^ and at a future time, the canal

must have dimensions which will permit the passage of the largest

ships now afloat or likely to be constructed. For a time such ships

may be exceptional and the canal revenue derived from them may be

small. A plan prepared for a commercial corporation investing capital from which an immediate and direct revenue is desired would

probably exclude such exceptional ships, and the dimensions given the

canal—at least in the beginning-—would be less than in the former

case. One of the greatest natural difficulties to be

JSSST

""" *

" at " raI encountered in the construction of a ship canal on

the Panama route lies in the control of the Chagres

River. That stream is about 145 miles long and has a drainage area above Bohio of about 875 square miles. Above Obispo it is in general

a clear-water stream flowing over a bed of coarse gravel; but sand,

clay, and silt in moderate quantities appear in the lower portions of
88 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

its course. It flows through a mountainous country, in which the

average annual rainfall is about 130 inches. A maximum rainfall has

been observed of over 6 inches in twelve hours. Its discharge at Bohio varies from a minimum of about 350 cubic feet to a possible

maximum of 136,000 cubic feet per second. The excessive rainfall and the precipitous slopes of the valley give to the river a torrential

character. On December 1, 1890, it rose at Gamboa 23 feet in sixteen

hours, its discharge, which was about 9,000 cubic feet per second at the beginning of the rise, increasing in the same time to six or seven

times that volume. This is the most violent change of which there is definite record, but similar changes of somewhat less violence are not uncommon. The admission of a stream of this character to the canal

would create conditions intolerable to navigation unless sufficient section of prism be provided to reduce the current to an unobjectionable velocity.

If a sea-level canal be constructed, either the

canal itself must be made of such dimensions that

maximum floods, modified to some extent by a reservoir in the Upper

Chagres, could pass down its channel without injury, or independent

channels must be provided to carry off these floods. As the canal lies in the .lowest part of the valley, the construction of such channels

would be a matter of serious difficulty, and the simplest solution would

be to make the canal prism large enough to take the full discharge

itself. This would have the advantage, also, of furnishing a very large

canal, in which navigation under ordinary circumstances would be

exceptionally easy. It would involve a cross section from Obispo to the Atlantic, having an area of at least 15,000 square feet below the

water line, which would give a bottom width of about 100 feet. The

quantity of excavation required for such a canal has been roughly

computed, and is found to be about 266,228,000 cubic yards. The cost of such a canal, including a dam at Alhajuela and a tide lock at Miraflores, near the Pacific end, is estimated at not less than $210,000,000.

Its construction would probably take at least twenty years. This

Commission concurs with the various French commissions which have

preceded it since the failure of the old company in rejecting the sea- level plan. While such a plan would be physically practicable, and

might be adopted if no other solution were available, the difficulties of

all kinds, and especially those of time and cost, would be so great that

a canal with a summit level reached by locks is to be preferred.

In the case of a canal with locks the problem of

w m!'

ti!Kks.UPPly '°r ,a " al controlling the floods is very much simplified, but

a new one is introduced—that of supplying the

summit level with water. The quantity of water required for the

operation of the canal will vary with the amount of traffic and the size

of the vessels carrying it. Assuming lo lockages per day for vessels
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 89

of about 3,000 tons each, an annual traffic of about 1.0,000,000 tons will be accommodated, which is greater than the amount to be expected at the opening of the canal. Ten lockages will require 35,127,960 cubic

feet per day, or 406 cubic feet per second, assuming that four of

these lockages are for the full-size lock and six of them for the reduced

size, using the intermediate gates. The loss from evaporation is assumed to be 6 inches per month. The area of the lake to be

proposed hereafter is 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,400 square feet. The loss from evaporation over this area is 536,659,200 cubic feet in a month, or 207 cubic feet per second. The loss from leakage at the lock gates is estimated at 250 cubic feet per second. To this has

been added 200 cubic feet per second for power and other contingencies.

Adding these amounts together, the total amount required to operate

the canal for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per annum is found to be

1,063, or, in round numbers, 1,070, cubic feet per second. The average

annual discharge of the Chagres is far in excess of this, being about

3,200 cubic feet per second, but there is a well-defined dry season when

the daily discharge is often less. A deficiency during the months of February, March, and April is to be apprehended and must be provided for,

though it does not always occur. For use during these months some of

the surplus waters of the other months must be stored. The minimum

average discharge at Bohio for any month covered by the records is that for March, 1891, when it was 600 cubic feet per second, or 470

cubic feet less than the amount required. If water enough be stored

to supply this deficiency, supposing it to exist continuously for three

months, provision will be made against a state of affairs worse than

any that has ever been known or is likely to occur. A deficiency of

470 cubic feet per second for ninety days gives an aggregate deficiency

of 3,654,720,000 cubic feet, for which storage room must be provided. In a lake having an area of 38.5 square miles it corresponds to a depth

of 3.4 feet. The greatest flood which has occurred since the

Flood discharge of the , • j. ,i . , . , ji -r> t» m

cha!?res occupation of the isthmus by the Panama Kailroad (which covers a period of fift}T years), and

so far as known the greatest which ever occurred, was that of

November 18, 1879. No measurement was made of its volume, but

the height which it reached at Bohio is stated upon the authority

of Mr. Sosa, a Colombian engineer, to have been 39.3 feet above

low water. A comparison of this height with that reached by

floods of which the volume was measured (see Appendix D) leads

to the conclusion that the maximum discharge at Bohio at the highest

point of the flood in 1879 might have been as much as 136,000 cubic

feet per second. In reaching this conclusion one of the assumptions

is that there was no change in the size of the waterway between 1879

and the dates of the later floods, and that if the same quantity of water
90 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

nad been flowing at the later dates as in 1879, it would have reached

the same height. Inasmuch as the size of the waterway was much

increased subsequently to 1879 b}^ the excavations of the old company,

this assumption gives a result which is certainly not too low. In this, as in all other cases of doubt, the assumptions have been made such as to err on the safe side, if at all. The other greatest floods of which

there are records are those of 1885, with a height at Bohio 33.8 feet; 1888 with height 31.7 feet; 1890 with height 32.1 feet, and 1893 with

height 28.5 feet. The last two were measured, the maximum dis- charge in 1890 being 71,998 cubic feet per second, and in 1893, 18,975

cubic feet. Thus it appears that the floods in which the discharge

exceeds 75,000 cubic feet per second are of rare occurrence. If the

works be so designed that such a flood would produce no currents which would interfere with navigation, and that a flood of 110,000

cubic feet per second, while it might temporarily suspend navigation,

would not injure the structure of the canal, ample provision will be

made for the flood control of the Chagres.

No location suitable for a dam exists on the Chagres River below

Bohio, and while this location is not without difficulties it has the

great advantage that about 3 miles southwest of the dam, near the

head of the Rio Gig-ante, a tributary of the Chagres, there exists an excellent site for a spillway,

by which the discharge from the lake can be kept well away from the

dam and accessory works, and may be made extremely large without

inconvenience either to the canal itself or to the country below the

lake. The height of this spillway would regulate the height and area

of the lake. After careful consideration of the requirements for flood control and for storage against deficiency in the diy season, and also of the effect upon the amount of excavation required for the canal

through the continental divide, the Commission has decided to fix this height at 85 feet above mean tide, and to make the spillway a

fixed weir 2,000 feet long. The area of the lake at this height is 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,100 square feet. Using coefficient 3.5 in the weir formula, it is computed that with a depth of 5

feet over its crest the weir will discharge 78,260 cubic feet per second. In reaching elevation 90 the area of the lake will be enlarged to about 13 square miles and it will impound over 5,680,000,000 cubic

feet of water. The quantity of water discharged over the weir

while the lake is rising from elevation 85 to elevation 90, assuming circumstances of flow similar to those observed in the flood of 1893, is computed to be about 1,000,000,000 cubic feet. (See Appendix E.) The total quantity of water impounded and discharged

before the lake will rise above elevation 90 is therefore nearly

10,000,000,000 cubic feet. It provides for unimpeded navigation

during all floods not exceeding 75,000 cubic feet per second, The
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 91

velocity of the currents in the narrowest part of the lake would

not exceed 2 feet per second. Floods may occur, however, which

will cause the lake to rise above elevation 90. From the data avail- able it is not possible to compute with precision the exact height which

a flood ma}T hereafter attain, but the extreme possible effect of a flood discharging 140,000 cubic feet per second for a prolonged period would

be to raise the water over the spillway to 92.5 feet. All great floods are of short duration, and such a flood is absolutely without precedent,

being as improbable as any other convulsion of nature. The crest of

the dam has, however, been placed at 100 and the top of the lock walls

and gates at 94, to make them entirely safe from overflow by even such a flood, the ill effect of which would be limited to the temporary

obstruction of navigation by swift currents in the narrowest part of

the lake, where the velocity might reach 5 feet per second. Under

extreme conditions the lake might be lowered to 82 to provide water

for operating the canal during the dry months. The excavations will

be so adjusted as to give a depth of 35 feet at that level. This provision for the storage of water for use in the dry season is ample for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons per annum

Future increase of water • 1 <• ,1 • _ T , gu

. in vessels of the size now in common use. It will be equally ample for a much larger tonnage

if, as seems probable, the size of vessels continues to increase. For

example, the number of vessels which passed the Suez Canal in 1900 was 3,441, against 3,389 in 1890, while the gross tonnage in 1900 was

13,699,238, against 9,749,129 in 1890. The number of vessels in 1900 was less than in 1898, while the total tonnage was greater. The

annual flow of the Chagres and the topography of the country are

favorable, however, to a very large increase of the supply, if that be

found desirable in the future. A reservoir can be constructed at Alhajuela with a capacity for storing an additional volume of water

four times that now provided for daily consumption.

The overflow of Lake Bohio will discharge

Disposal of overflow. . . *->i through the (Jigante spillway into rena Blanca

Swamp, thence through natural and artificial channels to the Chagres

River below Gatun, and thence through that river to the sea, being

kept out of the canal in the lowlands by levees where necessary. The canal, as thus projected, may be described

Detailed description. „ „

' , , as follows (see pis. 21, 22, 23):

Beginning at the 6 fathom line in Limon Bay, a channel 500 feet

wide at bottom, and with side slopes 1 on 3, is excavated, curving

gently to the left upon a radius of 6,560 feet, until it reaches a point

just inside the jetty constructed by the old Panama Canal Company.

Here it changes direction to the right upon a curve of 3,280 feet radius,

and is then conducted upon a straight line for a distance of 2,000 feet
92 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Entrance and harbor at to a point 2.39 miles from deep water in the bay.

For about a mile this wide channel is inside the

Colon. shore line, forming- a narrow but well-protected

harbor. Near the apex of the second curve the bottom width is increased to 800 feet for a length of 800 feet, to provide a turning

basin. The estimated cost of this entrance and harbor is $8,057,707,

of which $1,936,991 is for work outside the jettjT

. The annual cost of

maintenance is estimated at $30,000.

From the inner end of the harbor the bottom width of the canal is 150 feet, the side slopes of 1 on 3 being retained for 1.86 miles through

the swamp, after which they are reduced to the standard used in firm

earth, and are kept at that standard for a distance

of 12.56 miles farther to the Bohio locks. The

length of this level measured from the inner end of the harbor is 14.42

miles. Its estimated cost is $11,099,839, including $151,347 for levees

to exclude flood waters and $299,000 for the lower approach, 1,200 feet long, to the lock. At Bohio is located a double flight of locks, having a total lift varying from 82 feet at the minimum level of the lake to 90 feet at the

maximum, 41 to 45 to each lock, the normal lift being 85 feet. These

locks are on the location adopted bv the French

Bohio locks. to company, lhey are shown on PI. 24 and are

of the type adopted for both the Nicaragua and Panama canals and

described elsewhere in this report. The estimated cost of this flight

of double locks, four lock chambers in all, is $11,567,275, including

excavation.

Above the locks the canal enters the artificial lake formed by the

Bohio dam and known as Lake Bohio. For the first 7 miles it is a broad, deep body of water, affording room for anchorage, as well as navigation. Beyond this some li^ht excavations

Lake Bohio. te J &

are necessary. At the upper end the channel will be enlarged to provide for the flood discharge of the Chagres, being

given a minimum section of 42,000 square feet. The length of the

channel in Lake Bohio is 12.68 miles from the locks to the point

where the canal leaves the Chagres. The section extends ninety-three

hundredths of a mile farther, to the point where it enters the cut through the divide. The estimated cost of this section is $2,952,154,

including $434,400 for the upper approach to the Bohio locks. Near the entrance to the summit cut will be placed a pair of gates 100

feet wide, so that if it should become necessary to draw off the water

from the summit cut the level of Lake Bohio would not be affected. These gates will be at the site of a lock proposed by

Obispo Kuard sates. ._ °

«5_ • j the h rench company near Obispo, with a foundation on hard rock. The estimated cost of these gates, including

masonry and excavation, is $21*5,434.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 93

The summit cut is 7.91 miles long from the Obispo gates to the

Pedro Miguel locks. The highest point is about 5 miles from the

Obispo gates, where the bottom of the canal at the axis is 286 feet below

the natural surface of the ground. This is the

Culebra cut. ° famous Lulebra cut, though the name has often

been applied only to the mile of heaviest work. There is a little very hard rock at the eastern end of this section, and the western two

miles are in ordinary materials. The remainder consists of a hard

indurated clay, with some softer material at the top and some strata and dikes of hard rock. In fixing the price it has been rated as soft rock, but it must be given slopes equivalent to those in earth. This

cut has been estimated on the basis of a bottom width of 150 feet,

with side slopes of 1 on 1. While the cut would probably not be fin- ished with this uniform slope, this furnishes as correct a basis of esti- mate as can now be arrived at. The entire cut will be lined with

masonry walls, finishing at elevation 92, 2 feet above high water,

these walls having nearly vertical faces and furnishing benches 38 feet

wide on either side of the canal, on one of which the Panama Railroad

will be laid, while it is probable that a service track will be placed on

the other.

Much has been said about the instability of the Culebra cut; in

point of fact, there is a clay in the upper portion of the deep cut which flows readily when saturated, but which will give little trouble

if thorough!}7 drained; probably nine-tenths of the material would

naturally be classed as hard clay of stable character; it would weather

somewhat, and the surface might require some repairing with concrete

in bad places, a practice common in deep cuttings in Europe. This

cla}7 disintegrates rapidly in water, and for this reason the canal prism

should be confined between masonry walls. With the provision made

for broad benches on each side, on which any slight slides would be

arrested, it is believed that no trouble will be experienced. The

estimated cost of the 6.02 miles of heavy work is $41,940,180, and of

the entire 7.91 miles between the Obispo gates and the Pedro Miguel

locks, $44,414,460, including the upper approach to these locks. It would probably take eight years to excavate this section of the canal. The amount of excavation in this section is 43,237,200 cubic yards.

The concentration of so large an amount of excavation in so small a space is without precedent. The engineer will recognize at once that

thorough organization and tools specially adapted to the work are here

required. Fortunately there is ample ground on which to deposit the

spoil both north and south of the divide. The method of conducting

the work in general principles and in detail should be thoroughly

worked out before actual execution is begun. No work has ever been

undertaken on which the highest class of practical engineering talent

could produce so great economies as in this great concentrated exca-
94 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

vation. Its cost has been estimated at 80 cents per cubic yard; bad

management might easily increase this to a dollar, and it is not impossible that with a carefully considered equipment the cost might be

reduced to 60 cents. The Pedro Miguel locks (see pi. 25) will be similar to the Bohio

locks, the aggregate lift varying from 54 to 62

feet. There is an excellent rock foundation here.

The estimated cost of these locks, including an adjacent dam, is $9,081,321.

A level 1.33 miles long extends from the Pedro

Pedro Mlstuel level. Miguel locks to the last lock, which is at Miraflores.

The normal elevation of the surface of the water is 28. The estimated

cost of this section is $1,192,286 including $388,880 for lock approaches

at each end.

At the end of this level will be located the

Miraflores look. Miraflores lock (see pi. 25), with a hit varying

from 18 feet at high tide to 38 feet at mean low tide. There is a good

rock foundation for this lock. A spillway will be required to regulate

the height of this level. The estimated cost of this lock and spillway

is $5,781,401.

For 4.12 miles beyond the Miraflores lock the canal extends through

a low swamp country through which the Rio Grande runs. Occasional rock is found here, but the material is generally very soft and

the canal has been estimated for a bottom width of

Pacific maritime section. . ...

150 feet with slopes ot 1 on 3. I his brings the

canal to a point known as La Boca where the Panama Railroad Company has constructed a large and substantial wharf. A dredged channel 200 feet wide with slopes of 1 on 3 will extend from this point

4.41 miles to the 6-fathom line in Panama Bay. The first 2 miles of

this dredged channel are through flats which are bare at low water,

where there is a considerable amount of submerged rock. The total cost of this section from the lock to deep water is estimated at $12,-

427,971, of which $1,464,513 is for work outside of La Boca. The

cost of maintenance of this channel is included in that of the canal. No separate estimate for maintaining a harbor at Panama is submitted,

because it is a natural roadstead, not requiring expenditure.

The Bohio dam is the most important structure

ItolllO (I.I III. IT 1

• e • <?•! on the line, being or great magnitude, or vital necessity to the scheme, and offering many difficulties of construction.

The Commission has devoted much time to the procurement of full and reliable information concerning the foundation upon which this dam must rest, and to a study of the various types of structures which

might be adopted.

The borings made by the French engineers upon and near the line of the dam as furnished to the Commission were 21 in number. In
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 95

the central part of the valley they did not go down to rock. In this case the Commission decided to do more than verify the data furnished

to it, and caused a large number (86) additional borings to be made.

With the exception of seven, which were abandoned before completion on account of accidents to the apparatus or unusual difficulties of soil, all of these borings reached rock. They show a variety of

materials—hard clay, soft clay, sand, gravel, and some mixtures of

sand, clay and gravel in varying proportions. These materials are found in beds of varying shape and thickness, not distributed with

uniformity and not arranged according to any general law from which

can be deduced the character of the soil at points other than those

actually examined. In every section constructed from the borings,, strata of greater or less dimensions are found, which are permeable

by water. How far these extend and whether or not they communicate with the surface of the ground above the site of the dam are, points about which information can not be obtained in advance with

certainty- If a dam be built with permeable strata under it there

will probably be leakage, but what the amount of this will be is a question about which there is room for much difference of opinion. It would

seem probable to many that the leakage will not be sufficient to endanger the water supply, and that an earthen dam is therefore feasible,,

but it is evident that here is a danger to be avoided if possible. A

masonry dam founded throughout upon the rock, or an earth dam

with a masonry core going down everywhere to rock, would close

the valley completely and would leave no question open as to its future efficiency. In its preliminary report the Commission based!

its estimates on a masonry dam. The examinations of the ground had

not at that time been completed. So far as they had progressed they

showed a site where a masonry dam seemed the most suitable, but it was subsequently found that the depth to rock upon that site was at

least 143 feet below sea level at the deepest part. It was considered

best to avoid, if possible, so great a depth of foundation. A site was

found a few hundred feet farther downstream where the length of the

dam would be considerably greater than at the former site, but the

greatest depth to rock revealed by the borings was only 128 feet below

sea level. The line runs from a point near the railroad station at Bohio, on the east side of the river, straight across to the rocky hill on

the west side. (See pi. 26.) On the east side the rock is at the sur- face practically from the water in the river to the end of the dam.

On the west side the bank above low water is composed either of

pure clay or of clay mixed with sand, while below low water are found

irregular beds of sand and sandy clay. The physical features of the

location admit of the construction of an earth embankment with a heavy masonry core carried down to bed rock throughout the length

of the structure. For reasons of economy that type of dam is preferable to one wholly of masonry upon the new site, and is now adopted.
96 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

It is proposed to sink the foundation of the core wall by the pneumatic process at all points where the foundation bed is lower than

about 30 feet below mean sea level. This requires the pneumatic

process to be used through a length of 1,314 feet, of which about 310

feet is at the maximum depth of 128 feet below the sea level. Where

the foundation bed is above elevation —30, cofferdams are to be used.

This involves the use of cofferdams through a length of 324 feet, the

foundation at sea level being extended 78 feet at the easterty end and

246 feet at the westerly end of the pneumatic work. The coffer- dams extend to a height 8 feet above sea level. Above elevation 8 all operations would be carried on by the ordinal*}' methods of dry work.

The width of the dam at the" top is 20 feet, and its total length is 2,546 feet. The elevation of the top is 100 feet above mean sea level,

affording a superelevation of the dam of 8 feet above the highest possible water in the lake and 10 feet above the usual high water. Its total height above the lowest part of the foundation is 228 feet. The

earth faces of the dam are designed to have mean slopes of one vertical to three horizontal, and to be broken by three terraces, each 6 feet wide. It is necessary to pave only the upstream face, but it is probable that both faces would be heavily riprapped with the rock spoil

from the lock excavation near the westerly end. The masonry core

is 30 feet thick at and below elevation —30. From that level it tapers

to a thickness of 8 feet at top.

Material for the heavy fill required is found in the immediate neighborhood. The local conditions are such that not less than seven- eighths of the work could be completed without interfering with the

natural How of the Chagres. When it becomes necessaiy for the completion of the dam to divert the river, the unfinished Gigante spillway and, later on, the finished locks at Bohio may be employed as diversion channels. A temporary dam would be required to turn the

water through these? outlets at suitable stages. This temporary dam

may be placed either at the site of the permanent dam and tinall}' be

buried in it, or at some suitable point higher upstream. The cost of

the Bohio dam is estimated at $6,309,640. This estimate is higher

than any which has hitherto been made for this dam. It is possible

that before actual construction a better locution can be found and the

cost reduced. A dam on the French location, with masoniy core car- ried to rock, would contain less than half the material in the dam for

which estimates have been made, but for a length of 170 feet the

foundation would be deeper than anywhere on the adopted location,

the maximum being 146 feet below mean tide. The Gigante spillway, which is a structure of considerable magnitude, is very simple. There is a good rock foundation at or above

tide level for the entire length of this spillway.

It will consist of a dam entirely of concrete with a

crest at elevation 85, terminating in an apron at elevation 65, with a
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 97

solid foundation below this level, the apron being everywhere below

the present surface of the ground. The foundation, below elevation

65, will be put in first and before the flow of water through the present

river at the site of the Bohio dam is checked. Plans for this spillway

are shown on plate 27. The estimated cost, including the channel ways

immediately above and below it, is $1,209,419.

The water after passing over the spillway will flow across country about a mile to the Pena Blanca

swamp. The elevation of the surface of this swamp is now 22.3, so that the water will have a fall of 62.7 feet in this mile. The swamp is separated from the line of the canal by a ridge, of which the lowest

part is at elevation 33. It can be filled to elevation 31 without inconvenience to the canal. Its outlet will be placed at elevation 11. Its area at that level is 0.447 square mile and at elevation 31 it is 1.186

square miles. Its storage capacity between those two levels is 455,000,000 cubic feet.From the Pena Blanca the water will be disPeua Blanca outlet. ,• i . , ,, . ,-<i t ^•/••i charged into the Agua Clara swamp by an artificial channel, located about a mile from the canal, cut through the ridge

which separates the two swamps. This channel will have a bottom

width of 500 feet and a depth of 20 feet when the water in Pena Blanca

swamp stands at elevation 31. Its length measured on the bottom is 5,676 feet and the maximum depth of cutting is 63 feet, much of it rock. The bottom has a fall of 2.2 feet from one swamp to the other.

This channel will discharge 75,000 cubic feet per second with a mean

velocity of 7.5 feet per second, or 5 miles per hour, and this it can

attain if the difference of level between the two swamps be 2.1 feet. With a head of 7.3 feet it can discharge over 140,000 cubic feet per

second, at a velocity of about 9.55 miles per hour. Its cost is estimated

at *2,448,076.

The present surface of the Agua Clara swamp is at elevation 11.5. and its area at that level is about 2.9 square miles. Farther on are other swamps—the Vino Tinto and the Bruja. The ground separating

them from each other and from the line of the canal is low, affording

a wide area for the spread of flood waters, until the neighborhood of

Gatun is reached. Here the width of the valley contracts and its direction changes, so that an artificial channel becomes necessary to divert the Chagres. A channel was cut here by the

old canal company, but it is of inadequate dimensions, and in order to avoid some rock excavation it was given an awkward shape. A new channel will be cut on a straight line, part

of which will be an enlargement of the present one. It will have a width at bottom of 650 feet, and will be excavated to a depth of 8.5

feet below the datum plane, which will give it an area of cross section

of about 10,000 square feet when the surface of the water is at elevaS D—57-1—Vol 7 7
98 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tion 7. Its length measured on the bottom is 6,955 feet, and the

maximum depth of cutting- is 25 feet, much of it rock. With a head

of 11 feet it can discharge 140,000 cubic feet per second at a velocity

of about 9.55 miles per hour. Its cost is estimated at $1,929,982.

The canal in the low region above and below

Gatum must be protected from overflow by levees,

their total length aggregating about 5.1 miles. The height to which

these levees should be carried can not be determined with accuracy

from the present data, and must be tixed from observations of floods hereafter. As in all other cases of doubt." a height has been adopted

which will err, if at all, upon the safe side. For the purpose of

estimate the height has been placed at elevation 25. The width on

top is 13 feet and the side slopes 1 on 2. It is probable, however,

that the levees will be used as spoil banks for the material dredged

from the canal, and that their dimensions, except as to height, will much exceed those here given.

From Gatum the overflow from Lake Bohio and all tributaries

below the lake on the west side of the canal will find its way to the

sea through the Chagres River, which the canal here leaves. The onlv tributary on the east side for which

Uatun diversion. . , ... . . _. any special provision need be made is the Gatun.

A diversion channel intended to take a portion of the water of the

Chagres was constructed by the old company along the east side of

the canal to Boca Grande back of Colon. It cuts across the Gatun

near the town of the same name, and while no longer required for the

Chagres, it is available as a new channel for the Gatun. It was

designed to carry a discharge of 17,600 cubic feet per second, which is much in excess of the maximum discharge of the Gatun. Some work

must be done on it, especially at the crossing of the Panama Railroad,

where the piers for a new bridge have been built. The cost of putting

this channel into service is estimated at $100,000.

From Bohio to the Obispo gates the Panama Railroad must be

rebuilt for 15.5 miles on a new location, with a bridge across the

Chagres below Gamboa. An estimate made from

8ioPn.nama Ba,lr°ad dlTCr

" approximate profiles indicates that the cost of this diversion will not exceed $75,000 a mile, or

$1,162,500. From the Obispo gates the railroad will be carried for 6

miles on the bench formed by the retaining wall on the east side of

the Culebra Cut, these 6 miles being estimated to cost $10,000 a mile,

which includes only track laying, ties, and ballasting. Beyond this

will be a mile of light work estimated at $25,000, while the main track

will have to be raised for 2 miles farthei at a cost of $20,000. Combining these figures, the total cost of the diversion of the Panama

Railroad becomes $1,267,500.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 99

Suming up the several figures already given, the total estimated cost of completing the Panama Canal is as follows:

Total estimated cost.

Miles. Cost.

Colon entrance and harbor Harbor to Bohio locks, including levees Bohio locks, including excavation Lake Bohio

Obispo gates

< lulebra section Pedro Miguel locks, including excavation and dam . Pedro Miguel level Mirarlores locks, including excavation and spillway.

Pacific level Bohio dam

Gigante spillway

Pefla Blanca outlet Chagres diversion Gat un diversion Panama Railroad diversion

2.39

14. 42

.35 13.61

7.91 .35

1.33

.20 8.53

18, 057, 707 11,099,839

11,567,275

2, 952, 154

295, 434 44,414,460

9,081,321

1, 192, 286

5,781,401

12, 427, 971

6, 369, 640 1,209,419

2, 448, 076

1, 929, 982

100, 000 1,267,500

Total. 49.09 Engineering, police, sanitation, and general contingencies, 20 per cent

Aggregate

120, 194, 465 24,038,893

144, 233, 358

The total amount of excavation is 94,863,703 cubic yards, exclusive

of excavation for the Bohio dam, and the Gigante spillway.

The location of the canal is, in general, the same as that proposed

by the French company. Its total length, from 36 feet deep in the

Atlantic to 36 feet deep in the Pacific, is 49.09 miles. The distance

from the inner end of the harbor enlargement at Colon to the shore

end of the ba}^ channel at La Boca is 42.3 miles, of which 11 miles is the broad channel of Lake Bohio. The alignment

is exceptionally good, the sharpest curve having a

radius of 6,232 feet, except one at the entrance to Colon Harbor, which

has a radius of 3,280 feet, but where the bottom width is from 500 to 800 feet. The total curvature in the entire length of the canal is 771°

39', distributed as follows:

Length ami curvature.

Number of curves. Length. Radius. Total cur- vature.

1 Miles. 0.88

.48 4.22

11.61 2.44

1.67

.73

.82

Feet.

19, 629

13, 123 11,483 9,842

8, 202

6, 562 6,234

3,281

o / 14 17

1 11 04

4.. 111 32

15 355 50

4... 90 20 2 77 00

1 35 45

1 75 51 Total • 22.85 771 39

Alternative location. An examination has been made of a different

location on a more direct line between Gatun and

Bohio by which the distance will be shortened 1.25 miles. As this line shows no material saving in cost from that described in this report, it
100 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

has been thought best, for purposes of estimate, to adhere to the

French location. A description of this line will be found in Appendix F. The time required to pass through the canal

Time of transit.

i

• -n • . after completion will vary with the size of the vessel and with the number of other vessels. For the purpose of comparison the time has been carefully computed for a ship 400 feet long,

50 feet beam, and 21.5 feet draft, or what may be called an averagesized ship. The open sea speed is taken at 12. 5 statute miles, or about 11 knots, per hour. The reduced speed in various parts of the canal and

the delays caused by lockages and by passing other vessels have been

obtained from observation of the practical working of the Sault Ste. Marie and the Manchester canals. They are as follows: In canal sec- tions having a bottom width 150 feet, speed on tangents 8 miles per

hour, on curves 7 miles per hour; in Panama Bay channel, speed 9 miles per hour; in Lake Bohio, speed on tangents 10 miles per hour, on curves 9 miles per hour; in harbors and harbor entrances, speed on

tangents 10 miles per hour, on curves 8-^ miles per hour; all statute miles. The delay caused by lockages is 3 hours and 58 minutes, unci that caused by meeting other vessels L hour and 14 minutes. From

these data the time of transit through the canal is computed to be 11

hours and 1-1 minutes. A full discussion of this subject will be found

in Appendix G.

The plan recommended by the Commission is, in its general outlines,

the same as the second plan of the French engineers, the one preferred

by them, except for the time required for construction. The principal difference is in the height given to the Bohio dam and the important

consequences which result therefrom. A marked feature of the Commission's plan is its simplicity. The increase in the depth and area

of Lake Bohio renders it possible to receive the full Hood discharge of

the Chagres directly into it without impeding navigation and at the same time to take full advantage of favorable topoiuIkkIoi" "nian!

* m" ^rttphital features of the country in the subsequent

discharge of the surplus waters. The Alhajuela

dam becomes unnecessary for (food control, and its construction may

be deferred until additional storage capacity is required as the result of a large increase in the traffic of the canal in the future. The outlet

of Lake Bohio becomes a single fixed weir instead of two weirs with

regulating gates and with two separate channels to the sea. A great

reduction also results in the amount of excavation required to cut through the continental divide. There is a material reduction of cost. The quantities given in the foregoing estimate are based upon the

present condition of the Isthmus, utilizing the excavations already

made where they are useful. The new company has excavated about

5,000,000 cubic yards, which, added to the 72,000,000 cubic yards exca-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 101

vated prior to its organization, make a total of 77,000,000 cubic yards

excavated by the two companies. Much of it is of

vaiu, of excavation »i- lue because of the various changes of plan.

ready done. ° * For example, sites for locks have been excavated

and then abandoned; the spoil banks on the Atlantic maritime section

frequently come within the limits of the canal prism now projected

and must be rehandled. The amount of work done which will be of

value under the plan recommended by the Commission has been carefully computed for the main canal line, and is found to be 36,689,965

cubic yards. The amount of excavation which can be utilized in the

Chagres diversion is 210,873 cubic yards and in the (latum diversion

2,685,494 cubic yards. Adding these together the total quantity of

excavation which will be of value in the new plan is 39,586,332 cubic- yards. A temporary diversion of the Panama Railroad has been

made at the Culebra cut which also must be considered. Using the same classification of materials and the- same unit prices as in the

other estimates, with the 20 per cent added for contingencies, the

value of the work done is found to be: Canal excavation $21,020,386

Chagres diversion . 178, 186

Gatun diversion 1, 396, 456

Railroad diversion (4 miles) 300,000

22,895,028

Contingencies. 20 per cent 4, 579, 005

Aggregate 27, 474, 033

There is on hand an immense amount of plant, consisting of loco- motives, excavators, dredges, cars, rails, and

Plant on haud. t & ' machines, implements, tools, spare parts, and supplies of various kinds, besides buildings used for offices, quarters,

storehouses, hospitals, and miscellaneous purposes, and some 30,000

acres of land. The inventory furnished to the Commission includes

many thousands of items, classified as follows:

1. Lands not built on.

2. Buildings, 2.431 in number, divided among 47 subclassifications.

3. Furniture and stable outfit, with 17 subclassifications.

4. Floating plant and spare parts, with 24 subclassifications.

5. Rolling plant and spare parts, with 17 subclassifications.

6. Plant, stationary and semistationary, and spare parts, with 25

subclassifications.

7. Small material and spare parts, with 4 subclassifications.

S. Surgical and medical outfit.

9. Medical stores.

10. Office supplies, stationery • 11. Miscellaneous supplier, with 740 subclassifications.
102 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

As a general rule, this property shows signs of attention, and the

evidence seems satisfactory that it has been well cared for since the

liquidator took charge of it in 1889. It would manifestly be imprudent, however, to fix a value upon any imporYalue of plant. . . tant machine which has been idle that length of

time without first actually testing it at work, however neatly painted

and sheltered it may now be. Much of the property is ill adapted to American methods, and all of it is now from thirteen to twenty years

old, during which period the improvements in this class of machinery

have been such that contractors would generally find it to their

advantage- to buy entirely new machinery of modern pattern rather

than attempt to use this of an older class, even if given to them free

and in good order. The locomotives, rails, and cars may be of some

service, but their value is doubtful; the locomotives are much lighter

than is desirable for economical service, the rails are of a pattern ill fitted to rough use, and the ears have narrow-tread wheels. The cars are probably the best part of the whole outfit. It has seemed to the

Commission that in acquiring the Panama Canal the United States should not buy this plant as a whole, and that no special allowance

should be made for it in estimating the total value of the property.

Its owners may realize something by the salt 1 of portions of it to contractors if the latter find that they can use it to advantage. This

valuation is all that the Commission can put upon the plant: it has

already appeared in the estimates, since the unit prices have been

fixed upon the condition that contractors furnish their own plant,

The same is true of the great majority of the

Value of buildings. .

• buildings, including all barracks, storehouses,

shops, stables, and miscellaneous buildings, and excepting only the

hospitals and principal administration buildings. The latter would be

the subject of special negotiation. They have appeared in the esti- mates under the head of contingencies; no special allowance is made

for them here.

The concession is of no value to the I'nited

laLT

°' , '°" cession *"" States, since a new one must be obtained from

the Colombian Government in any event. It is the same with the lands, title to which is dependent upon the completion of the canal, and is still to be earned.

The existence of the Panama Railroad is, however, a very important

factor, as it supplies a service railroad for the entire length of the

canal. On the basis of $75,000 a mile, this railValue of Panama Itallroatl. , , , , , ,.>.,,,.

road would be worth $3,500,000, which is half the face value of its capital stock. In view of its good condition and

its valuable termini, it should, not be estimated for purposes of canal

construction at less than ^vSOU/JOO, the par value of the 68,500 shares
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 103

of its stock held by the canal company. The exceptional gauge—

feet—somewhat reduces its value, as it adds to the cost of rolling stock. The maps, drawings, and records are unusually

Value of maps and records. . complete, and their value is great, though not capable of accurate estimate. In the judgment of the Commission, a

fair allowance for these would be $2,000,000.

T ., , ,

,. „ Summing up the foregoing items, the total value Total value of the Panama fe 1 . & & ) <anai. of the property is found to be:

Excavation already done $27, 474, 033

Panama Railroad stock at par 6, 850, 000

>s, drawings, and records ... 2, 000, 000

Total „ _ 36. 324, 033

to which add 10 per cent to cover omissions, making the total valuation of the Panama Canal $40,000,000.
Attractive features.

Chapter VI.

THE NICARAGUA ROUTE.

The Nicaragua route attracted the attention of

explorers in the early days of interoceanic canal

discussion, and was regarded by many as a most favorable one. Water

communication by means of a large river and lake from the Atlantic

to within a short distance of the Pacific accentuates the natural advantages of this route and at the same time tends to exaggerate them

and to obscure the attendant difficulties. Lake Nicaragua is about 103 miles long. It lias Lake Nicaragua. . . -., , .-, j a maximum width or about 45 miles and an area

of about 3,000 square miles. It is fairly regular in outline, with its longer axis nearly parallel to the Pacific coast, which in this vicinity

has a northwesterly direction. It resembles Lake Erie somewhat in shape, but has only about one-third the area of the latter. Notwithstanding the fact that the existence of this lake had long been known,

it appears that the first instrumental survey was made by the Nicaragua Canal Commission in 1898. It was then found that the bottom of

the lake is above sea level over the greater part of its area, a comparatively small depression being below that level. The maximum

depth is about 200 feet, and is found just south of the island of

Ometepe, which has an elevation of 5,000 feet. About 18 miles to the northwest of Lake NicaLake Managua. . , . ragua. and on the prolongation, ot its axis, lies Lake

Managua, extending a distance of 37 miles toward the Gulf of Fonseca, a large natural harbor opening to the Pacific Ocean. The drainage of Lake Managua is through the river Tipitapa, which, however,

is frequently without water in the dry seasons. This lake is <>.'> miles

from the Gulf of Fonseca. A somewhat shorter route from Lake

Managua to the Pacific crosses I he plain of Leon to the bay of Corinto,

a distance of about 35 miles in an air line. The surface of Lake Nicaragua is generally a

>irar;S!"°

ns °* '' a

" little more than LOO feet above sea level, [ts ex- treme fluctuation is not definitely known. Its annual fluctuation varies with the annual rainfall and the discharge of

the streams that empty into it. These are small, and in the dry season they discharge very Little. Mr. Menocal in his report for L885 states that the lake was as high as 1 L0.63 feet above mean sea Unci at the end

mi
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 105

of the wet season of L878. This is perhaps founded on the observations

of the residents of Granada, who are reported to have seen the water

of the lake up to the top of the steamboat wharf at that place. This

may be regarded as an approximate determination of highest lake

level. The data for fixing- the minimum level of the lake are equally

uncertain; but it is stated on the authority of what are believed to be

competent witnesses that it has been as low as 97 or less. These

extremes have only been reached at long intervals. The fluctuations

in the last three years, during which time regular observations have

been taken, have amounted to only 6.09 feet. The drainage basin of the lake is in great part mountainous. This is particularly the ease on the east side, where it is separated (except in the immediate vicinity of its outlet) from the district draining into the

Atlantic by a mountain range. There is reason to

Characteristics of drainfe j. that his formerly the continental

aire basin. fe divide. At the present time the divide is between

the lake and the Pacific. Until the surveys of Colonel Childs, made in 1850-1852, the lowest passes known across this divide were supposed

to be those from Lake Managua to the Gulf of Fonseca and the Bajr of Corinto, and canal lines from the lakes to the Pacific were projected

to those points. Colonel Childs developed a far better route, crossing

the divide at an elevation of only 153 feet above mean tide and following the valley of a small stream ealled the Rio Grande to the Pacific at Brito. The entire region between the lakes and the Pacific is now

well enough known to establish beyond doubt that this is the lowest

erossing of the divide, and is in every respect the best canal route. The San Juan River, through which the lake discharges at Fort

San Carlos, follows a tortuous course in a southeasterly direction

and empties through several mouths into the Caribbean Sea near Grevtown. The distance from the lake outlet to

The San Juan River. . . . . „ the mouth of the river is about 80 miles in an air

line, but about 120 miles following the windings of the river, the

greater portion of the valley drained being on the right bank, where

the divide, a lofty mountain range, is about 50 miles distant. On the

left bank the divide is only 10 to 20 miles from the river, and the

crest is much lower. The Indio, which empties into the Caribbean

Sea some 6 miles northwest of Grevtown, runs generally parallel to the San Juan, the headwaters of some of its tributaries being only

about 15 to 20 miles distant from that river.

The principal tributaries of the San Juan on the

3^n^ntnZ^n left bank are the Melchora, Sabalos, Santa Cruz,

Bartola, Machuca, Danta, and San Francisco, but none of them are of great size. The most important in their relation

to the canal project are the Danta and San Francisco. They are in a

region of heavy rainfall, hut it is impossible to measure their greatest
106 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

flood discharges because they overflow their banks and intercommunicate, and also because backwater from the San Juan extends for a considerable distance up their valleys. The soil in their beds and

banks is of a soft, alluvial character, generally free from grit, and

contains quantities of decayed or decaying vegetation. When drained

it stands well on steep slopes, as is shown by the banks, which are often vertical. At a short distance from the banks, where the drainage

is imperfect, the material is very soft to a great depth. Their

drainage basins are covered with a dense tropical growth which protects the soil, so that water finds its way into the streams with comparatively little solid matter in suspension. The Sabalos, while not a large stream, attains considerable size at times. Gaugings taken b\T this Commission show that the discharge often reaches as much as 2,000 cubic feet per second. The maximum measured was on September -I'd. 1899, when it reached 12,000 cubic feet per second. The

minimum discharge is as low as 23 cubic feet per second. The Santa

Cruz is of similar character, while the Melchora, Bartola, and

Machuca are much smaller streams. On the right bank are the Frio, the Poco Sol, the San Carlos, and

the Se'rapiqui, besides several smaller streams. The Frio is treated as a river discharging into the lake. Its mouth, however, is close alongside the outlet of the San Juan. It is a river of some importance when

in flood, though it is small in the dry season. A discharge of nearly

12,000 cubic feet per second was observed by the Nicaragua Canal

Commission. The Poco Sol is a much smaller stream. There is little known of its watershed, though the maps show its source in the mountainous region of Costa Rica. The river has been gauged and its dis- charge determined in a series of 18 gaugings extending over a period

of one year, viz, from October, 1899, to the latter part of September,

1900. On April 20, 1900, the discharge was only 34 cubic feet per

second. On July 15, 1900, the discharge was 2,651 cubic feet per

second; this was the maximum observed. No appreciable amount of

sediment has been brought into the San Juan by

li^rTr^tl^.^" anv oi tnese tributaries during the continuance of the surveys extending over tin1 last four years, and

there is no indication in tin1 San Juan itself that any of its tributaries

above the San Carlos contributes an amount of sediment that is appreciable in connection with the maintenance of a navigable channel.

The largest and most important tributary of the San Juan is the San

Carlos. It rises in the mountains of Costa Rica, flows northeasterly

and empties into the San Juan about 57 miles (measured along the

windings of the river) from the lake. Ltisawide,

swift stream, having a drainage area of about L,500

square miles, as determined from the best maps available. This esti-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 107

mate may be too great or too small, as the region has never been sur- veyed. The discharge varies within wide limits. It is known to have

been as low as 3,000 cubic feet pev second, and as high as 66,820 cubic

feet per second. The estimated possible maximum is 100,000 cubic feet per second. Its banks as far as they have been explored are of clay

and withstand well the action of the river current. It is proper to remark, however, that information on the physics of this river is mainly limited to what is obtainable near its mouth. The bed of the

river in the lower part is sand which is easily put in motion. It is supposed that the sources of this sand are the volcanoes in the Costa

Rican mountains. That found in the delta of the San Juan River is similar in character. The floods of this stream are of great violence

and frequency.

The Serapiqui is a river of similar character to

Seraplqui Klver. * *

. . . the San Carlos, but it is not so large. It is a sandbearing stream and adds a large quota of this material to the main

river. Its measured discharge varies from about 3,000 cubic feet to about 26,000 cubic feet per second. Its maximum is doubtless much

greater.

There is another river still farther to the east- ward called the Negro, which, according to the

maps, drains a large area of Costa Rican territory, and discharges into

the Colorado outlet of the San Juan. Very little is known of the

characteristics of this stream and no effort was made to secure any

information, as it does not affect the question before the Commission.

The fall of the San Juan River from the lake to

Fall in San Juan Klver. . . the sea is about 100 feet. About one-halt of this occurs above the mouth of the San Carlos, and is mainly concentrated

at several rapids. At each of the principal rapids the lied of the river

is rock. The most important of these is at Castillo. The fall in the

river is here 6 feet in a distance of little more than one-third of a

mile. The existing navigation of the river is very much obstructed

here and boats can only pass when the river is high. Ordinarily

freight and passengers are carried around the rapids on a tramway.

Between the Machuca Rapids and the mouth of the San Carlos the

river is deep and the current moderate. In low stages it is almost

imperceptible. When the San Carlos is in flood the San Juan current

may even set upstream. This part of the river is called the Agua

Muerte (dead water). The bottom of the channel in places is below

the sea level. The amount of sediment delivered to the river by its upper tributaries has evidently been no greater than its waters have

been able to transport, notwithstanding the moderate current. Below

the moutn of the San Carlos the fall is quite uniformly distributed.
108 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The following table gives approximately the fall in feet for the vari- ous reaches of the Sun Juan River from the lake to the sea. with the

lake at elevation 104:

Slopes in various reaches of San Juan.

Reach. Distance

in miles.

Fall

in

feet.

27. 16 5.4

1.70 7.3

7. 98 1.2

.38 6.0

11.17 24.5

.95 4.0

15.37 1.0 33.02 30.0

5. 28 4.0

18.65 20.6

121.66 104.

From the lake to head of Toro Rapids

In Toro Rapids From foot of Toro Rapids to head of Castillo Rapids

In Castil lo Rapids From foot of Castillo Rapids to head of Maehuca Rapids

In Maehuca Rapids From foot of Maehuca Rapids to mouth of the San Carlos (Agua Muerte) From mouth of San Carlos to head of the San Juanillo From head of San Juanillo to the head of the Colorado From head of Colorado to sea (via Lower Sau Juau)

Total, from lake to sea

The slopes above given are approximate only, and result from the

lake being at elevation 104 and the river under normal conditions.

They will vary with the stage of the lake and with the rainfall in the

drainage basin of the river. The bed of the Upper San Juan (and by this is Bed of I'pper San Juan. _. T 7. ,

. . .

' . meant the San Juan from the lake to the mouth

of the San Carlos River) consists chiefly of silt, clay, or rock. The

river banks general!}' resist the erosive action of the currents, even where the velocities are great. This is due in a measure to the protection afforded by growing vegetation, which reaches to the water's edge and sometimes extends below it. but mainly to the cohesive

character of the material. Below the mouth of the San Carlos the

bed of the San Juan consists mostly of sand, which forms shifting

bars. Freshets in the rivers of the United States are

San Juan In freshets. • i t

• • > 1 usually characterized by quantities of logs ana

other drift floating on the surface. As a rule fallen timber in the

San Juan River remains where it falls, or at least is not moved any

great distance, as the most of it is too heavy to float. This is an important fact in connection with the construction of the canal. Where the line passes through old swamps, doubtless considerable

heavy timber will be encountered below the surface of the ground.

About 8 miles below the mouth of the SeraSan Juanillo Hirer. ... , T

.,. . piqui the oan Juanillo branches off, following a tortuous course until it again joins the Lower San Juan, a short dis- tance southeast of Grey Town. The indications point to this strean

as having been in remote times an important outlet of the main

river. A short distance below the mouth of the SeraCoastal plain. , piqui the San Juan River enters the coastal plain. a region of swamps, bayous, and lagoons. About 20 miles from the
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 109

sea it divides into two outlet branches—the Lower Sun Juan, which dis- charges through Harbor Head Lagoon near Grey Town, and the Colorado, which discharges directly into the Caribbean Sea, about 15 miles

to the southward. The latter is the principal outlet and may be

enlarging at the expense of the Lower San Juan, although as long ago

as 1851 the gaugings made by Colonel Childs showed that the Colorado was carrying nearly four-fifths of the total amount at a mean stage.

Each of these outlets is subdivided and the entire system intercommunicates.

, , .

There are indications of a general subsidence of

subsidence. , a

the Atlantic coast in this region. The former

rocky bed of the San Juan appears to have been depressed. At

Machuca Rapids rock appears near the water surface. At the dam

site adopted by this Commission at Conchuda the distance from the

lowT - water surface to the lowest point in the rock cross section is about

80 feet. At the dam site suggested by the Nicaragua Canal Commission the distance is about 110 feet. At Tambor Grande, 18 miles

farther downstream, it is not less than 140 feet, and is doubtless considerably more in the lowest depression. From the mouth of the San

Carlos down is a deep rock}T trough, which is tilled with sand. Some

sand has also been carried a short distance above the San Carlos by

floods from that stream when the San Juan was low. In the coastal plain, which consists mainly of swamps, vegetable

matter intermixed with silt is found to a considerable depth, but within

5 or 6 miles of the coast sand is found extending to a great depth

under a light covering of mud.

Along the Atlantic coast in the vicinity of Grey Town and for some

distance inland the rainfall is the greatest known on the continent.

There is no detinite dry season. Rain may be expected almost any

day in the year. On the other hand, the entire drainage basin of Lake

Nicaragua lies in a region having a well-detined dry season. The

annual rainfall near Grey Town sometimes amounts to nearly 300 inches.

The average is probably 260 to 270 inches, while at Bluefields, 75 miles

to the north, and at Port Limon, 70 miles to the southeast, it is less than half as much. There is a perceptible diminution in the annual

Rainfall. rainfall as one proceeds westward to the lake. The total for the year 1899, at Grey Town was

2S5. 93 inches, while that for the same period at Ochoa was 177.91 inches,

and at Fort San Carlos 77.20 inches. For the year 1900 the annual

rainfalls were for Grey Town, 266.10 inches, for Ochoa, 158.83 inches,

and for Fort San Carlos, 89.34 inches. The heaviest observed rainfall

in a short period was that at Silico station on Lake Silico, November

4, 1899, when 10.5 inches fell in six hours, an average of If inches per

hour. On the same date a fall of 12.48 inches in twenty-four hours was observed at Grey Town. A rainfall of 4 inches or more in one day
110 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION.

is not a rare occurrence in that vicinity. In the drainage basin of

Lake Nicaragua the average annual rainfall is about 65 inches.

The trade winds blow almost constantly, but

Minds. .

,

. , they are not strong enough to sensibly aftect canal

navigation. At rare intervals violent northers occur, which are felt to a less degree in the interior. It is not believed that the winds

would seriously interfere with canal navigation at any time.

It can be readily understood that the Nicaragua route, affording

water transportation from the Atlantic to within a few miles of the

Pacific, was very attractive when navigation was carried on by means

of small ships. It became a favorite transisthmian route immediately

after the discovery of gold in California. Passengers arriving by sea

at the port of Grev Town, at that time an excellent

Transit route. harbor, were transported by steamboats to the

west shore of the lake; whence the Pacific was reached by a short

stage line, which terminated at the port of San Juan del Sur. This was a busy traffic route for some years. Successive projects for inter- oceanic communication have had to provide for the increasing dimensions of ships, and as channel dimensions have thus been enlarged the

difficulties of providing for a safe navigation have become greater.

The serious difficulties, however, are nearly all found between Machuca

Rapids and the Caribbean.

The region of practicable canal routes is limited to the north side of

the San Juan River, by the existence of the San Carlos and Serapiqui

rivers on the south side. Financially it would be

ranlfrltos!

,,ra,

' n,* il " U' impracticable to divert these streams,* and it would

be equally impracticable to take them into the

canal. Hence all the surveys and examinations for a canal route have

been confined to the north side of the river. The topography of the country in the vicinity of the route adopted

is generally rough. The hills as a rule do not attain a great height,

but they are usually steep and bunched together, with areas of swamp

or low flats about them. The surface is covered with a dense growth

of tropical vegetation which renders exploration

Topography. °

or surveys extremely difficult and expensive.

There are few places where a transit line can be run 50 feet without

cutting out a line of sight. This difficulty accounts for the paucity of

existing topographical information, notwithstanding the fact that the

country has long been known and studied for a canal route. From Grey Town to Castillo the boundary between the republics of

Costa Rica and Nicaragua follows the right bank of the San Juan

River. Thence to the lake, the boundary is a line

Boundary. . .. on the right bank, generally about 2 miles from

the river. Both shores from Castillo to the lake are therefore m

Nicaraguan territory. When the level of the water of the river is
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Ill

raised by the construction of the proposed dam at Conchuda, sonic of

the lands in Costa Rican territory will he submerged, although the

canal line from Castillo westward to the Pacific will lie wholly in X iearaguan territory.

While many propositions more or less indefinite had previously been

made for a canal across the isthmus in Nicaragua, the first actual sur- vey made and definite project proposed were those

Chilils's project. Is.VJ. ^ * .... ,, . . . of Col. (J. \\ . Childs, a civil engineer of high,

standing, in 1850-52. The survey made by him was for a private

corporation known as "The American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal

Company." His project has been the basis for all subsequent ones, and the route followed by him does not differ greatly from that which

is now recommended by this Commission. He reached the conclusion

that a ship canal through Nicaragua from the Atlantic to the Pacific

could not be considered practicable upon any other route than that

through the valley of the San Juan to Lake Nicaragua, and from that

lake either southwesterly upon a line through some A'allev extending

across the dividing ridge, or northwesterly up the river Tipitapa to Lake Managua, thence through the valle}' extending from the head of

that lake to some feasible point for a connection with the Pacific. In view of the greater length of a canal by the latter route, the greater

amount of lockage, and uncertainty of obtaining a full supply of water

upon the higher summit, it was deemed best to begin by exploring the

country lying directly between the west side of Lake Nicaragua and

the Pacific. He then examined different routes from Lake

coionei

e ('hihis.mine<

* Nicaragua to the Pacific, beginning with that via

the Sapoa and terminating in Salinas Bay. The

conclusion was reached that the line leading from the lake at the

mouth of the River Las Lajas up the eastern slope of the divide and

down the valley of the Rio Grande on the western slope to the Pacific

at Brito presented more favorable conditions than any other between

Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific, and was superior to anjT route b}T way of Lake Managua. He thus disposed of the routes terminating

at the Gulf of Fonseca, Port Realejo, and Tamorinda River. The

divide on this line was crossed at an elevation of about 46 feet above

the level of the lake. The plan adopted made the lake the summit

level; its surface was to be maintained at about 108 feet above sea

level by means of a dam 1,050 feet long and 16.21 feet high at Castillo

Rapids, and another on the west side at Buen Retiro, about 10 miles

west of the lake. The latter dam was to be 290 feet long and 33 feet high. The summit level made by these dams, as given by Colonel

Childs in his report, was to be 103.43 miles. It would have been

longer, as the distance across the lake was underestimated. The fall from high lake to low tide on the Atlantic side was to be 108.73 feet
112 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

and on the Pacific .side 111. 17 feet. On the eastern side the summit

was to be reached by 12 locks of 8 feet lift each, 1 of 6.5, and 1 of 6.23

feet; on the western side by 13 locks of 8 feet each and 1 of 7. IT feet. The water in the canal was to have a depth of 17 feel and a bottom

width of 50 feet. In earth, the side slopes were to be I on '2 for a height of 9 feet from the bottom, then a berme of »> feet followed

by a slope of 1 on 1^, paved with stone. In rock the bottom width was to he the same, but for a height of !> feet above

slopes.6TM

0n

tn< * bottom each side had a slope of 1 on H; from

there to a height of 15 feet above the water in the

canal the slope w

T as to be 21 on 1. At this level there was a berme 9 feet wide for towing purposes, and from the back of this berme the

side slope was 4 on 1 until earth was reached, when the slope was

changed to 1 on 1-J. A passing place was to be made at the head

of each lock and at least one in every mile of length of the canal. At

these passing places the bottom width of the canal in earth was to be

increased to 90 feet, and in rock to L05 feet. The bottom width of

that portion of the canal occupying tiie Rio Las Lajas was to be 1(H) feet; at all of the cuts through bars in the river the width at bottom

was to be 150 feet. The locks were to be 60 by 250 feet, with 17 feet depth of water on their miter sills. Slack water navigation was to be

made in the San Juan from the lake to about one-half mile below

the mouth of the Serapiqui River by a series of 7 dams. These were

to be passed by moans of locks on short canals. Below this point

the canal left the river on the north side and was to be excavated for a distance of 28.50 miles to 17 feet depth of water in the harbor of

Grey Town. The line crossed the Rio San Jaunillo about three-fourths

of a mile from its junction with the San Juan. The San Juanillo was

to be diverted to the north.

The project included the formation of a harbor at Brito and the

improvement and enlargement of the one at Grej

Length ami cost of the -,, ,

. ,. , , ,. . • • v, , cana]

I own by jetties and by excavation. A lighthouse was provided for at each harbor. Grey Town, at the time of the examination made by Colonel Childs, was connected

with the sea by a channel 24 feetdeep and L,300 feet wide. In the lake

the channel from near Fort San Carlos to near Boccas (Solentiname)

Islands, which w

T as to be 150 feet wide, was to be protected by a row

of piles driven on each side. On the western side, near the mouth of the Las Lajas, the cut in the lake wits to be protected by a pier constructed on either side and extended to deep water. The total length

of the route was given as follows:

Miles. From the 17-foot curve in the Pacifictodam at Buen Retiro 8.809

From dam at Buen Retiro to Lake Nicaragua i».77'.>

Total western division . 18.588
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 113

Miles. Across Lake Nicaragua (now known to be 70.51 miles) 56.500

From Lake Nicaragua to dam near Castillo 37, 151

From dam near Castillo to dam near Serapiqui 53, 874

From San Juan River to 17-foot curve in Caribbean

Sea 28,280

Total eastern division 119.305

Total 194.393

Summit level: West of lake 9.779

Lake 56.500

East of lake 37.151

Total 103.430

The total cost of the canal was estimated at $31,538,319.55, which

included 15 per cent for contingencies, and the work was to be completed within six years from the time of breaking ground.

The contract between Nicaragua and the cornDepth of cauai not as required that the canal should be large enough

great as contract required. 1 .' 1 " »

to accommodate vessels of all sizes, and Colonel

Chi Ids had been instructed by the company to make surveys and esti- mates for a work of such dimensions as would comply with this requirement. He recognized that the dimensions proposed would not meet it. His reasons for limiting the depth to 17 feet were that the ratio of

increase of the expense of a deeper canal would be very great, and that

the construction of a canal of the dimensions required for vessels of

the largest size would be an injudicious application of means that the

company would scarcely favor or the interests of commerce require.

He stated also that no vessels were plying between the Atlantic States and the eastern coast of the Pacific with a draft as great as 17 feet, and

that of 261 steam vessels, mostly English, as given in Murray's Treatise on Marine Engines and Steam Vessels, only 15 drew over 17 feet, 21

drew 17 feet, and 225 less than 17 feet each at the load line. He had

therefore made his plans and estimates with due consideration of the

disparity in cost and general utility of a canal of larger dimensions.

At the request of the company this report of the survey and loca- tion was submitted by President Fillmore to Col.

Report referred to J

. Colonel Abert and Major J. J. Abeit and MilJ. W. Tumbull, Corps Ot

Turi,b '111 - Topographical Engineers, for their inspection and

opinion, and on the 20th of March, 1852, they reported that the plan

proposed by Colonel Childs was practicable, but they expressed the

opinion that the jetties at Grey Town Harbor and one or both at Brito

S D—57-1—Vol 7»—
114 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

could be dispensed with; also the pile work in the lake near Fort San

Carlos; and that one row of guide piles about 100 feet apart to mark

the channel from there to Boccas (Solentiname) Islands would be suffi- cient. It was also recommended that additional surveys be made

between the San Juan River and Gre}7 Town Harbor to determine

whether a more direct line could be found. These modifications, it was suggested, would materially diminish the cost of the canal, also the time in passing it. Colonel Childs subsequently proposed a project

for a canal 12 feet deep with a smaller prism and smaller locks. Nothing further was done by either the AmeriLnU's project, 1873. fe J can Atlantic and Facinc Snip Canal Company or anyone else looking to the construction of this canal for about twenty

years, when an expedition was fitted out by the United States Government, under the charge of Commander A. F. Grossman, U. S. N.,

for the purpose of surveying an interoceanic canal

Expedition under Com- , rpi j-j.- -i 1 ji rr txt j. mander Grossman, i.s.n. route- The expedition sailed from Key West,

and arrived off Grey Town on April 7, 1872. On

April 12, while attempting to make a landing at Grey Town, the

boat containing Commander Grossman capsized, and he with a number of his party was drowned. The command of the expedition

then devolved upon Commander Hatfield, U. S. N., who proceeded

with the surveying parties to Lake Nicaragua and began operations on the west side of the lake, securing some valuable information

respecting the routes between the lake and the Pacific. His investigations showed that Colonel Childs's survey of the western portion of

his line was correct. Commander Hatfield's party made reconnoissances, with the object of finding another line by which the route could be shortened and the Rio Grande avoided, the upper part of the

valley of the latter being practically a gorge and liable to give trouble

in time of flood. The parties under the charge of Commander

Parties under Comman- T t .^ it • i ,1 , • <• ,. i *, der iiatfleid. Hatfield, with the exception of a tew men, left to do some hydrographic work in the lake, for

which the calmer weather of the rainy season is more favorable, were withdrawn from the Isthmus in .July. In November of the same year

an expedition was fitted out under the command

Lull succeeds Hatfield. *

. of Commander L. 1 . Lull, u. S. N., who arrived

off Grey Town December, 1872. and took up the work begun by Commander Hatfield. Commander Lull made an examination of a Dumber

of routes between the lake and the Pacific, and finally adopted the one known as the Medio route. From the Pacific Ocean to a place called Las Serdas, near the outlet

of the Rio Grande gorge, the line is practically the same as that adopted by Colonel Childs. From thence it swings to the northward

on a radius of 2,200 feet, following the valley of a

West Division. *f ~ small stream then called the Chocolata (called Gua-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 115

chipilin on recent maps) for a short distance, and crosses the divide

into the valley of the Medio, which it follows to the lake. The total length of the line from Brito to the lake was 16.33 miles, being about

a mile and a half shorter than the Childs route. The summit of the

divide was 134 feet above the level of the lake, or about 241 feet above

sea level, giving a maximum depth of cutting of lt50 feet. There were

to be 11 locks in this section, including a tide lock at Brito, to admit

ships at any stage of the tide. The tide lock was to have a lift of 9

feet, the others of 10.31 feet each. The brook Chocolata, which the route crossed, was to be taken into the canal, but the Tola, as well as several smaller streams, was to be passed under the canal by means of

culverts to the Rio Grande. The waters of the latter stream were

conducted to the Pacific on the south side of the canal, diversion channels being provided where necessary. By this departure from the

Childs route the Rio Grande was excluded from the canal, a feature

then deemed important.

A small harbor at Brito was to be formed by the

construction of a breakwater extending easterty

from Brito Head and a short jetty from the beach on the opposite side

of the entrance. The mouth of the river was to be utilized for harbor

purposes, and the diversion of the stream to the eastward of the

entrance was provided for. The harbor as designed was well protected. From the lake eastward it was proposed to canalize the San Juan

River by the construction of dams and locks and short sections of

canal at Castillo, Balas, and Machuca Rapids, and at a place about 2 miles below the mouth of the San Carlos. All the dams were to be

comparatively low, and the waters of the river

Eastern division. "L

were to be discharged over them. It was esti- mated that the fall at the first three dams would be 10.28 feet each.

The fall over dam No. 4 was expected to be 23.87 feet. The lake was to be held at a minimum of 107 above sea level, but no

provision was made for holding it close to that level against a rise,

except that which was afforded by the discharge through the river;

and no effort whatever was made to provide for the deficiencies of the

diT season, when the lake would naturally fall below 107 from evaporation. The danger of taking the San Carlos into

Lake Nicaragua. » i • the canalized part of the river above dam No. 4 seems to have been fully realized by Commander Lull, for we find that

he proposed to divert the waters of the San Carlos by a cut-off and

discharge them into the San Juan below the dam, but it is evident that

the difficulties of this work were not fully appreciated.

From near the mouth of the San Carlos to Grey Town the canal was

to be carried 'in excavation a distance of 41.9 miles. The least radius

of curvature was 2,500 feet. The line was to follow the general course

of the main river bank, cutting off bends wherever the conformation
116 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the ground would permit, until the head of the San Juanillo was

reached. From there to Grey Town Harbor it was

canal from near San car- neai.j v a straight course. Seven locks, in addition

los Hirer to (irey Town. J fe to those abreast of the dams, were proposed, making ten in all. The last two locks were to be placed together and sea

level reached just before the canal entered the Silico Lagoon. From

there to Grey Town it was expected to dredge a channel, embankments not being thought necessary. The seven locks were to have

each a lift of 10.87 feet.The depth throughout the canal was to be 26

Dimensions. ,

< ,• . feet and the locks were to be 400 feet long by 75

feet wide. A number of the streams which are crossed Irv the canal were to be passed under it by means of culverts. The bottom width

of the canal varied from 50 feet in the deep earth cuttings to 60 feet

in the rock cuttings and 72 feet in the shallow cuttings. The harbor

that existed at the time the Childs project was made had since been

inclosed by the sand spit, which had moved westerly until it united

with the mainland, converting the harbor into a lagoon. It therefore became necessary to construct a harbor at this entrance. All

communication was to be cut off between the harbor and the San Juan

River, so as to cause the entire waters of the San Juan to be discharged

by the Colorado branch, but the San Juanillo was to be discharged

into the harbor and a jett}^ extending from the shore to 35 feet of

water was to be built. A channel into the harbor was to be dredged

under the lee of this breakwater, which had a direction of NNW.

The total estimated cost of this project, allowing 25 per cent for contingencies, was $65,722,137.

From 1873 to 1881, a period of eleven years, no surveys were made

by the Government or by individuals in this connection. In 1884 the

Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty was negotiated with Nicaragua, giving to the United States the right to build a canal across the isthmus from

ocean to ocean within the territory of that Republic, following the most

available route. Another survey was then ordered. This expedition was under the command of Mr. A. G. Menocal,

Venocal surrey. . rT - v , , i , ,, civil engineer, U. S. JN., wno had been the principal assistant to Commander Lull in 1872 and LN73. The object of

this survey appears to have been chief!}' to determine the advisability

of any changes in the route for shortening the canal and diminishing

the cost. As a result of Mr. MenocaTs work a new projMenocal nrojeet, 1885. .... ,, , \,

ect was submitted m a report to the Secretary oi

the Navy November, 1885, in which very radical changes were made

in the Lull project. On the west side, between the lake and the Pacific,

the changes were confined to that part of the route between Las Serdas

and the lake. Instead of following the valley of the Medio from the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 117

lake across the divide to the valley of the Rio Grande, lie adopted

the Las Lajas route, several miles to the southward, whieh was the one originally surveyed by Colonel Childs. This made it necessary

either to receive the waters of the upper Rio Grande into the canal or

to divert them to Lake Nicaragua through a new channel, the Rio

Grande gorge being too narrow to take the canal and river separately.

The maximum discharge of this stream was estimated by Colonel

. , ,, ,

. Childs at 5,070 cubic feet per second, but it was

Changes In Lull project ^ ' *

# 7 on west side suggested by thought by Mr. Menocal that it might sometimes,

M*nocaK for short periods, be as great as 10,000 cubic feet

per second. He thought the taking of so large an amount of water

into the canal would be dangerous to navigation and the stability of

the work; hence he sought to find some method of diverting it. This

he found could be done by building a dam across the river several

thousand feet from the canal and excavating an artificial channel

through the ridge which separated the valle}r of the Grande from that

of the Juan Davila, a branch of the Las Lajas. The proposed channel was to have a width of 75 feet at the bottom, to be 15 feet deep, with

proper slopes, and a fall of 2.53 feet per mile. The length from the

dam to the Juan Davila was 3.88 miles. The waters of the Rio Grande

being thus diverted, the valley of that river was practically diy as far

as the Tola, and this enabled a better alignment to be made. The Tola was to be passed under the canal by means of a culvert, as in Lull's

project. The sailing line across the lake was changed back to the old

route, which started from the mouth of the Las Lajas instead of from

that of the Medio.

On the section from the lake eastward radical changes were introduced which rendered the project for this section entirely unlike any

that had jet been suggested. Instead of a succession of comparatively

low dams as far down as the San Carlos, a single dam was proposed

at Ochoa, about 3£ miles below the mouth of that

river. This dam was to create slackwater navigation in the river, raising the like to 110. It practically converted

the river from the lake to the dam into an arm of the lake. It was

expected that a slope of 4 feet from Fort San Carlos to the dam,

which was provided for, would discharge the surplus waters from the

lake and the drainage of the river basin. The Ochoa dam was to be

built of concrete masonry, with a large amount of loose stone on the

upstream side and an apron on a pile and grillage foundation on the

lower side to prevent undermining. The entire surplus waters of the

San Juan River were to be discharged over the crest of the dam. No

borings had been made to determine the nature of the foundations,

but it was supposed from the outcropping bowlders on the side hills and on the banks, that rock underlaid the gravel and sandy bottom at no great depth.
118 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

It was supposed that the hills south of the San Juan formed a con- tinuous range which would hold up the sumit level on that side. It was discovered some }^ears later by the Maritime Canal Company that

this was not the case, but that embankments of

the *San Juan?

S°U

' ° considerable magnitude would be required between

the hills. The project now being considered did not contemplate such embankments, and no estimate was made for

them.

Starting from a point a short distance above the dam on the north

side of the river, the canal was to be carried in excavation through

the broken country at the headwaters of the Danta, crossing the latter stream into the valley of the San Francisco, which it also crossed and

followed to its confluence with the Chanchos ; it then ascended the

latter and a tributary thereof to the divide which separates this drainage system from that of the Deseado, a tributary of the San Juanillo.

After crossing the divide the line entered the

eastwardTM"

1 ° l0a *" va^eJ °f the Deseado, which it followed to the

coastal plain, whence it took a direct course to Gre}7 Town lagoon. The summit level was to be maintained across the Danta, San Francisco and Chanchos, and through the "east

divide " by a small embankment not far from the Ochoa dam and a

large one 6,500 feet long and 51 feet high across the vallej7 of the San

Francisco below the mouth of the Chanchos. The subsequent surveys

of the Maritime Canal Company showed that a large number of

embankments was necessary. The ""divide cut" was an important feature in

Divide cut. this project. It was stated to be a little less than

3 miles long and was nearly all in curvature. Mr. Menocal states that the elevation of the divide between the eastern and western flow- ing waters was 280 feet, but it being impossible to locate the canal so

as to follow the turns of the valley, the line would cut several spurs

where the excavation was still deeper. The maximum cutting would

have been about 350 feet. The saving in distance from the Pacific to the Atlantic over the Lull

route is stated in Mr. Menocal's report to be 10.96 miles. The project

contemplated a depth of 28 feet, increased in places to 30. The summit level was to be reached by three locks on the east side and four on

the west. The locks proposed were to have a uniform length of 650

feet between the gates and a least width of 65 feet. Locks 1, 2, and

3 on the east side had lifts of 26, 27, and 53 feet, respectively. The

locks on the west side, counting from the lake to

llllk- the sea, had lifts as follows: 26.4 feet for the first, 29.7 feet each for the second and third, and for the last, being a tide

lock, the lift was to vary between 24.2 and 33.18 feet, depending upon

the state of the tide. The lock with 53 feet lift was proposed to be
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 119

cut out of solid rock on the eastern slope of the divide, concrete to be

used only to the extent required to fill cavities, to give proper dimensions to the various parts and a surface to the blasted rock. All the

other locks were to be built of concrete, and all were to have a heavy

timber lining in the chambers and bays extending from the tops of the

walls to 15 feet below low-water level. A narrow-gauge railroad was to be built from

Grey Town to the dam across the San Juan River

and another between the lake and Brito.

The total estimated cost was $64,036,197. This included 25 per

cent for contingencies, but nothing for surveys, hospitals, shops, management, and other necessary expenses in addition to the construction

contingencies proper.

The Frelinghu}T sen- Zavala treatv was withdrawn

pan^?iroje.-tri8

l8! ).(0n'' from the United States Senate by the President

before ratification, and became inoperative. But

a concession, known as the Menocal concession, was granted by Nicaragua to the Nicagagua Canal Association, in 1887, to construct a canal

connecting the two oceans. A similar concession was granted by

Costa Rica in 1888. The Maritime Canal Compan}

gil" 1Ziltl °" °f COm " Pan.v '» °^ Nicaragua, was organized under the

terms of these concessions in February, 1889, and

a charter was granted by Congress to enable the company to execute

the work. (See act approved February 20, 1889.)

The project of the canal company was essentially

sam^MeToears!

1 " ** the same as that of Menocal, of 1885, modified in

respect to the summit level. This was to be

extended on the west side to within 3£ miles of Brito \>y the construction of a dam across the Rio Grande at La Flor.

Surveys had shown that a continuous ridge, with a single break at the crossing of the San Francisco from the north end of the Ochoa

dam to the "east divide," did not exist, and that in addition to the

embankment or dam across that stream, a great

San Francisco embank- i , i i rrn nH, utllm, number were necessary m other places. 1 he supposed ridge proved to be a series of hills of greater

or less height, with saddles or low valleys between them. The total number of embankments, great and small, required between the Ochoa

dam and the divide, as stated in the report on final location in 1889, was 67, having a total crest length of about 6 miles. Most of them

were small, but four of them were very large, and their construction

constituted a most difficult engineering problem on account of the

great depth and the soft and yielding nature of the soil at the sites. It was also found that the ridge from the south end of the dam was

not continuous to the hills in Costa Rica, and that a number of embankments to connect these hills would be required. The total number was
120 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

21, with an aggregate length of 5,540 feet on their crests. These

embankments were to be entirely of clay. This embankment line was

not only shorter than the San Francisco line, but the construction of

the dams in the saddles of the ridge presented no special engineering

difficulties. It was proposed to build a waste weir in the ridge about

2f miles from the Ochoa dam, having its crest at 106 feet above mean

sea level, to discharge the flood waters of the San

n,e2.

(arl°S en, " ank " Carlos into the valley of Curena Creek, which

empties into the San Juan below the Ochoa dam.

Embankments or dams were also required east of the divide in the

valley of the Deseado, one of which was to be 70 feet high and 1,050

feet long. Weirs and sluices were provided in the San Francisco and

Deseado valleys for the control of floods. Some of the largest of the

embankments or dams on the San Francisco line were first designed as rock tills backed with earth, their crests to be 107

Other embankments. . . 1

, -. , , feet above mean sea level, and the top and outer

slopes so shaped and paved with large stones as to admit the free flow

of water over their surfaces. These were to be, in fact, so many

waste weirs for the discharge of the surplus waters from the summit

level. The Ochoa dam, which was originally to be of masonry with a timber

apron, was modified to a rock fill backed with earth. The crest of the

dam was fixed at 105 feet above mean sea level. Its width across the

top was to be 25 feet. As the water of the San Juan was to be held

at 106 in the vicinity of the dam, a constant discharge due to a head

of 1 foot over the dam was expected. This, however, would not have

been the case, for the lake would have fallen to 106 or lower in the

dry season and the level at the dam could not have

sallTuaT^o"^^ " been maintained. It was estimated that the dis- charge over the crest of the dam might sometimes

reach 42,500 cubic feet per second, and the combined discharges with

the lake at 111 over the dams, weirs, and through sluices were esti- mated at a maximum of 147,800 cubic feet per second. The dam was

to be built of rock taken from the east divide cut and deposited by

means of cables stretched across the river. On the upstream side of

the rock pile thus formed clay was to be deposited to render it watertight.

On the west side of the lake the summit level was

La Flordam. . . . . . to be continued through the west divide and down

the valley of the Rio Grande to a point called La Flor, about 3£ miles

from the Pacific, where the valley narrowed to about 1,600 feet. At

this place the valley was to be closed and the summit level maintained

by a large dam. For several miles above this site the valley is about

a mile or more wide, and a large, deep basin would thus be formed into
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 121

which the floods of the Rip Grande, Tola, and other (smaller streams

would be received, it was hold that the creation of this large pool

would render unnecessary the proposed diversion of the Upper Rio

Grande into Lake Nicaragua, and thus save about $1,500,000, which the

proposed diversion would cost. It was at first intended to build the

La Flor dam as a rock till backed with earth, in the same manner as proposed for the Ochoa dam, but finding the underlying strata of

earth unsatisfactory, the plan was changed to an earthen dam with a masonry core extending down to rock. A waste weir 300 feet long was to be provided cast of the dam to discharge the surplus waters

into the bed of the Rio Grande.

With the adoption of a dam at La Flor, the loca- tion of the locks was fixed near its western end,

the combined lift of two being 85 feet. A third, which would be the

tide lock, was to be located a short distance from the harbor and have

a variable lift according to the stage of the tide of from 21 to 29 feet. The total cost of the canal was estimated at

Cost. . $65,000,000, inclusive of 25 per cent for contingencies, but exclusive of interest, commissions, and other charges not

coming under the cognizance of the engineers, and on the basis that

the work would be prosecuted with vigor along the whole line and

without intermission. In the early part of the year, 1899, the project was submitted to a board of consulting engineers for examination, report, etc. This

board made a report on May 9 of that year, giving

Report of Board of Con- ,i • • ,i L j> ,i • j. ,. « •

i i suiting Engineers. the opinion that from the information furnished

by the maps, profiles, borings, samples, and state- ments of the chief engineer and other employees, the project was

"unquestionably feasible." The board stated, however, that there was

a possible hazard in respect to the San Francisco and other basins that

they might not prove sufficiently retentive, owing either to the leakage

around the ends or under the bases of the dams and embankments from

concealed permeable strata beneath the natural surface. They deemed

"this a remote danger, since both the surface and subterranean for- mations, as far as revealed by the borings and by the reports of observations of reliable men familiar with the locality, are favorable.'1 The

estimate of cost as determined by this board, inclusive of 20 per cent

for contingencies, was $87,799,570.

On March 2, 1895, Congress passed an act proMcaragua Canal Board, • j • £ ,i . , , .. , -i i> 1896> viding tor the appointment of a board of engineers to make a survey and examination for the

purpose of ascertaining the feasibility, permanence, and cost of the

construction and completion of the Nicaragua Canal by the route con- templated and provided for by an act which passed the Senate January
122 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

28, 1895, entitled "An set to incorporate the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, approved February 20. 1889."

Report of Nicaragua ^he report Gf this Board was published in House

Canal Board and estimate *

, ,-*• r> of cost, Doc. No. 279, h lfty-fourth Congress, first session.

It was stated therein that more specific information was necessary before a satisfactory final estimate of the company's project could be prepared, and recommended additional

examinations and surveys. The Board submitted a tentative approximate estimate based on the company's plans and data amounting to about $133,000,000.

On June 4, 1897, Congress passed an act for the

MeL^u^iS!! appointment of the Nicaragua Canal Commission

to "continue the surveys and examinations

authorized by the act approved March 2, 1895. * * * into the

proper route, feasibility, and cost of construction of the Nicaragua

Canal, with a view of making complete plans of

Act March 2, 1895. '

. b

. .

, , the entire work of construction of such canal as therein provided." The results of the surveys and examinations of the

Nicaragua Canal Commission are contained in the report to the President of the United States, May 9, 1899.

As the project of the Nicaragua Canal CommisvLTvLmLu>r

TSl?UA sion i&

; essentially the same as that of the existing

Isthmian Canal Commission, with slight modifications, and as a description of the latter is given in full, a brief description of the former is all that seems necessary. The route adopted

by the Nicaragua Canal Commission was practically that suggested by

Colonel Childs, in 1852, but his project was modified in some important respects and greatly enlarged. The project provided for a canal

with a depth of 30 feet, a bottom width of 150 feet, and with locks

665 feet long between quoins, and 80 feet wide. A single high dam

across the San Juan, above the mouth of the San Carlos River, was

provided for, and the canal carried thence on the left bank of the San

Juan River to the Caribbean Sea. Provision was made for the regulation of the lake level, a subject which no prior project had adequately

dealt with.

The Nicaragua Canal Commission determined

Safety of prime Impor- ,-, , • i £ ,1 .. j i • , tance. that in a work ot the magnitude and importance

of a canal connecting the two oceans, and of the

disastrous consequences that would result from a failure to maintain

its integrity after it was once opened, it was of far more importance

that it should be safe than that it should be cheap. Plans that seemed

to the Commission to possess advantages in certain respects, but were

coupled with dangerous engineering works, were rejected for other

plans reasonably free from risk. The short and comparatively straight cut across the country from the neighborhood of Ochoa and the exten-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 123

sion of the summit level neatly to the Atlantic were attractive features

of the Menocal project, but necessitated dealing with some hazardous

problems. The safer alternative of terminating the summit level at the San Juan River dam and then following the left bank of the San

Juan was chosen.

The large embankments across the Danta, the San Francisco, and at other places would have proved not only far more expensive than was

anticipated, but hazardous to maintain. The adoption of the longer

line with lower level does not eliminate all the difficult constructions,

for some will be found in any project for a canal across the American

isthmus, but it reduces their number and brings them within the limits

of safety. The Commission thought also that the proposed rock till dam across the San Juan River involved such serious risks in construction and maintenance that this form of structure should be avoided.

This course seemed the more imperative from the

greiur«ndereltim

,ateJ!,a" fact that the discharge of the San Juan River had

always been very much underestimated. Gaugings at Ochoa made by the Nicaragua Canal Commission in November, 1898, gave 104,928 cubic feet per second as the discharge on

that day, and at the time the San Carlos was only discharging 32,265

cubic feet per second, whereas it is now estimated that the latter stream

alone may discharge as much as 100,000 cubic feet per second. A possible discharge of 200,000 cubic feet per second at Ochoa might rea- sonably be anticipated when both rivers were in high flood at the same

time.

The construction of a high dam at Ochoa, or at any point below the

junction of the San Carlos, was regarded as a work of such difficulty

that a search was instituted for a site higher up the river, suitable for a masonry structure. Such a site was found about 3 miles above the

mouth of the San Carlos. The first borings, which were few in number, indicated hard rock at a maximum depth of

Dam at Boca San Car- i , -4 , » , • i i i v j. j.i_ ios# about li feet below sea level, but the more extensive system made subsequently by the Isthmian

Canal Commission disclosed a very irregular bottom with a maximum

depression 16 feet lower. Nevertheless, the site of the dam was far more favorable than the one at Ochoa, as the floods of the San Carlos

could do it no harm.

The La Flor dam was a large and difficult work, on account of the

unsatisfactoiy foundations. The western end of the summit level was

brought so near the sea that the space available for locks was much

restricted. The ridge near the north abutment rises abruptly to a height of 300 feet and over, which would have necessitated the location

of the locks on the side of a steep hill. Near the south abutment the

ground was also unfavorable. The project of the Nicaragua Canal

Commission did not call for locks in duplicate, but the desirability of
124 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

so locating1 them that an additional lock could bo added in case of

future demands was not lost sight of. It would

p,TM;;:,!^:;^" have been very expensive to build locks in dupli- cate on either side of the La Flor dam. On the

other hand, there were no serious engineering difficulties in the way of

constructing a canal in excavation from the lake to the sea. and the

slight advantage of the Tola basin as against a canal pure and simple

did not, in the opinion of the Commission, compensate for the extra

risks. The project of this Commission follows the gentSSSS^SS!''^ eral route of that Prosed by the Nicaragua

Canal Commission, but the depth of water in the

canal has been increased, the locks duplicated and enlarged, and a new

and better site for a dam in the San Juan found. The project is as follows

Beginning at the 6-fathom curve the entrance to the canal will lie between two jetties running nearly north and south,

Grey Town Harbor and J & J

entrance. about If miles northeast of brey town and pass- ing close to the most westerly bend of the lower

San Juan, near its entrance to Harbor Head Lagoon. The entrance to the harbor is to be 500 feet wide and not less than 35 feet deep at low

water. At the shore end of the jetties the line swings to the right on

a curve of 4,175 feet radius and then passes into a tangent across the

existing Grey Town Lagoon. For a distance of 2,500 feet from the

inner end of this curve the w

T idth is continued at 500 feet. It is then

widened to 800 feet for a further distance of 1,000 feet, in order to furnish a turning basin. It is then gradually reduced to 150 feet, the

regular width of canal at the bottom. This width is reached 2.15

miles from the 6-fathom curve in the Caribbean. The head of the east

jetty is to extend to this curve and is the zero point to which dis- tances along the canal are referred. The harbor thus formed is well

protected. The estimated cost of the entrance and harbor is $2,198,860.

From the harbor the line runs in a southwesterly

Lock MoTM l

r0TM

lir0r

° direction, crossing the San Juanillo to the low,

swampy ground along the Rio Misterioso. At a

distance of 7.56 miles from the entrance the line swings to the left on

a curve of 11,459 feet radius, and then follows a straight line in a

direction a little west of south through the first lock, which is located

9.59 miles from the entrance. From Grey Town to the Misterioso the line passes

Swamp section. . . . . through a region covered in places with coarse swamp grass or silico palms, in other places heavily timbered. The

surface is but little above sea level. The soil is generally mud to a depth of 3 or 1 feet, underlaid with sand or sandy silt to below the

grade of canal bottom. The borings made in this section extend from

50 to 112 feet below sea level without reaching other material.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 125

From the first crossing of the Misterioso to lock No. 1 the- canal

line traverses a country in which low hills are interspersed in the

coastal plain, and skirts the northwestern edge of the mass of bills about Silico Lake. The hills are heavily timbered,

Material in other places. 1 • . t but between them the around is flat and swampy,

the surface being composed of soft mud mixed with decaying vegetable matter, which in places extends to a depth of 30 feet or more.

This material is generally underlaid with firm clay. After the first crossing of the Misterioso the line follows the general course of that

stream for several miles, the swampy surface being from 5 to 10 feet above tide. Lock No. 1 is located in a hill on the southwest side of

the stream, and will have a lift of 36i feet above mean low tide. This

lock, as well as all others, will be in duplicate and founded on rock.

The swamps communicate freely with the San Juan River through the

San Juanillo and other streams, and the flood level rises at lock No.

1 to about 1 1 feet above sea level. It is proposed to exclude flood water from the canal on this section.

This will require embankments on both sides. They are to have a minimum top width of 15 feet, with side slopes of 1 on 3. The crest of the embankments will be 5 feet above the highest flood levels. These dimensions apply to all sections of the canal where embankments

are required. On the south side the embankment will be formed of

spoil from the canal prism from Grey Town to the Misterioso, where

it connects with the Silico hills, the remaining distance to lock No. 1 requiring only one short embankment across a small stream. On the

north side the embankment will be formed in the

Embankments. e~nrr\ • same way from Grey Town to the crossing of the

San Juanillo. From this point to lock No. 1 the embankment line follows first the right bank of the San Juanillo to a point about 1 mile

above the mouth of the Deseado and then crosses a region of low hills and swamps to the canal line. This embankment line is circuitous,

and a better one may possibly be found; but it is perfectly practicable

and the construction will not be difficult or costly.

The canal embankment will cut off the San JuanDiversion of San .Juanillo. lllo. lhe latter has .... another connection with the

Caribbean Sea through the Benard Lagoon and the Indio, but the route is long and it is deemed better to provide a shorter one. A

diversion is therefore to be made by a channel dredged from a point on the San Juanillo about five-eighths mile north of the canal crossing

to the excavation made by the Maritime Canal Compan}^ and through

this to Grey Town Lagoon. The length of the channel to be dredged is about 1^ miles.

The length of this section is 7.44 miles. For a distance of 6.20

miles the side slopes of the canal prism will be 1 on 3. For the remaining distance the material is generally firm and the cross section will be

that provided for firm earth.
126 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The estimated cost of this section, including

approach wall to lock No. 1. embankments, mid

diversions of the lower San Juan and San Juanillo, is $5,056,747; lock

No. 1, including excavation, fc5,7iy.686.

From lock No. 1 the line continues in the gensectio..from Lock No. i j direction of the Misterioso for about 2 miles.

to Lock No. 2. It then crosses the Pescado, which drains a swampy

region to the southward, and enters the region drained directly into the

San Juanillo. It crosses this stream about 2 miles from the place

where the San Juanillo leaves the San Juan, and then traverses about

a mile of swamps and low hills, passing into the valley of the Rio

Negro, a tributary of the San Juanillo, behind the hills at Punta Petaca,

where it is about 1 mile distant from the San Juan. It then continues

in the valley of the Rio Negro, crossing it about a mile east of the

Negro hills in which lock No. 2 is located. There are two curves on

this section, each of 8,594 feet radius. The section is generally

swampy, but in the Rio Negro Valley the line cuts through some hills. The canal surface in this section is to be maintained at a minimum

elevation of 36 feet above mean tide. The flood levels immediately

above lock No. 1 appear to be about 31 feet above the same reference

and immediately below lock No. 2 about 43 feet above it. The

region communicates freely with the San Juan during high water in the latter, whence most of the flood water comes, and also receives

considerable drainage from the mass of hills north of the line. The

embankments have not only to maintain the canal level, but are also required to exclude floods from the San Juan on the upper portion of

the section. On the north side of the canal hills form the greater part

of the line of protection, although a few swamps have to be crossed by

embankments. On the south side the Silico hills protect the level for

several miles, but to the westward of them are long stretches of swamp

with soft bottom where embankments are required. These embankments constitute one of the difficulties of this section. The estimates

provide for the removal of the soft material for a width of 30 feet at bottom to make the embankments safe when built. They are located

in most places so far from the canal line that the

material excavated would not be available even if suitable, which it seldom is. They will be formed from clay borrowed

from the hills. The swamp level near lock No. 1 is at about elevation 16, and at lock No. 2 about elevation 38. Almost the entire area within the

embankment lines (some 12 or 13 square miles) will be below the

level of water in the canal. The total drainage tributary to the

section is probablv about 25 square miles. A waste

Waste way anil lock. . " . , way is required which will be located at or near

the Silico hills where the flood level in the San Juan is below the canal

level. It is to be a simple overflow weir with crest at elevation 36,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 127

the minimum canal level, and to have a length of 600 feet, which will prevent the canal level rising above elevation 37.5. The assumed

maximum rainfall is 12 inches in twelve hours, all reaching the pool

within twenty-four hours. No site with rock foundations has been

found for this waste way. It will be built in the clay hills. Loek

No. 2 will have a hard rock foundation. The lift will be 18^ feet,

from elevation 36 to elevation 54.5. The length of this section is 10.96 miles. A part is through swamps,

requiring side slopes of 1 on 3. In the remaining portion the cross

section is reduced to the standard adopted for firm

Length and cost. . . - . . . earth, lhe estimated cost of this section, including approach walls to locks, embankments, and waste ways, is $6,296,632;

lock No. 2, including excavation, $4,050,270.

The general direction of the line in this section is a little north ot

west. It leaves the Rio Negro Valley near lock No. 2, and passes

behind the Serapiqui hills, which were formerly

Section from lock >'o. "2 1 x i ] -xi il i

• 1 ± to lock No. 3. supposed to be connected with the high range to the northward. At this point the line is more than

a mile from the San Juan. A short distance farther west the route

crosses the Tamborcito ridge, after which at short intervals it crosses the Tambor Grande and San Francisco ridges. A line located around

the ends of these ridges near the river would have inadmissibly sharp

curvature, and would be liable to injury during river floods. If car- ried across them far from the river the cuttings would be very heavy.

The line projected by this Commission is at a safe distance from the

river, and although involving heavy work, avoids the much heavier

work that a location farther from the river would require. The

deepest cut on the center line of the canal is 297 feet, in the Tamborcito ridge.

Riprap protection against river floods will be

Protection against floods j • ,1 i , « ,1 . •..,. in San Juan. required in the swamp levels ot those localities where the line approaches close to the river. After

crossing the San Francisco River the line follows a westerly direction

to the Danta, which it first crosses about 2 miles from the San Francisco. It then follows the valley of the Danta, which it crosses several

times, to lock No. 3. This portion of the line passes through a swampy

region with occasional low hills. The cut in the Tamborcito ridge is the deepest

Tamborcito cut. , ° L on the route, and will consist largely of hard,

basaltic rock. It is, however, onty about 3,000 feet from the foot of

the ridge on the east side to the foot on the west, and the crest is narrow. There are eight curves on this section of the

turves.

l » i_« l canal, ot which one has a radius of 4,911 feet, four

of 5,730 feet, one of 6,876 feet, one of 8,594 feet, and one of 11,459

feet.
128 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Since the line was laid out borings have shown that deep sand exists

under a part of that portion of it lying between the Tambor Grande

and the San Francisco, its upper surface being near the canal bottom.

It is probably a former bed of the San Juan River.

Beeent examinations. * Recent surveys and borings have shown that this material can be avoided by a location farther inland, but as it has not been practicable to take new borings across the ridges on the new

lines, the estimates are made on the line that is laid down, and include an allowance for puddling the bottom of the canal where needed. A

small amount of permeable material is also shown b}T the borings in a

hill crossed by the canal line near the Florida Lagoon, and the esti- mates provide for puddling at this localit}\

The surface of the swamp near lock No. 2 has an elevation of about

38 feet above sea level, and gradually rises to elevation 45 in the

Florida Lagoon, near lock No. 3. The line intercepts the drainage

from about 75 square miles lying to the northward, and crosses the

Guasimo, San Geronimo, Tambor Grande, San Francisco, and Danta,

as well as a number of small creeks. The beds of the larger streams

are from 15 to 20 feet below swamp level. The swamp bottoms are

of clay silt, which may settle under the embankments, but should not

offer serious difficulties to good construction. The level of the canal

is to be maintained at the minimum elevation of 51.5 feet, submerging

all the swamps. The flood levels appear to be about 53 feet at the

Serapiqui and 56 feet in the San Francisco region, the latter being 1£

feet above the minimum stage in the canal. In order to diminish the currents through the narrow connecting channels,

Drainage. h ' .. & • . . three waste ways are provided, one in the Serapiqui

Hills, 500 feet long, one of the same length in the west flank of Tamborcito, and one of 1,000 feet near the Danta. With these waste

ways it is estimated that the water in the canal will never rise more

than 2£ feet above the normal stage.

The wasteways are designed to be plain overWasteways. J

•

i i i now weirs built oi concrete, with the crests at ele- vation 54.5, the minimum canal level. At rare intervals the crest of

the Danta wasteway may be submerged by the San Juan Hoods, but

the amount of water taken into the canal over it will be so small that no trouble is apprehended. The borings made at the site of the Danta

wasteway show unfavorable material For foundations, involving an

additional expense for safe construction, for which provision has been

made in the estimates. Lock No. 3. which terminates this section, is located on a rock foundation, having a lift of bsl feet, viz. from ele- vation 54.5 to elevation 73 at minimum canal level. The length of this section is 1(1.75 miles, and the

Length and cost. . .... in i 1 estimated cost, including approach walls, embankments and wasteways, is $19,330,654; lock No. 3, including excavation,

$3,832,745.
' REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 129

Westward from lock No. 3 the lino follows down

Section from lock No. S ,1 n » t? i i • , < i , -.i • i to lock No. 4.

lll( ' valley of hmbankmont ( rock to witlim about

1,700 feet of its mouth, and then crosses some

hills and the Machado to lock No. 4. There arc

Curves ami drainage. two curves on the section having radii of 11,459

feet each. The excavation will be mainly in firm earth with standard

slopes to correspond. Some rock will be found near the site of 'lock No. 4, and soft mud in crossing- the valley of the Machado. The

drainage area tributary to this section has not boon well determined,

but is taken at about 9 square miles, about 1 square mile of which will be submerged. It is proposed to control the surface of the pool,

between elevations of 73 and TO feet, by a weir 300 feet long, located

in a hill a short distance east of the Machado.

Two embankments will be needed between the

Embankments. eanal and the ban Juan Kiver, one across knibankment Creek, the other across the Machado, where the crest will be about 31 foot above the bottom of the stream and about 24 feet above the swamp level. The borings show the surface material in this swamp to be soft, and some of it will have to be excavated, so that the embankment may rest on firm material. Lock No. 4 is located

in a hill immediately west of the Machado. It is proposed to control

the surface of the summit level of the canal between the elevations of

104 and 110 feet, hence this lock is designed to have a variable lift, the maximum being 37 feet and the minimum 31 feet. The length of this section is 2.77 miles. The

Length and cost. . ° .....

estimated cost, including approach walls, embank

ments, and waste wa}T

, is $4,310,580; lock No. 4, including excavation,

$5,655,871.

Westward of lock No. 4 the line passes through

Section from lock No. 4 l 1 -n •

1 1 ±±-

to the san Juan Kiver. a rough, hilly region where deep cutting is encountered. About three-fourths of a mile west of the

lock the depth to the bottom of the canal on the center line is 218 feet below the surface. The borings show a stratum of cla}7 10 feet thick,

from elevation 65 to elevation 55, the top being about 4 feet below

the bottom of the excavation. About 1 mile farther westward is another cut 170 feet deep on the center line, with a clay stratum 10

feet thick, the upper surface being at elevation 89. In the latter case the clay stratum is in the wetted prism of the canal. In both

cases there is rock overlying the. clay. It is supposed that the rock

„ . , , is a volcanic overflow. Where the clay shows in

Special slopes. ^ the wetted prism, slopes of one on one are pro- vided for both rock and clay.

„.. , The section forms a part of the summit level, Summit level. 1 7 and has two curves, each of 5,730 feet radius.

The point where it enters the San Juan Kiver is 46.17 miles by the

S D—57-1—Vol 7 9
130 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

canal line from the 6-fathom curve in the Caribbean Sea. The upper

end of this section i.s 3.3 miles by the river from the dam site at Conchuda. This dam will maintain the summit level, regulated by waste- ways at the dam and in the hills a short distance southwest on the

Costa Rica side. The dam, wasteways, and system of regulation are

fully described elsewhere.

The length of this section is 5.30 miles. The

estimated cost, including approach wall to lock, is Length anil cost.

18,579,431.

San Juan River section. This section embraces that portion of the river

from the poiut where the canal enters it above the

dam to Lake Nicaragua. As already stated, the San Juan River above

the mouth of the San Carlos is practically free from sediment, and in

this respect is well adapted for slack-water navigation. It is very

crooked, however, the curves being so sharp in places that the natural

channel, even if deep enough, would be difficult for large ships to navigate. Cut-offs have been located in such places, improving the course

of the channel and reducing the sailing distance. These improvements leave 54 per cent of the total distance from the dam to the lake

in curvature. Except in a few cases the radius exceeds 5,000 feet, but

in the section between the Machuca and Castillo Rapids the limit was

reduced to 1,015 feet. In the present project the

Curvature and cost. x

. curves are of larger radius than in any previous

one. They could be improved, but the cost would be increased. It has been the governing motive to preserve a judicious balance between

curvature and cost. In this section there are four curves of 1,015 feet radius, one of

4,297, two of 1,911, three of 5,289, six of 5,730, two of 5,927, four of

6,876, one of 8,385, five of 11,159, and one of 17,189. The bottom of

the excavated channel is established at elevation 69, giving a depth of

35 feet when the lake is at 101, its lowest stage. From the dam to the Machuca Rapids the general direction of the channel is northwesterly. The dam raises the water so as to permit a material

straightening of the line on this part of the section with but little excavation. At the Patricia Rapids (in the fiftycurves. . -1X1 ' 1 • ninth mile) the bed of the river rises above the

grade of the channel bottom, and excavation is required thence to deep water in the lake. The necessary straightening of the channel past the Machuca and

Diamante Rapids, which are nearly continuous, and the Pilares Rapids

immediately above them, requires two small cutI'rliiclunl cut-offs.

l i

• i oil's and slight widenings ai two other places.

There is also a cut-off between the Patricia Rapids and the mouth of

the Rio Bartola. At several places between the Bartola and Castillo,

points of bends are cut off to reduce curvature. The line passes
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 181

through two small cut-offs between ( lastillo and the mouth of the Santa

Cruz. At the first, a short distance west of Castillo, the borings show

thai considerable rock will have to be excavated. At the second there

is comparatively little, The Santa Cruz cut-off, a short distance above

the mouth of the Santa Cruz River, saves nearly 1 miles of distance.

The line then crosses Sombrero de Cuero Island and enters the Toro

Rapids. There will be a large amount of rock excavation underwater

between Castillo and the head of the Toro Rapids. The line then fol- lows the river, impinging slightly on the banks in several places,

bisects Isla Grande, and one-half mile above the latter enters the Palo

de Arco cut-off, which effects a saving of 1.36 miles. It then follows

the river, cutting* off one small point just above the Rio Palo de Arco

to the mouth of the Rio Medio Queso, where it enters the San Francisco cut-off. This is the longest cut-off on the route, and saves If

miles. Beyond this the line continues in the river to the lsla del Padre, and then cuts across the marsh on the right bank of the river.

It again enters the river nearly opposite Fort San Carlos, after passing

which it enters the lake. Opposite Fort San Carlos there is some rock

to be excavated. The bottom width of the channel in the river and

in the shorter cut-offs is tixed at 250 feet on tangents, but increased on

the curves according to the rule given elsewhere, The longer cut-offs have the standard canal width of 150 feet at the bottom on tangents,

w*ith corresponding widenings on curves. In the vicinity of Rio Sabalos, Isla Grande, and Fort San Carlos, it was found, after the line described above had been laid down, that a

material reduction in the estimated cost of the canal could be made by

slight changes in alignment at these places. These changes in alignment have been adopted by the Commission, and are indicated on

plates 30, 31, 12, 13, 1-1, 15, and 63 by broken lines, and on profile,

plate 49a. The estimates are based on the new alignment. The

changes are as follows:

First, that near Rio Sabalos begins in the Santa Cruz cut-off at mile 69.41, follows a westerly course, cutting off a small portion of

Isla Sombrero de Cuero, and passes through Toro Rapids a little north of the line first adopted. It then crosses the latter, passes

through the point of land opposite the mouth of Rio Sabalos, crosses the San Juan into Sabalos cut-off, and rejoins the line first adapted to mile 75.61. The second, near Isla Grande, begins near the middle of the long curve east of Isla Grande, mile 79.72, continues on a curve following

approximate^ the old channel north of the island, and joins the line

first adopted at mile 82.51. The third begins about If miles below Fort San Carlos, mile 93.94,

follows close to, but north of, the line first adopted, crosses the latter at mile 91.85, and enters the lake about 400 feet to the southward of

the first line.
132 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

These changes add 479 feet to the total distance from the Atlantic

to the Pacific, and change slightly the curvature given in a preceding

paragraph.

The total length of the river section on the

Length and cost. it . adopted alignment is 49.64 miles, and the estimated

cost is $23,155,670.

The line enters the lake on a curve of 11,459

Lake Nicaragua section. feet radius, and then continues on a tangent, pass- ing southward of the Balsillas Islands and northward of the Solentiname group. Near the latter it crosses a submerged channel, where

for a short distance no excavation will be required, and, passing around

a short curve in deep water, enters a second tangent, where some exca- vation is required for a distance of 10.77 miles. This tangent continues to the vicinity of the mouth of the Las Lajas on the west side

of the lake. The lake bottom on the sailing line lies below the grade

of the canal bottom for a distance of 41.78 miles; the remainder, 28.73

miles, will require excavation. On approaching the mouth of the Las

Lajas, the line swings to the westward in deep water to the long tan- gent at the east end of the western division of the

Dredged channel in lake. °

canal, lhe bottom from .bort ban Carlos to deep

water in the lake consists of soft mud 6 to 17 feet deep, underlaid by

hard clay and sand. The mud is so soft in places that it is difficult to determine its surface. The steamboat navigating the lake pushes

its way through several feet of it when the lake is low. This material will take a flat slope, and after a channel is excavated through it there will be some expense for maintenance.

On the west side the excavation in the lake comChannel on west side of -, er, -i j: ±l i~ tj. *ii • i. lake> mences 1.52 miles from the shore. It will consist

chiefly of rock, and, as it is submerged, is estimated

at the price for rock excavation under water. The material excavated

from the west side of the lake can be wasted where it will form jetties

for the protection of this entrance. The bottom width of the channel

in excavation in the lake, both on the east and west sides, will be 300

feet. The total length of the lake division is 70.51 miles, and the estimated

cost is $7,877,611.

The entrance to the canal from Lake Nicaragua

^

Lake Nicaragua to lock . g ^^ ^^ ^

^.^ Qf

^ ^^

of^r[q

Las Lajas. The line extends in a southwesterly

direction, following first the Las Lajas, which it crosses four times in a distance of H miles, then following the general course of a small

tributary, called the Gruiscoyol, to the continental divide. The sur- face of the ground from the lake rises gradually until the divide is reached at elevation 153, a distance of about 5 miles from the lake

shore. The highest point on this section is a small projecting hill
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 133

three-fourths of a mile east of the divide, at elevation 156 on the center

line.From the divide the line follows the valley of the Espinal to the Rio

Grande, and then continues in the valley of the latter to the Pacific. From the mouth of the Espinal to Lock No. 5 the valley of the Rio

Grande is narrow and crooked, with hills on either side rising to eleva- tions of 150 feet and upward. Here the line passes through several spurs, with rather deep but short cuts. The most important feature

of this section is the cut through the west divide. Its maximum depth on the center line of the canal is 87 feet; for a distance of about 3

miles the average cut is about 75 feet. The rock is of all degrees of

hardness from partially disintegrated sandstone to hard trap. Lock

No. 5 is located in a hill on the north side of the Rio Grande at Buen

Retiro, and will have an excellent rock foundation. On the southside of the lock a small dam

will be required across the river to the adjacent hills to maintain the

summit level. This dam is designed to be of earth with a masonry

core wall extending to rock. The lock will have a variable lift from

22£ to 28i feet, depending on the height of the lake. The section contains four curves with radii of 17,189, 5,730, 5,209, and 5,056 feet,

respectively. Three of these are between the divide and the lock. The estimates provide for diverting the Las Lajas into the lake and

for receiving basins at the points where the waters

canal!*

1"8 * en n

° of the Rio Grande and the Chocolata enter the

canal. These consist simply of enlargements of

the river channels sufficient to pass the estimated maximum floods with velocities that will not interfere with navigation. At the head

of each receiving basin there will be an overflow weir to act as a sand

catcher. Other small streams that are crossed will be taken into the

canal, but they will be relatively unimportant, and are provided for

in the estimates only in the item of contingencies. A ferry will be

needed for the highway traffic between Rivas and San Juan del Sur. The canal prism will be almost wholly in rock, and will have a bottom

width of 150 feet, with vertical sides. The length of this section is 9.09 miles. The

Length and cost. . ° .

' , ,

estimated cost, including approach wall to lock,

diversion of the Las Lajas, and receiving basins for the Rio Grande

and Chocolata, is $19,765,957; lock No. 5, including excavation,

$4,913,512; dam near Buen Retiro, $125,591.

The valley or gorge of the Rio Grande graduLock No. 5 to lock No. 6. . , . , . S . . . , ally widens in this section, opening into the so- called Tola Basin. The soil of the Rio Grande Valley is a light,

sandy loam, readily acted upon by currents. The grade of the canal

is established so low that the prism will be almost wholly in exca-
134 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

vation, and the embankments will not be heavy and can easily be protected. This .section contains a single curve of 4,i>X v2 feet radius.

A by-pass in lock No. 5 will provide water for this level. A small

wasteway will discharge surplus waters into the Rio Grande. The

excavation will consist mainly of sandstone much disintegrated near

the surface, but less so farther down.

Lock No. 6 is located in a small hill on the

south side of the Rio Grande about one-half mile

above the mouth of the Rio Tola. The foundation is on rock. The

lift is 28i feet. The length of this section is 2.04 miles. The

Length and cost. . .-,-,.

estimated cost, including approach walls and

wasteway, is $3,259,283; lock No. 6, including excavation, $4,368,667. In this section the line crosses the bed of the

Lock No. (i to lock No. 7. " . Rio Grande several times, and short embankments

20 to 30 feet in height will be required; elsewhere the embankments

will be unimportant, the grade line being low, as in the preceding section. This section contains a single short curve of 5,056 feet radius.

The excavation will be mostly in sandy earth, except in the vicinity of

the lock sites. While the excavation is sandy, it contains enough

earthy material to form water-tight embankments. A new channel

will have to be provided for the Rio Grande for

New channel for Bio i ,1 ,• j« , rrn • -n • j_i Grande needed. nearly the entire distance. lhis will receive the

drainage from the north side of the valley, including that of the Tola. On the south side the drainage will be received

into the abandoned bed of the Rio Grande, and thence discharged into

the canal. A wasteway located near the upper end of the section will discharge surplus water from the canal into the new channel of the

river. Lock No. 7 is located in a hill at the site forLoek. ini t merly proposed tor the south abutment ot the La

Flor dam. The lift will be 2S-, feet. The prism of the canal will be

mostly in sandy silt with side slopes of 1 on 3. The length of this section is 1.83 miles. The

Length and cost. . 1 ....

estimated cost, including wasteway, river diversion, embankments, and approach walls, is $2,485,890; lock No. 7, including excavation, $4,709,502.

The conditions in this section are almost exactly

Lock No. 7 to lock No. 8. .

• the same as in the preceding one. the material

consists chiefly of light sand mixed with loam, which can be dredged

by machines taken through lock No. 8 after the latter is built. It contains two short curves of 5,730 feet radius. A

lock* *

W* Way' m sn) ;i" wasteway is located near the upper end of

the section where the canal is entirely in excavation. It will not have a rock foundation, and will be merely a depressed section of canal bank with protected surface.
KKl'OKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION". 135

Length and cost.

Lock No. 8, which connects with tide water, is located in a projecting spur, and will have a rock foundation. Its lift will vary with the

tide from 2sl feet at mean low water to 20£ feet at mean high water. The length of this section is 2.43 miles, and the

estimated cost, including approach walls, river

diversion, embankments, and waste way, is ^1,1)05,076; lock No. 8, including excavation, 14,920,899.

This includes a short section of the canal proper

Lock No. 8 to the Pacific. , ,._ . , , . , „ ., . , . *. r

„ and an artificial harbor at Brito. A description or

this harbor is given elsewhere. The excavation in this section consists

mostly of sand. Some rock will be encountered near the lock site. The entrance to the harbor will be straight and have a width of 500

feet on the bottom.

The length of this section to the 6-fathom curve in the Pacific is 1.15

miles. The prism, except near the lock, will have side slopes of 1 on

3. The estimated cost is as follows:

Lock No. 8 to Brito Harbor, including approach wall to lock $553,470

Brito Harbor and entrance, including jetty 1, 509, 470

The total distance from Lake Nicaragua to the 6-fathom curve in the

Pacific is 17.34 miles.

The following table shows the amount and length of curvature for

the entire line: Number Radius. Length. Total degrees of

of curves. curve.

Feel. Miles. O 1 ii 2 17, 1*9 1 . 53 26 51 10

8 11. 159 6.80 179 31 50

4 8,

' 9 1 4.31 151 10 50

1 v .... 1.43 51 41 30

2 7,81 1 1.90 73 28 30

1 7. 759 1.73 67 16 50

5 c; -7.; 4.64 204 34 40

2 5, 927 2.40 122 41 20

lii 11.08 584 47 40

2 5, 289 2.27 129 45 50

1 5,209 1.15 66 38 30

2 5,056 1.22 73 17 40

1 1,982 .82 49 49 00

3 4,911 . 75 169 36 00

1 4,297 .63 44 19 50

1 4,175 .81 58 20 40 4 4,045 3.82 285 25 40

56 49.29 2,339 50 30

There are two curves of 11,459 feet radius Slaving a combined length

of 1.89 miles and a combined angle of 49° 58' 50" located in deep water

in Lake Nicaragua, which for obvious reasons are not included in the

above table. As there is no natural harbor at either end of the

proposed canal artificial harbors will have to be

constructed. This lack of harbor facilities will be

seriously felt on the east side in the early stages

Harbors. Lack of harlior facilities.
136 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the work, as the difficulties and expense of landing- material before

the harbor can be constructed are great.

A fine harbor once existed at Grey Town, with

Grey Town Harbor. » • » 1 • about 30 feet of water at the anchorage and in the

entrance. This was not such as is often found at the outlet of a large

river like the San Juan, where the current scours an entrance, but

rather a bight or protected area formed on the lee side of a sand spit

which was itself built by the action of the waves and sea currents act- ing under conditions which favored such formation.

Destruction or Grey ToW„ A study of the various maps of Grey Town from

Harbor caused by moving the earliest to the latest reveals, it is believed, the

processes by which natural forces acting on the

movable sands composing the delta of the San Juan

River have formed successively in ages past harbors which were after- wards converted into lagoons or lakes. The process seems still to be

going on, and Grey Town lagoon is the latest development. Ibo,

Barco, Sucio, and Shepherds lagoons were probably formed in the same way and by the same agencies.

There is a large area of low flat country lying to the eastward of a

north and south line through the westerly end of Grey Town Lagoon,

which, except for a fringe of the coast and the variRegion unexplored. r . °. ous outlets of the river, is practically unexplored.

What there is in this region can not be stated with certainty, but it is probable that there are other lagoons similar to those just enumerated,

or to the Parada and Agua Dulce, which connect with the Colorado

branch of the river. The sand composing the delta of the San Juan is volcanic, like that

now brought down by the San Carlos and Serapiqui, which take their

rise in the mountains of Costa Rica. This sand

sa^Tuan Kivt! *°TM * being deposited in f ront of the mouth of the river

would form, if it were not acted on by other agencies, a bar approximating more or less the form of a crescent. The

winds and waves of the sea, however, tend to give it an irregular shape,

depending on the direction from which they come, while the currents

of the river tend to cut out the channels. As the sand deposit increases

the bar rises until finally the outlet of the river is in part cut off, and

then it cuts out other channels. The San Juan River has no less than

three outlets at the present time and perhaps has had more. Each

outlet carries its load of sediment, and each has doubtless been an

active agent in building up the existing delta. This delta forms a low

area projecting into the sea from the general coast line between the

Indio and the Tortuquero, some miles south of the Colorado.

There are some old maps of Grey Town Harbor, which have appeared

in publications from time to time, that afford data of more or less value in studying the operations of nature that converted this once
REPORT OF THE L.STHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 137

excellent harbor into a lagoon. The absence of definite common

points and uncertainties as to compass bearing, however, render it impossible to make accurate comparison of the maps of earlier date,

but they contain much information tending to throw light on the subject under consideration. The oldest of these maps is that bearing- the

title "Puerto y Boca del Rio de San Juan de Nicaragua," and is published in Sullivan's "Problem of interoceanic communication by way

of the American Isthmus." It is not known what value attaches to

this map. The onty authority for it is given in a note. The name of

the .surveyor is not given, and it seems to have been a sketch rather

than a chart from an instrumental survey. The map has no date, but

the note referred to would indicate that it was about 1809. The

soundings would seem to be fairly correct so far as they go, but they

are few in number and cover only a limited area at the anchorage and

the mouth of the San Juan. There are no offshore soundings shown.

This map shows a sand spit that had formed to the northeast of Grey

Town, connecting with the mainland and extending westerly, covering

an area of deep water which was thus protected from the sea. The

westerly end is bent in toward the shore, giving a good anchorage

with deep water under its lee. The depth of water in the protected

area is somewhat greater than is shown on later maps, and this tends

to verify it, as a greater depth would naturally be expected at first. The westerly point of the spit was at that time almost due north of the

mouth of the river. The next map in order of date is that derived from the Peacock

survey, which was made in 1832 by G. Peacock, master of H. B. M.

ship Hyacintli. This map having been made by an officer of the British navy, may be presumed to be reasonably accurate. Besides the

soundings in the harbor, it shows soundings off the coast a distance of

2 nautical miles and more. This map, as published in the work of

Felipe Molina, entitled "Bosquejo de la Republica de Costa Rica," and

republished in other works, shows accretions to

Map of 1832. , ... the spit during the period from 1832 to 1848. It

is not known on what data these indicated accretions are founded;

neither is it certain whether the soundings in the harbor are those of

1832 or later. One would naturally suppose that they belong to the

earlier date, but those inside the spit would seem to indicate the contrary. This map was used by a committee of the National Academy

of Sciences in making a report, in 1806, on the restoration of Grey

Town Harbor, and as that committee was composed of the most eminent men in their respective professions, it is believed that the map

can be taken as essentially correct. Subsequent to 1848 frequent surveys were made by officers of the

British navy and published by the British hydrographic office. The

accretions to the sand spit indicated on the map of 1832 are probably
138 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

founded on similar data. It is not a matter of vital importance, however, whether this be so or not, for a study of the subsequent surveys

without reference to these leads to the same conclusions. If they be

correct, they enable the progress of the sand movement to be traced

from an earlier date than otherwise could be done. These early sur- veys were made with a view to giving information

ureat Britain "

r ' iir s

' to mariners as to the depth of the water at the en trance to and within the harbor of Greytown

and the protection afforded at the anchorage. They do not contain all the information desirable in studying the problem of the restoration

of the harbor, but they show unmistakably how the harbor was originally formed and subsequently destroyed.

From the mouth of the Indio southward a distance of about 3i

miles, the shore line now has a direction nearly south-southeast.

It then bends to the eastward and follows this course for a far- ther distance of about 4 miles, when it curves gradually toward the

south, and after passing the Tauro outlet it follows a nearly straight course for a distance of more than 40 miles. If a

Trend of coast. . . straight line be drawn from a point a little north

of the mouth of the Indio to the mouth of the Tortuquero, about

27 miles south of the Colorado, it would pass through the western

edge of the Ibo Lagoon. It is probable that this was once the general

trend of the coast. The area to the eastward is low and sandy, and

has in all probability been formed from the more recent deposits from

the San Juan River.

The various outlets of this river lie to the eastward of Greytown

Lagoon and all arc sediment bearing. The quantity of material car- ried depends in a great measure on the amount of water being dis- charged. When the river is swollen the currents

Outlets of San Juan. .

<. • are swift and the amount of material is great.

When the river is in its normal condition the amount is not so great,

though it is seldom small. This sediment being deposited from the various outlets of the river

firsl builds up a bar or shoal; as the accretions continue, some is pushed

out to sea, some driven shoreward, and some to the right or left, according to the direction of the prevailing winds

Sedimentary deposits. . . and waves. Ihe material m suspension may be

wafted far out to sea, but the sand which is moved along the bottom.

and not held in suspension, is deposited near the outlet. When the

accretions are sufficient to raise the shoal above sea level the waxes

drive it up still higher and the wind carries some of it still farther

inland. In this way the sandy deposit widens out and in time is cov- ered by a vegetable growth that protects it. In a moist, warm climate

like that at Greytown, the silt or loam mixed with the sand, and that derived from decaying vegetable matter, will, in the course of a few

years, support the growth of a forest.
REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL commission. 139

The const line directly in front of Greytown has now nearly an east and west direction; the waves produced by the northeast trade winds

break diagonally on the shore. Even when the wind is from the

north the breakers come from an easterly direction. The longest

fetch of the sea is nearly due east. The breakers are persistent for

the greater part of the year, and as they roll in on

J'l,,.,ff,.,-tof,vavoa ( -«on ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^.^ quantitj eg of s

. md

and drive it westward on a zigzag course that is plainly visible to an observer on the shore. This westerly movement

of the sand first formed a spit or hook, behind which was an area of

comparatively still water. This area is the incipient harbor found on

pi. 52. It is there shown as comparatively small, but the spit rising

above the level of the sea acts like a breakwater and gives good

anchorage behind it. PL 54 shows a steady movement of the sand spit westward and a gradual shoaling of the harbor up to and including the year 1848. The shoaling- in the harbor is due doubtless to the lighter deposits from

the San Juan that have been carried down the stream in suspension

and deposited where the water has become comparatively quiet and to the light sand that is blown into the harbor by the winds. The later charts show the progressive movement of the sand

HoTement of Band spit. . «. • spit until tliat of 1865 which shows that the entrance was completely closed. It has remained practically closed ever since. On one occasion an opening was made by cutting a ditch across the spit to release the pent up waters of the river which had

risen so as to flood the town. When the jetty was constructed by the

Maritime Canal Company in 1891, an opening having a depth of about

7 feet formed to the leeward of the jetty by natural forces. In both

cases the opening was only temporary. The outlet by way of Harbor

Head is the shorter one and comparatively little water from the river

in its normal stages finds its way to the Greytown Lagoon, but when

it is in flood, water comes into the lagoon by way of all the small

channels connecting with the river. At such time the amount of

water may be sufficient to maintain a small but temporary outlet. The surveys made in 1898 and 1900 show that the shore line at a point about 1 mile eastward of the jetty built by the Maritime Canal

Company has been eroded to the extent of 1,200 feet from January,

1898, to July, 1900. During the same period the shore line about

1,200 feet west of the jetty receded 700 feet. There was no erosion

in close vicinity to the old jetty. The erosion on the east and west

sides, however, would seem to indicate that the normal supply of sand

from the eastward had been reduced, or perhaps temporarily cut off, or that a change had taken place in the direction of the prevailing

wind and waves. A change in the direction of the waves that impinge
140 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. on the coast, or a diminution or increase of the sand supply, will modify the existing conditions and may tempoErosion or accretion de- rarQy produce abnormal results. The resultant

pendent on direction of waves ami sand supply. movement, however, ot the sand between the angle

west of the old jetty and Harbor Head is westward

and has been for years. This is attested by a comparison of the maps.

What it is eastward of Harbor Head is more a matter of conjecture,

as few of the maps cover that region. The Commission, when it was

in Nicaragua, inspected the mouth of the Colorado River and the beach

at a point about 4 miles to the northward. At the latter place there was no evidence of recent erosion or accretion. The shore seemed to be fairly permanent. A heavy growth of timber extended almost to high water, but the usual evidence of recent erosion, such as stumps

or trees standing out in shoal water, was lacking. There was a house

not far from the shore which was occupied, and the occupants, who

had been living there several years, stated that the seashore had not

changed materially since they had been there. At the time of the

visit the wind came from about east-northeast and the waves broke

nearly normal to the shore.

One of the marked results shown by a compariReeutrant angle. ...... ,. . son ot the charts is the hi ling ot the reentrant angle

of the shore west of the old jetty. This doubtless comes in greater

part from the eastward, but there are also some indications that a part comes from the northward and ma}r possibly be contributed by the

Indio. An examination of the chart of 1832 shows that a considerable reentrant angle once existed in the vicinity of the entrance to the canal

of the Maritime Canal Company. The later surveys show that this has tilled out several hundred feet. From a comparison of the chart of 1832 with the

Apparent recession of „ , • , ,1 . .1 j- . 8-fathom curve. more recent surveys, it appears that the distance

from the shore line to the 8-fathom curve, meas- ured from a point near the site of the buildings of the Maritime Canal

Company, has changed considerably. In 1832 the distance was about

13,000 feet, while now it is only about 9,000 feet. This indicates that

the contour must have moved in or the shore line moved out, or that

the change was due in a measure to both. It is known that the shore

line in the neighborhood [referred to has moved out, but it hardly seems possible that it could have moved out 4,000 feet; a part of the

difference in distance may be accounted for by errors of sounding.

The old charts do not record fractional parts of fathoms beyond the

6-fathom curve. There has been an apparent recession of the

Apparent recession ot n « ,\ , L , ,1 ji« x , ,, o-fathom curve. 6-fathom curve also, but the dinerence between the

relative distances of the shore line and that curve

are not so great. The sand that forms the beach extends gradually to
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 141

about the 7-fathom curve, beyond which soundings show mud. There

is an easterly current in front of Grey Town out in the deep water,

while that close to the shore is westerly; but enough is not known of

the velocity of the outer current on which to base an expression of

opinion as to its effects on the bottom. The seaward advance of the

shore line is confirmed by the existence at the present time of wrecks now visible nearly buried in the sand; one near the Maritime Company's hospital, one about 1,800 feet northwest, and one near the headquarter buildings.

While, therefore, we may not be in possession of all the facts touching the formation and subsequent destruction of Grey Town Harbor,

sufficient is known to indicate unmistakably that the harbor was first formed by the westerly drift of sand which formed

ofH^rtOP "eSterl,drift the spit or hook shown on the maPs as Punta Arena

or Punta Castillo, and that by the gradual extension of this spit westward the harbor was shut in from the sea and

thereby destroyed. If, then, the westerly drift of sand can be stopped

by interposing some obstacle, such as a jetty extending into the sea, there need be no difficulty in keeping open a channel on the lee side of

it by dredging. This method of improving the entrances to harbors

is one in common use, and is applied notably to the Mediterranean

entrance of the Suez Canal, which is a similar case in many respects

to that under consideration.

The feasibility, moreover, of constructing a harbor at Grey Town

has been practically demonstrated by the work done by the Maritime

Canal Company. About 1,000 linear feet of jetty was constructed by

that company at a place a short distance west of the location proposed

by this Commission, and where the conditions of sand movement are

identical. This was quickly followed by the scouring out of a channel on the lee side to a depth of about 7 feet. This channel was made

through the sand spit which converted Grey Town Harbor into a

lagoon. The channel was increased in depth to 12 or 14 feet by

dredging. No difficulty would have been experiConstructlon of harbor *? . °

. , . , ,.,, n

• feasible. enced in deepening this channel still more and in

maintaining the increased depth by the further

extension of the jetty seaward aided by dredging and the possible

construction of another jetty on the west side. The harbor which this Commission proposes at Grey Town will have a

length of 2,500 feet and a width of 500 feet, widened at the inner end to 800 feet in order to provide a turning basin. The depth throughout

the harbor and entrance will be 35 feet. The entrance will be located

about one mile east of the old jetty of the Maritime Canal Company.

A jetty is proposed on the east side of the entrance,

having a direction a little west of north. It is to be built of loose stone of irregular shape and size, resting on a suitable
142 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

foundation, the hearting of the jetty to be composed of small stone intermixed with large so as to form a compact mass, and this to be

covered bjT stone not less than 10 to 15 tons in weight irregularly

deposited to break the force of the waves. It is confidently expected

that the partial construction of the east jetty will be followed by the

scouring out of a channel of moderate depth on the lee side of it, as was the case when the Maritime Canal Company's jetty was constructed; but as it is not expected that the depth will be sufficient for

navigation, dredging will be required to obtain the desired depth.

The east jetty should be extended to the 6-fathom curve. It is believed

that a second jetty will be necessary on the west side to catch the sand

that may at certain times come from the westward. It will be shorter

than the one on the east side and its cost is included in the estimates.

The jetties are to be built not less than 6 feet above high water with a width on top of 20 feet, and, for purposes of estimate, side slopes of

1 on 2 and 2 on 3 have been assumed.

After a navigable entrance has been made,

dredging will be required for its maintenance,

and probably some extension of the jetties may in time be needed.

The cost of maintenance is not susceptible of accurate determination,

as it is impossible to predict how much sand will accumulate on the

east side of the jetty or pass around it into the dredged channel.

Some have estimated the total sand drift along the shore at 750,000

cubic yards per annum, but reliable data for an estimate are not

available. It is believed that this westward drift is diminishing and

may in time become quite small. A dredge could be worked on the

east side of the jetty to remove the sand that will accumulate there,

but much time would be lost on account of the

Maintenance of harbor. . . . . - rough seas. A better method of operation would

be that practiced at the Mediterranean entrance of the Suez Canal,

where the shore end of the jetty is kept low for some distance out, so

that the sand is washed over it by the waves and is easily removed by

a dredge working in the comparatively quiet water under its lee. The conditions in the two cases are very similar. The jetty is given a direction a little west of north, the purpose being to provide an area

in which this sand may be allowed to accumulate.

It is estimated thai about two years will be

is^t of'naierl

1 t0 S, ' ,Ur<

' required to make the necessary preparations and

to construct an entrance and working harbor at Gre}r Town having a depth of 18 feet, which is regarded as the least that would afford reasonable facilities for the landing of material

needed to construct the canal. The prompt construction of this entrance is therefore of the utmost importance.

The estimated cost of constructing a harbor,

Coal of construeUon and hj , { { fc ft < f ,,„, j(

. t|

- [g $2,198,860, maintenance. ' ' ' ' and this sum is included in the total estimated cost
EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CaNA t . COMMISSION. 143

of the canal as given. The cost of maintenance is estimated at $100,000

annually, which includes everything needful to maintain a depth of

35 feet in the harbor and entrance. The Rio Grande empties into the Pacific Ocean llrlto Harbor. . L at Brito, close under the rocky headland of that name. At low water in the dry season there is about 3 feet depth at the entrance, but as the tide rises and falls from

or Rio ttrande*. *

** m0Uth ^ to 10 ^eet tne depth is much increased at the

high stage.

The entrance to the canal will be through a low sandy beach and a harbor excavated in a swamp extending a considerable distance inland.

Little is known of the physical changes that have taken place on this

part of the coast, but the indications are that it is much more permanent in character than the coast near the eastern

How harbor can be con- , T) ., TT j » ,. ...

strilH(>(1 entrance. Brito Head forms a projecting jetty on the northerly side. Much of the coast in this vicinity is of a rocky character, sand being found in the indentations.

As the Rio Grande and other rivers which discharge into the Pacific

along this part of the coast drain only limited areas, the amount of

sediment brought down by them is insignificant. Another favorable

feature is that the winds blow offshore almost invariably. The waves

break normally on the beach and have little tendency to drive the

sand along the coast in either direction. The depth of water offshore

increases rapidly, the 10-fathom curve being found at about 2,200 feet from low-water mark. The entrance to the harbor will be 500 feet wide, protected by a single jetty on the southeasterly side. The harbor itself will be 2,200 feet long and 800 feet wide. From the easterly

end of the harbor this widtli is narrowed gradually to the approach to lock No. 8. The jetty will have a southwesterly direction and will

reach the 6-fathom curve at a distance of 1,200 feet from the shore

line. The difficulties of landing material on this side in the early

stages of the work before a harbor can be constructed are less than

at Grey Town. The sea is comparatively smooth most of the time.

Material for construction purposes could be landed on a pier reaching

to deep water, similar to those on the coast of California, or a temporary entrance to the Rio Grande could be made within a short time

and at comparatively little cost. The estimated cost of the harbor, including the

Cost of construction and -.

. . . . ,

, , , maintenance. entrance and protecting ]etty, as stated elsewhere,

is $1,509,470. The annual cost of maintenance is estimated at $50,000.

The summit level of the canal is the surface of

Regulation of level of ,\ , . ,, , . . , ,. n . Lake .Nicaragua. tne water in the lake. A dam across the ban Juan

River at Conchuda, 52.9 miles from the lake,

extends the summit level to that point. In other words, if a dam be
144 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

built at the Conchuda site an arm of the lake will reach to it, carrying

the lake level during a period of no discharge to the same point. The

canal will leave this arm of the lake at a point 8.3 miles up stream

from the dam. These arc the general conditions

iem°n

°n8

°

ie Pr°" which must be preserved, and the problem of the

regulation of the lake level involves the control of

the latter within such limits, more or less exact, as will never permit

the navigable depth of the summit level to be anywhere less than 35

feet on the one hand, nor permit the lake to rise materially beyond a determinate elevation on the other. This regulation can be accomplished by the construction of dams across the Rio Grande west of the

lake and across the San Juan on the east side, both being designed

with suitable waste ways for the discharge of surplus water, or all the

surplus water ma}' be wasted through the San Juan. As wasteweirs

at or near the Conchuda dam may be given sufficient capacity to dis- charge all the wastage, and as the latter may readily be discharged

through the lower San Juan, the entire regulation works are designed

to be located at or in the immediate vicinity of the Conchuda dam.

Obviously, after any given dry season has begun,

Maximum and minimum wjtn jj^g fafce surface no higher than the maximum

elevations not precisely de- . . terminable. permitted elevation, only the remaining surplus

run-off, if there be an}', will be allowed to escape over the dam or wasteway, the lake acting as a reservoir of sufficient capacity to hold available at least all the water that may be needed for

navigation until the beginning of the next season. On the other hand,

the wet season must be utilized in restoring the depleted lake, but if the amount of rainfall during that season is more than sufficient to

raise the lake surface above the desired maximum level, the surplus

inflow must be allowed to waste with sufficient rapidity to prevent the

lake rising high enough to produce serious inconvenience or damage.

The precise minimum elevation of the surface of the depleted lake, and

the maximum height to which the water in the lake may be allowed to

rise, may not be determinable, but it is not difficult to prescribe such

a control of the lake surface by available means as to fix those limits near enough for the certain and safe operation of the canal or for the

preservation of the usual industrial operations about the shores of the

lake. The storing of a sufficient supply to meet the demands of dry seasons

is a simple matter of computation of reservoir capacity, and can readily

be prescribed. The determination of the maximum elevation of the

water surface to be permitted in the lake involves J^15 CBpacM*

of the discharging capacity of the canalized San Juan

River from Fort San Carlos to the Conchuda dam

after it has become practically an arm of the lake. The iirst part of
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 145

the problem will, therefore, consist of the determination of the dis- charging capacity of the San Juan River for 52.88 miles of its length

from the lake to the Conchuda dam, corresponding to various elevations of the lake surface.

The total available length of the wasteweir or dam must be such

as to give the maximum discharge with a head on the crest of the

weir that shall not in general trench upon the navigable depth of 35

feet in the summit level of the canal. The minimum elevation of that

summit level has been tixed at 104 feet above the sea level. It will be necessary, therefore, so to proportion ftie regulating facilities at the dam as to attain the maximum discharge of the canalized river

with an elevation of water surface at the same point of 104 feet. Evidently the maximum discharge will be required when heavy rainfalls cause the lake to be at or near its maximum elevation; or it may

be desirable to determine the discharge of the canalized river with

the lake surface at almost any elevation between the minimum and the

maximum, while the elevation of the water surface at the dam has its minimum value of 104 feet. It ma}' therefore be necessary to know

not onlv the discharge of the lake at an}7 elevation

Discharge of lake at any ^^ ^

eleyation of 8urface at the dam above given stage. J the minimum, but also what will be of greater

practical consequence—the discharge of the lake at an}7 given stage

with prescribed elevations of the water surface at the dam.

This part of the investigation has been made by finding the contin- uous slopes of water surface from the lake to the dam, corresponding

to discharges of 20,000, 30.000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and 70,000

cubic feet per second for each elevation of the lake

slopes of canalized river 8urface 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. These slopes

corresponding to various •/•«»» t tt ,• i

• discharges. are shown in fig. 3 of Appendix H. After having

determined these slopes, the curves shown on the

right-hand side of tig. 3 will give the varying discharges for a given

elevation of lake surface and corresponding to different elevations of

the water surface at the Conchuda dam. The curves shown in rig. 4 of

Appendix H are then at once so drawn as to exhibit the discharge for

a given elevation of water surface at the dam with any elevation of

the lake surface. These results afford all the information regarding

the discharge of the canalized river required for the complete treat- ment of the regulation of the lake surface.

Obviously, at the end of the dry season the gates at the dam will always be found closed, and there will be no water escaping from the

lake except by evaporation and to supply the needs for canal uses.

It is equally evident that the gates will also remain closed, so as

to permit no wastage during the early part of the wet season, starting from its beginning. As the wet season proceeds, the

S D—57-1—Vol 7 10
146 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

surface of the lake will rise toward and generally quite to its maximum

elevation, and then the operation of wasting over

Regulation of gates. .'.,-, rTM • the weirs will commence, lhe time of beginning

of this wastage will depend upon the amount and distribution of the

rainfall during the wet period. Indeed, no wastage whatever would

be permitted during- such a low water wet season as that of 1890. The

rainfall from the entire drainage basin would be impounded in the

lake, and it would then fall short of restoring the depletion resulting

from evaporation and requirements of the canal. On the other hand,

during such a wet season as that of 1897, wastage would begin at an

early date. In general it may be said that neither the rate nor the law

of the rise of water surface in the lake ran be predicted. There may

be years when no wastage will be permitted, but generally considerable wastage will be necessary in order to prevent the lake risingabove the permissible stage.

An examination of the rainfall statistics and diagrams furnished in the report of Mr. Arthur P. Davis, hydrographer to the Commission,

and found in Appendix I. shows, as would be anticipated, that even a high monthly rainfall in the early part of the wet season falling on parched ground will have a comparatively small effect upon the eleva- tion of the lake surface. The same amount of

Jreclpltatlonlnwetsea- precipitiltion> on the othor h;lmj, falling later in the wet season, when the1 ground is saturated, has

a much more marked effect upon the elevation of the lake surface, both

in rapidity and amount.

A careful study of the results of Mr. Davis's observations shows thai

the maximum rate of rise of the lake during the three years. L898 (<> 1900. inclusive, is 19.5 inches in twenty-two days. This took place

between the 2d and 21th of October, in the year 1900. The total amount of rainfall at Granada in October of that year was 16.7 inches.

The total rise of the lake for the entire month of October was practically 21 inches. In the month of June. L897, a year of maximum

rainfall, the precipitation at Granada was 31 inches. Unfortunately, no observations on lake elevation were made during the latter year, and hence the corresponding movements of the lake surface can not be

given. It is most important to observe, in connection with this matter

of lake regulation, that the effect of a heavy rainfall is not felt immediately, except for that portion of the precipitation which falls directly upon tin 1 lake surface. While no precise statement can be

made as to the time which elapses between the beginning of a month's

heavy rainfall and the resulting material effect upon the elevation of

lake surface, due to run-off, it would appear from the consideration of

the data available to the Commission that from two to three weeks

may be taken for that purpose. This is an imimme<ii 1

,itfe r

,lnfa11 "ot f,U portant feature in the problem of lake regulation,

because it is essentially a warning given from two
REPOltT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 147

to three weeks in advance of a considerable rise in the elevation of the

lake surface This period may consequently be utilized for the maximum discharge over the waste weir, if deemed advisable, in anticipation of the ultimate effects of a heavy rainfall. During the early portion of a wet season, therefore, while the gates

are closed, the lake will he permitted to rise until it reaches nearly its maximum surface elevation. As an illustration, this may occur during

the month of August or September. The rainfall records show that

generally there may be expected a relatively heavy

October rainfalls. ° . "i . " l ' * rainfall during the month ot October, lhat month

would be approached, then, with the lake surface elevation at perhaps

109. 5, .leaving 0.5 foot margin below the desired maximum of 110.

If but a small rainfall should occur during October and November,

the waste gates might remain closed, impounding, if necessary, all the

precipitation, and thus reaching a full lake. If, on the other hand,

October should prove to yield a heavy rainfall, as is frequent, the

maximum rate of wastage could be at once afforded at the beginning

of the month, or as near that time as might be deemed advisable.

The discussion of this part of the general problem of lake regulation

must necessarily be involved in some doubt until more data concerning

concurrent heav}^ rainfalls and variations of the elevation of the lake

surface are available. With the exception of the year 1897, the year

1900 afforded the greatest total annual rainfall during the fifteen years

from the beginning of 1886 to the end of 1900. Fortunately, during the

latter year observations of the lake level were

Satisfactory control. ' . taken, as well as rainfall records at Oranada and

other points. Furthermore, there was a rather heav}T rainfall, 16.7

inches, during the month of October, with more precipitation than usual

during the four months preceding October. From October 2, 1900, to October 24, a period of twenty-two days, the elevation of the lake

increased from 105.7 to 107.32 feet, giving an actual rise of the lake

surface of 1.62 feet. This was a net rise in excess of the evaporation

and outflow through the San Juan River. According to Mr. Davis's

observations at Fort San Carlos, as shown in his rating table in Appendix I, the discharge out of the lake at Fort San Carlos on the first day

mentioned was 21,815 cubic feet per second, and on the latter date,

October 24, 29,555 cubic feet per second, giving an average discharge

per second out from the lake during the twenty-two days under consideration of- 25,685 cubic feet per second; or, again, a total outflow

for the twent}-two days of 48,822,048,000 cubic feet. The total area

of the lake surface is 82,938,240,000 square feet. This latter area

multiplied by 1.62 feet gives a total storage in the lake, during the

period under consideration, of 134,359,948,800 cubic feet, which, added

to the above determined outflow, gives a total of 183,181,996,800 cubic

feet as the total supply to the lake during the twenty-two day period
148 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

in excess of evaporation. While this total quantity of water would

be flowing- into the lake, were the dam and waste way in operation at Conchuda in connection with the canalized river, a maximum wastage

could be afforded of about 61,600 cubic feet per second, that being the

average discharge over the waste way for the lake surface elevation at 109.75, with the water surface at the dam at 104. That rate of waste

for twenty-two days would give a total outflow of 117,089,280,000

cubic feet. The difference between this amount of outflow and the

total amount of supply, in excess of evaporation given above, is 66,092,716,800 cubic feet, which, divided by the area of the lake in square feet, as stated above, will give 0.797 foot. In other words,

under the conditions named, in spite of the maximum outflow over

the wasteweir, the surface of the lake would rise practically 0.8 foot, or 9.6 inches; or, finally, 3.6 inches over the maximum elevation 110

feet desired. This result may be considered essentially a satisfactory

control or regulation of the lake surface.

During the first thirty da}^s of the same month of October, 1900, the

surface of the lake actually rose 1.96 feet, which, for the purposes of

this computation, will be taken as 2 feet. The results will, therefore,

be slightly in error on the safe side. The rating table already used

for the discharge of the San Juan River at Fort San Carlos shows

that the average discharge during that month of October was 25,200

cubic feet per second. Hence, during that month, except the last day,

the total outflow through the river was 65. 318, 400,000 cubic feet. To

this must be added the number of cubic feet in the volume of the area of the lake surface, multiplied by 2, since the increase in elevation was 2 feet. As the lake area in square feet is 82,938,240,000, the total volume of outflow through the river, added to the actual storage in the lake, all in excess of evaporation, will be 231,194,880,000 cubic

feet. It will be essentially correct to take the discharge of the canalized river, available for relieving this supply to the lake, as that which

exists with the lake surface at 110, and the surface of the water at the

dam at 104. That discharge is 63,200 cubic feet per second, or a total of 163,814,400,000 cubic feet. This last volume of wasteage, deducted

from the sum of the thirty days' outflow of the natural river added to the 2 feet of storage, gives a volume remaining in the lake in its regulated condition of 67,380,480,000 cubic feet, which, divided by the area of the lake surface in square feet, gives a net rise of 0.813 foot, or

practically 10 inches; or, finally, a lake surface 4 inches above the

maximum limit desired. This also may be considered a satisfactory

regulation of the lake. Any small excess of net storage in the lake at the end of October above that which might be deemed desirable,

either in the two preceding or other cases, could be quickly run out

after the end of the month by making use of the maximum discharge

of the canalized river for a short time only.
REPORT OF THE [STHMIAN < ANAL COMMISSION. 149

The preceding results obviously can not be considered finally conclusive as to what may happen in regulating the lake in the manner

desired, for the reason that a larger monthly ruin- liSSSSS fal1 <*» th »fc corresponding to 16.7 inches at

fluently extended. Granada may occur in October of any year, or in

any other month following preceding rainy months

which have left the ground in a saturated condition. Concurrent rainfall and lake stage records are not sufficiently extended to afford a demonstrative treatment of this part of the question.

The largest monthly rainfall by far recorded at Granada is 31 inches

for the month of June, 1897, the wettest year in all the rainfall records

available for the lake basin. It has alreadv been

Maximum rainfall antic- , i -i . i

• <» n , „ . ipated. observed that a heavy rainfall so soon following

the dry season will in general produce a less variation in the elevation of the lake surface than if that monthly amount

should fall at a time approaching the end of the wet season, as in the

month of October. Since, however, that amount of rain has fallen in one month, it should be taken as a possible precipitation for the month

of October. In that case, if the ground were saturated to the same

extent as at the beginning of October of 1897, a comparison may be

made with the 1897 conditions in order to determine what would happen under such phenomenally great precipitation. It might be inferred

at first sight that the amount of inflow from the basin to the lake under

such conditions would be proportionate to the total monthly precipitation. Although this is not far wrong, it is not quite correct. A

certain minimum amount of rainfall, possibly li inches per month,

would be held by the earth and would produce no inflow at all. Again,

in such a tropical country as that of Nicaragua, there is a sensible

evaporation from the earth's surface during a month, although its amount is unknown. If this latter quantity be neglected, and if 1£

inches be deducted from the monthly rainfall, in order to determine a

suitable ratio for the inflow, that amount should be deducted from the

16.7 for October, 1900, leaving 15.2, and from the 31 inches of 1900,

leaving 29.5 inches. The latter divided by the former will yield a

ratio by which the total inflow into the lake for 1897 should be multiplied, in order to obtain the inflow which would have resulted from 31

inches of rainfall at Granada for the month of October, 1897, under

the assumed conditions. This ratio is 29.5-^15.2 =1.94.

It has been shown that the total supply to the

Rise due to maximum i i • ,. ,

i . . i ,, , rainfai U lake in excess of evaporation during the month of

October, 1900, was 231,194,800,000 cubic feet. In

addition to this, the evaporation from the surface of the lake for that

month may be taken at 5 inches in depth. The amount of discharge

through the San Juan River in its natural condition has also been shown

to be 65,318,400,000 cubic feet, which is equivalent to a depth of
150 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

0.788 foot over the lake surface. The elements of the total supply for

October, 1900, are therefore as follows:

Evaporation 5" = 0. 41667 feet Rise of lake surface 21" = 2 feet

Discharge of natural river 9. 156" = 0. 788 feet

Total supply 3. 20167 feet

Less the rainfall on lake surface : 16. 7" = 1. 39167 feet

Totalinflow 1.813 feet This depth of 1.813 feet is to be multiplied by 1.91 to obtain the

corresponding depth of total inflow (including- that to be evaporated)

for the assumed October; and to that result must be added the 31

inches of precipitation which would fall directly on the lake surface.

Finally, from the quantity thus derived must be subtracted 5 inches or 0.41667 feet for evaporation. The statement will, therefore, stand

as follows:

Feet. 1.813X1.91=3.51722

Rainfall on lake surface —2. 58333

Total supply 6.10055

Less evaporation 11667

Total rise of lake, all water impounded 5. 68388

Discharge of canalized river for thirty days at the rate of

68,000 cubic feet per second reduced to uniform depth

over lake surface =2. 125

Actual rise of surface in thirty days =3. 559

The average rate of discharge of the canalized river is taken at 68,000 cubic feet per second, as that corresponds closely to the mean

stage of the lake during the assumed October.

The thirty-day rise of 3.559 feet, added to 109.5, would give an

elevation of lake surface of practically 113 feet. In reality, the lake

would not rise so high, since such an elevation would give a small

increase to its surface area, and the available minimum cross-section

of the canalized river would be somewhat greater than assumed. Yet,

under such conditions, the surface of the lake might rise above the

elevation of 11:4. If this were liable to happen frequently, it could not be considered satisfactory lake regulation. No such October precipitation, however, has yet been observed, and it may be said that the

existing records do not afford a basis of expectation for such a rise in the lake as often as once in fifteen years. It is even possible that such
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 151

a rise may inner occur. If such an extraordinary precipitation .should occur in October, it docs not necessarily follow that the lake surface

would reach an elevation much over 110, for the reason that it might

be materially below L09.5 at the beginning of ttie month.

The possibility of such a phenomenal rise in the lake surface as that

just considered at long intervals of years is indicated by the rainfall record at Masaya in the year 1SST. In fig. 15 of Appendix I it is shown that in October, 1887, there was a rainfall of 23.56 inches

following preceding months of sufficient precipitation to leave the

soil in a saturated condition. Mr. Davis shows by a comparison of

records for Masaya and Granada that the rainfall at Granada may be

one-fifth to one-fourth more than that at Masaya. Hence it may be

assumed that if there was a precipitation of 23.56 inches at Masaya in the month of October there may have been 22^ per cent more than

that amount, i. e., 28.86 inches, at Granada at the same time. The

increase of elevation or lake surface for that amount of rainfall at Granada may be compared directly with the increase of elevation of

lake surface for the same month at the same place for the year 1900,

which has already been considered, when the monthly precipitation was 16.7 inches. Subtracting, for the reasons already stated, 1^ inches

from both 16.7 and 28.S6 and dividing the latter result by the former

the ratio of 1.8 will be found. The total inflow following a thirty-day

rainfall of 16.7 inches in October, 1900, was equal to a depth of 1.813

feet over the entire lake surface, as was shown in the preceding computations. A statement applicable to the present case and similar to that already given will therefore be as follows:

Feet. 1.813X1.8 =3.2631

Rainfall on lake surface, 28. 86 inches =2. 405

5. 6684

Less evaporat ion of 5 inches .4167

2517

Less discharge of canalized river at a mean rate of 68,000

cubic feet per second during thirty days, reduced to the

uniform depth over lake surface of 2. 125

Actual rise of lake surface 3. 127

If the above rise of 3.127 feet be added to the assumed elevation of

lake surface, on October 1, of 109.5, there will be found an elevation

of 112.63 feet. As a matter of fact, for the reasons already stated,

the lake surface would probably not reach 112 feet in elevation, but

the results of both these latter computations show that, since the

month of October must be approached by a nearly full lake, there is a possibility at long intervals of probably more than fifteen years of

reaching a high lake surface elevation between 111 and 112. As the
152 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

thirty-day discharge of the canalized river, at an elevation of about

111, is but little less than 180,000,000,000 cubic feet, it is further seen

that the elevation of .the lake surface under these phenomenal conditions would remain above 110 for possibly a little more than one

month.

The preceding results are based essentially on

Results based on assumption that rainfaii in basin the assumption that the raintall on the entire lake

is proportioned to that at basm js m direct proportion to that at Granada,

while in fact the average rainfall over the whole

basin should be used. There are not sufficient data of observation to

establish such a relation, and the assumption is provisional only. It leads to the best method of procedure available, but the conclusions

reached may obviously need modification in either direction as the rainfall record and observations of the lake elevations are extended. It is a generally recognized feature of rainfall conditions that an extremely

high local precipitation for a short period, as one month, in any large

basin, is almost invariably considerably higher than the simultaneous

average for the entire basin; and there is reason to suppose that this is particularly true of the watershed of Lake Nicaragua.

The use of the rainfall record for one point, or possibly two, instead

of the average for the whole basin, is liable to lead to conclusions

extreme or possibly erratic in character. It is believed in this case

that this unavoidable feature of treatment has created conditions too

severe, and hence the resulting estimated extreme lake elevations are probably too high.

It is not believed to be necessary to include in the estimates of cost any items covering additional regulating facilities of such magnitude

as to meet these phenomenal conditions. It is not probable that such

facilities will ever be needed.

The preceding considerations indicate the salient features of the con- templated control of the greatest lake elevations in seasons of maximum precipitation. At the other extreme there must be considered

such provisions as are necessary to meet the requirements of the dryest

years on record. Of all the observations at the

Salient features. . present time available, those which show the lowest

annual rainfall belong to the year 1890, and are found in the Masaya

record in Appendix I. That year was immediately preceded and fol- lowed by years of at least the average precipitation, the records showing 78.78 inches for 1889, 20.52 inches for 1890, and 49.98 inches for

1891. It will be obvious, therefore, that the two dry seasons, with

the exceedingly low rainfall between, make the nineteen months from

November, 1889, to June, 1891, a period of unusually small precipitation, the lowest indeed so far known, it may be assumed that the

lake would be full at the end of the wet season immediately preceding

such a dry period of nineteen months. The elevation of that full lake
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 153

has been taken by Mr. Davis in Appendix 1 at 110.2, which is essentially what it should be. It then becomes necessary to know what

should be the movement of the lake surface during the period in question. Evidently the sluices at the wasteway would remain closed and

no outflow of the lake would be permitted during the first dry season, or from November until the succeeding May. Indeed the sluices

would be closed during the succeeding- wet season, as there would not

be sufficient rainfall to restore fully the depletion already accomplished.

In considering the movement of the lake surface from the end of

May it is necessary to keep in view the concurrent rainfall. The

record available is for Masa}^a, hence it is necessary to compare the

rainfall record at that place for some years, covering observations on

the variation of lake-surface elevations with that for 1890. Observations for 1809 and 1900 are available for the purpose, but as shown in Appendix I those for the latter year are preferable. The observed

precipitations for the months of 1900 are compared directly with those

for the same months of 1890, and the variations of lake surface produced by the corresponding rainfalls for the latter year are made protional to those of the former year, which were actually observed.

As indicated by Mr. Davis, this method is not free

Method of discussion not ,« i , ,1 ± j. ±. „

tree from error from error, but these errors to some extent compensate each other, and there is no reason to believe that they are great enough seriously to militate against the

conclusions reached. The portion A K, of the line in fig. 6, of Appendix H, shows the result of these operations. Starting from elevation

110.2 at H on the 1st day of November, a full lake is assumed to be

maintained, as would be the case, up to the 1st of December, when

the wet season closes, and consequently the sluices at the wasteway

are also closed. Evaporation and consumption of 1,000 cubic feet per

second for the use of the canal operate to deplete the lake until on

the 1st day of June the point A is reached, at elevation 107.03. At

that point the dry-wet season, so to call it, begins. The sluices at the

wasteway still remain closed and the consumption of water in the

canal continues, as well as evaporation from the lake surface. The

small rainfall only partially restores this depletion, so that at the end

of November the water surface in the lake has fallen to K, at an elevation of 106.9. No further supply is available until the beginning of

the next wet season. The sluices are therefore kept closed and the

lake surface at the end of the second dry season, on the 1st day of

June, has fallen to the point L, at an elevation of 104. In other

words, in spite of all storage of available water during the nineteen

months, evaporation from the lake and the use of the canal have run

the elevation of the lake surface down from 110.2 to 104, representing

the net depletion of 6.2 feet in depth of lake water. At the point L

the supphT from the next wet season would be available to relieve the

situation and cause the lake surface to rise.
15-i REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

These computations show that the net available storage in the lake

must be 6.2 feet, if the requirements for evaporation and navigation

for two dry seasons and an intermediate dry-wet season are to be met. The line H A K L is a minimum line of lake sur- face elevations, below which it should never fall at the dates indicated. In no dry season following an ordinary rainy

season should it fall below H A, because there would then be a short- age, and possibly a serious one, if a dry-wet season should follow it. Nor should the lake surface, under any circumstances whatever, fall below the line K L for the dry months indicated, for in that event at the end of the dry season there would not be the desired navigable

depth in the summit level. The complete consideration of the effect of years of low rainfall on

the regulation of the lake requires an examination into their possible

frequency so far as existing data will permit. The entire record for

fifteen years, from 1886 to 1900, at Granada and Masaya, shows but one year, 1890, with insufficient precipitation during the rainy season

to fill the lake and restore the amount evaporated. Had the proposed

regulating works been in existence there would have been a full lake on the 1st of every December, except for 1890, of the fifteen-year

period. So far as the existing records indicate, therefore, there is no

reason to expect the continued depletion of the water supply to an

elevation below 101 by a succession of low rainfall years, each with an

insufficient precipitation to fill the lake during the wet season. As has already been indicated in connection with the discussion of

months of maixmum rainfall, it is not possible to predict elevations

of the lake surface during the early months of the rainy season, such

as June and September. Knowing the discharging

capacity of the canalized river, it is quite simple,

after knowing the rainfall record of a season, so to layout a programme of wasteway discharge as to' control the lake sur- face in any desired manner within a considerable range of limits. It is quite another matter, however, to predict what lake elevation must be

reached on a given date within those months in advance of the rainfall. Indeed it is not possible to make such a prediction as will agree with a season's development. It has been shown, however, within what

limits the elevations of lake surface may be controlled for certain

maximum monthly precipitations and for what less monthly rainfalls closer approximations to the desired maximum elevation of 110 may

be reached.

Although a definite line showing the elevations of lake surface for

a specified period may be drawn for a given season of known supply

to the hike, like H A K L of fig. 6 of Appendix H for the nineteen

low water months, such a line can not be continuously drawn for an

ordinary year. The portion H A may be prescribed, and perhaps

Not possible to predict

•elevation of lake.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 155

A. O, but the part O P Q M, shown as a broken line, can not be laid down for the reason that it will depend entirely upon the record of

rainfall which is not completely known until the season is past. It can only be stated that the line of lake surface elevations for the wet

season will probably be similar in general character to O P Q M, tig. 6 of Appendix II, M being at the elevation of 110.2, which is shown

as a broken line on account of the uncertainty attached to its location.

Ordinarily the line for the succeeding dry season would be M S, which

is the same as H A.

Certain general principles of control procedure may be set forth in view of the results of the preceding computations. In general, it may

be stated that at the end of the dry season, on the 1st day of June,

the elevation of lake surface will be at 107.3, or at about that elevation. The sluices at the wasteway having been closed during the dry

season are still maintained in that condition, so that during the tirst part of the wet season all supply to the lake will be impounded. If there be a phenomenally heavy rainfall, as in June, 1897, it will be

necessary, as soon as the amount of precipitation is realized, to open

the sluices to their full capacity. Even under such circumstances the

rise which would take place in the lake surface is shown by the line

A D, in fig. 6 of Appendix H, and thev would

Principles of control. & . .-, ,»*"

have to remain open until the 1st of August in order to bring the elevation of the lake surface down to 110, as shown

at B, the maximum elevation of lake surface at D having been 110.6. From that time on the manipulation of the sluices would necessarily

depend upon the subsequent rainfall, the effort being to keep the lake

level at, or a little below, 110 until October.

Instead of the phenomenal rainfall of June, 1897, should there be a moderate or ordinary precipitation, the sluices at the waterwa}7 might

be maintained closed for a number of weeks, or until some date in

August or September, depending upon the amount of rainfall, it being

in this case as in all others the effort during „this period of the year to keep the lake surface elevation as near to 110 as practicable, or possibly a little below it. The rainfall records show that ordinarily the

rainfau. ' m0" ° **** month of October may be expected to be one of

comparatively heavy precipitation, and there

would seldom be years when it would not be necessary to dis- charge considerable water over the waste ways during that month.

In the years of specially heavy rainfall, or possibly in others of

ordinary rainfall, it would be necessary to open the sluices to their

full capacity for the entire month, or a little longer. The month

of October is practically the last opportunity of the wet season to secure a full lake, and that should certainly be attained, even if the

effort to do it should run the lake somewhat above the maximum
150) REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

desired limit of 110 feet, so that on the 1st of December a full lake

would exist as a necessary preparation for the succeeding dry season. While, therefore, no detailed instructions can be

Instructions for resula- , j> n -.• ,1 v. • <. ,1 -, • tion set forth regarding the condition or the sluices at the waste wa}T on specified dates, the general lines of their operations should be as stated below, viz:

1. A full lake with surface probabby a little above 110 on December 1.

2. Waste-way sluices closed at least from about December 1 to some

date in the early portion of the succeeding rainy season, or throughout

that season if it be one of unusually low precipitation.

3. A variable opening of waste-way sluices, if necessary, during the

intermediate portion of the rainy season, so as to maintain the lake- surface elevation but little, if any, below 110 at the beginning of

October.

4. The operation of waste-wa}7 sluices during October and November

so as to reach the 1st of December with a full lake, or lake elevation

probably a little above 110. The mean velocities in the minimum sections of the canalized river

corresponding to the greatest discharges required in the regulation of

the lake are as follows:

Elevation of lake. Elevation of water at dam.

103 feet. 104 feet.

110 feet.

111 feci. 112 feet.

Ft. per sec. Mi.perhr. FLperse.c. MLperhr.

4.16 j 2.8 3.9 2.7

4.51 j 3.1 4.2 4.85 3.3 4.5 2.9

3.1

The discharge of the river corresponding to the

Velocities. . " . velocity or 2.7 miles per hour is 53, 21 Hi cubic tect per second; while that corresponding to 3.3 miles per hour is 77,000

cubic feet per second. These estimated high velocities will occur but

rarely, and they will not sensibly inconvenience navigation. In reality

they are too high, for the reason that while the overflow at the minimum river section materially increases the areas of those sections, it has been neglected in this discussion.

It is probable that at some periods of heavy rainfall when the lake

is at or near its maximum elevation, the Sabalos and other smaller

rivers tributary to the San Juan between Fort San Carlos and the

Conchuda dam may be discharging at their greatest capacity also under the influence of heavy rainfalls on their respective drainage

areas. It is even possible that the concurrent flood inflow of these

streams may reach as high as 50,000 cubic feet per

Effort of tributaries of g^ d

^ ff fc f ^ ^ discnargeg

San Juan. "te ° _ ° on the elevation of the lake surface has been ignored

for two reasons. In the first place, their points of discharge are mostly
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 157

far removed from the lake and Largely below the steepest portion of

the river slope. Hence their effect upon the lake elevation would not be great even if these tributary flood discharges continued for a considerable period of time. In the second place, these tributary flood

discharges continue for a short time only; in fact, in nearly or quite

all eases for less than twenty-four hours. Under such circumstances

they can have no material influence upon the maximum elevations

reached by the lake. The drainage areas from which they flow are all small and the total flood volume contributed by tliem for short periods

of a few hours only is insignificant when compared with the volume

required to raise to any sensible extent the surface of the lake. Again, in all the preceding computations the volume of water

required for the uses of the canal has been ignored. Should this vol- ume be equal to a rate of consumption of 1.0(H) cubic feet per second, a depth of only 0.4 inch per month would be required to supply it, and

that is an amount too small for consideration in connection with the

question of lake control.

The regulation will be effected by wastewa3T s at

wLteTOy."

"am ""* the east end of the summit level, 'it being neces- sary to have control of the discharge, a movable

dam of some form is essential. The form adopted consists of vertically

moving gates of the Stonev type, each giving an

Sfcmey gates. . , , . ,

' „ \

opening of 30 feet in the crest of the wasteway.

The discharge through the upper section of the canalized San Juan

will be 63,000 cubic feet per second, with the lake at 110 and the

pool immediately above the dam at 104. This will be reached nearly

every year, but. as before shown, the lakes may rise, in exceptional

circumstances, possibly to 112, increasing the discharge of the river

to 76,000 cubic feet per second, with the water at the dam at 104. To produce such a discharge from the lake the rainfall would have

to be extremely heavy over the entire basin draining into it. There

would probably be a simultaneous heavy rainfall over the San Juan

basin from the lake to the dam, most of which would reach the river

below the constricted section which limits the discharging capacity

from the lake, and would increase considerably the required discharging capacity of the waterway. This structure is

feet'per'J^old!' 000 "*" therefore designed to discharge 100,000 cubic feet per second, with the water in the pool immediately above it at 104.

It is deemed judicious to limit the depth of water on the crest, under

normal conditions, to 7 feet, fixing the crest of the wasteway at eleva- tion 97. With a high lake and heav}T rainfall in the district near the

dam the pool might, for a short time, rise a little above 104. The

discharge of 100,000 cubic feet per second, with

Depth on crest, 7 feet. ° . l

i feet on the crest, requires a weir 1,590 feet long.
158 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION

This is provided by placing on the dam 21 sluice gates, each of 30 feet opening, and 32 similar ones at a site about 2,500 feet from the dam

in Costa Rica.

The latter structure is designated "Conchuda

Plan. wasteway" on the map. Its sluices will be placed on a concrete structure, which will have a foundation on hard rock.

Small ravines head near the site on both sides, and will require enlargement to permit the water to reach the wasteway and flow away from

it with moderate velocities. The plan of the wasteway and approaches

is shown on pi. Q8.

The most important structure on the route is the

Conchuda dam. Before deciding on its location a large number of borings were made to ascertain the depth to suitable

hard rock for the foundation, both at the Conchuda site and at the one

near Boca San Carlos suggested by the Nicaragua Canal Commission.

At the latter site the greatest depth to hard rock is 120 feet below the

surface of the river at low stage. At the Conchuda site the greatest

depth to hard rock is 82 feet, which is very important, because the

foundations will probably have to be placed by the compressed-air

process, and the depth is well within that at which the foundations of

many bridge piers have been built by the same method.

A plan of the Conchuda dam is shown on pi. 69. The portion of the dam across the river and the swamp on the Costa

Rica side, for a total distance of 731 feet, will consist, below low water,

of caissons placed close together with the joints between them scaled. Upon the platform thus made the part above low water will be built as a continuous monolithic structure and will support the sluices already

mentioned. From each end of this portion the dam will be built for a further distance of 100 feet into the hillsides in open excavations and

with cross section designed to sustain the full head of water. Core

walls extend 100 feet farther on the Costa Rica side and 210 feet on

the Nicaragua side. The total length of the dam. including core walls.

will be 1,271 feet. The foundation is on hard rock for the entire

length.

]n its preliminary report this Commission estimated the time for

completing the entire work on the Nicaragua route at about ten years. This was based on the expectation that two years would be required

for preparatory work and eight years to construct the dam at Boca

San Carlos, which would be begun only after a temporary harbor at Grey Town was constructed and other work done. A more favorable

site for the dam having been found at Conchuda, its construction is no

longer the controlling feature. It is estimated that this dam can be

built in four years.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 159

The estimated cost of the dam and auxiliary

Cosfc . wasteway is as follows:

Dam at Conchuda, including sluices and machinery $4,017,650

Auxiliary wasteway, including sluices, machinery, and

approach channels 2f 045, 322

Total for dam and wasteway 6, 062, 972

The wasteways for the disposal of floods in the

VYastewnys for reiriila- 1 1 1

' 1 £ ^.1 1 /^i •_•. tion of levels in pools. several levels or pools ot the canal (the summit

level excepted) are simple overfall weirs, with the

crests at the elevation of lowest water surface in the pool. The areas

of the watersheds which drain into the several

Overflow weirs. pools, and the areas permanently submerged, are

for the eastern division approximately as follows:

Level. Area to be submerged.

Total area

of watershed.

Lock No. 1 to lock No. 2 Sq. miles.

13. 1 7.5

1.1

Sq. miles.

24 'i Lock No. 2 to loci No. 3 7;; i Lock No. 3 to lock No. 4 9 3

The areas for the division west of the lake, while not accurately

determined, are known to be small. The eastern division is the region of heaviest rainfall. The ground

is generally saturated, the slopes steep, and the basins small in area, so that the run-off is rapid and its ratio to rainfall unusually large.

The greatest observed rainfall in twenty-four hours, as already stated,

occurred at Grey Town in November, 1899, and amounted to 12.48

inches, of which 8 inches fell in six hours. During the same storm at Lake Silico 10.50 inches fell in six hours. The wasteways provide

for a rainfall of 12 inches in twelve hours, the total amount falling on

the areas not submerged reaching the pool within twenty-four hours.

„ , , The embankments are given a freeboard of 5 feet

Freeboard. a above the level to which the assumed floods would

rise, increased where the floods in the San Juan rise above the flood

levels in the canal. The data concerning the flood levels of the San Juan are necessarily not exact. These assumed rainfalls and run-offs are greater than are likely to occur; but if they should be exceeded the works would not be endangered. If, for example, there should be a continuous rainfall of 1 inch

per hour, extending indefinitely, the freeboard would be reduced in the lower end of the pool between lock No. 1 and lock No. 2 to 3.5

feet. Such a rainfall continued for twenty-four hours is without
160 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

precedent on this continent, so far as known. Plans of wasteways

for the eastern division are shown on pi. 67. A small wasteway is provided in each of the levels between the

summit level and the Pacific. Each of these is to be 100 feet in length. In the level between lock No. 5 and lock No. 6 the wasteway and

channel lending therefrom will consist simply of a cut through sound

rock to the Rio Grande, the bed being at the minimum canal level at the canal bank, and sloping thence toward the river. The wasteway

in the level between lock No. t> and lock No. 7 is Wasteways on Pacific , i • -i t ±i ± 1 1 glde to be similar in every way. In the next level toward the Pacific, which ends at the tide lock,

there is no site for a wastewa}r with a rock foundation, but the water

in the canal will be 12 or 15 feet below the surface of the valley at the

upper end of the level, and but little below it at the lower end. It

is proposed here to form a wasteway by excavating a channel in the

earth from the canal to the river and to pave this for a distance of

about 500 feet from the canal. The amount of water to be discharged

here is small, and as the canal will be below valley level, a break in the canal bank will be impossible.

Some of the rock which will be found in the

Retaining walls. . . n

. cuts is much disintegrated. Kock from which no

core, or only small pieces, can be obtained by the diamond drill is classified in the estimates as soft rock. The rock thus classified is usually very soft on top, gradually becoming harder farther down

and passing into the material classified as hard rock, where cores nearly continuous are obtained. For the purpose of making the esti- mate, it is assumed that the soft rock for half its depth will require

lacing with a retaining wall. The top of the wall, 5 feet above the

water surface in the canal, will be 5 feet wide. The face will be vertical. The back will also be vertical for 10 feet from the top and

below that point will have a batter of 2 on 1. The project now presented is based upon a careMtematlve surveys. , x J A

. . tul and detailed examination ot the physical conditions of the entire route. The line has been marked out on the

ground, improvements have been made in location, and the subsurface

materials have been explored by means of borings, many of which

have been made with diamond drills. Samples of all materials have

been obtained, and the classification is based on a careful study of* them. The completeness of the system of borings

Examinations and borings. .... ., . ,

' , will be evident on an examination of the maps and

profiles. The alternative dam sites at Boca San Carlos and Conchuda

have received special attention. At each place three lines of borings,

LOO feet apart, were made from bluff to bluff, the borings generally

being LOO feet apart on each line, reduced to 50 feet where marked

depressions in the rock surface had been revealed or indicated by the

earlier borings.
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 161

With these data at hand, it is believed the difficulties of the route

are fully disclosed. Should construction be decided on, doubtless

minor improvements in location could be made, particularly in the

section between the Conchuda dam and Grey Town where, on account

of the dense vegetation, one can see but a short distance from any

point.

A few explorations of considerable magnitude were made to avoid

special difficulties on this section. The first one to be made was to ascertain whether there existed a practicable route

Route from I'pper San - . _ _ * Jum to headwaters of the from the valley of the ban Juan to that 01 the

Indl°- Indio. For years vague but persistent rumors of

the existence of a low pass in the divide between the headwaters of

the Machuca River and the Indio have been current. These reports were made chiefly by rubber hunters, the pioneers of this region, and

considerable credence was given to them by many persons. If such a

pass could be found, and the canal tea into another valley, avoiding

the difficulties of the Lower San Juan, the change would be of great

importance. A dam across the San Juan River at Machuca Rapids

could be built more quickly, and would cost much less than at Conchuda or any other point below Machuca; but a canal in the San Juan

Valle}7 between Conchuda and Machuca would be very expensive on

account of the hilly character of the country.

Under the direction of this Commission a search

Explorations. for such a route, extending over several months, was made by a well-equipped party. Surveys were made up the

Bartola and Machuca rivers, with a view of utilizing the Machuca

site for the San Juan River dam. The survey was carried up the

Bartola to a point 638 feet above sea level without reaching the summit, and the route being manifestly impracticable, the survey was

stopped. A survey was also made up the Machuca River, connecting

with a survey of the Indio and its tributary, the Negro. The divide

is 544 feet above sea level, and it would require a summit cut 24i

miles long and 475 feet deep at the maximum to carry Lake Nicaragua

level across it. The cost of this work alone would be greater than

that of the entire canal fiom Machuca to the sea by the adopted route.

It was decided also to examine the La Cruz del Norte, which dis- charges into the San Juan between Machuca Rapids and Conchuda.

If this route had proved practicable, the Conchuda dam would still be

required. The survey was carried over the divide to the Salvador, a branch of the Negro. The summit was 469 feet above sea level, and

a summit cut 15£ miles long would have to be made. The cost of the

canal by this route would be much greater than by the one adopted. In the district between the San Francisco hills and lock No. 2 borings

along the center line of the canal revealed two sand deposits—one west

of Tambor Grande ridge, extending about a mile along the canal line,

with sand a little below the grade of canal bottom, and the other east S D—57-1—Vol 7 11
162 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of Tamborcito ridge, where the prism of the canal would be partly in sand. Borings were made to ascertain the limits

route.* deP°SUS

°n C3nal of the sand deposits, as well as surveys for a location

farther inland. It was ascertained that such a location, avoiding the sand deposits, was practicable, but the cost of the

canal would be greater than by the adopted route. A survey was also made of a line which leaves

the adopted one 15i miles from the Caribbean,

passes through Lake Silico, and continues to Grey Town. The line

would be more direct, and the existing navigation from Grey Town to Lake Silico, which could easily be improved, and the narrow-gauge

railroad recently built from Lake Silico to the San Juan River might

be useful in the earlier period of construction. Lock No. 1 was

located in the hills on the west side of Lake Silico, and the site was

bored. The surface material, which was clay, was over the greater

part underlaid by rock. This proved to be a volcanic overflow,

underlaid by mud and sand. At the upper end of the lock site the

lock foundation would have been in the sand. A good lock site having been found on the adopted line, the one through Lake Silico was

abandoned. It is still possible that a better location may be found in this vicinity.

As already stated, the movement of the sand along the coast, which

at Grey Town seems to be at the maximum, decreases as the mouth of

the Indio is approached. This stream doubtless brings down some

sand and silt during floods. The amount is unknown, but is probably

small. Immediatel}T north of its mouth a forest growth, fringing the ocean front, indicates that the shore line is not now being subjected to much change. In view of the small sand movement in the neighborhood of the mouth of the Indio and the apparent stability of the shore

line there, it was thought advisable to locate an

Indio route. . . .

, - T

. . alternative route from iock JNo. 1 to a harbor site at that place. The line was a continuation of the tangent through

lock No. 1 to a point near the sea, Avhere it curved slightly to the

harbor and entered the sea on another tangent. It crosses the San

Juanillo and Deseado near their junction. These streams would be

diverted through a channel northwest of and practically parallel to the

canal line and at a safe distance from it, and discharged into the sea

to the northward of the harbor.

This alternative route is of about the same length as the adopted one to Grey Town, but has a little less curvature. The fore shore of

the coast is flatter thaD in the vicinity of Grey Town, requiring longer

jetties to secure a harbor. The jetties should converge seaward to give a large area outside the shore line in which the force of the waves may expend themselves, as at Ymuiden. The first cost of this alter-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 163

native route, both for excavation and harbor jetties, would be greater

than that of the adopted one. There is reason to believe, however,

that the cost of maintaining the harbor would be less, and possibly

the saving in this respect would be sufficient to warrant the greater

expenditure for construction.

The harbor site at Grey Town, on the other hand, has one important

advantage, that a harbor for light-draft vessels can be formed in less time. Protection to the entrance to such a harbor would be afforded

by the east jetty before its construction was far advanced. An

entrance with about 18 feet of water, opening into Grey Town lagoon,

would be of great value for the landing of materials to be used in the

construction of the railroad and canal. Moreover, an entrance at Gre}T Town would make it practicable to transfer materials to the

river steamers, which in the earlier stages of the work would be of

considerable value. The Commission estimates that such a harbor

could be opened at Grey Town in about two years. A working harbor could also be constructed at the Indio site, but as the entrance there opens more directly seaward, both jetties would have

to be commenced and built farther out to give adequate protection and

would require considerable more time. Since the formation of the

working harbor is preliminary to the beginning of canal construction

proper, this additional period required at the Indio site would delay

by a like mount the opening of the canal itself. The data concerning the Indio route are not so well ascertained as those relating to the adopted route terminating at Grey Town,but its advantage in respect to maintenance of the harbor can hardly be

doubted. The Commission believes, however, that it is practicable to maintain a harbor at Grey Town which will be fully as serviceable in every way, and regards its advantages as a working harbor as of such

importance that its estimates are based on that location.

Mean sea levels of the Pacific at Brito and of the Atlantic at Grey

Town were determined by the Nicaragua Canal Commission in 1898

and 1899 by a series of tide observations at each

place and b}?- a line of precise levels from Grey

Town to Lake Nicaragua, and from Lake Nicaragua to Brito. The

levels across the lake were transferred by water level in the lake, a

series of observations extending over a period of twent3'-nine days

being taken for this purpose. As thus determined, mean sea level in the Caribbean Sea at Grey Town was apparently 0.99 of a foot above

that at Brito in the Pacific, but during this period the Pacific Ocean at Panama, as determined by the tide tables of the United States Coast

and Geodetic Survey, was one foot below the normal. Assuming this to be true at Brito, and there seems to be no reason for doubting it, the mean level of the two oceans would be the same. Gopd sand for construction purposes can be had in large quantities

in the bed of the lower San Juan, as well as on the seashores. There
164 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Railroad.

are ample quantities of good stone for rubble and concrete. Cement

is not now manufactured in Nicaragua, and it will probably be nec- essaiy to import it. There are now in Nicaragua small dams, cisterns,

indigo vats, and other constructions built of concrete, which are quite

old and in excellent state of preservation. Concrete ought to last indefinitely in the mild climate of Central America. There is an ample

supply of stone on both sides of the lake suitable for jetty construction.

A railroad for construction purposes will be necessary, and provision

has been made for building one from Grey Town to the mouth of the Sabalos River, and from the

west shore of the lake to Brito. The intervening space can be trav- ersed by boats, the river between Fort San Carlos and the Sabalos

being deep enough to accommodate, without improvement, such vessels

as can reach the deep water of the lake from the San Juan. It is possible that the portion of the railroad between the Conchuda dam

and Sabalos might be dispensed with, as the work between those

points is almost entirety in the river, but it was thought best to provide convenient communication between the two oceans, as a transfer

of material and men from the east to the west side of the lake, or from

the west to the east side, might become important. The portion of

the river between the dam and Sabalos is navigable only for small

steamers. The railroad has been located on the south side of the canal, with

the grade not exceeding 0.5 per cent. It is to be of standard gauge,

supplied with sidings, stations, and water tanks, and fully equipped

with the necessary rolling stock. The estimate is made on the basis

of $75,000 per mile for the railroad completed and ready for operation.

Summing up the various items, the total estimated cost of construct- ing the Nicaragua Canal is as follows:

Miles. Cost.

Grey Town Harbor and entrance

Section from Grey Town Harbor to lock No. 1, including approach wall to lock.. Diversion of Lower San Juan

Diversion of San Juanillo Lock No. 1, including excavation

Section from lock No. 1 to lock No. 2, including approach walls, embankments, and waste way

Lock No. 2, including excavation

Section from lock No. 2 to lock No. 3, including approach walls, embankments, and wasteway Lock No. 3, including excavation

Section from lock No. 3 to lock No. 4, including approach walls, embankments,

and waste wa y Lock No. 4, including excavation , Section from lock No. 4 to San Juan River, including approach wall and embankits Conchuda dam, Including sluices and machinery

Auxiliary wasteway, including sluices, machinery, and approach channels San Juan River section Lake Nicaragua section Lake Nicaragua to lock 5, including approach wall to lock and receiving basins

for the Rio Grande and Chocolata

Diversion of the Las Laj as Lock 5, including excavation Dam near Huen Retiro Section from lock No. 6 to lock No. 6, including approach walls and wasteway .. Lock 6, including excavation

2.15

7.44

.20 10.96

.20 16.76 .20

2.77

.20 6.30

49.64

70.51

9.09

2.04

.20

$2, 198, 860

4, 899, 887

40,100 116,760

5, 719, 686

6, 296, 632 4,050,270

19,330,654

3, 832, 745

4, 310, 580

5, 655, 871

8, 579, 431 4,017,650

2,045,322

23, 155, 670 7,877,611

19, 566, 675

199, 382

4, 913, 512

125, 591 3,259,283

4,368,667
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 165

Miles. Cost.

Section from lock No. 6 to lock No. 7, including approach walls, embankments,

ami wasteway 1. 83 Diversion of Rio Grande

Lock No. 7, including excavation

Section from lock No. 7 to lock No. 8, including approach walls, embankments,

and wasteway

Diversion of Rio Grande

Lock No. 8, including excavation

Section from lock No. 8 to Brito Harbor, including approach wall

Brito Harbor and entrance, including jetty Railroad, including branch line to Conehuda dam site, at 875,000 per mile

Total Engineering, police, sanitation, and general contingencies, 20 per cent Aggregate

2.43

.20

.23

.92

82, 309, 710

176, 180 4,709,502

1,787,498 117,580

4, 920, 899

553, 476 1,509,470

7,575,000

183.66 158,220,052 31,644,010

189,864,062 An estimate has been made of the time required to pass through the

canal by ships of several t}r pes, the details of which are given in

Appendix G. The estimated time is thirty hours for a ship of aver- age size, 400 feet long, 50 feet beam, and 24.5 feet draft, and thirty- seven and six-tenths hours for a ship 650 feet long, 70 feet beam, and

32 feet draft, which corresponds closely with the largest ships afloat. The following is a brief summary of the work

££££££££ that has been done by the corporation known as the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua in the construction of a canal on the Nicaragua route: The annual reports of the Maritime Canal Company for the year 1889

and subsequent thereto, made in pursuance of the requirements of the act of Congress incorporating the company, show that actual work of construction was begun October 8, 1889, and was suspended some time in 1893. During this period of over three }

T ears comparatively little work was accomplished. In 1893 the Nicaragua Canal Construction

Company, with which a contract was made by the Maritime Canal

Company for construction, suspended payments and work ceased.

The reports of the company show that during this period a telegraph

line was built from Grey Town to Castillo, where it connected with the

lines belonging to the Nicaraguan Government. Other telegraph and

telephone lines were established to connect headquarters with some of

the camps or stations.

A single-track standard-guage railroad was built, 11^ miles in length,

from Grey Town to a point between the sites of the first two locks, and

is reported to have been equipped with 4 locomotives, 50 cars, and

other requisites. Much of this railroad was built across a swamp,

requiring timber cribbing, on which a temporary track was laid, and

the permanent embankment was formed of sand hauled by trains from

the canal spoil banks near Grey Town. A number of buildings, workshops, quarters, hospitals, and storehouses were also constructed. In

all, 39 buildings, having a floor space of 75,902 square feet, sheds,

water tanks, and other smaller structures are reported as having been

constructed, in addition to wharves equipped for unloading heavy

freight.
166 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

A jett}" or pier was constructed for securing- an entrance into Grey

Town Lagoon from the sea. It was built 42 feet wide, of creosoted

piles and timber, and filled with brush, stone, and concrete blocks.

It extended about 937 feet into the sea. The pier was intended to intercept the westward drift of the beach sand and cause an opening

to be formed into the lagoon, which it did. The current soon deepened it to about 7 feet, permitting the dredges which Imd been purchased by the canal company to be floated in. Afterwards the entrance was still further deepened by dredging to a depth reported as about

15 feet. The channel has since been closed by sand, the jetty is much

decayed, and some of it washed into the sea. The company brought to Grey Town six dredges which had previously

worked on the Panama Canal. In the reports to the Secretary of the

Interior it is stated that seven were purchased. One was said to have

been lost at sea between Colon and Grey Town. Besides the dredging

done in the sea entrance to the lagoon, some was done to provide

anchorage and access to the company's buildings and shops and also on the canal proper. This latter work was done b}7 an elevator dredge,

making a single cut for a distance inland of about 4,350 feet, with a width of 167 feet and depth of 16i feet. This was followed by another

cut of about 3,000 feet in length, the width of the double cut being

279 feet. There has been no apparent deterioration in this excavated

portion of the canal. The canal company's reports state that important work had been

done on the Machuca Rapids and quantities of rock removed from

the bed of the San Juan at that point. The canal line was reported

cleared of timber for a distance of 20 miles from the Atlantic coast. The company also reported that 8 miles of the route of the canal on

the west side of the lake was cleared of timber and undergrowth and

that the line of the railroad which was to extend from the lake to the

Pacific was carefully surveyed and located. Nearly all the property of the Maritime Canal Company, including

dredges, boats, tugs, etc., has gone to ruin, except the railroad and

the 4,350 feet of partially constructed canal. The buildings now

standing are in bad condition. Some of them in 1897 were capable of

being repaired and were used by the employees of the Nicaragua Canal

Commission and later by the employees of the Isthmian Canal Commission.

Practically none of the property would have any value to-day in the construction of the canal, except, possibly, the canal excavation

made from Grey Town Lagoon inland, and this would be of value only

as part of a channel for the diversion of the San Juanillo River. It

is now understood that the failure of the Maritime Canal Company to complete the canal within the time required by the concession has

worked the forfeiture of the latter, and that all the property of the

company in Nicaragua has been taken possession of by the Nicaraguan

Government.
CHAPTER VII.

EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, CLIMATE, HEALTH.

So much has been written upon the liability of

Earthquakes. ... . . , . an isthmian canal to injury or destruction by earthquakes, that a brief discussion of the subject seems desirable.

The cause of earthquakes is not well understood,

Obscurity of subject. • -> , , • but amid the obscurity surrounding the subject

there are a few salient facts which seem to be generally accepted.

The first is that the geographical distribution of volcanoes corre- sponds with the areas most subject to earthquakes. One of the most

celebrated and destructive earthquakes known to history—that of

Lisbon in 1755—occurred far from any volcano;

S u!, 1 ""lfea 1

rir'i rkf ",0S< and so with that of New Madrid, Mo., in 1812,

and that of Charleston, S. C, in 1886; but the

general statement is correct, that they are more frequent in volcanic

countries than elsewhere, though there is probably no part of the

earth's surface which is entirely exempt from these disturbances. It does not follow that volcanoes and earthquakes bear to each other the

relation of cause and effect, but it is highly probable that they repre- sent different manifestations of the same subterranean forces. 1 The doctrine that volcanoes are safety valves

Yolcanoes safety Yalves. 1 • 1 t • • i i

• i ,. which diminish the violence of earthquakes in

their vicinity is accepted by such writers as Baron von Humboldt,

Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Charles Daubeny, and J. Le Conte. 2 In general terms, then, the region of volcanoes is the region of

earthquakes, but the immediate vicinity of the volcanoes is not necessarily the most dangerous part of the region.

The location of the principal volcanoes in the

can"c region. m" Part °^ the world where lies the isthmus is shown

on plate 70. From a glance at this map it is evident that the entire isthmus between North and South America is a

volcanic region. Humboldt thus speaks of it : " The grandest example

of a continental volcanic ' chain ' is offered by the great rampart of

^'Earthquakes," by John Milne. D. Appleton & Co., N. Y., 1899.

2 Humboldt's "Cosmos," Sabine's translation, eighth edition, Vol. I, p. 202; "Principles of Geology," by Sir Charles Lyell, first American edition, Vol. I, p. 32; "Volcanoes," by Charles Daubeny, second edition, p. 691; "Elements of Geology," by J. Le Conte, fourth edition, p. 105. , 167
168 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the Andes extending from the southern part of Chile to the northwest

coast of America."1 No portion of it is exempt from earthquakes.

The record of those which have occurred is meager, being as a rule

confined to those severe enough to inflict damage upon buildings or otherwise attract general attention. The most complete catalogue

to which the Commission has had access is that

Records available. • * -n -i » * i-r.ii « prepared by Mr. p. de Montessus de Ballore,

published in 1888. It covers the entire period from the time of the

Spanish conquest to the year 1886. No very important earthquake

has occurred upon either the Nicaragua or Panama lines since the

latter date. The record for points upon the line of the Nicaragua Canal shows

14 earthquakes. Two of these were felt at Grey Town, which has

been supposed b}T some writers to be exempt. The only one which is reported to have caused serious injury was that of 1844—Rivas was

almost destroyed, and great damage was done at

Earthquakes on Klcara- Q T()wn Riyas y 4 m[}^ from

^ ^^ ^ gua liue. * and is the only town of consequence in that part

of Nicaragua. It has had a continuous existence since a period ante- dating the conquest, when it was known as Nicarao. It was subsequently known as Nicaragua.

For Panama the records show 28 earthquakes. Of these, 12 occurred

in the three years 1882, 1883, and 1884, which illustrates the incompleteness of the record as a whole. The only one that could be called destructive was that of 1621, which destroyed nearly all the houses in Panama. The next most severe was that of Sep-

^Earthqnakes on Panama ^^^ jgg^ During fchig earthquake a part of

the front of the cathedral in Panama was thrown

down and the headquarters building of the canal company was cracked;

the railroad had its track and roadbed in places thrown out of line,

and the masonry of three or four bridges and culverts was damaged;

at Las Cruces the church was thrown down; at Colon some lives were

lost and crevasses were opened, and the Jamaica telegraph cable was

broken.

It is evident that this list is not complete enough to justify a comparison between the Nicaragua and Panama routes as to either the

number of earthquakes or their severity. They

tw

N

o°nne

ff8

e

.renCebetWee,,t!,e are on precisely the same footing historically as the}7 are geographically. In neither case is there

recorded any great disasters such as have occurred in neighboring

countries. The earthquake of Caracas to the eastward in 1812, and

1 Cosmos, Vol. I, p. 228.

J Tremblemente de Terre et Eruptions. Volcaniques au Centre-Amerique, by F. de Montessus de Ballore, p. 61. Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Saone-et-Loire,

Dijon, 1888.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 169

that of Jamaica to the northward in 1092, are well known as among

the most destructive in history. To the northwestward the town of

San Salvador has been ruined ten times and that of Guatemala seven

times. To the southward, the earthquake of Riobamba, in the province of Quito, in 1779, was one of the most terrible phenomena in the

history of the globe. 1 With the exception of the injury to Panama

in 1621 and to Rivas in 1844, the worst that has ever happened at the

isthmus upon either line was to throw down or crack a few walls; and

even in those cases it is to be remembered that comparatively few of

the houses were substantially built. The internal disturbance which results in an earthquake is trans- mitted to any given point of the earth's surface in the form of an

elastic wave of compression, and its effects may be of infinite variety,

depending upon the varying elasticity of the different media through

which it passes, and their shape, as well as the

eaX.Tkes!

aCtl<m " strength and distance of the original impulse.

The resulting motion may be vertical, horizontal, or oblique, and a circular or twisting effect may be produced if the

direction of the force be not in a vertical plane passing through the

center of gravity of the object acted upon. Twisting motion would

also be produced by two waves crossing each other. The ground may

be elevated or depressed, and fissures may be opened, these effects being sometimes temporary and sometimes permanent. The effect of

the undulations of the earth's surface upon an}*- structure increases

with the height of the structure above the ground. A force which

would leave the foundation intact might throw down a high wall. The works of the canal will nearly all of them be underground.

Even the dams are low compared with the general surface of the

country and with their broad and massive foundations may be said to form part of the ground itself as they are intended

Pefi°sr

r0fCanalWOrk8t0 to do- The locks will all be founded upon rock.

It does not seem probable that works of this kind

are in any serious danger of destruction by earthquakes in a country

where lofty churches of masonry have escaped with a few minor

injuries.

When an earthquake originates beneath the sea, one of its attendant

phenomena is often a tidal wave, and this is sometimes of enormous

height and destructive character. At Lisbon the

Tidal wave. °

. sea rose to a height ot 50 ieet above its ordinary

level. 2 With a given force of impulse, the dimensions of such a wave

must bear some relation to the depth and area of the water disturbed.

A lake like that of Nicaragua is insignificant compared with the ocean.

It is not probable that a tidal wave of great proportions could be generated therein. The probability is still less for Lake Bohio.

'Cosmos, Vol. 1, p. 194. 'Keith Johnston's Physical Atlas, p. 40.
170 BEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

It is possible and even probable that the more accurately fitting

portions of the canal, such as the lock gates, may at times be distorted

by earth quakes, and some inconvenience may result

Injury to be expected. ,. . ' , . , therefrom, that contingency may be classed with

the accidental collision of ships with the gates, and is to be provided

for in the same way, by duplicate gates.

It is possible also that a fissure might open which would drain the

canal, and if it remained open, might destroy it. This possibility

should not be erected by the fancy into a threatenDangcr from a fissure. . _. . *

. . . . mg danger. It a timorous imagination is to be the

guide, no great work can be undertaken anywhere. This risk may be

classed with that of a great conflagration in a city like that of Chicago

in 1871, or Boston in 1872.

It is the opinion of the Commission that such danger as exists from

earthquakes is essentially the same for both the Nicaragua and Panama

routes, and that in neither case is it sufficient to prevent the construction of the canal. The climate of the Isthmian Canal regions is

Climate. generally damp and enervating, lhe temperature

is not extreme, rarety rising as high as 95° or falling below 70°, but

the excessive humidity greatly restricts the capacity for physical exertion. The lowlands near the coast have long been known as insalubrious, and the seaports are subject to fevers. Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be encountered

in the construction of the canal will be the procurement of an adequate

force of laborers and the preservation of their health and efficiency. In this respect the Panama route has a lugubrious history from

which the Nicaragua route is free. The notorious mortality which

attended the construction of the Panama Railroad and later the operations of the Panama Canal Company has taught a

Kxperien,-, at Panama j

fa j fa jj, fc })Q forgotten for that

and Nicaragua. "

route. Among the white employees of this Commission sent to Nicaragua there were fewer cases of sickness than

there would probably have been among the same number of men

employed in some parts of the United States. Among those sent to Panama the proportion of sick was greater. On the Nicaragua line during the operations of the Maritime Canal Company the health of

the force was reported to be good. These operations, however, were

of a preliminary character, employing but a limited number of men.

It is probable that when ten or twenty thousand men are assembled

and the rank soil is being turned up over a widely developed line of

works the experience will be different. There are some slight differences of climate. In Nicaragua the

trade winds are more regular than at Panama, tempering the heat and

removing miasma more effectively; but, on the other hand, the rainfall
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 171

is greater at Nicaragua, at least for the east side, and the resulting

humidity is greater. Both are covered with the rank vegetation peculiar to the Tropics, and swamps abound in both. The lessons taught

at Panama should be heeded for Nicaragua also.

It is stated bv Mr. Bunau-Varilla, at one time

Lessons from Panama. . .

, chief engineer of the old Panama Canal Company,

that out of one hundred individuals sent to the Isthmus not more than

twenty, as an average, could remain there, and even these lost a part

of their value. The negro alone could perform manual labor; the

white man must supervise and direct. After costly and fatal experiments with other races the company ceased sending to the Isthmus as laborers any but native Colombians and negroes from the British

Antilles, particularly Jamaica. The Panama Railroad Company grants

to its white employees from the United States two months' leave of

absence each year, with transportation to their homes.

Careful selection, including physical examination, of persons sent

to the Isthmus, a well-organized hospital service, an efficient sanitary

supervision of camps and barracks, a rigid q narrationTM" heaitL.°r preser" antine service, a liberal water supply and sewerage

system, with the authority and the police force

necessary to enforce the rules, and regular leaves of absence to white

emplo}'ees, are among the requirements for a successful prosecution

of the work, and will probably be found necessary at either place*.
Chapter VIII.

BIGHTS, PRIVILEGES, AND FRANCHISES,

The act of Congress under which the CommistoinTesu^uon.

' laWa8

s *on was appointed and the instructions of the

Chief Executive thereunder require a full and

complete investigation of the Isthmus of Panama with a view to determining the most feasible and practicable route across said Isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing and placing the same

under the control, management, and ownership of the United States. The right to own and manage the canal when constructed can not be

exercised without control of the territory through which its line actually passes and that immediately contiguous thereto and the ports or harbors at either end, also that occupied by the auxiliary works; and

in order that the duties of the Commission may be clearly understood,

it is important to consider and determine how far it was contemplated

by the law-making power that this control should extend.

The proposition before Congress up 1 which this legislation was

based was that the United States should, in a governmental capacity,

construct, maintain, and operate a navigable waterway through the

territory of foreign states. This can not be done under the laws of nations without their consent, and no treaties then existed or have since been concluded giving

such consent. Treaties have been heretofore made by the United States and by the

Governments through whose territory the different canal routes mentioned in the law extend relating to this subject of an interoceanic

communication, and in all of them these States have expressly reserved

the right of sovereignty and it has been respected by our Government.

Thev have made a like reservation in all the contracts made with cor- porations, associations, and individuals granting privileges to enable

them to construct a canal by these different routes. The organic laws that the people of these different States have made

for themselves give no authority to relinquish sovereignty over any

part of their territory to a foreign power for this or any other purpose. If the government and people were willing to make such

changes in them as would authorize the cession of any part of their

territory, these changes could be effected only after long delays, that

would seriously hinder and delay the inauguration of this great undertaking.

172
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 173

It must also be remembered that this subject of constructing a maritime canal had been before Congress many times before the law under

consideration was enacted, and that no proposition to obtain the entire

and absolute control that sovereignty gives was ever adopted by either

House. If a departure from the line of action which had been fol- lowed up to that time was intended, it would doubtless have been

clearly expressed.

The acquisition of the territory to be occupied

Sovereign^ or united and the extension over it of the sovereignty of states over canal route . . a J

not requisite. the United States, desirable and advantageous as it might be, is not essential to the success of such a

project as the statute contemplates. The Republics owning the proposed routes are all friendly to an interoceanic communication, and

there are no constitutional or other legal obstructions in the way of an

agreement, in harmony with existing treaty obligations between any

of them and the United States, authorizing the latter to enter its terri- tory and excavate a canal there with such additional authority as may

be necessary to make and enforce police and quarantine regulations,

establish and collect tolls and other proper charges, and protect the

canal and those engaged in its construction and operation and the per- sons and property using and passing through it when completed, such

powers and privileges to be exercised subject to the sovereignty of the

Republics in which the property is situated. In order to exercise these rights and perform

quired! ° "

0ry TM" these functions the United States will require the

control of a strip of territory from sea to sea, including the canal and auxiliary works, with sufficient space at each

terminus for all port and harbor accommodations, including offices,

warehouses, residences for officials and workmen, docks, light-houses,

and quarantine stations. Within this area those charged with the

direction of the canal project during the period of construction, and

with the management and operation of the work and its auxiliaries

after completion, should have power to protect the entire line from

intrusion by evil-disposed persons, prevent smuggling, regulate the

kinds of business that ordinarily require control, and enforce police,

sanitary, and other appropriate rules and regulations, as well as contracts relating to the construction and operation of the canal.

_ ... . M The strip should be of sufficient width to pre- Breadth of strip. r i vent wrongdoers from easily withdrawing beyond

the limits of police jurisdiction and thus avoid arrest and escape punishment. It should be not less than 10 miles in width; that is, 5 miles on each side of the center line of the canal throughout its entire

length and including its terminal harbors.

ifrights, privileges, and Any rights, privileges, and franchises still in

franchises exist, they force which may have been granted by the States

should be removed. .i ., , .. owning the territory to corporations, associa-
174 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tions, or individuals at any of these canal routes are in the wa}T of

negotiations to secure the desired privileges and powers, and the

Commission is charged with the duty of ascertaining what rights of

this nature exist and upon what terms they can be purchased and

removed.

Such rights, privileges, and franchises depend

Treaties to be examined. °

, . . . , , -. largely upon the international relations and obli- gations which exist between the Governments whose territory is to be

occupied and the United States and other Governments claiming an

interest in the subject of an interoceanic communication; so this investigation property begins with an examination of the treaties

between these different Governments in order to ascertain upon what

basis such grants and concessions have rested, and also to determine

whether any definite policy has been developed by the negotiations

which have resulted in these conventions with reference to opening a communication for the commerce of the world across the American

isthmus and its future control and ownership. If airy other obstacles

exist in the way of obtaining the necessary authority to occupy and

use the territory required, such an investigation will develop them,

and this is the first step toward their removal.

The treaties relating to the Nicaragua route will arSTMIe!

at,ngt° KJC" first be considered, and these include not only

those concluded with the Republic of Nicaragua,

but also those in which the Republic of Costa Rica was one of the

contracting parties, as the geographical situation requires the consent

of both these Governments before a canal can be constructed on this

route, for though but little of the territory of the latter will be used

in any of the proposed plans, much of it will be affected therein'.

Whatever doubt may have existed upon this

estedh. th's^oute!

'" point was removed by the award made by President Cleveland on the 22d day of March, 1888,

in the arbitration for the settlement of the differences which had arisen

between the two Republics as to their respective boundary rights, in

which it was expressly determined that in cases where the construction of an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua will involve an injury

to the natural rights of Costa Rica, her consent to its construction is necessary, and she may demand compensation for the concessions she

is asked to make.

On the 21st day of June, 1867, a treaty was

Treaty between Dnited negotiated between the United States and the

States and Nicaragua, "

18G7. Republic or Nicaragua for the purpose or maintaining and improving the friendly relations then

existing between them, of promoting the commerce of their citizens,

and, last and chiefly, of making some mutual arrangement with respect

to a communication between the two oceans by the river San Juan and
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 175

cither or both the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua, or by any other

route through the territories of Nicaragua.

The two Republics agreed upon a reciprocal freedom of commerce,

opened their ports, rivers, and harbors to the ships and cargoes of each

other, and assured to the merchants and traders of each nation, respectively, complete protection and security to their commerce, subject

always to the laws of the two countries. The respective ships of war

and post-office packets of each Government were granted the same

liberty to enter the ports of the other, anchor and refit there, as the war ships and packets of other nations enjoyed. And generally they

declared their intention to treat each other on the footing of the most

favored nations and any favor, privilege, or immunity in matters of commerce and navigation already granted, or that might thereaftei

be granted, to the citizens or subjects of any other State was extended on equal terms to the citizens or subjects of the other contracting

part}7

. The Republic of Nicaragua also granted to the United States and to

their citizens and property the right of transit between the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans through its territory on any route of communication, natural or artificial, by land or water, then existing or to be

thereafter constructed under the authority of Nicaragua, the same to be used on equal terms by both Republics and their citizens, Nicaragua, however, reserving its sovereignty over the same. The United States agreed to protect all such routes of communication and to guarantee their neutrality and innocent use; also to influ- ence other nations, as far as possible, to guarantee such neutrality

and protection.

Liberty was granted to the United States, on giving notice to the

authorities of Nicaragua, to carry troops and munitions of war from

one free port to the other to be established at each extremity of the

line of communication between the two oceans without charges or

tolls for their transportation, provided such troops and munitions were

not to be employed against Central American nations friendly to Nicaragua.

Nicaragua agreed to employ military forces when necessary for the

security and protection of persons and property passing over any such

route of communication. But upon failure to do so authority was

given to the United States, in certain specified contingencies, to employ

such force, but onty for the purpose of protection, the force to be

immediately withdrawn when the necessity should cease. Nicaragua agreed to protect and preserve the rights and privileges,

with reference to the establishment of an interoceanic communication,

granted to the United States by this treaty in any grants or contracts thereafter entered into by the Government. And the assurance of

protection to such routes, given by the United States, was declared
176 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

inoperative, so far as prior grants were concerned, unless their holders

should agree to observe the concessions granted by the treaty as fully as if they had been embraced in the original grants or contracts. This treaty was ratified in June, 1868, and was to remain in force

for fifteen years thereafter, or longer, unless one of the parties should

give notice to the other of its intention to terminate it at least twelve

months before the expiration of that time. If such notice were not

given, it could at any time thereafter be terminated, in twelve months,

in the same way.

The Government of Nicaragua exercised this privilege on the 27th

of September last, and the notice was received by the Secretary of State on the 24th day of October, so that in twelve months from that

date the treat}7 will be abrogated.

It is thoroughly understood that this action has been taken in a

friendly spirit and with a desire to remove all obstructions in the way

of a new treaty, in harmony with the cordial relations of friendship

which happily exist between the two Governments.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report marked Appendix K.

Subsequently, on the 1st day of December, 1884, another treaty was negotiated between the United States and

treat JNicaragua. It is generally known as the rre- linghuysen-Zavala treaty and its purpose was to provide for the construction of a navigable canal across the territory

of Nicaragua by the United States, to be owned by the two contracting

Republics.

It provided for a perpetual alliance between the United States and

Nicaragua, and the former agreed to protect the integrity of the ter- ritory of the latter and disavowed any intention to seek in any wa}T to impair its independent sovereignty.

The canal was to be constructed by the United States upon the most

available route from ocean to ocean and was to be commenced within

two years from the ratification of the treaty and completed within ten

years, or as soon thereafter as circumstances would permit. It was

to be large enough to accommodate vessels of the greatest size in use and when completed was to be managed by a board of six directors;

three of these were to be appointed by Nicaragua, the other three,

including the chairman, were to be appointed by the President of the

United States, and the chairman was to have a casting vote, in addition to his vote as a member of the board, whenever the members

were equally divided. Costa Rica was not a party to this arrangement and the treaty included no provision for the protection of any

rights that Republic might have upon or near the line of the canal. Nicaragua permitted the free use of its territory, so far as might be

necessary, for the construction, maintenance, and operation of the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 177

canal, and granted valuable concessions and privileges in aid of the

enterprise, but all the money needed for the construction was to be

furnished by the United States. A strip of territory 2$ miles in width,

the center line to coincide with the center line of the canal, and a strip

of the same width around the south end of the lake and along the river,

where used a part of the canal, were t'> be set apart for the work.

This was to be owned by the contracting parlies, but Nicaragua was to exercise civil jurisdiction within it, and was to provide a police system

to keep the peace and prevent smuggling into her territory; the cost of this service was to be a charge upon the revenues of the canal. The net earnings of the work when in operation were to be divided

quarterly between the twT o contracting parties, one-third to belong to Nicaragua, two-thirds to the United States. The United States agreed also to advance to Nicaragua $4,000,000, to be repaid with 3 per cent interest from its share of the dividends or from the general revenues of the Republic, as might be most convenient, but the repayment was not to be exacted till ten years after the

opening of the canal to commerce.

If the terms of the treaty were not compatible with other treaties

made by the Republic with other Governments, Nicaragua agreed to terminate such incompatible treaties without unnecessary delay.

Each party agreed not to dispose or suffer itself to be deprived of

its interest in the canal property without the consent of the other

manifested by legislative enactment.

This treaty was submitted to the Senate and was there rejected, but

a motion was made to reconsider the rejection, and Congress adjourned

before final action was taken upon this motion. At the beginning of

the next Congress and before any further action had been taken the

treaty was withdrawn by President Cleveland for the reason, given in

his message of December, 1885, that the engagement to form a perpetual alliance with Nicaragua and protect the territorial integrity of

that State was inconsistent with the declared policy of the United

States. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix L. Prior to these treaties with the United States

Treaty between Nicaragua Nicaragua, on the 11th day of February, 1860, and Ureal Britain, Febru- T • •" ' ary, 1SG0. entered into a treaty with Great Britain very similar in its terms to the first-named treaty with the

United States. It, however, gave either party the right to terminate

it after the expiration of twenty years, upon giving due notice to the

other, and Nicaragua exercised this right by giving such notice on the

7th day of May, 1887, in response to which Great Britain announced

Terminated. tnat the treaty would expire on the 11th day of

June, 1888.

S D—57-1—Vol 7 12
178 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix M.

Another treaty had been made by these powers

Treat, i.ehvcen Nicaragua with one another on the 28th day of January.

and Great Britain, January, < ___ . . _ « . . . i860. 1860, which is still in force. In one or its articles Nicaragua agreed to declare the port of Grey Town

a free port under its own sovereignty. It was agreed that no dues or charges should be imposed upon vessels using this port other than

such as should be sufficient for the maintenance and safety of navigation and providing the expense of police, and no charges or duties were to be levied upon goods in transit through this port from sea to sea. A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix X. A treaty was also made by Nicaragua with

an?Fr?n

bce!78T9

MCara?Uil France on the 11th day of April, 1850, and it was confirmed early in the following year. It extended to France the right of transit across the territory of the

Republic by all natural or artificial routes on land or sea then existing or thereafter constructed, to be used and enjoyed in the same manner

and on equal terms by both of the contracting parties and their citizens

and subjects. France consented to extend protection to all such routes

of communication, to guarantee .their neutrality and inoffensive use. and to use whatever influence the Government might have with other

nations to persuade them also to guarantee this neutrality and protection. It contains a like agreement on the part of Nicaragua to employ military force when necessary for the security and protection

of persons and property passing over any such route of communication,

and to permit the other contracting party to employ its own military

force for such protection under certain circumstances to that found

in the treaties alread}T referred to with the United States and Gnat

Britain.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix O.

After this treaty had been in force for twenty years, either party was by its terms authorized, by giving twelve months' notice to the

other, to terminate its provisions relating to commerce and navigation;

but if such action were taken, the articles concerning the relations of

peace and amity were to remain binding on the two powers.

Nicaragua gave such notice on the 9th day of May, 1897, and France

accepted the action in the following year. Other treaties were made by Nicaragua with

Other treaties made liy o • • -, otn\ 'xl t> i

• • -io~o *aI it l Nicaragua. opain in 18o0, with Belgium in 18;>S, with Italy

in 18(58, two with Costa Rica in L869, and one

with Germany in 1896. Some of these mention the canal project and

grant the privilege of transit, and the contracting parties generally

treat with each other on the footing of the most favored nations.

They all aid in ascertaining the views which the commercial nations
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 179

and people of the world have hold, and .still hold, with reference to the establishment of an interoceanic waterway, and the policy that

should be maintained in its management. A list of these treaties

made by Nicaragua, and the publication in which each can be found, is attached to this report, marked "Appendix P."

ciayton-Buhver treaty. rhe Clayton-Bulwer treaty, made between

Great Britain and the United States on the 19th

day of June, 1S50, also has an important bearing- upon this subject,

although neither Nicaragua nor Costa Rica was a party to it; for in

its preamble it is stated that it was entered into for the purpose of

setting 'forth and fixing the views and intentions of the two contract- ing parties with reference to any means of communication between

the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, by the way of the river San Juan

'and either or both of the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua to the

Pacific Ocean.

In this treaty the two Governments declared that neither would ever

obtain or maintain for itself any exclusive control over the proposed

communication by canal; that neither would ever erect or maintain

any fortifications commanding the same or in the vicinity thereof, or occupy, fortify, or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or any part of Central America; and that neither would use any alli- ance or influence it might possess with any state or government

through whose territory the said canal might pass for the purpose of

acquiring for the citizens or subjects of the one any rights or advantages in regard to commerce or navigation through the said canal

which should not be offered on the same terms to the citizens or subjects of the other. In case of war between the contracting parties, it was agreed that

the vessels of each country should be exempt from blockade or capture

by either of the belligerents while traversing the canal or near either

of its ends.

The contracting parties further engaged to protect the canal when

completed and guarantee its neutrality, so that it might be forever

open and free and the capital invested in it be secure; and they agreed

to invite every State to enter into similar stipulations, so that all might share in the honor and advantage of having contributed to a work of such general interest and importance.

They also declared that they entered into this convention not only

to accomplish a particular object, but also to establish a general prin

ciple, and agreed that they would, by further treaty stipulations, extend

their protection to any other practicable communications across the

isthmus, whether by canal or railway, particularly to the interoceanic

communications by the way of Tehauntepec or Panama.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked "Appendix Q."

LF
180 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

A subsequent treaty was negotiated between the

Treaty between cmted contracting parties at Washington on the 5th day

States and Great Britain of . _. , TM „ ^ ,. ,.„ . February 6, 1900. of February, 190v0, tor the purpose or modifying

the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, which was amended by

the Senate before ratification, but the amendments were not accepted

by Great Britain.

An examination of all these treaties shows that

i.Je°ro!ea»u heanl

re,,Ce *° Nicaragua has for a long- period favored the establishment of a communication for commerce and

travel and governmental operations through its territory between the

Atlantic and Pacific oceans, with a free port at each extremity, and that

the contracting Governments are in harmony upon the following

points with reference to the construction and operation of any such

route through Nicaraguan territory, if a maritime canal is there located. These points of agreement indicate a well-defined policy with reference

to this subject, which is acceptable to the nations and people of the

world that have manifested an interest in an interoceanic communication.

1. The recognition of the right of sovereignty of Nicaragua over

the territor}^ of the Republic to be occupied in making and maintaining the proposed communication between the two oceans.

2. The right of transit by this route and its innocent use to be

enjoyed upon equal terms by other governments, their citizens and

subjects.

3. The neutrality of the route guarantied by the contracting parties,

with an agreement to use their influence to induce other nations to make a like guaranty.

4. Military force to be supplied by Nicaragua when needed for the

security and protection of the canal and auxiliary works, the officers and workmen engaged in its construction and operation, and the vessels passing through it, with their officers, crews, passengers, and

cargoes.

5. If Nicaragua fails at any time to employ a force adequate for this purpose, other contracting parties may furnish such force with the

consent of Nicaragua, and, in exceptional cases of imminent danger,

without such consent.

6. Grants relating to interoceanic communications are to be subject

to the privileges conceded by these treaties.

7. Each contracting party in these treaties stands toward the other on the footing of the most favored nation.

These treaties relate to projects to be undertaken by companies or

individuals, with the exception of the Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty,

negotiated between Nicaragua and the United States in December.

1884; this is the only one in which the consent of any of these Governments has been given for the construction and operation of a canal
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 181

through its territory, to be owned and operated in whole or in part by

the United Slates. The withdrawal of the Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty was followed

by negotiations between AnieetoG. Menocal, a member and representative of the Nicaragua Canal Association of New York, and the Govconcession to Nicaragua ernment of Nicaragua, which resulted in a certain

Canal Association. concession from the Republic, granting to the

association the exclusive privilege of excavating and operating a maritime canal across the territory of Nicaragua between the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans, with grants of lands, exemption from taxation,

and other valuable rights and franchises, to aid in the construction,

maintenance, and operation of the work.

The concession was to be exercised by a company of execution to be called the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, and was to con- tinue for ninety-nine years from the day the canal should be opened

to universal traffic. The association was allowed two and a half

years from the date of the ratification of the contract, on the 21th

day of April, 1887, to make the preliminary arrangements and com- mence the work of construction, and the company of execution was

required to complete the canal and open it for maritime navigation

within ten years thereafter; but it was agreed that in case of unavoidable delays impeding the progress of the work the time should be

extended.

In case of failure to complete the canal within the time designated

in the contract or within the period of extension, if an extension

should be granted, the concession was to be forfeited; and at the close

of the term of ninety-nine years, or in the event of a forfeiture, the

Republic was to enter upon possession of the entire work and all the establishments used in its administration in perpetuity, but the

grantees were to have the right to lease the property for another

period of ninety-nine years, on the condition of paying to the Republic

25 per cent of the annual net profits, in addition to the dividends due

upon its shares in the capital stock. At the close of this second term

the rights and privileges of the Maritime Canal Company were to expire and the canal was to belong to the Republic in perpetuit}*. In consideration of the rights, privileges, and franchises conceded

to the company the Republic was to receive in shares, bonds, certifi- cates, or other securities issued to raise the corporate capital 6 percent

of the total amount of the issue, such amount in no event to be less than $4,000,000—that is, 40,000 shares or obligations of $100,000 each—

the same to be subject to no charges, assessments, or payments. The

interest of the Republic was to be represented in the board of directors

of the company by one member to be appointed by the Government

with the same powers, privileges, and rights that other members might

be entitled to under the act of incorporation and the rules made there-
182 REPORT OF THP: ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION.

under. As a further compensation it was stipulated that no tolls or charges should be exacted from Nicaragua!) ships of war, and that

merchant vessels belonging wholly to citizens of the Republic and

sailing under the Nicaraguan flag should pay only one-half of the

usual tolls for the use of the canal while engaged in the coasting trade or in reciprocal trade with other Republics of Central America or when beginning a foreign voyage with a cargo composed wholhT of

home products. Under certain circumstances like privileges were to be extended to the other Republics of Central America.

A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appendix R."

In accordance with the terms of the concession

Maritime Canal Company £ >!• j £ -\ m \ i. jz /~i ±

of Nicaragua incorporated. from Nicaragua and one of like terms from Costa

Rica, which will be referred to more at length later on in this report, a compan}T of execution was organized under the name of "The Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua" and was incorporated by an act of Congress approved on the 20th day of February,

1SS9.

A copy of this act is attached to this report, marked "Appendix S." The company was required by this act to make an annual report on

the rirst Monday of December to the Secretary of the Interior, giving

under oath a detailed statement of its affairs, its assets and liabilities. This requirement has been- complied with, and the report has been

printed as a Senate executive document each year since 1889.

From these reports it appears that the surveys and plans for the

canal were completed within the time required by the concession and

duly approved by the Nicaraguan Government, and that the work of

actual construction had been begun within this limit and officially

recognized on the 8th day of October, 1889. The work proceeded

under a contract with the Nicaragua Canal Construction Company,

and some progress was made, but the construction company met

with financial embarrassment, the work was stopped, and the company

was obliged to suspend payment. This resulted in the appointment

of a receiver for the companj7 on the 30th day of August, 1893, hy

the circuit court of the United States for the southern district of

New York, and the work of construction has not been since resumed.

The President of Nicaragua, in a message to the

Concession of Maritime °

tanai Company declared Congress or tlie Republic dated on the 2<tn day

forfeited. ox ^ of October, 1898, announced that the contract had

become null and void, owing to the lack of fulfillment of its most

essential clauses and the abandonment of the work; but an official declaration of forfeiture was delayed until after the time fixed for the

completion of the work, the 8th day of October, 1899. Since then

such declaration has been made, and by the terms of the contract a
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION". 183

forfeiture authorizes Nicaragua to enter upon possession in perpetuity of all the property oi' the company within the territory of the

Republic without being required to pay any indemnity.

Before the time limited for the construction and

conm»Biontoiiiteroceanic completion of the canal the Government of NicaCanal Company. i ragua, on the 31st day of August, 1898, entered

into another contract, or "promise of contract," as it was officially

designated, for the construction of an interoceanic canal through the

territory of the Republic. The other contracting- parties were Edward

Eyre and Edward F. Cragin, who agreed to organize a company of

execution to be called "The Interoceanic Canal Company," which

should perform the obligations entered into with the State.

It was declared that the concession to the Maritime Company would

expire by its terms on the 9th day of October, 1899, and that the new concession to Messrs. Eyre and Cragin should take effect on the

following day without further action. Messrs. Eyre and Cragin were, however, permitted to negotiate w

T ith the Maritime Company, so as to secure the recision of its contract at an earlier da}7

, in which event the

Interoceanic Canal Compan}7 was to be permitted to enter upon its privileges from the date of the recision.

This contract gave to the Interoceanic Canal Company many valuable

prerogatives and franchises, in addition to the grants, exemptions, and

other privileges connected with the canal project, authorizing the

corporation to embark in business enterprises of many different kinds

throughout the entire Republic.

Messrs. Eyre and Cragin obligated themselves to effect the organization of the company of execution within six months from the

recision of the Maritime Canal Company's contract, or from the day

when the Government declared it would cease to have legal existence.

The Maritime Company did not consent to a recision, so the six months

commenced at the latter date, which was declared to be the 9th day

of October, 1899.

The Interoceanic Canal Company when organized was obligated to commence the excavation of the canal within two years from the date

of its organization and to complete the work during the ten years fol- lowing. At the end of this period it was to be open to universal

traffic. In consideration of the privileges granted, the Government of

Nicaragua was to receive 8 per cent of the total amount of the stock

issued b}r the company, to be considered as full paid and nonassessable,

and in no event to be less in par value than $8,000,000 in American

gold.

This stock was to be represented in the management and control of

the property by one member of the board of directors of the company,

to be named by the Government of Nicaragua.
18-1 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

During a first period of one hundred and ninety-nine years after

the opening' of the canal to universal traffic the net profits were to belong to the stockholders. During- a second period of ninety-nine

years the stockholders were to receive an annual dividend of 10 per

cent from the net profits and if any balance of profits should remain

one-half thereof was to be paid to the Government of Nicaragua

and one-balf to the stockholders of the company; After this second

period one-half of the net annual profits were to belong to the Government and one-half to the stockholders.

As a guarant}7 that the company would be organized in accordance

with the contract, Messrs. Eyre and Cragin agreed to deposit in the

treasury of the Republic the sum of $100,000 in American gold within

three days following the ratification of the contract, and this condition was complied with. They also agreed to deposit the further sum of

$±00,000 in American gold within four months after the organization

of the company. These sums were to be held by the Government to respond for any fines the company might incur according to the

agreement.

It was declared that the rights of the Maritime Canal Company

would expire on the 9th day of October, 1899, and the limit of time

for the organization of the Interoceanic Canal Company was six months

thereafter, that is, on the 9th da}7 of April, 1900. The second payment was therefore due by the 9th day of August, 1900, but the

company failed to meet it or to secure an extension of time, and the contract was declared annulled according to its ^Concession declared for- ^^

Rg ^ ^^

gg^ ^^ t() mafee

^^

deposits was one of the causes of forfeiture.

A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appendix T. During the long period that the subject of establishing an inter- oceanic communication [across the territory of Nicaragua has been

before the commercial nations of the world that

Previous concessions. Republic has made other anditearlier grants and

concessions than those mentioned to individuals and companies proposing to undertake the work; but none of these projects thus authorized was ever actually commenced, and these contracts have long since

expired. It has not, therefore, been deemed necessary to mention them

specially in this connection, and this investigation has been limited to concessions under which the contracting persons or companies have

commenced actual work and those in which it is claimed, or has within a recent period been claimed, that the concessionaires have rights,

privileges, or franchises still in force and entitled to recognition.

There have, however, been other contracts made by the Governmentof Nicaragua with different companies, giving them privileges on some of the navigable waters of the Republic which will necessarily

be used in the construction and operation of a canal along this route,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 185

and it is proper that attention should be directed to them, so that it may be determined whether these privileges will give to the concessionaires the power to obstruct or hinder in any way the successful

prosecution of the canal enterprise.

It appears that the Government of Nicaragua

contract *ith P. a. Pelfa

i . to ^ concession to the Nicaragua Canal

Association, granted the exclusive privilege for the

navigation of Lake Nicaragua and San Juan River by steam. This

privilege was transferred to Mr. F. A. Pellas, and a contract with him

was ratified on the 16th day of March, 1877. In the concession

to the association the company was given the right of expropriation

against Mr. Pellas on just assessments by experts, after making a

corresponding compensation according to the laws of the Republic.

A company organized under the name of the Nicacontraet with sicwagua ragua Mail Steam Navigation and Trading ComMail Steam Navigation and . .

*"

-. . , Trading company. pany had acquired this contract, and it became

necessary for the Maritime Canal Company to control it, so that it might have the right to navigate the lake and

river for transporting materials and carrying workmen and supplies

from point to point while the canal was being constructed. The

Maritime Canal Company stated that this was M^rrklC;-.,.' accomplished by purchasing the concession and

plant for $300,000, and the purchase is mentioned

in its annual report to the Secretary of the Interior of December,

1891. Scon after this, owing to the failure of the Nicaragua Canal

Construction Company in August, 1893, the Maritime Canal Company was unable to continue its operations. A new arrangement

became necessary, and as the contract was about to expire the Nicaragua Mail Steam Navigation and Trading Company was reorganized

and obtained an extension from the Republic for ten years from

November 3, 1891. It was, however, stipulated that the new contract should not interfere with the rights of the canal company.

Subsequently the Atlas Steamship CompamT

, a

sh^!n!plnv.

AnaSSteinU

' British company then running a line of steamers

from New York to Gre}T Town and other ports in the Caribbean Sea. bought the steamers, plant, and concession of the

Nicaragua Mail Steam Navigation and Trading Company and applied

for an extension and enlargement of the contract. This was granted

by Nicaragua in June, 1897, for the purpose of securing the improvement of the lower San Juan, facilitating the communication between

the lake and the ocean, and thus promoting the

Tran^company^ ** ' internal commerce of the country. Both of these

contracts were transferred to the Caribbean and

Pacific Transit Company, an auxiliary of the Atlas Company.
186 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The contract gave to the Atlas Steamship ComContract of Atlas Com- ;i i

• i i « . . .. . pany the exclusive right or steam navigation in the Silico Lagoon for thirty years, dating from

the approval of the contract on the 30th day of September, 1897, and

the exclusive right for the same time of constructing tramways and

railways along the line to avoid the obstacles in the lower part of the

San Juan River, making the transit to San Juan del Norte or Grey

Town more rapid dining the dry season. The company obligated itself within three years to construct a narrow-gauge railroad, about 5 miles

long, from a point on the Silico Lagoon to a point on the San Juan

River near the Colorado junction, and suitable warehouses and

wharves at the terminals for passenger, freight, and other service.

This road was subsequently constructed and is now in operation.

The company is required by the terms of the contract to make with

its steamers at least three trips a month each way between Granada, on Lake Nicaragua, and Grey Town, and has the right to cut in the natural

forests on the lake and river all the wood required for the use of its steamers, tramways, railroads, wharves, and shops; also to occupy in the ports and places of transit the national lots of land necessary for

the establishment of warehouses, offices, and other buildings.

It is, however, provided that the concession shall not be an obstacle

in the way of the contracts which the Government of Nicaragua then

had, or might thereafter make, relative to the opening of the interoceanic canal along the same line. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appendix U.

As was stated in the earlier part of this chapter,

ra"::t„

r corBu:.Mta" the consent of Costa Rica, as well as that of Nicaragua, is necessary in order to place a navigable

canal b}r this route under the control, management, and ownership of

the United States. The award of 1888, already referred to, settled the disputed boundary and was accepted by the two Republics, and the

line between them has since been actually located and marked. Along

the route of the canal it follows the right bank of the San Juan River

from near its mouth to a point 3 English miles from the outer fortifi- cations of Castillo Viejo; thence in a curve, of which the said fortifica- tions are the center, from which it is 3 English miles distant throughout

its course, until it reaches a point 2 English miles from the river bank

above Castillo Viejo; thence it continues in a direction toward the

River Sapoa, which falls into Lake Nicaragua, always 2 English miles

from the right bank of the river with its circumvolutions and from

the south shore of the lake until it reaches the River Sapoa. Though

the line of the canal, according to the latest approved project, does

not actually pass through Costa Rican soil, it is manifest that it affects the natural lights of that State, for it includes a part of the San Juan
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 187

River below Castillo Viejo, in which the Republic has, according to

this award, the right of navigation, and the construction of the proposed waterway will necessarily submerge portions of its lowlands con- tiguous to it and to the lake and diminish the flow of water in the Lower

San Juan and Colorado rivers. Hence the attitude and policy of this Government, as far as they have been developed by its diplomatic negotiations and contracts, also require examination and consideration.

The United States and Costa Rica have never

Treaty between United entered into a convention relating directly to an

St'itf's nnd Cost *i II I < ii is.y_>.

' interoceanic communication or to a transit through

the territory of the latter. The only treaty affect- ing the friendly and commercial relations between the two countries was concluded on the 10th day of July, 1851, and the ratifications were

exchanged on the 26th day of May, 1852.

It was agreed that there should be perpetual amity between the two

Governments and their citizens and a reciprocal freedom of commerce

between the territories of each. Their ships of war and post-office

packets were to have liberty freely and securely to enter all harbors,

rivers, and places in the country of the other to which other foreign

ships of war and packets were or should be permitted to come, and

to anchor, remain, and refit there subject to the laws of the country.

The intention of the high contracting parties being to treat each

other on the footing of the most favored nation, it was agreed that

any favor, privilege, or immunity in matters of commerce and navigation which either party had granted or might thereafter grant to the subjects or citizens of any other state should be extended to the

citizens of the other contracting party upon like terms. A copy of tiiis treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix V.

In May, 1850, a treaty was entered into between

Treaty between Costa /-ij.-t>' j c • • ^j_i j_-i <? Bica and Spain, 1850. Costa Kica and Spain in one of the articles or which it was agreed that in case of either the total or partial accomplishment through the territory of the former of the

proposed interoceanic communication, whether by means of canals or

railroads or by a combination of these or of other means, the Spanish

flag and Spanish merchandise should enjoy free transit upon the same

terms as other nations, and without other or greater dues than those

levied upon the vessels, merchandise, and citizens of Costa Rica.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix W.

There was also diplomatic negotiation between

Treaty between Costa Kica r\ a r>' j \t- ,i > • mi

and Nicaragua, 1869. Costa Rica and Nicaragua upon the subject, as will

be seen by reference to a treaty made by them in

June, 1869. By the terms of this treaty Costa Rica agreed, on due

notice from and in conjunction with Nicaragua, to take the neces- sary steps with the Governments of France, England, and the United

States, in order that the neutrality of the proposed communication,
188 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

individually guaranteed by those powers, might become the subject

of a general convention on the basis of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty,

in accordance with the promises made by them in the former treaties

referred to. The treaty in which this agreement appears was entered

into to authorize the construction of an interoceanic canal through

the territory of the two Republics in accordance with a contract made

on the 6th day of October, 1868, by the Government of Nicaragua

with M. Michel Chevalier, a citizen of France. The project was

never carried out, and the treaty failed in its purpose, but its engagements are important because they indicate the attitude of the two

Governments with reference to the establishment of a transisthmian

communication, and the policy that should be pursued with reference

to its management.

A copy of the articles of the treaty relating to this subject is attached

to this report, marked Appendix X.

Other treaties were made with the Hanse Towns

Other treaties. . . _ . and 1 ranee, both in 1848, with Great Britain in 1849, with Netherlands in 1852. with Belgium in 1858, with Italy in L863, with Germany in 1875, with Guatemala in 1895, and with Honduras in 1896. The purpose of the contracting parties was to strengthen

their friendly relations and to place their international intercourse

upon a liberal basis, but they contain no direct mention of the proposed

interoceanic communication.

An examination and consideration of all these

Policy with reference to , .• j i s>< , t>* u *.i

• interoceanic canal. treaties made by Costa Kica show nothing inconsistent with the general policy that was dc\ eloped

in the case of Nicaragua, and it is manifest that Costa Rica stands fully

committed to the establishment of a communication from ocean to ocean, partly or wholly through its territory, and the Republic and

the Governments it has contracted with, so far as they have given

expression to their views, are in harmony with the policy already

outlined.

A list of these treaties made by Costa Rica and the publication in

rv'hich each can be found is attached to this report, marked Appendix V. On the 31st day of July, 1888, the Government

Concession (o Nicaragua <• •» t-»- i i i i (anai Association. °* Costa Kica concluded an agreement and contract with the Nicaragua Canal Association, granting to it the exclusive privilege of excavating and operating a maritime

canal between the Atlantic and Paciiic oceans for a period of ninetynine years, wholly or in part through the territory of the Republicor

along the whole or a part of the border lint1 between it and the territory

of Nicaragua, and it was duly ratified by the Costa Rican Congress on

ihr 9th day of August. L888. This contract was negotiated to supplement the one already obtained

from Nicaragua, hereinbefore mentioned and designated as Appendix R,

it being manifest that the project generally known as the Nicaragua
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 189

Canal could not be carried into execution without the consent and

authority of Costa Rica, It conferred upon the association and a company to be organized to construct and operate the proposed canal

substantially the same rights, privileges, and franchises in Costa Rican

territory a^ had already been conferred upon them in Nicaragua.

A period of two years and a half from the ratification of the contract was granted to make the final surveys, organize the company of

execution, and begin the work of construction. A further term of ten years was granted for the construction and completion of the canal

and opening it for maritime navigation. This required the work to be

commenced by the 10th day of February, 1891, and to be completed

by the 9th day of February, 1901. It was, however, provided that

in case the company should fail to complete the work within the pre- scribed time, because of unavoidable delays or unforeseen difficulties,

extensions should be granted according to the length of the necessary

delays.

It was agreed that the failure to begin or to complete the work

within and by the time specified should each be a cause of forfeiture

of the' concession and in case of such forfeiture that the Republic

should take possession of the canal property within its jurisdiction

and hold it in perpetuity. In consideration of the privileges granted, it was agreed that the

Republic should receive in shares, certificates, or other values, repre- senting the capital stock of the company, an amount equal to 1^ per

cent of such capital stock in shares or certificates of $100 each, the same to be regarded as full paid and nonassessable. The amount

of such shares was in no event to be less than $1, 500,000; they entitled

the Republic to all the benefits and privileges to which other shareholders should be entitled, and the same privilege of appointing a member of the board of directors that had been granted to Nicaragua. In further compensation for the privileges granted, the company

consented that Costa Rican ships of war and merchant vessels under

the flag of the Republic should be entitled to use the canal upon like terms as were agreed to in the contract with Nicaragua with reference

to the vessels of that Republic.

A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appendix Z. The time for the completion of the canal under this contract ex- pired in February, 1901, and it has not been extended, and the con

tract of the Maritime Canal Company with Nicaragua having been

declared forfeited by that Government, as already

No obligations now in . „ , . . « force to prevent an .l^ree- stated, there are now in force no obligations of

m.-nt niti. the i nite.i states e i t her Republic with anv Government, corporarelative to a canal. . .,..,, *

. . tion, or individual to prevent either of them from

entering into an agreement with the United States that will authorize our Government to construct, control, and manage a maritime canal
190 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

along this route and exercise all the privileges of OAvnership over it, provided the negotiations and action proceed upon the lines indicated

b}* the treaty relations by which the different Governments are bound.

The contracts made by Nicaragua and Costa Rica giving special privileges to individuals, associations, or companies for the use of their ter ritory and navigable waters for the construction of a canal or for

other purposes contain no authority to transfer these rights to foreign

Governments, and in most of them such transfer is absolutely prohibited. This indicates that each of these Governments at one time was

unwilling to have its territory occupied by another nationality even

for the purpose of promoting the commercial and industrial development of the State. The Commission has reason, however, to believe that this feeling

does not now exist. The sentiment in both countries is strongly in favor of opening a navigable connection between the two oceans, and

the failure of every private effort to construct such a work has

brought thinking men to the conclusion that it can only be successfully accomplished with the large resources and abundant means of a willing Government.

During the visit the Commission made to Central America early in the year 1900, its members had favorable opportunities to meet and

confer with the Chief Executive and other leading and influential men

in public life at the capital of each of the two Republics. They received a most cordial welcome both at Managua and San Jose, and were

assured at each place that the Government and people were ready to

listen favorably to propositions that might be made by the United

States for the arrangement of terms upon which our Government might

occupy their territory for the construction of a canal along this route

and control, manage, and own it when completed, with the understanding, however, that the rights of sovereignty of the present Government

must be maintained.

This sentiment has since been expressed officially by both of these

Governments in agreements made with the United States in December,

1900. The protocols of these agreements provide

JESS?TM""*" fchat when fche President of the United States is authorized by law to acquire control of such terri- tory of these Republics as may bedesirable and necessary, on which to construct a navigable canal for vessels of the largest size from a point near San Juan del Norte or GreytoVn, by Lake Nicaragua to Brito on

the Pacific, they will enter into negotiations with each other to settle the plan and the agreements in detail, which may be found necessary

to accomplish the construction and to provide for the ownership and

control of the proposed canal.

It was also agreed that the course and terminals of such canal should

be the same as those stated in the treat}* of February 5, 1900, negoti-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 191

ated between the United States and Great Britain, which has already

been mentioned. The failure of this treaty terminated the negotiations

for the time, but they clearly indicate the willingness of these Republics to permit the United States to use their territory for canal purposes on such terms as may be agreed upon. A copy of the protocol

entered into with Costa Rica is attached to this report marked Appendix AA. The one entered into with Nicaragua is substantially in the same language.

The legislation and instructions under which the

Treaties with Colombia Qommission is acting require also an examination

or New Chrannda. , °, , _, ,,. » /-« i u* of the treaties made by the Republic of Colombia

or New Grenada, as it was designated prior to 1862 with other governments affecting the Panama route and any contracts made with cor- porations, associations, or individuals authorizing them to open a communication there for travel and commerce. The waters of the Atlantic and Pacitic oceans are only about 30

miles apart at the narrowest part of the isthmus which connects North

and South America, and this advantage has naturally attracted the

attention of those who have interested themselves in the subject of an

interoceanic communication during the centuries that have elapsed

since the first conception of such an undertaking. But no action was

taken by the United States to secure any special advantages or privileges there until 1816, during the controversy with Great Britain over

the Oregon boundary, which was settled by the Buchanan-Paken ham

treaty of that year, and while the country was engaged in the war with

Mexico, when, as one of its results, an extension of our territory on

the Pacific coast seemed probable.

During this period a treaty was negotiated with

Treatj ne?otiate,i in 1-S46 N Granada by which, among other things, the

securing transit rights. - '

. , . « ., United States secured the right ol way or transit across the Isthmus upon any modes of communication then existing or that might thereafter be constructed. This transit was to be open

and free to the Government and its citizens, and for the transportation of any articles of produce, manufactures, or merchandise of lawful commerce, subject to no other tolls or charges than those levied or collected, under like circumstances, from citizens of New Granada.

In return for the advantages and favors acquired, and in order to secure their tranquil enjoyment, the United States guaranteed to New

Granada the perfect neutrality of the Isthmus, so that the free transit

from the one to the other sea might not be interrupted during the

existence of the treaty; the United States further guaranteed the

rights of sovereignty and property which New Granada had and possessed over the said territory. • In addition to these stipulations, the two Republics engaged wdth

each other not to grant to other nations any particular favor in respect
192 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

to commerce and navigation which should not immediately become

common to the other party and on like terms. They also agreed that

whatever favors, immunities, or privileges either Republic might find

it proper to give to the ministers and public agents of any other power,

should by the same act be extended to those of the other contra: 'ting

party.

This treaty was concluded on the 12th day of

Ratified in 1848. J December, 1846, but the ratifications were not exchanged until the 10th day of June, 1848, and it was proclaimed two

days later. A copy of the treaty is attached to this report, marked Appendix BB.

During President Johnson's Administration, in 180!), and again

during- the first Administration of President Grant, in 1870, other

treaties were negotiated between the two Governments to promote the

construction of a ship canal across the isthmus, but none of them was

ever ratified, and the relations between the United States and the

Kepublie of Colombia upon the subject are still defined by this convention.

Colombia has entered into treaties with other governments 1 tearing

upon this subject. One with France in 1856 peris.-,'<r' ' "' ' r "" e

' m^s ner snips t° enter all places, harbors, or ri\ ers open to foreign commerce. A copy of this treaty

and a later one, negotiated in 1S!>2, are hereto attached, marked

Appendix CC.

A treaty was made with Spain in 1881 providing

iic.i j«i i. i>a u,

. ^a{. £naf. Government should enjoy the canals and

ports of the Republic and all advantages given to the most favored

nations. A cop}7 of this treaty is attached to this report, marked

Appendix DD.

Conventions, with the Hanse Towns in ixr>4.

Other trca1i*s. ... ,^ , . -, OK ^ •,! t x , T > "j • • Hon • with Portugal in 1857, with Great Britain in LSoo,

with Italy in 1802, and with other governments are upon the footing

of the most favored nations, but none of them contains the obligations

of neutrality which were assumed by the United Slates. A list of the

treaties made by New Granada or Colombia and the publication in which each can be found is attached to this report, marked Appendix

EE.

Before the treaty concluded in 1846 had been ratified the increasing

value of the communication across the isthmus of Panama attracted

the attention of enterprising men in Europe as well as in our own

land. The first movement to establish such a communication was made

by a number of individuals in Paris, who formed

r::;::::;;;:i,:r »» ^<^o„, m,u- r ti>, name of t i„ Panamas

panv for the purpose of connecting the two oceans by a railroad across the isthmus. Through their agent and attorney.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 193

Mateo Klein, they negotiated a contract with the Government of New

Granada, which secured to the company, for a period of ninety-nine

years, the exclusive privilege of constructing and maintaining a rail- road at Panama, to be completed within six years, to be counted from

the expiration of four months after the approval of the concession by

the Congress of the Republic. The agreement was executed at Bogota

on the 10th day of May, 1S47, and was approved on the 8th day of the

following month.

The French company was unable to control the

Transferred to Panama eapital necessary for the proposed enterprise, and

Kailroad Company of New . . . L York. in June, 1848, its privileges lapsed. Subsequently, on the 28th day of December, 1848, the grant was

revived in a modified form in favor of William Heniy Aspinwall, John

Lloyd Stephens, Henry Chauncey, and their associates, under the name of the Panama Railroad Company, an organization which was

afterwards, in 1849, incorporated by the legislature of New York.

All former concessions of a like character were declared null and void

and the grant as modified gave the company the same exclusive privilege of establishing a railroad between the two oceans across the Isth- mus of Panama as was contained in the contract with Klein, to continue

for forty-nine years from the day of its completion and its beingopened to public use. Six }

T ears were allowed for the construction of

the road, with the assurance that an extension of two years would be

granted, without the enforcement of any penalty, if it were found

impracticable to finish it within the required time.

Under this grant the company constructed the

pirtea

ain ai850.

llroa(1 com" road and on the 27th day of January, 1855, it was

completed and the first passenger train passed over

the track, and ever since then it has continued in operation.

On the 16th day of April, 1850, the contract was put in a new form,

so as to render it unnecessary to refer to the original contract with Klein

in order to understand the rights of the contracting

Present form of contract. ° °

parties. Subsequently there were other modifications and changes. In its present amended form the company is entitled

to the use and possession of the railroad, the telegraph between Colon and

Panama, the buildings, warehouses, and wharves belonging to the road,

and in general all the dependencies and other works now in its possession necessaiy to the service and development of the enterprise for a period of ninety-nine years from the 16th day of August, 1867. At

the expiration of this term the Government is to be substituted in all the rights of the company and is entitled to the immediate possession

of the entire property. The Republic is bound to grant no privilege,

during this term, to any other company or person to open any other

railroad on the isthmus, nor without the consent of the company to open or work any maritime canal there to the west of a line drawn

S D—57-1—Vol 7 13
194 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

from Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic to Point Garachine on the Pacific, nor to establish any such communication itself. But the company can

not oppose the construction of a canal except directly along the route

of its road, and the consent required is onl}T to enable it to exact an

equitable price for the privilege and as indemnification for the damages

it may suffer by the competition of the canal. It is also stipulated

that the company shall forfeit its privilege should it cede or transfer

its rights to any foreign government.

A copy of this agreement in its latest amended form is attached to

this report, marked Appendix F F. But this communication by rail was inadequate to supply the growing demands of commerce and the subject of connecting the two oceans

at the isthmus by a navigable waterway still engaged the public mind.

From time to time it was considered by Congress, and explorations

and surveys were authorized and made under governmental authority.

But the reports with reference to the routes across the Panama and

Darien isthmus were unfavorable and no further concessions or grants were obtained by American companies or citizens with a view to construct a canal there.

contract with Wyse for Meanwhile, in May, 1876, Lucien N. B. Wyse

canal- obtained from th"e Government of Colombia a right

of way for this purpose across the isthmus, south and east of an

imaginary straight line drawn from Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic

side to Garachine Point, on the Pacific. This restriction was to avoid

Modification of Wyse con- any conflict with the privileges of the Panama

tract m 1878. Railroad Company. In 1878, in behalf of the

International Interoceanic Canal Association of France, he sought an enlargement of the privileges granted in 1876 and a new contract was

entered into on the 20th of March, 1878, which gave the association

authority to locate a canal across the territory, in which the Panama

Railroad Company had exclusive privileges, provided the grantees

could make some amicable arrangement with the last-named company.

This new contract, with some modifications introduced by a decree of

the Colombian Congress, became a law of the Republic on the 18th

day of May, 1878, and in its modified form was on the same day

accepted by Mr. Wyse.

The amended contract thus accepted gave to the association repre- sented by the negotiator the exclusive privilege of constructing and

operating a maritime canal across the territory of the United States of

Colombia between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans for ninety-nine

years, to be computed from the day on which it should be wholly or

partly opened to public service or when the grantees should commence

to collect tolls or dues on transit and navigation.

The general route of the canal was to be determined by an international commission of individuals and competent engineers not later
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 195

than 1881, unless unavoidable circumstances should prevent their

doing so by that time. After the settlement of the route the grantees were allowed two years to organize a joint stock company to take

charge of the enterprise and of the construction of the work and the

company when organized was required to finish the canal and place

at the public service within the subsequent twelve years after its formation.

All public lands required for the route of the canal, the ports, sta- tions, wharves, moorings, and warehouses, and for its construction and

service, were ceded gratis to the grantees including a belt of land 200

meters, or 656 feet, wide on each side of its banks throughout its entire

length.

There are other provisions and grants to aid the association in the

successful prosecution of its work, and the port at each end of the

canal and the waterway itself are declared neutral for all time, so that

in case of war among other nations the merchant vessels and individuals of all countries may enjoy its use and advantages without being

molested or detained. In consideration of the rights, privileges, and exemptions contained

in the contract, the Government of Colombia is declared entitled to a share in the gross income of the canal from all sources on an increasing scale of 5 per cent at first to 8 per cent from the seventy-sixth year

after its opening to the termination of the privileges. Four-fifths of

these amounts are to go to the Republic and one-fifth to the State

through whose territory the canal may pass, and the company controlling the canal expressly guarantees that the share of the Republic

shall in no year be less than $250,000.

The right to transfer these privileges to other capitalists or financial

companies is given, but there is an absolute prohibition against ceding

or morgaging them to any foreign government.

A copy of the grant is attached to this report, marked Appendix GG.

The agreement that the route of the canal should

con^sT^pfrisiriS be determined by an international commission of

individuals and competent engineers was complied

with by calling an " International Scientific Congress " at Paris, which

met on the 15th day of May, 1879. There were 135 delegates, a majority of whom were French; 11 were from the United States. Great

Britain, Germany, and other European nations were also represented.

The convention was called to order by Ferdinand de Lesseps, already

famous by reason of his connection with the Suez Canal, and after a

session of two weeks a decision was reached that the best location for

the proposed waterway was from the Gulf of Limon, or Navy Bay as

it was called in earlier days, to the Bay of Panama, and the construction

of a sea-level canal was recommended.
196 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Subsequently a company, chartered under the

Panama Canal Company jaws Qf Yvance, was organized in the early part of

1881 to construct the canal under the grant from

the United States of Colombia and De Lesseps became the leading

spirit in the enterprise. The company was designated in the law as the "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique de Panama,"

but it is more commonly known in this country as the Panama Canal

Company.

The location of the canal in the part of the isthmus where the Pan- ama Railroad Company had exclusive privileges in the construction of

artificial waterways as well as railroads, made it necessary to enter

into some arrangements with that company before the work could be

commenced, and this was accomplished by obtaining the control of the

railroad company through a purchase of its stock, or the larger part

of it, which remained among the assets of the canal company when

it subsequently went into liquidation.

All obstructions being removed, the company entered upon its work;

but after the expenditure of vast sums of money

danoTin^sIT

iUt0 m,Ui

" the effort failed ' and in December, 1888, payments

were suspended. The company went into liquidation and in February, 1889, a liquidator or receiver was appointed

by the civil tribunal of the Seine and was given authority to transfer

to any new company all or any portion of the company's assets. This failure and the change in the situation made it important

to have a new agreement with Colombia, and

New agreement with Co- M w authorized to enter into further .in. Inn. 18J)0. _ J negotiations to obtain a modification and extension

of the contract in favor of the receiver, whom he represented. ' He

succeeded in his efforts, and another contract was entered into at Bogota on the 10th day of December, 1890, granting an extension of ten years within which the canal was to be finished and put in public

operation by a new company to be organized with a capital sufficient for the purpose. This company was to resume the work of excavation

not later than the 28th day of February, 1893. The contract was con- firmed by the Congress of the Republic, and a copy of it is attached

to this report, marked Appendix HH.

It being found impracticable to complete the

Contract extended to 1904. . . . . , .,, , arrangements contemplated by the modified contract within the specified time, a further extension was applied for

and obtained on the 4th day of April, 1893. This required the formation of the new company and the resumption of the work in a serious

and permanent manner by the 31st day of October, 1891. The time for

its completion was extended for ten }^ears from that date. A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked Appendix LL
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 197

A further extension until the 31st day of OctoExtenslon to 1910. . , . J ber, 1910, was granted on the 28d day or April,

1900. A cop}' of the contract granting this new extension is attached

to this report, marked Appendix JJ.

In October, 1894, the new company was organized under the general

corporation laws of France under the name of the New Panama Canal

Company. Its capital was fixed at 65,000,000 francs, divided into

650,000 shares of 100 francs each; 50,000 of these, full paid and nonassessable, were to be set apart for the Republic of Colombia. A

memorandum showing the legal status of the company, including

copies of the French laws and the decrees of court which govern it, and of its charter, is attached to this report, marked Appendix KK.

The receiver of the old company became a party to this new organization, and transferred and contributed to it all the property and

assets of the Panama Canal Compaiw, real and personal, Avhether in France or Colombia, including the grants from the Colombian Government under which it had been operating, and also the rights of every

nature in the Panama Railroad which had been obtained by the

arrangements made and entered into wr ith the company or its stockholders. He also subscribed, in his official capacity, for about one- fourth of the stock of the new company. This sale and transfer was made upon the express condition that the property and rights thus

transferred should revert to the estate in liquidation upon default in the completion of the canal within the time fixed in the concession

under which the work was to be constructed, and special conditions were made as to the Panama Railroad, which are set forth in the charter.

During the progress of the work the receiver has the right under

the terms of the transfer to appoint a commission of three engineers

to inspect the progress that is made, the condition and maintenance

of the buildings and plant, and the accounts relating to these different

objects. The expense of this commission is to be borne by the new

company.

Under the terms of the transfer the New Panama Canal Company

has a title to the whole propert}r

, but the rights of those interested in the old company have not been entirely extinguished. They are under

no further obligations to contribute toward the construction of the

canal or the auxiliary works, but its successful completion and operation will to some extent be to their pecuniary advantage, for under the

terms of the sale 60 per cent of the surplus income, after paying all expenses, charges, and stipulated dividends, is to be appropriated to the

liquidator, to be properly distributed. While there may be little left for the proposed distribution, the existence of this right in favor of

the old company will apparently require its concurrence in case of a

sale of the property and the concession and charter under which the

company is acting.
198 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

no treaties exist giving Tt appears f rom the foregoing that no existing

united states the right to treaties with Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or Colombia

mc^OTCrtombUtoremii £ive to the United States the right to occupy the

purposes. territory of any of these Republics for the purpose of constructing and operating a maritime canal. The concessions and grants heretofore made by

Terms must be arranged these Republics to and with corporations, associaby diplomatic negotiations. ,. t-i-.it ,, •• , ,,

tions, and individuals authorizing them to establish and maintain a communication across their territory from ocean

to ocean, whether by land or water, in terms exclude the right of the

concessionaires and grantees to transfer them to a foreign government.

The purchase, therefore, by the United States of any such concession or grant would be ineffectual unless it were accomplished with the

consent of the Republic by which the privileges were granted, and the

terms upon which such consent will be given must be arranged by

diplomatic negotiations.

It also appears that the only prior obligations to

concessions from Nicara- corporations, associations, or individuals, in the

gua and Costa Rica declared r . _. , . . . . __ . , forfeited. way of a direct agreement, under which the United

States may acquire authority from Nicaragua and

Costa Rica to use their territory for the construction of a canal, to be

under its control, management, and ownership, have been eliminated

by the forfeiture and termination of the contracts with the Maritime

Canal Company of Nicaragua and the Interoceanic Canal Company,

and if these forfeitures are final there are no private rights in the way

of continuing at an appropriate time negotiations with these two

Republics to acquire the consent and authority necessary for the

accomplishment of this purpose.

One of the purposes of the investigation meniegeTtolrn

, sirde, red!,riTl

" tioned in the law was to determine the cost of con- structing a canal and placing the same "under

the control, management, and ownership of the United States." Under this head the Commission may perhaps be expected to consider

the cost of acquiring the privilege of entering and occupying the ter- ritory of the States through which the different routes extend.

Preliminary to this a question arises as to the

Nature of title required. J .

. nature of the title by which the United States is to hold the proposed canal, and the words of the law already quoted

clearly indicate the legislative intent. Propositions

Plans formerly before t i t <• r* ji i_ congress. have been before Congress in former years by

which the United States was to be a part owner in

such an enterprise, or a shareholder in a company organized to construct a maritime canal, and the projects which were considered contemplated ownership for a term of years, after which the property was to revert to the Republic that had permitted the use of its territory. But
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 199

there is no such suggestion in the law under which this Commission is acting. The United States is to control, manage,

Jimmltedcontrolnowre.

ftnd Qwn^ ^^j. the period of oWnersMp is not

limited; it is to be in perpetuity. No divided

control of management is proposed, whether effected by some arrangement between the United States and the government contracting with

it, or by. the formation of a company, with stocks and shares, or by

any other method. Such divided ownership would give some voice in the management of the enterprise, even to minority holders, whose

interests might and probably would require a polic}' different from

that deemed best by the Government and people of the United States. This right of complete ownership and control in perpetuity, which is clearly indicated, is to be exercised under the sovereignty of the State

in which the canal is located, according to the view presented in the

early part of this chapter.

It naturally follows that the compensation to be

compilation for privi- pR[^ ty tne United States in consideration of the

leges should be definite in ... , ,11 111 i^-.i^ -, amount. privileges to be granted should be definitely fixed,

whether included in a single amount to be agreed

upon during the progress of negotiations, or in payments to be made

annually or at other regular intervals, or in a combination of these two

methods. A compensation to be dependent upon the earnings and

profits of the enterprise would be subject to the objections which

make a divided ownership undesirable. Other interests than those of

the United States would be involved in the management, and accountings would have to be made from time to time to another government.

The amount of the compensation that these

Amount of compensation. „,,. ., , Republics would require for the occupation and

use of their territory remains to be considered, but the Commission had no power under the law to enter into negotiations with them, and the

treaties and concessions relating to this question supply the only information from which an}' deductions or conclusions can be drawn. This

ma}' be of little value, but what has been done in the past with refer- ence to a subject is often suggestive, and it. is presented so that it may be available for future use and reference.

A treaty negotiated by Mr. Elijah Hise on the

gua.

Sl °" f CaFa

" Par^ °^ the United States with Nicaragua in June,

1849, conferred upon the former, or to a compan}'

of its citizens, the exclusive right to construct and build within the

territories of the latter a canal or road for the purpose of opening a passage or communication between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific

Ocean. No pecuniary consideration was required for this privilege,

but the United States, by the twelfth article of this treaty, solemnly

agreed and undertook to protect and defend Nicaragua in the posses- sion of the exercise of its sovereignty and dominion over all its terri-
200 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tory and coasts within its just and true boundaries. Mr. Hise acted

without authority in negotiating- this treaty, and it was never submitted

to the Senate for continuation. The purpose of Nicaragua in agreeing to its terms was doubtless to secure a powerful ally in the dis- turbed and threatening relations which then existed between her and

Great Britain.

A copy of this treaty is attached to this report marked "Appendix

LL."

In August, 1849, Nicaragua entered into a contract for a ship canal across its territory with the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal

Company.

The company was to pay to the State $10,000 on

Contract between Nicara- . , . x ' sua and American Atlantic the ratification of its charter, and the same sum

and Pacific ship Canal com- eaeh year thereafter during the period of conpuny, ox

struction. The State was to receive stock of the

company to the value of $200,000. The total amount of stock intended

to be issued is not stated. After the completion of the canal the State was to receive annually,

for a period of twenty years, 20 per cent of the net profits of the work

after deducting interest at the rate of 7 per cent per annum on the

capital invested, and after this period of twenty years its share in the

net profits was to be increased to 25 per cent annually until the ter- mination of the contract, which was to be in force for eighty-five years

from the day the canal was completed and put in use. The company

was to present a report and account yearly to the State as a basis for

these payments, which was to be subject to examination and comparison with the company's books by commissioners to be appointed by

the State. At the end of the period of eighty-five years the entire

property and the rights and privileges granted were to be surrendered

to the State without indemnity or compensation, but the company was

to be allowed 15 per cent from the net profits of the canal for ten years after the surrender if the cost of the work should be less than

$20,000,000, and for twenty years if the cost was greater than that

amount.

A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appendix MM."

The next contract relating to this subject was

Frellnghuysen - Zavala .1 • xn t i rr 1 i j.i 1n ,. ity the fc relingnuysen - Zavala treaty between the

United States and Nicaragua, signed in December,

1884, already mentioned in this chapter and designated as Appendix

L. By the terms of this treaty the canal was to be built by the

United States and owned by the two signatory powers, without any

limitation as to time. The proceeds of the canal and its accessories were

to be applied to the maintenance and necessary improvement of the

works, including the salariesof the board of managers and all officers and
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 201

others employed, and the balance remaining was to be divided between

the two Governments, one-third of which was to be paid to Nicaragua

and two-thirds to the United States. The United States also agreed to loan to Nicaragua $4,000,000, which was to be expended in making

internal improvements and was to be repaid with interest at 3 per cent per annum out of its share in the net revenues of the canal. As

stated in another part of this chapter, this treaty was rejected by the

Senate, and at a subsequent session, while a motion for reconsideration was still pending, it was withdrawn by the President.

The contract which the Maritime Canal Com-

(jontrMt between Nicwrft. pllnv f Nicaragua was incorporated to execute

sua and Maritime Canal . , . , company. was made by .Nicaragua w^ith the Nicaragua Canal

Association of New York in March, 1887. The

pecuniary consideration promised for the privileges granted was to be received by the Republic in shares, bonds, certificates, or other

securities which the company might issue to raise the corporate capital, and was to be 6 per cent of the total amount of the issue, and

in no event less than $4,000,000 in face value, to be represented by

40,000 shares or obligations of $100 each, full paid and nonassessable.

The privileges were to last for ninety-nine years from the opening

of the canal to universal traffic, at the end of which period the Republic was to become the owner of the entire property in perpetuity.

The company, however, was to have the privilege of renting the canal

for ninety-nine years longer on condition of paying 25 per cent of the

annual net profits to the Government of Nicaragua. This contract has

been stated more fully in an earlier part of this chapter and is there

designated as Appendix R. The latest contract made by Nicaragua for the

contract between Meara- construction of a maritime canal through its terrigua and Interoieanic Canal . "

company. ritory was entered into with Messrs. Edward E\r re and Edward F. Cragin, representing the Inter- oceanic Canal Company, in October, 1898. The terms of this contract are set forth in an earlier part of this chapter, but the part relating

to the consideration promised by the company will be briefly restated

in this connection for more ready comparison with the terms of the

other contracts. The Republic was to be entitled to 8 per cent of the

company's stock, full paid and nonassessable, not less than $8,000,000

in par value. For one hundred and ninety-nine years from the day on which the canal was opened to universal traffic the net profits were

to belong to the stockholders; during a period of ninety-nine years

following the stockholders were to receive a cumulative annual dividend

of 10 per cent, and of any balance that remained the company was to pay half to the Republic and the other half to the stockholders; after

this period the net annual profits were to be divided equally between

the Government and the stockholders. While the grant was nominally
202 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

in perpetuity, it is evident that the company after the first period

would not be entitled to the rights of undivided ownership.

The Republic in this contract granted to the Interoceanic Canal

Company some important privileges which do not appear in any of

the other contracts.

It conferred authority to make and modify police regulations, subject to the approval of the government of the State, for guaranteeing

order, safety, and health within a zone 5 miles in width on each

side of the canal. A police force, to be appointed and paid by the

company, was to enforce these regulations and also the general police

regulations and laws of the State within this zone, with all the cor- rective powers exercised by the police force of the Republic. This

provision is found in Article XVII of the contract. In another article it was provided that all contracts made by the

company relating to the canal and its accessories should be governed

by the principle of "lex loci contractu." In addition to the privileges contained in other contracts relating to canal construction, the Republic granted to this company man}T mercantile, banking, and other business prerogatives, varied in character,

which would have been of great value to private owners. These are enumerated in Article XVI of the contract. In addition to liberal grants of land, such as were contained in the

contract with the Nicaragua Canal Association, the company was

given an option to select and purchase, within two years from the

date of its organization, a million hectares (nearly 2,500,000 acres) of

national land, at $1 per hectare in American gold.

Taking all these privileges into consideration this is by far the most

liberal contract that has been made by Nicaragua in connection with

this subject, and it is of special significance, because it is the most

recent in date and is the latest expression and act of the Government

from which an inference can be drawn as to the value that would be

set upon such a concession or grant as would authorize the United

States to construct, manage, and operate a maritime canal through the

territory of the Republic.

A copy of this contract is attached to this report, marked "Appendix T."

contract between cost. 0nly one of these parties that contracted with

ijica and Maritime Canal Nicaragua with reference to the route known by

( "" ,

' 1 "l) - the name of that State entered into a contract with Costa Rica so as to secure the consent of that Republic for the use of its territory as far as might be necessary in executing the

project. This was the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua. Its contract was entered into in July, 1888, and Costa Rica granted to the company privileges as to the use of its territory similar to those

it had already obtained from Nicaragua, but the amount of capital
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 203

stock in the company was to be li per cent, instead of 4, in shares or certificates of $100 each; the total value to be in no event less than

$1,500,000. This contract has been referred to in an earlier part of

this chapter, and is designated as "Appendix Z." While the way is open for direct negotiations with Nicaragua and

Costa Rica for the occupation and use of their territory for canal purposes, the situation is different at Panama. The Republic of Colombia first granted a concession to the Panama Railroad Company, giving

it exclusive privileges on the isthmus, which will

Privileges of Panama continue, according to modifications afterwards

Railroad Company con- i e

• • j> * j. ^ h -i nr>i-r tinue to 1966. made, tor ninetj^-nine years from August lb, lboY.

A later concession to the Panama Canal Company

required it to enter into some amicable arrangement with the rail- road company under which the former might occupy the territory

along or near its line. The canal company acquired by purchase a majority of the railroad stock, and the necessary arrangements were

made. This stock is now under the control of the New Panama Canal

Companv, which gives it a directing influence in

vTM^?^?TM' both organizations. The canal concession is to continue, acccording to its latest extension, for

ninety nine years from the day on which the canal shall be wholly

or partially opened to public service, and the date fixed for this in the

contract is October 31, 1910. Should it fail, and the concession be forfeited, the company will still have exclusive control of the territory

through which its line extends till 1966, under the railroad concession.

The canal company is absolutely prohibited to cede or mortgage its rights, under any consideration whatever, to any nation or foreign

government, under penalty of forfeiture. The

Both companies prohih- contract with the railroad company contains a like

Ited

to foreign from ceding government.

privileges prohibition, ..... andtitdeclares further e 11

that the pain of

forfeiture will be incurred by the mere act of

attempting to cede or transfer its privilege to a foreign government,

and such an act is declared absolutely null and of no value or effect. These concessions, if acquired by the United

concessions.

* 8 Un " States, would not give to the Government the

control and ownership evidently contemplated by

the law—that is, an absolute ownership in perpetuity. The right

under the contract with the railroad company is designated as "the

use and possession " of the property for ninety-nine years, and it is provided that "at the expiration of the term of the privilege," and by

the sole fact of the expiration, the Government of Colombia shall be

substituted in all the rights of the company, and shall immediately

enter into the enjoyment of the line of communication, its fixtures,

dependencies, and all its products. The right of the canal company

is substantially of the same character. Its concession expressly provides that five years previous to the expiration of the ninety-nine
204 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

3

T ears of " the privileges," the executive power shall appoint a commissioner to examine the condition of the canal and annexes, and make

an official report describing- the condition of the property in every

detail. This report is to establish the condition in which the canal and

its dependencies are to be delivered to the National Government on the

day of the expiration of the privilege. There is no provision for an

extension of either concession beyond the period mentioned, and the

entire property in each case passes from the company without compensation. The privileges granted by these concessions are

nuai changes.

8 TM ° an * subject to certain annual charges in the nature of

rentals, and to other obligations. The railroad

company is bound during the continuance of its concession to pay to the Colombian Government " an annual revenue" of $250,000 in American gold, in quarterly payments. The failure to make any of the

quarterly payments, after being one year overdue, subjects the com- pany to a forfeiture of its privilege. It is also bound to transport over its road the Colombian mails without charge, and the troops,

chiefs, and officers, and their equipage, ammunition, armament,

clothing, and all similar elfects belonging to or destined for the service

of the Republic, and emigrants to the country up to the number of

2,000 annually. The canal company is bound to pay to the Government, in half-yearly installments, during the first twenty-five years

after the opening of the canal to the public service a share amounting

to 5 per cent on its gross income from all sources, without any deductions whatever. For a second period of twenty-five years the share of

the Government is increased to 6 per cent; for a third to 7 per cent; and for a fourth, to the termination of its privilege, to 8 per cent. The company guarantees that this share shall in no case be less than

$250,000 in any year. The Colombian Government also owns, in accordance with the extension law of December 20, 1890, and by the

terms of the company's charter, 50,000 full-paid shares of its stock,

of the par value of 100 francs each, the total number of shares issued

by the company being 050,000. The Government of the Republic has

the power under the concession to protect these interests by appointing a commissioner or agent to intervene in the collection, and examine the accounts of the company.

This being the situation, it was manifest that, even if the privileges

of the companies could be purchased by and transferred to the United

States, they were encumbered with charges and conditions that would

not permit this Government to exercise all the rights of complete

ownership over a canal constructed by it at the Panama route. A new arrangement is necessary if the United

n,« arrangement netes- States is to undertake the work. The relinquishsary If lulled States under- . , , takes work. ment by the canal company, with the consent of

Colombia, of the privileges it has under existing
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 205

concessions, for a consideration to be agreed upon with the United

States, would leave the way open for treaty negotiations between the

two Governments to ascertain whether Colombia will consent to the

occupation of its territory by the United States for the construction

of a canal to be under Government control, management, and ownership, and, if so, whether they can agree upon terms mutually satis- factory. The situation is peculiar, as there are three parties in interest. The United States can obtain from Colombia no concession that does

not have the approval of the company, and its concessions do not per- mit the company to transfer or attempt to transfer its rights to a

foreign government.

As the Commission was specially authorized and instructed to ascertain the cost of purchasing all the rights, privileges, and franchises

held and owned b}^ corporations, associations, and individuals in the

different canal routes, so as to determine the cost of constructing an

isthmian canal at each of them and placing it under the control,

management, and ownership of the United States, it attempted at the

first favorable opportunity, after its organization, to ascertain the

views of the New Panama Canal Company with reference to a disposition and transfer of its property and rights.

While the Commission was in Paris in September, 1899, interviews were held with the president and other officers of the company, during which their attention was directed to the' scope of the investigation in which it was engaged, and their views were sought upon this

subject of sale and transfer. They were not prepared to make a defi- nite reply, and responded onty with some general remarks, which did

not give the information that was sought.

Mr. Maurice Hutin was afterwards chosen president of the New

Panama Canal Company and came to the United States early in 1900,

during the absence of the Commission in Central and South America.

Soon after its return, on the 4th day of April, 1900, he addressed a

letter to the president of the Commission, stating that the principal

object of his visit was to give to the Commission any additional

information it might desire with reference to the company and the

canal project, and that he was ready to do so, either upon technical

points or others that might be indicated to him.

In response to this letter the president of the Commission reminded

him of the discussions at Paris with reference to a transfer of the

canal property to the United States which had then led to no result, and

submitted three inquiries to which he solicited replies as full and as clear as he might find it convenient to make. They were substantially

as follows:

1. Whether the company was willing to sell its rights, property,

and unfinished work to the United States.

2. Whether the company had the legal power to make such sale and
206 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

give to the purchaser a perfect title, free from all incumbrances and

the claims of the stockholders and creditors of the old company.

3. For what sum, in cash, would the company sell its rights, privileges, franchises, and its property of every description connected with

the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Panama?

He stated that the Commission was well aware that the concession

under which the company was acting prohibited a sale or transfer of

its privileges to any foreign Government, and suggested that, in the

discussion of the subject, the consent of the Colombian Government

might be assumed. He also called attention to the terms of the law

under which the Commission was acting, which authorized it to collect information to be submitted to the President of the United States,

but conferred no power to accept or reject any terms which might be

offered. There was no early response to this communication. President Hutin

returned to Paris, and on the 20th of July addressed a letter to the

president of the Commission, in which he said that on account of the

importance of the questions asked him it would be well to have inter- views with him and other members of the Commission, with a view of

making the reply precise and including in it everything which might

be needed. Before closing he asked to be informed by what date a reply to the letter of April 10, 1900, was desired. In acknowledging

this letter, on the 13th of August, the president of the Commission

stated that it was desirable to have the reply at as earlj' a date as practicable, and not later than the 1st day of October following.

A few weeks later, President Hutin visited Washington again, and

the Commission and its committee on rights, privileges, and franchises held conferences with him from time to time, at which the subject of these inquiries was freely discussed, but no formal reply to the

letter was received until November 16, just before the Commission

closed its prelim inaiy report.

During these conferences the question of title was fully discussed,

and the Commission was furnished with copies of the concession from

Colombia to the old company; the different contracts by which it was

extended; the laws under which the old and new companies were

organized; the legislative acts relating to the old company and the

liquidation of its affairs; the decrees of the court relating to the

liquidation and to the formation of the new company; the charter of

the new company, and other documents bearing upon its legal history.

These have been made use of by the Commission in its investigation of

the legal status of the new company, and its conclusions will be given

further on in this report.

No result was reached with reference to the other questions. There

was no offer to dispose of the property and privileges of the company

to the United States upon any terms, even with the consent of the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 207

Colombian Government, nor was any desire expressed to enter into

any negotiations with the United States with reference to such a disposition of its property and rights, and it was manifest that the company

preferred some other arrangement than an absolute sale. President

Hutin during these conferences suggested that the United States might obtain control of the rights, privileges, and property of the

canal company as a majority stockholder of a new organization, to which the company might contribute its concession, plant, unfinished

work, and other property, at a valuation to be determined by arbitration, and he expressed the opinion that such an arrangement could be

made without violating the concessions. But this must include some

plan for the protection of the minority stockholders in the financial

management, for they would favor a policy that would realize liberal

dividends in proportion to the commercial value of the canal, while

the policy of the United States might be to reduce tolls and charges to the cost of maintenance, or even below it, if its interests would be

thereby advanced.

The letter contained no answers to the first and third questions of

the communication of April 10, 1900, but submitted a plan substantially the same as that outlined in the letter of the company of February 28, 1899, addressed to the President of the United States, which was published in Senate Doc. No. 188, Fifty-sixth Congress, first session, pages 41 and 42. This was to reincorporate under the laws of New York or some

other State, and accord to the United States such representation in its board of directors and such opportunity to acquire an interest in

its securities as its concessions permitted.

This plan was subject to all the objections of a divided ownership,

and would not give to the United States the control, management, and

ownership contemplated by the law. An assurance was added to the

effect that if the United States should desire to perpetuate or enlarge

its existing rights and privileges acquired under the treaty of 1846, the

company would conform to such supplemental treaty as might be

entered into between the United States and Colombia.

It was further stated in the letter of November 26, 1900, that there were other plans by which the United States could acquire a preponderating influence in the company without violating the spirit of the

concessions, but they were not disclosed either in the letter or during

the discussions. In the spring of 1901, the preliminary report of the Commission

having been published during the previous winter, there were some

communications between the Colombian Government and the canal

company, which caused the latter to somewhat change its attitude.

The Commission was informed that the company, through its president, had expressed a desire to sell and transfer its rights, property,
208 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

and interests to the United States, with the necessary authorization of

the Colombian Government, that the Government -would give its consent to the company to make such sale and transfer, if satisfactory

arrangements and conditions could be agreed upon, and that the com- pany was authorized to enter into negotiations with that end in view.

This apparently removed all obstacles to a full and frank expression

of the views of the company upon the subject, and in a letter, dated

May 8, 1901, addressed to President Hutin, the president of the Commission expressed the hope that he would take up the question once more, now that he was relieved of the embarrassments under which he

had formerly labored, and give such additional information as he felt at liberty to do, particularly in reply to the first and third questions

contained in the former letter of April 10, 1900, so that the Commission might make a full representation of the subject in its forthcoming

report for the information of the President of the United States. In his reply, on the loth of the same month, President Hutin

responded to the first question by stating that the company would consent if authorization therefor should be given by the Colombian Government to transfer its concessions to the Government of the United

States, the conditions of the transfer to be fixed independent of any

particular arrangements which might be made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. A reply to the third question was deferred until his return to Paris,

because, as he stated personally to the president of the Commission,

no price could be fixed until he could consult with the directors of

the company and have free access to its books and accounts. He referred again to the question of a divided control of the canal

propert}', and the conditions under which the United States might

obtain a share in it, and suggested that it might be of interest to examine it afresh.

The president of the Commission acknowledged the receipt of this letter on the da}' following. He urged that the first step for the com- pany to take was to express its views as to the value of its property,

and that this could be done in no better way than by a specific reply

to the question asked in the letter of April 10, 1900, and expressed

the hope that this would be done with the least possible loss of time.

He discouraged the proposal to examine afresh the question of

divided control. The law under which the Commission was appointed

contemplated nothing less than a complete ownership of the propert}-,

and, as the compan}' was then in a position to make :i direct sale to the

United States, he said that it need no longer be considered.

The summer passed without making any material progress, although

letters and cablegrams upon the subject were exchanged. On the 28th

of June the president of the Commission was assured that a detailed

valuation of the company's property would be sent in about a fort-
RETORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 209

night. On the 25th of July it was to be sent by next mail, and the

statement was added that the preparation had required more time than

contemplated. The formal reply, dated Paris, October 4, 1901, was

finally presented in Washington by President Hutin in person, on the

17th of the same month, together with a paper containing the esti- mated values of the property of the company. These valuations are given in the following table in francs and also in dollars, the franc

being valued at 19.3 cents:

Stock of the Panama Railroad Company

Buildings, lands, etc., on Panama isthmus, constituting the company's

private estate Hospitals at Colon and at Panama

Amounts expended for concessions, with interest Work done by the old company Work done by the new company to January 1, 1902 Technical surveys

Total

Francs. Dollars.

55, 000, 000 9,000,000

4,500,000 24,000,000

415, i in. moo, 000

18, 000, 000

10, 615, 000

1,737,000

868, 500

4,632,000

80, 095, 000

7,720,000

3, 474, 000

565, 500, 000 109,141,500

These figures were intended by the company to represent the

intrinsic, or real and absolute, value of the work already done and

the other property it owns upon the isthmus. In addition to this a compensation was proposed for the possible profits that might result

from the operation of the canal after its completion. The plan proposed for estimating these profits was to allow a certain amount per

ton on the actual annual tonnage that might pass through the canal

whenever it amounted to 7,000,000 tons or more, at an increasing rate, without reference to the toll charge or actual receipts. The proposed

rates of compensation were as follows:

Francs per ton. 7,000,000 tons per annum 50

8,000,000 tons per annum 1. 00

8,000,000 to 11,000,000 tons per annum 1. 50

11,000,000 to 16,000,000 tons per annum 2. 00

16,000,000 to 19,000,000 tons per annum 2. 50

20,000,000 and more tons per annum 3. 00

It being the desire of President Hutin to enter upon a discussion of

these items, so that objections might be made and considered, members of the committee on rights, privileges, and franchises met for a conference with him and his counsel, and the greater part of three

days was spent in an examination of the paper containing the estimated

value of the property. The total valuation is largely in excess of that fixed by the Commission, the greatest variance being in the amounts for the excavation

and work already done that can be utilized in the completion of the

canal. S D—57-1—Vol 7 14
210 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

This resulted from different views as to prices and methods of cal- culation and partly to a difference in plans. The compan}T 's estimate

also included, in addition to the work, the value of the plant upon the

isthmus, consisting- of locomotives, cars, dredging and other machines,

tools and implements of various kinds, stored in sheds and warehouses, which originally cost many millions of dollars, but would be

of no value to the United States; most of these machines and implements are old, and even if in good order are not adapted to present

methods.

The members of the Commission could not agree to the proposition

that the company would have any just claim to share in the profits of

the canal enterprise after selling it to the United States at its real and

absolute value. The element of probable future profits may fairly be

considered in fixing the price, but if the United States should become

a purchaser, it will be upon the condition of acquiring a complete title and the absolute control of the property. As a result of the discussion,

this proposition was withdrawn, but in other respects the views and

opinions of each party remained unchanged.

It was then proposed by President Hutin that there should be a thorough examination of the data and estimates made by the Commission and the company, so that by proper comparison the differences

might be developed, and if possible, adjusted, so that a result could be

reached that would be acceptable to the two interests that were repreresented. It was further proposed that if the differences could not be

thus adjusted, there should be an arbitration to settle them. As the reasons for the existing differences had been developed during the

conferences already held, and as the efforts to reconcile them had been

fruitless, the further examination proposed did not appear to be

desirable, and besides it was then impracticable.

After all the obstructions in the way of a sale had been removed, it took several months for the company to go over its books, accounts,

and other data in preparation of the paper then under consideration.

The Commission had devoted many months to this part of its investigations and studies. It was therefore manifestly impossible to go

over the details of the results reached by the company and the Commission in the brief time that remained for the preparation and pres- entation of the report of the latter to the President of the United

States. A resort to arbitration in ease of disagreement would require a presentation of the two sets of details to a new body of men, who would

have to examine the entire subject for themselves, and their work

could not be completed for many months, perhaps years.

If an adjustment by this method were practicable and desirable, it was not within the scope of the duties of the Commission. Its duty was to obtain information, and it was ready to entertain any proposi-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 211

tion or agreement that the company might offer, submit it to the president, and to continue the discussions as far as practicable during the

brief time that remained; but it was clothed with no power to accept or

reject, as the company had been informed at the beginning of these

conferences. An arbitration under such circumstances would be a

useless waste of time and effort, would lead to no practical result, and

would only serve to further delay action upon the canal question.

The proposition for a more extended discussion and comparison of

the details of the estimates made by the company and by the Commission was therefore declined, and President Hutin was informed that

the Commission would be obliged to complete its report at an early

day, and that any proposal from the company would be received until

the 5th day of November, when the question would be considered

as closed, and it was hoped that by that time he would be ready to present his final conclusions.

Before that time a letter was received from President Hutin, stating

that the board of directors of his company had fixed a price for the

sale of the canal property and interests, according to calculations and

estimates "which it considers exact and justified until the contrary is proven." This price is the aggregate of the items contained in the

paper submitted with his letter of October 4, and he states that he

confirms this letter and the accompanying paper or memorandum,

except the part of the latter relating to a share in the profits of

the canal enterprise, which claim is relinquished "as an act of

conciliation. " This statement was somewhat indefinite, but in the reply to the

letter the president of the Commission stated that he understood that

the company withdrew the proposition with regard to sharing in the

possible profits accruing from the canal, after completion, and with

that exception that the company confirmed and stood upon the figures

submitted with the letter of the 4th of October last, which aggregated

565,500,000 francs, or 8109,141,500, and that these figures, with his

views, would be presented to the President in the report of the Commission. There has been no dissent to this interpretation of the meaning and purport of the letter. The Commission submits this as the result of its efforts to ascertain

upon what terms the rights and privileges of the new Panama Canal

Company can be obtained.

It is proper to add that the examination of the title of the present

company to the canal propertj7 under the laws of France and Colombia

has satisfied this Commission that the new Panama Canal Company

has the entire control and management of the canal property. It appears, further, that the liquidator appointed by the French court to

settle the affairs of the old company contributed under the charter

all the privileges and property of that company to the new organiza-
212 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tion, and in consideration of this contribution he will be entitled to receive 60 per cent of the net income after paying- all expenses,

charges, and stipulated dividends, to be distributed by him among the

parties in interest. This right to a share in the profits gives no right

to the old stockholders to take any part in the acts or administration

of the new company, but the charter recognizes a continued interest

of the old company in the affairs of its successor by conferring upon

the liquidator until the completion of the canal the power to appoint

a commission of three members to inspect the progress of the work,

the condition and maintenance of the plant and buildings, as well as the accounts relating to these different objects, th© expense of the

commission to be borne b}T the new company. It will thus be manifest that if an agreement be made for the purchase of the company's

concession and property by the United States, it must include some

settlement of this right which the French court has placed under the

control of the liquidator, and if a sale is effected the liquidator must

unite in it under the authority of the court from which he received

his appointment.

The correspondence between the company and the Commission is as follows:

The New Caxal Company of Panama,

Washington, D. C, April 4, 1900. Admiral J. G. Walker,

President of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: In pursuance of the intentions expressed and the assurances given

by the New Canal Company of Panama to the President of the United States and

the committees of Congress before the creation of the Commission over which you

preside, and also because of similar intentions and assurances which we had the honor of addressing to yourself, we were very glad to be able in the beginning to confer with the Commission in Paris. Indeed, that gave us the opportunity of pre- senting to you in a most complete and satisfactory manner our detailed technical

plans, with all the data and documents which had been used in their formation. We have also made known to you the results of our statistical and economical

investigations and have exhibited the general organization and the present situation

of our company.

Following your studies in Paris, we were much pleased to receive you in the Isthmus of Panama, where we submitted for your examination the entire scheme of our project and the work on the canal in process of execution. Since your departure from Paris I was elected president as well as director-general

of the New Canal Company of Panama, and soon after I left France with the inten- tion of joining you on the isthmus. Upon my arrival at New York I cabled you and

received from you the reply that the Commission would probably leave Colon on the 19th of .March, which left me no opportunity of an interview with the Commission

during its stay in Panama. As the principal object of my visit was to give the Commission any additional information which it i i

i «_r 1 it desire, 1 have remained in the United States to await its return. It is possible that your profound study of the project of our company, made during your visit to the isthmus and illustrated by the actual condition of the work which is now in process of execution upon the line of the canal, may have

suggested the desire to obtain new information; and because of that possibility I
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 213

have been desirous of holding myself at your disposition in order to supply you upon

technical points, as well as upon others that you may be good enough to indicate to me, such complementary information and explanations as you may judge necessary.

I shall remain in Washington or in New York as long as you consider my pres- ence useful. I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the assurances of my high

consideration and my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin.

My address at Washington is Hotel Raleigh, and in New York to the care of Messrs. Sullivan & Cromwell, 45 Wall street.

Department op State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, April 10, 1900. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President of New Panama Canal Company,

Care of Messrs. Sullivan & Cromwell, 45 Wall street, New York, N. Y. Dear Sir : During the conferences which this Commission had the honor to hold with you in Paris, and in the sessions of September 7 and 8 last, your attention was

invited to that portion of the law of Congress which created the Commission, requiring it "to ascertain the cost of purchasing all the rights, privileges, and franchises held and owned" by the association of which you are the head. Your attention was also invited to the scope of the investigation in which the Commission is engaged,

as defined in the last sentence of section 3, which is as follows, viz : " To make such

full and complete investigation as to determine the most feasible and practicable route across said Isthmus for a canal, together with the cost of constructing the same

and placing the same under the control, management, and ownership of the United

States." The subject was opened without any expectation that it could be fully discussed

at that time, it being well understood that questions so important and so difficult must require time for consideration. You were pleased to make certain general

statements, which were all that could be expected by the Commission for the moment. They did not, however, convey the information which the Commission is seeking,

viz: How much will it cost the United States to acquire complete ownership and

control of all the rights, privileges, franchises, and property belonging to the New

Panama Canal Company ? I beg, therefore, to revert to the subject with a view to reaching, if possible, a clearer understanding upon that subject.

You understand, of course, that the Commission has no authority to accept or

reject any terms which may be offered, but is collecting information to be submitted

to the President.

I may remark at the outset that the Commission is familiar with the clause in your

concession which prohibits the sale or transfer of your rights to any nation or foreign Government. In the discussion of this question it may be assumed that the consent

of the Colombian Government has been obtained for a sale to the United States. It

is with that assumption that the following questions are respectfully submitted, and

that replies as full and as clear as you may find it convenient to make are solicited.

1. Is the New Panama Canal Company willing to sell to the United States all of the rights, privileges, and franchises, together with all the works, railways (including the Panama Railway), telegraph or telephone lines, buildings, lands, plant,

material, drawings, and documents of every description which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama?

2. Is the company able—that is, has it the legal power—to give a clear title to such

rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every description, free of all encumfcrance or claim of any nature, from' any person whatsoever, and particularly from

tne stockholders or creditors of the old Panama Canal Company?
214 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

3. For what sum of money, in cash, will the company transfer to the United States

all of the rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every description, which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal across the isthmus of Panama?

The law under which the Commission is acting contemplates only the complete

"control, management, and ownership" of the canal by the United States, and not a

partial or joint control with private corporations or individuals. Nevertheless, should your reply to the first or the second questions be in the negative, it would no doubt

be of great interest to the President to know what degree of control could be obtained by the United States in the Panama Canal, and upon what terms. In the contingency referred to, viz, a negative reply to the first or second questions, you are invited to state how far the company will be able and willing to go in the direction of yielding control to the United States, and what compensation it will expect therefor. Thanking you again, my dear Mr. Hutin, for the great assistance and many kindnesses extended to the members of this Commission, both in Paris and upon the isthmus of Panama, I am, with great respect, > Your obedient servant,

J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Paris, July SO, 1900. Mr. President: Our council of administration is preparing to reply to your letter of April 11 (10) last. On account of the importance of the questions asked, we think it possible that before determining precisely the terms of our reply, and with a view of making it precise and including therein everything which you may need, it might be well that

I should have at Washington interviews with yourself and with the members of the Commission.

Whether you are of this same opinion or not, we would be much obliged, Mr.

President, to be informed by what date you wish to have our reply to your above- mentioned letter. I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the renewed assurance of my devoted

sentiments. The president of the council of administration: M. Hutin.

Rear-Admiral Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Corcoran Building,

Washington, D. C, United States.

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, August IS, 1900. Mr. Maurice Hutin,

President New Panama Canal Company, Paris, France. Mr. President: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of July 20, received during my absence from town, informing me that the council of administration of your company is preparing a reply to my letter of April 10 last, and also asking to be informed by what date we desire your reply to the above-mentioned

letter.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 215

In response to your inquiry I have to say that I will be glad to have your reply at

as early a date as practicable, but I think it should not be later than the 1st of next

October.With great respect, believe me, very sincerely, yours,

J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Washington, D. C, November 26, 1900. Rear-Admiral John G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission. Dear Sir: We have taken pleasure in being able at various times to confer with you

and your associates of the Commission upon the numerous and complex questions involved in the problem of the interoceanic canal, and particularly the inquiries pre- sented by your letter of April 10 last. Referring to that communication we note your statement ' ' that the Commission

has no authority to accept or reject any terms which may be offered, but is collecting information to submit to the President."

It is manifest, therefore, that nothing decisive at this time could result from a

categorical answer to certain of your inquiries. Nevertheless we wish now, as we

have from the beginning, to manifest our sincere desire to assist you in accomplishing the high duties with which you have been charged by the President. We beg leave, first, to renew and confirm our proposal of February 27-28, 1899. In that proposition the company declared that if the Government of the United

States adopted the Panama route it would transform its organization and reincorporate under American law, and while providing for the completion of the canal with

its own resources would grant to the Government (without pecuniary contribution upon the latter's part) representation in the directorate of the company; and it also thereby offered to the Government the opportunity of acquiring securities of the com- pany to the extent permitted by the concessions without being made a condition of our proposal ; and it further thereby pledged itself to conform to such supplemental

treaty as might be entered into between the United States and the Republic of Colombia in perpetuation or enlargement of the existing rights and privileges of the United

States under the treaty of 1846, and to accept such modifications of the concessions as might result therefrom. We would prefer to carry out this plan, which is embodied in the communication

of February 27-28, 1899, but we recognize the present desire of the Government to acquire preponderating interest and influence in any interoceanic canal, and we are prepared to further that desire as far as lies in our power. There are several plans by which the United States could acquire such preponderating interest and influence without violation of the provisions of the concessions prohibiting the transfer of the concessionary rights to any foreign government. As

the Commission is acquainted with the terms of such prohibition, we are quite sure

that it will agree that should the arrangement arrived at (whatever it might be) take

a form requiring the concurrence of Colombia, we could not in that contingency bind

ourselves until such concurrence be obtained. You will surely appreciate that under no circumstances must any act be done by us which might imperil our concessionary

rights. As concerns all legal questions, we reiterate our unequivocal declaration, justified by the title deeds and documents submitted to you and supported by the highest

legal authorities, that our titles and concessions are absolute and indisputable, and

that any agreement which might be reached between the United States and the company would be indubitably legal.
216 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

I beg leave to say, therefore, that I am prepared and fully authorized to continue

the consideration of the subject and to reach a conclusion with any representatives

of the Government authorized, as I am, to come to a final determination.

I am, dear sir, with great respect, your obedient servant, M. Hrrix,

President et Directeur- General.

Legacion de Colombia,

Washington, April 29, 1901. M. M. Hutln,

President and General Director of the Panama Canal Company, Washington.

Dear Sir: In reply to your favor of yesterday I have the honor to inform you that the honorable Secretary of State, Mr. Hay, has told me that, not being duly authorized by the Senate, he can not for the present enter into direct negotiations in the matter of the Panama Canal.

Besides, I understand that the Government of the United States wishes to come to an understanding with Great Britain on the proposed modifications of the ClaytonBulwer treaty before entering into negotiations relative to either the Nicaragua or the Panama Canal. Under present circumstances, and pending the reunion of Congress, the labor of the Commission over which Admiral Walker presides will be merely informatory; and

so I have been given to understand by the Secretary of State. The final report that the Commission is to present will be absolutely impartial, and

it will coverall questions, whether technical, political, economic, or commercial, that

are to be taken into account to secure a correct result, leaving no room either for undue haste or for the influence of private interests. In order to facilitate the preparation of a complete report by the Commission, I would beg of you to inform me, at least in a general way, what would be the conditions under which your company would be disposed to cede its franchise to the Government of the United States, of course with the necessary authorization from

the Colombian Government.

I believe that it is important to make this matter clear in order to dispel doubts and misunderstandings that have given rise to malignant insinuations, in spite of the prudent reserve that you have observed before being informed of the attitude of the Colombian Government in the matter. I avail myself of this opportunity to renew the assurance of my high regard.

Carlos Martinez Silva.

Washington, D. C, May 1, 1901. His Excellency Mr. Martinez Silva,

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister PlenipoU ntiary of the Ju /-nhJic of Colombia

to tfie Rejtiih/ic of (lie T'nitcd Staffs at ]Yasliington. Mr. Minister: Since your arrival in this country I have had the honor of having

with you numerous conferences, in the course of which I have stated to you the purpose, the development, and present state of the relations established between the Government of the United States and our company since the end of the year L898. At your suggestion and in agreement with you I -have abstained from all other pro- ceedings. It was proper, in fact, to wait [until the situation of the interoceanic cana

question in the United States, regarded from the double point of view—legislative

and diplomatic—should be, if it were possible, better defined. The events which

occurred in the course of the months of February and March last permitted me to write you my letter of March 20, in which I asked you to kindly inform me how

your Government, under the present circumstances, meant to interpret and apply
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 217

the provisions of articles 21 and 22 of the law granting the concession for the Panama

Canal. Yon were good enough to answer me on March 28, by a letter from which I quote

the following passage: " The reserve maintained by you with regard to the propositions which have been

made by the Commission appointed by the President of the United States, in con- formity with the act of Congress of March 3, 1899, with a view to obtaining a sale to the Government of the United States of the Panama Canal concession, has been pru- dent ; because any offer on your part would have been baseless without the previous

knowledge and authorization of Colombia, in accordance with articles 21 and 22 of the concession law. " In order to define clearly the respective positions of Colombia and the United

States on the subject of the Panama Canal, I presented yesterday to the Secretary

of State, Mr. Hay, a memorandum on the general points which might serve as a basis

for negotiations for the purpose of harmonizing the interests of Colombia, those of the Panama Canal Company, and those of the United States, so far as the latter are not in conflict with the traditional principles of Colombian policy which are expressed

in the concession law. " In this memorandum it was stated^that the Government of Colombia would give the canal company its consent to transfer the latter' s concession to the Government

of the United States, provided always that the latter would accept the conditions which have been submitted to it. " The Secretary of State told me that he would study the question with care and

that he would advise me when we could discuss it at another conference. " I will give you timely advices of what may result from it." In view of the announcement of the departure and the intended long absence of the Secretary of State, referring to the foregoing letter I wrote you on April 28, to ask you to let me know whether any decision had been reached or any determi- nation arrived at. You were good enough in reply to write me on the next day as follows: "In reply to your letter of yesterday, I have the honor of informing you that the

Secretary of State, Mr. Hay, has told me that not being authorized by the Senate he

can not at present enter into any direct negotiations concerning the Panama Canal. "I understood also that the Government of the United States desired, before undertaking any arrangement relative to the Nicaragua or Panama Canal, to come

to an understanding with the English cabinet to endeavor to modify the ClaytonBulwer treaty. "For these reasons the Secretary of State informed me that until the meeting of the next Congress the work to be done will consist in collecting further information,

with which the Commission of which Admiral Walker is president will be charged.

"The final report which it is to present will be inspired by the loftiest impartiality,

and will comprehend all the technical, political, economic, and commercial questions

which should be taken into account to give the problem the best solution, closing the way to any hasty action and to the operation of private interests. "To facilitate this Commission in obtaining the means of presenting a complete

report it would be proper that you, as representing the New Panama Canal Company,

should tell me, at least in general terms, what are the bases, given the previous consent of the Government of Colombia, upon which the company would be disposed to transfer its concession to the Government of the United States. "I think it important to settle this point in order to avoid the doubts and misunderstandings which have given rise to unfriendly interpretations, notwithstanding

the proper reserve of the course which you have followed, so long as you were not informed of the attitude of the Government of Colombia."

I hasten, Mr. Minister, to comply with your wish. I shall thus, moreover, only
218 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

be continuing to follow the invariable line of conduct adopted by the New Panama

Canal Company since its organization in 1894. In fact, in each of its annual reports

to the shareholders' meetings, our board of directors has shown itself disposed to grant to American interests the satisfaction which they might legitimately desire, subject to the sole condition of an understanding which should be equitable to all parties in interest. You are also aware, Mr. Minister, from the documents which I have handed you,

that we have the right to express regret that the preliminary report of the Isthmian

Canal Commission, dated November 30, 1900, while furnishing arguments which

fully justify the attitude of our company, contains conclusions which have caused our declarations and intentions to be judged incorrectly.

Our company ought not and would not infringe the express requirements of its concession laws. It could not, without the previous consent of Colombia, answer

the questions which were put to it, nor the propositions which were made to it. By

every means in our power we have sought to bring about the necessary intervention

of your Government. Your presence and your action, as authorized representative

of the Colombian Government at Washington, establish the proper situation in which our company should be placed in order to discuss the questions presented by

the Government of the United States.

I shall not dwell further upon this subject, of which I have made a complete state- ment in the memorandum which I hand you and in which I shall note also some

inaccuracies which the preliminary report contains on the subject of the situation and legal powers of our company. Nor is it my intention to discuss here the technical part of the preliminary report

of the Isthmian Canal Commission. This would be premature, and I should be compelled at present to confine myself within the limits of a general discussion. It

is proper to await the detailed statements which the final report of the Commission must necessarily furnish to be able to make in a complete manner a critical comparison of the two routes of Panama and Nicaragua. I will limit myself to observing that the preliminary report as it stands proves incontestably the superiority of the Panama project, and, furthermore, I must make all reservations as to the comparative estimates of expenses which it contains.

I must further protest against the conclusions of the report which relate to the time of passage. We are ready to prove irrefutably that the difference of twenty- one hours shown in favor of Panama is much too small; that the real difference is at

least three times greater, thus favoring the Panama project for each of the routes from San Francisco to New York, or to New Orleans, or to Liverpool. Now. in addition to this the Commission itself admits that the time for maritime voyages from the Atlantic ports of the United States to the west coast of South America is less by way of Panama than by Nicaragua.

Having stated all this and to reply, Mr. Minister, to the request contained in your

letter of April 29, quoted above, I have the honor of informing you that our com- pany will consent, if authorization therefor is given by the Colombian Government,

to transfer its concession to the Government of the United States. All the conditions

of this transfer will be fixed, of course, for the company outside of and independently

of the particular arrangements which maybe made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. The price of sale of the concession itself, of the works executed, material and

installations, shares of the Panama Railroad Company, etc. —in short, of all the property of the New Panama Canal Company—would be fixed, so far as possible, by

amicable valuations and agreement; hut it would lie understood, however, that if a considerable difference of opinion should arise, recourse would he had, as is just and

equitable, to arbitration in the usual form.

It will also be necessary to determine, either by amicable agreement, or, if need
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 219

be, by arbitration, the compensation which should be awarded to the company for the eventual profits which its concession would have enabled it to make; a compensation which may be represented either by an annuity, or by capitalized sum, to be proportioned in either case, of course, to the value of the property transferred by

the company at the time when the transfer shall be made.

Everybody will understand, finally, that the promise to transfer its concessions can not bind our company for an indefinite time without danger of compromising

the progress of its works and its general interests. We shall, therefore, ask to limit the effect of this promise to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary

agreements shall be made before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted, after approval by the shareholders' meeting of the company, for ratification by Congress

at its next session. Finally, Mr. Minister, I should remind you of the question which was also put to us by the Isthmian Canal Commission for the purpose of learning what share of control could be assigned to the Government of the United States, failing a complete

transfer of the concession. Later the Commission refuses to enter into negotiation on its owm propositions. At various times I had made various suggestions which are

finally summed up in a letter of November 30, 1900. We are still ready to consider combinations of this character. Kindly accept, Mr. Minister, with the assurances of my high consideration, the renewed expression of my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin.

Legacio de Colombia,

Washington, May 3, 1901. Rear-Admiral John G. Walker,

President of the Isthmian Canal Commission. My Dear Sir: In consequence of the interview that I had the honor of having

with you last month, I addressed a letter to Mr. M. Hutin, president and general

director of the New Panama Canal Company, a translation of which I inclose, together with a copy of Mr. Hutin' s answer.

I believe that these documents will be of importance to the Commission over which you so worthily preside. In conformity with the wishes of the honorable Secretary of State, I would inform

you that I am ready to answer, on behalf of the Colombian Government, the questions that the Commission may be pleased to present relative to the manner of bringing about an understanding between the two Governments for the construction of the Panama Canal.

I trust that the steps that have been taken will render manifest to the Commission

the good will that animates both the Colombian Government and the Panama Canal Company to remove obstacles in the pending negotiations, and to dissipate any doubts

that may have been entertained respecting their attitude toward the Government of the United States. I remain, sir, yours, very respectfully,

Carlos Martinez Silva.

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, May 8, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President of the New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. My Dear Sir: I have to inform you that I have received a letter from Senor Don

Carlos Martinez Silva, minister of foreign affairs and minister to the United States
220 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

from the Republic of Colombia, under date of May 3, inclosing for the information

of this Commisson a copy of your letter to Mr. Silva of May 1, in which you state that your company will, if so authorized by the Colombian Government, sell and

transfer its rights, concessions, and property to the United States, upon terms to be

hereafter arranged. It appears also from this correspondence that the Colombian

minister, acting for his Government, has authorized you to enter into negotiations, in behalf of your company, with this purpose in view. Under these circumstances I desire to call your attention to a letter addressed to you by myself on April 10, 1900, in which certain questions were asked with regard

to the sale and transfer of the property of your company, so that the Commission

might obtain information which it required, in order to discharge its duties intelli- gently. You were not then in a position to reply fully and definitely to that letter, because of the terms of your concessions; but now that you have 1 >een relieved of the embarrassments under which you then labored, I am encouraged to hope that you

will take the subject up once more, and give me such additional information as you

feel at liberty to do, particularly in reply to the first and third questions contained

in my letter of April 10, a copy of which letter I inclose, so that the Commission

may be able to make a full representation of the subject in its forthcoming report for the information of the President of the United States. I fully appreciate the courtesy that you have always manifested in your delicate and difficult position between the Colombian Government and the work of this Commission, and with an earnest hope that the way is now open to a satisfactory solution of the many perplexing problems which have been committed to you,

believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin,

With great respect, always, your obedient servant,

J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Washington, D. C, May 10, 1001. Admiral John Walker.

My Dear Admiral: I have never regretted so much as during these days, particularly to-day, being unable to speak English, in order to be able to inform you directly

concerning our business. But I wish to tell you, now, that I shall send you an answer

to your letter of the 8th instant as soon as I shall have had the necessary time to consider it; and since you will be absent for a few days, I shall send you the answer and

hold myself at your disposal upon your return.

I beg that you will accept, my dear Admiral, the renewed assurance of my devoted

sentiments, M. Hutin.

Washington, D. C, May 15, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. My Dear Mr. President: I beg leave to acknowledge receipl of your favor of the

8th instant, by which you inform me that Senor Don Carlos Martinez Silva, minister

of foreign affairs and minister to the United States from the Republic of Colombia,

transmitted to you on the 3d instant a copy of the letter which I addressed to him

upon his request on the 1st of the month.

I am obliged to you, Mr. President, for recognizing in your above-mentioned letter of May 8 that our company has not been until the present time in a position to answer

certain questions presented by the Commission over which you preside.

Under the new conditions nowactnally existing it will besufficienl for the response which you desire to the first and third questions contained in your letter of April 10,
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 221

1900, to now confirm what I had the honor to write to Minister Martinez Silva on

the 1st of the present month.

Therefore I beg to inform you that our company will consent, if authorization

therefor is given by the Colombian Government, to transfer its concession to the Gov- ernment of the United States. All the conditions of this transfer will be fixed, of course, for the company outside of and independently of the particular arrangements

which may be made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. The price of sale of the concession itself, of the works executed, material and

installations, shares of the Panama Eailroad Company, etc., in short, of all the property of the New Panama Canal Company, will be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable

valuation and agreement; but it will be understood, however, that if an important

difference of opinion should arise recourse will be had, as is just and equitable, to arbitration in the usual form.

It also will be necessary to determine, either by amicable agreement or, if need be, by arbitration, the compensation which should be awarded to the company for the

eventual profits which its concession would have enabled it to make—a compensation which should be represented either by an annuity or by a capitalized sum, to be proportioned in either case, of course, to the value of the property transferred by

the company at the time when the transfer shall be made.

This being said, I must call your attention, Mr. President, to the necessity which we jointly have (according to my understanding) of examining afresh the second

question of your letter of April 10, 1900, which refers to the legal powers of our company. It will be proper, in consequence, to correct certain statements on that subject contained in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission.

Independent, however, of the foregoing, will you permit me, Mr. President, to

say, as you have suggested in your letter of April 10, 1900, that it may be of interest to examine afresh the proposition contained in said letter, viz: " What share of control could be assigned to the Government of the United States in the New Panama Canal and under what conditions." In conclusion, I beg leave to say, Mr. President, that the promise made by the New Panama Canal Company to transfer its concession can not continue for an

indefinite period of time. We shall therefore limit the effect of this promise to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary agreements shall be made

before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted, after approval by the shareholders' meeting of the company, for ratification by Congress at its next session. I have the honor, my dear Mr. President, to express my high esteem and to be, Your obedient servant, M. Hutin,

President and Director-General.

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, May 16, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President of X< w Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. My Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of yesterday in response to mine of the 8th instant. You inform me that your company, with the consent of the Colombian Government, will transfer its concessions and property to the Government of the United

States, the conditions of this transfer to be determined by negotiations outside of and independently of the particular arrangements which may be made between the Governments of Colombia and the United States. This being the case, the next step will be to determine the price to be paid for the property of the New Panama Canal Company, which you suggest shall be fixed, so

far as possible, by amicable valuation and agreement, with the understanding that
222 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

if an important difference of opinion should arise recourse should be had to a just

and equitable arbitration in the usual form. As a basis for these negotiations there should be some expression of the views of the company as to the value of its property, and perhaps this can be done in no

better way than by a specific reply to the questions asked you in my letter of April

10, 1900. At the informal conference of yesterday you stated that no price could be fixed by

you until after your return to Paris, where you could consult with the directors of your company and have free access to its books and accounts; and I presume, therefore, that no progress can be made in that direction until your return to Washington,

which I trust may be at an early date, as it is important that this matter be fully

negotiated with the least possible loss of time. With regard to the question of compensation for the possible profits from the

enterprise when completed, I would suggest the extreme difficulty, if not impossibility, of arriving at a correct estimate of such profits, and my present opinion is that this question should be considered in fixing the price for the property when

sold, as the law under which this Commission is acting contemplates absolute ownership on the part of the United States. Regarding the legal question—that is, of the ability of your company to give the United States a clear title to the property—I did not, in my recent letter, touch upon

that matter because it is one which will in the end necessarily be determined by the law officers of the company and those of the United States, and no transfer of the property can be made until a clear title is obtainable. Your company has already

given us much information upon this subject, but we shall be pleased to receive and

consider any further facts or information that you may lie able to furnish us. Referring to my letter of April 10, 1900, in which I say that in the case of a negative reply to the first and second questions contained in that letter, you are invited

to state how far the company will be able and willing to go in the direction of yielding control to the United States, and what compensation it will expect therefor, I have to say that this Commission being directed to furnish the President of the United

States with complete information upon the question of a canal across the American

isthmus, I made this inquiry with that end in view; but the law contemplates nothing less than a complete ownership and control of the canal by the United States, and as the New Panama Canal Company is now in a position to make a direct sale to the United States, that question need no longer be considered. In the conclusion of your letter you state that you limit your promise to sell, etc., to March 1, 1902, it being understood that all preliminary agreements shall be made

before December 1, 1901, in order to be submitted for approval at the stockholders' meeting of your company at its next session. To this I have to say that, while there is no objection to December 1, 1901, being

named as the date at which all preliminary agreements shall be completed, I suggest that the promise to sell shall stand until the end of the next session of Congress, in order that that body may have its entire session for a full and careful consideration

of the whole subject.

Hoping that you may soon return to Washington prepared to carry this important

matter to a satisfactory conclusion, believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin,

With great respect, your obedient servant,

J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Paris, June 21, 1901. Mr. President: By your letter of May 16 last you kindly asked us to extend, until the end of the next session of the Congress of the United States, the time during

which would remain binding the promise made, subject to the reserves and under
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 223

the conditions mentioned in your letter of May 15th, to transfer our concession to the Government of the United States.

I have the honor to inform you that after examination with my colleagues of the board of directors it has been decided to accede to your desire. Our board of directors (council of administration) is undertaking a careful study of

all the questions which are brought up by the project to transfer our concession to the Government of the United States, and I will inform you, in the shortest possible

time, of the resolutions (decisions) which may have been adopted.

I beg that you will accept, Mr. President, the assurances of my high consideration. M. Hutin, The President of the Council of Administration. Admiral John G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C, United States.

[Cablegram.] Paris, June S8, 1901. Admiral Walker,

Corcoran Building, Washington:

We confirm our letter dated June 21. We will send you in about a fortnight, in accordance with letters exchanged May 8, 15, 16, detailed valuation company property. Please advise us at what date you shall have examined results, that we shall send and gather elements of your own valuation, so that on either side we may be

able to discuss contradictorily.

Hutin.

Department op State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, July 3, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President, New Panama Canal Company, 7 Rue Louis le Grand, Paris, France. My Dear Mr. Hutin: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt, on the

28th of June, of your cablegram of the same date confirming your letter of June 21, which reached me on July 1. I shall await the receipt of the detailed valuation of your company's property,

which I shall hope to receive at an early date. Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely yours,

. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

[Cablegram.]

Paris, July $5, 1901. Admiral Walker,

Corcoran Building, Washington:

We intend sending you by next mail detailed valuation company's property, but

preparation has required much more time than contemplated. Can you tell us by

cable up to what date you will remain in Washington, or whether will be absent on

account of season, and whether we might examine together contradictorily our valu- ation as early as beginning September, or can you name a date at your convenience? Hutin.
224 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

[Cablegram.] Washington, July 26, 1901. Pananovo, Paris: Will give valuation prompt attention when received. Will take up discussion here upon your arrival. Walker.

[Cablegram.] Paris, September 14, 1901. Admiral Walker,

Corcoran Building, Washington:

Under sad present circumstances, do you still think I should meet you in Washington about October 1? Hutin.

[Cablegram.] Washington, September 14, 1901. Pananovo, Paris:

If you intend naming price for property and concessions there should be no

delay.

Walker.

[Cablegram.] Paris, September 25, 1901. Admiral Walker,

Corcoran Building, Washington:

Boyard has sailed Saturday last on Champagne, carrying document which he will hand you. Myself will sail Saturday next on Savoie and join you Washington.

Hutin.

[Telegram.] New York, September SO, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C:

Steamer delayed. Arrived only this morning. Will go Washington to-morrow

afternoon, Tuesday, and call at your office Wednesday morning to deliver you

documents as per cable Mr. Hutin. If not convenient to you, kindly wire my office to-morrow morniug early. X. Boyard.

New York, N. Y., October 10, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: By a cable received yesterday from my company in Paris I am

requested to respectfully inform you that Mr. Hutin sailed yesterday from Cherbourg

on the steamer Kaiser Willnlm.

I believe Mr. Hutin will be in New York on or about the 15th of October, and

will at once communicate with you. Yours, very respectfully, X. Boyard.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 225

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, October 11, 1901. X. Boyard, Esq. 24 State street, Neiv York, N. Y. My Dear Mr. Boyard: Your letter of yesterday reached me this morning. I am

glad to know that Mr. Hutin has sailed for New York. Trust he will have a speedy

and pleasant passage. Time is becoming an important element with this Commission. Its report has been delayed pending a conference with Mr. Hutin, but it will soon be called for by

the President and it is of importance that Mr. Hutin should come here as promptly

as possible, that our conference with him should be expedited in every practicable way.

Will you please say to him that I trust he will lose no time in coming to Washington?

With best wishes, believe me, my dear Mr. Boyard,

Very truly, yours, J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Paris, October 4, 1901. (Received in Washington October 17, 1901.) Mr. President: In the letter I had the honor to address to you from Washington

on May 15 last, in answer to yours dated 8th of same month, and in consequence of the communications from Seflor Martinez Silva, I stated that this company would

agree to transfer its concession and property to the United States Government if it was so authorized by the Government of Colombia, and I defined the general conditions under which such a transfer might be effected, as follows: " The selling price of the concession itself, work done, plant and machinery, Panama

Railroad stock, etc., and all the property of the New Panama Canal Company, should

be determined, wherever possible, on valuations and by an amicable understanding.

It shall be understood, however, that in case a serious difference of opinion should

arise, arbitration, in its customary form, as it is just and fair, should be resorted to. "It shall also be necessary to determine, either by an amicable understanding, or

if needed by arbitration, what compensation shall be allowed to the company for the

possible profits it would have derived from its concession, which compensation might

be represented either by an installment or by a capitalized amount, the one and the other corresponding both to the value of the property transferred by the company at the time of effecting the transfer." In your letter of May 16, acknowledging receipt of my previous letter, you were

kind enough to suggest that: "This being the case, the next step will be to determine the price to be paid for the property of the New Panama Canal Company, which you suggest should be fixed, so far as possible, by amicable valuation and agreement, with the understanding that

if an important difference of opinion should arise recourse should be had to a just

and equitable arbitration in the usual form. "As a basis for these negotiations there should be some expression of the views of the company as to the value of its property, and perhaps this can be done in no better way than by a specific reply to the questions asked you in my letter of April 10, 1900." You added, Mr. President, that, as to the question of compensation for the possible

profits to be derived from the undertaking when completed, it seemed to you that there was an "extreme difficulty, if not impossibility, of arriving at a correct estimate of such profits, and my present opinion is that this question should be considered in fixing the price of the property when sold, as the law under which this S D—57-1—Vol 7 15
226 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Commission is acting contemplates absolute ownership on the part of the United

States." On my return to Paris I brought to the knowledge of the board of our company

the letters exchanged with your good self on May 15 and 16 last, and of which the above quotations are the essential paragraphs. I pointed out the necessity of answering to our mutual views and of giving satisfaction to the ideas expressed in our above

letters, by effecting, on our part, a complete work, with the object of determining

the pecuniary value we thought it fair to put on the whole of rights, privileges, and

property we would have to transfer to the United States Government when trans- ferring our concession. The board appointed a commission of three of its members

to accomplish the said investigation, which required long and difficult researches in the engineering records of both the old and the new company.

This Commission has submitted the result of its investigations and estimations both of the value it deemed fair to put on the property we should have to transfer of the kind of compensation to be applied, accounting, in the fairest way possible, for the possible profits we would have derived from our concession, in a very elaborate

note, the general ideas of which were approved by the board, and which I beg to inclose herewith as a document for discussion. This note shows for every portion of our contribution the amounts which, accord- ing to the constitutive elements of property included, appear to represent a fair esti- mate of the value of each, as it would result from the actual advantages to accrue to the United States from the acquisition.

You will kindly note that we have viewed these values in their intrinsic consist- ence, in what they really are in themselves, without any reference to their relation with the comparative expenses of either canal; in short, for the portion of usefulness they actually represent in the Panama Canal undertaking, supposed to be completed

and regarded solely in itself. They represent what might be called the real and

absolute value of our contribution. "We might have followed another course, showing the relative advantages to be

derived from the completion of the Panama Canal as compared to the construction

of the Nicaragua Canal. But if the latter became necessary, we think it would be

useful to proceed to make such an estimation of the relative value of our contribution only when a more perfect knowledge will be reached of the conditions of a possible

project of a canal through Nicaragua.

I hasten to add, Mr. President, that these are but the amounts to which we have come from a personal estimation of the elements to be discussed contradictorily in our negotiations and which, as a result of such contradictory discussion, themselves might be altered to a more or less important degree. Such is therefore, properly

speaking, the first expression of views of our company, to which you have referred

in your letter of May 16, last, as being to form the basis of discussion on our side

in the proposed negotiation, which negotiations we shall take up, as you may be

sure, with the most earnest wish to reach an amicable understanding. With that

object in view, we are willing to follow a sincere course of conciliation and concessions, with the hope that we may be met from the other side with the same spirit and the same desire to conciliate, in an equitable manner, the weighty interests which are confronted in the subject.

I further beg to state, Mr. President, that, in view of the above-shown good will and in consideration of the large amount of French money invested in the Panama

Canal undertaking from the beginning, we think we are justified in asking, without any purpose on our part to interfere with matters relating to the future control of the proposed isthmian waterway, that the French merchant ships may he treated on

a foot of absolute equality with the merchant ships of the United States. Believe me, Mr. President, respectfully and devotedly yours, M. IllTIN, The President of the Council of Administration.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 227

A STUDY CONCERNING THE ESTIMATED VALUE OF THE FRENCH COMPANY'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE CANAL UNDERTAKING IN CASE OF A

TRANSFER OF OUR CONCESSION TO THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT.

From whatever standpoint, a priori, we may consider the principles which must be taken as a rule for the determination of the pecuniary compensation that would

be due to the Panama Company for the transfer of its concession and property to the United States Government, whether those principles be based on the consideration of the commercial value of the property and the possible profits expected to be

derived therefrom, or on the simple consideration of its intrinsic value, as resulting from the expenses involved in its construction, it is plain that the first and vital ele- ment to be considered and, therefore, determined in the discussion, is the actual value of the advantages represented by the cession of all that has been already

accomplished in the interoceanic canal undertaking supposed to be brought to conclusion. We think it is fair to estimate the various elements as follows:

Elements Concerning the Real Value Proper of our Contribution.

Our contribution consists in two portions of an essentially different character

FIRST PORTION. A first portion is represented by property having in itself an immediate marketable

value independent from the possible results of operation, and not forming a necessary

part of the canal undertaking itself. This property, which has properly the character of private property, is as follows:

First. The stock of the Panama Railroad Company, which is held by the canal company.

Second. The buildings, lands, and real property, constituting the company's pri- vate estate, which by reason of their destination itself are not given an ephemeral

existence only, dependent on the time of canal construction; such are the company's

buildings at Panama, the various inhabitations constituting the block of houses of Christopher Columbus, the inhabitations erected along the canal line, as lodgings for the officers of the company, and which are to be maintained after the conclusion of the work.

Third. The important property as represented by the Panama and Colon hospitals,

and the price of which, as admitted by the isthmian Commission, is not to be

included in the estimated value of the work done by the old company on the canal. We are not referring here to the landed property granted to the concessory company

under article 4 of the concessions, besides the canal itself, and which there is no rea- son to transfer together with what concerns the canal itself. We will now state the values which we think must be given to these various elements:

Stock of the Panama Railroad Company. —The old company had bought 68,534 shares of this stock. The new company bought 329, making a total of 68,863 shares. The amount paid for this total quantity is 93,411,834.60 francs. The Isthmian Commission found that it would be fair to pay for this stock the par

value thereof, which is $100 a share, or a total amount of 36,000,000 francs. Neither of these figures do we think fair. In fact, the Panama railroad stock has an intrinsic value, to be estimated according to the chances of profits it may yield in the future and under circumstances that may be anticipated. The United States Government should pay for it to the company on same terms as it would pay for the

stock to a private individual who would be holder thereof and willing to transfer, with

neither gain nor loss as to profits he, expected to derive therefrom, which profit
228 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

would, after transfer, accrue to the party who would hold the stock. In short, the company by transferring the stock is entitled to claim a compensation equal to the

profits it would derive from the stock if kept. Besides the results of normal operation, which it is impossible to foretell and

appreciate, the Panama Railroad Company is expected to derive, during the period

of canal construction and from the construction itself, in view of the large trans- portation traffic that will be occasioned thereby, very important profits, an idea of which may be formed from the experience of the past and which are such as to constitute for the stock a value which should fairly be accounted for when selling it, since it is sold precisely in anticipation of the canal being completed.

In the years frqni 1881 to 1889, a period during which the operations of the old company gave rise for the railroad to an active local traffic, the stock of the Panama

Railroad Company yielded an average dividend of 13. 75 per cent a year. It is but

reasonable to expect that during the eight-year period assigned for the completion

of the work to come, the Panama Railroad shall, by the sole fact of these operations, derive profits which will allow, during that period, of an average annual dividend of 13 or 14 per cent. The mere discount of such an exceptional income would justify

by itself an allowance to the Panama Railroad stock, at the time of resuming work,

of a selling value of about 500 francs per share. On the other hand, it is certain that

after the construction of the canal the railroad will remain most valuable as a means

of transportation by reason of the increase in local population and production, which

shall not fail to take place on the canal territory. The Panama Railroad stock may

therefore expect profits after the canal is completed, and it should also be allowed a

certain selling value at that time, which value we think may be regarded as equal to a compensation of 300 francs to be paid at present.

It is useful here to call attention to the improvements made from time to time on the railroad, and which help to add to its value, such as the recently constructed La Boca terminal. In this connection consideration should be given to the large interest which the

constructor of the canal has in owning the bulk of the stock, which empowers him

to exercise a controlling influence for the use of the railroad in the execution of the work on most favorable terms, and will enable him later on to reach an amicable

understanding with the Panama Railroad as to the possible rights conferred upon

it by the concession in case a canal should be constructed through the part of the isthmus crossed by the railroad. From the above considerations, which were amid

the motives that have induced Count de Lesseps to put in possession of the canal company nearly the whole of the stock, we may infer, with the best chances to be on the safe side, that the selling value to be given to the Panama Railroad stock if the company chooses to dispose of it to the United States Government, which it is willing to do, without it being absolutely necessary for the completion of the canal, must not fairly be estimated below 800 francs. The number of shares owned by the company being 68,863, that would make a capital of 55,000,000 francs in round fig- ures to be allowed to the company as a consideration for this transfer. Buildings <>//</ property constituting the private estate. —The estimation of this special

property is not an easy task, because the expenses they represent are partly mixed

up with the expenses included in the estimatioa of work of canal construction. Under our estimates, based in part on the investigations into the accounts of the

old company and in part on direct estimate, we are induced to fix the value of this property at 9,000,000 francs. Hospitals at Panama and Colon and dependencies. —The cost of this property was

about 4,500,000 francs, and could not be put to-day at a lower figure. There is even ground for contending that, by the further improvements effected thereon, and by the

cultivation of important depending lands, this property acquired additional value. This portion of our contribution, the elements of which we have just shown—that
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 229

is to say, the portion of the company's property which has the character of private

property and represents a capital to be due to it at the time of the transfer—might be

made the object of either an immediate payment of that amount or of installments

to be determined according to a method of division to be agreed upon. We deem it useful to point out here that the possession of this property by the

constructor of the canal, whoever he may be, is not an absolute necessity, although

the company be willing to dispose thereof to him, if he finds therein a serious interest. There is no obligation inherent to the circumstances, and we think the company

would prefer to keep it rather than transfer it on too unfavorable terms. SECOND PORTION. The second portion of our contribution is represented by property which derives

essentially its value from the use that may be made of it in the work of completion

of the canal. It consists in all that has been usefully done or prepared for the execution of the canal by both the old and the new companies. It is composed of various elements, which we shall now estimate in turn: The first element is composed of the amounts actually expended for the payment

of the concession as now defined. The whole of the amounts paid, either in cash or by fully paid stock, amounts to 32,000,000 francs. As, however, the fully paid stock, which has been transferred for

this special object, does not represent an actually expended capital—although it is entitled to share with the other stock the right to participate in the price of the pro- posed transfer, and on that account ought to be considered as expended capital—we

shall not take it into consideration, but will only retain on the above figure the amount paid in cash, 22,000,000 francs, to which must be added for accrued interest on a portion of this capital (5,000,000 during 8 years) 2,000,000 francs, bringing the

figure to 24,000,000 francs. The second element is of a different determination, and necessarily dubious to a

certain degree. The total amount of excavation done by the old company and the new company must first be established, and then the amount which is now without

object as to the realization of the proposed lock canal must be deducted therefrom,

in order to retain the real amount only that is useful for the final construction of the

canal. Then the average cost to be credited to that amount of excavation is to be

determined, by taking into consideration every element that plays a part therein, such as the first cost of organization, establishment of works necessitated by the excavation of that amount and regarded as redeemed in its cost, amortization of the

plant employed for the excavation, as well as the establishment of workshops and

laborers' quarters which it has necessitated. We shall consider separately what has been done by the old company and what has been done by the new company. The old company, as regards work proper concerning the canal and the diversion

of streams which formed a completing portion, has done excavation only. The total amount it has excavated, according to statements rendered on different occasions,

and particularly in the reports of legal experts appointed after the failure of the company, is in round figures 50,500,000 m. c, divided as follows for the different

sections: m. c. Section from Colon to Bohio, Colon (kilometer 23. 5) Harbor, canal, and

diversions 20,500,000

Section from Bohio to Obispo ( kilometers 23. 5 to 45 ) 9, 500, 000

Section from Obispo to Paraiso (kilometers 45 to 57), the diversion in- cluded 11,500,000

Section from Paraiso to end of canal 9, 000, 000 Of these amounts, a portion executed for a tide-level canal will be useless for the

lock canal. Certain portions of diversions executed in order to meet the provisions

of the tide-level plans are also now without object, in view of the lock-canal plan.
230 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

'Such amounts as have become without object should be deducted as erroneous

operations, since it is proposed to determine the real value of useful cooperation of the

old company in the final canal work as now proposed. The corrected amounts, after the necessary deductions, are as follows: Section from

m. c. Colon to Bohio 17,000,000

Bohio to Obispo 4,700,000

Obispo to Paraiso 10,500,000

Paraiso to end 9,000,000

Total of available excavation by the old company 41, 200, 000 To which must be added the amount excavated by the new company in the big cut and in the Pacific tide-level section, which amount on the 1st of January, 1902, should be fixed at 8,500,000 m. c. But it must be stated that of the amount of excavation done by the old company

in the level from Colon to Bohio, and the left side diversion corresponding to that

level, an important portion has been filled in by the silt from the Chagres and other streams that invaded that portion of already deepened river beds. The amount of that silt is about 5,000,000 m. c. A similar fact is to be noted in the section from Paraiso to end of canal; an amount

of silt of about 2,000,000 m. c. has partially filled up the excavations of the old company.

It would be quite unfair to deduct these amounts from the amounts originally excavated, crediting the company with the surplus only. The removing of this silt will

be, in fact, a great deal easier and less costly, especially at present, than the removal

of original river bed it has filled up. With the removal of this silt the work done by

the old company would be wholly restored. The only deduction that ought fairly to be made on this account from the value of the work of the old company is that result- ing from the expenses now to be incurred for the removal of the silt. We have now to figure out the value to be given to the work of the old company,

determined by quantities, according to what has been said. With that object in view, we must find out the average unit prices that we fairly may apply to the usefully exca- vated amounts, taking into consideration all circumstances and difficulties that would

affect those prices if the work were to be done under the same general conditii »ns as in the past; the expenses that would be represented by the preliminary work; the organizations of the beginning and the establishment of the works for an undertaking of such magnitude. Of course, it must be supposed that all that would have heen accomplished with the same competence and prudence as those supposed to he used

in the execution of future operations. It would be obviously unfair to apply to the

estimation of such original work, as was done by the Isthmian Commission in its pre- liminaiy report, the unit prices the Commission took as a basis for the work remaining to be done. For not only will the latter benefit by all the installations and by

the organization realized at great cost for the former, as well as by the improvement

in the sanitary conditions resulting from the original work, but also all the expenses

of preliminary work and organization, expenses which are always important,

are covered by the work already done. The same remark applies to the enor- mous quantity of machinery that was to be provided for their execution, and part

of which may be used for the execution of the others free of cost, if we include the

A

r alue of the useful machinery in the cost of the work already done. Such is also the

case as to installations on labor places which we shall suppose as having been paid by

this original work, and which will be useful for the execution of the others. Finally, we must not lose sight of the fact that the work done derives for the greater part the advantage it represents precisely from the fact that it is now accomplished, thus
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 231

reducing the time required for the opening of the canal by this route. It must therefore be estimated at the cost required for its execution in the past when the unskilled

labor, the unit of which was and remains the Colombiam silver dollar, was worth,

all things being equal, nearly twice what it is worth now.

Supposing that the unit prices adopted by the Commission (which, it says, are the same as for the Nicaragua Canal) area fair average for the whole of the Panama Canal work, if everything was still to be done, it would be quite contrary to equity and

experience to hold that, under similar conditions as to the nature of the soil, the

original work done under the pressure of all the difficulties and indirect expenses

of the beginning, should be estimated at the same unit prices as the last work to be done that is to follow and will benefit by all the facilities of execution created and

paid for by the original operations at great cost, as if it was to be added to the latter as an additional bulk to be executed under the same conditions. In short, the work

remaining to be done ought to cost a great deal less than the average of the whole,

and the original work a great deal more than that average. We think that, whereas we include in the cost of the original work all of the preliminary and indirect expenses, all the expenses of establishments on the canal works, workshops, store- houses, etc., all the expenses of machinery used up or yet valuable as apt to be

employed in the future, all the expenses for installations affecting the laborers' quarters, by which the future work will also be benefited ; whereas, finally, the

labor price at the time of construction of that work was about the double of what

it has been supposed it shall be for the execution of the remaining work, we are conservative in admitting on a principle, and as a general proposition, that the esti- mate of work done should be established by adding an average increase of 3.50

francs per cubic meter to the result that would be obtained if to that work were to be applied the unit prices we took as a basis for the estimate of the work remaining

to be done, in which estimate it was supposed that everything that had to come

from the old company would be used free of cost by the future constructor. The average unit prices adopted by the International Technical Committee for the work remaining to be done are as follows:

Francs. Section from Colon to Bohio, average price 3. 20

Section from Bohio to Obispo, average price, applicable to work remaining to be done 4. 00

Section from Obispo to Paraiso. —These are mainly the operations in the big central

cut. The soil excavated by the old company is without analogy as to the difficulties

it would occasion, in the remaining part; it was a surface clay that, in the climate of the Isthmus, constituted a more costly excavation than the hard soil remaining to be removed, which, as a future price, is estimated at, 5.50 francs per cubic meter.

It is certainly quite conservative to discuss on that basis. Section from Paraiso to end of canal. —The average price to be applied to the work

remaining to be done is of 3.40 francs per cubic meter.

If now we apply these estimate basis prices to the amounts of excavation above

stated for each section, we reach the following estimates which would represent the

theoretical cost of their excavation if they were included simply as an additional bulk in the work remaining to be done, with all the facilities that now exist for this future work. By adding a general increase of 3.50 francs per cubic meter to the

total thus obtained, we shall have an estimate that we deem may fairly be admitted

for the value of that original work, including all the indirect expenses connected

therewith, all the preliminary cost of organization and installations, all the used-up or still available values of machinery, of existing installations or working places, installations of workshops and laborers' quarters which will be used for future works
232 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

taking further into consideration the value of the labor unit at that time, the diffi- culties and risks of climate as they existed at the time of their execution:

Francs. Section from Colon to Bohio 54,400,000

Section from Bohio to Obispo 18,800,000

Section from Obispo to Paraiso 57, 750,000

Section from Paraiso to end of canal 30, 600, 000 Grand total 161,550,000 As the general available amount is of 41,200,000 m. c, if we apply to it an increase

of 3.50 francs per cubic meter we shall have a sum of 144,200,000 francs to be added

to the preceding one, and giving the total of 306,000,000 francs (in round figures) to represent the cost that is to be named for the construction proper of the useful work

of the old company; that is, the money usefully expended on the ground for that

construction. This total shows an average price of 7.40 francs per m. c. for the whole of the excavation done by the old company and available for the final construction of the canal. The amount actually removed by the old company was, as shown above, about

50,000,000 m. c. The expenses incurred on the Isthmus and paid by the company or

the receiver for the execution of that work, including the preliminary organization expenses, the installations on the works, the expenses for construction, machinery,

workshops, storehouses, and laborers' quarters, but not including the general administration expenses and the intercalary interest for capital account, amounted to 730,000,000 francs. (This amount does not include expenses concerning hospitals,

buildings, and land constituting the company's private estate.

)

The average cost per m. c. was therefore 14.60 francs, while the cost resulting

from the above estimate of the value of useful work, forming a part of our grant, is but 7.40 francs. This comparison is an evidence of the conservative spirit we are showing when adding an increase of only 3.50 francs per cubic meter to the cost of

original work, estimated as if it was to be done under the conditions of future work. To that must be added the general expenses of administration in Paris and on the Isthmus, the general office expenses, police, sanitary, department, etc. As a rule, 8 per cent of the direct expenses incurred in the work are taken on that account for large undertakings, accomplished under normal conditions; it may be

safe to adopt here a proportion of 12 per cent, which would give for the above total an increase on general expenses of 37,000,000 francs, and bring the total up to about

343,000,000. This amount represents the funds that were to be raised and expended if for the method of conducting business which has been put in practice by the old company was

to be substituted, by a hypothesis, another method, meeting all objections, as it is pre- sumed will be applied in the future. But as such funds, as usually, would be raised by

public subscriptions, there should be added to the above amount the expenses to be

incurred for issuing the securities and for intercalary interests that would accrue on

the capital during the period during which the works have been prosecuted. Esti- mating such interests at 5 per cent for an average period of four years for the whole

of the capital, and adding 5 per cent in bulk for the expenses to be incurred for issu- ing securities, an increase is reached of 25 per cent, to be added to the above amount,

and finally we get a total figure of 429,000,000 francs, representing the present value

at which is to be estimated the portion of contribution resulting from the work done

by the old company and available for final canal construction. But, as previously stated, a portion of available excavations, executed on line of canal or on the diversions corresponding to the tide-level sections, has silted up, and

it is necessary to remove that silt in order that the work of the old company may be

restored. Therefore the expenses of this removal are to be deducted from the value
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 233

of its contribution previously estimated. The amount of silt to be removed is of about 5,000,000 m. c, including the diversions on the Atlantic side and 2,000,000 m. c. on the Pacific side. The expenses of such work (the work being easy, as there is but silt and mud) may be estimated at 14,000,000 francs all included. The

final value of the available contribution of the old company, determined at this

date, or to take a formal date, on January 1 , 1902, should be fixed at 415,000,000 francs. To the work of the old company must be added the work done by -the new com- pany in order to determine the part of cooperation represented in the final canal

construction by the whole of the work now done. To estimate the portion of grant

to be credited on that account to the operations of the new company, it is sufficient to take the total figure of real expenses it will have incurred up to January 1, 1902, as no question could be raised as to the efficiency and economy of its expenses. These expenses, including general expenses, may be fixed at the round figure of 40,000,000 francs. The last element remaining to be estimated in order to determine the total figure of what constitutes the second portion of our contribution is the element represented

by the technical surveys, by data of all kinds collected on the Isthmus to be used as a basis for the investigations, and by the plans made on such investigations, explorations, and experimental work, etc. The said portion of expenses can not be directly estimated. But it may be fairly figured out by applying, as is usual in that case, a

given percentage to the total amount of expenses that would represent the work of the canal proper supposed to be completed. It will be very conservative in this matter to adopt the coefficient percentage of 1.50 per cent, generally used for the sur- veys of large undertakings accomplished under normal conditions. The total amount

of canal work, by adding to the expenses remaining to be incurred for the completion the expenses reasonably representing the work already done, may be estimated very approximately at 1,200,000,000 francs. The value to be credited to the surveys

is therefore 18,000,000 francs. Compensation for the Possible Profits as May Result from the Operation of

Our Concession. In the foregoing note we solely sought to determine what intrinsic value should be given to our actual contribution consisting in the work already done and other

property we own on the isthmus. The president of our board of directors, in his letter of May 15, 1901, to the presi- dent of the Isthmian Commission, suggested that it would be fair to account to the French company by prorating on the actual value of its contribution for the possible

profits it would have derived from the concession if it retained the operation of it. The president of the Commission, while pointing out the difficulties, if not the impossibility, according to his opinion, of estimating such profits, intimated that in his judgment they might be accounted for in the selling price of the concession itself. We beg to state here how we think the question might be disposed of in the

premises.

As previously shown, the French company's contribution consists in two portions,

having each an essentially different character. The first is constituted by property

having the character of private property. Whatever may be the figure it might be

fixed at in negotiations to come, this will always be a property having its own value, independent from the chances of canal operation, and which must in every case form

the object of a simple payment, either through immediate capital or by installments representing the equivalent of the capital that would have been paid immediately.

The rate of interest on which to base the calculation of said installments would be

the rate of interest that the company could safely get by the investment of the capital if it were paid in immediately.

The second portion of our contribution, the value of which we have analyzed up

to January 1, 1902, in the elements of useful expenses that help constituting it, and
234 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

which, in the proposed negotiations, will finally be estimated at a figure that we

suppose represented by A, is formed by property and accomplished work that have no marketable value in themselves, but derive their value from their usefulness for the work of completing the canal. It may safely be called a commercial value, the income of which, if things were to follow their natural and normal course, would be variable and dependent on the net earnings to be derived from the operation of the canal itself. It would seem quite reasonable and fair that in conideration of this portion of our contribution, we should be allowed not a given capital equal to A or fixed installments equivalent of such capital, but an annual income

from such capital that would be variable, according to the earnings derived from the

operation of the canal supposed to be conducted on a profit-making basis. Thus

would be realized the idea to include incidentally in the selling price of our concession, and of what we have done to accomplish the object thereof, the chances of possible profits we are to derive from it. There is no intention on our part to en- deavor to estimate what said profits might prove in the consecutive years of the

concession term; that would be a very unsafe operation without any practical value, because we would first have to imagine in an absolutely hypothetical manner the

traffic the canal would furnish in the series of years succeeding its opening to navigation. It would be reasonable, on the contrary, to work in the same train of thought

for a solution of this question by taking as an object of the study no longer the expected average income for the term of the concession or the expected annual income in the consecutive years, but only the earnings corresponding to annual amounts of tonnage that might be expected to turn out consecutively at undeter- mined times, and leaving the attribution of installments to be derived therefrom dependent on the actual realization of tonnage that had been used as a basis for their determination.

After determination of the quota of annual income that would accrue to the capital invested in canal construction, according to such or other circumstances of traffic in an industrial operating system reasonably conducted, there should be deducted from

such a quota the normal interest incidentally involved in the installments allowed to the capital A, representing the interested contribution of the French company, and

there should be allowed to it as a compensation for possible profits the additional normal interest in connection with the variable quota corresponding to the consecutively noted traffic. In such direction does it seem to us must be sought the compensation that it will be fair to allow to the company for the possible profits that it would

have derived from its concession. The investigation we have made into that subject, the developments of which are too long to be given here, has led us to the following results: Supposing the fixed installments that would be allowed to the company as an

equivalent of the sum A, at which figure the actual value of its contribution was to be fixed, provide in their calculation for an interest of 4 per cent, for instance, the

additional income to be credited to it in consideration of possible profits of its concession would, according to actual conditions of canal traffic, be determined as shown in the following table:

Annual tonnages.

Additional income in consideration of poasibleprofits.

Francs per

ton. 0.50

1.00

1.50 2.00

•>. 50 3.00
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 235

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, October IS, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: Your letter, dated Paris, October 4, 1901, with the accompanying paper

relative to the value of the concessions, property, and unfinished work of the Panama

Canal Company, has been received and carefully considered.

I had hoped that upon your return from Paris you would be prepared to give a

definite answer to the third question which was submitted to you in my letter of April 10, 1900, to wit, " For what sum of money, in cash, will the company transfer

to the United States all of the rights, privileges, franchises, property, etc., of every

description which it owns or controls in connection with the construction of a canal

across the Isthmus of Panama?" * No direct answer had been made to this inquiry prior to November 30, 1900, when

the Commission submitted its preliminary report to the President of the United

States, and it was understood in our informal conferences that this question had not been answered because your company felt embarrassed by its relations with the Republic of Colombia, for the reason that the concession under which it is authorized

to construct the canal did not then permit you to enter into negotiations for a sale of

its property to a foreign government. At a later date information reached me that the Colombian Government had

relieved you of this embarrassment, and that you were at liberty to take up the subject with the Commission, and our conferences and correspondence were renewed. On the 8th of May last I addressed a letter to you, calling your attention to the

inquiries contained in my letter of April 10, 1900, and asking specifically for a reply

to the first and third questions contained therein. On the 10th of May you acknowledged the receipt of my letter and promised an

early reply. The answer was afterwards received, dated May 15, 1901, expressing,

in reply to the first question, a willingness to sell and transfer to the United States the canal property and concessions, if authorized by the Colombian Government,

but there was still no direct response to the question as to price. You stated that the value of the property would be fixed so far as possible by

amicable valuation and agreement, with recourse to arbitration if an important dif- ference of opinion should arise. At our subsequent conferences, and in my answer

of May 16 to this letter, without replying to the suggestion as to the manner in which you would fix the value of the property, and without inquiry as to the

basis and conditions of the arbitration suggested by you, I again called attention to my letter of April 10, 1900, and stated that there should be a specified reply to this third question as a basis for future negotiations ; but your answer was deferred until your return to Paris, so that you might there consult with the directors of your company and have free access to their books and accounts. The paper you now submit does not yet give a definite answer to the question, but

it contains the elements from which a final sum can be ascertained. In the confer- ences which Mr. Pasco and myself have had with you during the past two days w

re have informally discussed the views presented in this paper, and have directed your

attention to such items as seem objectionable, so that you might consider the causes

of objection in preparing the final and definite offer to be submitted by the Commission to the President of the United States in its report. It is, perhaps, well to

state the most important of these objections briefly in this formal reply to your

letter.

1. The value of the shares of the Panama Railroad Company is estimated by you

at about $3,500,000 higher than the estimate of this Commission in its preliminary

report, and we are of the opinion that this property should not be estimated at so high a value.
236 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

2. The price for the canal concession and the interest charged upon a part of the money paid for the original contract with Colombia, was objected to as excessive because this concession will not serve the purpose of the United States, if it undertakes the completion of the canal. In that event a new contract must be arranged

with the Government of Colombia by treaty, displacing that which now exists between the Republic and the Panama Canal Company.

3. The amount fixed for the work already done upon the canal project is also regarded as excessive, and is far beyond the value of the work as estimated by the Commission. Some of the reasons for this excess are that the company's estimate

includes a valuation of the large amount of plant, machinery, locomotives, dredges,

etc., now stored upon the isthmus in sheds and warehouses, which will not, in the

opinion of the Commission, be of value to the United States, should it undertake the completion of the canal. After stating the value of the work done by the old company, at a price consider- ably greater than estimated by this Commission, it is increased in your estimate by

an additional charge of 3.50 francs per cubic meter, and to the increased price is added 12 per cent of the whole amount for " the general expenses of administration

in Paris and on the isthmus, the general office expenses, police, sanitary, department,

etc." To this sum is added 25 per cent for expenses "incurred for issuing the securities and intercalary interest that would accrue on the capital during the period

during which the works have been prosecuted."

We have carefully considered the reasons stated for these additions, but are not convinced that they should be made.

4. The last part of the paper presents a claim for a share in the possible profits of the canal when completed. The law under which the Commission is acting con- templates the construction of a canal to be under the "control, management, and

ownership of the United States." A proposition to share in the profits, upon any

basis, is not likely to meet with the favorable consideration of Congress.

The price ultimately fixed by the company should be for an absolute sale of the Panama canal project, without any reservation whatever. If the United States purchases the property of the Panama Canal Company and incurs all the risk of a canal enterprise we do not accept your view that the company will have any

basis for a claim in the profits which may accrue from its successful operation and

management.

We will gladly confer with you further as to the items contained in your paper and aid you as far as we properly can in presenting any proposition you may desire

to make with reference to the sale of the rights and property of your company to the United States Government. When you have fully determined upon your proposition, or agreement, with refer- ence to a sale, whether it be a definite offer of a fixed sum or of a sum to be fixed " by amicable valuation and agreement," recourse to be had to arbitration "if an

important difference of opinion should arise," we will submit it in our report to the

President; but we still believe that the direct offer of a fixed sum is much to be

preferred. In our recent conferences you have proposed that there should be an agreement

between ourselves as to the value of the rights and property of the Panama Canal Company and an arbitration to conclude the matter in case of a disagreement; but

the law under which the Commission is acting confers no power on it to enter into any agreement that would bind the United States Government, and an effort to do

so would be futile. From the beginning of our correspondence and conferences upon this subject we have kept you advised that the Commission was authorized to obtain information for the President, and was not empowered to bind the United

States Government by any agreement. My letter of April 10, 1900, contains this statement: "You understand, of course, that the Commission is not authorized to
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 237

accept or reject any offer which it may receive, but is collecting information to be

submitted to the President." We can not, therefore, consider any proposition looking to an agreement, whether

reached by conference or by arbitration, but as I have already said, we are willing

to continue our informal discussions if you think we can be of assistance to you in preparing your final proposition. In closing your letter you ask that if the canal should be completed and operated

by the United States, " French merchant ships may be treated on a footing of absolute equality with the merchant ships of the United States." This subject has not been included in the duties assigned to this Commission, and therefore can not be

considered by it, but is a proper matter for diplomatic action.

I have tried to make my statements clear, desiring to be frank with you, that there may be no room for misunderstanding, and hope that we shall soon be able to bring

this matter, which I know has at times been full of difficulty and perplexity to you,

to a satisfactory conclusion. Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, I). C, October 22, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq.,

President New Panama Canal Company, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your message, through Mr. Boyard,

stating that after the receipt of my letter of the 19th instant you had cabled to Paris, asking for further instructions; that when an answer was received you would notify me, and that you wr ould not be ready to discuss further the question of a sale of the property of your company until a response was received from your board of directors. I much regret the delay and feel compelled to call your attention to the fact that Congress will convene on the 2d day of December; that the report of this Commission should be in the hands of the President a considerable time prior to that

date; that understanding that you wished to make a proposal for a sale of the Panama

Canal Company's property, and desiring to give you every opportunity for doing so, the report has been held open for that purpose. In this situation you must see the necessity for early and decisive action, and for fixing a date for closing the report of the Commission. This matter was first called to your attention at the sessions of the Commission held with you in Paris on the

7th and 8th of September, 1899. Since that time it has been the subject of frequent conferences and of a correspondence of some length, to which your attention is called, and particularly to my letter of April 10, 1900, in which the powers of the Commission were frankly stated and three definite questions asked; the substance

of these questions being the willingness of the company to sell, its ability to do so, and the money, in cash, for which it would dispose of its property. These questions

have been repeated at intervals since that date, and the third still remains unanswered. When you left Washington in May last, the consent of the Colombian Govern- ment to a sale having been obtained, it was understood between us that upon your

return to Paris you would consult your board of directors, and a definite answer would be made at an early date. More than two years have passed since the subject was first presented to you, more than eighteen months since the specific questions were asked in my letter of April 10, 1900, and five months since your departure for Paris,, with the understanding above referred to. Our correspondence since that time shows frequent post- ponements, and no result has yet been reached. Under these circumstances I feel
238 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

that it is not unreasonable to suggest that the time has come when some definite and final action should be taken.

I therefore think it proper to say to you that any proposal that you wish to make

will be received until the 5th of November next, at which date the Commission will be compelled to consider this question closed, so that its report may be completed.

This of course is not intended to prevent such conferences as you may desire in the meantime, and it is hoped that you may be able to present your final conclusions

before the date mentioned.

Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, with great respect, Very sincerely, yours, J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Washington, D. C, November 2, 1901. Admiral John G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letters dated October 18 and 22 last. They contain a certain number of remarks, and even of

criticisms, upon which I will dwell, if necessary, in due time. To-day, however,

having only in mind the purpose of demonstrating the correctness of the propositions and conclusions of the present letter, I beg to recall to your attention but a few

facts. In your letter of October 22 you alluded to our conferences held in Paris on September 7 and 8, 1899. At those meetings you did, in fact, ask me for the first time

under what conditions of price and by what means the Government of the United

States could purchase the canal of Panama. In my reply I called your attention to the fact that the law of the Congress of the Republic of Colombia, under which we

hold our concession, formally prohibits its sale to a foreign government, but that if we were relieved of that clause we would be willing to transfer our enterprise to the Government of the United States ujxm fair and equitable conditions. Later on you renewed your questions, stating them more definitely in a letter dated April 10, 1900, and moreover you suggested to discuss them, admitting that the consent of the Government of Colombia had been obtained for the purpose of

selling the concession to the United States. In the interviews held prior to said letter, as well as in all those we had

together in Washington until the end of the month of November, 1900, I wasobliged

to state to you that our company, for paramount reasons, could not accept such a ground of discussion. I told you repeatedly that our company could nut afford to commit itself to any conditional agreement, even as the one proposed by you, because the company considered it indispensable to first obtain the previous authorization of the Colombian Government for the sale of the Panama Canal to the Govern- ment of the United States. It is, therefore (and this is the only critical remark I will venture to make in this letter), that I experienced some surprise in reading cer- tain utterances relating to this matter and contained in the preliminary report of November 30, 1900. During the month of February, 1901, an authorized representative of the Colombian Government, Mr. .Martinez Silva, arrived in Washington. He was aware

of the proposition of the United States eventually to purchase our concession. I requested him to state to me in which manner his Government would interpret and

apply the clauses of our law of concession. Mr. Martinez Silva replied, the 28th of March, 1901, that the Colomlnan Govern- ment would authorize the canal company to transfer its concession to the Govern- ment of the Onited States upon certain conditions which he had submitted to the

latter Government.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 239

On April 29 following he asked me what would he the basis upon which the company would be willing to make such transfer, supposing the previous authorization to do so had been obtained from the Government of Colombia. I stated them

to Mr. Martinez Silva, with my reasons, in a letter I sent to him on May 1. On the 8th of May following, you kindly informed me that Mr. Martinez Silva had

forwarded to you a copy of my above-mentioned letter of May 1, and you again asked me to reply to the questions put in your letter of April 10, 1900, to which I have already referred. Consequently, I answered you on May 15: "I am indebted to you, Mr. President, for having kindly admitted, in your above-mentioned letter of May 8, that our com- pany has not, until the present, been in a position to reply to some of the questions

which had been submitted to it by the Commission over which you preside. " Under the new conditions now existing, it will be sufficient for me, in order to reply as you desire me to do, to the first and third questions of your letter of April

10, 1900, to confirm what I had the honor to write to Mr. Martinez Silva the 1st of the month."

I then repeated and confirmed the terms of my letter of May 1, 1901, to Mr. Martinez Silva, concerning the transfer of our concession, stating clearly and precisely to you, in that manner, that our company was thus actually answering the questions

of your letter of April 10, 1900,. by showing upon what basis and under what conditions it was willing to have the value of its concession and properties established. You acknowledged receipt the following day, May 16, reproducing nearly word

for word my letter of the day before and without entering any direct or fundamental objections to my propositions. My colleagues of the board of directors and

myself have interpreted your answer—and I must add that. we still do so—as creat- ing an understanding between the Commission and our company, for the purpose

of ascertaining together, by a practical method, the exact value of our concession and properties, so as to reach in this manner a fair and equitable basis to be used

eventually in any negotiations before the Congress of the United States. Consequently we proceeded to make out our estimates. They were calculated with

the utmost care, and after most detailed and complete studies they were summed

up in a memorandum, approved by our board of directors, which was handed to you

with a letter dated Paris, October 4, last, and in which, once more, I expressed our

sincere desire for conciliation and agreement.

1 therefore could not help but experience a great surprise when I realized, during

the conferences which took place after handing you said letter of October 4, that

there existed now between us with regard to the method of discussion I had proposed

to you on May 15, a disagreement which, heretofore, you had not made know n to me,

either verbally or in writing. In your letter of October 18, 1901, you confirmed this disagreement. You call my attention to the fact that when you wrote me on May

16 you did not reply to my suggestions concerning the manner in which was to be

established the value of our properties—as if such silence on your part could consti- tutes a rejection of my suggestions—and you add that you did not inquire of me

which would be the basis and conditions of arbitration when I had already suggested

to you that such arbitration was to be made in the usual form. The only point in your letter of October 18, 1901, upon which I wish to dwell at present, is the fact that you discuss therein for the first time the propositions of my

letter of May 15 last. It is my duty to reply to your objections, which are summed

up in the two following paragraphs of your letter of October 18: "In our recent conferences you have proposed that there should be an agreement between ourselves

as to the value of the rights and property of the Panama Canal Company, and an

arbitration to conclude the manner in case of disagreement; but the law under which

the Commission is acting confers no power on it to enter into any agreement that would bind the United States Government, and an effort to do so would be futile.
240 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

From the beginning of our correspondence and conferences upon this subject we

have kept you advised that the Commission was authorized to obtain information for he President, and was not empowered to bind the United States Government by any

agreement. My letter of April 10, 1900, contains this statement: ' You understand,

of course, that the Commission is not authorized to accept or reject any offer which

it may receive, but is collecting information to be submitted to the President.' We

can not, therefore, consider any proposition looking to an agreement, whether

reached by conference or by arbitration, but as I have already said, we are willing

to continue our informal discussions if you think we can be of assistance to you in preparing your final proposition."

Allow me to say to you, Mr. President, that never did we, either by word or in writing, make propositions carrying with them such scope and consequences as you

suppose in your letter of October 18. I think that the text of my letters of May 15 and October 18, 1901, as well as the verbal explanations given to you, contradict such an interpretation of our intentions. You will surely understand, Mr. President, that our board of directors can not and

should not accept the estimates of the value of our concession and property, as given

in the Preliminary Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission. These estimates are the result of the measurement of certain amount of work done and of the calculation of certain prices to be applied. We simply ask that, in any discussion with the Commission, as to work done and prices applied, both sides should be heard, in order mutually to agree upon them as far as possible. In case of disagreement of opinion we could, in certain instances, by mutual concessions, have reached an amicable

understanding; but if our estimates had remained too far apart, we would have had

recourse to technical arbitrators who would definitely have concluded the matter. Under the present circumstances, and on account of your present declarations, I do not feel warranted to judge whether or not the Commission, whose duty consists in gathering information for the President of the United States, possesses the power to follow the method suggested by me. However, it is my duty to state that such a method would, in no way whatever, have committed the Government or the Congress of the United States in their decisions. This method would only have

led to the establishment, for the real value of the concession and property of the New Panama Canal Company, of a price which would have hound the company

alone. Therefore, under the present circumstances, it is not sufficient for me to assert that the board of directors of the company has taken into account, as it should do,

its duties and responsibilities. I believe, moreover, to have the right to say that the company's conduct is in accord with reason and equity. The board could not do

otherwise but propose a price for the sale, which has been established according to calculations and estimates and which it considers exact and justified until the contrary is proven. The board deeply regrets that the Commission has not the power

to discuss them after both sides had been heard. This being the situation, I have the honor to confirm my above-mentioned letter of October 4, as well as the "memorandum" accompanying the same, except as regards the last part thereof, and upon which I will dwell later. Referring again to your letter of October 18, in which, in general terms, you criti- cise our estimates, I desire to repeat that, with the same spirit of conciliation we

have heretofore shown and in order to arrive at a reasonable understanding, we will always remain ready to discuss, when we will have before us one or several persons clothed with official authority and qualified to establish, with us, the basis of an agreement which will determine the price of the sale of our concession and properties.

A last question still remains to be examined. In your letter of October IS you say, Mr. President, that you decline to adopt our view with regard to our request to share

in the future benefits of the management of the canal. We could, I believe, con-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 241

tinue to maintain that our claim is just and well founded: but, among other things, you have argued that such a combination would be prejudicial to the principle of absolute ownership of the canal by the United States. Under such conditions, and

without intending to discuss: that point of law, I herewith state that we are now

ready prepared to relinquish totally our claim to a share in the eventual profits of the management of the canal, having in mind that this surrender constitutes on our

part an act of conciliation which must be taken into account during the discussion

of our other propositions.

Be pleased, Mr. President, to accept the assurance of my high consideration. M. Hutin,

President and Director-General.

Department of State, Isthmian Canal Commission,

Washington, D. C, November 5, 1901. Maurice Hutin, Esq., President and Director-General New Panama Canal Company,

Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2d instant and its English translation, which was received at this office after I had left last evening.

I understand from this letter that you withdraw your proposition with regard to sharing in the possible profits accruing from the canal after completion, and with

that exception you confirm and stand upon the figures contained in your letter of October 4 and the accompanying memorandum, being:

"A study concerning the estimated value of the French company's contribution

to the canal undertaking in case of a transfer of our concession to the United States Government."

These figures I understand to aggregate 565,500,000 francs, or $109,141,500.

Without replying to the criticisms contained in your letter of the 2d instant, I have to say that the Commission will take pleasure in presenting your figures and

viewr s to the President in its report, shortly to be completed.

Our conference with regard to the sale by the New Panama Canal Company of its property and concessions to the United States having now been concluded, I desire

to thank you for the uniform courtesy which has attended our personal intercourse and correspondence; and, with expressions of high regard, Believe me, my dear Mr. Hutin, very sincerely, yours,

J. G. Walker,

President of Commission.

Washington, D. C, November 6, 1901. Admiral J. G. Walker,

President Isthmian Canal Commission, Washington, D. C. Mr. President: I have duly received your letter of yesterday, the 5th of November, and, as was subsequently verbally agreed, 1 have the honor to answer it in order

to make a few concluding observations and explanations.

First, it should be well understood that the English translation of my letter of the 2d of November which, in compliance with your wishes, I sent you on Monday

evening, has value merely as a document drawn up for your accommodation, the French text alone being effective. Secondly, I notice that you have added, according to the paper inclosed with our

letter of the 4th of October last—which letter itself contains no figures—the different amounts which, according to us, represent the value of each of the holdings or S D—57-1—Vol 7 16
242 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

pieces of property, their total constituting the value of the property owned by our company. The total, in francs, is correct, and I presume also the rate of exchange

you have adopted. But whether each of these amounts is singly considered or

their total it is essential to preserve their true character. They represent, as has already been explained on different occasions, verbally and

in writing, valuations that the company believes just, because it has established them with the greatest care and regard for material exactness. But the company

admits that they may be criticised and that it would make reasonable concessions, if they were justifiable. You have told me that the Commission has not the power

even to enter upon a discussion of this nature and I regret it very much. I therefore rely upon the promise you were kind enough to make me to submit our figures

and our views to the President of the United States in your final report. I would be

grateful to you, Mr. President, if you would be kind enough to confirm your own

communication by that of all the documents, letters, and papers which, I believe, permit of our intentions and our aim being accurately appreciated.

I desire also, Mr. President, to confirm the fact that our company has the power,

in fact as in right, to transfer to the Government of the United States its concession and its holdings by a legal and positive title, "free of all difficulties and contentions,

of whatever nature, or from any person whatsoever, and particularly from the stock- holders or creditors of the old canal company."

In conclusion, I consider it an agreeable duty, Mr. President, to express to you in turn my thanks for the constant courtesy that has presided over our personal relations. Have the kindness to accept, Mr. President, the assurance of my high esteem and

my devoted sentiments. M. Hutin,

President and Director- General.
Chapter IX.

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL.

An investigation of the Isthmian Canal from the standpoint of its use, aside from military considerations, has two phases—one industrial and the other commercial. A study of the

ci^^i?e

i fftahed

can"

,rer

* resources and industries of the United States and

the countries of the Pacific preceded and was made

the basis of the investigation of traffic and tolls, because a knowledge

of industrial conditions is essential to an understanding of the effects which the canal will have, and to an analysis of statistical data con- cerning commerce. From the nature of the subject investigated, some of the conclusions

regarding the industrial effects of the canal must be based on premises

concerning which differences of opinion may exist. Moreover, the

presentation of the industrial data and a discussion of them can not

be made as brief and concise as a mathematical demonstration. These

limitations apply in less degree to the statistical material used in

measuring the volume of traffic available for the use of the canal. The methods employed in the investigation, the data used, and the

deductions made are presented in detail in Appendix NN. The general conclusions to which this inquiry has led are here given without

claiming that they are absolutely correct in every particular, but they

are close approximations to the truth attained by careful research,

and furnish information necessary to a decision as to whether or not

the canal should be constructed by the United States. The canal will assist a wide range of industries,

iHdustr

Cir

landAmerICan agricultural, mineral, lumbering, and manufacturing, and will promote the progress of all sec- tions of the countiy. The expenses and delays at present incurred in

the commercial intercourse of the Central, Southern, and Eastern

States with the Pacific markets of our own and foreign countries, and

in the trade of our Pacific States with Europe, impose a serious limitation upon the progress of American industries. Cheaper and more

expeditious access to Pacific markets will benefit not only the Northeastern States by giving them cheaper raw materials and larger

markets for their varied manufactures., and the Southern States by

increasing their exports of cotton, cotton goods, forest products, iron

and steel manufactures, and fertilizers, but also the Central West.

243
244 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The Central States are now manufacturing extensively for the foreign

and domestic trade; the isthmian waterway will give them a larger

business with the Pacific coast and enhance their ability to meet European competition in western South America, Australasia, and the

Orient.

The natural resources of the Pacific Coast States

The canal and the trade of i ,1 < <i • • -, . • the Pacific toast states. are sucn that their industries require an extensive commerce. Manufacturing activity is confined to a relatively narrow range, and large quantities of manufactured arti- cles must be secured from the eastern part of the United States and

from foreign countries. The major share of the exports, which consist mainty of food stuffs of various classes and of forest products, is now sent to Europe,* the annual cargo tonnage of the maritime commerce with that continent amounting under the present unfavorable

conditions of shipment to about a million and a half tons. The domestic and foreign trade of the Pacific Coast States is burdened with

especially heavy transportation costs, whether the shipments be made

by water or by rail. The cost of rail transportation is such that

the tonnage of bulky commodities moved across the country for sale in American and European countries is now and must remain comparatively small. Cheaper transportation by an all-water route for the

North Atlantic trade of the Pacific Coast States will be of great assist- ance to the development of that section.

The canal will have an especiall}7 direct and important effect upon

the market for American coal. Vessels engaged in our own or European commerce through the canal will find it to their advantage to purchase American fuel on

our Atlantic or Gulf seaboards, or in West Indian and Central American stations. The larger commerce which the canal will cause to move

across the North Pacific may increase the demand for the product of

the Puget Sound mines. The low cost at which coal can be placed at

tide water on the Gulf and Atlantic seaboards, and the fact that there

will be a considerable movement of vessels in ballast or with part car- goes westward through the canal, makes it probable that the coal

required for industrial purposes on the west coast of South and Central America, and for commercial uses in those regions, and to some

extent in the coaling stations of the Pacific, will be supplied from the

mines in the southern and eastern sections of the United States. The

demands at home for the coal of all the mining centers of the United

States will be enlarged by the canal in proportion to its effect upon

the development of American industries.

The effect of the canal upon the railroads in the

Eireet of the canai upon eastern and southern sections of the United States

will be favorable. The lines in the central West

will feel the competition in rates somewhat more than will the Eastern
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 245

and Southern roads, but the only business that can be diverted from

them is the low-class transcontinental traffic, and this will be fully

compensated for by the larger traffic due to the canal's effect upon the

development and diversification of the manufacturing and other industries of the section they serve. The railways connecting the Mississippi Valley with the Pacific ports are the roads with which the canal's competition will be strongest, and the rates on a large share of their

through business will be regulated by the water route. The through

or trans-Cordilleran business originating or terminating at Pacific ports

and subject to diversion to the canal is not a heavy tonnage. It constitutes onlv a small part of their total traffic, and during recent years has contributed less than the growth of their local business to the increase in their total tonnage.

Although over half the American tonnage now

The use of the canal by engaged in coastwise and foreign commerce consailiii!? vessels. . „ .,. sists of sailing vessels, steamers are taking their

place so rapidly that probably only a small portion of the tonnage

under the flag of the United States will consist of sailing vessels at the time of the completion of the isthmian waterway. Moreover, the

canal will enlarge the demand for steamers, and hasten their substitution

for sailing vessels. The Nicaragua route could be taken by the latter more advantageously than could one across Panama, but it is doubtful

whether either route could be profitably used by sailing vessels in

competition with steamers in any regular line of trade. There will

always be a demand for sailing vessels for a part of our coastwise

traffic, and for opening up foreign commerce with regions whose

initial trade is small or of irregular volume. The canal will not eliminate them from ocean commerce, but will restrict the field of their

employment.

The canal and the Indus- The Canal wil1 effect large ^Sults in developing

tries and trade of Pacific the industries and commerce of Pacific countries

and increasing their trade. Those countries possess abundant natural resources, produce large quantities of food

products and raw materials indispensable to the people of the United

States and Europe, and export many manufactured articles not obtainable elsewhere. Although the people of most Pacific nations other than

Australia and New Zealand have small purchasing power per capita,

their numbers are so great that their total imports can reach a large sum. The commerce of the Pacific at the present time is of great

importance to the United States and Europe and is rapidly increasing.

Our commerce with Pacific countries is growing at a larger rate per

cent per annum than is our trade with Europe, and the isthmian canal

will enable the United States to control a greater share of the Pacific

trade than could otherwise be obtained. The canal will be especially

beneficial to the trade of the United States with western South America,
246 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

where Europe now controls most of the foreign commerce. The new

route will give a decided advantage as regards distance over Europe

in the commerce of that section.

Our ability to manufacture for the markets of the trans-Pacific countries is evidenced by our steadily increasing sales to them in spite of

the present high cost of transportation. The canal will place Europe

and the United States on a basis of equality in distance for the trade

of the Orient and Australasia. At the present time the advantages

are greatly with Europe.

A detailed study of the foreign commerce of the United States for

the year ending June 30, 1899, and of the commerce of Europe with

the western part of the American continents during the calendar year

1899, has been made to ascertain the tons of cargo

t T°nuafTM

faTaIlablecanal or freight and the net-register tonnage of the vestraffic, 1899. => a a

sels that might have passed through an isthmian

canal had one been in existence. The cargo tonnage was found to amount to 6,702,541. This total does not include the comparatively

small amount of freight that passed by water between our two sea- boards, the statistics of which are not obtainable. It comprises

277,640 tons for the commerce between the Eastern seaboard of the

United States and western South and Central America, Hawaii, and

British Columbia; 1,528,860 tons for the commerce of our Eastern

seaboard with Australasia, Oceania, Japan, China, and Siberia;

1,629,387 tons for the trade between the West coast of the United

States and Europe, and 3,266,654 tons for the commerce between

Europe and western South and Central America, western Mexico,

Hawaii, and British Columbia. It does not include an}7 of Europe's

trade with other parts of the Pacific. The tonnage of the vessels that might have used an isthmian canal

in 1899 was ascertained by an examination of the statistics of entrances and clearances kept by the United States and European countries.

The entrances and clearances for the commerce of the Eastern seaboard

of the United States with Pacific America and with Australia, Oceania,

the Philippines, Japan, China, and Siberia, and the vessel movements

between the western coasts of the American continents and the North

Atlantic American and European ports, were found to amount to 4,074.852 vessel-tons net register, including, 336,998 tons for the commerce now crossing the Isthmus of Panama.

This total was compared with the results of a traffic investigation

made by the New Panama Canal Company. The records of vessel

movements kept by that compan}7 show a traffic for the calendar year

1899 of 3,848,577 tons net register for the commerce between Europe

and the western coast of the American continent, between the Atlantic

seaboard of America and trans-Pacific countries, and between the two

A.inerican seaboards. The total obtained from the records kept by the
EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 247

Panama Company docs not include any vessel tonnage for the com- merce now crossing the Isthmus. The addition of that tonnage,

336,998 tons, raises the total to 4,185,575. In addition to this tonnage, which comprises only traffic originating or terminating in America, there should be included most of the com- merce of northwestern Europe with New Zealand and the other islands

of the Pacific east of Australia. New Zealand will be 1,503 miles nearer Liverpool by the isthmian canal than via the Suez route, and

2,405 miles nearer than by way of the Cape of Good Hope. The dis- tances to Liverpool from the important groups of South Pacific islands

north of New Zealand will be from 500 to 5,500 miles less via the

isthmian canal than by way of Suez. The entrances and clearances of

New Zealand's trade with northwestern Europe amounted to 481,178

tons net register in 1899, and the European commerce of the other

islands east of Australia to 181,743 tons. Of this total traffic of 662,921

tons, 500,000 might have advantageously used an isthmian canal, and

this amount should be added to the canal tonnage originating or terminating in America. This makes the total obtained by the Commission's

investigation of the tonnage that might have used an isthmian canal

in 1899, 4,574,852 tons net register; and the total obtained by adopting the New Panama Canal Company's figures for the traffic originat-

'.ng or terminating in America, 4,685,575 tons. Tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company show that the

vessel tonnage of the commerce between Europe

Growth of traffic. Prob- d p ifi America and between the Atlantic seaable tonnage, 1914. board of America and the eastern and western

sides of the Pacific increased 25.1 per cent during the decade 1888-

1898, and this rate has been adopted in estimating the traffic that will

be available for the isthmian canal in 1914, by which year it is assumed

that the waterway will have been completed and put in operation.

This rate of increase would raise the available traffic of 1899, obtained

by adding to the New Panama Canal Company's figures for tonnage

originating or terminating in America the present traffic across the

Isthmus of Panama and 500,000 tons of the commerce of New Zealand

and other South Pacific islands with Europe—4,685,575 tons—to 5,861,654 tons in 1909 and to 6,556,260 tons in 1914. A growth of

25.1 per cent per decade would increase the total of 4,574,852 tons for

1899, obtained by the Commission's investigation of the statistics of entrances and clearances, to 5,723,140 tons in 1909 and 6,401,332 tons

in 1914—the tonnage being net register in each case. In all probability the future increase in that part of the world's commerce that would <use an isthmian canal will be more rapid than

the past growth has been, because in the Pacific countries of America,

in Australasia, and in the Orient the industrial progress of the next

two decades promises to be much greater than that of the past twenty
248 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

years has been. The rate of increase, 25.1 per cent per decade, prior

to the opening- of the canal probably undervalues what will occur. It

is certainly a conservative estimate.

While it is not to be expected that the traffic of

Estimated traffic, 1924. , , . ,, . 3

. ,

, £ the isthmian waterway during the ear ty years or

its operation will increase as rapidly as did the tonnage passing the

Suez Canal, the growth in the commerce using the Suez route consti- tutes the best basis for estimates regarding the rate of increase in the

tonnage of the commerce that will use the American canal. This

growth is shown by the following table in which the total tonnage for

each five-year period is given:

Number of vessels and tonnage of the Suez Canal by quinquennial periods.

Years. Number

of vessels.

Net tonnage, Danube

measure- ment.

Per cent

increase.

Percentage which ton- nage of each

5-year period

is of tonnage.

1875-1879.

1870 1874 4,770

7,684

14, 542

16, 726

17, 848

16, 939

5,358,237

10, 995. 214 23,916,373 31.430,454

39, 899, 143

44, 042, 274

1875 1879 105

117

3127

10

18S0 1S84 217

1N.S.V lNS'l 286 1890 1894 363

1895-1899 401

The tonnage of the second five-year period was 205 per cent that of

the first, and the total for the third period 217 per cent that of the

second. The traffic in 1880 was 3,057,422 tons, that of 1890, 6,890,094, an increase of 125 per cent. That of 1900 was 9,738,152 tons, a growth

of 2,848,058 tons, or 41 per cent during the past decade. The initial tonnage of the Suez Canal being small, the rate of increase during the

first decade was large. Should 1914 be the first year of the operation

of the American canal, and the rate of increase in the traffic during

the first ten years be 62£ per cent—half that of the Suez waterway

during the second decade of its use—the estimated tonnage of the year

1914, in round numbers 6,500,000 tons net register, would be raised to approximately 10,500,000 tons in 1924.

The above totals for the tonnage that might have used an isthmian

canal in 1899 do not include any of Europe's trade with Australia and

Japan, a part of which would probably use an isthmian waterway.

The distances from Great Britain to Sydney and Yokohama by the

Suez and isthmian canal routes-are approximately equal, and vessels going by America in cither direction en route between Europe and

Japan or Australia will pass regions from which there isa heavy export

tonnage. If it be assumed that 10 per cent of the vessel tonnage of

the Australian trade with the ports of northwestern Europe and 5 per cent of the tonnage of the Japanese commerce with those ports

would have taken an American canal route, the totals for 1899 should
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 249

be increased 316,223 tons, and be raised from 4,574,852 to 4,891,075

tons, and from 4,685,575 to 5,001,798 tons, or to approximately 5,000,-

000 tons. An increase of 25.1 percent per decade would raise a traffic of 5,000,000 in 1899 to 6,996,217, or, in round numbers, 7,000,000 tons

in 1914, and a growth of C>2£ per cent during the succeeding- ten years

would make the tonnage of 1924 11,375,000.

The extent to which the isthmian canal is used

will depend in part upon the tolls charged. The

commerce of western South America with Europe will continue to pass the Straits of Magellan or to round Cape Horn, the trade of the

American Atlantic seaboard with Australia will keep to the Good

Hope route, and the traffic between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines and southern China will remain tributary to the Suez route, if the charges for passing the American canal are made greater than the

saving to be effected by using that waterway. A toll of about $1

per ton net register could profitably be paid by the commerce

between Europe and western South America, and by that of our east- ern seaboard with Australia; a much higher charge would probably

cause a large share of the business to continue to be done by the

routes now used. For the commerce of our eastern ports with the

Philippines and the mainland of Asia between Singapore and Shanghai

the distances by way of the Suez and isthmian canals will be so nearly

equal that the route chosen will depend largely upon tolls. Light

charges at the American canal will give that waterway a large share of

the tonnage; high tolls will cause the Suez route to be used.

The Suez tolls at the present time are 9 francs per ton net register, "Danube" measurement, and this charge amounts to somewhat more than $2 per ton net register, British or American measurement.

The Suez tolls are levied by a corporation whose object is to secure

the maximum revenue obtainable. With the exception of the trade

between Europe and Australia, the commerce served by the Suez Canal

can be charged a high toll without much restricting the tonnage using

the waterway; consequently a large reduction in charges would not be

compensated for by an increase in traffic, and the revenue would be

less. It is not probable that the Suez Canal Company would find it profitable to reduce its tolls largely for the purpose of competing

with the American waterway.

In fixing the charges for the use of an isthmian canal owned and

operated by the United States Government, the principle of maximum

revenue could not wisely be followed. The revenue-producing function of the canal will be a minor one as compared with its services in promoting the industrial and commercial progress and general welfare

of the United States. The exaction of tolls that would much restrict

the benefits derivable from the canal would not be to the advantage of

the American people.
250 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

An annual traffic of 7,000,000 tons, at $1 per ton, will produce a revenue of $7,000,000. The expenses of operating and maintaining

the Panama Canal are estimated at about $2,000,000 per annum, and

those of the Nicaragua Canal at about $3,300,000. Upon this basis

the net revenue by either route would not be sufficient, at the opening

of the canal, to pay a rate of interest upon the capital invested, which

would compensate a corporation for the risks involved. A large

increase of traffic in the future is probable, and the revenue-producing

value of the canal would be proportionately greater. It is the opinion

of the Commission, however, that there are considerations more important than revenue. It may even be expedient for the United States to reduce the tolls to an amount which will barely cover the expenses of

operation and maintenance.

With the exception of the trade between westThe relative commercial ern South America and our eastern seaboard, for

advantages of 1 he Nicaragua , . , . T-, „ , , , ~ , ,

, and Panama routes. which the Panama Canal would afford the shorter

route, the distances for American commerce, both

foreign and domestic, would be less by way of Greytown and Brito

than by way of Colon and Panama. Including in each instance the

length of the canal expressed in nautical miles, the distance between

New York and San Francisco by way of Nicaragua would be 378 nautical miles less than via Panama. For New Orleans and San Francisco

the difference is 580 miles, and, in general, the distances between our

Atlantic and Pacific ports and between our eastern seaboard and transPacific countries are shorter by the Nicaragua route. The distances

from Europe to western South America would be less by way of

Panama. From Europe to the North Pacific the Nicaragua route would be shorter.

Exclusive of the length of the canals, the sea distance between New

York and San Francisco is 498 nautical miles less via Nicaragua than

by way of Panama, and for New Orleans and San Francisco the differ- ence is 700 miles. A part of the saving in distance at sea effected by

using a Nicaragua canal instead of one at Panama would be offset by

the longer time of transit at Nicaragua. An average steamer would

require twelve hours to make the passage through the Panama Canal,

and thirty-three hours through one across Nicaragua. For a 10-knot

steamer this difference of twenty-one hours would be equivalent to 210

knots difference in distance at sea, and for a 15-knot steamer the

difference in time of transit would be equivalent to 315 knots.

The Nicaragua route would be the more favorable one for sailing

vessels, but this advantage is not important, because sailing vessels would probably be unable to compete with steamers to any considerable extent by either canal. They would certainly not be able to compete with steamers, both using the Panama Canal.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 251

As compared with Europe, the United States CnifcfsL* ^"p«re<T

d win deri

y

e from the canal greater benefits, both

commercially and industrially. The commerce of

Europe with the Pacific coast of North, Central, and South America,

under existing conditions, is about as large as the total volume of the

present traffic of the United States that may be considered tributary

to the canal; but this fact does not indicate the relative advantages

which the canal will possess for the trade of Europe and that of the

United States. As soon as it has been opened, our trade with the west

coast of South America will increase more rapidly, as will also the

volume of our trade with the Orient. An Isthmian canal will

strengthen the unity of the national and political interests of the

United States, develop its Pacific territory, and promote the commerce

and industries of the entire country. The benefits which Europe will

derive from the canal will be commercial. In addition to this, ours

will be political and industrial.
Chapter X.

MILITARY VALUE.

In time of peace an isthmian canal would afford

Military valae In time of 1 , e p „ ±„

„„ „ a short passage tor our cruisers from one ocean to

peace. i »

the other, and would enable the necessary patrol

duty of the Navy to be more efficiently performed, or performed by

a smaller number of vessels. It would also have the same kind of

value to the military arm of the Government that it has to the general

commercial interests of the country, in facilitating the transportation

of heavy ordnance and military stores, as well as troops and supplies. In time of war a canal would offer a shortened

line of communication, and might be of immense

advantage to the power controlling it. When war is threatening, or

in its earlier stages, the scattered ships could more readily and easily

be collected; and subsequently, a fleet in the Pacific could be much

more quickly reenforced from the Atlantic and vice versa. The canal,

however, is but one link in a chain of communieaCanal one link In a chain ^ f y h adj acent Unk th Caribbean of communications. •> Sea on the east and the waters of the Pacific, near the canal entrance, on the west. Unless the integrity of all the

links can be maintained, the chain will be broken. The power holding any one of the links can prevent the enemy from using the communication, but can itself use it only when it holds them all. The canal itself would be available to the United States, but not

to its enemies, so long as its citizens remain in

Canal operated by Amer- cnarge of it, filling the positions of pilots, lock

lean citizens not available , to -,, , . i * - ±

for the enemy. keepers, and others upon whom the safety ot a

ship in transit depends. No commander would

rely upon his enemies to the extent of trusting his vessel in such a position. The responsible authorities might do everything in their

power to give safe passage to an enemy's vessel, as would be their

duty if their Government had promised it; but among several hundred

employees of every grade of character the chances are that there

would be some one with the power and the will to so disable the canal

that communication would be as effectually closed to the enemy as if

it had never been opened.

252
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 253

The ability of the United States to hold the Caribbean Sea and the

western approaches to the canal against all comers

c«nai useless to the depends upon the future development of its naval

United States unless It con-

*

, . *

, trois the sea. resources, and is for the present at least questionable. There are several powers in the world any

one of which might dispute the command of the approaches, and combinations of two or more powers might effect the same object. If successful, they would render the canal useless to the United States.

It would be useless also to them unless they

unieThe

8 ££ S"

TMm canld occupy it and replace American citizens with

citizens of their own or some friendly country.

Assuming for the moment that the canal is subject to the operations

of war, and that the enemy is free to attempt its occupation, it must

be defended by the United States. Fortification is of the nature of insurance. In

Defense by fortification. . , i

• 1 • 1 its practice, then, are several maxims which may

here be noted. One is that the greater the value- of the prize, the

greater the temptation to the enterprise of the enemy and the greater

the amount of effort to be applied to the defenses. Another is that the

farther the place to be defended is from supplies and reenforcements,

the stronger must be the fortifications. Still another is that the less the natural features of the ground are favorable to defense, the more

must strength be supplied by works of construction. From all three

of these points of view the canal would require the maximum amount

of fortification. It would be a prize of extraordinary value; it would

be beyond the reach of reenforcements if the enemy control the sea; and the low, flat shore on the Atlantic side, as well as the great length

of the canal, are unfavorable to defense. To defend it b}^ fortifications on land would be a costly, difficult, and uncertain undertaking, and by

absorbing resources which could better be employed elsewhere would

be a source of weakness.

If defended at all, the canal should be defended

Defense by Pfayy. .. at sea by the JNavy. But that again would be a

source of weakness, because it would hamper the movements of the

Navy, which is essentially the arm of attack. If a large force of the

Navy is to be employed in guarding the canal, its power for offensive

action, which is its normal employment, is diminished. If from force

of circumstances the Navy be compelled to abandon the offensive, its services will be more valuable upon our coasts than in the Caribbean Sea. A much more certain and easy method of securDefense by neutrality. J

. ing the use of the canal to ourselves, while closing

it to our enemies, is to remove it from the operations of war by making it neutral.
254 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

It is always to be borne in mind that during the

Vulnerability of canal. . » .1 i-n j.i_ £ excitements or war the canal will not be a sate place for the men-of-war of any nation, no matter who is nominally

in control. A small party of resolute men, armed with a few sticks

of d}r namite, could temporarily disable it without very great difficulty.

What has been said of the use by her enemies

canal managed by for- f a canai operated by citizens of the United

pltriiors. States would be equally applicable to the use by

the United States of a canal operated by citizens of a country with

which we were at war. The Panama Canal, for example, if operated

by citizens of France, would not be available for the United States

in a war with France, while it would be available for French vessels. While there seems no doubt that the presence

canai free to enemy's f American citizens in charge of the canal would

be an adequate defense, it is proper to inquire

what part it would play in war if the opposite theory were adopted,

and the enemy's vessels were able to pass as freely as our own. This

would be possible if the canal were under the control of foreigners,

as well as in the supposition that all the persons engaged in operating

a canal belonging to the United States were actuated by perfect self- restraint. In this case, as before, if the United States controls the

sea, the shortened communication is to her advantage, but the advantage is with the enemy if he controls. A highwa}^ to our Pacific States and Territories is opened for the fleets of Europe, which does

not now exist. It is not probable that they would often wish to use

it, because only one or two of them have coaling stations so situated

as to make that possible, and they would have richer game elsewhere.

Under these circumstances the canal would to some extent weaken the

defense of the United States.

It is the opinion of the Commission that a neucanai managed by Amer- ^ral canal, operated and controlled bv American

lean citizens a source of . . - ... , , f ... strength if neutral; a citizens, would materially add to the military

source of weakness if not strength of the United States; that a canal,

whether neutral or not, controlled by foreigners

would be a source of weakness to the United States rather than of

strength; and that a canal not neutral, to be defended by the United

States, whether by fortifications on land or by the Navy at sea, would

be a source of weakness.
Chapter XI.

COST OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION.

In order to form an estimate of the cost of maintaining and operating the Isthmian Canal, the

Commission obtained data bearing on this point from the Suez, Manchester, Kiel, and St. Marys Falls canals. There are no locks on the Suez Canal, but the channel is through

drifting sand for a great part of its length. The entrance to the harbor of Port Said on the Mediterranean intercepts the drift of sand

discharged from the Nile and carried along the coast by the easterly

current. The maintenance of the Suez Canal

^SiSSST- t*"*rf°TM

and consistsreqTMmainly

es a

of

lalthis ^e amount

class of

of

work.

dred

^

The

operating expenses are also large, the great traffic involving heavy

costs for pilotage. The general expenses for administration have necessarily been greater for the Suez Canal than for the Kiel or Manchester canals, on account of the distance of the work from the point

of central control, a disadvantage which would also attend the operation of the Isthmian Canal. The annual cost of maintenance and

operation of the Suez Canal is about $1,300,000, or about $13,000 per

mile.

The annual cost of maintenance and operation of

cost of maintenance and the Kiel Canal is $8,600 per mile. The cost of

operation of Kiel and Man- . . * . . • a> Chester canals. maintenance only of the Manchester Canal is $9,500

per mile. These canals have locks and other mechanical structures, and therefore might be expected to have a higher

cost of maintenance than the Suez Canal, which has none, but this appears to be more than offset by reduced cost of maintaining the

prism and more economical central control. The traffic being light on

these canals, the cost of pilotage and port service is small. The

mechanical structures are now nearly new, and will soon require larger

annual outlays for maintenance, while, with the increase of traffic,

operating expenses will become larger.

The St. Marys Falls Canal, when compared

cost of maintenance and wj^n tnose i ust mentioned, is remarkable by reason

operation of the St. Marys '

*>

. Fans Canal. or its short length, large proportion of mechanical

structures, and immense traffic. Its length is about 1£ miles. Its annual traffic, limited by the severity of the

winter to a period of about eight months, is nearly three times that of

255
256 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the Suez Canal, eight times that of the Kiel Canal, and ten times that

of the Manchester Canal. Both maintenance and operating- expenses

are therefore very large, amounting to from $70,000 to $90,000 per

year, or $46,000 to $60,000 per mile.

A more detailed examination would show still more clearly why the

cost of maintenance and operation varies so widely in the several

canals. The differences in the waterways and in the climatic and other

conditions render it extremely difficult to derive from them an esti- mate applicable to the Isthmian Canal. This method, however, has

been followed by the Commission d'Etudes, appointed by the liquida- tor of the old Panama Canal Company, the study being based on the

corresponding costs at the Suez Canal and consideration being given

to the radical differences in the waterwa}7 s and the climates.

This Commission has approached the problem in

Basis of estimate of cost a SOmewhat different way. A project has been

of maintenance and opera- . . - _ _ , tiou for isthmian Canal. developed tor an organization or the force and

plant required for maintaining the prism and

harbors, operating the canal, and providing for sanitary and police control. This has been worked out in much detail, and is intended to cover all expenses except the maintenance of masonry and metal

structures, which are provided for by percentages on their cost. The

damp climate of the isthmus, with its mild temperature, is very favorable for masonry structures, but unfavorable for those of iron and

steel. The allowances for the maintenance of these structures are |

per cent on the first cost for masonry and 7i per cent for metal

structures, including machinery.

It is obvious that the cost of maintenance and operation for the

Nicaragua Canal would be much greater than for the Panama Canal.

The former has four times the total length of the latter, or, excluding

the deep-water portions of both routes, three and one-fourth times the

length of excavated channel. It has also more locks, weirs, and other

.structures. In Grey Town harbor it has the most difficult harbor to maintain, and it is in the region of greatest rainfall. On the other

hand, its magnitude can not be measured h}7 length only. The total cost of construction gives a better idea of relative magnitudes. Moreover, the study given to the project of organization shows that the

central control and general supervision, which form a large part of

the total cost of maintenance and operation, differ but little in the two

cases. The resulting estimates of the annual cost of

Estimates of cost of n,a.». maintenance and operation are as follows:

tenauce and operation. * For the Nicaragua Canal $3, 300, 000

For the Panama Canal 2,000,000

The Commission d'Etudes, using a different method, estimated the

cost for the Panama Canal at 10,000,000 francs, ($1,940,000). The

agreement is as close as could bo expected in estimates of this kind.
Chapter XII.

CONCLUSIONS.

The investigations of this Commission have shown that the selection

of "the most feasible and practicable route" for an isthmian canal

must be made between the Nicaragua and Panama locations. Furthermore, the complete problem involves both the sea-level plan of canal

and that with locks. The Panama route alone is feasible for a sealevel canal, although both are entirely practicable and feasible for a

canal with locks. The time required to complete a sea-level canal on

the Panama route, probably more than twice that needed to build a canal with locks, excludes it from favorable consideration aside from

other serious features of its construction. It is the conclusion of

this Commission, therefore, that a plan of canal with locks should be

adopted.

A comparison of the principal physical features, both natural and

artificial, of the two routes, reveals some points of similarity. Both

routes cross the continental divide less than ten miles from the Pacific

Ocean, the Panama summit being about double the height of that in Nicaragua. For more than half its length the location of each route on

the Atlantic side is governed by the course of a river, the flow from

whose drainage basin is the only source of water supply for the proposed canal; and the summit levels, differing but about 20 feet in elevation, Panama being the lower, are formed by lakes, natural in the one case and artificial in the other, requiring costly dams and

wasteways for their regulation and for the impounding of surplus

waters to reduce the effect of floods and to meet operating demands

during low- water seasons. The investigations made in connection with the regulation of Lake

Nicaragua have demonstrated that that lake affords an inexhaustible

water supply for the canal bjr that route. The initial proposition, on

the other hand, for the Panama route is to form lake Bohio so as to yield a water supply for a traffic of 10,000,000 tons, which can be supplemented when needed by an amount sufficient for more than four

times that traffic, by means of the Alhajuela reservoir. For all practical purposes this may be considered an [unlimited supply for the

Panama route. So far as the practical operation of a ship canal is concerned, therefore, the water-supply features on both lines are sat- isfactory.

S D—57-1—Vol 7 17 257
258 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The difficulties disclosed and likely to be encountered in the construction of the dams are less at Conchuda on the Nicaragua line than

at Bohio on the Panama route. Both dams, however, are practicable,

but the cost of that at Bohio is one-half more than that at Conchuda.

A less expensive dam at Bohio has been proposed, but through a portion of its length it would be underlaid by a deposit of sand and gravel

pervious to water. The seepage might not prove dangerous, but the

security of the canal is directly dependent upon this dam, and the policy of the Commission has been to select the more perfect structure, even at a somewhat greater cost. The wasteways at both locations

present no serious difficulties. The advantages in the design and construction of the dams are in favor of the Nicaragua route. The system of regulation at Lake Bohio consists onty of the dis- charge of water over the crest of a weir, as the lake level rises under

the influence of floods in the Chagres River. The plan of regulating

the level of Lake Nicaragua is less simple, though perfectly practicable. It involves, the operation of movable gates at such times and

to such extent as the rainfall on the lake basin may require. The

experience and judgment of the operator are essential elements in the

effective regulation of this lake. The regulation of Lake Bohio is automatic.

The only means of transportation now found on the Nicaragua route

art1 the narrow-gauge Silico Lake Railroad, about 6 miles in length,

and the limited navigation of the San Juan River and the lake, but the

Nicaraguan Government is now building a railroad along the beach

from Greytown to Monkey Point, about 45 miles to the northward,

where it proposes to establish a commercial port. By means of a pier,

in the area protected by the point, goods and material for canal purposes can readily be landed and transported by rail to Greytown.

Such piers are in constant use on our Pacific coast. This railroad and

port would be of great value during the period of preparation and

harbor construction, and should materially shorten that period. A

well-equipped railroad is in operation along the entire length of the

Panama route, and existing conditions there afford immediate accommodation for a large force of laborers.

The Nicaragua route has no natural harbor at either end. At both

the Atlantic and Pacific termini, however, satisfactory harbors maybe

created by the removal of material at low unit prices, and by the con-

>t ruction of protective works of well-established design. An excellent

roadstead, protected by islands, already exists at Panama, and no work

need lie done there for cither harbor construction or maintenance.

At Colon, the Atlantic terminus of the Panama route, a serviceable

harbor already exists. It has afforded harbor accommodations for

many years, hut it is open to northers, which a few times in each year

tic liable to damage ships or force them to put to sea. Considerable
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 259

work must be done there to create a suitable harbor at the entrance of

I he canal, which can be easily entered, and will give complete protection to shipping lying within it. The completion of the harbors as planned for both routes would yield but little advantage to either, but

the balance of advantages, including those of maintenance and operation, is probably in favor of the Panama route. The existence of a harbor at each terminus of the Panama route,

and a line of railroad across the isthmus, will make it practicable to commence work there, after the concessions are acquired, as soon as the necessary plant can be collected and put in place, and the working

force organized. This period of preparation is estimated at one year. In Nicaragua this period is estimated at two years, so as to include

also the construction of working harbors and terminal and railroad

facilities. The work of excavation on the Nicaragua route is distributed; it is heaviest near Conchuda, at Tamborcito, and in the divide west of the

lake. On the Panama route it is largely concentrated in the Culebra

and Emperador cuts, which are practically one. As a rule distributed

work affords a greater number of available points of attack, contributing to a quicker completion; but in either of these cases such difficulties as may exist can be successfully met with suitable organization

and efficient appliances.

The time required for constructing the Nicaragua Canal will depend

largely on the promptness with which the requisite force of laborers

can be brought to Nicaragua, housed and organized at the locations of

heaviest work along the route. The cut through the divide west of

the lake probably will require the longest time of any single feature

of construction. It contains about 18,000,000 cubic yards of earth

and rock excavation, or a little less than 10 per cent of the total material of all classes to be removed. With adequate force and plant this Commission estimates that it can be completed in four years. This

indicates, under reasonable allowance for ordinary delays, that if force

and plant enough were available to secure a practically concurrent

execution of all portions of work on the route, the completion of the

entire work might be expected within six years after its beginning,

exclusive of the two years estimated for the period of preparation.

The securing and organizing of the great force of laborers needed,

largely foreigners, so as to adjust the execution of the various portions

of the work to such a definite programme of close-fitting parts in a

practically unpopulated tropical country, involves unusual difficulties and would prolong the time required for completion.

The greatest single feature of work on the Panama route is the exca- vation in the Culebra section, amounting to about 43,000,000 cubic

yards of hard cla}T

, much of which is classed as soft rock, or nearly 45

per cent of all classes of material to be removed. It is estimated that
260 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

this cut can be completed in eight years, with allowance for ordinary

delays, but exclusive of a two-}T ear period for preparation and for

unforeseen delays, and that the remainder of the work can be finished

within the same period. The great concentration of work on this route and its loss amount will not require so great a force of laborers as on

the Nicaragua route; hence the difficulties and delays involved in securing them will be correspondingly diminished.

The total length of the Nicaragua route from sea to sea is 183.66

miles, while the total length of the Panama route is 49.09 miles. The

length in standard canal section and in harbors and entrances is 73.78

miles for the Nicaragua route and 36.41 miles for the Panama route. The length of sailing line in Lake Nicaragua is 70.51 miles, while that

in Lake Bohio is 12.68 miles. That portion of the Nicaragua route

in the canalized San Juan is 39.37 miles.

The preceding physical features of the two lines measure the magnitude of the work to be done in the construction of waterways along

the two routes. The estimated cost of constructing the canal on the

Nicaragua route is $15,630,701 more than that of completing the

Panama Canal, omitting the cost of acquiring the latter property.

This sum measures the difference in the magnitude of the obstacles to be overcome in the actual construction of the two canals and covers

all physical considerations, such as the greater or less height of dams,

the greater or less depth of cuts, the presence or absence of natural

harbors, the presence or absence of a railroad, and the amount of

work remaining to be done.

The estimated annual cost of maintaining and operating the Nicaragua Canal is $1,300,000 greater than the corresponding charges for

the Panama Canal.

The Panama route would be 131.57 miles shorter from sea to sea than the Nicaragua route. It would have less summit elevation, fewer

locks, 1,568 degrees and 26.11 miles less curvature. The estimated

time for a deep-draft vessel to pass through is about twelve hours for

Panama and thirty-three hours for Nicaragua. These periods are practically the measure of the relative advantages of the two canals as waterways connecting the two oceans, but not entirely, because the

risks to vessels and the dangers of delay are greater in a canal than

in the open sea. Except for the items of risks and delays, the time required to pass through the canals need be taken into account only as an element in the time required by vessels to make their voyages between terminal

ports. Compared on this basis, the Nicaragua route is the more

advantageous for all transisthmian commerce except that originating or ending on the west coast of South America. For the commerce

in which the United States is most interested, that between our Pacific ports and Atlantic ports, European and American, the Nicaragua

route is shorter by about one day. The same advantage exists
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 261

between our Atlantic ports and the Orient. For our Gulf ports the

a I vantage of the Nicaragua route is nearly two days. For commerce

between North Atlantic ports and the west coast of South America

the Panama route is shorter by about two days. Between Gulf ports

and the west coast of South America the saving is about one day.

The Nicaragua route would be the more favorable one for sailing vessels because of the uncertain winds in the Bay of Panama. This

is not, however, a material matter, as sailing ships are being rapidly

displaced by steamships.

A canal by the Panama route will be simply a means of communication between the two oceans. That route has been a highway of com- merce for more than three hundred years, and a railroad has been in

operation there for nearly fifty years, but this has effected industrial

changes of but little consequence, and the natural features of the

country through which the route passes are such that no considerable

development is likely to occur as a result of the construction and operation of a canal. In addition to its use as a means of communication between the two

oceans, a canal by the Nicaragua route would bring Nicaragua and

a large portion of Costa Rica and other Central American States

into close and easy communication with the United States and

with Europe. The intimate business relations that would be established with the people of the United States during the period of construction by the expenditure of vast sums of money in these States and the use of American products and manufactures would be likely

to continue after the completion of the work, to the benefit of our

manufacturing, agricultural, and other interests.

The Nicaragua route lies in a region of sparse population and not in a pathway of much trade or movement of people; conditions productive of much sickness do not exist. On the other hand, a considerable

population has long existed on the Panama route and it lies on a pathway of comparatively large trade along which currents of moving

people from infected places sometimes converge, thus creating conditions favorable to epidemics. Existing conditions indicate hygienic

advantages for the Nicaragua route, although it is probable that no

less effective sanitary measures must be taken during construction in

the one case than in the other.

The cost of constructing a canal by the Nicaragua route and of completing the Panama Canal, without including the cost of acquiring the

concessions from the different Governments, is estimated as follows:

Nicaragua $189,864,062

Panama. 144,233,358

For a proper comparison there must be added to the latter the cost of acquiring the rights and property of the new Panama Canal Com-
262 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

pany. This Commission has estimated the value of these in the project recommended by it at $40,000,000. In order to exercise the rights necessary for the construction of the

canal and for its management after completion, the United States should acquire control of a strip of territory from sea to sea sufficient in area for the convenient and efficient accomplishment of those purposes. Measures must also be taken to protect the line from unlawful

acts of all kinds, to insure sanitary control, and to render police jurisdiction effective. The strip should be not less than 5 miles wide on

each side of the center line of the canal or 10 miles in total width.

No treaties now exist with any of the states within whose territory

the two routes lie authorizing the United States to occupy its terri- tory for the construction and operation of a canal. When it has

been determined to undertake the work and the route has been selected,

the consent of Colombia, or of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, for such

occupation must be obtained before the inauguration of the enterprise,

and one or more conventions must be entered into by the United

States to secure the necessary privileges and authority.

The Republics of Nicaragua and Costa Rica are untrammeled by any

existing concessions or treaty obligations and are free to grant to the

United States the rights necessaiy for the attainment of these ends;

and in December, 1900, demonstrated their willingness to have their

territory so occupied by the United States by executing protocols by

which it was agreed that they would enter into negotiations to settle in detail the plan and agreements necessary to accomplish the construction and provide for the ownership of the proposed canal whenever the President of the United States is authorized b}T law to acquire

the necessary control and authority.

The Government of Colombia, on the contrary, in whose territory

the Panama route lies, has granted concessions which belong to or are

controlled by the New Panama Canal Company and have many years

to run. These concessions, limited in time and defective in other

ways, would not be adequate authority for the purposes of the United

St sites, but while they exist Colombia is not free to treat with this

Government. If the Panama route is selected these concessions must

be removed in order that the two Republics may enter into a treaty to enable the United States to acquire the control upon the isthmus that

will be necessary and to fix the consideration.

An agreement with the Panama Canal Company to surrender or

transfer its concessions must include a sale of its canal property and

unfinished work, and the Commission undertook, soon after its organization, to ascertain upon what terms this could be accomplished.

Much correspondence and many conferences followed, but no proposition naming a price was presented until the middle of October, 1901,

and after prolonged discussion it was submitted to the Commission in
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 263

a modified form, on the 4th of November, to be included in its report

to the President. The itemized statement appears in an earlier chapter of the report, The total amount for which the company offers to

sell and transfer its canal property to the United States is $109,141,500.

This, added to the cost of completing- the work, makes the whole cost of a canal by the Panama route $253,374*858, while the cost by the

Nicaragua route is $189,864,062, a difference of $63,510,796 in favor

of the Nicaragua route. In each case there must he added the cost of

obtaining the use of the territory to be occupied and such other privileges as may be necessary for the construction and operation of the

canal in perpetuity. The compensation that the different States will ask for granting these privileges is now unknown.

There are certain physical advantages, such as a shorter canal line, a more complete knowledge of the country through which it passes, and lower cost of maintenance and operation in favor of the Panama

route, but the price fixed by the Panama Canal Company for a sale of

its propert}7 and franchises is so unreasonable that its acceptance can

not be recommended by this Commission.

After considering all the facts developed by the investigations made

by the Commission and the actual situation as it now stands, and having in view the terms offered by the new Panama Canal Company, this Commission is of the opinion that "the most practicable and feasible

route" for an isthmian canal, to be "under the control, management,

and ownership of the United States," is that known as the Nicaragua

route. We have the honor to be, sir, with great respect, your obedient

servants,

J. G. Walker,

Rear-Admiral. United States Navy,

President of Commission.

Samuel Pasco.

Alfred Noble.

Geo. S. Morison.

Peter C. Hains,

Colonel, United States Corps of Engineers.

Wm. H. Burr.

O. H. Ernst,

Lieutenant- Colonel, United States Corps of Engineers.

Lewis M. Haupt.

Emory R. Johnson.

O

57th Congress, I SENATE. j Doc. No. 54,

1st Session. \ I Part 2. REPORT

OF THE

ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION,

1899-1901.

Rear-Admiral JOHN G. WALKER,

United States Navy,

President.

Hon. SAMUEL PASCO. ALFRED NOBLE, C. E. Mr. GEORGE S. MORISON. Col. PETER C. HAINS,

Lieut. Col. OSWALD H. ERNST, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army.

Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army. WILLIAM H. BURR, C. E. LEWIS M. HAUPT, C. E. Prof. EMORY R. JOHNSON.

Lieut. Commander SIDNEY A. STAUNTON,

United States Navy,

Secretary.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

1902.
In the Senate of the United States, February 18, 1902. Ordered, That the following appendixes attached to the report of the Interoceamc

Canal Commission be printed:

B. Historical note3 relative to the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company, 1880-1 894, prior to the organization of the new company.

C. List of documents furnished to the Commission by the New Panama Canal Company.

D. Report of the hydrography of the Panama Canal route, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer.

E. Waste weir dimensions and discharges of Lake Bohio.

F. Description of alternate location for canal between Gatun and Bohio. G. Discussion of the time required for transit through an isthmian canal by the two routes.- H. Discharge of the canalized San Juan River.

I. Report of hydrographic investigations in Nicaragua, by Mr. A. P. Davis, chief hydrographer.

J. Survey from the upper San Juan to the Indio River, by Mr. A. B. Nichols,

division engineer. U. Contract between Nicaragua and the Atlas Steamship Company.

CC. Treaties between France and New Granada, 1856, and France and Colombia,

1892. DD. Treaty between Spain and Colombia, 1831. FF. Amended contract between Colombia and the* Panama Railroad Company.

GG. Contract between Colombia and Interoceanic Canal Association, March 20, 1878. ( Wyse concession.

)

HH. Additional contract modifying that of May 20, 1878, December 10, L890.

II. Contract granting extension to the Panama Canal Company in liquidation,

April 4, 1893. JJ. Contract granting further extension of time to the New Panama Canal Company, April 25, 1900. KK. Memorandum showing legal status of the New Panama Canal Company, with

laws, decrees of court, and charter. MM. Contract between Nicaragua and the American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company, August 27, 1849. NN. Report on industrial and commercial value of canal, by Prof. Emory B. Johnson.

Attest: Charles <i. Bennett, Secretary.
ISTHMIAN CANAL

Appendix B. HISTORICAL NOTES RELATIVE TO THE UNIVERSAL INTEROCEANIC CANAL COMPANY (1880-1894) UNTIL THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW COMPANY.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

The great excitement which followed the downfall of the old Panama

Canal Company can be explained only by the universal character of

the enterprise, the distinction of the man who directed it, and the

importance of the interests involved.

That downfall, however, was so unfortunate as to be subservient to

political passion. Hence, the attention of the public was turned aside

from the work itself. Exaggeration, ignorance, and also bad faith

finally destroyed confidence in the future of an enterprise which the

excessive optimism and, we must add, the errors of Mr. de Lesseps

had seriously jeopardized.

A little reflection and dispassionate reasoning will convince anyone

that the construction of an interoceanic canal is, all proportions being

observed, an industrial affair like any other. In order to be properly

planned and regular^ carried out, it had to be previously studied with

care in all its details. The solution to be adopted should not have been based upon pre- conceived ideas, however flattering they appeared, but upon serious

and practical observation of the facts. Such a method was especially

necessary for a work of such magnitude, difficulty, and perplexity.

Now, the real cause of the downfall of the old Panama Company was

the lack of the serious studies which should have preceded its organization. In view of the results that would have been secured by such

studies, in view of the enormous amount of work to be performed and

the proportionate expense to be incurred, we may believe that the

enterprise would have been, from the outset, based upon a plan and

directed according to a programme different from those which were

adopted by Mr. dc Lesseps. It was only under the pressure of cir- cumstances that Mr. de Lesseps decided to modify his original plan.

It was, however, too late and success had become, for him, impossible. In order to give a correct idea of the events which succeeded each

other, it is necessary briefly to review the history of the old company.

It will be seen that the original errors were followed by a succession

of mistakes, the inevitable consequence of which was the final disaster.

3
4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Chapter I. THE UNIVERSAL INTEROCEANIC CANAL COMPANY.

(1880-1889.)

I. —BRIEF SKETCH OF THE DISCOVERIES, EXPLORATIONS, AND PLANS FOR

MARITIME CANALS ON THE AMERICAN ISTHMUS UNTIL 1879.

When Vasco Nunez de Balboa, in 1513, had seen the Pacific Ocean,

he ardently sought for a natural passage between the two oceans. At

the very outset his idea was to utilize the course of the wide rivers of

the Isthmus of Darien.

After his death, in 1520, Don Angel Saavedra, interpreting his views,

proposed to Charles V to construct a canal through that isthmus.

A few years later, Hernan Cortez, then master of Mexico, desired to dig a maritime canal through the Isthmus of Tehauntepec, and in his

letters to Charles V he laid great stress upon the necessity of accomplishing that project.

Finally, in 1550, the Portuguese navigator Antonio Galvao published

a book designed to show that it was possible to construct a ship canal

through the isthmuses of Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and southern

Darien.

Thus, at the close of the sixteenth century the four principal routes

for an interoceanic canal were known.

Many explorations succeeded each other; but no serious effort was

made, and none could be made, in a practical manner, at that time.

The interoceanic canal question was neglected and almost forgotten

during the entire seventeenth century, and the greater part of the

eighteenth.

It was England that, toward the close of the eighteenth century,

attached to this question its full political and commercial importance.

The British Government, with characteristic foresight, thought that

the national interest rendered it imperative for it to secure possession

of that part of the American isthmus which then seemed to offer the

best route for the establishment of communication between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This was the cause of Nelson's unfortunate

expedition against Nicaragua in 1778.

After that time, except during the Revolution and the first years of

the Empire, explorations were multiplied. That of 1780 deserves

special mention. It was organized by order of Charles III, King of

Spain, and its object was the construction of a canal through the

Isthmus of Panama. Humboldt, who visited the American isthmus

in 1(S()4, declared his preference for a route via the Isthmus of Darien.

From 1814 to 1842 numerous surveys were made on the Isthmus of

Tehauntepec.

Finally, in 1844, a Frenchman, Napoleon Garella by name, engineer

in chief of mines, first made an accurate report concerning the Isthmus

of Panama, which he had surveyed both with a view to the const ruction

of a canal and of a railway. He had been sent by a Frcn/h company

which had received a concession for these two routes, and which, in pursuance of his report, decided in favor of the construction of a rail- way. But the events of 1848 came. The concession of the French
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 5

company Lapsed, and the railway was built, from 1850 to 1855, by an American company, which is still operating it. At this same time the grave diplomatic incidents occurred between

England and the United States which had reference to the control and

the neutrality of the future interoceanic route, and which were terminated in L818 by the Clayton-Bulwer treaty.

From 1850 to 1870 new explorers, most of whom were Americans,

made new surveys in various parts of the Isthmus. Public opinion in the United States was passionately in favor of some of these routes; then the American Government resolved (1870) to cause the Isthmus

to be surveyed, at its own expense, from Tehauntepec to Darien. The

explorations lasted three years, and were still incomplete.

The Congress of Geographical Science, which met at Antwerp in 1871 and at Paris in 1875, gave its attention to the subject of an interoceanic canal. At this latter meeting Mr. de Lesseps declared that, in

Ms opinion, the authors of all the plans entertained up to that time

had committed a serious error by examining only routes for canals with

locks, lie declared that an interoceanic canal, in orde?' to meet all the requirements of commercial navigation, must be constructed on a level, as the Sues Canal had been. This formal and absolute opinion of Mr. Ferdinand de Lesseps was

destined to prevail, four years afterwards, before the International

Congress of Surveys. It was not fully adopted, however, by the con- gress of 1875, which confined itself to expressing the following wish:

The congress expresses the wish that the governments interested in the construction of an interoceanic canal will have the surveys for such a canal made with as much activity as possible, and that they will adhere to the routes which offer to navigation the greatest facilities for access and traffic. But, pending the intervention of the Powers, which might have

caused a very long deky, the Society of Commercial Geography at Paris saw fit actively to pursue the solution of the problem. It had

ascertained, from the debates of the recent congress, that the world was not in possession of full topographical information concerning the

American isthmus. It was convinced, moreover, that it was impossible,

without supplementary surveys, to make, intelligently, a choice of a

route that should be based upon proofs and reasons. Only, the society

had neither the resources nor the credit necessary to enable it to undertake the costly explorations which had to be made. It thought proper

to place its work in more powerful hands, and to that end it organized, March 24, 1876, a French committee to examine the subject of the

construction of an Interoceanic canal. Mr. de Lesseps was chosen

president of the committee; Admiral de la Ronciere le Noury and

Admiral Meurand were chosen vice-presidents; Messrs. Daubree,

Levasseur, and Delesse (of the institute), Count Foucher de Careil,

and Messrs. Malte-Brun, Cotard, Maunoir, Hertz (Charles) were members; Mr. Bionne was secretary.

At the same time, General Turr and Lucien Napoleon BonaparteWyse organized a civil association, which undertook to defray the

expense of the explorations, and before the close of the year 1876 an

international expedition, under the direction of Mr. L. N. B. Wyse,

was operating on the ground. It finished its surveys in 1878. In the

month of May, 1878, Mr. L. N. B. Wyse, in the name of the Civil

Association, secured from the Government of Colombia the concession

of the ship canal to be constructed through the territory of that

country.
6 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The French committee was then able to convoke a special congress,

to which it submitted all the data which it had collected. We will

briefly review the work of that congress, which adopted the name of

"The International Congress of Surveys for an Interoceanic Canal."

II. —THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SURVEYS FOR AN INTEROCEANIC

CANAL.

(May 15-29, 1879.) The International Congress of Surveys for an Interoceanic Canal

held its sessions at Paris from the 15th to the 29th of May, 1879.

The 135 members who composed it were divided up into five large

commissions, whose titles were the following: (1) Statistics; (2) Economical and commercial questions; (3) Navigation; (1) Technical questions; (5) Ways and means. We will not discuss here anything but the conclusions which were

formulated by the first and fourth commissions.

M. Levesseur, member of the institute, was, at the same time,

president and reporter of the commission of statistics, which made the

following predictions concerning the traffic of the canal:

In ten years (in 1889), before which time the canal will, in all probability, not be opened to traffic, 5,250,000 tons at least will probably represent the commercial move- ment of the two oceans, and about 2,000,000 tons will represent that fraction of the commercial movement between the East and Europe which, as it seems, may be

diverted from the route now followed, in order to take that of the American Isthmus;

7,250,000 tons in the aggregate. M. Levasseur took care to forestall any voluntarily optimistic or erroneous interpretation of his conclusions. He called attention to the

fact that they did not mean that 7,250,000 tons would necessarily take

the route of the canal within a year from its opening, or even in the

3

T ears following. What he desired to ascertain and establish was the

capacity of the double reservoir by which the canal was to be supplied,

ottering to navigation incontestable advantages over the rival routes through the continent or to the south of the American continent,

M. de Lesseps was, afterwards, much more positive. He did not

hesitate to consider the estimates made by M. Levasseur as representing the certain traffic of the canal as soon as it should be put into

operation.

The fourth commission, which was specially charged with the technical examination of the various routes, had M. Daubree, member of

the institute, for its president, and Voisin Bey, formerly directorgeneral of the work on the Suez Canal, for its reporter. It carefully

examined all the plans that were submitted to it, Unfortunately,

those plans were based upon incomplete data. For none of them

could the amount of work to be done be accurately determined. As

to prices and terms of construction, no standard of comparison and no

precedent were available in order to fix them.

When one reads the reports of the sessions of that commission, one

constantly recognizes the inspiration of M. de Lesseps, one perceives

the action of his will, so persistent in forming a general opinion hi favor of a plan for a canal on a level. The discussions of the commission were long, and sometimes very heated. It clearly appears, however, that opposition to the views of M. de Lesseps was manifested

mainly by abstaining from voting. Thus, at the time of formulating
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. (

their opinion concerning the conclusions readied in the report of

Voisin Bey, 40 members absented themselves, 10 abstained from voting,

and only 19 voted, 16 of whom voted in the affirmative. And still, those conclusions were not yet wholly absolute. They were as follows:

The Technical Commission is of opinion that the route of the interoceanic canal Bhould be from the Gulf of Limon to the Bay of Panama; and it particularly recommends

the construction of a ship canal on a level in that direction. The prediction was made that the time necessary for the construction

of the canal would be twelve years, and that the cost of the work would

be 1 milliard (billion) and 70 millions. Supposing that the interest payable in the meantime would amount to 130,000,000, the total expenditure was to be 1,200,000,000.

The conclusions adopted by the congress in full session secured the

complete triumph of M. de Lesseps. They were as follows:

The congress thinks that the construction of an interoceanic canal on a constant

level, which is so desirable in the interest of commerce and navigation, is possible,

and that such ship canal, in order to meet the indispensable facilities of access and

utilization which should be offered, ^specially, by a communication of this kind, should be directed from the Gulf of Limon to the Bay of Panama. However, in order to appreciate the bearing of these conclusions,

the manner in which the votes were divided must be examined.

Of the 135 members who composed the congress, 37 were absent at the time when the vote was taken and only 98 voted. The votes, for

almost all of which reasons were given, were as follows: Not voting,

12; noes, 8; ayes, 78. By considering the names of those who abstained from voting, of

those who were absent, and of those who voted no, it is seen that M.

de Lesseps had against him a majority of the engineers and of the contractors who were members of the congress. One of them, Mr. Kleitz,

inspector- general of bridges and roads, presented in support of his

negative vote the following remarkable observations:

I dc not adhere to the conclusions submitted to the vote of the congress, because they seem to me to be too positive and too absolute. The only conclusions which thus far seem to me to be justified by the discussion

of the various plans are the following:

1. The interoceanic canal should extend from the Gulf of Limon to the bay of Panama.

2. The surveys submitted to the congress are not sufficiently thorough to render

it possible, without fuller information, to declare the possibility of the construction and operation of a canal on a level, and to make a choice, based upon reasons and

proofs, between that system and that of a canal with locks.

3. The solution which should, if possible, be accomplished, is that of a canal on a

level, because such a solution is better adapted to a large increase of traffic, and to securing the safety and rapidity of the passage.

4. In case the construction of a canal on a level should give rise to uncertainty to too serious difficulties or to excessive expense, a canal with locks would probably meet the requirements of maritime navigation.

These sensible observations of Mr. Kleitz were, unfortunately, not

listened to. The International Congress of Surveys for an Interoceanic

Canal closed its sessions May 29, 1879. M. de Lesseps announced

that he would agree to place himself at the head of the new enterprise,

and, confiding in his lucky star, he uttered these words:

If a general who has won his first battle is asked whether he desires to win

another, he can not refuse. It is interesting to remember, after what has just been quoted of

the observations of Mr. Kleitz, and especially in view of the present
8 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

plans, that the idea of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama,

comprising an inner lake formed by a dam across the Chagres Valley, had already been mentioned and submitted for discussion to the

Congress of 1879.

On the Panama line the route leaves the Chagres Valley at Matachin; the height

of the water course is 14.60 meters at that point; taking about that level for the bottom

of the basin, we may fix the water plane at level 24; that is to say, a little below the height of the highest waters, and we get rid of the Chagres, whose presence near

the trenches constitutes an increase of expense and a considerable augmentation of the time required for the work.

It is useless to raise the summit level any higher; it is doubtful whether that rep- resents any saving, owing to the cost of the feeders, which will always be very far from securing the full flow of the river for the requirements of navigation, as is done

by the arrangement aforesaid. This point being established, we might doubtless take the ordinary canal system

and go down the valley, cutting its spurs. Here, however, the abundance of water offers resources that are unknown in the temperate zones. It is, furthermore, very dangerous to the health of the men

employed in the works to dig up the earth; this is certainly the greatest difficulty

presented by this work. The establishment of an artificial lake at the height of the summit level does away

with all these inconveniences, while it replaces, for a great length, a canal with a narrow waterway by a route of more than 1,000 meters of minimum width, in which

vessels may sail at any rate of speed desired, and may pass each other without the turning out places. We should thus, at this low altitude, have a real Bosphorus (Bosporus) , extending

from one ocean to the other, which would be approached through short stretches of water and flights of locks that could be easily and rapidly passed.

This system of retention of water was proposed at La Tuyra by Mr. Celler, engi- neer in chief of bridges and roads; it has been proposed by M. Blanchet, in Nicaragua,

and by others, since 1860, for the passages of Tehuantepee and Darien; but it is here much better indicated by the nature of the locality and the facilities offered by the Chagres Valley and River.

It is, we repeat, the natural method, because it does away with labor and with the unhealthiness of the soil, and because it is most advantageous to navigation.

Taking the plan of Messrs. Wyse and Reclus for greater practicability, we reach

the conclusion, according to the above data, that the time required for passage through

such a canal would be twelve hours, while in a canal with a narrow waterway and

on a level it would be ten hours and a half—that is to say, vessels would lose an hour and a half in the passage, with much less chance of suffering damage. Following up this calculation, the conclusion is reached that the loss of time represents, for the navigation of the globe, a capital of 1,500,000 francs, and as regards the cost of construction a saving of money of nearly 600,000,000 francs, together with a saving of six years, at least, in the construction.

It is evident that the dams in the valley raising the water plane to level 24 should be as near as possible to the two oceans; the desirable points are the mouth of the Gatun River, kilometer 8 and kilometer 64, where they seem possible. In all cases, kilometers 22 and 62, which are the termini of the first and sixth sections of the plan, are perfectly practicable.

The maximum depth of the trench would be 72 meters, that is, 12 meters more

than the drain of the City of Mexico, which is placed in volcanic tufa the nature of which is by no means good; its average depth is 39.50 meters; here, on the contrary, the hardness of the rocks furnishes complete security. Its cube is 8,553,000 meters, about 253,000 meters being of surface earth. The dams fixed at level 26 have their foundations on a level with the oceans and

1.50 meters below the bed of the river. They have a height of retention of 22.50 meters, which is much less than that of the dams of the Sig and of the Habra in Algeria. Several valley dams in France, and particularly in Spain, are much higher,

especially those of Saint-Etienne and Madrid. At this height it is possible to construct with earth, which work is both economical and durable. The Tledat dam, in Algeria, is of the same height, but it is well

to make provision for concrete dams, mainly for the avoidance of unhealthiness of construction. The Chagres drains 20 meters in five months. Its deflection for the purpose of allowing dredging and the establishment of foundations in its bed presents no

difficulties.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 9

A series of five locks would be attached to the dam. By this means the maneuvering would be very rapid. A set of machines would be established there, audit

is probable that, with the aid of a reduction of the number of gates, the passage would be made in an hour and a quarter. If this were so, less trouble and loss of time would be met with than with a canal on a level and with a narrow waterway.

The ebb locks would form the six locks of the series, which would reduce the time lost in the canal and the amount of the work on the short lengths with a narrow waterway.

Two weirs of the total length of 800 meters would be established near the dams,

probably by means of small trenches in the neighboring valleys; their absolute

security can always he guaranteed by the riprap and piles at their foot. In extraordinary freshets, giving 1,300 meters per second, the layer of outflowing water would lie less than 1 meter thick; the current in the trench would be regulated

by the length of the dam toward the Pacific.

If things are established in this manner the water plane is kept at its maximum,

its variations being prevented. This is obeying natural laws while profiting by them

and regulating them.

III. —THE FIRST ISSUE. In order to construct a canal on a level through the Isthmus of Panama, the route for which had been fixed upon in a general way by the

International Congress of Surve}r s, an association was immediately

organized under the name of "The Universal Interoceanic Canal Company;" its capital was to be 400,000,0<>0 francs, represented by 800,000

shares of 500 francs each.

The public subscription was opened in Europe and America on the

6th and 7th of August, 1879. It was not a success. Only 30,000,000 were subscribed for. Bitter attacks had been made upon the enterprise. The amount of

cost estimated was criticised as being too small, and the amount of the

receipts estimated was criticised on the ground that it was too large.

From a political point of view it was sought to arouse fears of hostil- ity on the part of the United States of America.

While under prosecution Mr. Charles de Lesseps explained the causes of this violent opposition, and showed how his father had suc- ceeded in putting a stop to it. He was obliged to consent to put the

financial management of the enterprise in the hands of a group of per- sons connected with journalism and finance, who undertook to render

public opinion favorable to the enterprise. It is not for us to dwell

upon this point.

On the other band, however, in order to meet the repeated criticisms

of the insufficiency and inaccuracy of the first estimates, Mr. de Lesseps

decided that new surveys should be made. In a letter bearing date of

August 14, 1879, in which he admitted that the issue of the 6th and 7th

of that month had not been successful, he announced that those sup- plementary surveys would be made with the approval of Mr. Couvreux

and his associates, and that it would not be until his return from the

isthmus that he would definitel}" organize the Interoceanic Canal

Company.

IV. —THE INTERNATIONAL SURVEY COMMISSION.

M. de Lesseps embarked December 8, 1879, at St. Nazaire for Colon,

where he landed on the 30th of that month.

An international technical commission accompanied him. The organization of this commission had been provided for and the work to be

done by it had been defined by the concession law. According to
10 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

article 1, section 3, of that law, it was to make the linal surveys on

the ground, and to fix upon the route of the line of the canal. It was, moreover, charged with replying, by the results of its surve3r s, to the

criticisms of the opponents of the new enterprise, or simply to the

observations of those who did not look without fear into a dark future.

On the 14th of February, 1880, the International Survey Commission decided upon the conclusions of its report determining the final conclusions concerning the construction of the Panama Canal.

Notwithstanding our desire to state nothing but facts, we can not

help here referring to the haste with which the supplemental surveys

of the colossal work that was about to be undertaken were made.

The estimates for the work proper, prepared by the international

commission, amounted to 813,000,000 francs. The commission at the same time expressed the opinion that with a good and judicious organization the work could be finished in eight years. It was, as compared

with the conclusions of the congress, a reduction of 200,000,000 francs in the total cost and a saving of four years in the time to be employed in the construction.

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, however, thought that he could still further reduce the estimates of the international commission, although

they were already notably lower than those of the technical commission of the congress of 1879. He stated the reasons of the reductions

made by him, in a note written on the 22d of February, 1880, on the

steamer which took him from Colon to New York. It was necessary, according to him, to provide for an expenditure of only 658,000,000

francs; and, in his opinion, the amount that would be saved in the ex- cavation ''would fully offset the interest payable to the shareholders on the capital expended during the construction."

Now, if we refer to the conclusions reached b}r the congress, we

find that the estimates furnished by them, viz, 1,200,000,000 francs

and twelve years, appeared insufficient to many of its members, who

were experienced engineers and contractors, for the construction of a

canal on a level. Nevertheless, Mr. Ferdinand de Lesseps thought

that he could reduce them nearly 50 per cent.

If we further observe, as we shall hereafter show, that the amount

of work to be done had been inaccurately estimated, the events about

to follow, together with all their consequences, can easily be forseen.

V. —THE COUVREUX AND HERSENT CONTRACT—SUCCESS OF THE

SECOND ISSUE OF SHARES.

Let us now briefly refer to the journeys made by Mr. de Lesseps, on his return from the isthmus with a view to promoting the enterprise, to the United States, England, Belgium, Holland, and in France. The speeches delivered in these different countries clearly show the

views, or, more accurately, the state of mind of Mr. de Lesseps and

his partisans whom he bad caused .to share bis faith, his enthusiasm,

and his temerity. As we wish to forget and conceal nothing, we must

point out, at the same time, in these public demonstrations, the part

taken by self-esteem and by interests supercxcitcd by such an enterprise.

The previous successes of Mi-, de Lesseps, and his personal prestige,

seemed to justify his optimism and boldness.

We must cite, as an instance, a speech delivered at Brussels, May 6,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 1 1

L880, iii which Mr. A Couvreux, jr. stated that his firm would undertake the construction of the Panama Canal, the cost of which it esti- mated at only 512,000,000 franc*.

This new reduction of the estimates of the international commission was the result of an estimate made upon the following basis : It had

been supposed that the new surveys made, and even the results of the

first preparatory work, would confirm the amount of work as estimated

by the international commission.

Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent likewise thought that the application

of the improvements recently made in machinery for boring and

digging would render it possible to reduce the unit prices fixed by the

congress of Paris and accepted by the international commission.

The total of 512,000,000 francs represented the cost of extraction

and of the partial employment in the construction of dams, of the

75,000,000 cubic meters, which expense was estimated at 466,098,000

francs, increased by 45,902,000 francs for contingent work and accessories not specified.

At the time to which we are now referring, viz, in 1880, no one can be

accused of bad faith. It is, moreover, with a real feeling of sadness

that we now read the following passage of the speech which we are

considering:

It is certain that these prices are still in excess of the truth, and if the future shows that the estimates now adopted have not been reached, the wisdom of those who have prepared them must not be impugned, but their wise foresight must be

recognized in the performance of so gigantic a task, which is to be accomplished in such new and almost unknown regions.

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps was, in fact, in full accord with Messrs.

Couvreux & Hersent. These gentlemen had expressed to him their

readiness to organize the enterprise and to do the work for the account

of the company until the ship canal should be entirely completed.

The performance of the work was divided into two parts:

1. The period of organization, which was to last about two }

r ears, and during which the greater part of the material was to be prepared,

as was the greater part of the installations; the work, moreover, was

to be commenced at several points, so that an exact estimate of the

cost would render it possible to fix the unit prices.

2. The period of enterprise proper, which was to last six years, and was to be regulated by a special agreement based upon the unit

prices resulting from the work already done, and to be definitely

decided upon by the company and Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent.

Consequently, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent, acting wr ith the regular

powers of the company, were to form, both at Paris and Panama, an

organization for the direction of surveys, and afterwards for the

direction of work. After having made the surveys and caused to be

constructed the plant, prepared the work yards, etc., they were to decide the technical or other questions connected with the execution

of the works themselves.

Before the expiration of the two years fixed upon as the period of

organization, installation, construction of plant and useful tests, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent were to submit to the company the unit

prices that were to serve as a basis for the organization of a jointstock enterprise.

The unit prices being fixed by common consent, the wT ork was to be

done by Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent for the account of the company,
12 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION.

and when the work should be finished the following settlement was to be made: A total and exact addition was to be made, but without

interest, of all sums expended, with the exception of the expenses of

the superior management of the company and those of the service of

inspection. Furthermore, the general amount of all the work done was to be computed, and the unit prices fixed upon were to be applied

to the quantities ascertained. The difference between the two results was to be the profit realized by the joint-stock enterprise, and that

profit was to be wholly divided, according to a special agreement to be made for that purpose by the company and the contractors. In

the meantime, and for the first period only, the contractors were to receive a bounty of 6 per cent on the total amount of the expenditures. In this situation the issue of the 7th, 8th, and 9th of December,

1880, took place; it was for 300,000,000 francs, represented by 600,000

shares at 500 francs each.

The issue was subscribed for twice. In order to attain this end what declarations and assertions had been

made to the public?

It had been told that

* An international technical commission having met on the spot (at Panama), had declared that a ship canal was practicable.

The contractors, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent, had presented their

estimates and declared that the construction of the canal would not

cost 500,000,000 francs, and would last eight years. The estimate of an annual traffic assuring a revenue of 90,000,000

francs on 6,000,000 tons was to be considered as below the reality, and

the revenue would be larger than had been supposed.

The Americans had recognized that the work of piercing the Isthmus

of Panama would be an essentially international work, done for the

benefit of all, and that its neutrality would be guaranteed by the concession itself, and would be absolute, which would secure the unrestricted cooperation of the wealthy and powerful American banks.

Until the close of the year 1882, Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent pros- ecuted the surveys and the preliminary work of the canal. On the

31st of December, 1882, they wrote to Mr. Ferdinand de Lesseps, proposing to him the annulment of their contract, declaring, however,

that they were prepared to inaugurate the second period, the period

of construction proper, on the terms provided in the contract; that is to say, on the basis of the unit prices resulting from the work which

had already been done. The}T added, however, that it was their duty

to call attention to the fact that such an agreement would he onerous

to the company. It had happened, as ought to have been foreseen,

that during the period of preliminary organization and installation the

cost price of the work performed, burdened with a large amount of

general and divers expenditures, increased by groping in the dark and

by special inexperience with regard to the conditions prevailing on the

isthmus, was found to be very hig'h. Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent observed, moreover, that thej" had

found that the system of the division of contracts would meet, better

than any other, the actual requirements of the situation, in that it would permit, first, a test of the different methods, and consequently

a more speedy performance of the work. It was this system of small

contracts that was adopted on the terms which we will mention hereafter, from 1883 up to the close of 1885.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 13

VI. THE SUPERIOR ADVISORY COMMISSION FOR THE WORK.

Early in the year 1881, Mr. de Lesseps, thinking that the new and

detailed surveys which had been going on since the organization of

the company were sufficiently far advanced to render it possible to decide upon* definite plans for certain sections of the canal, created a superior advisory commission for the work, which was to act as a

technical board, and to give its opinion with regard to all plans. This

commission was composed of

Mr. Lefebure de Fourcy, inspector-general ot bridges and roads,

Mr. Daubree, inspector-general of mines, director of the school of

mines, member of the institute, vice-president. _ Mr. Dirks, engineer in chief of the Waterstaat in Holland, vicepresident.

Mr. Boutan, engineer of the corps of mines.

Commander Gioia, an Italian engineer.

Mr. de la Gournerie, inspector-general of bridges and roads, member

of the institute. . Admiral Jurien de la Graviere, member of the institute. Mr. Lalanne, inspector-general of bridges and roads, member of

the institute. Mr. Laroche, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, formerly engi- neer of the Suez Canal. t

. Mr. Larousse, hydrographic engineer, formerly engineer ot the

Suez Canal.

Mr. Oppermann, engineer in the corps of mines.

Mr. Pascal, inspector-general of bridges and roads, engineer in chief

of the port of Marseilles.

Mr. Ruelle, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, director ot construction of the railroads of P. L. M.

Voisin Bey, inspector-general of bridges and roads, formerly directorgeneral of work on the Suez Canal.

3 Mr. Dauzats, consulting engineer of the company, secretary.

Subsequently, several new members were designated, and in particular Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges and roads, who made, on his return from the isthmus, whither he went in 1886, contemporaneously with Mr. A. Roussau, an important report.

We "desire to call to mind that the functions of the commission were

of a purely advisory character. The engineers who composed it took no part whatever in the construction, that is to say, in the preparation

and control of the contracts and of the works.

We have thought proper to give their names and to point out the

importance of their positions and functions, in order to have an opportunity to show once more that Mr. de Lesseps was able to cause eminent engineers to share his views regarding the practicability of

the construction of a canal on a level. His personal influence was so great that none of these men, and none among them could be sus- pected, was willing or bold enough, perhaps, to concern himself

about the financial consequences of the work.

VII. —PURCHASE OF THE SHARES OF THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY.

We must call attention to an important act of the company which

took place at this time. It was the purchase of almost all the shares
14 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the American company owning the railroad from Colon to Panama.

On this subject a few retrospective explanations are necessary.

An American company, organized in New York in April, 1S49,

secured from the Government of the United States of Colombia, April

15, 1850, a concession for a railroad between Colon and Panama. That

first concessson was modified in 1867 so as to guarantee to the American company, with certain reservations, the exclusive monopoly of

any means of communication (canals, roads, etc.) crossing the Isthmus

of Panama from one ocean to the other as far as the limits of a certain

determinate zone. The ship canal which was to connect the two oceans passed into the zone

reserved for the railroad company; but among the reservations made

by the Government of Colombia was the right to grant a concession

for piercing a ship canal, the terms being specified on which that right

should be exercised. In short, the railroad company could not oppose the opening of the

canal, but it had a right to demand from the owners of that competing

thoroughfare an indemnity which it was obliged to share with the

Colombian Government. Mr. de Lesseps thought that the procedure

provided for by the law governing the concession, with a view to enabling the two companies to reach an arrangement, would cause the

loss of a great deal of time. Now, it was indispensable that such an arrangement should be made, for not only was the practical use of the

railroad, which follows the line of the canal almost exactly, necessary

to the progress of the work, but also the land, the wharves, and quays

belonging to the railroad had to be utilized on the best terms by the

canal company.

Mr. F. de Lesseps preferred to negotiate the purchase, pure and

simple, of the majority of the shares of the railroad company, as the

American law gave the most ample powers to the owner of the majority

of the shares of the company. He thought that he found, in this manner of proceeding, two important advantages: In the first place, no modification was made in the American constitution of the Panama

Railroad Company, and in the second place, the canal company secured,

in the most simple and speedy manner, the necessary influence over

the railroad company.

VIII. —THE SMALL CONTRACTS.

(1883-1885.)

We have seen how the contract of Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent came to an end. The company was obliged, in consequence, to secure some one to take charge of the direction of the work. It assigned

this task to Mr. Dingier, engineer in chief of bridges and roads, who

went to Panama in the month of February, 1883. This was, in reality, the second period provided for from the. outset,

the period of construction, properly so called, of the canal which was

then beginning to be built. Numerous work yards were opened or prepared all along the line of the canal. The highest peaks that tin 1 canal met with were attacked. Thus was to be obtained, following

the route, a succession of platforms, more or less extensive, and of

various heights. Thus was prepared the installation of large work
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 15

yards best suited to permitting the most active and regular operation

possible.

While he was organizing the work yards, Mr. Dingier examined the

entire plan for a sea-level canal. His report is the only full statement

of the question that has been made. It is a voluminous document, and

can not be readily analyzed. It received the approval of the superior

advisory commission.

The general provisions of the plan were the following: The canal,

which had its origin in Limon Bay, at Colon, on the Atlantic, was

established as far as Obispo, for about 45 kilometers, at the very bottom of the Chagres Valley; it then crossed the chain of the Cordilleras, which separates the Atlantic from the Pacific Ocean, between

kilometers 45 and 56, and finally, beyond, developed itself in the valley

of the Rio Grande as far as deep water in the Pacific, near the island

of Naos, in the Ba}T of Panama.

The length of the line was 74 kilometers. The width of the canal at bottom was to be 22 meters, and it was to be 9 meters deep. In order to moderate and regulate the floods in the Chagres, the

flow of which may rise from 20 cubic meters at low water to 2,000

cubic meters when there is a high flood, a large dam had been projected at Gamboa across the valley of the Chagres, creating a reservoir

capable of storing a part of the water of the floods. Their flow being

thus reduced, the water of the Chagres and its affluents were to be

borne to the sea by deflections opened on each side of the canal. The cube of the excavations to be made was, at least, 120,000,000

meters, or 45,000,000 meters more than had been estimated by the

international commission, and 75,000,000 more than the congress had

indicated. Notwithstanding this enormous increase in the amount of

work, M. de Lesseps adhered, in 1883 and 1884, to his assertion that

the canal would be finished in 1888.

It was not until the meeting of the shareholders took place, July 29,

1885, that M. de Lesseps began to modify his preceding declarations.

The date of the completion of the canal was deferred until the month

of July, 1889, and the estimate of the congress of 1879 was again

adopted for fixing the total expense at about $1,200,000,000.

Still, notwithstanding the reiterated assertions and assurances, it became evident that the organization and progress of the work would

not permit the programme which had been established on the preceding basis to be carried out. While it was declared that the yield of

the work yards was increasing progressively, it began to be realized

that, notwithstanding the greatest efforts, it woulcT be impossible to

finish the work within the time and with the capital reckoned upon.

In the month of July, 1885, hardly one-tenth of the total cubic amount

of earth had been excavated; that is to say, of 120,000,000 cubic

meters, but 12,000,000 cubic meters had been excavated.

We have now come to a time when the enterprise was severely criti- cised and and passionately discussed. The credit of the company began

to be shaken. M. de Lesseps now thought necessary to appeal to the

Government, which he did in a letter bearing date of May 27, 1885,

whereby he asked for authority to issue lottery bonds. This first request (which had no result, as will be seen hereafter) was the beginning of an evolution in the programme for the construction of a canal on the level.
16 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

IX. —THE LARGE CONTRACTS (ENTERPRISES).

(1885-1887-1889.)

We have hitherto seen set on foot, under the direction of Mr. Dingier, a numerous series of contracts of varying importance, but none of

which was charged, within its limits, with the complete construction of a canal on a level. We have likewise said that the amount yielded by

the work yards of these different enterprises was too small, notwithstanding their progressive increase, to render it possible to foresee or hope for the completion of the canal at the time fixed. The company realized that it must make a great effort in order to

retain the confidence of the public. On the one hand, it sought to support its assertions relative to the performance of the work by engagements entered into by contractors. It endeavored, on the other hand,

to strengthen its credit by Governmental intervention, which was

manifested by the grant of a special favor which had already been

extended to the Suez Canal Compan}T. Let us examine in the first place the organization adopted by the

company in order to secure, as it thought, the completion of a canal on a level before the close of the year 1889.

The canal was divided into five large sections, each of which was

intrusted to a general enterprise, except on the first 25 kilometers on

the Atlantic side, where two enterprises were working side by side. These were the American Contracting and Dredging Company and the

Jacob enterprise. Messrs. Vignaud, Barbaud, Blanleuil & Co. were to do the work

between kilometer 26 and kilometer 11. The Public Works and Construction Company had charge of that

part of the large trench comprised between kilometer 11 and kilometer

53.60, as well as of the Chagres dam.

The deepest trench, that of the Culebra (from kilometer 53.60 to kilometer 56), was conceded to an Anglo-Dutch enterprise, whose contract was assumed in the course of the year 1886 by the firm of

Artigue, Sonderegger & Co.

Finally, Messrs. Baratoux, Letellier & Co. were to dig the canal

from kilometer 55.156 to its extremity in the Pacific Ocean.

All these contractors had engaged to complete the work intrusted

to them before the close of the year 1889.

Mr. Dingier was succeeded, as director of the work, by Mr. Leon

Boyer. A mission to the isthmus was, furthermore, confided by the

management of the company to one of the members of the superior

advisory commission, viz, Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges

and roads.

Finally, early in the year 1886, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps himself

went to Panama, accompanied by M. Charles dc Lesseps, by some of

the high officers of the company, by delegates of the chambers of commerce of Marseilles, Rouen, Bordeaux, and St. Nazaire, and by

various prominent Englishmen and Americans. Wcwill also mention

Mr. Pescheck, an engineer attached to the embassy of Germany at Paris, who afterwards became a member of the superior advisory

commission for the work.

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps returned to France at the close of the

month of March, 1886, with his travelling companions. He immedi-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17

ately announced that he felt the utmost confidence in the speedy completion of the canal. At this very time two statements were made in favor of the decla- rations made and the hopes entertained by M. F. de Lesseps. The

first was a report of the commission on petitions of the Chamber of

Deputies. A large number of stockholders and bondholders of the

Panama Canal Company had petitioned that that company should be

authorized, as the Suez Canal Company had been, to issue lottery

bonds. The commission was unanimously of opinion that the authority

asked for should be quickly granted to M. de Lesseps, and referred

the matter to the competent ministers.

The-second is found among- the very favorable reports of the representatives of the chambers of commerce who had accompanied M. F. de Lesseps to the isthmus. To these were joined indorsements of

those same chambers of commerce and of various general boards.

During this time the great enterprises recently constituted were

organized and set on foot on the isthmus. It was, a priori, certain,

and it was soon but too evident that they would be powerless to meet

their engagements. Three experienced engineers charged, under dif- ferent titles, with a distinct mission of examination and inspection, were then on the isthmus. Not one of them hesitated to declare that

the hopes entertained by M. F. de Lesseps were without foundation.

The first was Mr. Armand Rousseau, then engineer in chief of

bridges and roads, ex-deputy, ex-assistant secretary of state at the

ministry of public works, whom the Governmont, before formally

complying with the request of M. de Lesseps, had delegated on the

Isthmus to make a report to it on the situation of the case. Mr. Rousseau did not conceal the fact, in the whole course of his

report, that the completion of the canal with the resources estimated

and within the time announced, seemed to him to be more than problematical, unless the companj^ should decide to make important

reductions and simplifications in its plans, that is unless it should build

the canal with locks. Although Mr. Rousseau did not formally give

this advice, it was doubtless because he thought that the official character of his mission did not permit him to do so. The second, Mr. Jacquet, inspector-general of bridges and roads, came to the Isthmus, having been sent by the company itself. The

conclusions reached by him in his report are very clearly stated, and,

it must be admitted, are very courageous if his position is considered

as a representative of the company and if the state of mind is known

which still prevailed at that time among the backers and friends of

M. de Lesseps.

Mr. Jacquet declared that, after having visited the work yards and

having realized the difficulties of the enterprise, he had reached the

conviction that it was necessary to renounce the completion of the

canal on a level, and to adopt the plan of a canal with locks on the very

line of the canal in course of construction.

The third engineer whose opinion we must mention was Mr. Leon

Boyer, director of works on the canal, who died a few months after

his arrival in Panama. He likewise declared that the construction of

a canal on a level was impossible within the time and at the cost esti- mated. He laid special stress upon the delay that would certainly

result .from the excavation of the great trench* Desiring, doubtless, not to oppose too directly the very positive views expressed by M.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 2
18 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

F. de Lesseps, he recommended a method which he declared to be provisional, and which consisted in crossing the central mass after it had

been sufficiently lowered, by the aid of hydraulic elevators. The

deepening of the great trench was to be continued after the canal was

in operation.

But M. F. de Lesseps would not hear a word. He continued, on

the contrary, earnestly to declare his intention to pursue the construction of a canal on a level. The Government was disposed, at that time, to grant him its aid. On the 17th of July, 1886, the minister of public works laid before

the chamber a bill to authorize the issue of lottery bonds by the Panama

Company.

The commission charged with the examination of the bill of the

Government declined, early in the month of July, to appoint a reporter before the recess of the legislative bodies.

This was postponing the vote for several months, and M. de Lesseps did not think proper to agree to this postponement. He withdrew the request which he had made to the Government, and obtained

from the meeting of the stockholders permission to issue a new series

of bonds, which succeeded like the others.

Notwithstanding the efforts made, the true state of the case began

to appear in all its gravity. In spite of the attempts made during the

yeav 1886, it became impossible not to recognize the correctness of the

estimates made by the engineers of the company themselves, which were at variance with the engagements made by the contractors.

X. —THE TEMPORARY CANAL WITH LOCKS.

(1887-1888.) A new evolution was preparing. While, in principle, the superiority of a canal on a level over anj^ other remained uncontested and

incontestable, the financial situation of the company forced it to seek

for a more speedy and less costly solution. Could a dreadful crisis be

thus avoided? It was hoped so, but events showed that such a crisis was inevitable.

The manifest desire of the company to seek its salvation in a new

way was shown very early in 1887. It is proper to mention here a meeting of the superior advisory commission for the work, which was

held in the month of January, 1887, and at which the question of a

canal with locks was clearly presented.

At the same time a new delegation, under the direction of M.

Charles de Lesseps, was sent to the Isthmus. It recognized once more the impossibility of completing the excavation of the central mass within the short time that had been announced.

Unfortunately, this opinion, although it was not new, was not immediately announced by the management of the company with proper

clearness and with all the necessary frankness. Once more were the

difficulties and dangers experienced which result from declarations

which have become sincere too late, for the public was accustomed to believe assertions of a different character. Too energetic protests had

been made against the opinions of the engineers, who, in L885and L886,

lead pointed out the p<*rils of the situation, and proposed solutions that

could be accomplished more speedily, and, what was more important,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 19

at loss expense. It was. consequently, necessary to prepare a move- ment of public opinion, such as was required by the situation. In his report to the meeting of the stockholders, which was held in July, 1887, M. F. de Lesseps gave it to be understood that the company was seeking for new solutions, speedy, and such as would render

it possible, without abandoning- the plan of a canal on a level, to open

a temporary canal for operation at the time appointed.

Time was passing, but the decisive action which the situation called for was not taken. Furthermore, considerable expense was being

incurred for work of which a part would be useless. The superior advisory commission which met in the month of January, 1887, had charged a subcommission to examine the various plans

of construction or of temporary operation of the canal which were laid before it by the company. This subcommission met only in the month

of September, 1887. The superior commission, at its full meeting in the month of October following, deliberated concerning the conclusions

of its subcommission and replied in the affirmative, unanimously, to the following two questions of principle which were propounded to it by the management of the compan}^:

Is it possible to establish in the central mass an upper level which would permit

the work of a canal at the sea level to be finished by applying the method of dredging to the excavation of this portion? Will it be possible, as soon as these arrangements shall have been completed and

without interrupting the work of deepening, to begin the operation of a ship canal between the two oceans? In accordance with these conclusions, and with new engagements

entered into at the same time by the various contractors, the engi- neers of the company were charged with preparing a plan whose cost, increased by the charges for interest and management during the

periods accepted by the contractors, and at the rates of the various

contracts concluded, was not to exceed 600,000,000 francs. The date

for the completion of the work had been set for the close of the year

1891. It is impossible to avoid being struck with the haste and rapidity

with which this new plan was prepared.

The expenditures entailed by the plan to be adopted had to be low

enough to leave ground for the hope that the public would lend its assistance to the last. It was necessary at the same time to reduce,

as far as possible, the time for the completion of the work, so as to remain within the limit of the period allowed by the law granting the

concession.

The line of the new route of the canal, which was called a temporary

canal with locks, did not differ from the line adopted for the canal on

a level. The canal had a single track and the surface of its summit level was

19 meters above the level of the oceans. The effort had been made to reduce the depth of the trench as far as possible, for the double purpose of gaining time and reducing expenses. It had thus become nec- essary to admit that the summit level would have to be fed by elevating

machinery. For the sake of econoury also, provision had been made

for locks with a single chamber. The construction of these locks was

intrusted to Mr. Eiffel, a new contractor. But it was necessary, furthermore, to create the necessary financial resources. The situation was even worse than it had been in 1885. In order to restore the damaged credit of the company recourse was had
20 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

to the same means as at that time, which means were identical with

those which at a critical period had rendered the completion of the

Suez Canal possible.

On the 15th of November, 1887, M. de Lesseps again requested the

Government to authorize him to issue lottery bonds. At the same

time petitions signed b}^ the bondholders of the company were sent from all parts of France to the members of the Senate and Chamber

of Deputies soliciting the same favor.

On the 1st of March, 1888, M. F. de Lesseps called an extra general meeting of the stockholders and made known to them in detail the new programme for the completion of the canal. On the same day

a bill due to parliamentary initiative provided that the Panama com- pany should be authorized to issue lottery bonds. This bill was taken

into consideration March 26, 1888, and on the next day a special commission of 11 members was appointed to examine it. The report of this commission was laid before the Chamber in its session of April 23, 1888. The debates lasted three days and ended on

the 28th of April by the passage of the bill by a majority of 156 votes

(281 ayes and 128 noes). The bill was transmitted to the Senate on

the 30th of April.

The committees of the Senate appointed, on the 17th of May, the

members of the commission charged with the examination of the bill passed by the Chamber. It was discussed in the sessions of June 4

and 5, and was likewise passed by the Senate.

It now only remained to utilize this law. On the 9th of June M.

F. de Lesseps made known the terms of the lottery bond loan, which

bonds were publicly issued on the 26th of June following.

Two million lottery bonds were issued, the price of each being 360

francs, bearing interest at the rate of 4 per cent per annum, all of them

being payable at 400 francs each by a civil amortization association

and sharing in semimonthly drawings. But only 800,000 bonds were

subscribed for. This was undeniable proof of the diminution of the credit of the

company and of the influence of M. de Lesseps.

This partial failure rendered a new issue necessary. In order to make preparations therefor Messrs. Ferdinand and Charles de Lesseps,

in the months of October and November, 1898, made visits and held

conferences in different parts of France.

The new issue took place on the 29th of November. It was conditional. The balance of the bonds, or about L,200,000 bonds, were

offered to the public, but the subscription was not to become irrevocable until 400,000 of the bonds should have1 been placed.

Now, less than 200,000 bonds were subscribed for. This was, for the company then existing, a demonstration of its inability, from a financial point of view, to continue the enterprise

which it had begun. Consequently, M. de Lesseps and his coworkers resolved to withdraw, and to yield the direction of the affair to others.

They stated the true situation to the Government, which, with the

laudable intention of promoting the continuation of the work and of pre- venting the definitive downfall of the company, laid before the committee of the Chamber December 14, 1888, a bill authorizing the

postponement for three months of the payment of the amounts which

the company owed, including the coupons of the shares and bonds. It
REPORT OF THE [8THMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 21

was hoped that it would be possible during that time to find some

combinations to set the enterprise on its feel again. But the very

next day. December L5, the Chamber refused to take up the discussion

of the Government's bill. M. F. do Lesseps himself caused the adoption of another measure

which the situation of the cast' rendered necessary. As the Panama Company was considered as a civil association, he

petitioned, on the 14th of December, the presiding judge of the civil court of the Seine to appoint temporary managers.

By an order issued December 15 the civil court of the Seine

appointed Messrs. Denormandie, Baudelot, and Hue as temporary

managers, with the most ample powers, to manage and administer

temporarily the interests of the company, and especially to secure

the continuation of the work, and to take, to that effect, all necessary measures which the situation and the interests of the creditors called for. The temporary managers endeavored, but without success, to reor- ganize the enterprise with the assistance of the governor of the Credit

Fonder, but their effort was unsuccessful. They then decided to call a general meeting of the shareholders on the 26th of January, 1889.

They considered that the appointment of a judicial receiver of the

company was necessary. They proposed to the meeting, for the dis- charge of these duties, Mr. Joseph Brunet, who had formerly been a magistrate, a senator, and a minister.

On the 1th of February, 1889, the civil court of the Seine, in

accordance with the desire expressed b}r the shareholders, appointed

Mr. Joseph Brunet judicial receiver of the Universal Interoceanic

Canal Company.

Here ends the first part of the historical sketch of the creation of

the Panama Canal.

Chapter II. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE UNIVERSAL

INTEROCEANIC CANAL COMPANY.

THE WORK DONE.

We think proper to give here a table of the receipts and expenditures at the beginning of the year 1890, that is to say, after the private

cancellations and the settlement of the account of the various enterprises.

RECEIPTS.

The receipts of the Panama Company from the day of its organization until the 8th of March, 1890, consisted of the following elements:

1. Capital of the company and loans. Francs. 600,000 shares of 500 francs each, having produced 297, 70.5, 125. 00

250,000 obligations of 500 francs, 5 per cent, having produced 109, 263, 197. 50

600,000 obligations of 500 francs, 3 per cent, having produced 168, 251, 865. 00

495,762 obligations of 500 francs, 4 per cent, having produced 144, 331, 713. 80

458,802 new obligations, first series, 1,000 francs each, having pro- duced 205, 972, 430. 00
22 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

258,887 new obligations, second series, 1,000 francs each, having Francs, produced 112,874,830.00

89,802 new obligations, third series, 1,000 francs each, having pro- duced ----- 34,869,115.20

849,249 new obligations, lottery, having produced 185, 871, 173. 78

357,699 lottery bonds (lottery "obligations issued by the receiver), having produced 12, 543, 184. 29

Proceeds of the company's capital and of the loans 1, 271, 682, 637. 57 Various receipts and yields 39, 666, 589. 24 Expenses not yet paid 18, 343, 851. 93

Total amount of the sums collected or remaining due by the company '..... 1,329,693,078.74

EXPENDITURES.

2. Expenditures on the Isthmus.

Francs. Expenditures for management and salaries on the Isthmus 82, 704, 415. 065

Rents, expenditures for keeping in order, etc 16, 505, 352. 72 Purchase of articles and material for consumption 29, 239, 602. 22 Purchase and transportation of heavy material 119, 374, 679. 14 Surveys and preparatory work 1 , 354, 733. 78 Central workshops and management 29, 947, 885. 18 Various constructions, buildings, and general installations 47, 038, 528. 74

\V< >rk of excavation and works of construction 443, 171, 124. 34 Domain: Purchase of lands 4, 753, 275. 27 Sanitary and religious service 9, 183, 841. 77

Total amount of expenditures on the Isthmus 783, 273, 438. 225

h. Expenditure* at Paris.

Francs. Price of the concession paid to the International Civil Association ... 10, 000, 000. 00

Security paid to the Colombian Government 750, 000. 00 Expenses incurred before the formation of the company 23, 061, 221. 35 American committee 12, 000, 000. 00

Amount* payable by the company—Interest paid.

Francs. On shares 67, 347, 494. 18

( )n 5 per cent obligations (bonds) 37, 264, 049. 866

( )n 3 per cent obligations 40, 623, 743. 841 On 4 per cent obligations 32, 761, 083. 596 On new obligations, first series 27, 052, is:',. ,832

< )n new obligations, second series 6, 51 7, 882. 158

( )n new obligations, third series 1, 753, 413. 367 On lottery obligations 2, 301 , 210. 04

215,621,361. 18 Amortizations.

Francs. Payment of 5 per cent obligations 965, 571. 25 Payment of 3 percent obligations 4,215,931. 15 Payment of 4 per cent obligations 1,582,078.35

Payment of new obligations, first series 12,460,167.85

Payment of new obligations, second series 3, 304, 337. 11

22, 528, 085. 71 Taxes on bonds payable by the company 3, 207, 721. 022 Sundry expenditures for the bond service 1, 904, 951. 718
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 23

( 'ost of issue.

I Kranes.]

I lesignation of the loans. Costs of syndicate. Cost of advertising, etc. Commission

for placing.

Signatures, bonds, sup- plementary

work, printing, and sun- dry outlays.

Total.

5, 000, 000. 00

ft, 950, 000. 00

4, 735, 200. 47

5, 336, 412. 50

3, 250, 354. 54

1, 175, 166. 45 11,000,000.00

1,365,847.04

2, 249, 994. 75

] , 088, 520. 85

2, 992, 616. 40

2, 359, 806. 31 2,474,637.25

7,301,131.55

1,148,575.13

2, 005, 230. 60 1,926,552.18

2, 750, 188. 23

315, 232. 98

502, 848. 24 562,181.56

684.915.35

7,829,665.15

:: per cenl bonds 10, 708, 073. 59

8,912, 155.06 11,764,132.48 New bonds, second series

New l iniids, third series 1,527,946.90 487,286.98 639,374.46 | 704,533.35

10, 900, 832. 84 | 2, 048, 816. 16

7,625,394.75

4,993,711.51 31,250,780.55

36, 447, 133. 96 20, 432, 554. 15 20, 898, 700. 34 5, 305, 814. 62 83, 084, 203. 07

Francs. Agents of the Colombian Government __ 213, 800. 00 Cost of management in France: Boards of management and direction 6, 212, 291 . 97

Salaries of employees in all branches of the service 5, 117, 221. 51 Sundries 3, 713, 393. 81 Building of the company and furniture 2, 087, 397. 58 Compensation paid to Messrs. Couvreux & Hersent on the cancellation of their contract 1, 200, 000. 00

Total 18, 544, 104. 87

Total amount of expenditures at Paris 390, 701, 648. 925 The general expenditures may be summed up as follows:

Francs. Total amount of expenditures at Panama 783, 273j.438. 225

Total amount of expenditures at Paris 390, 701, 648. 925 Purchase of the shares of the Panama Railroad 93, 268, 186. 73 Payment for the formation of the civil associations of lottery

obligations 32, 264, 680. 71 Advance to the Colombian Government 2, 455, 075. 00 Amount of the sums paid, but in litigation or advanced and left for the account of sundry debtors 11, 455, 801 . 59 Assets of the company March 8, 1890, consisting- of:

Francs. Cash in safe at Panama 2, 200, 941 . 21 Cash in safe at Paris 3, 823, 266. 03 Notes and acceptances at Paris 10, 250, 031. 33

16, 274, 238. 57

Total equal to the receipts 1, 329, 693, 078. 75 The amount of work done is furnished by the tables showing the

situation of the various enterprises.

The cube of the excavations is as follows:

By the small enterprises, during the period from 1883 to 1885 through- Cubic meters. out the whole extent of the canal 11, 729, 787. 013 By the small enterprises which existed until' 1888 1, 893, 576. 968 By the large enterprises:

From Colon to kilometer 25

Enterprise American Contracting and Dredging Company.. 16, 991, 797. 158 The Jacob Enterprise '.

. . 2, 324, 095. 402 From kilometer 25 to kilometer 44

Enterprise Vignaud, Barbaud, Blanleuil & Co 3, 642, 986. 660 From kilometer 44 to kilometer 53.60

Enterprise of the Public Works and Construction Companv 3, 421, 870. 590
24 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

By the large enterprises—Continued.

From kilometer 53.60 to kilometer 55.486— Cubic meters. Anglo-Dutch Enterprise 846, 824. 810

Enterprise Artigue, Sonderegger & Co 2, 255, 401. 650 From kilometer 55.486 to the extremity of the canal in the bay

of Panama

Enterprise Baratoux, Letellier & Co 6, 691, 724. 870 Excavations for the Eiffel Enterprise locks 843, 004. 740

Total 50, 641, 079. 861 It would be proper to add to this total cube the excavations made

by hired labor either in the canal or at its approaches for the installa- tions, and whose cube amounts to about 5,000,000 meters. The metallic parts of the locks which were supplied by the Eiffel Enterprise at the time when the work was suspended, comprised, on the

spot, at the Isthmus, 4,710 tons of iron and 11,430 tons of cast iron,

and in France, stored at various factories, 5,755 tons of cast iron,

manufactured or unmanufactured.

The delegation of the survey commission created by the receiver,

which went to the Isthmus in 1890, declared that the amount of work

done was very considerable. It recognized that the plant provided by

the old company, whose purchase, transportation, and putting- into

place had cost 150,0<>0,000, was in a good state of preservation, and

that, with the exception of some special machinery, it seemed likely to be sufficient, in great part, for the completion of the work. This

machinery has been kept in good condition, having been affected only

by normal wear and tear and deterioration. Its preservation has been

comparatively easy, for everything, that could be, was housed or

sheltered, that is to say. machines used in dry excavation and tools used in the shops. The floating plant, however, has suffered more,

especially that which, being made fast in the channels at the two extremities of the canal, has been exposed to the action of the salt water. The commission declared, furthermore, that the outfit of the shops was more than sufficient for the repairs of the plant, and that the number

of dwelling houses for the employees and the workmen was enormous,

and even seemed excessive, since there were accommodations for from

20,000 to 27,000 workmen.

Finally, the commission thought that leaving out of consideration

the work and the installations which had been rendered useless by the

abandonment of (ho project of a canal on a level, the value of the

useful work done and of the machinery on the Isthmus was to be esti- mated at 450,000,000 francs.

Chapter 111. THE LIQUIDATION.

(1889-1894.)

We have already said that, by an order of the civil court of the Seine,

bearing date of February 4, 1889, Mr. Joseph Brunei was appointed

receiver of the Universal Interoceanie Canal Company, with the most

ample powers, "especialty to cede or transfer to any new company the

whole or a part of the assets of the company, in order to conclude or
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 25

ratify with the contractors of the Panama Canal any agreements having for their object the securing of the continuation of the work, and

to conclude, for this purpose, all loans and to furnish all security."

The condition of the enterprise was then highly critical on the Isth- mus. It was impossible to stop work immediately in the work yards,

where several thousand men were employed, without danger of giving

rise to serious disturbances. The contractors were likewise obliged

to discharge their employees, to turn their machinery over to the company, and to settle their accounts with it. Notwithstanding the dangers and difficulties then existing, Mr.

Brunet thought that a new company might be organized for the completion of the canal. The course which he proposed to pursue was outlined at once. With

a view to preventing an}r sudden interruption of the work, he ratified an agreement which had been concluded between the temporary managers and the contractors, whereby the latter engaged to continue the

work, although reducing its amount as far as possible. In conse- quence of these agreements the work was continued on the Isthmus up

to various dates, running from March 15 to May 15, 1889.

Mr. Brunet likewise thought that it was very highly important,

whether he could resume the work directly or could succeed in organizing a company to complete the canal, to release the liquidation from

the onerous contracts made by the old company. The cancellation of

these various contracts took place in the course of the year 1889. In order to procure the necessary capital to preserve the work done,

to keep the plant in proper condition, and to provide for the expenses

of a survey commission which he proposed to organize in order to examine the condition of the canal as regarded its completion, the

receiver secured from the Chambers the passage of the law of July 15,

1889, which authorized him to negotiate, without restriction as to price

and without interest, the lottery obligations not placed in the issue of

1889. These new bonds were termed lottery bonds. The law declared

at the same time that sums accruing from the sale of these bonds were

undistrainable to the amount of 31,000,000.

During the same period final judgments had recognized the civil character of the old company and consolidated the powers of the

receiver. They had, moreover, recognized that the holders of encumbered lottery bonds had a right to stop payments due to the old company, which would have been a serious matter for the liquidation and

would have deprived it of all its resources, if it had not secured from

the legislative branch of the Government the passage of the law of

July 15, 1889.

Mr. Brunet organized without delay, under the presidency of Mr.

Guillemain, inspector-general, director of the National School of

Bridges and Roads, the survey commission, composed of French and

foreign engineers, whose dut}^ it was to proceed to a careful examination of the exact condition of the work. To this end a delegation of

live members, presided over by Mr. Germain, hydrographic engineer

of the navy, sailed for the Isthmus December 10, 1889.

A few days afterwards Mr. Brunet contracted the germs of the

disease which was soon to carry him off. On the 13th clay of February, 1890, he secured the appointment of

Mr. Achille Monchicourt by the civil court as coreceiver. As he constantly grew worse, Mr. Brunet was obliged to hand in his resigna-
26 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tion, and on the 8th of March, 1890, Mr. Monchicourt was appointed

sole receiver, with the powers previously conferred upon Mr. Brunet.

Mr. Monchicourt received on the 5th of May, 1890, the full report

of the survey commission, completed b}7 seven appendices,

That report declared, with the necessary reservations, that in the

opinion of the commission

1. It was possible to complete the canal in eight years, with a system

of locks having a lift of from 8 to 11 meters united in groups on each

slope.

2. That the plant on the Isthmus was in a satisfactory condition, and

might suffice for the completion of the canal.

3. That, as the work to be done might be estimated at 580,000,000

francs, the amount to be asked of the public was to be placed at 900,000,000. The cost of the work already done and the value of the

plant on the Isthmus were estimated by the commission at 150,000,000

francs.

Struck by this report, and resting upon its conclusions, the receiver

designated, without delay, Mr. I/ucien Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse to go

to Bogota and negotiate with the Colombian Government an extension

of the time granted for the completion of the maritime canal by the

law governing its concession.

After conferences which lasted from July 25 to December 10, 1S90,

Mr. L. N. B. Wyse signed a treaty providing for an extension of ten years. Thus reassured on the essential point, viz, the extension of the time

necessary for the resumption and completion of the interrupted work,

the receiver devoted himself to the organization of a new company.

He had, in fact, realized, like Mr. Brunet, the disastrous character of an actual liquidation, the difficulty and the dangers of realizing the

assets, the difficulty and even the impossibility of distributing them

when realized, the legal formalities being duly observed. He had

understood that all the interests involved, both material and moral,

called for a reorganization of the enterprise.

The Colombian Government, by a contract signed April 14,1893,

granted a new extension until October 31, 1891, to organize a new company which should have, from the date of its organization, ten years in which to complete the ship canal. During these years, viz, 1891, 1892, and early in 1S93, the receiver

had, by a scries of compromises confirmed by the civil court, settled most of the lawsuits then existing with the enterprises of the old com- pany. He had resisted, amid the most serious legal mfficulties, the attempts of some creditor* and some bondholders, who did not hesitate,

for badly understood individual interests, to disturb a work that was

carried on in the general interest. He had, moreover, to struggle

during the same period for the reorganization of the work against

grave judicial events that were determined or complicated by press polemics and parliamentary discussions on which we do not consider it necessary to dwell here.

The receiver, after these judicial debates, instituted the civil proa < d- ingswbich were called for by the facts revealed by the two examinations.

He had, in the couse of the same year, L893, settled by compromises

the greater part of the suits in which the liquidation was interested.

He found himself early in that year (January 2(5, 1893) in presence

of a series of judgments pronounced by the civil court of the Seine,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 27

complying with the individual petitions of bondholders for the payment of the sums paid in by them, for that of all damages, of unpaid

coupons, of legal interest, and, after these judgments, pronounced

notwithstanding appeal, the interested parties had made a series of

seizures bearing upon the lottery bonds that had not been placed and

upon other property belonging to the liquidation.

Early in 1892 Mr. Monchicourt had foreseen these difficulties which,

in the name of private interests, seemed likely to baffle all his efforts and to imperil forever the reorganization of the work by rendering its vast assets and resources unavailable,

He had called the attention of the governmental authorities to the

peril of the legal situation as regarded such suits, and had proposed,

with a view to the transfer of the assets to a company organized for

the completion of the canal, or at least with a view to an equitable

division among all the bondholders, a special legislative modification

of the case of the interoceanic canal. He actively resumed his efforts after the judgment of January 26,

1893, and soon won his case. The very important law of July 1, 1893 (article 2), provided that

"actions of any kind which the bondholders of the Universal Inter- oceanic Canal Company had, whether against the legally appointed

receiver or against the managers as being responsible, or for restitu- tion for an}T other cause, should be brought by an attorney appointed

at the request of the procurator of the Republic practicing before

the civil court of the Seine b}^ a judgment rendered in the council

chamber.

The court of the Seine thus appointed, July 4, 1893, Mr. Lemarquis

attorney for the Panama bondholders.

According to this law (article 1) all similar proceedings then before

the courts were suspended.

By securing, April 4, 1893, at Bogota the contract authorising a second extension, and, July 1, 1893, by the agreement of the governmental authorities in France, the special law for the liquidation of the

Interoceanic Canal Company, Mr. Monchicourt had, notwithstanding

the extreme difficulties of that time, prepared the way for the reor- ganization of the work. Illness did not long permit him to enjoy the success of his efforts.

- On the 21st of July, 1893, the state of his health compelled him to secure from the court of the Seine the appointment of Mr. Gautron as coreceiver. Messrs. Monchicourt and Gautron worked together until

March 14, 1891, on which day Mr. Monchicourt died.

There remained but a short time to effect, before October 31, 1894,

the actual reorganization of the enterprise.

To this end, Mr. Gautron, the receiver, and Mr. Lemarquis, the

attorney for the bondholders, secured, by a series of compromises, from

the managers of the old company, from the credit companies, from the

contractors, and from a certain number of persons to whom various

securities had been assigned, their cooperation in the new work, in the

form of a sul)xerip>tion to shares of the company for the completion of

the canal; the amount necessary to complete the full sum was to be

asked of the bondholders and shareholders of the old company.

The by-laws of the New Panama Canal Company were regularly

filed on the 26th of June, 1894.

The capital of the companj' was divided into 650,000 shares of 100
28 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

francs each, 000,000 of which were to be subscribed for; 50,000, wholly

unincumbered, were to be sent to the Colombian Government in pur- suance of the laws and contracts authorizing1 the extensions.

The assets of the old company were transferred by the receiver to the new company, with precise enumerations and on terms which were

clearly defined by the by-laws. These arrangements relative to the

transfer of the assets were confirmed by the civil court. The court

set aside objections of third parties which had been presented either

with a view to protecting the general interest, by Mr. Lemarquis, or

in behalf of private interests. The new company was thus definitely established.
Appendix C.

LIST OF DOCUMENTS RECEIVED BY THE ISTHMIAN CANAL

COMMISSION FROM THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

Fifteen copies Dossier C, containing 27 subdossiers, in 8 volumes;

total number of maps and documents in one dossier, 157. (Lithographed.)

Fifteen copies Dossier D, containing 10 subdossiers, in 6 volumes;

total number of maps and documents in one dossier, 65. (Lithographed.)

Ten tiles, each containing 1 lithographed documents treating of the

method to be followed in making excavation at Culebra.

Fifteen copies "Notes techniques." (Printed.)

Fifteen copies atlas to accompany foregoing, each containing 17

lithographed plates.

Ten copies note by General Abbot on the Regime of the Chagres.

(Lithographed.)

Ten copies note by General Abbot on the Feeding of the Canal.

(Lithographed.)

Ten copies note b}*- General Abbot on the Ratios of the Discharges

of the Chagres at Gamboaand Bohio, and the Ratio of these Discharges

to the Rainfall in the Drainage Areas above these points. (Lithographed.)

Ten copies pamphlet containing: I. " Geological investigation on the

Isthmus," by Marcel Bertrand and Philippe Zurcher. II. "Volcanic

phenomena and earthquakes of Central America," by Marcel Bertrand. (Printed.)

Eleven copies report of 1898 of the "Comite technique," in French.

(Printed.)

Eleven copies English translation of the report of 1898 of the " Comite

technique." (Printed.)

Fourteen copies of the charter of the New Panama Canal Company,

in French. (Printed.)

Ten copies English translation of the charter of the New Panama

Canal Company. (Printed.)

Fourteen copies treaty of 1816 between the United States and the

Republic of Colombia. (Printed.)

Eleven copies "Aetes de concession." (Printed.)

Twelve copies English translation of the concessions granted to the

canal company. (Printed.)

Fourteen copies Political Relations of the United States and the

Republic of Colombia to the Panama Canal. (Printed.)

Fourteen copies International Convention for Securing the Free

Navigation of the Suez Canal. (Printed.)

29
30 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Ten copies of the forty-ninth annual report of the board of directors

of the Panama Railroad Company. (Printed.)

Thirteen copies general map of the Isthmus of Panama, scale 1 : 96000,

by Colonel Totten. (Lithographed.)

Three copies of the harbor of La Boca, scale 1:5000. (Lithographed.)

Twelve copies, on parchment paper, of the general topographic map,

scale 1 : 5000. (Lithographed.

)

Ten copies of the above map, on linen, in detached sheets. (Lithographed.)

Ten files, each containing the following documents relative to the

constitution of the New Panama Canal Company: Reports of the board

of directors and of the commissioners, and balance sheets for the vears

1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899 (printed); charter (printed);

judgment of the civil court of the Seine, rendered February 4, 1889

(manuscript); law of the 1st of July, 1893 (printed); judgment of the

civil court of the Seine, of the 29th of June, 1891, confirming the

charter of the company (manuscript).

Six manuscript copies, in French, of the proces-verbal of the meetings of the commission at Paris.

1 copy hydrographic map of Colon Harbor, scale 1:5000, made by

the old company in 1883. (Tracing.)

1 copy hydrographic map of Colon Harbor, scale 1:5000, made by

the new company in 1895. (Tracing.)

1 copy geological profile of the Panama Canal, made b}r the old company. Scales: Horizontal, 1:5000; vertical, 1:500. (Lithographed.)

1 copy plan showing the location of the test pits sunk at Culebra.

Scale if2000. (Tracing.)

1 cop3r drawing showing the geological sections of the test pits sunk

at Culebra. Scales: Vertical, 0.005 to 1 meter; horizontal, 0.01 to 1 meter. (Tracing.)

One copy plan showing the location of the test pits at Emperador.

Scale 1 : 5000. (Tracing.

)

One cop3r drawing showing the geological sections of the test pits

sunk at Emperador. Scales: Vertical, 0.005 to 1 meter; horizontal,

0.04 to 1 meter. (Tracing.)

One copy drawing showing the profile of the preparatory cunette at the Emperador. Culebra cut on 1st of Julv, 1899. Scales: Vertical,

1:500; horizontal, 1:5000. (Black print.)

One copy drawing showing the cross sections of the preparatory

cunette at the Emperador. Culebra cut on the 1st of .July, 1899.

Scales: Vertical, 1:500; horizontal, 1:5000. (Black print.)

One copy profile on the center line of the canal, La Boca section,

showing the various surveys made since the suspension of work by the

oldcompany (1889), L895, L897, and 1S98. Scales: Horizontal, 1:5000;

vertical, 1:1000. (Tracing.)

One copy plan of the harbor of La Boca, scale 1:1000, showing the

soundings made l>y the new company in conjunction with the Panama

Railroad Company. (Tracing.)

One copy drawing showing the locks at Bohio; genera! plan and

geological profile, showing borings. Scales: Vertical, I :."><»<>; horizontal, L:1000. (Tracing.)

One copy plan of the borings at Bohio, scale 1:1000, made on the

sites of the dam across the valley of the Chagres, of the spillway, and

of the discharge channel leading from the spillway. (Tracing.)
REPORT OP THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 31

One copy drawing showing the geological section across the valley

of the Cnagres, following the center line of a dam at Bohio. Scales:

Horizontal, 1:1000; vertical, 1:500. (Tracing.)

One copy plan showing the location of the borings at Obispo, and

geological profiles of the dams. Scales: Plan, 1:5000; profiles, horizontal 1:2000, vertical 1:500. (Tracing.)

One copy plan and geological sections showing the borings for the

locks at Paraiso, Pedro-Miguel, and Miraflores. Scales: Plan, 1:5000;

general profile, horizontal 1:5000, vertical 1:500. (Tracing.)

One copy plan and geological sections from the borings at Gamboa,

made by the old company and by the new company in 1896. Scales:

Plan, 1:2000; geological sections," 1:500 and 1:200. * (Tracing.)

One manuscript copy of the curve, showing the discharge of the

Chagres.

One manuscript cop}7 of the inventory of the new Panama Canal

Company's property on the Isthmus.

Two manuscript copies of the June report of the engineer in charge

at Culebra.

One copy tabular statement of expenses at Emperador section, from

July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898. _ (Manuscript.)

C*ne copy tabular statement of the expenses at Culebra section, from

July 1, 1897, to June 30, 1898. (Manuscript.)

One copy tabular statement of expenses at Emperador section, from

July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899. (Manuscript.)

One copy tabular statement of expenses at Culebra section, from

July 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899. (Manuscript.)

One manuscript copy of Mr. Choron's analysis of the cost per cubic

meter of concrete. One manuscript copy note giving the areas of Lake Bohio at elevations 17 and 20. One manuscript copy note giving the areas of Lake Alhajuela at elevations 55, 61, and 68. One file containing the following documents relative to the study of

the probable traffic of an interoceanic canal: (1) Note on the above

stud}^ with nine appendices (manuscripts); (2) dictionary of the ports

of the Pacific (manuscript); (3) results of the years 1888, 1895, 1896,

1897, and 1898 (manuscript); (1) resume of the report of Mr. Michel,

Chevalier—1814 (manuscript); (5) resume of the report of Mr. Napoleon Garella—1815 (manuscript); (6) resume of the report of Prince

Napoleon—1816 (manuscript); (7) resume of the report of Mr. F.

Belly—1858 (manuscript); (8) resume of the report of Mr. Kelly and

of Admiral Davis—1876 (manuscript); (9) resume of the report of Mr.

Joseph Nimmo—1880 (manuscript); (10) text and resume of the report

of Mr. Levasseur—Congress of 1879 (text in print, resume in manuscript); (11) resume of the report of the second and third commissions

of the international congress (manuscript); (12) resume of the report

of the "Commission d'Etudes"—Mr. Dajmiard, 1890 (manuscript);

(13) resume of the report of Mr. P. Bunau-Varilla—1892 (manuscript);

(14) resume of the report of Mr. Keasby (manuscript); (15) Note on

the tonnage of ships (manuscript); (16) two numbers of the Shipping

and Mercantile Gazette (specimens) (printed); (17) one number Lloyd's

Weekly Shipping Index (specimen) (printed).

One copy Instructions and Regulations Relating to the Measurement

of Ships and Tonnage under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1891. (In

print.)
32 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

One copy manuscript note (attached to the above) giving references

to be consulted for the method of obtaining American tonnage.

One copy index map showing the canal company's original arrangement of sheets for the large topographic map, scale 1:5000. (Lithographed and mounted on linen.)

File containing manuscript copies of the following communications

addressed by the representatives of the New Panama Canal Company

to the representatives of the United States Government: The compan}^

to President McKinley, November 18, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary

Hay, December 2, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary Ha}r

, December

3, 1898; Mr. Cromwell to Secretary Hay, December 21, 1898; the

company, by Director-General Hutin and General Counsel Cromwell,

to the President, February 28, 1899; the company, by the same, to Chairman Burton, of the Rivers and Harbors Committee, February

27, 1899; the company, by the same, to the President, March 11, 1899.

Records of tide observations at Colon.

Records of tide observations at Panama.

Tabular statement of freight rates, prepared by Mr. Maurel in his investigations of savings to shippers.

General statement by Mr. Hutin, giving past history of canal, a statement of the amounts of money raised and expended, and the

results accomplished b}r both the old and the new companies.

Plan of borings at site of diversion, Upper Gigante. (Tracing.)

Longitudinal section of same. (Tracing.)

Port de la Boca, soundings, September, 1899, and February, 1900.

(Tracing.)

Port de la Boca, port and maritime channel, scale 1:2000. (Tracing.)

Port de la Boca, longitudinal profile. (Tracing.)

Sketch and description of the Transporteurs de Deblais a lame

d'acier, inspected b}^ the Commission near Tavernilla. (Manuscript.)

Proceedings and report of the International Consultative Commission upon the Suez Canal, 1884, 1885, in French. (Printed.) (Returned

by request): Extracts from the report of the Commission d

1 Etudes,

giving estimates of cost of maintenance of Panama Canal; cost of

maintenance of the Manchester Ship Canal, 1895-1899; regulations

for the navigation of the Suez Canal.

Longitudinal profile, Atlantic maritime section, showing rock.

Cross sections, Atlantic maritime section, showing rock.

Recapitulation of quantities of rock to be excavated in Atlantic

maritime section.

Tabular statement showing operating expenses of the Kiel ('anal for

the years 1897, 1898, 1899.


Appendix *D. REPORT ON HYDROGRAPHY OF PANAMA CANAL ROUTE, MADE

FOR THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION BY ARTHUR P. DAVIS, CHIEF HYDROGRAPHER.

CONTENTS.

Page. Letter of transmittal '33 Hydrography of Panama 34 The Chagres River 34 Alhajuela station on Chagres River 36 Gamboa station on Chagres River 37 Bohio station on Chagres River 40 Minor streams on the isthmus 43 The floods of the Chagres River 43 Low water of the Chagres River , 45

Rainfall of the Isthmus of Panama 48 Report of W. W. Schlecht 52

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. 1. Scene on Upper Chagres River.

2. Fluviograph at Bohio.

3. Overhanging ledge on Chagres River.

4. Cristobal Colon.

5. Alhajuela.

6. Comparison of gauging curves.

7. Hydrographs of Chagres River at Gamboa.

8. Comparative hydrographs of Chagres River.

9. Rating curves of floods.

10. Obispo lock site. 11. Fluviograph at Alhajuela.

12. Fluviograph at Gamboa.

Washington, D. C. March IS, 1901. Rear-Admiral J. G. Walker,

President Tsthmda/n Canal Commission.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the hydrography of the Panama Canal route. It includes a full account of the

work prosecuted by me under your authority, and also the most important portions of the results obtained by the Panama Canal Company,

together with a discussion of the same and the conclusions derivable

from all the information at hand.

Yours, with respect, Arthur P. Davis,

Chief Ilydi'ixj /'ifpla r. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 3 33
34 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

THE HYDROGRAPHY OF PANAMA.

The hydrographic problem of the Panama Canal project requires a knowledge of the magnitude and habit of the flood discharge of the

Chagres River and also in a minor degree of the tributaries of the

Chagres and of the Rio Grande on the southern end of the line. It

also requires a knowledge of the minimum flow of the Chagres River

considered as a feeder to the summit level and the locks of the canal.

Incidental to these matters the determination of rainfall is important,

considered both as a source of water supply and as a hindrance to construction.

Some observations upon these points were taken by the old Panama

Canal Company, and since the organization of the new company the

records have been much more thorough and complete of the discharge

of the Chagres at Gamboa and Bohio. Since April, 1899, measure- ments have also been made at Alhajuela, where it is proposed by the

canal company to construct a reservoir to serve as a regulator of the

floods of the river and to store water for the use of the canal. The

measurements of rainfall taken by the company were made at points

where stream measurements were being made, and at La Boca, the

southern end of the canal line, this record, however, being very short. These data are supplemented by rainfall records kept at Colon by the

Panama Railway Company. This is the oldest record of rainfall in the vicinity of the Panama Canal, and is of great value in the study of

hydrographic problems connected therewith.

The work undertaken by this Commission consists mainly in an examination of the observations and results already obtained by the

company, of a verification of their methods by actual held observations,

and of an extension of the rainfall information, as far as possible, over

the basin of the Chagres River.

These operations were undertaken in November, 1899, and placed in charge of Mr. W. W. Schlecht, whose description of methods is appended to this report. In July and August, 1900, the writer made

a personal inspection of the records of the old and new companies at the office of the Panama Canal Company in Paris, obtaining many

details of value regarding the methods and data employed in arriving

at the conclusions published by the company. It was found that the

data obtained by the old company prior to the organization of the new

was very fragmentary and incomplete, considerable periods being

entirely skipped. The most serious lack of information was with

respect to the magnitude of the great floods that have been observed

upon the Isthmus, especially the maximum flood of 1879. The observations taken by the new company are far more complete and satisfac- tory, but, unfortunately, they do not include any flood discharge as great as those that occurred under the regime of the old company.

Every facility for the investigation of these records was extended

by tin 1 Panama Company, and every possible assistance in the investi- gation uas courteously rendered by Gen. Henry L. Abbot, of the

comite technique.

THE CHAGRES RIVER. The main trunk of the Chagres is formed by two principal branches.

The Pequeni rises near the Caribbean coast. Hows nearly south until it meets the Chagres proper a short distance above Alhajuela. The general course <>f the Upper Chagres from its source is southwest, and it continues in the same general direction after receiving the waters of

FIG. 2.—FLUVlOGRAPH AT BOHIO.

FIG. 3.—OVERHANGING LEDGE ON UPPER CHAGRES RIVER.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 35

the Pequeni to the mouth of the Obispo, where the proposed canal

line leaves its valley. Its course is then westward to Tavernilla and

from that point to its mouth its course is nearly northwesterly. Its total length is over 120 miles without including minor bends, although

the width of the Isthmus at its mouth is less than 50 miles. The vari- ous drainage areas are about as follows:

Sq. miles. Total area of Chagres drainage basin 1, 400 Upper Chagres (above Pequeni ) 300 Rio Pequeni 175 Above Alhajuela 505 Between Alhajuela and Gamboa 130 Above Gamboa 635 Rio Obispo 38 Between Gamboa and Bohio 245 Above Bohio 880 Between Alhajuela and Bohio 375 Below Bohio 520 Lower Gatun 145 The district below Bohio, drained by the Chagres and its tributaries,

consists mainly of low hills and swamps. The river is sluggish, the

effect of the tide being plainly perceptible at Bohio at low water,

although the tidal fluctuations of the Caribbean are very slight.

Above this point there are some modifications, the declivit}r being

greater and the country higher and less swampy. Several rapids occur in this portion of the river, and above Obispo rapids are fre- quent and the river swift. The Upper Chagres is flanked by steep,

rocky hills clothed with luxuriant vegetation, rapids are frequent, the

water is everywhere swift and is very clear except in times of freshet. The stream is sinuous in many parts and bordered frequently by rock

cliffs, lending variety to the scene, which is everywhere one of sur- passing beaut}7

. In some cases the convex curve of the stream with

its swift current has undermined the limestone cliffs, leaving over- hanging ledges and producing caverns of considerable extent. A

photograph of one of these is shown in fig. 3. Measurements of discharge of the Chagres were made during 1900

at all three of the stations maintained by the company, namely, Alhajuela, Gamboa, and Bohio, to check the methods and results for the

information of the Isthmian Canal Commission. A comparison of

these results with those submitted by the company may be made

from the following tables. It will be seen that the company's results are much the smaller. This is partly accounted for by the disagreement in gauging results, as obtained by current meters, and by taking

80 per cent of the velocity of surface floats; but this explanation does

not apply to Bohio, where the gauging results are practically in agreement. The principal reason may be formed by an examination of the

rating curves as plotted in fig. 6. It will be seen that the "general" curve, which is the one used for

most of the computations made by the company, gives much lower

values for all gauge heights than indicated by the measurements of dis- charge, and, in addition to this, the measurements themselves are too

small, at least for Alhajuela and Gamboa. The fact that the results obtained by the float method were too small was pointed out by

General Abbot in his note u Sur le regime du Chagres," page 6, where he remarked that

In these calculations the velocities measured are to be multiplied by 0.8. This is too great a reduction if we take account of the fact that the floats are to be liberated
36 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

on all the river, and not limited to the center, cient of 0.9 would be sufficient. According to my opinion, a coeffiIf the factor 0.9 were used in reducing the float measurements, as suggested by General Abbot, they would very nearly agree at Alhajuela and Gamboa with the current meter measurements, but at Bohio

the agreement would not be so close. It is important to note, however, that the results obtained and put

forth by the company are very conservative, the error being on the

side of safety when considering the low water flow, and as a different

formula, called the "special'1 formula, is used for floods at Gamboa

and Bohio, this error does not enter into them, and, as will be seen by

the diagram, the special formulae agree closely with the observations.

Detailed descriptions of the stations and a discussion of methods

will be found in Mr. Schlecht's report, appended hereto, page 52. ALHAJUELA STATION ON CnAGUES RIVER. This is the point on the Chagres, about 11 miles above Gamboa,

where the Panama Canal Company proposes to build a high masonry

dam to impound water for the use of the canal and to assist in the

storage of floods. The dam site is about 7 miles, by the course of

the river, below "Dos Bocas," the junction of the two main branches

of the Chagres; the gauging station being about half a mile below the

dam site. The company established the station on the loth day of April, 1S!>9, and still maintains it. The results given by the company are summarized as follows:

Estimated mordhlg discharge of Chagres River at Alhqjuela.

[Drainage area, 505 square miles.] OBSERVATIONS OP THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

Month.

1899. April 15-30 May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year.

Discharge in second-feet.

Maximum.

1,024

2S, I'M I 1,200 15,640

27, 430 11,100

9, 990 28,660

11, 160

Minimum.

600 494

1,165 1,235

1,660

I, 150

I,.Mil > 1,520 1,580 28.660

706 1,590

2, 150 2,220

8,280

2, 100 2,660

2,930

2, 260

Total in

acre-feet.

22, 400 97,700

127,930

136,600 201,680

I 12, SOU

1.62,940 1.74,350 L38.960 2,430 1,205,320

Run-oft. Secondfeet per square

mile.

3.15

4. 2fi 4.40

6.50

4.75

5. i

r

> 5.80

1. 17

Depth in inches.

8. 63 4.75

5.07

7. 19

5. 80 6.05

('.. 17 5.15

13.91

Rainfall

in basin.

Inches.

OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

1900. M, L50 1,130

777 2,050

13,77(1 7,730

18, 180

20, 100 11,650 24,780

I 1,680 20,540

1,020

fit;.") 125 318 3SS

880

1,230

L.520 1,270

1,730 1,020

1,130

1,580 812 530 665

L,340

1,650

2, I '.«i 2, 820 2,160

8,210

2, 966 2,290

97,760

i:., loo 32,590 33,620

82, ion

92, 230

L84.660 173,400

127,930

L97.380

176, ISO

1 Id, SOI)

3. 15 1.60

1.06

1.12 2.65

3.07

1.88

6. 68

4.26

6.36

5. 87 4.68

8.68

1.67

1.21

1 . 25 8.06

8. 12 1.99

6. 18 4.75

7.88

6. 55

5. 22

Inches.

2. 27

.38

.82 4.06

1 1 . 88

10.57

.lulv 11.01

13.0J 15.00 16.39

1 1.92 8.76 The year 21,780 318 1,840 1,334,300 8.64 49. 51 113.80




REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagrea River at Alhajuela—Continued.

PROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Discharge in second-feet. Total in

acre-feet.

Run-off.

Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Second

feet per

square

mile.

Depth in inches.

4. 13 t.88 1.88 1.39

:;. 62

1.27 7.18 9.35

6. 85

11.16

9. 95 7.49

Rainfall

in hasin.

1900. 14,535

1,365

849 2,032

17, 460

10, 395 21,950

27, 400

17, 065 31,740

20, 670 28,020

1,230 652

497

395

176 1,025

1,814 2,157

1,720

2,710 2,223

1,396

1,941

916

608

631 1,588

1,934

3, 1 IS 4,094

3,101 4,889

4,504

3,286

119, 350

50, 870

37, 380

37, 550

97, 640

115, 080

193, 560 251,730

184, 520

300, 010

268, 010 202,050

3.84

1.81 1.20

1.25

3.14

3.83 6.23

8.11 6.14

9. 68

S. 92 6.50

Inches. 2.27

.38 .32

4.06 May 11.88

16. 57 July 14.64

13.01 15.60

16.39

14.92 3.76

31, 740 395 2, 567 1,858,350 6.i. 95 113. 80

Ratio of run-off to rainfall = 60 per cent. COMPUTED FROM RATING TABLE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, USING THE GAUGE

HEIGHTS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AS THE ARGUMENT.

1901. January

February March

April May

June

5,070

3,630 2,290

3,040 85,460

21,280

850 560

415 265

815

990

1,165

766

541 509 2,050

2,360

71,630

42, 640 33,260

30, 290

126,050

140, 430

2.31 2. 66 1.52 1.58

1.07 1.23

1.01 1.13

4.06 4.68

4.67 5.21

GAMBOA STATION ON CHAGEES RIVER. This is the station of longest record of any on the isthmus. It is near the point where the canal line leaves the valley of the Ohagres; the

river valley ascending- from this point to the northeast, while the canal

line proceeds to the southeast to cut through the continental divide to the Pacific. It was at one time proposed to construct a dam at this point, and the canal company began observations here, but a careful

examination of the records in Paris failed to bring to light any con- tinuous record of river stages prior to 1892, but a number of discharge

measurements for 1889-1891 were obtained, and are given herewith.

A graphic exhibit of the flow from 1893 to 1898 is shown in figure 7, and a comparison with Alhajuela and Bohio for 1899 and 1900 is shown in figure 8. Amwal summary of discharge measurements made by the Panama Canal Company at Gamboa.

Discharge in second-feet. Total in

acre-feet.

Run-off.

Year. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Secondfeet per square

mile.

Depth in inches.

Rainfall

at Colon.

42, 000 51,100

26,190

27,990

1893 759 530 565

3,610

3,770

2,880

2, 880 3,880

3, 000 2.580

2, 360

2, 612, 607

2, 732, 284 2,083,740

2, 093, 910

2, 806, 070

2, 169, 630 1,870,500

1,705,100

5. 69

5.94 4.53 4.53

6.11 4.72

4.06

3.72

77.14 80.68

61.55 61.83

82.84

64. 05

55. 23

50.35

131.89

1894... 153. 69

1895 151.54

1896 131. 51 1897 12. 191

28, 770

26, 190

23, 720

138. 03

1898... 777 706

388

115. 55

1899.... 133. 02

1900 ., »108. 01

>Mean rainfall on basin.
38 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagrea Hirer at Gamboa.

[Drainage area, 635 square miles.] OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

Month.

May

June

July August

September.

October . .

November

December . The year .

1893. January .

February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October ... November

December The vear

January . .

February . March,

April May

June

July August

September.

October ... November

December

The vear

January

February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October November.

December .

1895.

The vear.

January . .

February.

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October ... November.

Decern tier . The year

Discharge in second-feet.

Maximum.

28, 770 17,930

27, 320

25, 910

7, 275

19, 840

•12, 000

25, 200

Minimum.

•12, 000

2, 892

3,563

6,512

23, 102

26, 620 6,039

17, 300

21, 140

10, 389 9,535

19, 840 51,100

51,100

26, 189 2,260

1,225

2,317

13, 278 7,190

18, 222

14, 804

18, 462 6,039 21,780

32, 510

32, 510

14,610 3,350 3,210

14, 120

12, 430

25, 560 21,000

19, 340

12, 140

27, 990

27, 990

2,345

2, 260

2, 232

3,531 3,178

3, 284 3,990

2, 860

Mean.

Total in

acre-feet.

1,865 1,423

759

1,201 1,497

2, 147 2,034 3,146

2,430

2, 260 3,249 3,178

759

2,175

1,201 742

572 530

798

1,349 2,670

2,486

2, 860

1,910 1,160 850

565 1,760

1, 690 1,410

2, 050 600

1,690

5,311 3,590

7,114

5, 950

4,476

5,848 6,715

5,968

2,293

1,993

1,134 3,190

3, 045 3,200

3,472

4, 538 3,813

3,733

4,494 8,252

3,610

3,858

1,633 948

760 1,358

2, 180 4,199

3,864

4,402 "4,690

» 6, 530

'10, 620 3,770

3,530

1,480

1,200

1,130

3, 210

2, 930

2, 860 3,740

3,140 4,590

3, 280

3, 2.S0

2,880

2, 220 1,130 »630

3,070

3, 280

3,810 2,720

2, 580

3, 420

3, ISO 4,980

3, 600

326, 561

213, 620

437, 423

363, 084

266,341

359, 580

399, 570 366,958

Run-off. Secondfeet per square

mile.

2, 733, 137

140, 991 110,686

69, 727

189, 818

187, 229

190, 410

213, 484

279, 031

226, 890

229, 533

267, 412

507, 396

2, 612, 607

237, 219

90, 692

58, 290

45, 223

83, 500 129,719

258, 186

237, 588 261,937

288, 370

388, 560

653, 000

2, 732, 284

217, 050

82, 200

73, 790

67, 240

197, 380

174, 350 175,850 229,960

186,840

282, 230

195, 170 201,680

2, 083, 740

2, 880

136,500 05,000

:;s, 7io 182,680

201, 6so

226, 710

167,250

158,640

203, 500 195,530

296, 33C 221,350

2,093,910

8.36

5.65

11.20

9.37 7.05

9.21

10. 57 9.40

3.61

3.13

1.79

5. 02

4. 80

5.04 5.47

7.15

6.00 5.88

7.08

13.00

6.08

2. 57 1.50

1.20

2.14

3.43

6.61 6.09

6.93

7.38

10. 28 16.72

5. 56 2.33

1.89

1.78 5.06

1.61 4.50

5. 89

4. 95 7.23

5.17 5.17 4.53

3. 50

1.78

.99

4.84

5.17

64.28

4.06 5.39

6

7.84 5.67 4.63

Depth in inches

9.64 6.30

12. 91 10.80

7.87 10.62

11.80

10.84

4.16

3.26 2.06

5.60

5.53

5. 62

6.31 S.21

6. 69 6.78

7.90

14.99 77.14

7.01

2. 68

1.73

1.84

2. -17 3.82

7.62

7.02 7.73

8.51 11.47

19.28

SO. 68

6.41 2.43 2.18

1.99

5. S3

5. I I 5. 19 6.79

5. 52 8.34 5.77

5.96 61.55

4.04

1.92

1.11

5. 10 5.96

6. 69

4.94 4.6°

6.01 5.76 8.75

6.54 61.83

Colon

rainfall (inches).

'These means are obtained by averaging the discharge measurements.

A _H/i JU IUV _----

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,

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OBSERVATIONS MADE Br' ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION O

RATING CURVE* ISTHMIAN CANAL COM-MISSION *. OBSERVATIONS MADE BY PANAMA CANAL COMPANY A

RATING CURVES PANAMA CANAL COMPANY ^"V^lar"——~—

FIG. 6.—COMPARISON OF GAGING CURVES, SHOWING THE REASON FOR THE DISCREPANCY IN THE RESULTS OBTAINED BY THE

PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AND THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 39

Estimated monthly discharge of ' kagres River ai Gamboa—Continued. OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY—Continued.

Monti).

Discharge in second-feet.

Maximum Minimum.

Total In

acre-feet.

Run-oir. Secondfeet per square

mile.

Depth in inches.

Colon

rainfall (inches).

January . .

February .. March .."... April May

June

July August

September.

October November. December . The year

January . .

February .

March

April May

June

July A ugust September.

October November

December . The year .

1899. January

February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October November

December . The vear

42, 190

12, 110

13, 480

13, 870

IS, 250

20, 020 42,190

27, 710 2,930 2,540 28,770

9,920

11,650

18, 900

14, 510 7,270

20, 470

27, 600 5,790

28, 770

22, 060

6,740

20, 470

14, 120

14, 120

26, 190 11,750

13, 730

23, 890 13,200

26, 190

2,050

3,920 4,270

2, 050 3,070

1,450

5,120

1,130

777 670

6,710

6, 570 5,360

»4,090

»3,850

3, 560 4,130

4,270

3,880

2,010

1,130

777

777 1,340

1,380 2,330

2,470

1, 660 1,340

1,020

1,690

4,310

1,480

1,020

1,840

2,470

2,860

4, 240 4,130 2,540

3,460 5,190

2,290

3,000

1,730

706

706 1,310

1,340

1,870

1,660

1,840

1,870

1,620

3,490 950

950

1,060

1,910 2,470

2, 820 4,240

3,180 3,390

3,740

2, 650

701

2,580

314, 800

62, 760

47, 780

39, 870

412, 580

390, 940

329, 570 251,480

229, 090

218, 900

245, 750

262, 550

8.06

1.78

1.22

1.06

10. 57

10. 35

8.44

6.44 6.06

5.60

6.50

6.72

, 806, 070 6.11

265, 010

82, 200

62, 720

109, 490 151,870

170, 180

260, 700

253, 940 151,140

212, 750

308, 830

140, 800

6.80

2.33 1.60

2.90

3.89

4.50

6.68

6.50

45.45

8.17 3.60

2, 169, 630 4.72

214, 600

52, 760 58,410

63, 070 117,440

146, 970

173, 400

260, 700

189, 220

208, 440 222,550

162,940 1,870,500

5.50

1.50 1.50

1.67

33.89

4.41 6.68

55.34

5. 89 4.17

4.06

9.29

1.85

1.41 1.18

12. 19 11.55

9. 73 7.42 6.76

6.46

7. 25 7.75

82. 84

7.84 2.43

1.84

3.24 4.48

5.02

7.70

7.49 4.46

6. 28

9.12

4.15

64. 05

6.34

1.56 1.73

1.86 3.46

4.34 5.12

7.70

5.58

6.16 6.57

4.81

55. 23

3.42

.04 .28 3.74

16.34 18.82 11.06

17.24

17. 20 5.83

22. 16 18.90

138. 03

5.04

.35 1.58 4.72

12.83

16. 38 21.89

10.91

10.24 11.38

12. 28

7.95

115. 55

6.93

6.49

1.26

.43 13.90

6. 41 27.68

14.80

16. 55

15. 04 14.49 9.04

133. 02

OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year 23. 720

1,060 1,690

600 810

424 530

388 565

424 1,340 918 1,940

1,480 3,350

1,620 3, 565 1,450 3,070

2, 050 4,520

1,910 4,060

1,160 2,680

388 2,360

103,910 44,980

32, 590

33, 620

82, 400

115,440

205, 980

219, 200

182, 680

277, 920

241,590

164,790

2.66

1.28

.83

.89 2.11 3.06

5.27

5.61 4.83

7.12 6.40

4. 22 1,705,100 3.72

3.07

1.33

.96 .99 2.43

3.41 6.08

6.47

5. 39 8.21 7.14 4.87

50. 35

2.09

.35

.29 3.94 11.15

15.94

14. 47 12.43

14.69

15.78

13.86 3.02

108. 01

"These means are obtained by averaging the discharge measurements.
40 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagres River at Gamboa—Continued. FROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Discharge in second-feet. Total in

acre-feet.

Run-off.

Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Secondfeet per square

mile.

Depth in

inches.

Rainfall

at Colon.

1900. 14,030 1,420 805

1,745

15, 900

' 12, 550 21,980

26, 300

20, 060

29, 900

22, 760

27, 900

889

726

509

443 492 1,205

2,058

2,222

1,899 2,795

2,461 1,509

2,026 970

641 637

1,615

2, 426

1, 104 4,692

3, 750

5, 846 5,415

3,380

124, 570

53, 870

39, 410 37,900

99, 300

144, 360

252, 350

288, 500

223, 140

359, 460

322, 220

207, 830

3.19

1.53

1.01

12.54 3.82

6.62

7.39

5.91

9.21 8.53

5.32

3. 66

1.59 1.16

1.11 2.91 4.25

7.62

8.51 6.59

10.61 9.52 6.13

I?iches. 2.09

.35

.29 3.94 11.15

15. 94 July 14.47

12.43

14.69

15.78 13.86

3.02

29, 900 443 2,974 2,152,910 63.66 108. 01

Ratio of run off to rainfall = 59 per cent.

COMPUTED FROM RATING TABLE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, USING THE GAUGE

HEIGHTS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AS THE ARGUMENT.

1901. January

February March

April May

June

4, 020

2, 960 1,480

2, 760

26, 300

18, 310

911 1,236

560 817 395 541 278 498

955 2, 190 1,205 2,500

76,000 1.94 2.24

45, 370 1.27 1.32 33,450 .86 .99

29, 630 .78 .87 134.660 3.45 3.98

148, 760 3.94 4.40

BOHIO STATION, ON CHAGRES RIVER. The present plans of both the isthmian Canal Commission and the

Panama Canal Company provide for a dam at Bohio. The company

established a fluviograph here in 1895, and a record of discharge has

been kept ever since.

Annual summary of discharge measurements made by the Panama ('anal Company at Bohio.

Discharge in second-feet.

Total in acre-feet.

Run-off.

Year. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Secondfeet per square

mile.

Depth in inches.

Rainfall

at Colon

(inches).

27, 7n0

28,960

38, 790

27, Mill 25,870 23,860

710

600

495 780

600

490

4,510

1,220

4, 850

3,960

3, 100

3, 520

8,263,810

3, 062, 960 3,514,390

2, 865, 730

2, 458, 420 2,561,810

6. 12 69.52 151.54

1897 4.80 65.28

5. 51 74. 88

181.51 188.03

L898 4.50

3.86

4

61.07

52. 10 64. 88

L15.55

L899... 133. 02

l'JOO • 108.67

•Mean rainfall on basin.

'""*

JAN FEB MAR o

PR 'MAY JUNE JULY $H§ SEPT.

To 20 SSi- NOV DE

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MAR. APR MAY K) 20 IO ZO IO 20 jyNE JULY AUG. SEPT OCT. NOV DEC. l

X

18 9: 18 9"

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4.000

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4.000

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JAN FEB MAR

10 20 APR

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I0 20 AUG. o eo SEPT.

IO 20 OCT

lO£0 NOV.

10 20 DEC.

IO 20 #& Wg- MAR. APR MAYIO 20 JUNE

o eo JULY

10 20 AUG SEPT10 20 OCT. NOV.IO SO DEX.

seooo

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18 3: 8 96

14.000

12 000

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6.000 £

4.00O K

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JAN.

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iO eo NOV.(0 20 fe$ tfS FEB MAR.10 20 APR \bzo MAY

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FIG. 7.—HYDROGRAPHS OF THE CHAGRES RIVER AT GAMBOA, PLOTTED FROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagres River at Bohio. OBSERVATIONS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

[Drainage area, 880 square miles.]

41

Month.

January ... February .

March

April May

June

July AUgUSt

September.

October November

December .

Discharge in second-feet.

20, 721

2, 930

The year

January. .. February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October ... November

December

11,540

13, 830

10,770

19, 980 15,500

21, 320 27,750

18, 640

27, 180

27, 750

10, 450

2, 470 1,940

25, 030

16, 270

13,240

22, 950 11,930

19, 100

28, 950 The year 28,950

January .

February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October November

December .

1897. 5,370

The year

1,380

14,160

38, 790

12, 910

17, 400

18, 460

21,110

17,540

22, 100

22, 100

38, 790

Minimum.

January . .

February . March

April May

June

July August

September.

October November

December . The year

27, 250 3,320 2,400

24,000 8,510

15, 140

23, 860

15, 500

8, 540

23, 370

27, 890 6,670

27, 890

2, 290

1,900 710

1,380 2,290

1,910 1,940

2, 540

2, 610 4,020

2,610

710

1,910

1,020

740 600 1,730

2,080

2,430

2, 650

3, 880

000

3,390

600 495

850 3,460

2,860

2,820 4,130

3,390

3,810

3,670

405

Mean.

'4,650

'1,380 '1,060

'1,060

'4,170 '4,310

'4,590

'6,920

'5,790

'6,920

'6,070

'6,950

4, 510

"4,730

» 1, 550 "880

'1,690

'4,940 '4,200

'3,140 '3,500

' 5, 930

' 6, 350

' 7, 590

' 6, 040

4, 220

'2,0.50 '1,590 "710

"880

"7,980 "4,200

"5,120

"7,270 "6,880

"7,480

"6,950

"6,810 4,850

2, 260

1,230 810

780

1.450

1,760 2,890

3,000

2,150 2,080

3,810

1,980

780

5, 650 1,690

1,090 2,010

2, 680 3,350

6, 570 5,300 3,210

5, 050

7,840 2,860

3,960

Total in

acre-feet.

279,770

76, 640

65, 180

63, 070

256, 400

256, 460

282, 230

425, 500

344, 530

425, 500

361, 190

427, 340

3, 263, 810

290, 840

89, 160 54,110

100, 570

303, 750

249, 920 193,070

215, 200

352, 860

390, 450 451,640

371,390 3,062,960

126, 050

88, 300

43, 660

52, 360

490, 670

249, 920 314,820

447, 010

409, 390

459, 930

413, 550

418, 730 3,514,390

347, 400

93, 860

67, 020

119, 600

164, 790

199, 340

403, 970

325, 8S0 191,000 310,510

466, 510

175, 850

Run-off.

[Secondfeet per

square

mile.

5.17

1.57 1.20

1.20

1.74 4.89

5.22

7.86 6.58

7.86

6.90

7.90 5.12

5. 38 1.76

11.92

5.61

4.77

3.57 4

6.74

7.22 8.62

6.86 4.80

Depth in inches.

5.96

1.63

1.38 1.34

5. 4ti 5.46

6.02

9.06

7.34 9.06

7.70

9.11

2.33

1.81

.81

19.07 4.77

5.82

8.26

7.82 8.50

7.90

7.74

5.51

2, 865, 730

6.42

1.92

1.21

2. 28 3.05

3.81

7.47 6.02

3.65

5.74 8.91

3.25

4.50

69.52

0.20

1.90 1.15 2.14

6.47

5.32 4.12

4.61

7.52 8.32

9.62

7.91

65. 28

Rainfall

at Colon.

Inches.

2.69

1.88

.93 1.12 10.46 5.32

6.71 9.52

8.72

9.80

8.81 8.92

74.88

7.40

2

1.43 2.54

3. 52 4.25

8.61 6.94

4.07 6.62

9.94

3.75

61.07

"These means are obtained by averaging the discharge measurements.
42 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Ghagres River at Bohio—Continued. OBSERVATIONS OP THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

Month.

1899 January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The year

Discharge in second-feet.

Maximum.

22, 240

2, 540

1,410 3,280

17,540 5,470

17,750

25, 870

9,531

16, 130

24, 250

15, 280

25, 870

Minimum.

1,800

1,340

740 635

600 1,910

1,660 3,040

2,440

2, 720 2,790 940

Mean.

3,848

1,730 988

1,090 2,050

3,140

3,950

5, 720 4,240

4,940 6,300

3, 600

600 i 3,400

Total in

acre-feet.

236. 600

9-,

60, 750

64, 860 126,050

186, 840

242, 880 351,700

252, 300

303, 750

315, 370 221,360

2, 458, 420

Run-off. Secondfeet per square

mile.

4.37 1.98

1.12

1.24 2.33

3.57 4.49

6.50

4.82

5.61 6.02

4.09

,86

Depth in inches.

5.04 2.06

1.29

1.38 2.69

3.98

5.18

7.49

5.38

6.47

6.72 4.72

52. 40

Rainfall

at Colon.

Inches.

BASED ON DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS MADE BY THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

1899 January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

21,830

2, 810

1,420 3,670

17,440 6,440

17, 730

24, 520

10, 225 16,285

23, 320

15,430

24,520

1,900 4,150

1,300 1,795

665 943 570 1,057 540 1,900

2, 030 3,500

1,710 4,372

3,370 6,425

2, 680 4,858

2, 990 5, 511 3,080 5, 732

2, 210 3,950

540 3, 697

255, 170

99, 690

57, 980

62, 900

116, 830

208, 260

268, 820

395, 060

289, 070

338, 860 341,080

242, 880

2, 676, 600

4.72 2.04

1.07 1.20

2.16

3.98

4.97 7.30

5.52

6.26

6.51 4.49

4.18

5.44

2. 12 1.23

1.34 2.49

4.44 5.73

8.42 6.16

7.22

7.26

5.18

57.03

6.93 6.49

1.26

.43 13.90

6.41

27. 68

14. 80 16.55

15.04

14. 49

9.04

133. 02

OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The year

10,410 1,380 920

1,765 9,672

10, 840 21,180

19,240

18, 070

23, 860

20, 300

22, 870

23, 860

1,480 2,120

810 1,060 600 740

490 706

490 1, 620 1,340 2,860

2, 010 5,610

2,440 5, 260

2, 260 4,770

3,180 7, 000 3,740 6,600

1,800 3,740

490 3,520

130, 350

58, 870

45, 500

12,010

99, 610

170, 180

344, 940

323, 420

283, 830

430, 110 392, 730

229, 960 2,651,810

2.41 1.20

.84

.80

1.84 3.25 6.38

5. us

5. 42 7.95

7.50

4.26

2.78

1.25

.97 .89 2.12

3.63

7. 36 6.89

6. 05 9.17

8.37 4.90

54.38

2.44

.33

.32 3.78

10. 45

15. 67 15.28

12. 36

14.33

15. 48 15.10 3.13

108. 67 FROM OBSERVATIONS OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

i October November

December The year

10, 155

1 , 64(1 877

1 , 8 15

9, 500

12, 700

20, 650

18, 900

17, Mill 23, ooo

L9.800

22, 100

23, 000

1,441 802 570

112 506 1,640

2,521

2. 859

2,651 3,802

1, 161 1,949

442

2, 203

1,052

681 652 1,670 3,185

5, 960

5,880

5,190

8, 220

7, 540

4,100

:;, 880 2, 809, 790

135, 460

58, 420

41, 870

38, 800

102,680

189, 520

366, 170 861,650

30S.S30

505, 430

148,660

252, 100

2.50

1.20

.77

.74 1.92 3.62

6. 77 6.68 5.90

9.34

8.57

4.66

2.87

1.24 .88

.82 3.20

4.04 7.80

7.70

6.58

10.77 9.56 5.37

60. S3

2. 44

.33

. 32 3.78

10. 15 15.67

15. 28

L2.86

14. 33

15.48

15. in 3.13

108. 67

Ratio of run-off to rainfall -=55 per cent.

JAN.

<oao Fta MAR.

toeo toao APR. MAI

lOBO >020 JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV DEC

toao loao toao ioeo ioeo tozo 'ozo JAN. 020

rce. MAR

toeo APR t 10 20 /AY JUNL JULV AUG20 10 30 10 20 I0 25 StFT.' OCT NOV

10 ^O OK) 10 20 osx

10 20 ' .ulha. ue: L/ ^

1 2 8 OOO

26.O00 aooo 8 9l> '9 0O

£6000

24000

22.000 20000

1*000

tQ8

6

l00O° lit 1 OOO Aooo L 1 111

ft OOO

, r wVilli ' 1 III

Lil |iil iU 'H OOO o — ——

GA M EiO>l\ O UN0-4- 89 J 9O9

Jl Q

- n

O

tf) -1 - 6 OOO 5 r___ Q. i 1 hi i

i^ mf Ml If IP f m m "W|

2O00 £ n^ui mii> L. « •«" ' ^V W :.*" 1 - .• '

[ E 10 k (O U 89) 9 Op 3

- 22.O0O U

1

,i

i h

ki i v

i i 1 ii i1 IP

1 111 ji

•

, |; >, i<j 1 r'

• M 11 ^

'"*** 11" * « f»!

E oy- O

189?

I 9rr

1

i 1 1

1

if 1 [ [M 1

u, X frr1

ill

iJ

T ii|

li iilll i • i 1

1 r lp

n^ftk . 4 | Etui ' ' ^nnii nil' iff ' ' •"E 2.OOO 'MV «*•''"

FIG. 8.—COMPARATIVE HYDROQRAPHS OF CHAQRES RIVER.

Alhajuela, Uaruboa, and the upper Bohio diagram are drawn from observations of the Panama Canal Company; the lower diagram

from observations of the Isthmian Canal Commission.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 43

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagrea River at Bohio—Continued. COMPUTED FROM RATING TABLE OP ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION, USING THE GAUGE

HEIGHTS OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY AS THE ARGUMENT.

Discharge in second-feet.

Total in

acre-feet.

Run-off.

Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Secondfeet per square

mile.

Depth in inches.

Rainfall

at Colon.

1901. 3,400

2, 680 1,975

2, 443

19, 180 13,010

975

618 400

255

860 1,390

1,608

937 654

521

2, 400 2,890

92, 720 52,040

40, 210

31,000

147, 570 171,970

1.71 1.06

.74 .59

2. 73 3.28

1.91 1.10

.85

Inches.

.65 3.15

3.66 MINOR STREAMS ON THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA.

In a minor degree it is required to know something- of the volume

and regimen of the Grande River, which is followed by the canal line from Paraiso to the Pacific Also of the tributaries of the Chagres,

which are to be conducted to the sea independent of the canal. Observations on all of these were made in 1900 sufficient to show

that no difficult problems are involved in their control. A detailed

description of work and results on these streams will be found in Mr.

Schlecht's report, page 52. THE FLOODS OF THE CHAGRES RIVER.

The projected canal from Colon to Panama is 19 miles in length, and

for more than half this distance it follows the vallej^ of the Chagres.

The magnitude of a flood discharge is, therefore, important in its rela- tion to the works necessary for controlling and discharging the surplus

waters without injury to the works or obstruction to navigation.

Although nearly the entire country is clothed with vegetation, much

of which is very dense, the slopes are so precipitous and rock is so near the surface that the heavy tropical rainfall often produces sudden

freshets in the river. A violent rainfall of a few hours converts the

banks of the Chagres in the vicinity of Alhajuela and above into a

series of small torrents and cascades, causing the river to rise very

suddenly and flow with great velocity. It is this feature that lends

such importance to the study of the floods of the Chagres in their

relation to the proposed canal.

It is stated by the officers of the Panama Railwa}7 Company that

previous to 1879 no freshet had occurred in the Chagres of magnitude

sufficient to cause serious damage to the property of the railway company or to delay its operations. The Hood of 1879 caused great damage

to the railway and obstructed traffic for a considerable period, and the

conclusion follows that it is far greater than any flood that had occurred

since the construction of the railway was begun. This conclusion is verified by the testimony of the oldest inhabitant of the vicinity.

Since 1879 sufficient attention has been paid b}r canal officials to render

it certain that no flood equal in magnitude to that of 1879 has since

occurred. The flood occurred in November, but we do not know how

long it lasted, except that a violent storm raged for six days throughout the Isthmus, the precipitation amounting to 320 millimeters at Panama.

The only actual information existing other than that of a general
44 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

character from the officials of the Panama Railway above referred to

is the testimony of Mr. Sosa, a young Colombian engineer, who, by

inquiry from the inhabitants or otherwise, decided upon certain points

as high water of this flood in the neighborhood of Bohio. Mr. Sosa was unfortunately drowned in the sinking of La Burgoyne, and it is not known how accurate his information was, excepting that he

expressed his entire reliance upon it. By his testimony the river

reached an elevation of 12 meters above sea level at Bohio at its maximum stage. From the measurements made of the floods of less magnitude and from the large number of measurements of the river at its lower stage a curve has been plotted expressing the relation of dis- charge and gauge height at Bohio. The existing observations are in satisfactory accordance, and by extrapolating this curve upward to include the flood of 1879 we obtain a discharge for the river at Bohio

for gauge height 12 meters of 3,800 cubic meters, or about 130,000

cubic feet per second. The curve and the data upon which it is based

are shown in figure 9, page 45, and is submitted as being the best conclusion permitted. The plotted observations arc those given by General Abbot in his note "Sur le regime du Chagres," pages 24 to 27. The results obtained by the company at Bohio being in practical

accordance with those observed by this Commission, are accepted without change.

In this connection three points should be remembered—first, the dis charge for "cote" 12 may be greater than here indicated; second, the

flood of 1879 ma}^ have reached a higher elevation than "cote'"' 12; third, it is possible that a larger flood than that of 1879 may occur in the future.

Under these circumstances it seems unsafe to consider the maximum

flood wave to be expected on the Chagres at less than 140,000 cubic

feet per second.

Four great floods occurred since 1879, of which the discharge at Gamboa has been measured or estimated by the Panama Canal Company as follows:

Date. Gauge

height. Dischargemaximum.

Mean for forty-eight hours.

Percentage.

Mi li rx. 23. 60

23. 56 23.70

21.72

Cub. meters. 1,638

1,628 1,663

1,207

Cub. meters. 1,077 1,270

833

759

66 December 12, 1888 78

50 December 17, 1893 63 The flood of 1879 seems to have been longer sustained than any of

the others, and it seems likely that the ratio of the mean discharge to the maximum should be somewhat greater than the others. General

Abbot has assumed the mean discharge1 for forty-eight hours for this floodat 80 per cent of the maximum, and this appears to be approximately correct. Eighty per cent of 140,000 cubic feet per second is 112,000 cubic feet per second.

The area of Lake Bohio according to the plans adopted by this Commission are as follows:

Elevation. Acres. Square

miles.

20 meters 65.6 feet 14, 771 23,512

24, 627

23.08

25 meters 82 feet 36. 78 26 meters 85.3 feet 38.48

II

/

/* 8

/o /<

o

9o

o^A

6

o

< / ' J

/c 5

>

4

A

G \( iE H E G r S ( )F F L O DC S

J^'

\—

/ V 8 9 J /' 8< >0 \ > >f ^

**»

> i l

. > !l D/ vs

O 400 800 1200 1600 2000 24-' METERS'

2800 3200 3600 4000

FIG. 9.—RATING CURVE FOR FLOODS OF THE CHAGRES RiVER AT BOHIO.

Constructed by the Isthmian Canal Commission from observations of the Panama Canal Company, 1890-1899
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION 45

The waste weir provided is to be at elevation 85 feet above sea level or slightly less than 26 meters, and is to have a length of 2,000 feet. This flow continued for fortj'-eight hours would result in a total dis- charge of 444,300 acre-feet, or about 9,300 acre-feet per hour. A sus- tained discharge of this amount would raise the lake to a head of

about 6.6 feet over sill of the weir. This, however, may be taken as the extreme condition, which will never be exceeded.

LOW WATER OF THE CHAORES RIVER. The Chagres River being the one feeder to the summit level of the

proposed canal, its mean and minimum flow is very important as indicating the amount of storage that must be provided for the operation of the canal during the dry season. The mean flow for the

various months of the year as determined by averaging all the monthly

records at Gamboa in our possession since 1892, are as follows:

Cubic feet per second. January 3, 310 February 1, 330 March 900

April 1, 530 May 3, 180 June 3,280

Cubic feet per second. July 4,010

August 4, 080 September 3, 540 October 4, 110 November 4, 790 December 4, 850 Averaging these quantities, we find the mean annual discharge is about 3,200 cubic feet per second. As the maximum consumption and

loss by leakage and evaporation is but little over 1,000 cubic feet per

second, we find that the month of March is the only month having a shortage in average years, and as this is the record for Gamboa, and

the discharge at Bohio, where the dam is to be constructed, is some- what greater, we may say that the requirements of the canal are less than the average discharge for any month in the year, and if onethird of the mean annual flow can be saved, there will be ample for

canal purposes.

But some years furnish less water than others, and to correctly

solve the problem of the water supply for the canal we must consider

the yield in the minimum year. In all the observations at Bohio the lowest monthly means are for

the months of March and April, 1891, as shown by the mean of eight

measurements made in each of those months. More records, however,

are at hand for Gamboa than for Bohio, and the lowest reading at the

Gamboa fluviograph occurred in the spring of 1901, when for a period

of about two and one-half months the fluviograph at Gamboa indicated a stage of less than 14 meters almost continuously, the lowest point

reached being 13.72. This corresponds to a discharge of from 7 to 8

cubic meters per second. In the examination of the records in Paris an elevation at Gamboa

was found for the last three days of March, 1896, giving the stage as 13.1 meters. The rest of the month of March and the first half of

April are entirely blank, no record having been kept. It is impossible

that this could have been a fluviograph record, since the river would

be diy before reaching so low an elevation at the location of the fluvio- graph, and the only plausible explanation is that given by the officers of the company that this record was on a rod a considerable distance

below the fluviograph, and this statement is confirmed by the reports
46 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of discharge on these dates, which are 16.8, 16.8, and 16.9 cubic motors,

respectively, leaving no doubt that "at this time the river was above the

stage reached in 1900. No other record gives a stage of river as low as that reached in 1900.

The year 1891, however, seems to have had a still lower dry-season

flow. No fluviograph records were obtainable, except such as were

given with the measurements of discharge, and these do not show any

stage as low as that of 1900, but in so long a time the bed of the river

would be likely to change, and the measurements show that it has done

so. Of actual gaugings we have (p. 18) 8 for February, 8 for March,

and 8 for April. The measurement on the 1st of May shows low water,

while that of May 4 exhibits a freshet. The indications of the gaugings are that up to February 14 the dis- charge of the river was above the requirements of the canal, while

from February 15 to May 3 they were below. This is the same period

for which 8 measurements per month were made at Bohio. The means

are 39 cubic meters per second for Februaiy, 17 for March, and 17 for

April. This is the lowest discharge at Bohio of which we have record.

It is, of course, not certain that a drier year has not occurred or will not occur, and in making the estimates it will be assumed that the mean of 17 cubic meters or 600 cubic feet per second is continuous

for ninety days, from February 1 to May 1. The requirements and losses of the canal in operation, as estimated

by this Commission, are as follows:

Cubic feet per second. Lockage 406 Power 200 Leakage 257 Evaporation 207

Total : 1,070

Applying this quantity, we have for the ninety days, from February 1 to May 1:

Acre-feet. Total leakage, lockage, and evaporation, 1,070 cubic feet per second 191,000

Less inflow - 107, 000

Deficit 84,000

Taking 24,000 acres as the area of the lake, this will lower the lake

about 3.5 feet. An allowance of this amount is therefore ample for

the most extreme case. This brings the elevation of the lake to 81.5 foot, which maybe

regarded as the elevation reached in (ho minimum year of a long scries,

and would occur perhaps only once in a generation. If the consumption and loss should bo loss than 1,070 cubic feet per second the deficit would, of course, be diminished.

The dry season of L900 would have brought the lake level to an ele- vation of about 82.5. The possibility always remains of constructing a large reservoir at Alhajuela, which will not only guard against all possibility of annoying currents in Lake Bohio, but will store sufficient water for use in the dry season so that the lake need never decline below the sill of the waste weir.

It is indeed true, as stated by General Abbot, that the Chagres is a

river well adapted to the service of the proposed Panama CanaL
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 47

Discharge measurements math- m> C'liagres River at Gamboa.

[Made by Panama Canal Company.]

Date.

September 27 . September 30

October 2.. October 5.

October 9.. October 12. October 15. October 19. October 23. October 26. October 30. Mean

November 2 .

November 6 . November 9 .

November 14 November 16 . November 20 November 22 November 30 . Mean.

January 13

February 11 February 21 February 27 Mean . March 1.. March 6.. March 11

March 19. March 27.

Aprils..

April 10. April 14. April 17. April 19. April 22. April 25. April 29. Mean May 3 . May 6 . May 9 . May 12 May 16 Mav 20 May 23 Mav 27 May 30

June 3 .. June 6 .. June 7 .

June 10. June 13. June 17. June 20. June 24

June 27

Height, jjjjjge

15.

15.7 15.8

15.1

15.4 15.0

15.

15.4

15.1

15.

15.4 15.2

15.4 15.0

15.4 15.2

17.1

15.

16.8

14.5

14.4 14.3

14.3

14.2

14.2

14.2

14.4

14.2

14.1

14.1

14.1

14.1 14.1

14.1

14.4

17. 14.8

14.4 15.8

16.1

15. 2 14.8

15.2 14.8

15.4

15.

16.8

16.4 14.8

16.8 15.5

15.1

15.

1, lis 4,977 5,154 5,613

3,951

5, 330

3, 459

6, 107 4,977

3, 600 4,165

4,707

5,366

4, 236

4, 942 3,812

4,765

4,660

11,614 3,600

5,374

9,531

9, 531 1,412

1,412

1,236

1,353 1,270

1,094 882 882

1,341 1,094 812

600

600

565

600

586

777 1,306

731 14,470 3,530

1,165 6,707 8,013

3,990

2, 824

3, 990

2, 753 5,271 4,483

4,518

10, 307 8,472

2,471

11, 120 4,730

3,636

3,777

5, 946

Date.

July 1 . July 7 . July 8 . July 8 . July 16 July 18 Julv 22 July 25 Julv 29

1890.

Mean

August 1 .

August 5.. August8.. August 12. August 14. August 19. August 22. August 26. August 29. August 31. Mean

September 5 .

September 9 .

September 12 . September 13

September 16 . September 19

September 21 September 26 September 30 Mean . .

October 3 .

October 7 . October 10 October 14

October 17 October 21

October 24

October 25 October 31 Mean. November 4 . November 7 . November 11 November 14 November 18 November 22 November 25 November 29 Mean. .. December 2.. December 5.

December 9.

December 12. December 16. December 19. December 23. December 26. December 30. Mean..

January 2 . January 6 . January 9 . January 13 January 16 January 20

1891.

Height.

15.4 15.2

15.2 17.2

15.6

15.4

15.

16.6 15.0

14.8

15.4

15.3

15.8 16.2

15.3

15.2 15.9 15.3

17.1

15.4

15.2 15.6

17.7

16.0 15.5

16.3 15.4

15.9

15.4

15.4

15.9

15.3

15.2

15.1

17.1 18.4

15.3

15.2

15.1 15.4

15.2 15.0

15.6

15.4

15.1

18.0

15.6

15.6 15.2

15.4 15.5

15.4 15.4

15.2

15.1 14.9

15.1 14.7

14.7

14.6

Dis- charge.

4,483 3,954

3, 636

11,331

5, 013

4, 518 3,777 8,930

3,000

5,404 2,400 4,624

4,377

5, 720 7,554

4,306

4,060

6,954

4,448

12, 320 5,676

4, 977 4,130 5,330

15, 890 6,920

5,083 8,225

4,342

6,460

6,817

4, 518 4,660 5,825

3,742

4,024 3,600

10, 307 17,900

3,777

6, 483 3,777

3, 565 4,412

3,990 3,018

5, 048

4, 589 3,248

3, 956 14,296

5,471 6,178

3,600

4,554 5,295

4,836

5,013

3,990

5,915

3,353

2,612 3,177

1,836

1,765

1,482
48 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Discharge measurements made on Chagres River at Gamboa—Continued.

Day.

January 23 . January 27 . January 30 . Mean

February 3 .

February 6 .

February 10 . February 13 . February 17 . Februa ry 20 . February 24 . February 27 . Mean

March 3 .

March 6 . March 10 . March 13 . March 17 . March 20 . March 24 . March 27 . March 31 Mean . April 3.. April 7.. April 10. April 14. April 17. April 21. April 24. April 28.

Mayl..

May i.. Mays..

May 12. May 15. May 19. Mav22. May 26. May 29.Mean

June 2 .

June 5.. June 9 .

June 12

June 16 June 19

June 23. June 26

June 30

Me; July 3. July 7. July8.

„ . , , Dis- HelSht. charge

14.6 14.6

14.5

14.5

14.5

14.4

14.5

14.4 14.4

14.3

14.3

14.3 14.3

14.3

14.3

14.2

14.2

14.2 14.2

14.2

14.2

14.1 14.1

14.1 14.1 14.2

14.1 14.1

1,553

1,341

1,341

2,051 1,236

988 1,130

1,024 847

928

709

709

946 720

681 745

582

540

551 600

434 515

14.2

IS. 2

14. 5 14.1

11.1 15.0

14.4 14.7

14.8

14.7

14.7 14.7

14.3 14.5

15.8

14.7

11.4

14. S

14.5 14.6

17.5

572

568

547

441 614

522 544

473 535

512

18,285

1,701 618

512

3, 036

1

423

2, 40

2, 580

4,524

2, 051

2, 365

2, 230

1,097 1,750

6, 080 1,860

1 , 377

2, 602 2,379

1,518

1,871 11,967

Date.

July 13. July 17. Jul v 21. Jul v 24. July 28. Julv 31.

1891.

Mean

August i .

August 7.

August 11. August 14. August 18. August 21. August 25. August 28.

Mean . September 1 .

September 4 .. Septembers .. September 11

September 15. September 18 September 21 September 29 Mean

October 2.. October 6.. October 9.. October 13. October 16. October 20. October 23. October 27. October 30. October 31. Mean November 3 .

November (i .

November 10 . Novein tier 13 November 17 . November 19 November 24 . November 27 . Mean

December l .

December i.

December 8. December 11 December 15. December is. December 22. December 27. December 29. Mean

Height.

16.0

14.7 15.0

14.7

15.5

14.7

14.9 15.2

14.9

14.7 15.0 14.8

15.0

14.7

15.4

15.1 15.3 14.8

14.7

14.7

15.7

14.8

14.9

14.7 14.6

15.1

16.4 15.4

15.6 16.5

15.4 17.0

15.1 15.5

15.4

15.

14.9

19.2

15. 3 17.5

16.9 15.6

17.5

15.1 15.0

14.8

14.8

14.7 14.6

Dis. charge.

5,825

1,977 3,000

1, 588 4,483

1,906 3,793

2,683

3,777

2,577

2, 259

3, 142 2,330

3,354

2,120

2, 780 4,130

3,000

4,312

2,259

2, 083

1,518 4,590

2,330

3,032 "2,316

2, 120 1,870

3, 390

6, sis 4,095

4,886 4,695

3,954

10, 555

1. 16S

3, 142 4,377

8, 636

3, 565

2, 294

26, 475

3, 8 is 12,637

7, 497

9, 955

4, 907

12,885 2,930

2,790

2, 153 3,083

1.730 1,590 4,670

K UNFALL. Notwithstanding the fact that the isthmus is narrow and the Cordillera low in the vicinity of Panama, there is a striking difference of

rainfall between the Caribbean or northern and the Pacific or .southern coast of the isthmus in this region. The contrast is similar, though

not so striking as that between the east and west coasts of Nicaragua.

The mean rainfall at Colon as shown by a record of nearly thirty years

is 130 inches, while that at Panama, though not so well determined,

is only 66.8. The precipitation at Panama and vicinity is confined
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 49

almost entirely to the months from May to November, inclusive, the

rest of the 3^ear being the dry season. At Colon, though the rainfall

is less during the dry season, there is still quite a precipitation, the mean for April being 4.54 and for January 3.73, while these two

months are dry on the Panama side. February and March arc less likely to yield any considerable precipitation, but no month is exempt

from rainfall on the coast of the Caribbean. The upper portion of the

Chagres drainage basin represents the mean between these extremes.

(See map.)

The longest record of rainfall in the vicinity is that of Colon, which

continues from March, 1881, to date, with the exception of a period

of twent}^-one months in 1888-89. This station, however, is not on

the Chagres drainage, and the records which are in that basin are not

so long. They are mainly at Gamboa and Obispo, with very short

records at Bohio, Gorgona, and Alhajuela. Short records also exist at Panama, at La Boca, the south end of the canal, and at Naos, an island

in the Bay of Panama.

The long records of stream flow at Gamboa and Bohio, together with

an approximate knowledge of the area of the drainage basin, and the

observations of rainfall, constitute a valuable contribution to the

knowledge of the ratio of rainfall to run off in the Tropics, the weakest

point being the information on rainfall, the only records in the basin

being confined to the lower valley, and being, moreover, very short.

If a definite relation could be established between the long Colon

record and the mean of the Chagres basin, it would increase the value

of these data to an important extent. For this purpose, five stations

above Alhajuela were established in 1899, two at different points on

Rio Pequeni at Salamanca and Las Minas, one on the Upper Chagres

at Santa Barbara, and two at high elevations above the river valley.

Of the latter, one is on a hill between the Chagres and Pequeni, 700 feet

above the nearest point of the Chagres, and the other is between the

Chagres and Puente, about 500 feet above the river. Salamanca and

Las Minas were discontinued at the end of 1900. The others were dis- continued October 30, 1900. Their relative location is shown on the

map. These stations, considered with those lower in the basin, are taken as the mean for the basin, and compared with observations at Colon as follows:

Rainfall at Colon compared with the mean rainfall in the l>asin of the Chagres River.

January . .

February .

March

April May

June

July August

September.

October November

December . Total

Colon.

1872 (maxi- mum).

Inches. 3.57

.75

.83 1.30 21.43

22

19. 90 19.97

16.20

30. 32 19.11

13. 12

1884 (mini- mum).

Inches. 3.39

.39

. 39 4.33

10. 16 10.32 15.59

13.27 9.37

8.66

7.05

3.62

168. 50 86.54

Inches. 6.06

.33 1.06

.75 12.25 11.65

16.81 17.04

9.37

16.33

20.28 "9.04

120. 97

Mean for

30 years.

Inches. 3.56 1.52

1 . 55 4.42

12.27 13.46

16.92 15.53

12.77

11.20 20.56

12.49

129. 25

Basin.

Inches. 2.44

.33

.32 3.78

10. 45 15.67

15. 28

12. 36 14.33 15.48

15. 10 "3.59

109. 13 Mean rainfall on basin: 129.25, 109.13, 120.97, or 116.00 inches.

a To obtain a comparison for a complete year, the rainfall for December, 1899, is included, because during December, 1900, many stations in the basin were discontinued. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 4
50 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Monthly rainfalls.

[1862-1874, by Drs. White and Kluge, surgeons Panama Railroad Company; 1881-1S98, by Panama

Canal Company; 1898-1900, by Panama Railroad Company.] COLON.

Year. .Tan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.

L862 13.10

11.22 12.83

9.69

15.04 20.50

13.13

14.82

11.21 12.58

30.32

14.30

16.65

12. 91 14.96 16.77 8.66

7.99

14.33

19.61

43.01

17.59

17.90 22.16

21.72

16.83

15.21 16.40 5.58 8.421863

1864 1865

1866

1867

1.75

1.90 1.10

3.99

1.56

1.17

.83 4.30

15.42 3.57 6.33

5.33

2.94

.77 1.08 1.07

.80 2.77

.77 3.33

.53 .75

.25 1.34

.85

.78

.02

.21 .48 2.18

.49 4.95

.05

.83 .13 3.94

1.08 1.69

.55

.39

.55 9.17

.47 1.26

4.70

.44 3.89 4.07

1.20

.87 5.04

6.46

1.52 1.30 2.18

18.02 2.52

1.73 1.77

4.33

1.34 1.58

10.63

13.09

15.87 9.22

14.76

11.88 7.24

6.72 20.95

1.63 21.43

3.92 8.92

10.04 13.23

11.85

10.16

7.91 13.15

10.28

15.32 8.78

16. 85

12.17 8.85

18.11 10.66

12. 48 7.70

22

13.20

15. 87 15.28

18.90

10.08

10. 32 16.61 16.38 16.50

25. 76 16.54

9.61 16.72

16.03 20.60

18.22

15. 60

23. 27 19.90

12.50

13.62

12.24 19.10

13.39

15.59

22. 99 11.10

17.05

10.34 13.37

18.39

12. 72

19. 82 12.50

14. 02 16.35

11.56

19.97 10.69

17.28 6.46

13.94 25.43

13.27

20. 32 12.20 16.89

15.54

17.85 8.55

18. 82

5.35

16.16 8.98

6.74

816.20

10.91 8.22

6.30

10.63

11.14

9.37 17.44 7.52

15.63

134. 31

123. 43

106. 14

129. 71 1868

1869

1870

1871

1872 1873

1874

1881

21.58 24.13

32. 42 12.38

19.11 11.77

20. 62 22.13

22.09

11.10 7.05

24. 17 21.89

31.81

3.72

10.10 14.85 4.94

13. 12

.94 7.89

10.35 5.08

10.91

3. 62

25. 51

22. 72 13.33

120. 03

114.78

149. 64 99.58 168.50 87.12

137.70

1882

1883 1884

1885

1886 1887

1888

1.65

1.85

3.39

.87 2.13

2.01

.63

1.10

.47 .39

.59 5

.67 1.58

124. 10

115. 34 86.54

146.29

137. 17 154.88

1889

1890

1891 1892

1893 1894

1895

1896

1897 1898

1899

1900

7.24

2.52

.98 1.73

5.35

3.86

4. 02 3.42 5.04

6.93

6.06

1.02

.51 2.01 3.82

1.65

1.89 1.30

.04 .35 6.49

.33

2.01 1.50

3.98

1.81

.35 2.09

2.01

.28 1.58

1.26 1.06

2.99

.51 58.07

2.16 21.73

9.02 3.74

4.72

.43 .75

9.76

23

18.03 6.58

9.85 16.77

16.46 16.34

12.83 13.90

12. 25

17. 24

7.99

16.97

12.32 12.24 9.25 8.50

18.82

16.38

6.41

11. 65

10.24

14.02

21.77

11.50

19.10

17.09 13.58

14.06 21.89

27.68

16.81

20. 51 15.98

15. 98 15.12 23.03

14.13

15. 51

17. 24

10.91 14.80

17.04

22.99

17.48

16.26 9.92

18.78

12. 09 12.84

17.20

10.24

16.55 9.37

21.77

17.48

6.69 12.28

12. 40 16.46 13.98 5.83

11.38

15.04 16.33

19.49

19.49 26.30

17.80 23.66

20.47 15.63

22.16

12. 28

14.49 20.28

19. 06 4.25

11.30

30.94

25. 12 15.71

18. 66 18.90 7.95

9.01 4.13

154.32

124. 73

145.27

131. 89

153. 69

151. 54

131.51 138.03

115. 55

133. 02

116.06 Mean

3.56 1.52 1.55 4.42 12. 27 13. 46 16.92 15.53 12.77 14.20 20.56 1 12.49 129. 25

BOHIO.

1896 1 15.63

18.54

14.61 10.35 7.42

8.54 14.10

19.76 14.80

18.40

5.65

15. 83 34.96

17.76

17.79

25. 20

38.31

12. 99

14.02

25.51

17. 4S

13.31 8.90

15.40

13.35

26. 02

28. 23 19.33 18.43

17. 05

19. 57 21.81

10.43 24.98

1897 ! 3.07 s.ll

10. 59

1.10 2.89

22. 05 6.38

6.18

4.02

1898 1899

1900

12. 36

9.37 7.06

1.26 ' 3.03 4.49 I 3.28

.48 1.04

201.61

118. 98

131.93 Mean . 9.60 2.08 | 2.60 5.67 13.31 15. 12 18.38 22. 63 16. 12 21.07 18.77 9.66 155. 01

GORGONA.

1896 9.02 25.12 5.04

6.81

13.54

1.37

5.16 9.65

IS. 50

8.98

16.93

19.88

13. 35 15.9810.94

11. 11 7.72

14.37 7.16

9.61

1897 .08

.20

2.01 .13

.00 3.31

.20

2. 60 1.38

7.91

:;.'.u 4.58

1898

1899

3. 42 3.78

1900 2.63 3.15 7.07 12.48 j 19.72 11.04 11.25 11.93 Mean

3.28 .60 1.17 2.38 11.56 9.30 13.26 14. 21 13.53 11.25 | 10.38 5.48 | 96.40

1 CAMBOA.

1 KM

10. 63

6. 26 12.40

10. 12 9.17

'.i. 88 10.39

11. si 11.06

8. 15 L2.95

1 1 . si 4.76

1.50 15. 17 1.38 1883 2.60

ti. 46

L.38

o. 68

6. is

1 1 . or,

11.02

L8 85

10. 35

6. 5

o. 62 9.06

15.94 16.50

15.51

1. 13 10.55

Hi. 10

10.01

22. 36

9. 3:;

7.01 6.18

13.23

6.80

2.20

1 1 . 06

1884 .71 .20

.28 1885 .20 .00 97. IS 1886 . 55 1.06 .71 2. 76 15. 71 10.55 11.69 16.38 9. 13 13.62 16.10 1.61 102.87 1887 2.20 .OS . 28 6.85 1 1 . 02 19. 15 14.02 19.17 11.50 1 l.ss 24.06 16.28 136. 19 1888 .12 .»;;; . 35 1.26 20. 17 1 1 . 93 3.27 10.21 12.28 'J...

16. IS 16.84 102.61 L889 1.97 4.51! 1. 1" .00 4.87 9. 10 7.28 10.51 11. 12 13.07 s. 7o ;;.;;5 75. 72 1890 L06 .35 2.36 3 03 L3.27 11.65 lo. 13 15.36 S. 'JO 21. 11 9.92 1.29 105.03

1891 .63 .00 . 35 2.1:; 7. IS '.I.2H 6.06 8.50 10.47 15.71 10.67 6. 38 77. 67

1892 1.10 .67 2. 56 1.72 16.81 8.54 13.98 I 1.:;:: 13. 74 11.10 10.21 6.58 101.. '.7 1893 .67 1.06 .71 7.44 11.89 10.71 15.87 7. 95 10.21 16.50 13.90 20. 87 117.81


REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 51

Monthly rainfalls—Contin ued

GAMBOA—Continued.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.

1894

1895 1.46 .16 .04 1.34 10.94 8.78 10.08 8.42 16.16 15.28 10.67 8.27 90.60

1896 3.35

17.44 5.32 8.54

6.76

3.31

12. 64 4.65

8.78 12.15

5.79

9.10

18.43 9.45

13.45

1897 .20

.12 1.73

.16

.28

.00 1.34

.13

3.23 1.42

1.42

3.21

17.20 20.16

10. 95 8.92

18. 82 4.10

13.46 9.24

12.80 8.70

7.95 12.11

5.91

14. 57

8.70

10.67

8.62

2.40

2.68

.79

1898 1899

1900

2.76

5

1.01

82.60

80.00

78.60' Mean. 1.67 .78 .71 2.99 10.88 10.17 10.35 13.06 11.19 12.98 11.74 7.06 93.58

BAS OBISPO.

1884 1885

1886

1887 1888

1889

1890

1891 1892

1893 1894

1.10

.24

.83 2.28

.16

.79 4.53

6.10

.79 .55

1.97

.35

.12

.87 .00

.51

.32 .12 .00

.63 1.34

.32

.35

.00

.87

.12 .32 1.10

2.56

.35 2.56

.71 .20

2.16

1.14

1.69

3.19

.91 6.50

2.56 2.16

4.76 3.19 1.38

3.86

7.36

17.44 10.16 11.58 4.57

13.07 5.83

15.16

19.57 11.89

11.97 8.74

12. 91 15.43

11.93 9.84

14.96 11.54

10.51 10.75

10

8.46

6.34

9.02

10.87 1.93

6.42

9.88

6.10

13.10

14.37 10.59

10.51

12.84 8.27

8.03

7.76

8.98

12.16 7.76

11.93 9.57

13.98

12.87

10.20

10.98

7.13

13.46 13.03

12.32

17.36

10.63

12.40 8.94

9.37

7.36

3.82

13.23 4.80

14.49 10.28 19.84

6.93

11.10

15.63

14.06

10.59 8.54

6.54 8.35

11.02

13.35

2.64 11.50

3.90

15.79

10.08 3.78

7.95 8.72

6.97

19.13

74.71 81.23

91.00

98.27

66.72

77.53

92.16

83.82

105. 07

123

Mean. 1.76 .42 .83 2.69 10.95 11.69 8.83 9.78 12.20 10.45 10.61 9.05 89.26

1883» 1.26 3.78

1.61 1.18 3.50

.35

11.50 10.32

10.24 4.29

14.33 6.10

2.91

10.71

13.62 5.35

8.19

8.74

6.54

5.47

8.70

11.38 7.36

7.64

11.26 12.13

5.04

1884 .20 1.46

.28

.43 3.15

.24

.04

.00 .55

.00

.04

.67

.00

.16

.04

.51

10.12 10.63 20.63

9.65

5.75

13. 50

11.18 7.20

14.29

12.13 9.53

13.23

1885 15.39

13.78

7.91 11.42

12. 64

9.96

7.99

1886

1887

1888

1894

5.43 7.95

7.72

98.97 76.77

64.25 1895 .75 Mean. .86 .23 .28 1.95 12 10.23 7.57 8.86 9.13 11.71 11.26 5.52 79.60

1 Observations at Emperador. PANAMA.

1879 1880

1881 1882 1894*

.04 1.89

.16

.00

2.52

.12

.16 .12

5.71

.16

.35

.00

5.55

1.61 3.23

.98

10.28 4.45

10. 35 5.24

6.46

513.78 6.18

7.48

7.91 9.88

7.20 5.35

12.72

7.24

11.46 4.49

4.05

6.42

9.02

7.91 8.94

4.05

7.32

9.80

11.81 9.68

6.69

10.51

19.21 6.46

9.72

10.91 6.73

.98 5.51 2.48

2.01 8.27

• 84. 73

66.26

70.55 45.60

1895" 1.38 .08 1899» 6.14 11.98 8.92 4.35

1900" .76 .00 .00 2. 24 11.21 8.91 15. 81 5.99 Mean. .70 .60 1.24 2.72 8.31 7.97 9.81 6.61 7.23 10.08 10.32 3.93 69. 52

1 Observations at La Boca. NAOS.

1881 7.48

5.04

7.24

8.62 4.37

4.49

8.82 4.02

2.87

2.84

3.11 1.34 4.92

3.74 5.59

, 1.30

1882

1883

1884 1885

1886

1887 1888

1889

.00

.59

2.01

.55

.00

.79 .08

.00

.04

.00

.04

.20 .28

.04 .00

.00

.04

.00

.00 .00

1.81

.04

.04 .91

.94 1.93

.94

.91 1.92

2.36

.28 4.41

4.53 4.45

4.84

2.56

5.20

5.24

5. 55 5.79

5.08

2.56

4.17

5.63

6.26

9.88

4.88 5.43

1.61 5.47 4.65

2.64

9.61 4.06

2.01

1.14

5.51 2.99

5. 51 5.91

6.69

5.71

1.14

4.64 5.71

4.17

20. 75 6.97 8.58

2.72 4.25

8.31 9.96 6.10

7.05

8.11

25.12

39.76

43.62

41.42

66.06 57.52

40.55

Mean. .50 1 .08 .35 | 1.71 4.77 5.49 4.29 4.78 7.42 6.64 6.26 3.21 45.50
52 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

TEMPERATURE.

Monthly temperature observed by the Panama Canal Company in degrees Fahrenheit.

July August

September . October November . December .

January

February . March

April May

June

July August

September . October November . December.

Month.

1900.

The year.

La Boca. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum.

91

Mean.

78.8

75

7776.4

76.8

77.9

77.7

77.5

79.7 80

80.9

80.4

79.3

80.3 80.6

79.4

78.8 80.2

79.6

Alhajuela. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum. Mean.

79.7 80

80.6 78.8

79.5

78.9

76.8

79.5

79.7 80.9

78

78.9

77.3

78.4 76.4

77.7 77.3

78.1 78.3

REPORT OF W. W. SCHLECHT, HYDROGRAPHER FOR PANAMA.

Washington, D. C, February 87n 1901.

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report of my work

on the Isthmus of Panama, performed under your direction:

Although during former years hydrographic records were collected

by the Panama Canal Company on several streams, at present all investigations are confined to the Chagres River, which really presents

the only important hydrographic problems relative to an intcroccanic

canal across the Isthmus of Panama, and as Alhajuela, Gamboa, and

Bohio have at different times been considered as probable dam sites,

these places have been selected as hydrographic stations. In order to obtain the daily mean gauge height and a record of the rapid fluctua- tions of the river, the canal company has installed continuous self- registering river gauges, or "fluviographs" at these points with an

observer at each. The scale of the fluviograph record is 1 millimeter

(vertical) = 2 centimeters of rise; and 5 millimeters (horizontal) = 1 hour, 80 that each centimeter of rise and each ten minutes of time

may be easily read. It was at once apparent that no improvement on

this means of obtaining the desired information could be introduced

so the records were simply checked each day at > a. m. and (5 p. m., and with very few exceptions no material error was ever found.

The measurements for the discharge are made by means of floats of

1 to 3 feet immersion, and 2 to ."> inches diameter, the latter size being

used only at times of flood, so all may be considered as surface floats, and a length of course of 60 meters at Alhajuela, and Gamboa, and 80

meters at Bohio. Cross-sections of the courses are taken 10 meters

apart; and from these a table of mean sectional areas for different

stage of the river is computed for each station. Following are the

FIG. 1 1.— FLUVIOGRAPH AT ALHAJUELA.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 53

instructions to the observers, concerning the method of obtaining

the discharge which arc carefully followed:

The observations should be made in calm weather. The floats should have but a

small portion exposed above the surface of the water. The float should he liberated a short distance above the first profile, bo that at the moment it crosses that section,

it will have attained the velocity of the water; the observer will note the moment

of passage at the first section, and then go to the lower section and note its passage

at that section. The discharge is then obtained by means of the formula D = 0.80

A V; D — discharge; A = mean sectional area; V = the velocity as obtained by the observations on the floats. It is possible to materially improve on this means of obtaining the

discharge, especially as the coefficient 0.80 is arbitrary. Accordingly,

permanent hydrographic stations were established at Alhajuela, Gamboa, and Bohio, with an observer and current meter equipment at each.

ALHAJUELA.

The canal company's gauging station at Alhajuela is but a short dis- tance below the proposed dam site. It has high, steep banks to each

side and a width of about 250 feet, and at normal stage a mean depth

of 1 or 5 feet. But it is on a slight bend, and the cross sections along

the course differ considerably in area and conformation. Thus, at gauge height, 29 meters, we have 145, 135, and 133 square meters as the area at the upper end, middle, and lower end of the course. About

60 feet above the upper range a three-fourths inch cable is stretched

across the river, with marks giving at normal stage the one-fourth,

one-half, and three-fourths points of the width of the river. These

marks are used to show the points at which to release the floats. The

fluviograph is 200 yards below, and a secondary rod divided into centimeters is firmly set in the bank at the gauging station. The reading

of this rod is used as the argument in the table giving the mean area. On October 31, 1899, a No. 8 telegraph wire .was stretched across the river about 60 feet above the canal company's cable. This was

divided into 10-foot lengths, and was used to hold a boat in a fixed

position while the velocity was being measured. This wire could be

readily raised or lowered. While in use it was lowered so that a man

in the bow could seize it and hold the boat in the desired position.

While not in use it was raised 20 or 25 feet above the surface of the

river—that is, beyond the reach of floods. A crutch, with a pulley, was fastened to the bow of the boat, over which the current meter was

lowered. The crutch was fastened so that the pulley was at least 3

feet in front and 1 foot to one side of the cutwater. Thus the dis- placement of the boat could not affect the measured velocity.

The first current meter measurement was made on October 31, 1899,

with new small Price electric meter No. 35, which had been rated at Chevey Chase in July. Two simultaneous determinations of the dis- charge were made, the first by measuring the velocity at 0.6 depth

below the surface at each station, and the second by measuring the

•velocity at each 1 foot of depth at the same stations and then taking

the mean as the mean velocity at that station. The river was divided

into twelve sections, varying from 10 feet wide near the banks where

the velocity across the stream changes rapidly, to 30 feet near the center where it is more uniform.
54 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Following are the results: Fluviograph =28. 565 meters.

First method. —Mean velocity = 1.92 feet per second; discharge

2.280 second-feet.

Second method. —Mean velocity =1.90 feet per second; discharge=

2,257 second feet. From the above we see that at Alhajuela the velocity at 0.6 depth

below the surface gives practically the mean velocity in a section.

Following are specimen computations for discharge to show in detail the method used by the hydrographic office, Isthmian Canal Commission, and by the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama:

Gauging made August 18, 1900, on Chagres River, at Alhajuela, by the Isthmian Canal

Commission.

[Time, 8.40 to 9.30 a. m. Current meter=large Price electric No. 94. Fluviograph, 28.51 meters.]

Distance from

initial point. Depth. Depth

of ob- servations.

Time

sec- onds.

Revolutions.

Revolu- tions per

second.

Velocity. Section width. Mean

depth. Area.

Dis- charge.

68 feet

Feet. R B.

Feet. Feet. Sq./eet. Sec.feet.

71 feet. .

2

4.1

3.7 4.7

4.2

4.4

4.7

65.4

5.7 5.8

5.2

4.2 3.8 3.3

3

2 L B

*.35 .80

.86

1.08

.96 1.18

1.35

1.97 2.38

2.56 2.53

2.47 2.26

2.00

1.66

.67 ".30

6

11

10

1520

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

1510

10

10

5

24.1

3.7 4.7

4.2

4.4

4.7

55.4

5.7 5.8

5.2

4.2

3.8

3.3

32

1245

37

7084

88

94 100

108

114

116 10463

38

3330

10

4 80 feet 2.5

2.2

2.8 2.5

2.6

2.8

33.2

3.4

3.5

3.1 2.5

2.3

2

1.8

100 100

100 100

100 100

100

100 100

100

100

100

100

100

100

23

25

3228

35

40

58

71

77

7674

67

5949

19

.23 .26

.32

.28

.35

.40

.58

.71 .77 .76

.74

.67

.59 .49

.19

36

90 feet 32

100 feet 76

120 feet 81

140 feet 104 160 feet 127

180 feet 197

200 feet 257

220 feet 292

240 feet 293

260 feet 257

280 feet 142

290 feet 76 300 feet 65

310 feet 20

318 feet.

3

Total 1 252 1,146 2,051

1 2051-^1146=1. 79 feet per second=mean velocity. 'Estimated.

Gauging made August 18, 1900, on Chagres River, at Alhajuela, by canal company, by means offloats.

[Floats were 2 feet sticks, U inches in diameter, weighted at one end so as to float vertically. Time,

8 a.m. Fluviograph, 28.50 meters. Length of course=60 meters.]

No. of

float. Distance from right bank.

Time.

Computations. Upper

range. Lowerrange. Elapsed.

12

3

45

6

One-fourth width of river do

/(. m. s. 7 55 6

7 55 14

8 4 4 8 4 11 8 11 17

8 11 25

h. m. x. 7 57 15

7 57 26

8 5 23

8 5 32

8 12 66 8 12 58

,s'i minis.

129

13279

8199

93

Area=101.4f> in-.

I^-2=.472=velo,ily. One-half width of river do

Three-fourths width of river .. do

613

6

= then 101.45 x .472 x0.80 = 47.ns| hi 1 |mt second, or 1,690 sece =102.2=mean time,

nd-feet.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 55

The company's result was 1,690 cubic feet per second, being only 82

per cent that of this Commission, which was 2,051. Since the gaugings were made at almost the same time and gauge height, the above

discrepancies are greater than they should be. The ratio \v;is almost

constant in all the simultaneous observations at Alhajuela, and is explainable as follows: The coefficient of 0.80 is too small, considering

that Moats are released at three sections. Owing to the curvature of

the channel, the currents are not parallel to the bank and floats Nos. 1 and 2 always approach the right bank and at times cross the lower

range within 10 feet of the bank. The second float at times passes the

first float, although liberated about ten seconds later. Generally a dis- tance between ranges of 60 meters is too long, as the error introduced

by the more erratic drift of the float is not balanced by the greater

accuracy in the time, unless the channel is straight and the cross section

exceptionally uniform.

Although it is useless to introduce an}^ degree of refinement in the

computation of float measurements unless the course is exceptionally

good, still the above method of obtaining the mean velocity is erroneous, as it is obtained by dividing the length of the course by the mean

time. The true mean velocity is the mean of the velocities of the fila- ments which constitute the stream. It may be mathematically shown

that unless the observed time of all the floats is the same the result

obtained by the above method is always too small and that the error

increases as the differences in the observed times increase. The method

as employed introduces an error varying from 3 to 5 per cent. The

balance of the discrepancy is mainly accounted for by the coefficient 0.80 being too small. On December 26 Mr. R. G. DuBoulay was put in charge of all the

hydrographic observations at Alhajuela, which included measuring the

Chagres at Alhajuela and at Santa Barbara, the Gatuncillo, and the

Chilibre rivers. In all 71 measurements of the Chagres River at Alhajuela were made,

varying in gauge height from 28. 12 meters to 31.39 meters. The first high flood of the year, that of July 3 and 4, cut into the crest of the

rapids just below the fluviograph, thus changing the relation between

gauge height and the discharge, so that two rating tables are necessary. RATING TABLE FOR STATION OX CHAGRES RIVER AT ALHAJUELA.

This table is applicable only from October 1, 1899, to July 3, 1900:

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- [Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Meters. See.feet. Meters. Sec.feet. Meters. Sec.feet. Meters. Sec.feet. 28 28.75 3,440 3,775

29.50 9,105

9,530

30. 25 15, 985 28.05 355 28.80 29. 55 30.30 16, 475 28.10 455 28.85 4, 120 29.60 9,960 30. 35 16, 965 28.15 560 28.90 4,470 29. 65 10, 395 30.40 17, 460 28.20 675 28.95 4,825 29.70 10, 835 30. 45 17,955 28.25 815 29 6,185 29.75 11,280 30.50 18, 455

28.30 985 29.05 5,550 29.80 11, 730 30. 55 18, 950

28. 35 1,185 29.10 6,920 29.85 12, 185 30.60 19, 450 28.40 1,410 29.15 6,300 29.90 12, 645 30.65 19, 950

28. 45 1,655 29.20 6,685 29.95 13,110 30.70 20, 450

28.50 1,920 29.25 7,075 30 13, 580 30.75 20, 950 28.55 2, 200 29.30 7,470 30. 05 14, 055 30.80 21,450

28.60 2,495 29. 35 7,870 30.10 14, 535 30.85 21,950 28.65 2, 800 29. 40 8, 275 30.15 15, 015 28.70 3,115 29.45 8,685 30.20 15,500
56 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

This table is applicable only from July 4, 1900, to date:

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

M< tt rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. .1/- ti rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. 28

28. 05 28.90

28.95 4,990

5,380

29. 80 29.8513,090

13, 630 30.70

30.75

23, 710

355 24, 320 28.10 455 29 5,775 29.90 14, 180 30.80 24, 935

28. 15 560 29.05 6,175 29.95 14, 740 30.85 25,550

28.20 075 29.10 6,575 30 15,310 ! 30.90 26,165

28. 25 815 29.15 6, 980 30.05 15,890 30.95 26, 780 28.30 990 29.20 7,390 30.10 16, 475 31 27, 400 28.36 1,200 29.25 7,810 30.15 17, 065 31.05 28,020 28.40 1,145 29.30 8,240 30.20 17, 660 31.10 28, 640 28.45 1 , 720 29.35 8,680 30.25 18,260 31.15 29,260

28.50 2, 025 29.40 9,130 30.30 18, 860 31.20 29,880

28.55 2, 355 29.45 9,590 30.35 19, 460 31.25 30,500 28.60 2,710 29.50 10, 060 30.40 20, 065 31.30 31, 120

28. 65 3, 080 29.55 10, 540 30.45 20, 670 31. 35 31, 740 28.70 3,455 29.00 11,030 30. 50 21, 275 31.40 32,360

28.75 3,835 29.65 11,530 30.55 21, 880 31.45 32, 980

28.80 4,215 29.70 12, 040 30.60 22, 490 31.60 33,600

28.85 4,600 29.75 12, 560 30.65 23,100

The table of "Monthly discharge" was then computed, using these

rating tables with the daily mean gauge height, as given by the fluvio- graph, as the argument; but on days of flood—that is, days in which

the river rises over gauge height, 29—the daily mean discharge is obtained b}T taking the mean of the discharge corresponding to the

bihourly height. This is necessaiy, as the increment increases rapidly

with equal increases of gauge height, This table will be found on page 55. TRIBUTARIES BETWEEN ALHAJUELA AND GAMBOA.

The mean monthly discharge of all the tributaries between Alhajuela

and Gamboa was obtained by subtracting the discharge at the former

station from the discharge at the latter, month by month.

Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to the Chagres River between Alhajuela and

Gamboa.

[Drainage area, 130 square miles.]

Mean dis- charge.

Total.

Run-off. Month. Per

square

mile. Depth.

Rainfall.*

1900. Sec. feet. 85

5433

6

27 492

956 598 649

957

911

'.•1

Acre-feet. 5,226

_'. 999 2,029

867

1 . 660

29, 270

58, 782

36, 769

88, 020 58,840 54,210

&7780

Sec. feet.

'

. 65

.42

Inches. .75

.44 .29

Inches.

1.41 .10

.08

.05 .06

.21 .24

3. 00 May 8. 10

:;. 78

7. 35 4.60

1.99

7. 30

7.01

.72

4.20

8.46

5.30

6.74 8.47

7.82

.83

14.97 July 16.58 9.74

13. 22 12.68

12.01

.97

407 294, 518 42. 00 93.88

> Mean of observations at Alhajuela ami Gamboa.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 57

Ratio of run -off to rainfall = 45 per cent. The chief tributaries between Alhajuela and Gamboa are the Chilibre and the Gatuneillo. Weekly gaugings of these were made, and

their gauge height was read three times per week. These observations

in a general way furnished the relation of the discharge of each one to the total increase of discharge between the stations, which is as follows:

Per eent. Chilibre 36

Gatuneillo 26 Other sources 38

Total 100 The highest observed gauge height on the Chilibre was 22 feet,

giving a computed discharge of 3,700 second-feet. On the Gatuneillo

the highest observed gauge height was 16 feet, giving a computed dis- charge of 2,500 second-feet.

The following experiments with rod floats were made at Alhajuela

to find the relation between the surface velocities and the mean velocity

in a vertical section:

Float experiments made August 22, 1900 (fluviograph =2S.Sl).

I. PULL-DEPTH ROD FLOATS OF 2 TO 3 INCHES UNIFORM DIAMETER.

Distance from right bank .feet.. Length of floats do. .

Elapsed time seconds.

Velocity feet per second..

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

7.5 5 5 5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

87 78 78 77 75 57 55 55 59 64

2.27 2.53 2.53 2.56 2.63 3.46 3.58 3.58 3.34 3.08

220

2 93

2.12

Mean = 2.88 feet per second.

II. FLOATS OF li FEET LENGTH, 2 INCHES UNIFORM DIAMETER.

Distance from right bank .feet.

Elapsed time seconds.

Velocity feet per second .

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

72 75 70 68 63 53 50 46 51 58

2.74 2.63 2.81 2.90 3.13 3.72 3.94 4.38 3.86 3.40

220

71 2.77

Mean = 3.30 feet per second.

Ratio = 2.88^-3.30 = 0.87. The discharge obtained by using 2.88 as the mean velocity is 4,040

second-feet, which compares favorably with discharges obtained by

means of current meters. CHAGRES RIVER AT SANTA BARBARA'. The gauge height of the Chagres River at Santa Barbara was read by

C. Clauzel at 6 a. m. and 6 p. m. and at times of important fluctuations. The discharge measurements were made with current meters

and surface floats. After comparing several float measurements with

simultaneous current-meter measurements a coefficient of 0.85 was

adopted to reduce the observed velocity of the floats to the mean

velocity of the cross section. Thirty-five current-meter and 110 float
58 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

measurements were made, from which the following rating table was

computed:

Haling table, Chagres River, at Santa Barbara.

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. Feet. Sec.ft. 1.0 3.4 1,790 1,915 5.8 5, 520 5,715

5,910

6,110

8.2 10 500

1.1 3.5 5.9 8.3 10, 720

1.2 3.6 2,040 10, 945 2,170

2,300 2,430

2,565

2, 700

6.0 8.4

1.3 3.7 6.1 8.5 11,170

1.4 3.8 6.2 6,310

6,510

8.6 11,400

1.5 3.9 6.3 8.7 11,640

1.6 4.0 6.4 6,710 6,915

8.8 11,890

1.7 300 4.1 6.5 8.9 12, 155

1.8 320 4.2 2,840 6.6 7,120 9.0 12, 445

1.9 350 4.3 2,980 6.7 7, 325 9.1 12, 745 2.0 390 4.4 3,125 6.8 7,530 9.2 13, 055

2.1 440 4.5 3,270 6.9 7,735 9.3 13, 375 2.2 500 4.6 3,420 7.0 7,940 9.4 13, 700

2.3 570 4.7 3,575 7.1 8,150 9.5 14, 025

2.4 650 4.8 3,730 7.2 8,360 9.6 14,350

2.5 750 4.9 3,890 7.3 8,570 9.7 14,675 2.6 855 5.0 4,055 7.4 8,780 9.8 15, 000

2.7 965 6.1 4,225 7.5 8,990 9.9 15, 325 2.8 1,075 5.2 4,400 7.6 9,200 10.0 15, 650

2.9 1,190 5.3 4,580 7.7 9,415 11.0 18, 900

3.0 1,305 5.4 4,765 7.8 9,630 12.0 22, 150

3.1 1,425 5.5 4,950 7.9 9,845 13.0 25, 400

3.2 1,545 5.6 5,140 8.0 10, 060

3.3 1,665 5.7 5,330 8.1 10, 280

Remarks.—The zero of the gauge rod is at elevation 170.8 feet.

Estimated monthly discharge of Chagres River at Santa Barbara.

[Drainage area, 300 square miles.]

Month.

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October

Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean

.Sec. feet. 8,360

1,020 415

8,570

16, 625 6,510

19, 875 18,250

13,055

33, 600

Sec. feet. 700 390

320

300

310

610

802 1,020

965 1,365

Src.fnl

1,205

542 369

430

1,003

i,:;:;s 1,900

2, 348

1,717 3,601

Run-off.

Total. Square

mile. Depth.

I'-;', -/'<</. Sir. fill. Inches. 74,090 4.02 4.63

30, 100 1.81 1.88

22, 690 1.23 1.41

25, 590 1.43 1.60 61,670 3.34 3.88

79, 620 4.46 4.98

116,830 6.33 7.31 144,370 7.83 9.02

102, 170 5.72 6.38

221, 420 12.00 13.84

Rainfall

in basin.

Inches. 1.34

.21 .10 5.52

13. 15 21.51

13.53

1 1 . 22 16.08

17.00

GAMBOA.

The canal company's gauging station at Gamboa is about 100 yards

above the mouth of the, Obispo River, or about 300 yards below the

proposed dam site. Although by no means an ideal station, on account

of the tributary just below it, which may at times produce backwater,

and also on account of the broken water produced by a whirlpool above

it, still it is the best section within several miles to each side of it. The

banks arc fairly high, and the course straight. Floods rising over gauge height, L8 meters, will cover the left hank, and some water will flow through the digging for the canal, and thus will not be included

in the discharge measured at the gauging station. It then becomes

necessary to make the measurement at (Jorgona, where, although the

TIG. '2.— FLUVIOGRAPH AT GAMBOA.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 59

discharge of the Obispo is added, better results are obtained. The

fluviograph, which is similar to the one at Alhajuela, is one-half mile

above the gauging station. Discharge measurements are made with

floats in the same way as at Alhajuela.

As the chief object of the work was to check the observations of the

canal company, it was necessary to locate the station near theirs,

although for current meter measurements this location is poor. Near

the left bank the river is swift and shallow, and toward the right it

is sluggish and deep, thus a large per cent of the discharge has a low

velocity, which during low stages falls below 0.30 feet per second, and

it is in these low velocities that the current meter works at the greatest disadvantage. The unnatural condition of the river is due to the

spoil composed of large pieces of rock, which were deposited along the

left bank during construction times.

On this account this station did not receive the same attention as Alhajuela and Bohio, and no permanent observer was stationed here,

but the writer, with the assistance of R. McD. Geraty, made discharge

measurements whenever time permitted. Thirty-three measurements were made in the same general way as at Alhajuela, ranging in gauge

height from 13.85 to 16 meters, from which the rating table and esti- mated monthly discharge table were computed. (Table of estimated

monthly discharge. See page 58.)

Rating table fur Chagres River at Gamboa.

This table is applicable from October 1, 1899, to date.

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Meters. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. feet. 13.5 14.9 3,650

4,115

16.3 12,550

13, 290

14, 030

17.7 23, 150

23,930

24, 710

13.6 15.0 16.4 17.8

13.7 250 15.1 4, 605 16.5 17.9 13.8 395 15.2 6, 135 16.6 14, 775 18.0 25,500

13.9 560 15.3 5,690 16.7 15, 525 18.1 26,300

14.0 746 15.4 6,280 16.8 16, 275 18.2 27, 100

14.1 955 15.5 6,905 16.9 17,025 18.3 27,900

14.2 1,205 15.6 7, 550 17.0 17, 780 18.4 28, 700

14.3 1,480 16.7 8,215 17.1 18,540 18.5 29, 500

14.4 1,775 15.8 8, 900 17.2 19, 300 18.6 30, 300 14.5 2,090 15.9 9, 605 17.3 20, 060 18.7 31,100

14.6 2,425 16.0 10, 3^U 17.4 20,820 18.8 31 , 900 14.7 2,795 16.1 11,070 17.5 21, 590 18.9 32, 700 14.8 3,205 16.2 11,810 17.6 22, 370 19.0 33, 500

BUENA VISTA AND BOHIO.

The canal company's gauging station is at Buena Vista, or about

one-half mile above the proposed dam site. It is on a long, straight

stretch of the river, of 220 feet width, with high, steep banks. The

cross sections are very similar, and the velocities across the stream are very uniform. It is almost an ideal station for discharge measurements, its sole defect being that at times of extreme low water the

tides of the Atlantic may slightl}T affect the velocity.

The fluviograph is at Bohio and is the counterpart of the one at Alhajuela, but the tides are noticeable whenever the height of the river

is less than 0.5 meter, so that below this stage a rating table may

give slightly erroneous results, as the same gauge height at different

times may not correspond to the same discharge. A gauge rod divided

into centimeters is firmly set in the bank at the gauging station. The

reading of this is used in obtaining the mean area of cross section.
60 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In making discharge measurements the canal companj' has no means whatever to show the points at which to release the floats, this matter being left to the judgment of the boatmen who release the

floats at points which they estimate as the one-quarter, one-half, and

three-quarters of the width; still, as previously stated, the velocities across the streams vary slightly, so that the results are but slightly

affected by any errors of judgment of the boatmen.

On December 27, 1899, Mr. Inocencio Galindo, jr., was put in charge

of the hydrographic work at Bohio, which included weekly measure- ments of the chief tributaries between Gamboa and Bohio, such as the

Cafio Quebrada, Gigante, Frijolitos, Frijoles, and the Agua Salud.

Occasional trips were also made to the Trinidad and Gatun rivers, at which times measurements were made.

Mr. R. McD. Geraty made frequent trips to this station to assist in and to check the work.

Eighty-six measurements for discharge were made, ranging in gauge

height from 0.28 to 5.43 meters. The summary of discharge will be found on page 40.

Rating table for Chagres River at Bohio. This table is applicable onl}T from December, 1899, to date.

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Meters. Sec.feet. Mi Itrs. Sec.feet. M> t< rs. Sec. feet. Meters. Sec. f'(t. 0.1 1.6 3,610 3.1 9,305 4.6 17, 150

.2 330 1.7 3,930 3.2 9, 760 4.7 17,730 .3 490 1.8 4, 200 3.3 10, 225 4.8 18,^10

.4 650 1.9 4,600 3.4 10, 700 4.9 18, 890 .5 820 2.0 4,950 3.5 11,185 6.0 19, 170 .6 1,015 2.1 5,310 3.6 11,680 5.1 20, 060

.7 1,230 2. 2 5,680 3.7 12, 185 5.2 20,650

.8 1,465 2.3 6,060 3.8 12, 700 5.3 21,240

.9 1,715 2.4 6,440 3.9 13, 225 5.4 21,830

1.0 1,975 2.5 6,830 4.0 13, 765 5.5 22, 120 1.1 2,235 2.6 7,220 4.1 14,315 5.6 23, 020 1.2 2,495 2.7 7,620 4.2 14,870,. 5.7 23, 620

1.3 2,755 2.8 8,025 4.3 15,430 5.8 24, 220

1.4 3,020 2.9 8,440 4.4 16,000 5.9 24,820

j 1.5 3,305 3.0 8,865 4.5 16,570 6.0 25, 1-0 The following current meter observations were made on July 31 at Buena Vista to test the assumption that the velocity at 0.0 depth below

the surface is the mean of the velocities in a vertical section:

Distance from right bank.

50 feet. 110 feet. 160 feet. Depth of Depth of Depth of observa- Velocity. observa- Velocity. observa- Velocity.

tion. tion. tion.

Feet. Ft. /» r xi C. /;«/. Ft. pi r xi C. Feet. FY. pi r sec. 1.0 3. 7.". 1.0 3.86 0.5 3.69 2.0 3.75 2.0 :;. 72 1.5 8.63 3.0 3. 72 3.0 3.66 2. 5 8.63 L0 :;.•;:; 4.0 3. 59 3. 5 3. 53 5.0 8. 56 6.0 ::.:.:; 1.5 3. 50

6.0 3. 52 6. 3. i:: .;. 13 7.0 8.43 7.0 3. 10 6.6 3.24 8.0 3.21 8.0 3.24 7.5 3.08

'.Ml 2. 91 9. 3.05 8.

2.61 9.7 2.35 9.5 2.84 Mean 3.44 3.44 3.37

0.6 depth 3.52 3. 13 3. 45
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 61

The width of the river at the time of the observations was 214 feet,

the gauge height 2.26 meters, and the total depth at the stations in

order from the right bank was 9.9, 9.9, and 9.1 feet As there is less than one-half foot below the last measurement, one-half weight is given to these in obtaining the mean, except in the last case, where

there is also but one-half foot above the first measurement. These

observations were made from a boat. The meter was lowered to the

specified depth, and the revolutions for two consecutive fifty seconds were noted; if these did not agree, the revolutions for fifty additional

seconds were noted, and the mean of these was then used as an argument in the rating table to obtain the velocity.

TRIBUTARIES BETWEEN BOHIO AND GAMBOA.

The largest tributary between Bohio and Gamboa is the Cana Quebrada; minor tributaries in order of their size are the Obispo, Gigante,

Frijoles and Frijolitos, and Agua Salud. By subtracting the mean

monthly discharge of the Chagres at Gamboa from the discharge at Bohio the discharge of all the tributaries was obtained.

Estimated monthly discharge oftributaries to the Chagres River between Gamboa and Bohio.

[Drainage area, 245 square miles.]

Months. Mean dis- charge Total.

Run-off. Per

square

mile. Depth.

Rainfall.1

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The year

Sec. feet. 177

82

40

1555 759 1,856

1,188 1,440

2; 374

2, 125 720

Acre-feet.

10, 890

4, 550

2, 460

900

3,380

45, 160

114,120

73, 050

85, 690

145, 970 126,440

44,270

Sec. feet. 0.72

.33

.17 .06

.22 3.10

7.57 4.85

5.88 9.69

8.68

2.94

Inches. 0.83

.34

.20

.07 .25 3.46

8.73

5.59

6.56 11.17 9.68

3.39

Inches. 3.57 .26 .46

3.08 7.08

11.01 16.99

11.33

11.96

15. 27

17.82 2.40

656, 880 50.27 101.23

"Mean of observations at Bohio, Gorgona, and Gamboa.

Ratio of run-off to rainfall = 50 per cent. The tributaries named were gauged on an average of once per week,

and the following table depends upon these data:

Rivers.

Cano Quebrada

Obispo

Gigante

Frijoles and Frijolitos Agua Salud

Other sources

Total.

Maximum

measured

discharge.

Sec. fill. 1,640

1,177

281

219

90

Minimum

measured

discharge.

Sec. feet.17

1

5

3

Sec. feet. 335

9065

55

33 330

'.HIS

Per cent of

total dis- charge. a

» Per cent of the total inflow between Gamboa and Bohio contributed by each stream.
62 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

DRAINAGE AREA OF THE CHAGRES RIVER. The drainage area of the Chagres River above Bohio is only approximately known and depends upon the following data: Totten's Map of the Isthmus of Panama gives that portion of the

divide lying between latitude 9° 0' and 9° 20' N., longitude 80° 30' and

80° 50' W. It also gives the divide of the Rio Boqueron, i. e., the

northwestern extremity of the drainage area. The survey of the Mandinga River bv this Commission gives the eastern divide at longitude

79'15'W.

The survey of the Chagres River above Santa Barbara gives the

northeastern extremity of the drainage basin at latitude 9° 25' N.,

longitude 79° 15' W. It also gives an idea of the size and general

direction of the tributaries.

The northern and southern portions of the divide, not included in Totten's map, have been approximately determined from the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans, and in these parts the greatest probable error

exists. SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS.

Observations to determine the amount of sediment carried by the

Chagres River were made at Alhajuela and Bohio, by means of water

samples representing the mean condition of the river.

Months.

June

July August September

October . .

Alhejuela. Bohio.

Mud.

Cu. yds. 75,900

406, 100

208, 300

485, 040

Solid matter.

Cu. yds.

15, 180 81,230

41, 660

97,000

Mud.

( hi. i/<J*. 162, 720 763,800

580,000

396, 800

Solid matter.

Cu. yds. 30,540

162, 760 116,000

79, 360

Five cubic yards of mud are assumed to equal 1 cubic yard of solid matter.

TRINIDAD AND GATUN RIVERS.

Below Bohio the major part of the Chagres flows through the almost

completed cut for the canal, its old channel being in many places choked

hy vegetation. In this stretch it receives the waters of two large

tributaries, the Trinidad and the Gatun. Frequent trips to these were made and current meter measurements were made each time. No gauge

rods were set on these streams, because if they were set less than 10

miles up, the fluctuations of the Chagres would materially influence

the rod reading, the slope of the rivers being very slight, and the time

taken in these trips would be longer than the time taken in making a gauging. The inflow between the mouth and station would also be

omitted.
BEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 63

Discharge of the Gatun and Trinidad rivers. GATUN.

Date.

1899. Nov. 17 1,213 Dec. 929

688 442

1900. 359

19 218 25 259 Feb. 1 209

6 216 8 I'.is 12 160 15 161

Dis- charge. Date.

1900. Feb. 22....

26.... Mar. 16.... 12....

15.... 19.... 23....

26.... Apr. 512....

17.... 20....

Dis- charge.

160 186

109

197 142

111

164 133

17S 13088

133

Date.

1900. Apr. 23 117 26 237 May 3

il 7165

18

21 225240

30 217

315

11 348

14 285

18

21 214

225

- 28 616

Dis- charge. Date.

1900. July 5....

9....

12.... 16....

19.... 25.... Aug. 2.... 24.... Sept. 5

11.... 18....

Dis- charge.

945

1,-559 910 962 729

923

922

1,021 420

1,111 888

Second-feet.

1,56965

528 TRINIDAD.

Date. Dis- charge

1899 Nov-17 Dec 929

1900. 8

1115

19

22

25

29 Feh 16

812

1,687 2,371 896

1,210 744

705 574

599 569

555

631 439 492

450

1900. May 10 463 14 244 18 610

21 620

24 533 30 1,094 2,373

1,379 993

1114

18 931

21 1,358

28 1,537 July 2 1,337

5 1,577

9 1,574

12 1,868

Dis- charge, Date Dis- charge.

1,594 2,255

2,295

2,144

1,375

1,464

2,521

1,403

1,283 2,120

2,607

1,474

2,256

Second-feet. Maximum 2, 607 Minimum 143 Mean 1, 110 The "mean " is the mean of the monthly means. HYDRAULICS OF THE CHAGRES RIVER AT ALHAJUELA AND BOHIO.

At Alhajuela and Bohio the fluviograph rods and gauge rods were

read each time a gauging was made; the difference in these simulta- neous readings in connection with the distance between the rods, the

measured discharge, and several cross sections of the river furnished

the slope, the mean hydraulic radius, and the mean velocity. From

these data the value of the coefficient for roughness "N" in "Kutter's

formula" was computed.

At Alhajuela the distance between the rods is 200 meters; the bed

of the river is small gravel and the banks are steep and free from

weeds and bushes. At Bohio the distance between the rods is 1,335 meters; the bed is clay, with small gravel and free from detritus; the

banks are high but are covered with weeds and bushes.
64 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

ALHAJUELA.

Gauge Mean Mean dis- Mean Hydraulic ra- dius. Slope. "N." height. area. 1 charge. velocity.

28.15 815 580 0.71 3.84 0.000025 0.027 28.28 910 953 1.05 4.16 .000050 .026

28. 51 1,075 1,928 1.80 4.74 .000095 .023 28.68 1,200 2,926 2.44 5.17 .000144 . 022 28.84 1,320 4,040 3.01 5.58 .000211 .023

29. 46 1,785 9,361 6.20 7.23 .000350 .020 31.01 3,000 25, 872 8.62 11.50 .000892 .026

BOHIO.

1.59 1,340 2,560 1.91 6.90 0. 000097 0. 025

2. 50 2,000 6,100 3.05 8.58 . 000142 .024 3.19 2,500 8,930 3.58 10. 42 . 000165 .026 4.42 3,400 14, 600 4.29 13.10 .000210 .029 5.50 4,040 21,020 5.20 14.70 . 0002"7 .029

RIO GRANDE.

From Culebra to the Pacific Ocean the line of the canal follows the

valley of the Rio Grande; therefore an idea of the floods and the general characteristics of this stream becomes valuable. Accordingly, on

October 25, 1899, two gauge rods were set at Pedro Miguel, the first being 250 }^ards above and the second 30 yards below the mouth of the

Pedro Miguel River. The lower rod could not be set farther downstream on account of the high tides of the Pacific Ocean, the tidal effect at Miraflores being at least 5 feet. These rods were read at 6 a. m. and 6 p. m.,and additional readings were taken during floods.

Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River at 250 yards above the mouth of the Pedro

Miguel.

[Drainage area, 10 square miles.]

Month.

1899 November

December

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August September

OctoberThe year

Discharge.

Maximum. Minimum. Mean

Sec. ft.41065

37

12

1 210

650

550

283

660

370

I'.OO

Sec. ft. 10.0 3.0

1.0 0.5 0.0

0.0 0.6

3.0 5.0

2.0

11.0 30.0 0.0

Srr. ft. 35.0

13.0

3.0

0.7

0.2 0.3

11.0 44.0

114.0 50.0

:;s.n 60. 31.0

Total.

Acre-ft. 2,082 800

INI39

12

is 676 2,618 7,010

3, 07

2, 261 3,690

Run-off. Per

square

mile.

Sec. ft. 3.50

1.30

0.30

0.07

0.02 0.03

1. 10 4.40

II. in 5.00 3.80

6.00

22, Kll

Depth.

Inches. 3.90

1.50

0.35

0.07

0. 02

0. 03

1 . 27

1.91

13. I I 5.76

4.24

6.92

VI. 1

Rainfall.

Inchrs. 8.67

2. 34

0.56

0.09 0.00

2.73

10.66 10.30

25. 0-1 6.62

6.75

8.68

82. 34

Ratio of run-off to rainfall = 0.51 per cent.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN" CANAL COMMISSION. 65

Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River at SO yards below (he month of Pedro Miguel.

[Drainage area, 19 square miles.]

Month.

1899 November

December

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

OctoberThe year

Discharge.

Maximum. Minimum. Mean

Sec. ft.790

100

50

3

3

2 310

1,550

1,850 1,550

1,550

800 1,550

Sec. ft. 27.0

12.0

3.0

0.0

0.0 0.0

1.0 10.0

21.0

12.0 18.0 34.0

0.0

Sec. ft. 81.0

26.0

7.0

1.0 0.2

0.5

24.0

105.0 295.0

142.0 80.0

112.0

74.0

Total.

Acre-ft.

4, 820

1,600

430

5612

31 1,476 6,250

18, 140 8,730

4,760 6,885

53, 190

Run-off.

square

mile.

Sec. ft. 4.26

1.37

0.37 0.05

0.01 0.03

1.26

5. 53

15.53 7.47 4.21

5.90

Depth.

Inches. 4.75

1.58

0.43

0.05

0.01 0.03

1.45

6.17

17.90

8.61 4.70

6.80 52.48

Rainfall.

Inches. 8.67

2.34

0.56

0.09

0.00 2.73

10.66 10.30

25.04

6.52 6.75

82.34

Ratio of run-off to rainfall =0.637 per cent.

PRECAUTIONS FOR ACCURACY.

The following precautions were taken so that any constant errors in

the results might be detected : The current meters were rerated. Simultaneous gaugings with two meters were frequently made, which would

show whether rerating was necessary. The meter at one station was

at times exchanged for the meter at another. The gauging section was occasionally moved several hundred yards up or down stream, thus

any local conditions giving erroneous results, such as diagonal currents,

etc., could be detected. To eliminate errors of personal equation the

observers were changed.

Hating the meters. —At Obispo there is a pool formed in the exca- vation for the " Obispo lock." It is 130 feet long, 100 feet wide, and

over 12 feet deep. It has no current except after a heavy rainfall. A railroad trestle spans it across its longest dimension, and, as a push

car is readily obtainable, we have excellent conditions for rating meters. An outrigger was fastened to the car, from which the meter was

freely suspended so as to be at least 3 feet below the surface of the

water. The car was then pushed at a uniform velocity over a measured course of 80 feet and the time and revolutions were noted. Thus

the relation between the revolutions per second and velocity per sec- ond was obtained. Forty or fifty trips were made at velocities varying

from 0.30 feet per second to 9 feet per second, each trip being at a uniform velocity; thus any change in the relation between the revolutions per second and the velocity per second was obtained.

The following table shows the care taken to reduce the error due to

S. Doc. 54, pt 2-
fifi REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the rating table as far as practicable to a minimum; it also shows the

effect of constant and ordinary use: Summary of rating tables for current meters. Meter No. 93. 94. 47. Date of Dec. 16, Mar. 8, July 7, Mar. 20, Oct. 11, Dec. 16, Sept. 6, rating. 1899. 1900. 1900. 1900. 1900. 1899. 1900. Revolutions per

second.

"Velocity (feet per second).

0.50 1.72 1.72 1.66 1.69 1.71 1.25 1.21 1.00 3.42 3.36 3.37 3.25 3.35 2.38 2.40

1.50 5.02 4.94 4.88 4.75 4.90 3.63 3.60 2.00 6.62 6.52 6.33 6.25 6.45 4.68 4.80 2.50 S. 22 8.12 7.78 7.77 8.00 5.83 6.02 3.00 9.82 9.72 9.23 9.32 9.55 6.98 7.32 3.50 11.42 11.32 10.68 10.87 11.10 8.13 8.62 4.00 13.02 12.92 12.13 12.42 12. 65 9.28 9.92

Meters Nos. 93 and 94 are "large Price electric meters," and No. 47 is a "small Price electric meter." RAINFALL.

Rainfall observations are made by the Panama Canal Company at Bohio, Gamboa, Alhajuela, and Panama, and the Panama Railroad

Company keeps a record at Colon. These records give a good idea of

the amount and distribution of the rainfall along the canal line, but it was also deemed desirable to obtain the mean rainfall on the basin of

the Chagres River and its relation to one of the old records. With

this object in view rain gauges were set in the Upper Chagres and

Pequeni basins, so distributed with reference to altitude and distance

up the river as to give practically the mean rainfall; but, owing to the numerous and almost impassable rapids on the upper Chagres, it was

impracticable to set these very far up. Following is a description of

the location of the rain gauges referred to Dos Bocas, which is the

junction of the Chagres and Pequeni rivers.

SANTA BARBARA, RIO FEA, AND RIO PUENTE.

The observations at these stations were made by C. Clauzel. Santa

Barbara is on the Chagres River, 3 miles ESE. of Dos Bocas, at an

elevation of 225 feet above sea level. The observations were made at 6 a. m. and 6 p. m.

Rio Fea gauge is on a hill between the Chagres and the Rio Fea; it is 4.5 miles NE. of Dos Bocas, at an elevation of 850 feet. It was

observed four times per week.

Rio Puente gauge is on a hill in the Puente River basin, 4 miles

SE. of Dos Bocas, at an elevation of 610 feet. Observations were made each day at 10 a. m. SALAMANCA AND LAS MINAS.

The rainfall at these stations was observed by Simon Bolivar. Sala- manca is on the Pequeni 5.5 miles N. of Dos Bocas at an elevation of

about 200 feet. Observations were made at 6 a. m. and 6 p. m.

Las Minas is 12 miles NNE. of Dos Bocas at an elevation of about

250 feet. Observations were made three times per week.

The results of these observations are appended herewith.

Very respectfully, W. W. Schlecht,

Ilydroamplier.

Mr. A. P. Davis,

llydrographer^ Isthmian Canal Coium/xx/on,

Washington, D. C.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall for 1890-1000. GORGONA.

07

Day. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct.

1.... 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 0.56 0.80 0.00 0.05 1.15

2.... .00 .30 .00 .03 .00 .00 .18 .30 .10 .03 .12

3.... .29 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .61 .00 .46

4.... 1.39 .00 .00 .00 .30 .00 .48 .35 .09 .00 .40 5 .00

.10 .00.00

.00 .00 .46

.00

.00

.06 1.40

1.70

.00

.00

.07 .00.00

.60

.38

6.... .06 .50

7 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.15 .10.30

.00

.15

.10

.64

.33 .66.00

.00

8.... .04 .00

9.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.20 .00 .78 .26 .10 .00

10.... .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .46 .55 .00 2.78 .18

11.... 1.58 .35 .00 .02 .00 .85 .00 .72 .80 .00 .00

12.... .35 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .30 2.40 .30 .00 1.36

13.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .20 .05 .88 .15 .05

14.... .10 .25 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 1.30 .30 1.40

16.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .35 .90 3.45 .00 .70 .00

16.... .03 .00 .00 .00 1.00 .00 .22 .00 .25 2.45 .50

17.... .00 .05 .00 .10 .00 .00 .50 2.87 .00 .10 .10

18.... .00 .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .55 .35 .00 .90 .00

19.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .10 .00 .30 1.43 .18 .24

20.... .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 2.25 2.15 .64 .20 .00 .05

21 ...

.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .12 .60 .00 .68

22.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .30 .25 .70 .18 23.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .30 .60 .00 .17 .14 24.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .00 .20 .25 .05 .70 26.... .25 1.28 .00 .00 .00 .22 1.35 .00 .15 .00 .77 26.... .24 .00 .00 .00 1.10 .18 .00 .25 .00 .13 .32 27.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .20 .35 .20 .23 .95 1.57

28.... .00 .10 .00 .00 .00 .00 .12 .00 2.10 .35 .28 29.... .26 .00 .00 .00 .74 .30 .74 .03 .00 .00

30.... .00 .05 .00 .30 .00 .10 1.70 .05 .00 .40 31.... Total

.00 .00 .05 .40 2.90 .12 4.58 2.63 .13 .20 3.15 7.07 12.48 19.72 11.04 11.25 11.93

SANTA BARBARA, ON CHAGRES RIVER.

1 0.00

.03 .06

0.00

.02

.00

0.00

.00 .00

0.09

.00

.22

0.41

1.19

.00

2.91

.25 1.05

0.00

.00

.91

0.03

.78

.05

0.62

.00

.00

0.52

.67

.86

2

3....

4.... .02 .00 .02 .00 .00 1.32 .16 .78 .00 .19

5.... .06

.57 .00.01 .00.00

.01 .00.15

.07 1.65.72 .00.15

.09 .08.00 .14

.05

6.... 1.50 .00

7.... .45 .02 .03 .01 .00 .14 .06 .30 .12 .02 .06

8.... .20 .01 .00 .00 .00 .23 .04 .00 .04 1.59 .03 9 .05

.01

.01

.01 .00

.00

.01 .00

.00

.00

.00

.04

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

2.36

.15 1.00

.03

.04

.25

.02

.68

.02

.57

.66

.08

.60 .04

.00

.00

.00

1.21 1.75

.92

2.79

.02

.24

.00

.72

.04 .12 .15 1.49

1.82

10

1112

13.... .05 14 .01 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.65 .00.38

.10 2.86 .25

.02

.00

.46 .68

.30

15.... .04 .05

16.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 .65 .80 .00 .10 .17

17.... .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .85 .60 .00 .06 .02 18 .00

.00

.01

.06 .00.00

.00

.00

.11

.29 .10 .39

.02

.90 .00

.06

.01 .77 .76

19.... .02 .20 20.... .00 .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .37 .64 1.25 .24 2.07

21.... .04 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .18 .06 2.33 .15

22.... .00 .03 .00 .00 .00 .38 .37 .78 .26 .41 .12 23.... .01 .01 .00 .00 .00 .65 .08 .19 .95 .48 .01 24.... .02 .11 .00 .00 .00 .93 2.10 .16 2.38 .03 .71 25.... .03 .22 .00 .00 .18 .27 2.32 .22 .22 .18 .31 26.... .16 .08 .00 .00 3.48 .00 .31 .58 .07 3.01 .18 27.... .06 .00 .00 .00 .01 .86 .63 .03 .00 .72 .75 28.... .02 .02 .00 .00 .00 .45 2.08 .86 .92 .02 .00

29.... .00 .00 .00 .33 .19 .10 .72 .57 .02 .00

30.... .01 .08 .00 1.11 1.03 2.17 .01 .02 .00

31.... Total.01 .00 .00 2.07 .96 .02 2.62 1.41 .16 .09 5.43 13.67 22. 54 13.65 12.65 15. 66 11.80
68 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall for 1899-1900—Continued. RIO PUENTE.

Day. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct.

1 0.01

.05 .05

.12

.00 .03

.30

0.00

.02

.00

.00

.00

.01 .03

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.02 .00

.00

0.06

.00

.09

.00

.02

.00

.00

0.64

.00

.26

.00

.00

.02 .02

0.80

.08

.24 .86 1.72

3.82

.10

2.06

.00

.10

.67

.00

.17

.33

0.04 3.28

.70 1.20

.30

.14 .80

0.95

.10

.00

.00

.03

.46 .05

0.74

.40 1.10

1.00

.37 .05

.08

•>3

45

6

7.... 1.03

8.... .01 .00 .00 .00 .37 .04 .00 1 . 12 .10 .03 9 .03 .00

.02

.00

.00 .00

.00

.01 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.05

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.56

1.71

.91 .12

.04

.13

.02

.18

.17

.27

.02 1.13

.83 .05

.63 .36

.00

.02

.02 .00

.03 .90 3.21

1.61

1.41 1.52

.02

.05

.03 1.64

.05

.14

.17

.05 2.10

1.90

10

1112

13

14.... .50 15 .00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.42 .03

.07 3.20.10

.00

.00 .60

.95 .30

16.... .05 .25

17 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .05

.00

.01 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.02

.00

.20 .90

.70 1.03

.04

.93

.94 .99 1.05

.43

.00

.00 1.15

.00

.60 1.40

.90

>•)

.15 .05

.75 .50

is19... 20.... .00 21.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .02 1.30 1.56 .25 2.05

>•) .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .18 .99 .06 1.42 .12

23.... .00 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .08 .60 .23 .38 .08

21.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .65 .04 .10 .55 .00

25. . ..00 .13 .00 .00 .00 .10 3.16 .11 1.35 .04 .40

26.... .08 .15 .00 .00 1.05 .38 .46 .75 .10 .40 .60

27.... .10 .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .70 .00 .15 1 . 32 .70 28.... .02 .00 .00 .00 .00 .03 .74 .05 .72 .11 1.02

29. . ..03 .00 .00 .37 .60 .98 1.08 .03 .00 .00 30.... .00 .00 .00 .02 .87 .74 1.20 .76 .00 31.... Total

.00 .06 .00 .83 .03 .08

1.81 1.02 .12 .08 1.61 10.11 19.35 18.14 20. 09 15.50 15.15

SALAMANCA, ON PEQUENI RIVER.

Day. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.02 0.14 0.35 0.96 1.80 0.00 0.55 0.34 1.10 0.15

2.... 1.10 .10 .21 .01 .01 .04 .47 .00 .69 .00 1.50 1.31 1.18

3.... .00 .11 .01 .00 .26 .00 .06 .72 .50 1.35 .42 .04 .33

4.... 1.50 .02 .00 .05 .02 .00 .42 .37 1.21 .00 .23 .47 .19

5.... .09 .30 .00 .00 .00 .97 1.43 .08 .06 .42 .00 .56 .00

6.... .02 1.09 .10 .03 .00 . 22 .07 .39 .10 .51 1.01 2.09 .00

7.... .20 .04 .02 .02 .00 .09 .12 .10 .00 .00 . 24 1. 13 .00

8.... .01 .01 .00 .00 .00 .67 .00 .01 .00 1.85 .01 .OS .00

9.... .02 .05 .00 .05 .00 2.59 .45 1.27 .07 3.32 .15 .27 .00

10.... .00 .04 .00 .04 .00 .06 .67 .67 .10 .00 .03 .00 .00

11.... .08 .00 .00 .00 .00 .36 .00 .35 .00 1.22 .77 .02 .27 12.... .02 .00 .00 .01 .00 .37 .00 .01 .02 .00 .11 1.57 .00

13.... .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .14 .20 .04 .43 .73 1.56 .43 .00

14.... .20 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .00 1.16 .01 1.84 .40 .00 .02

15.... .03 .07 .00 .00 .00 .04 .02 .17 .00 .86 .38 .00 .18

16.... .00 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 . 33 .00 .00 .40 .62 .03 .00

17.... .10 .02 .00 .01 .12 .00 .89 .00 .00 .00 .07 1.28 .22 18.... .02 .00 .00 .06 .on .97 .00 .03 .00 .00 1.56 .00 .00

19.... .00 .00 . 11 .05 .00 . 60 .00 .21 .30 .73 1.19 .00 .00

20. . ..05 .00 .02 .00 .00 .04 .00 1.11 1.85 .47 2.27 .00 .07

21.... .07 .05 .00 .00 .00 .00 .45 .27 .OS .35 .02 1.53 .27 22.... .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .00 .06 .09 .19 .13 .30 .41 .00

23. . .

.00 .09 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .05 .14 .so .00 .06 .00

24.... .02 .01 .00 .00 .00 .37 .00 .10 1.71 .31 .02 .00 .00 25.... .05 .60 .00 .00 .87 . 38 .00 .01 1.01 1.84 1.00 .00 .00

26.... .23 .28 .0(1 .00 1.10 .00 .09 .18 .00 .13 .00 .20 .03

27.... .49 .03 .00 .00 .01 .06 .11 1.09 .00 .38 .10 .01 28.... .05 .03 .00 .00 .00 .70 .67 .07 1 . 21 .00 2.00 .88 .00

29...: .20 .00 .00 .27 .ill .87 .07 .20 .02 .77 .00

30.... .04 .08 .00 .39 .47 .00 .00 .01'. .00 .11 .00

31.... Total..00 .00 .00 1.99 .01 .00 .00

4.59 3.20 .50 .38 3.22 12.15 8.37 10. 46 9.97 18.81 10.20 14.77 2.92
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall for 1899-1900—Continued.

PEDRO MIGUEL.

69

Day. Dec. Jan.

1....

4... 5...

6...

7... 8... 9... 10...

11... 12...

13...

14...

15... 16... 17...

18...

19...

20... 21...

22...

23...

24... 25...

26... 27...

28... 29...

30...

31... Total

0.00

.00

.17

.os .00 .55

.00

.51

..SO .00 .00

.11(1 .12 .06

.00

.0"> .00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

0.00

.15

.00 .00

.00

.10

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.10

.12

.00

.00 .00

.09 .00

Feb. Mar.

2.34 .56

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .09

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00 .00

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

Apr.

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.04 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .12

.00 .00

.00 .00

.89 .65

.00

.00

.10 .48

.00

.20 .00

.25

0.25

.00 .00

.00

.00 .65 1.52

.49 1.22

.45

.00 .00

.00

.00

.73

.00

.00

.22 .25

.95

.00

.06

.49

.00

.27 .28

.21 .00

.97 .64 1.01

June. July

.(Ml 2.73 I 10.66

0.22

.10

.17 .30

1.21 1.30 1.45

.00

.00 .20

.00

.07 .00 .16

.00 .00

.04 1.57

.05 1.69

.15

.00

.14

.04 .23 .02

.82

.00 .26

.11

Aug.

0.00 0.00

.00 .00

.35 .43

.60 .44 .00 .10 .05 .10

.03 .40

.20 .00 .78 .00

.61 .00

.62 .00 1.10 .20

.02 1.50

.00 .00 3.00 .15

.00 .00 1.31 .00 1.10 .10 1.00 .45 1.20 .00 1.35 .00 1.10 .00 2.50 .00

.25 .00

.57 .00 2.10 .50

.70 .50

.00 1.50

1.40 .15 2.00 .00

.10 .00

Sept.

6.52

0.79

.00 .02

.51

.02 .00 1.12

.01 .00

.00 .05

.02

.15

.67

.19

.09

.04 .22

.80

.16 .08

.71 .08 .20

.25

.25

.30 .02

Oct.

6.75

1.23

.45. .53

.78

.45

.02

.21

.01 .02 .00

.02 .45

.39

.87 .27

.78

.02 .05

.03

.03

.51

.01 .42

.00 .15

.09 .35

.01 .00

.28 .25

Rainfall for 1900. ISTHMUS OF PANAMA.

Stations. Jan.

Colon Bohio Gorgona Gamboa

Pedro Miguel

Alhajuela

Campanas

Santa Barbara... RioFea

Rio Puente Salmanca

Las Minas

6.06

7.06 2.63

1.01

.56 1.82

1.54

1.41 1.26

1.02

3.20 4.90

Feb.

(i.:;:: .is

.13 .16 .09

.04 .05

.16 .26

.12 .50

1.17

Mar.

1.06

1.04

.20

.13 .00

.03

.11 .09

.11 .08 .38

1.21

Apr.

0.75

2.89 3.15

3.21 2.73 4.10

2.66

5.43

5.60

1.61 3.22

4.39

May.

12.25 7.42

7.07 6.76

10.66 10.16

8.57

13.67 12.64

10.11 12.15

12.53

11.65

18.40

12.48

12.15 10.30

17.79

22. 12

22. 54 20.48

19.35

8.37

10.91

July.

16.81 17.79

19. 72 13.45 25.04

19.73

12. 78 13.65

13.41

18.14 10.46

12. 43

Aug.

17.04

14. 02

11.04 8.92

6.52

10.56

12. 49 12.65 9.79 20.09

9.97

15.01

Sept. Oct.

9.37 16.33

15.40 118.43 11.25 11.93

9.24

6.75

17.20

12.11 8.68

13. 26 13.55 15.34

15.66 11.80

16.51 21.98

15. 50 15. 15

18.81 16.20 9.90 19.91

Nov.

20. 28

24. 98 10.67

"8.67 13.36

'13. 50

14.77 16.63

4.13

4.02

.79

»2.34 1.14

"2. 62 "2.06 1.81

2.92 7.23

Total.

116.06

131. 93 78.60

82.34

109. 19 113.18

100.95 116.22

» For 1899. * Estimated.

Appendix E.

WASTE-WEIR DIMENSIONS AND DISCHARGE FOR LAKE BOHIO.

The determination of the dimensions of the waste weir for Lake

Bohio involves the simultaneous discharge of the Chagres River into

the lake and the outflow from the latter through the weir during

floods. It becomes necessary, therefore, to establish formulas, or

curves, exhibiting certain results arising from the conditions which

would attend the concurrent flood flow into and out of Lake Bohio.

These formulas, or curves, necessarily do not represent the actual

conditions with mathematical exactness, but they approximate the

natural conditions of the lake closety enough to determine with confi- dence the dimensions of the waste weir and the variation of the head

of water on it during a given period of variation of flood in the Chagres

River.

The discharge of the waste way will not be through a thin edge weir,

but over a rounded masonry lip or crest, for which the coefficient is not precisely known. A careful consideration of the results of experiments with rounded crests, including those of Bazin, appears to indi- cate that the value of 3.5 for the weir coefficient is, on the whole,

justifiable for the present case, and it will be used in the following

investigations. It may be a little too large for small heads or a little too small for the greater heads used. In deducing fhe following formulas it will be assumed that during

the period of flood considered the discharge of the river per unit of

time (per second) increases at a uniform rate until the maximum stage

is reached; then that it remains at that stage for a definite time, and

subsequently decreases at a uniform rate generally not the same as the

rate of rise. As a matter of fact, the uniform rate of increase is the

only one of the two of practical importance in this investigation, and

it is to be determined from data supplied by observation of actual

floods. Obviously, water may begin to flow over the crest of the waste way

at any stage of the river at its point of entrance into the lake, depending on the proximity of prior floods and the draft recently made on

the waters of the lake. The stage of the river, therefore, taken to coincide in time with the beginning of flow over the rounded crest of

the waste weir, must be a matter of judgment in view of known data. The notation to be used is the following:

^=time in seconds measured from beginning of flow over weir. T1 =value of ty at instant the river reaches its greatest elevation. ^!=discharge of the river in cubic feet per second at any time t v "V^discharge of the river in cubic feet per se'cond at the time T^

r=rate (uniform) of variation of discharge of river per unit of time. b—length of weir in feet. 71
72 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

/<=head of water on weir in feet; and H=greatest value of h. a=uniform rate of variation of /; per unit of time, so that h=at, and H=aT;

T>TX. V=greatest discharge over weir in cubic feet per second; V may or may not be equal to Vj.

e=discharge of river per unit (second) of time when lake is at elevation of crest of weir. Q=general value of discharge over weir in cubic feet per second. V is the

greatest value of Q.

c=weir coefficient, taken equal to 3.5. D=total discharge of weir in cubic feet in time T (seconds). A=area in square feet of surface of the lake. L=total storage in cubic feet in reservoir or lake above the elevation of the

crest when head on the weir is H feet.

Zero discharge

Fig. 1. The full line of figure 1 represents the fluviograph record of the

rise of the Chagres River during a flood at Rohio. Inasmuch as this discussion must cover all the water flowing into Lake Bohio, this flu- viograph record will be treated in the application of the formulae as

if it belonged to the river at its point of entrance into the lake. The

datum line BC indicates the stage of the river at the beginning of flow over the crest of the waste weir. Hence the point m is the zero or

origin of the time t h which is measured horizontally along mp and

toward the latter point. The ordinates above BC represent heights of

rise above that datum at any time tx in seconds measured from ///. The trapezoid mnqp is the equivalent of the actual record area above

BC. The line qq' is midway between nn' and oo'. It is evident that

the horizontal line no indicates the maximum stage of the river remaining constant during the period no. The discharge of the river in cubic feet per second corresponding

to any height of rise ss' is vh which becomes Vi when the greatest rise nn' is reached. The time in seconds represented by ms' and corre- sponding to .%•' is tx

. For the greatest rise nnf

, ti=Ti=mn'. The dis- tance e is the height of the datum BC above the base line of no discharge

in the river; this distance is used to represent the unit discharge of

the river when t\ is zero. By means of the notation taken there may be written:

v^e-j-rti and V1 =e-jrrTl The mean discharge per unit of time is:

(1)

(2)
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 73

The discharge in cubic feet per second over the weir for any head

h is given by the formula:

Q=3.5M*'« (3) The rate of inflow into the reservoir per unit of time is given by

equation (1). In the time dtx the discharge of the river is edt1 -\-dt1 dtv During

the same time the volume of water in the reservoir increases by the

amount Adh and the discharge over the weir is 3.5 hh?1* dtv The sum

of the second and third of these quantities must be equal to the first. Consequently, the differential equation sought will be:

{e+rtl )dtl =A.dh+S.bbhzbdtl (4) Hence:

^i^+a^-T* /

4*^ •

• • • (5)

If this equation were integrated, the desired relation between A and

tx would at once be found, but the resulting equation would be too complicated to be easily worked in the final computations.

The main features of the curve expressing the relation between h

and tx can be discovered by means of equation (2). That equation

gives:

dh _e + rt1 -3.5bh3

i* (6) dt~ A

Therefore:

d fdh\ \dtj

dtx

r+3.5 h d (h'i») dtx CO

When h is small the second number of equation (5) is positive, and

negative when h is large. This shows that the curve, of which h is the ordinate and tx the abscissa, is convex toward tx in the vicinity of

and concave in the upper part of the curve, as indicated in figure 2.

1

C/ —

Fig. 2. If the flood remains at its maximum stage a sufficient length of time

the curve will become horizontal at same point P and remain so, or
74 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the curve ma}' become horizontal after the maximum stage has passed,

but in the latter case it will not remain horizontal.

After the flood reaches its maximum stage the unit discharge

V1 =6+rT1 may remain constant for a definite length of time. In

that case the rise of the lake surface, i. e., the increase of A, will fol- low a different law from that shown by equation (5). By writing Y1 for (e + rtj) in equation (4)

dh_V1 -S1 5bh^ , R

* dt~ A

K)

or dt,=

y_35U3k (9) This equation may readily be integrated.

If ^'=( —tjt Y 3 the integral will take the form:

t,_ 1_ tfkk^+h 2 YMli*-k\ .... A-~S(S.5b)k [0% (k+h^)2 v/3(3.5^ tan_ \ %/3/fc J ' (10)

By giving known values to tx and h the value of the constant of

integration, C, can be determined for any given case. Equation (6) will enable that portion of the curved line to be con- structed showing the relation between h and t

x during the rising stage

of the river, since -y~ is the tangent of the inclination of the curve to the coordinate tv

Similarly, equation (8) by the same method of

tangents will enable that portion of the curved line to be constructed

belonging to the highest stage of the river where that stage holds constant for a suitable length of time.

These investigations are subject to one source of criticism when

applied to so large a reservoir as Lake Bohio, because it is implicitly

assumed that the surface of the lake remains horizontal at all times,

whatever may be the rate of inflow or outflow. In this case the point

of inflow may be fifteen or more miles from the discharging weir,

giving a sensible slope to the lake surface and causing the head on the

weir to increase for a considerable time after the river ceases to rise, or possibly after the river begins to fall. In the application of the preceding analysis to the computations for

the Bohio weir the curves OMKS and O'M'K'S' in figure 3 have been

constructed, OM and O'M' belonging to the rising stage of the river,

and MK and M'K' to the constant maximum stage. S and S' are the

highest points of the curves and show the greatest heads on the weir.

The rising curves KS and K'S' show that the head on the weir may

continue to increase for sonic time after the river begins to fall. The complete consideration of the Lake Bohio problem requires the

determination of the discharge over the w

T eir during the entire time

of the increase of head on the latter. This requires the integral

1*3.5 lh*Wtx =Z.Z hf/^dt,

to be made. Tin1 complicated forms of equations (5) and (10) show

that that integral is practically unworkable.

By referring to figure 3 it will he observed that straight lines may
REPORT OF THE ISTIIMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 75

bo drawn from O to either K or S, or from O' to either K' or S', which will have nearly equal portions of the true curves on either side. of them, making it permissible to use these straight lines for a first approximation.

If, then, a be some suitable constant coefficient, under this approximate law there will result: li-atx (11)

The same result can be shown by a purely analytic method to be a

reasonable first approximation, and equation (11) will be used in the

investigations which follow. In consequence of the great length of the waste weir and the practical suppression of end contractions it must be assumed that there

will be no end contraction. Hence the general expression of the weir

discharge will be:

Q=cbh3i°-=ca3i*bt

l

3

i°- (12)

At the maximum height to which the water will rise on the weir:

/^W» 1 Q=V=«*»T^«=(A) ^ • • • • (13)

The total discharge over the weir, while the head increases uniformly

from o to H=& T, is: D= / Qdt=ca2'*b / t*i*dt=^ca*i*b¥i* . . . (11)

J * Jo 5

Since W*=c?l* T*; D=£jfffe (15)

Substituting a from equation (13) in equation (15):

t _2 (<&)'/', '5 V*/» (16)

The volume L impounded in the lake above the elevation of the

crest of the weir added to the discharge over the weir during the time

T is equal to the discharge of the river during the same time T. If T1 represents the time during which the flood discharge of the river

rises from v1 to Vn the following equation will hold true: |^TH6

'2 +L=(^±Ii)ti +(T-T1 )V1

. . . (17)

Hence

(18)
7(3 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

If it is desired that the head on the weir shall not exceed H, then

from equation (12) the length of the weir must be at least:

i=^m <19>

The most simple expression for the time T is given by equation (16):

r _5 D V2/:i T=2lPpp (20)

In equation (20), however, the discharge D is not generally known,

and it will be necessary to use equation (18) in order to determine T. In the following computations it will be assumed that the unit dis- charge vx of the river is 17,657 cubic feet (500 cubic meters) per sec- ond at the beginning of discharge over the weir, i. e., '\~e. In making the application of the preceding formulae to the problem

presented at Lake Bohio, it will be necessary to consider first a head

of water of 5 feet on a waste weir 2,000 feet long, in connection with

a flood discharge in the Chagres River increasing uniformly from

17,657 cubic feet (500 cubic meters) per second to 112,000 cubic feet

(3,170 cubic meters) per second during a period of 26.13 hours, or

95,145 seconds, and remaining at that maximum stage for 11.25 hours, or 51,300 seconds, the sum of the two periods being 116,115 seconds.

The rate of discharge after the maximum period has passed is not

needed. The surface area of Lake Bohio at the elevation of the crest of the waste weir is about 38.5 square miles, or 1,073,318,100 square

feet. At an elevation of 5 feet higher that surface area becomes about

43 square miles, or 1,198,771,200 square feet. The product of half the sum of these two areas by 5 gives the volume of water impounded

in the lake with a 5-foot head on the weir as L= 5,680,224,000 cubic feet. The other data required are:

-y

x = 17,657 cubic feel per second = ^. Vx = 112,000 cubic feet per second.

T^95,145 seconds.

c=3.5and 5=2,000 feet. Hence, by equation (12):

Q=V=3.5 X 2,000 X (5)''/; =78,262 cubic feet. Introducing these various quantities in equation (18) there w ill result: T=126,009 seconds.

=35 hours.

As this period is 5.68 hours less than 40.68 hours, the total time of

rising and remaining at the maximum height, it is probable that under

the conditions of the flood assumed, the head of water on the weir

would rise a little above 5 feet, but a little only.

The total amount discharged over the weir while the head increases to 5 feet is bv equation (16):

D=3, 944, 7 11, 745 cubic feet. If a flood discharge of 110,000 cubic feet be assumed in the river it

is interesting to determine approximately how long it would have to continue in order to raise the head on tin- weir to 7 feet. By equation
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 77

(12) the discharge over the weir (2,000 feet long) with a head of 7

feet is: Q=V=129,642 cubic feet per second.

As before, vt = 17,657 cubic feet per second.

Also, Vx = 140,000 cubic feet per second.

Again, assume Tt =95,145 seconds.

At an elevation of 7 feet above the crest the area of the lake surface

is 1,249,394,752 square feet, while at the elevation of the crest the

area, as before, is 1,073,318,400 square feet. The half sum of these

areas multiplied by 7 gives the volume stored in the lake above the

crest as: L= 8,129,496,032 cubic feet. These quantities inserted in equation (18) will give:

T=158,307 seconds. =43.98 hours.

As the period of increasing discharge has been taken at 26.43 hours

(95,145 seconds), it is thus seen that the maximum discharge of 140,000

cubic feet per second would have to be maintained for probably eight- een hours or more in order to produce the head of 7 feet on the weir

crest. This is a contingency so excessively remote as to be practically

impossible. The total discharge over the weir while the head rises from to 7 feet is, by equation (16):

D=8,007,498,655 cubic feet. The general conditions assumed in the preceding applications of the

formulae established are, in the main, essentially the same as those

taken by M. Choron in his fifth hypothesis, on page 54 of his Notes

Techniques.

The curve OMKS of figure 3 shows the relation between the head on the weir and the time from the beginning of flow over the weir for

the first of the preceding set of computations. It indicates that the

greatest head on the weir would be 5.8 feet. This is a little too high on account of the neglect of the actual slope of the surface of the lake, as has already been observed. The approximate computations show

that the greatest head would be a little over 5 feet. It is probable

that 5.5 feet is about right. The curve and computations practically

confirm each other.

The O'M'K'S' exhibits the relation between head on the weir and

time, and the assumption that there is a discharge over the weir of

17,657 cubic feet per second, when there is an equal discharge of the

river, followed by the same flood as before. The greatest head on the

weir is but one-tenth of a foot greater than in the previous case, showing that the difference in assumptions has no material effect on the

maximum head, either as to amount or time. The volume of water

discharged during the period of increasing head would be materially

greater in the latter case than in the former.

APPENDIX E, FIG.

SDoc^£^57 1

Appendix F

DESCRIPTION OF ALTERNATIVE LOCATION FOR CANAL

BETWEEN GATUN AND BOHIO.

Between Gatun and Bohio the French location of the canal follows

the low part of the valle}' of the Chagres. The location of the Panama

Railroad is more direct, but passes over a little higher ground. This

portion of the canal crosses the old bed of the Chagres six times, and

the Chagres has abandoned its old bed and now flows through the

canal for a distance of 4 miles. The estimates of the Commission

include a channel between the Pefia Blanca and Agua Clara swamps

and a levee which will keep the Chagres out of the canal through which

it now flows. A study has been made of another location (practically

that of the Lull survey of 1875), which, if adopted, would allow the

river to flow in its present course, would make the channel between

the two swamps unnecessary, and would shorten the canal. A survey was run on a direct line between Gatun and Bohio, a location made,

and estimates prepared. This is shown on plate 21 b}r a broken line. This cut-off line leaves the French location at mile 7.39, and connects with it at mile 16.81. It is 8.18 miles long or 1.25 miles shorter than

the distance by the canal line between these two points. It is a single

straight line 4.92 miles long, connected with the canal at the east end

by a curve 1.105 miles long with a radius of 13,230 feet, and at the

west end by a curve 2.16 miles long with a radius of 13,720 feet. This line crosses the Panama Railroad twice, the location of which

will have to be changed for about a mile. For the first 2.17 miles it lies in a low, flat country; it then strikes what is known as Tiger Hill,

involving some heavy work for nearly a mile; it then again enters a

low, swampy country, broken by occasional small, low hills, which

continues the rest of the distance. All the hills consist largely of

rock; between the hills the material is earth, the portion of which

north of Tiger Hill would be excavated with dredges, and that south

of Tiger Hill treated as dry-earth excavation. ' The hard material in the hills w^ild be wasted on the west side of the canal so as to form a

levee, bacK of which the earth would subsequently be placed, forming

an embankment of indefinite width.

The estimated cost of 8.18 miles of the cut-off line (including $75,000

for change in Panama Railroad) is $9,938,601. The estimated cost of

the corresponding portion of the canal on the old location is $8,093,414,

to which must be added the channel between the two swamps, $2,448,076,

making a total of $10,541,590, a difference of $602,989 in favor of the

cut-off line, which in view of the less perfect knowledge of the ground

is of no practical importance. The cut-off line represents a saving in distance of 1.25 miles, and eliminates, three curves and 73 degrees of

curvature, and is worthy of further study, but for purposes of estimate

the old location is retained.

79

AprENDix G.

TIME REQUIRED FOR TRANSIT THROUGH AN

ISTHMIAN CANAL.

The time required for the passage of a ship through the

p **fiS?iJ5?2

proposed isthmian canal will depend upon the speed speed. attainable and permissible in the various sections and the

delays occasioned by lockages and by meeting other ships.

Attainable speed here means the speed limited by the

power of the ship. From this deductions are to be made

in some cases to give the permissible speed.

This discussion will embrace four type ships, as follows: Type ships.

Type A

Tvpe B

Tvpe (

Type D

Length.

Feet.400

400

540

650

Feel.50

50

60

70

Draft.

Ft. in. 24 6 32

3232

I.H.P.

1,900 2,300

3,300 4,500

Coefficients.

Available data.

The draft given refers to fresh water. The power is sufficient to give the ship a speed of 12i miles per hour in open sea. The miles referred to in this discussion are

statute miles.

The area of the midship section of each ship is assumed

to be 96 per cent of the inclosing rectangle. The block

coefficient is taken as 0.8. This expresses the ratio of dis- placement to the product of length of keel, beam and draft. The mean cross section is therefore 0.8 X beamX draft. No experiments on the comparative speeds attainable by

large seagoing ships in open sea and in restricted waterways, carried on in a scientific and comprehensive manner,

are known to have been made. The movement of _ small

boats in small canals at low speeds has been the subject of

extended experiment and careful study. The most notable of these have been made recently in France and Germany. They have been summarized and discussed by Mr.

Elnathan Sweet in a paper accompanying the report of the

engineer and surveyor of New York on the proposed Germanv

Ce sum- barge canal from Lake Erie to the Hudson River. These

^b>' Mr- experiments were carried out in great number and detail,

but on boats of such different model, of so much smaller

dimensions, and at such moderate speeds that they can not

be applied directly to the problem of speeds of large sea- going ships through an isthmian canal. However, the

analysis of the problem by Herr R. Haack, who conducted

the experiments in Germany, is suggestive and useful in

the present discussion.

Experiments

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 6

81
82 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Back current. While a ship moves forward its length in a canal, a vol- ume of water equal to its displacement must move back

past the ship.

Let A = wet cross section of canal, square feet. a = mean cross section of ship, square feet. ! = —

a V = speed of ship past a fixed land point, in miles

per hour. v — velocity of backward current past the moving

ship in miles per hour; approximately it may

be thus expressed:

Approximate (I V

formula for i) =. -j V

backward cur- A. — (I V — I

rent. This is the expression ordinarily used. Heit Haack

points out the important fact that it is not the correct measure of v. The passage of a boat through a canal is accompanied by a depression of the water surface which

begins at or a little ahead of the bow and continues past

the boat some distance astern. The water which moves

past the boat while the latter passes a fixed point is not only the boat's displacement, but also the volume meas- ured by this depression into the length of the boat and

width of the canal. Taking this movement also into consideration, Haack proceeds to deduce an expression for

the relation between V, v and the resistance of the boat. Let AA= reduction of wet cross section of canal caused

by sinking of water surface during passage

of boat. R=resistance of boat. L=length of boat in feet. w—weight of 1 cubic foot of water. C=coefficient to be determined by experiment.

Then A— AA—«=area of cross section of water remaining

between the boat and the bottom and

sides of the canal. (aA+«) V =volume of water displaced in a unit of

time.

(A—A—a) v—volume flowing in the section A-aA-«

past a given point in a unit of time.

These volumes are identical, hence

{A-AA-a)v={AA+a) V

and

Correct formula A A -4-^/ for backward Vz= ^ ~ y (\)

current. \ — AA—<l

' Which is the correct value of v. The weight of water kept in motion b}^ the movement

of the boat is w (A-AA-fl) L

and Haack gives the following expression for the work

required for moving it during a unit of time:

Cv"(A-aA-«)L« (2)
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 83

and places this equal to the work of the resistance of the

boat during a unit of time; that is, UY=Cw(A-AA-a)hv . . . . (3) J-c

Ce! ve rc - The determination of the value of the coefficient requires

the measurement of the sinking of the water surface and

the retractive resistance R. Mr. Sweet does not give the

value of C as determined by Haack, or state whether it is constant or variable except indirectly by showing the curves of resistance for the boats used in the experiments.

For the reasons already given these curves are not applicable to the present case. There is needed a series of experiments with large ships in restricted waterways approximating closely the ships and channels of the future isthmian

canal. In the absence of such experiments the inquiry resolves

itself first into the estimation of the speed attainable in a

restricted channel by a ship whose speed in open sea is known. This requires a consideration of the various causes

of retardation encountered b}T a ship when it passes from

broad, deep water into such a channel.

When a ship moves upstream in a broad, deep river its Backward cur-

, . .

i- . i. . n , l

. rent past a ship speed through the water is essentially the same as in open in a canal. sea. Its speed past a fixed point will be its open-sea speed

less the velocity of the current. In this respect the backward current in a canal is analogous to the river current and is to be deducted from the open-sea speed of the ship.

The determination of the velocity of the backward cur- rent requires, as Haack points out, and as indicated in formula (1), that the depression of the water surface

between the ship and the sides of the channel be known.

Haack observed this carefully in his experiments, but no

record has been found of such observations during the

passage of a large ship through a ship canal. The writer

therefore proceeded to make a limited series at the St. ^gfci^jSSI

Clair Flats Canal. This series included 29 ships. One of canai. these was rejected because its dimensions-are not given in the Marine Register. Six were rejected because the}^ were without cargoes, and the observations on them little pertinent. The observations consisted of : First, measure- ments at intervals of 5 seconds from a fixed horizontal

plane, to the water surface before, during, and after the

passage of a ship, covering the period when the surface of

the water varied from the normal; second, a record of the

time taken by the ship in passing; third, soundings across the canal opposite the observation point to determine its cross section; fourth, measurement by rod floats of the

normal current in the canal. The St. Clair Flats Canal is a channel without locks,

296 feet wide and about 7,200 feet long. The sides are

vertical with timber revetments. The depth, which was

dredged to 16 feet for about 20 feet from the sides and to 20 or 21 feet in the remainder of the channel, has increased

opposite the point of observation to 26 feet at the center. The point of observation was 2,280 feet from the upper

end of the canal.
84 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The observed time of passing, with the length of ship

taken from the Marine Register, gave the speed of the

ship, which was corrected for the normal current in the

canal. For the calculation of the ratio ?\, which is the

quotient resulting from dividing the area of the cross sec- tion of the canal by the midship section of the ship, the

coefficient of the ship's midship cross section is assumed

to be 0.96, the same as for the type ships. This is probably too large for the smaller ships, but substantially correct for the larger ones. The measurements of the water surface were made about

1 foot out from the vertical side of the canal. They may

not represent exactly the mean water surface between the

ship and sides of the canal, but it is believed the difference

is not great. While a ship was approaching, the water sur- face at the point of observation remained nearly or quite

normal until the bow was within 25 to 100 feet of the cross

section of the canal, passing through the observing station.

The water then began to fall, attained its maximum depres--

sion a little aft the center of the ship, then began to rise and

again attained the normal 50 or 100 feet behind the ship.

These distances varied with different ships and are to be

taken only in a general way.

For the calculation of the average depression of water

surface opposite the passing ship, the distances between

observations were plotted as abscissas and the depression

of the water surface as ordinates, the total distance plotted

being the keel length of the ship. This gave a longitudinal section during the time of the ship's passing. The

area of this section divided by the keel length gave the

average depression.

The results of the observations arc given in the following table: Table I.

Results of observations at Si . Clair Flats Canal during passage of ships.

Name of ship. Keel. nDepression of water surface.

V. Maxi- mum.

Mean.

Manistique

Feet. 157

1ST 225

268

201 266

301

:;n

27(1 275

'Mil 292 296

212

281

281 288 266

21 \ 282

294 406

Fret.

8133

3636

37

38

38

384040

40

4040

4141

11 41

12 42

42

4250

Fnl.

12.00

L3.50

16. 50

16.50

13.5(1 17.75

IS. 00

17.5(1

15. (Ml 17. ..ii 16. (Id 17.511

17.7.'. 17.(11) 17.50

L9.00

15.5(1

IV.(K) 10.50

L8.60

IS. no 19.00

19.15

15.99

1 1 . 99

1 1 . 99

11.20

L0.56

10. Id 10.71

'.i. 89

10. 17 11.13

10.17

io. 03 10.22 9.93

0. 1 I 11.21 9.98

10.28

'.(. 17

0. 12 7.60

Foot.

0. 21

. 25

. 58

.'.'7 .21 .07

. 12 .88

.S3

. 12 .75

1.00 .75

. 03

. 02

. 58

. 51 .42

. 12

. 10 .67

. 92

FOOt. 0.15

.'JO .50

.SO

.17

. id .31

. 58

.00 .30

.57 .88 .53

. 11 .72

. 11 .39

.81 .27 .82

.00

. os

Miles.

:>. 78

0. 00

s. 2 1 10.07

o.7l

7. 28

7. 20 8.66

7. 12 6.81

s. II 8. 13

7. 00

7. 95 8.28

7. 77

s. 62 7.40

7.88

0. 31

o.:;:, 7.01

Miles. 0.31

. 13 82 New York W.H.Sawyer

1. 17

. is

. 79

.71 1.00 Erontenac

Philip Mincli .71 .00

1. 12 .SI

. 89 Lmhgstone

T.W. Palmer

1.07

.00 .so

.79 America . 75

.74

s. K. Kirby Presque Isle

. 82

1.15

11.06 .62 . 10 7.52

-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION.

Iii observations on ships of such different typos as those

in the preceding list, moving at such different rates of

spaed, groat apparent eccentricity in result should be

expected. Much of this, however, will disappear if the

ships are classified with respect to r, and averages taken

as in the next table.

85

Table II.

Value of t\. Number of ships averaged. Mean value

of ft.

Mean de- pression of water.surface.

Mean speed

of ship (V) per hour.

7.5 9-10

10-11 11-12

14-20

1684

3

7.5

9.59

10.32

1 1 . 58 10.47

Foot.0.68

.51 .46

.56

.17

Milt g. 7.04 7.25 7.56

8.83

6.72

These results are plotted in figure 1, attached hereto, with

rx as abscissas and depressions (d) as ordinates. A line to represent the relations is shown, which passes reason- ably near all the points. The point 1\ =11.58, d=0.5G,

should lie considerably below the line, because it corre- sponds to the largest value of V; and the point ?\ =16.17,

d=0.17, should lie above the line, because it corresponds

to the smallest value of v. The same figure shows the depressions which have been

used for this discussion for the isthmian canal. They

exceed those given by the observations as far as the latter extend, and should do so, because the calculated speeds in the discussion for the large channels, where i\ is large,

exceed those observed in the St. Clair Flats Canal. For

values of i\ less than 7.50 the assumed depressions have

for basis only the writer's judgment in interpreting the

experiments. For i\ — 1 it is obvious the depression would

equal, theoretically, the normal depth of water in the

canal. Between the point and the point corresponding to 7^=7.50 there may be material difference of opinion as to the location of the depression curve. The backward current is only one of the new conditions

set up when a ship passes from open sea into a restricted

channel. The depression of the water surface must

increase the head resistance to the ship's motion

observations at the St. Clair Flats Canal the measurements

of depression were made, as before stated, at the side of

the channel where the depression occurred in advance of

the ship, which passed at a distance of 100 to 175 feet

from the observing station. As far as could be judged by

watching the movement of the ship, without actual measurement, this depression does not occur immediately in front of the ship. It appears probable that the excess in

height of w

T ater against the bow over the height against

the stern may be taken as safely equal to the mean depression of the water's surface, or d. The pressure and horseIncreased head

111 tne resistance.
86 "REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

power required to overcome it may be calculated as fol- lows:

Let h =excess of elevation of water against bow, compared with elevation at stern, in feet. This

is taken equal to the mean depression d.

<i

l -midship section of ship in square feet. w =weight of 1 cubic foot of water in pounds.

P =opposing pressure in pounds.

V1 = ^ct: V=speed of ship in feet per second.

H =horsepower of ship's engines.

Hx =horsepower required to overcome end pressure. Then

V=Qhwal (3) in which C is a coefficient depending on the ship's model.

It will be taken here as « The horsepower required to overcome P when the ship moves at the rate V1 is „ _PV1 _C/w<'fl1 „ _1 hwa^j , 1_ "550 _

550 Vl- 6"550~ Vl • • w

and the power remaining to overcome the other resistances

is H—

1# The speed of the ship will therefore be re- duced. For moderate speeds the horsepower required to move a ship varies approximately as the cube of the speed.

If Va represents the speed in miles per hour which the

ship would attain in the restricted channel if there were

required no deduction for head resistance,

It might seem that the deductions for backward cur- rent and increased head resistance were all that are re quired to give the speed of a ship in a canal. No allowance,

however, has yet been made for the changed conditions in the mass of water near the ship, such as eddies, which

would not occur to the same extent in deep water, increased

friction of the water on the channel bed, etc.; some of the

conditions unknown or imperfectly understood, but con- suming more or less of the power of the ship's engines.

No deduction has yet been made which would be applied

ii^hTiiM."''

1 '

' to a ship passing through shoal water of unlimited

width, but it is well known that then1 is a material re- duction of speed in wide, shoal water. The rate of this retardation doubtless increases with the speed of the ship.

A few comparisons have been made of the speed of ships

in the deep water of Lake Huron and the shoal water of

Lake St. Clair, where the depth of water exceeds by 2 or

3 feet the usual draft of loaded ships. The loss of speed

in the shoal water is about 15 per cent, while using the same steam as in deep water. There is probably in this
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 87

case do appreciable backward current; the water to till the

void behind the moving ship can reach it more quickly by

a lateral movement from the unlimitedly wide water. The

observed reduction of speed is probably caused almost

wholly by the work done in forming eddies, overcoming

friction between the water and the bed of the lake, etc., and should be taken into account in calculating1 the attainable speeds to be expected in a restricted channel. This

should apply, however, only when the draft of the ship

is within 2 or 3 feet of the depth of the channel. It should be reduced for type A, which will have 5.5 feet more clearance under the keel than the other types. It should also be reduced for all types in those channels

where, on account of tides, as in Panama Bay, or on ae count of storage, as in the summit levels of both routes,

the clearance usually exceeds 3 feet by a considerable

amount; it is deemed best, however, not to attempt to draw narrow distinctions, but to apply the reduction of

15 per cent to ships of t}pes B, C, and D in all channels

of whatever depth. For type A a reduction of 10 per

cent is applied for shoal-water effect. It should obviously

be less than for the ships of deeper draft, but the differ- ence of 5 per cent ma}T be too great or too small. These

percentages are applicable only when the open-sea speed

of the ship is 10 to 13 miles per hour.

These several reductions have been applied to the normal calculation of speed of each of the type ships in each of the different speed!

1 " channels of both routes, with the results given in Table

III. In order to show more clearty how the results are obtained the calculation will be given for a single case: Channel—standard for firm earth. Top width, 269 feet. Side slopes at top, 1 on 1. A=area of cross section = 7,189. 5 square feet. Ship, type B, H. P.=2,300=H.

ax —midship section =50 X 32 X 0. 96 = 1, 536 square feet. a—mean section =50X32X0.8 =1,280 square feet. Depression of water surface assumed to be 1.2 feet. AA= (269-1.2) 1.2= 321 square feet. AA+« =1,601 square feet. A-AA-(/ =5,588 square feet. -y=baekward current = ^=57;V= 0.287 V. 55b8

Speed of ship in open water 12.5 miles per hour.

Deduction for shoal water

15 per cent 1.875 miles per hour.

Speed in wide shoal water 10.625 miles per hour.

Since the head resistance depends on the speed of the

ship as finally deduced it is necessary to assume a value

of V.

Assume V= 7.9 miles per hour. =11.59 feet per second.

V= 0.287 V=2.267 miles per hour.
88 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Deduct this from speed of ship in wide shoal water. 10.625 —2. 267 = 8. 358 =speed of ship without deduction

for increased head resistance = V,.

For head resistance

P=4x 1.2X62.5X1,536=19,200 pounds.

Horsepower required to overcome it 19200 .. CA ,_ K „ =-gg^-Xll.59=405=H[1

. H-11^1895.

From equation (5). V

3 =^X(8.358)S =(7.-84)S

- V=7.84.

Since this does not agree with the assumed value of V,

a new trial must be made. The correct value is 7.85. In the calculations for the following1 table the depth of

water in the channel in the summit level of the Panama

Canal is taken as 38 feet; in the summit level of the Nicaragua Canal, 39 feet; in the Pacific section of the Panama

Canal, 45 feet, and in all other excavated channels, 35 feet. Allowance has been made in the deepened San Juan for

the river section outside of the deepened channel by as- suming side slopes of 1 on 4. In the excavated channel in Lake Nicaragua the channel section is computed as having

side slopes of 1 on 5.

Table III.

Calculated speeds through isthmian canal channels by ships

having sufficient power for a speed of 2.5 miles per hoar in open sen.

Type ship A. Type ship B. De- De- Area pres- pres- Section. of wet sion sion

section. n- of water

sur- face.

V. e. T\. of water

surface.

V. v.

Miles Miles Mil* s VUes Canal in rock, sum- Squart pt r pi r 1" '' in r mit Levelexcepted, feet. Feet. hour. hour. Feet. how. limn . Nicaragua 5, 250 4.46 1.8 s. 28 2.88 :s. -12 1. 7 7.07 2. 98 Canal in ruck, west

divide, Nicaragua.

5,700 4.90 1.2 8, 52 2. 17 8.71 1.6 7.88 2. (17 Canal in rock,Cule- bra cut, Panama . .. 5,966 5.07 1. 1 8.64 2.117 3.88 1.5 7.47 2. 55 Canal in firm earth .

7,189.5 6.11 .9 8. 96 1.83 l.iis 1.2 7. 85 2. 25 Canal in sand or silt . 8, 926 7.59 .8 9. 28 L.58 ... 81 1 8, L3 1.84 Channel in Panama

Bay 15,075 12.82 .<; 9.97 .94 9. 81 _ 7 9. 11 1.08

< Shannel in San Juan

River, deepened . .

ir.,s::i 13.47 .6 9.97 . 94 10.31 . 7 9. 15 1 . 08 Channel in Lake

Nicaragua, deep- ened L9.80 16.41 . 5 10.18 75 12.57 .(', 9. 87 .90 Harbors and entrances, 500 feet wide 21,175 IS. 02 .5 10.21 . 69 18.79 .6 9. 49 .83
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table III.

Calculated speeds through Uthmian canal channels by ships

having sufficient power for a speed of 2.6 miles per hour in open sea. —

Continued.

89

Area

of wet

section.

Type ship C. Type ship D.

Section. nDepressictfi of water

surface.

V. r. 'V

Depres- sion

of water

sur- face.

V. V.

Canal in rock, summit level excepted, Square

feet. 5,250 5,700

5,966

7, 189.

8, 925

15,075

15,834

19, 305

21, 175

2.85

3.09

3. 24 3.93 4.84

8.18

8.59

10.47

11.49

Feet. 2.1

1.9

1.8

1.5

l.l'

.6

.6

Miles per

hour.

6.53 6.87

7.02

7.32

7.95 9.03

9.06

9.30

9.44

per

hour. 3.55

3.22

3.07 2.70

2. 24

1.27 1.25

1.04

.94

2.44

2. 65 2.77

3.34 4.15

7.01 7.36

8.98

9.85

Feet. 2.4

2.2

2.1 1.8

1.4

.8

.8

.7

.7

Miles per

hour.

6.01 6.39

p. 55 6.94

7.61 8.85

8.85

9.13

9.27

Miles per

hour. 4.18 Canal in rock, west

divide, Nicaragua .. Canal in rock,Culebra cut, Panama . .

Canal in firm earth .. Canal in sand or silt . Channel in Panama

Bay

3.79 3.62

3.21 2.63

1.49 Channel in San Juan

River, deepened — Channel in Lake

Nicaragua, deep1.48

1.21 Harbors and entrances, 500 feet 1.12

The speeds in the foregoing- table are plotted on figure

a speeds plotted 2 as ordinates with values of rx as abscissas. Two curves drawn. appear, one for type A, the other for types B, C, and D.

The curve for type A is an asymptote to a horizontal

through V= 11.2*5. The curve for types B, C, and D is asymptote to a horizontal through V=10.625. For the

larger channels neither of these curves can be much in error. At the other extremity both curves must pass

through the point where V='0 and r1 =l. Tests are needed at intermediate points, and particularly where the

value of i\ corresponds with the standard sections in earth.

_

• d hr u h All steamships are run under check while passing through st. pe

ciair

rFiats the St. Clair Flats Canal where, on account of the crowded g^jJSJf*

by

navigation, more than one hundred vessels passing per

day, involving frequent meetings of ships in the canal,

speeds are limited by regulations to 8 miles per hour.

The estimated traffic through the isthmian canal is about

ten ships per day, and the meetings can be provided for more judiciously by reducing the speed of both ships at meeting points, and in the narrower channels by tying up

one of them.

Information has been sought regarding the amount of speed in st.ciaii checking, measured by the revolutions of the engines, Flats CanaL ordinarily made b}T ships passing the St. Clair Flats Canal. In open water, at moderate speeds, the speed of a ship

varies almost directly with the number of revolutions; in other words, with moderate speeds, the percentage of slip

of the propelling wheels is nearly constant. As the speed

is increased beyond that suitable for the model of the ship,

the slip increases, and at high speeds the increase in speed

would be much less than the increase in the number of
90 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

revolutions. In a canal increase of slip becomes appreciable at a lower speed than in open water. If the number

of revolutions were increased greatly the increase of

speed would be materially less, but if, on the other hand,

the number of revolutions were increased a small amount

the increase in speed would be in corresponding proportion. Inquiries of shipowners and navigators elicited the statement that on approaching the canal the revolutions were reduced 20 to 25 per cent. With no more

reduction than this it might be concluded, without serious

error, that with the ordinary power of the engines the

speed through the canal would be increased in like proportion. If this rule be applied to the average

results given in Table II, assuming the reduction in

revolution before entering the canal to have been 20

per cent, the speeds of 7.04, 7.25, 7.56, 8.83, and 6.72

miles observed would become 8.80, 9.06, 9.30, 11.04, and

8.40 if the full power of the engines were used. These

are plotted in figure 2, in the points G, H, I, K, and L. The very low value of the observed speed in the last case is due to the fact that two of the three ships entering

into this average were towing other ships, one having

three, the other two. If the open-sea speed of these ships

is less than 12^ miles per hour, which is probable, as few

lake freighters equal it, and if allowance were made for

this the points G, H, etc., would plot a little higher.

on Lake

aHuron The following observations have been taken on four ships

and in st. char for the purposes of this studv. Thev were of the largest

Flats Canal. i •„. 4.' *.\ 1 1 class now navigating the lakes:

1. The time and number of revolutions across Lake Huron. The distance being known, the speed and number of

revolutions per minute become known.

2. While in the open lake the steam was throttled to the same extent as during the passage tli rough the St. Clair

Flats Canal. The number of revolutions were taken each

minute for five minutes. It is assumed that the speed was

reduced in proportion to the number of revolutions.

3. The time passing through the St. Clair Flats Canal was

noted. The length of the canal being known, the speed in miles per hour can be calculated. The comparison of the

speed under check in Lake Huron with the speed through

the canal with the same steam pressure and valve opening

furnishes the percentage of loss due to the special resist- ance in the canal. If the increase of speed with the engines

developing full power were in the same proportion in (he

canal as in open sea the speed to be expected in the canal

could be easily determined. The process used here is as follows:

SMp No. 1. —When running at full speed the rate was

11.24 miles per hour; number of revolutions per minute,

74.42. When running under check, with same steam opening as when passing through the canal, the number of

revolutions was 56 per minute, and the speed would be

56

yr-jo X 11.24 = 8.46 miles per hour. In the canal the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 91

speed was 6.01 miles per hour. The loss of speed duo to

canal resistance is then - -g^ 0.29, or 29 per cent.

If the full power of the engines had been used with the same proportionate loss of speed on account of canal

resistance the speed in the canal would have been 11.42

(1 — 0.29) = 7.98 miles per hour.

If the power of the ship had been sufficient to propel it 12.5 miles per hour instead of 11.24, the canal speed with

full power of engines and the same assumptions as to increase of speed would have been 12.5 X (1.00 — 0.29) =

8.88 miles. For this ship rx = 8.50. The speed is plotted

at M, Plate II. Ship No. J.—Full speed in open lake, 11.51 miles per

hour. Revolutions per minute at full speed, 71.43. Revolutions per minute in open lake while under check, 43. Speed in canal with same steam, 4. 88 miles per hour. Following the same method as before, the calculated speed with

full power of engines capable of moving the ship 12£ miles

per hour in open sea would be 8. 81 miles per hour. In this case rx = 7.79. The point is plotted at N.

Ship No. 3.—Full speed in open lake, 10.61 miles per

hour. Revolutions per minute in open lake at full speed,

78.35. Revolutions per minute in open lake while under

check, 59. Speed in canal with same steam, 6.75 miles

per hour. Calculated speed in canal with full power of

engines capable of moving the ship 12£ miles per hour

in open lake, 10.56 miles per hour. In this case rx = 7.68. The point is plotted at V.

Ship No. 4..— Full speed in open lake, 13.13 miles per

hour. Revolutions per minute in open lake at full speed,

84.79. Revolutions per minute in open lake while under

check, 63.2. Speed in canal with same steam, 7.92 miles

per hour. Calculated speed in canal with full power of

engines capable of moving the ship 12£ miles per hour in open lake, 10.12 miles per hour. In this case rx =8.14.

The point is plotted at W.

There is considerable discrepancy in these results, two

of the points (M and N) falling near the curve of calculated speeds, but a little below it, the other two falling

considerably above it. Considerable variation would be

produced by difference in ship models. The variations

may also be due to inaccuracies in observations, particularly in regard to the exact steam opening while the

engines were under check. The assumption that increase

in number of revolutions will give the same proportion of

increase in speed in a canal as in open sea is not exactly

true, although the error will not be great, with the channel, increase of revolutions, and speed taken here. If the

channel were smaller the error would be greater. Another

consideration to be taken into account is the fact that the

ships passing the St. Clair Flats Canal have more water

under the keel than assumed for types B, C, and D in the

standard earth sections. For the summit-level sections,
92 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

however, the clearance will be about the same as in the St. Clair Flats Canal.

Information was obtained from the manager of one of

the steamship lines giving for twr o ships the number of

revolutions of the engines in open lakes and in the canal.

It may be assumed, without great error, in these eases that

the efficiency of the engines in producing speed was re- duced in inverse proportion. The data and calculations are as follows:

Ship Wo. 5. —Revolutions per mile in open lake, 404;

in canal, 530. Loss in efficiency of engines for producing

speed =1 —£»a=: 23.8 per cent. Calculated speed in canal

with engines capable of moving the ship 12i miles per

hour in open lake =12i x (1 —.238) = !). 52 miles per hour.

In this case ?\ =7. 61. The point is plotted at X.

Ship Wo. 6. —Revolutions per mile in open lake, 346;

in canal, 457. Loss in efficiency of engines for producing

speed =1 —||f =24.3 per cent. Calculated speed in canal

with engines capable of moving the ship 12i miles per

hour in open lake = 12i X (1 —. 243) =9.46 miles per hour. In this case 7*1= 9.42. The point is plotted at Y.

These points fall near the curve for type A. These cal- culations are also based on the assumption that speed

would vary directly as the number of revolutions, both in open lake and in the canal, which, as above stated, is some- what in error.

speeVs

C maa

yte

be These data, taken collectively, appear to confirm the

too high. calculated speeds in the part of the curve near M and N;

but the data being inexact and the basis of the calculations

involving some error, it seems to be judicious to adopt for

the present discussion a little lower speeds in the vicinity

of these points. To the right of these points the possible error is less, the speeds being definitely known for wide

shoal water. To the left of the given points the data are not so good and the possibility of material error is greater.

The St. Clair Flats Canal is the only one in the United

States traversed at speed by deep-draft ships, but the

channel is so wide (296 feet) and the value of ?\ so great

that the observations do not apply directly when v, is less than 7.5. In the canal sections of the isthmian waterway,

the value of rx will vary for the type ships from 7.59 to

2.44. (See Table III.) Systematic observations on such

channels with, largo ships are much needed.

sm'reHnui''

1 '^' 1 The Des* opportunities for such observations would be

afforded at flic Suez Canal, for at this waterway are found

a channel of moderate cross section and a heavy traffic with large ships. Only two observations made there are

available. The first one is reported by Sir.Charles Hartlev (Minutes of Proceedings, Inst. C. E.,vol. 141, p. L69),

who cites the ease of the steamship Austral on a passage

made in 1885.

On the straight readies of (lie canal, between Lake Timsah and

Suez, the ship (inly made") knots an hour with A'.\ revolutions of her

screw- . Whereas, in the open sea, with the same number of revolutions, she made 1 1 knots.
EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. ',>3

There was a tide of half a knot per hour in her favor

in the canal. The speed of 11 knots per hour is almost

identical with that assumed for the type ships. Deducting from the observed speed for the tidal current, the

corrected speed in the canal would be 4.5 knots or 5.17

statute miles per hour. If this speed was observed between Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes, the value of rx would be 2.95. The point thus determined is platted atP

in figure 2. If the speed was noted on the larger section

between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, ?\ would be 3.25, and

the point thus determined is platted at Q. The clearance

under the keel of the Austral was less than assumed for

the type ships in the isthmian canal. The reduction of

speed was therefore somewhat greater than would be sus- tained by the latter. The second observation at Suez is reported by Mr. Lionel B. Wells (M. P. I. C. E., vol. 141,

p. 208) as follows: In 1898 he had visited the Suez and

traveled along the canal thence to Imailia. The passage

occupied from 5.80 p. m. until 11.15 p. m., the average

speed, irrespective of stoppages, being therefore more than

6 knots per hour. The steamship w

T as 320 feet long, 39

feet wide, and drew about 21 feet, her gross tonnage being

2,260 tons; he was told that 11 knots was good speed at

sea. In the canal 8 knots per hour were made at times,

for the regulation as to maximum speed (5.33 knots per

hour) was disregarded. The tide was against the ship,

but the velocity of current is not stated. There is the same uncertainty here as in Hartley's observations as to the section of the canal where the speed of 8 knots was

observed. The enlargement of the canal to the dimensions

reported in 1899 is supposed to have been completed. The

points for the two sections are platted at R and S in figure

2 without allowance for the opposing current. The ship

had nearly the same clearance under the keel as type A

will have in the isthmian canal. The observation is therefore applicable to that type, and the points are found to

fall near its attainable speed curve. Referring to the Kaiser Wilhelm (Kiel) Canal, the chief f

(^.s^*i ?n8

,' • -\r v\..t i .i j ' /» ^-r* -r s* i-i at Kiel Canal. constructing engineer, Mr. l<ulscher, states (M. P. I. C. L.,

vol. 141, p. 207):

Vessels capable of making 16 knots per hour in the open sea and

having an immersed midship section of about 1,400 square feet only

made between 5 and 6 knots per hour for the same expenditure of power when passing through that canal, which had a cross-sectional water area of 4,520 square feet. * * * Vessels having an immersed

midship section of between 645 and 753 square feet, being about onesixth of the cross-sectional water area, traversed the canal without

undue expenditure of power and without causing objectionable waves

at a speed of about 6o knots per hour. The speed for the ship of 1,400 square feet section is platted at T, and for the smaller ship last mentioned at U,

fig. 2. The foregoing data from the Suez and Kiel canals indi- cate that for values of i\ considerably less than 7, the

calculated speeds for types B, C, and D are too high. The
94 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

material reduction of speed when the ship's keel is near

the channel bed has been taken into account in the pre- ceding pages. An analogous reduction of speed must be

incurred when the ship's sides approach the sides of the

channel, and this may not have been fully measured by

the allowances made for backward current and depression

of water surface. A new curve for these t}^pes is therefore drawn which, will coincide with the so-called "calculated attainable speed curve" in very wide shoal water,

would pass a little below G, H, I, M, and N, where the

calculated speeds are certainly not much in error, and

thence to the left, where the data are less definite, deviates more widely, passing below T and a little above P and Q.

It is deemed proper to give greater weight to G, N, and M

than to U. The new curve is marked "Type ships B, C,

and D. Final curve for attainable speeds."

The calculated curve for type A is well supported for

values ?\ of 7 to 8 by Mr. Wells's observation in the Suez

Canal. It is deemed judicious, however, to draw a new

curve for this type also, with corresponding reduction of

speed, because the data applicable are not quite so full. The final curve for types B, C, and D may be further

tested by the St. Clair observations. Referring to the

group of four ships in Table II having i\ between 11 and

12, the record shows that all of them had speeds of more

than 8 miles per hour, the mean being 8.83. It may be

accepted as certain that these ships ran under check and

that their average sea speed is less than 12£ miles per

hour. The observed speed in the canal is platted at O

in figure 2 and falls but little below the final curve; that is to sa}T

, the speed by the curve was nearly equaled by ships

of less average power than assumed running under check.

The ships of this group are not remarkable in any way.

They are medium-sized freight ships and it happened that

they were checked less while passing the canal than the

other groups.

fixSr("r'i)

1 i", k

t ^ n ° 'slll!l^cr channels, where formed in earth, the

wani currents, attainable speeds are not permissible because of the injuri- ous results to the canal banks. This injury is caused

mainly by wave wash, but to some extent by backward

currents. While the waves produced by the passage of a ship are not directly proportional to the backward current, there seems to be no better way of fixing a speed

limit than by reference to the current. In the Suez Canal

speeds are permitted which produce backward currents exceeding 4 feet per second. In the Amsterdam Canal

the largest ships are limited to speeds causing a backward

current of about 2.3 feet per second. In both cases the

banks are of sandy material, easily moved. In the Manchester Canal the largest ships are permitted a speed of 6

miles per hour, causing a backward current of 3.3 feet per second. These currents, it should be said, are calcu- lated from the approximate formula v= ~^_ ., in which
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 95

v is the velocity of back current, V the speed of the ship,

and i\ the quotient obtained by dividing the wet cross

section of the canal by the ship's midship section. The

actual velocities are a little greater, and in the Suez and

Manchester canals they are further augmented by tidal currents. Tides and Hoods will cause currents in the

Isthmian Canal, augmenting the calculated backward current, which, it is assumed for this discussion, should not exceed 3 feet per second, or 2.05 miles per hour. The

resulting limiting speeds are shown in figure 2. It will

be noted that this line replaces that part of the final speed curve concerning which any question could plausibly be

raised.

Finally, speeds arc to be read from the diagram, as follows

Type.

Ship A

Ships B,C,D.

Earth channels, from line

a. <1 a 1)

Rock channels, from line—

g d

f b

If the width of the channel were not increased on curves Reduction of and the speed of the ship were not reduced, the difficulty

spee of steering and the risks to ships would be greater than on tangents. The projects for the isthmian canal provide

for a widening on curves which varies inversely with the

radius of curvature, and possibly this may fully compensate. It is believed, however, that a reduction of speed

would be made on approaching any curve. If practicable

so to make it, such a reduction might vary directly with

the degree of curvature and inversely with the width, but

a schedule thus made would be too complex for practical use. Since the curves on the Panama route are generally of larger radius than on the Nicaragua route, the

reduction of speed need not be so great. A reduction of

speed of 20 per cent in the narrow sections of the Nicaragua

route, and of 15 per cent in the narrow sections of the

Panama route would seem to be sufficient. In the San

Juan River and the harbor entrances, where the width is greater but the curvature sharp, the reduction may be

taken 15 per cent; in Lake Nicaragua and Panama Bay,

where the curvature is slight, the reduction ma}7 be 10

per cent.
96 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table IV.

Schedule of speedsproposed as a basis for calculating the time of transit through the Panama and Nicaragua canals.

[Speeds in statute miles per hour.]

Rock cuts: East and west of summit level Nicaragua West divide, Nicaragua

Culebra cut, Panama

Canal section in firm earth

Canal section in sand and silt

Channel in Panama Bay

San Juau River, where deepened . Lake Nicaragua, where deepened. Lake Bohio

San Juan River, where not deep

ened Lake Nicaragua, where not deep

ened. Harbor and harbor entrances

Tangents in- curves. Tvpe

A.

Tangents .

Curves Tangents .

Curves Tangents . Curves

[Tangents .

[Curves » ... [Curves •> ... [Tangents .

(Curves a ... [Curves b . .. /Tangents .

(Curves [Tangents . \Curves

/Tangents. . (Curves (Tangents I 10.0 (Curves 9.0 (Tangents | 10.0

i Curves 8.5

L2.5

6.

8.5

7.0

6. 5 9.5

s. 5 9.5

8.0

LO.O

9, o

Tvpe

B.

(Tangents .. (Curves10.0

8. r>

0.0

5.0 6.0

5.0

6.5

5.5 7.0

6.0

5.5

7.5

6.

6.0

8. -r

. 8.0

8.

7.5

9.0

8.0

LO.O 9.0

9.5

8.0

12.5 9.0

Type

C.

5.0

4.0 5.5

5.0

5.

4.5

6.0

5.0 4.5

7.0

6.0

8. •". 7.5 8.5

7.0

8.

7.5

10.0 9.0

9.0

7.5

12.5 9.0

Type

D.

l..

r

> 3.5

4.5

4.0 5.0

4.0

4.5 4.0

3.5 6.0

5. o 5.0

8.0

7.5 8.0

7.0

8.5

7.5

9.

8.

9.7.5

12.5 S.5

7.0

' Nicaragua.

The foregoing schedule applied to the two routes gives

the times of transit across the Isthmus shown in Tables V

and VI, but without allowance for delays at meeting points

and at locks.

Table V.

Tifne of transit through the Panama ('nun/ without allowance

for meetings or lockages.

.Tangents or curves.

Dis- tance. Type

A. Type Type Type

D.

Canal section:

Stat. miles. L0.76 6.85

:;. is 2.50

3.00

8. 02 3.90

.51

. 39

2. 00

6. is 6.50

Hours.

1.35

. 98

.11 ,36

.37

. 16 .11 .06

.04

. 24 .62 .72

Hour*.

1.54

1.11 .46

.38

. 1.

. 46

.07 .04

.27

. 62

.72

limns.

1.80 1.37

.50

. (2 .55

.67

. 46 .07

.04 .27

. 62 .72

Hourt.

2. 39 [Tangents .58

Culebra cut .6075 Channel in Panama Bay . 19 07 Colon Harbor and entrance ... .05

. 29 Lake Bohio [Tangents

(Curves

. 65 .76

49. 09 6. 02 6.71 f.49 8. 8
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 97

Table VI. — Time of transit through the Nicaragua Canal without allow- ance for meetings or lockages.

Canal section: Firm earth . Sand or silt. Rock, West divide Rock, exclusive of West

divide San Juan River: Where deepened

N< >t deepened Lake Nicaragua: Where deepened

Not deepened

Harbors and entrances

Total

Tangents or curves.

Dis- tance.

(Tangents

iCurves ... (Tangents

(Curves ... (Tangents.

(Curves . .

(Tangents

ICurves ... (Tangents

\Curves . .

(Tangents

\Curves ... (Tangents

iCurves . .. (Tangents

(Curves ...

Stat. mih a. 17.99

10. 45 19.93

8. 39 4.79

3.89

2.94

2.32

12. 58

13.77 5.15

7.86 26.69

1.56

42. 27 2.04

1.04

183. 66

Type

A.

Hours.

2. 25

1.61 2.34

1.29

.64 .65

.39

.39 1.32

1.72

.52

. 92 2.67

.17 3.38

.20

.12

20. 58

Type

1$.

Hours.

2.57

1.90 2.66

1.40

.80

.78

.49 .46

1. 18 1.84

.54 .98 2.97

.19 3.38

.23

.14

22. 81

Type

C.

Hours.

3.00

2. 32 2.85

1.53

.87

.78 .59

1.48

1.97

.57 1.05

3.14

.21 3.38

.23

.14

24. 69

Type

D.

Hours.

4.00

2.99

3.32

1.68

1.06

.97 .65

.66 1.57 1.97

.57 1.05

3.14

.21 3.38

.24 .15 27.61 To obtain the full time of transit the time consumed by

lockage and the dela}r s at meeting points are to be added.

The time required for lockage is here taken to be the

delay caused b}T a lockage. It is the period beginning by\TMc

9kage.ume when the ship begins to slacken speed on approaching a lock and ending when it has acquired full speed after leav- ing it, less the time that is required to pass over the same

distance at full canal speed. The delay while waiting for

the locking of another ship will be considered further on. The channel in the vicinity of the lock is taken to be of

standard canal section in firm earth. While this is not

true in every case, the resulting error is not material.

The approaching ship must reduce speed and be under perfect control while yet at a considerable distance from the

lock. Its movements while approaching, passing, and

leaving the lock are supposed to be as follows:

1. The speed of the approaching ship is to be reduced

to 1.7 miles per hour (150 feet per minute) at a point 700

feet distant from the lock-gate quoin. This reduction of

speed is to be made at the rate of 1 mile per hour while

moving 500 feet. Observations on a large number of lake freight ships

show that when the engines are stopped the speed is re- duced at an average rate of 1 mile per hour while moving

less than 100 feet. (See report U. S. Board of Engineers

on Deep Waterwa^ys.) A like increase of speed occurs when the engines are again started.

3. The ship is to continue at the speed of 1.7 miles per

hour until its stern is within 150 feet of the lock-gate

quoin (200 feet, if moving down stream) and then is to come to a stop in the next 200 feet and during two and

two-thirds minutes, backing the wheel if necessary. Observations on 35 ships entering the lock of the St. Marys Falls Canal show that a stop from a speed of 125

feet per minute is made in 100 feet and in 1.1 minutes.

S. Doc. 51, pt 2 7
98 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

3. The time required to open or close a pair of lock

gates is taken at two minutes.

At the Ymuiden lock, on the Amsterdam Canal, the observed time was one and one-third minutes.

4. The time required for tilling and emptying the several locks is given in the following table, VII. (See Appendix A for details of calculation.)

Table VII.Time required for filling and emptying larks.

FilliiiL Panama route. Mia. Sec. Lower lock at Bohio 13 Upper lock at Bohio I 1(5 Upper lock at Pedro Miguel 13 Lower lock at Pedro Miguel 10 Miraflores lock 13 Lock No. 1 Lock No. 2 Lock No. 3 Lock No. 4 Lock No. 5 Lock No. 6 Lock No. 7 Lock No. 8

A."((," (/./a route. 14 56

10 42

10 42

14 43

12 49

13 17 13 17 12 18

5. A ship leaving the lock is to acquire a speed of 1.7

miles per hour while moving 300 feet, requiring four

minutes, and is then to gain speed at the rate of 1 mile per

hour while moving 500 feet, until full canal speed is attained.

Observations of 30 ships leaving the lock of the St. Marys Falls Canal gave as mean results an acquired speed

of 1.7 miles per hour while moving 200 feet in two and

one-third minutes, and then an increase of speed of 1 mile

per hour while moving 3(30 feet. The observations ex- tended only until a speed of 3 miles per hour was attained.

These rules applied to the Bohio locks result in the

time interval given in the next table: Table VIII.

Time required to pass Bohio Jocks.

[In minutes.]

Reducing speed to 1.7 miles per hour Moving at 1.7 miles per hour until stern is 175 feet from

lock Kate quoin

Coming to full stop in first lock Closing lock gates

Pilling (or emptying) first lock Openingsecond gates Moving into second lock: At la mini,' speed (if 1.7 miles per hour

Proceeding at this speed 300 feet Coming to full slop in second lock Closing second gates

Filling (or emptying) second lock Opening third gates Moving out of lock and attaining full speed: Attaining speed of 1.7 miles per hour

Increasing to full canal speed

Time required to traverse this distance at full canal speed minutes. Time lost at locks do... Distance traversed feet

Type Type Type Type

A. B. c. D.

8.8 8.0 7.2 5.5

6.2 6. 2 7.1 7.8

2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.0 •J. ii 2.0 2.0

13.1 L3. 1 13.1 13.1 2.0 2. 2.0 2.0

4.0 1.0 l.o 4.0

2.0 2.0 2. 2.0 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7

2. 2.0 2.0 2. L6.3 16.:; L6.8 16.3

•J.ti 2.0 2.0 2.0

4.0 l.o 4.0 4.0

s.s 8.0 7.2 5.5

76.6 75.0 74.3 71.6

12.6 12.8 18.0 13.6 61.0 62. 2 61.3 58.0

S..SSC, 7,886 r>,ssr, 5, 386
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 99

Those arc the net delays if all movements are made

without loss of time. In practice this would not be possible. In 1894 the lock at the St. Marys Falls Canal was worked nearly to its full capacity, and the tonnage through

it was about 0.62 of the theoretical capacity of the lock. Probably ships were awaiting- lockage 90 to 95 per cent of

the time. If this is correct, about 50 per cent should be

added to the calculated time of lockage to obtain the time

used in actual work. This allowance is adopted for the

present discussion. The resulting time lost by lockages

is given for the two routes in Tables IX and X.

Tablk IX. — Time lost by lockages on the Panama route.

Bohio locks minutes.

Pedro Miguel locks do

Miraflores lock do

Total. {minutes.

h

Type

A.

64.0

58.

36.4

(hours i 2.65 Add 50 per cent for sundry delays 1. 32 Total delays for lockages hours.. 3.97

Type

B.

62.2

56.7

34. S

Type

C.

153.7 161.2

61.3

55.

34.

2.56

1.28

2.52

1.26 3.78

Table X.—Time lost l»j lockages on the Nicaragua mute.

Atlantic slope: Lock No. 1 minutes.. Lock No. 2 do

Lock No. 3 ."'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'. Lock No. 4 do'.'.'.'. Pacific slope: Lock No. 5 do Lock No. 6 do. .

'.'. Lock No. 7 do.

'. '.' Lock No. 8 do.

'. '.

'. {minutes., hours Ana w per cent tor sundry delays

Total delay for lockages hours..

Type

A.

37.9

33.7 33.7

37.7 35.8

36.3 36.3

35.3

286. 7 4.78

2.39

Tvpi'

B.

36.3 32.1

32.1 36.1 34.2

34.7

34.7 33.7

273.

4.57

2. 28

6.85

Type

C.

35.6

31.4 31.4 35.4

33.5

34.0 34.0

33.0

268.3

4.47 2.23

Type

D.

58.0

52. 5 31.3

2.36

1.18

Type

D.

32.8

28.6

2S.6 32.6

30.7

31.2

31.2 30.2

245. 9 4.10

2. 05

Meetings occurring in the excavated channels will cause. Delays at meet delay. No allowance need be made for meetings in deep mgP°m ' water in Lake Nicaragua, Lake Bohio, or the San Juan

River. Meetings may also occur at locks.

It is obvious that "if two ships of type D meet in the Meetings in regular canal section one must tie up while the other channtls passes at reduced speed. Ships of type A could meet anywhere, but one would probably tie up while the speed of

the other would be reduced. In channels 200 to 300 feet wide it is not likely that either ship would tie up, but both

would reduce speed.

Since a ship of any type may meet another of any type, a vast number of possible cases will arise. IMs not

practicable to investigate each on a different basis, and the
100 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. same rules will be assumed to appl}7 to all. These rules are as follows:

1. In the section of 150 feet bottom width, passingplaces are assumed to be 5 miles apart where all meetings must occur. One of the two ships about to meet will

tie up at the passing place and await the other. As an

average, the waiting ship will arrive at the passing place,

while the other is 2£ miles distant. It will be assumed

that the moving ship passes the waiting ship at half speed,

maintaining the minimum speed for an average distance

of 2,000 feet. The rates of reduction and increase of speed

are taken the same as for the calculations of delays at locks. The delay to each of the two ships is calculated and the mean taken. In order to simplify the calculations it is assumed that the approaching ships are moving before

reducing speed at the rates scheduled in Table IV for canal

section in firm earth on tangents.

2. In the channels 200 to 300 feet wide neither ship will stop, but both will reduce speed to 4 miles per hour,

maintaining this rate for an average distance of 2,000 feet. In order to simplify the problem the reductions will be

calculated from the speeds scheduled in Table IV for

tangents in the San Juan River where deepened.

Meetings in The delay caused by a meeting in the canal section is narrow

sections. can al sb.0wn in Table XL

Table XI.

Delay >ii meeting points in canal section InO feet wi<l< ai bottom.

[In minutes.]

Type

A. Type Type

B. C. TypeP.

Delay to waiting ship: Elapsed time while reducing speed to 1.7 miles per hour

Elapsed time from speed of 1.7 miles per hour to

full stop Elapsed time waiting lor meeting ship to run 2| miles Elapsed time to attain speed of 1.7 miles per hour . Elapsed time to attain full canal speed

Total elapsed time , Total distance traversed feet., Time required to move this distance at full canal speed

Delay to waiting sliip

21.2

l.d

45.

6,800

'.'.7

35.8 Delay to moving ship: Elapsed time while reducing speed to half speed .

Elapsed time while running 2,000 feel at half speed. Elapsed time while regaining full canal speed

Total elapsed time

Total distance traversed ai reduced speed . . .feel .

Time required to move tins distance at full canal Speed Delay to moving ship

13. I 6, (KM)

8. 5

1.9 Total delay fur both Bhips Mean delay fnr both ships . (minutes,

[hours . .

1(1.7 20.8

.84

23.4 4.0 8.0

16.1 5,800

9. I

36.7

3.9 3.9

5. 6 ti. 5

3. 9 3.

14.3 5,600

8.

5. I

12. ! 21.]

. 35

7.2

26.3

I.

7. 'J

17. I I. si 10

38.3

3. 9 7.6 3.9

16.4 5,000

9. I 6.0

14.

'."J. 1 .37

5.5

2.7 36.2

4.0 5.5

68.9 3,300

45.

3.9

10.1 3.9

17. <) 1,260 10.7 7.2 52.2

26.1.43
REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 101

Assuming that a moan of five ships enter the canal each wav per day, each ship will meet one going in the opposite direction every two and four-tenths hours as an average. The number of meetings in the canal sections will

be the quotient arising from dividing the total number of

hours required to traverse them by 2.4. Let T = time required to traverse the canal sections of

the route without meetings, in hours. n = number of meetings.

t = time lost at each meeting, in hours.

Then T-\-nt = total time in canal sections.

T + nt_ T

_ (7) 2.4 2.4 -£

T is obtained in Tables V and VI; t from table XI. Applying the formula there results the number of meetings

and the delays given in Tables XII and XIII.

Table XII.—Number of meetings for each ship in the canal sections of the Panama route and delays therefrom.

Number of hours traversing sections of 160 feet, bottom

width, excluding meetings A verage number of meetings -' Delay in transit hours.

Type Type Type Type

A. B. C. D.

3.93 4.53 5. 31 6.53

1.91 2.21 2.62 3.31

.65 .77 .97 1.42

Table XIII.

Number of meetings for each ship in the canal sections of

the Nicaragua route and delays therefrom.

Number of hours traversing sections of 150 feet, bottom

width, excluding meetings A verage number of meetings Delav in transit hours.

Type

A.

9.56

4.64 1.58

Type

B.

11.06 5.40

1.89

Type

C.

12. 52

6.17

2. 28

Type

D.

15. 32

7.78

3.35

The delays to a ship in transit on account of meetings in the wide channels is calculated in the same manner as for

the canal sections.

Table XIV.

Delay at a meeting point in tlie channel in San Juan River, Lake Nicaragua, or Panama Pay.

[In minutes.]

Elapsed time while reducing speed to 4 miles per hour. Elapsed time while running 2,000 feet at 4 miles per hour

Elapsed time while regaining speed

Total elapsed time minutes.

Total distance traversed feet. Time required to traverse this distance at full allowed

speed minutes.

_ , . , . f minutes.. Delay to ship Uiours .

Tvpe

A. Type

B. TypeC. Type

D.

3.9 3.2 2.3 0.7

5.6

3.9

5.6

3.2

5.6 2.3

5.C

.7

13.4 6,000 12.0

5, 000

10.2 4,0007.0 2,500

8.5

4.9

.08

8.1 3.9

.07

7.6 2.6

.04

6.4

.6.01
102 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table XV.

Number of meetings for each ship in the channel excavated in Panama Bay and delays therefrom.

Type

A. Type

B. Tvpe Tvpe

C. D.

0.47

.20

.02

0.53

.23 .02

0.53 50

.23 1 24

.01 .01)

Table XVI.

Number of meetings for each ship in the channel excavated

in the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua.

Number of hours traversing channel Average number of meetings

Delays in transit hours..

Type

A.

5.84 2.50

.20

Type

B.

0.43

2. 76 .19

Tvpe Tvpe

C. D.

6.75

2.86

.11

6.84 2.87

.03

Meetings

locks.

It is not likely that a full working force will be provided

for both sets of locks, the duplicate locks being provided

to enable repairs to be made to either separate!}' without

closing the canal to navigation and as insurance against

delay to navigation in case of accident to either lock. It

is assumed, however, that both sets will be in use, when in

al order. If a ship should arrive while another is being

locked it will have to wait until the other is out of the way,

or until some of the working force can bo spared to attend

to it. Except at the initial locks, ships following each

other will be spaced by previous lockages, and so will delay

each other but little. Meetings, however, are as likely to occur at locks as anywhere else in proportion to the time

consumed there. If the second ship arriving were obliged

to wait until the first one was entirely clear of the lock and

to

i eIch

a

ship.' la> approach, the average delay when one occurred would be

one-half the time required for a lockage (not the time lost by lockage). Only one of two meeting ships would suffer

this delay and the average loss of time to each ship would

be one-fourth the time required for a lockage. In practice, however, the delay would probably be a little less because, after the first ship has been tied up in the lock, a part of the force could be spared to begin operating the

duplicate lock. The time thus saved would provide for all delays to ships following each other. The full allowance

will therefore be made here for meeting ships and none for

following ships. The Dumber of meetings is the total delay

for Lockages as obtained from Tables IX and X. by applying

formula (7). Thetime required for passing the locks is the

calculated time plus thealfowance of 50 per cent for sundry

delays. The time lost by a meeting at the Bohio locks is estimated as shown in Table XVII.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table XVII. —Delay caused by a meeting at Bohio lucks.

103

[Interval between arrival of ship at a point 700 feet from the lock-gate quoin and

the point when in leaving the lock it lias attained a speed of 1.7 miles per hour. This is taken to he the maximum delay which a second ship would meet. Data

from Table VOL]

[In minutes.]

Type

A. TypeB. Type

C. TypeL>.

Moving at 1.7 miles per hour until stern is 175 feet from lock-gate quoin

('(iming to full stop in lock

Closing lock gates

Filling (or emptying) first lock Opening se» ind gates Moving into second lock

( 'li ising second gates

Filling (or emptying) lock Opening third gates. . Attaining speed ot 1.7 miles per hour Maximum delay to waiting ships Average delay to waiting ships Average delay to both meeting ships Average delay with 50 per cent added

6.2

2.7 2.0

13.1 2.0

8.7 2.0

16.3 2.0

4.0

6.2

2.7 2.0

13.1 2.0 8.7

2.0

16.3 2.0

4.0

7.1 2.7 2.0

13.1 2.0

8.7 2.0

16.3 2.0 4.0

59. 59. 59.

30. 30. 30. 15.0 I 15.0 I 15.0

22. 22. 23.

7.8

2.7 2.0

13.1 2.0

8.7 2.0

16.3 2.0

4.0 60.6

30.0

15.0

23.

From the foregoing- table the average delay to all ships

at the Bohio flight of two locks would be fifteen minutes.

In a similar way the average delay at other locks is calculated, with the following results: Table XVIII.—Delays caused by meetings at each of the locks or flights of the Panama route.

[In minutes.]

Type

A. Type

B. Type C

Type

D.

At Bohio locks At I'edro Miguel locks At Miraflores lock

Total „ (minutes.

Mean {hours.... Mean, with 50 per cent added hours..

15.0

13.0 8.0

36.0

12.0

.2

.3

15.0

13.0 8.0

15.0

14.0 8.0 36.0

12.0

.2

.3

37.0

12.0

.2

.3

15.0 14.0 8.0

37.0

12.0

.2

.3

Table XIX.Delays at meetings at each of the locks of the Nicaragua

route.

[In minutes.]

Type

A. TypeB. Type

C. Type

D.

8.0

7.0 7.0

8.0

7.0

8.0

8.0

7.0

8.0

7.0

7.0

8.0 7.0 8.0

8.0

7.0

8.0

7.0

7.0

8.0

8.0 8.0

8.0

8.0

8.0 7.0

7.0 8.0

88.0

8.0 At Lock No. 8 8.0 Totals 60.0

7.5

.12

.18

60.0 7.5

.12 .18

62.0 7.8

.13

.19

62.0 Mean

Mean with 50 per cent added

[minutes .

hours..

7.8

.13 .19
104 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

These delays for each meeting multiplied by the number

of meetings give the following tables, XX and XXI:

Table XX.

Number of delays while awaiting lockage on the Panama

route and delays therefrom.

Number of delays per transit Time of each delay hours.

Total delay

Type

A. TypeB. Type

C.

1.89 .30

.57

1.83

.30 .55

1.80

.30

.54

1

Type

b.

1.69

.30

.51

Table XXI.

Number of delays while awaiting lockage on the Nicaragua

route, and delays therefrom.

Number of delays per transit Time of each delay hours.

Total delay

Type Tvpe Type

A. B. C.

3.23 3. 09 3. 02

.18 .18 .19 .58 .56 .57

Type

D.

2.78 .19

.53 The several time intervals are summed up in the following table, giving the total time of transit by each route:

Table XXII.

Time of transit across isthmus.

[In hours.]

Panama route. Time without allowance for lockage or meetings

Lockages

Meetings in canal section Meetings in channel in Panama Bay

Meetings at locks Total time of transit Nicaragua route. Time without allowance for lockage or meetings

Lockages

Meetings in canal sections Meetings in channels in San Juan River and Lake

Nicaragua

Meetings at locks Total time of transit

Tvpe Tvpe Tvpe Type

A. B. C. D.

6. 02

3. 97 .65

.02

.57

11.23

7. 17 L.58

.20

.58

6.71

3. 8

.77 .02

7. I '.I 3.78

.97

.01 .64 11.89 12.79

22. SI

6. 85

1 . 89

.19

,56

32. 30

21.69

6. 7(1 2. 28

8. SO

3. 54

1.42 .00

.51 14.27

27. 61 6.16 3.35

.03

..

r.;;

34.35 37.67

These estimates are for ships having a sea speed of 12A statute miles per hour. It is assumed that passing places.

where ships can tie up, will be provided at intervals of

5 miles in all canal sections, and that the route will he

so efficiently lighted, either by fixed lights along the route or by lights carried by the ships, or by both, as experience

may indicate that navigation may he continued by night

as well as by day. Should the ships be powered for a less sea speed the time of transit will not he increased iti simple inverse proportion, nor could the time of transit he

much reduced if the sea speed were considerably greater.

If no provisions he made for passing places, or if the

lighting be inadequate, the estimates do not apply.
APPENDIX G, FIG.

S Doc-'V' 3 57 1

APPENDIX G. FI6 2

Appendix H.

DISCHARGE OF THE CANALIZED SAN JUAN RIVER.

The San Juan River flows with very little fall through a flat, swampy

valley until the tributary, Rio Sabalos, is reached, about 26 miles

from' the lake. Within "the next IS miles, to the mouth of the Rio

Machuca, the river descends the Toro, Castillo, and Machuca rapids,

as well as several smaller ones. In the first 26 miles of its course the

fall, at mean stages, is only about 4 feet, but in the next IS miles the

fall is about 45 feet. From the Rio Machuca to the mouth of the San

Carlos, a distance of about 13 miles, the fall is very slight. If the dam is built at Conchuda the water will be raised over the

whole length of the river from that point to the lake, entirely drowning all the rapids and adding about 50 feet to the depth of the lower

portion of the river, but only 4 oi 5 to the upper portion. Therefore,

when the canalized river is discharging, the condition of nature will be reversed and nearly all the slope will be found in the upper portion,

where the cross section is changed but little. In the lower portion,

where the cross section is increased from ten to twenty times, the slope

will be very slight. It is known from actual observations what the concurrent elevations

of lake surface and discharges have been during the season of observation. It is also approximately known from rainfall and other

observations in the drainage basin of the lake what discharges must

be expected if the variation of the lake surface is to be regulated

within the desired limits. In this investigation of the discharge of

the San Juan River the problem has been so treated as to determine

the hydraulic mean radius, the coefficient of roughness, and the slope

for assumed discharges of 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, and

70,000 cubic feet per second for each elevation of lake surface 104, 106,

108, 110, and 112. In order to attain these ends the well-known Chezy's

form of formula for mean velocity of discharge, with Kutter's coeffi- cient, has been used. The following is its form:

n s i—

-7=( 41.65 -f- in which

yV v * J

8 — the sine of the inclination of the water surface to a horizontal. r = the hydraulic radius = area of the normal water section di- vided by the wetted perimeter. n — coefficient of roughness.

v — mean velocity in river.

105
106 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In the present case, 0.024 was taken as the coefficient of roughness,

n. The significance of this value will be discussed later. To obtain r and v, 20 sections of the river valley were taken at various points between the lake and the site of the dam. The position

of these sections is shown in figure 1. Table 1 gives the distances of each section in feet from Fort San

Carlos, measured along the present river channel.

Table 1.

Number of section. Distance from

lake. Number of section. Distance from

lake. Number of section. Distance fromlake.

1 Feet.

23, 500

42, 500

65, 000

70, 500

8G, 000

137,000

8

Feet. 153,000 177,000

183, 000

191,000

193, 500

206, 000

212, 000

15

Feet. 228, 000

> 910

111213

14

16 239, 000

3 .. 17 259,000

4... 18 269, 000

5 19 283,000

6... 20 300,500

7 326,500

These sections were all platted to a scale of 40 feet to an inch. In

those sections in which excavation is required to give 35 feet draft

with water at elevation + 104 the line of excavation was platted on the

section. The wetted perimeters were then measured by a chartometer

for elevations of water surface of 104, 106, 108, 110, and 112. Corresponding areas were then taken off by a planimeter. These areas, wetted perimeters, and the resulting hvdraulic radii are given in Table 2.

> There is considerable distance between sections Nos. 6 and 7. This

portion of the river was studied some time ago quite thoroughly by

Mr. A. P. Davis. He found that the river had a nearly uniform section, and as the average was almost exactly the same as at No. 4 that

section was used for the length E, figure 1. From the lake down to Rio Sabalos, where the river flows through

extensive swamps, a rise of the water surface to elevation 104 will flood considerable area on both sides of the river and thereby add greatly to the cross section. This increased area will, however, be in swamps

with dense vegetation, and in order that the capacity of the river may

not be overestimated this overflow has not been considered. The

cross section has been taken as though the banks were vertical at the

side of the present river bed; but as the banks above the original sur- face under such a supposition are composed of water, those portions

have not been added to the wetted perimeter, which, as will be seen in Table 2, has been taken as constant in sections Nos. 1, 2. 4, and 5 and

equal to the actual earth perimeter between the present banks.

In figure 1 it is seen that there are three cut-off lines—San Francisco, Palo de Arco. and Santa Cruz. The combined discharge of a

cut-off and the river bend or curve which is cut off will evidently be

the total discharge of the river. The canal sections at these points are

all alike and are called section No. 21, for which the areas for normal

sections, wetted perimeters, and hydraulic radii are given in Table 2. The river from the lake to the dam was divided into 10 short lengths,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 107

A, B, C, etc., as shown in figure L. It was assumed that each of these

Lengths had a uniform section throughout, and that

Section No. 1 is typical of length A. Section No. -' is typical of length B. Section No. 4 is typical of length C. Section No. 5 is typical of length D.

Section No. 6 is typical of length E. Section No. 7 is typical of length F. Section No. 9 is typical of length G.

Section No. 10 is typical of length H.

Section No. 14 is typical of length I. Section No. 18 is typical of length K. The next step was to find by Kutter's formula the slopes required

at each section to give discharges of 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000,

60,000, and 70,000 second-feet, or cubic feet per second, for each of

the following elevations of water surface at the sections 102, 104, 106,

108, 110, and 112. These slopes are given in Table 3. Having determined the slopes of Table 3, the curves of water surface of the San

Juan River were plotted in figure 3 in the following manner: The lengths A, B, C, etc., on that plate correspond to the divisions

of the river in figure 1. The ordinates are elevations in feet above mean sea level. The abscissas of the curves of water surface are dis- tances in feet from the lake, measured along the course of the river. The slopes given in Table 3 are for elevations of water surface 104,

106, etc., only, but the water surface may be at any elevation. In order to obtain the slopes at any elevation, the curves j^i^ PsPin e^c, were constructed.

To illustrate the manner of obtaining all of these curves, the process

will be followed through for the curves p1 ph and p6 pn . If the fourth slope, 0.0000195, Table 3, be multiplied by 10,000, the

result, 0.195 feet, will be the amount that the river will fall in 10,000

feet of length A, if the mean elevation of water surface—i. e., the ele- vation of the midpoint of that length—is 112. The fall, 0.195 feet, is plotted as an abscissa from a b, the beginning of length A, at elevation

112 and the pointy, obtained. In the same way the slope for section No. 1, elevation 110, and a dis- charge of 70,000 second-feet, was multiplied by 10,000 and plotted at elevation 110 in the point je>2

. Points p3 ,

)*-> andy>5 were obtained in a similar manner. The curve

P\ P<z was then drawn with a spline through these points. Any abscissa

of this curve gives the fall that will occur in 10,000 feet of length A if the river is discharging 70,000 second-feet and the elevation of water

surface at midpoint of that length is that at which the abscissa was

measured.

Length B includes the San Francisco cut-off. The length, measured

along the river, is 35,000 feet, and measured along the canal line is 27,000 feet. It is assumed that the river has a uniform section—that of No. 2

throughout length B. All the slopes for section No. 2, given in Table 3, were multiplied

by 17,500, the half length of the river portion of length B. The

results were plotted in the curves Rx

, R2 , etc., tig. 2. As an example,

the third slope, 0.0000185, given for an elevation of 112 feet for the midpoint of the length of section No. 2, for a discharge of 40,000 secondfeet, was multiplied by 17,500. The product is 0.324, which is the
108 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

fall in feet between the beginning and middle of the river portion of

length B. This fall of 0.324 feet was plotted, as an ordinate in point

pt

, fig. 2. In a similar manner points p% and pa were plotted. The

curve Rj was then drawn with a spline through the points plf p2 , p3 and made tangent to the horizontal axis of coordinates at the origin.

The ordinates to this curve give the fall for half the length of the

river portion of length B for any discharge when the elevation of the

water at the middle point is 112. In the same way the slopes for section 21, in Table 3, were multiplied by 13,500 to obtain the ordinates for plotting curves C,, C a

, etc. Any horizontal line drawn like that through li

x will indicate by the

extremities of its intercept between the curves C, and Rx the concurrent discharges of the canal and river portions, the fall of the midpoint of each portion below its beginning (or height above its ending)

being given by the ordinate of the horizontal intercept. As an illus- tration, the horizontal intercept through \ is so drawn as to be bisected

by the verticle ordinate erected at the discharge abscissa of 35,000

second-feet. Again, the horizontal intercept through It., is bisected

by the vertical ordinate erected at the discharge abscissa of 30,000

second-feet, and similarly for all the others. The point of intersection of the horizontal intercept \ with the curve Rj shows that the

discharge of the river portion is 38,000 second-feet, while the point of

intersection of the same line with the curve C1 shows that the discharge

of the canal portion is 32,000 second-feet. The combined discharge of

the two portions is therefore 70,000 second-feet.

The measured ordinate of hy is 0.27 foot, the fall in half the length

of both the cut-off canal line and the length B of the river, corres- ponding to the combined discharge of 70,000 second-feet, and to the

elevation of water surface of 112 at the middle of both the cut-off line and the river portion. This fall of 0.27 foot was plotted as an abscissa

in point ^>

fi , figure 3. In the same way^>7 ,^>8

, etc., were obtained and the cure pcpn drawn.

The abscissas measured from cd to this curve give the fall in half the

length of either of the two channels of the San Francisco cut-off when

the combined discharge is 70,000 second-feet and the elevation of the

water surface at the midpoint of length of channel is that at which

the abscissa was measured. Curves for discharges of 20,000, 30,000,

40,000, 50,000, and 60,000 cubic feet per second were obtained in a similar manner. A set of curves for each of lengths C, E, F, H, I, and K were

plotted in the same way as were those for length A. Curves for

lengths I) andG, the Palo de Arco and Santa Cruz cut-off lines, were

obtained in the same manner as those for Length B. The method of obtaining the curves of water surface in figure 3

may be illustrated by taking curve X as an example. Remembering

that the abscissas to the line p^p^pb are the falls of water surface

for a Length of L0,000 feet, while the latter is also the distance between

two consecutive vertical lines on the diagram, a point o1 was found

with the dividers on the lineal such that <>

x <tx is equal to the abscissa

ox xx

. The length (/

l o l was then measured down from elevation 110 on

a line 10,000 feet downstream from ab and the point/! found. Points

<i

x and r, were then connected by a straight line extended to /.,. This

line, </,/',/*,, represents the water surface of the first 20,000 feet of the

river when the lake is at elevation 110 and the river is discharging
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 109

70,000 .second-feet, for the fall n i rx in 10,000 feet is the abscissa of the curvePiP6 at elevation 109.68, which is the elevation at the middle

point of 'VVV

As the distance from ra to the beginning of length B is very small,

the line was extended at the same slope to point <t.v In the same manner as before a point 2 was found on line c d such that ae

<>,, is equal

to the abscissa <>., xv The distance a2

<k, was then measured down from

/>.,. the same elevation as "., on c, ds, which is halfway between c a

and ^/'and the point rs located, it being remembered that the abscissas

of the curve pt j> n

are the falls of water surface for half the length B. The line ./., rs was then drawn and extended to i\. In the same manner

the line was extended from length to length. And in the same way

all the lines of watei surface shown in figure 3 were constructed. All

of this was done to a vertical scale on which hundredths of a foot

could be easily read. At the end of #length K, at the extreme right-hand side of figure 3, are drawn curves, beginning on the vertical line drawn through the

extremity of that length, representing the location of the Conchuda

Dam. These curves are so drawn as to make their horizontal ordinates or abscissas represent the various discharges in cubic feet per second

used in the preceding investigations. There is one such curve for

each of the elevations of lake surface, represented by even numbers,

from 106 to 112, both inclusive. The abscissas of each of these curves,

therefore, represent the different discharges for the varying elevations

(at which they are drawn) of the water surface at the dam, and corre- sponding to the elevation of water surface shown at the left side of

the plate, there being one such elevation for each curve. There is thus given in this figure 3 all the information which is really required

to determine the discharge of the canalized river for any elevation of

lake surface or any elevation of water surface at the dam within the

prescribed limits. It is convenient, however, to place this information

regarding the discharges in a separate figure, and this is done in fig- ure 4. The latter plate contains curves which show the elevation of

water surface at the dam corresponding to any assumed discharge at a given elevation of water surface at the lake. The vertical ordinates

of the curves are elevations of lake surface, while the abscissas of the same curves are the discharges in cubic feet per second, each curve corresponding to one of the given elevations at the dam, 102, 104, 106,

and 108 feet. These two figures (3 and 4) exhibit complete information regarding discharges of the canalized river corresponding to ele- vations of surface either at the lake or at the dam.

It is evident that the minimum elevation of the water at the dam

will be fixed by the elevation of the sills of Lock No. 4, and that at the

time when the discharging capacity of the river is most desired, viz, at the time of flood, the water at the dam will always be held at the

minimum elevation.

As low water in the summit level has been fixed by the Commission

at elevation 104, the curve marked "elevation of water surface at dam

104," is of the greatest practical use. The other curves were developed

to cover the field and show what might be accomplished in the way of

increasing the discharge bv depressing the summit level. A set of curves, XX. XXI. XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXV, figure 3, were constructed in the same manner as curves I, II, III, etc., except

that the}T were drawn from right to left and starting from the dam at elevation 104.
110 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The ordinate.-; at the left-hand end of these curves should check with

those of curve III, figure 4, which they do. For any elevation of the lake the maximum discharge of the river

may be read from curve III, figure 4. A description of the use to which this curve was put will be found

in Mr. Davis's report to the Commission.

The question now arises as to whether or not the velocities in the

river at times of maximum discharge will be dangerous to navigation.

To be on the safe side a discharge of 70,000 second-feet is assumed.

It is evident from line XXII, tigure 3, that the maximum velocity will occur in length F. The average elevation of water surface in the last 20,000 feet of this length at time of 70,000 second-feet discharge (see

line XXII, tigure 3) is about 106 and in table 3 it is seen that for that

discharge at section No. 7 and an elevation of water surface of 106 the

velocity is 4.2 feet per second. There is an apparent possibility that

higher velocities might occur in one of three cut-oft ^nes, but examination shows that they will not. Many }

T ears of use has demonstrated that Kutter's formula expresses

faily well the relation between the velocity, area of cross section, wetted perimeter, slope, and frictional resistance of a stream. The only

point needing discussion is the value which was used for the coefficient

of roughness n. To test the correctness of 0.024 as a value of n the same process

which has been described as applied to the canalized river was applied

to the natural river and the results compared with known discharges

and known elevations of water surface.

Table 4 shows the properties of the sections Nos. la and 4a , which are exactly the same as sections Nos. 1 and 4 of Table 2, except that they

are sections of the natural instead of the canalized river. Sections Nos.

2 and 5 of Table 2, being at the cut-off lines, are already of the nat- ural river. Table 5 gives the slopes for sections Nos. la and 4.,. obtained

by Kutter's formula, using 0.024 as the value of n. From slopes for

the natural river sections, Nos. l a , 3, 4a , and 5, the curves of water

surface shown in figure 5 were obtained in exactly the same manner as those of figure 3. In 1898 a gauging station was established near the mouth of the Rio

Sabalos, and in 1899 another was established at Isla Grande. Daily

readings of these gauges were made and a large number of current- meter observations of the discharge of the river were taken. As the curves of figure 5 were constructed for the same discharges and eleva- tions of lake as those observed, they furnish a means of checking the

accuracy of the method of investigation by observing the agreement

of the elevation of water surface at the gauging stations given by the

theoretical curves, based on Kutter's formula, with the actual observed

elevation of water surface.

As an example, the mean elevation of lake from December 11 to 20,

1898, was 106.46 (see Report of Nicaragua Canal Commission, pp. 212,

219, 220), and the mean discharge of the river at that time was 26,230

second-feet. Curve 1, figure 5, was constructed for the above dis- charge, starting with elevation 106.46 at the lake, in the same way

that the similar curves of figure 3 were constructed. At the Sabalos

gauge the curve shows an elevation of water surface of 101.96. The

mean of the actual observed elevations for that time was L01.88. In the same wa}r the other curves were constructed and the comparisons

made.
REPORT OF TILE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. Ill

The agreement of the elevations given by the theoretical curves of

water surface and the observed elevations is quite as close as could be

expected, and it would seem that confidence can be placed in the accuracy of the curves of figures 8 and 4, although figure 5 does not cover

quite so large a range as figure 3, either in length of river or in the

elevation of water surface.

There will be practically no fall between Rio Sabalos and the dam,

so that figure 5 covers all that part of the river that has much influ- ence on the problem.

It is necessary, however, to make the assumption that the method of

investigation applies with equal truth to the natural river and to the

deeper canalized river. This assumption involves the general correctness of Kutter's formula, which is fairly well established.

The value which has been used for the coefficient of roughness, n, has been referred to as possibly needing some discussion. The value

of the same coefficient for such rivers as the Mississippi, as well as some

others of large mean radii, will be found given as about 0.032, although

in other similar cases, like the Missouri River, values nearly or quite

as low as 0.02 will be found. In the former of these sets of cases, however, there are some if not many instances where the slope or some

other element of Kutter's formula is of uncertain value, involving a corresponding uncertainty in that of n. The hydraulic mean radius of the San Juan, used in the preceding

computations, is generally large, running from 9 or 10 feet to more

than 50 feet. Finally, it is a river, on the whole, with not a very

rough bed, although there are stretches where thick water grasses or

other vegetation encroach upon its borders. The means taken to secure

a correct value of n have already been described in this Appendix,

and it will there be seen that the value used gives results when applied

to the natural river which are closely confirmed by actual discharge

gaugings.

It may still be thought that the value of n used, i. e., 0.024, is too

small, and that it satisfies the conditions and checks with observations on the natural river so well in the foregoing investigation, because the

sections used as typical may be smaller than the average section of the

length for which the}' were assumed to be typical.

The question now arises: Has any material error been introduced

into the results by the possible choice of too small sections for the

computations?

As an illustration, let a rectangular section be taken 1,000 feet wide

by 12 feet deep. With a slope of 0.00002 and a coefficient of roughness of 0.024, this section, by Kutter's formula, will discharge 20,750

second-feet. If this section were taken too small, and if it should be

enough broader to have the same discharge (20,750 second-feet), with

the same slope (0.00002), and a coefficient of roughness (/? =0.032),

then such a section would be 1,255 feet wide by 12 feet deep. The

problem is: What will be the error in using the smaller section with

the smaller coefficient (n= 0.024) instead of the larger section with

the larger coefficient (n— 0.032) when the depth of water is, say, 20

feet instead of 12 feet? With 20 feet depth of water in the smaller section, the sectional area

is 2,000 square feet, the hydraulic radius is 19.23, and, by Kutter's formula, if n =0.024 and the slope is 0.00002 the discharge will be

50,400 second-feet.
112 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

With 20 feet depth of water in the larger section, the sectional area

will be 25,100 square feet, the hydraulic radius will be 10.39, and, by

Kutter's formula, if n=0.032 and the slope is 0.00002 the discharge

will be 50,950 second-feet, or an error of less than 1 per cent on the

sate side. These hypothetical sections have about the same dimensions as the

sections of the upper part of the river, and from this example it would

seem that there can be no appreciable error in the final results, even

if too small sections were taken, which is not probable.

Table 2.

Number of Elevation of Sectional Wetted Hydraulic radius.

Number of Elevation of Sectional Wetted Hydrausection.

\V. S. at section. area. perimeter. section. W.S.at

section.

area. perimeter.

lic radius.

1 112 24,540 1,060 23.15 9 106 15, 790 504 21.22

1 no 22, 480 1,060 21.19 9 104 14,790 504 39. 30

1 108 20, 120 1,060 19.25 9 102 13,790 504 27. 30

1 106 18, 360

16, 300 1,060 17.31 10 1121 104 1,060 15.37 10 no 20, 790 604 31. 36

2 112 14,540 645 22. 50 10 108 19.670 596 33.00

2 110 13,280 645 20. 59 10 106 IS, r,50 588 31.50

2 108 12,02(1 645 18.64 10 104 17, 130 580 30.06

2 106 10, 760 645 16.68

14.72

10 102 16,360 576 2.s. 36

2 104 9, 400 645 12 110 37,260 1 , 341 27. 77

2 102 8, 230 645 12.75 12 108 34,700 1,314 26. 52 2 100 7.110 605 11.76 12 106 32,180 1 , 287 25. oo

3 110 12,840 780 16.46 12 104 29,700 1 , 260 23. 55

3 108 LI, 320 770 14.70 13 110 40, 350 1,470 27.42

3 106 9,800 760 12.00 13 108 37, 17ii 1. 117 25. 91

3 104 8, 280 710 11.66 13 106 34,590 1, 117 21. Id 4 112 20, 060 720 27. 80 13 104 31,710 1,400 22. 65

4 110 18,540 720 25. 75 11 112 29, ISO 848 34. 70 4 108 17,020 720 23. 62 14 110 27, 930 828 33. 75

4 106 15,500 720 21. 55 14 108 26, 370 sos 32.60

4 104 13, 980 720 19. 42 14 106 24,810 TVs 31.50

4 102 12, 620 720 17.50 14 104 23, 250 70S 30. 30

5 112 16,230 820 19.90 11 102 21 . 790 744 29. 25

5 lid 14, 610 820 17.81 15 no 51,240 1,399 36. 60

5 108 12,990 820 15. 85 15 104 43. 260 1,360 31.80

5 106 11 370 820 L3.86 16 110 10,560 1,083 37.40

5 KH 9, 750 820 1 1 . SO 16 104 34,380 1 , 032 33.30

5 102 8,650 815 10. 62 17 110 14,880 779 :>7.50 5 100 7,050 811 8. 70 17 104 10,260 752 53. 60

6 llii 1.5,370 801 19.20 18 112 32,980 090 17. 10 6 108 L3.830 794 17.41 is 110 31,720 688 46.48

6 106 12, 290 787 15.61 18 108 30, 160 670 45.50

6 104 10, 750 780 13.79 is 106 29, lso 667 11.35

7 112 110

18

is

101 10227, 930 20.750

011 630

43. 36 19,380 710 26. 20 12. 15

7 L08 L7.960 736 24.41 19 no 82,610 630 51.75

7 106 16.540 732 22.55 19 104 89,260 600 48. 7^

7 nil 15.120 728 20.76 20 no 17.310 925 51. 16 7 102 1 1. 100 721 19. 15 20 101 42, 150 880 17. 85 8 110 27,560 943 20.71 21 112 9, 106 316 29. SO

8 108 25,730 93

27. 70 21 110 8,840 310 28. 66

8 106 2:;, 0211 925 25. 68 21 108 8, 282 304 27. 25 8 llll 22,130 916 23. 75 21 106 7. 732 298 25.91

9 112 18,880 504 37, in 21 104 7. 190 292 21.03

9 lid 17, MO 104 21 102 6,656 286 23. 26

9 1II.S 16,800 604 . 33.30 Table 3.

3ei tion

null'.- ber.

tion W.S.at

section.

Dis- charge,

cubic teel per Bec- ond.

Velocity,

feel per second.

Slope

ii .024.

Section number.Elevation W.S.al

section.

i'i- charge, cubic feel per sec- ond.

Velocity,

feel per second.

Slope n = .021.

1 112 10, 1.6030 0. 00000325 l 110 .5II.IIOU 2. 22 1

.0000108

50,0(11) 2.0376 .OOOOOOs 60, 2.6690 .00110192 60,000 2.4400 . 000012 70.000 :;. 1137 .0000305 70,000 2. 8526 .0000195 l ins 20,000 .9795 .00 L66

1 110 20.HII0 . 8899 .1 Oil 30,000 1. 1092 IK 0103, 30,000 1.8346 0276 40, 000 1.9580 . 0000092

in. iioo 1.7792 .0000055 50,000 2. 1 ISO .0000185
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 113

T \ i; lie :!---( 'ontinued.

Section number.

Elevation W.S.at

section

Dis- charge, cubic tee per sordini.

Velocity

feel per

a ml.

Slope 11— (121.

Sec Eleva

lion lion

imiii- \V. S. ol ber. section

charge Velocity, cubic feel feel per

per so second,

olid.

Slopr n=.024.

1 108 60, 2.9382 0.000802 5 108 10, 000 3.0794 0.000049

70,000 3.4280 .0000465 5 106 !0, 1.7 5! in .0000151

l 106 20,000 l.iiv.il .01100027 30,000 2.6385 .0000125

30,000 1.6340 .0000072 hi, 3.5178 .0000865

40, 000 2.1786 .0000168 5 mi 20,000 2. 0514 .0001 31 50,000 2.7234 .0000818 30,000 3. 0770 .OOOOS

mi. onn 3.2680 . 000049 10. (100 1. 1026 . 00015 I 70,000 3.8128 . 000074 5 102 20,000 2. 3122 .000010

l KM 20,000 1 . 2270 .0000044 30,1 :;. ins:; .000125

L.8405 .000014 III. 000 1.6212 .0002:15

to, 000 2. 1510 . 0000292 5 100 20, 000 2. 8370 .00011

50, 000 3.0675 . 000051 30,000 1.2.551 . 000257

60, 000 3.6810 . 000083 10,000 5.6737 . 00045

Tll.OOO 1.2945 .000118 7 112 10,000 1 . 9230 .00.10031; 2 111' 20, 000 1.3756 .0000026 50,000 2. 1040 .01 101 I06S 30, 000 2. 0633 . 0000074 60, 000 2.8846 .000013

40, 000 2.7510 . 0000185 70, 000 3.3652 .000021

2 110 20, 000 1.506)1 . 00000308 7 110 20, 000 L.0526 . 000001

30,000 2.2501 . 00000875 30, 000 1 . 5788 . 0000026

10,000 3.0121 . 0000235 40, 000 2. 1050 .0000053

50, 000 3. 7650 .0000135 50, 000 2. 6314 . 0000108

2 L08 20,000 1. 6639 . 0000063 60, 000 1.1577 || N 11 12 30,000 2. 4957 . 0000215 70, 000 3.6840 . 0000318

to.ooo 3. 3277 . 0000158 7 108 20,000 1.1136 .0000011 50,000 4. 1596 .0000812 30,000 1.6703 .0000035

2 106 20, 000 1. 8587 .0000113 40,000 2.2271 . 0000066

30,000 2. 7880 . 000035 50,000 2.7839 . 000016

40, 000 3.7174 . 0000725 60, 000 3. 340S .0000270

50, 000 4.6468 . 000125 70,000 3. 8975 . 0000425

2 KM 20, 000 2. 1075 . 000022 7 106 20, 000 1.2092 .0100010.5

30, 000 3. 1612 . 000065 30, 000 1. 813S .001,00.5 40, 000 4.2148 . 000122 40, 000 2.4184 10122 50,000 5.2688 .0002 50, 000 3.0230 .00002.5 1 102 20, 000 2. 1302 .0000IO5 60, 000 3. 6277 -.000011

30, 000 3.6452 . 0001075 70, 000 1. 2320 .0000015

40, 000 1.8602 .000225 7 101 20, 000 1.3227 .0000027

2 100 20, 000 2. 8128 . 000067 30, 000 1. 9840 .0000071

30, 000 4.2192 .0001660 40, 000 2.6454 .000017(1

40, 000 5. 6255 . 00031 50, 000 3.3067 .0000315

4 112 40, 000 1.9940 . 00000399 60,000 3.9681 . 0000555

50, 000 2. 1022 . 0000077 70, 000 1.6205 .0000825

60, 000 2.0010 . 0000149 7 102 20, 000 1.4185 .0000038

70,000 :;. isoo .000024 30, 000 2.1276 . 0000125

4 110 20, 000 1.0787 .000001 is 40,000 2.8368

30, 001) 1.6181 . 0000025 50.000 3.5460 .0000502

40, 000 2. 1575 . 000006 00, 000 1.2555 . 000081

50. 000 2.6968 .0000120 70, 000 1.0613 .0001175

60, 000 3. 2362 .0000227 i 9 112 40, 00() 2. 11S6 . 000002

70, 000 3. 7750 .0000359 50, 000 2.6482 . 0000013

4 108 20, 000 1. 1751 .0000016 60.000 :;. 1780 . 000008

30, 000 1.7025 .00000404 70, 000 : 1.7075 .0000142

40, 000 2. 3501 .00000985 9 110 •JO. 000 1.1210 . 00000062

50, 000 2.9376 .0000204 30, 000 1 . 6S16 .00000156

60, 000 3.5251 . 000035 40, 000 2. 2420 . 00000325

70, 000 4. 1130 . 0000525 50, 000 2.S025 . 0000061

4 10G 20,000 1.2903 . 0000025 60, 000 3. 3630 . 0000118

30, 000 1.0350 . 00000675 70, 000 3.9235 . 0000196

40, 000 2. 5806 . 000017 9 108 20, 000 1.1005 .00000070 50,000 3.2258 . 0000327 30, 000 1.7860 . 000002

60, 000 3.8710 I . 0000526 10.000 2.3810 . 0000041

70, 000 1.510,0 . 000070 50, 000 2. 9760 . 0000087

4 104 20, 000 1.4306 . 0000039 110,000 3.5715 . 00001 6.s 30, 000 2. 1 160 .0000125 70,000 4.1665 . 0000275

40,000 2.8612 .000020 9 106 20, 000 L. 2667 .O0000107

50, 000 3.5766 ..1 30, 000 1.0000 . 00000277

60, 000 1.2020 .0000? 10,000 2. 5330 . 00000605

70, 000 5.0071 .000119 50.000 ::. moo .000013

4 102 20, 000 1 . 5.S is . 0000063 60,000 3. 8000 .0000212 30,000 2. 377 .0000212 70, 000 1. 1330 .0000: is 40, 000 . 000045 9 104 20, 000 1 . 3522 . 00000142

50, 000 3.9618 .0(10070 30, 000 2. 0285 . 00000375

5 112 4(1,000 2, 1644 .0000175 40, 000 2.7010 . 0000089

50,000 1.0806 .000033 50, 000 3.3806 . 000019

00.1. 3.6970 : .0000..:; 60, 000 4.0570 . 0000385

70, 000 4.3130 1 .0001 IS 70, 000 4. 7330 .0000520

5 111) 20, 000 1.4511 .0000048 9 102 20,000 1. 1502 . 00000195

30, 000 2.1767 .000016 30,000 2. 1756 . 0000053

40, 000 2. 9021 .000035:: 40, 000 '.'.0000 .00001 1 5 108 , 20, 000 1.5396 . 0000074 50. 1 3. 6258 .0000276

30, 000 2. 3095 . 000024 60,000 4.2511 . 0000475

3. Do a. 54. r t 2 -S
114 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table 3 —Continued.

Section number.

Elevation W. S. at

section.

Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond.

Velocity,

feet per

second. Slope

n=.024.

Section number.

Elevation W. S. at

section.

Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond.

Velocity,

feet per

second. Slope

n=.024.

9 102 70, 000 5. 0762 0. 000072 14 104 70,000 3. 0108 0. 000012

10 112 40, 000 1. 8256 . 00000185 14 102 20, 000 .9179 . 0000005

50, 000 2. 2820 . 00000325 30, 000 1. 3768 . 000001 15 60,000 2. 7385 . 0000055 40, 000 1.8357 .1111011113 70, 000 3. 1950 . 0000092 50, 000 2. 2946 . 0000052

10 110 20,000 .9620 . 00000046 60, 000 2. 7536 . 0000095

SO, 000 1.4429 . 00000125 70,000 3. 2125 . 0000168 40,000 1. 9239 . 0000023 18 110 20, 000 . 6305 . 00000011 50,000 2.4050 . 000004 30, 000 .9458 . 0000002

60, 000 2. 8860 .0000072 40, 000 1. 2609 . 00000039

70, 000 3. 3670 . 0000125 50, 000 1. 5762 . 00000075

10 108 20, 000 1.0168 . 0000006 60, 000 1.8915 . 0000011

30, 000 1. 5252 . 00000145 70, 000 2. 2067 . 0000016

40, 000 2. 0335 . 00000295 18 108 20, 000 . 6566 .00000012

50, 000 2. 5420 . 00000535 30, 000 . 9849 . 00000025

60, 000 3. 0504 . 0000095 40, 000 1.3132 . 0000005

70, 000 3. 5586 . 0000172 50, 000 1.6415 . 0000009

10 106 20, 000 1. 4782 . 00000074 60, 000 1.9698 . 0000014

30, 000 1.6173 . 00000178 70, 000 2. 2981 . 0000019

40, 000 2. 1563 . 0000037 18 106 20, 000 .6854 .00000011

50, 000 2. 6955 . 00000725 30, 000 1.0281 . 0000002S

60, 000 3. 2347 . 000014 40, 000 1. 3707 . 00000055

70, 000 3. 7737 . 000023 50, 000 1.7134 . 000001

10 104 20, 000 1.1175 . 0000009 60, 000 2. 0562 .0000015

30, 000 1. 7212 . 00000245 70, 000 2. 3988 . 0000025

40,000 2. 2949 . 00000492 18 104 20, 000 .7161 .000000 IS 10 104 50,000 2.8686 . 00001 30, 000 1. 0741 . 00000038

60, 000 3. 4424 . 000019 40, 000 1. 4321 . 00000065

70, 000 4.0160 . 0000308 50, 000 1. 7902 .00000102

10 102 20, 000 1.2225 . 00000122 60, 000 2. 1482 . 0000016

30,000 1.8336 . 0000032 70,000 2. 5061 . 0000026

40,000 2.4449 . 000007 18 102 20, 000 .7477 . 0000002

50, 000 3. 0561 . 000015 30, 000 1. 1217 .00000045

60, 000 3. 6675 . 0000262 40, 000 1. 4953 . 0000007S

70, 000 4.2786 . 0000418 50, 000 1.8692 .0000014

14 112 40, 000 1. 3568 . 000001 60,000 2. 2431 . 000002

50, 000 1. 6960 . 0000016 70, 000 2. 6170 . 0000032

60. 000 2. 0352 . 0000025 21 112 20,000 2.1266 . 000004

70, 000 2. 3745 . 00000375 30, 000 3. 1895 . 000015

14 110 20, 000 .7161 . 00000023 40, 000 4. 2525 . 0000375

30, 000 1.0741 . 0000006 50, 000 5.3160 . 000072

40, 000 1.4321 . 00000122 21 110 20, 000 2. 2625 . 00000525

50, 000 1. 7902 .00000198 30, 000 3. 3937 . 0000202

60,000 2. 1482 . 00000322 40, 000 4.6248 .0000480

70, 000 2. 5061 . 00000 195 50, 000 5. 6560 .OOOOS'.I 14 108 20, 000 . 7585 . 0000002S 21 ins 20, 000 2. H60 . 000007

30, 000 1.1376 .00000075 30, 000 3. 6224 . 000028

40, 000 1.5168 .00000119 40, 000 4.8295 .ooooi;;. 50, 000 1.8961 . 0000025 50, 000 6.0370 .000113.5

60, 000 2. 2764 . 0000038 21 lor, 20, 000 2. 5868 .0000105

70, 000 2. 6545 . 00000635 30, 000 3. SS00 . 0000378

14 106 20, 000 .8062 . 00000039 40, 000 5. 1731 ,000086 30,000 1.2092 . 0000009

50, 000 6, 1670 . 0001 135 10,000 1.6122 ,0000017s 21 104 20, 000 2. 78 IS .0000158

50, 000 2.0152 . 0000032 30, 000 4.1725 .0000515

60, 000 2.4184 . 00000508 40,000 5.5631 . 000106s

70,000 2.4214 .000O0S5 50,000 6.9640 . 0001SJJ

14 L04 20,000 .8603 .000000 IS 21 102 'JO, 000 3.0049 . 0000225

:;o,ooo 1.2903 . 0000012 30, 000 4.5074 . 0000686

40, 000 1.7201 .0000028 lo.ooo 6.0094 .000112 50,000 2. 1606 . 0000039 50,000 7. 5120 . 0002325

60,000 2. 5806 1007

Table 4.

Number of sec

t ion.

Elevation of W.S.at

section.

Sectional

area. Wetted

perim

eter.

Hydraulic ra- dius.

Number of

sec Hon,

Elevation of W.S.at

section.

Sectional

area. Wetted

perimeter,

Hydraulic ra- dius.

18.87

17.95 16.10

14.20 12.36

la

la

l a

1 a la

107

106

104

102 100

13,060

12, 040 10,000

7, 960

5, 720

1,060

1,000

1,060 1,032 800

12.30

11.35

9. 1

7.73

7. 15

•la

•la 4a

'a

•la

107

106

101 102 100

18,250 12,680 11,230

9,880 8,630

700

700

700

696 690
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table 5.

115

Number of

sec- tion.

Elevation W.S.at

section.

Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond.

Velocity,

feet per

second.

Slope » = .024.

Number of

section.

t,

Elevali.in W.S.at

si'd lull.

Dis- charge, cubic feet per sec- ond.

Velocity,

feet per

second. Slope

n=.024.

la 107 10,000 0.765 0.0000025 107 30,000 2.267 0. 0000158

20,000 1.630 . 000014 la 106 10, 000 . 795 . 00000125

30,000 2. 295 .000037 20, 000 1.590 . 00000605

la lOti 10,000 .830 .0000035 30, 000 2. 385 .00002 20,000 1.661 . 00002 40, 000 3. 020 . 000038

30,000 2.490 . 0000525 la lui 10, 000 . 890 . 00000195

40, 000 3. 320 . 000138 20, 000 1.770 . 0000108

la 101 10, 000 1.000 . 0000082 30, 000 2. 670 . 000034

20, 000 2.000 . 0000425 40, 000 3.590 . 000071

30, 000 3.000 .00011 4a 102 10, 000 1.010 . 0000034

10,000 4.000 . 000225 20, 000 2.030 . 000021

la 102 10,000 1.256 .000024 30,000 3.030 0000575

20, 000 2.513 . 000125 40, 000 4.050 . 0001175

30,000 3.770 . 000237 'a 100 10, 000 1.172 . 0000065

la 100 10,000 1.750 . 000052 20, 000 2.315 . 000039

20, 000 3.500 . 0002225 30, 000 3.520 . 00014

la 107 10, 000

20, 000

.756

1.511

. 000001

. 00000485

APPENDIX H. FIG. 1

Lake Nicaragua

S Doc^Y;*/'2 57 1



APPENDIX H, F1G.3

Distance in feet from Lake

S Doc^^/^57 1

APPENDIX H, FIG. 4

S Doo^»a.57 1

APPENDIX H, FIG. 5

1 -

106

K 105

S

1

^104

*§

£103

e

ft

101

100

hw._#»* —3s

>~y ^fe " ^^^S^?7^"L- ^fe?> ^L/i> ^£» ^Nc

-^J^ s> s*.

..... T3< 2toSn ^»». C*t>z* " -s ~*%&

^o»

^*», ^t

*^>

j ^O"- , Yx

S»_JS_

*_*"•«•. ^>p ^s^ "*-».. ^sT*"5 ~%Q J —-v

N^ '^tV^s*""" »%^ » JV^

^^*^Vv vN»£? *T&Ci rPV"- \& *^t!>* ^^ ^^v—

X

1 —:5*&i .. .. ^5 S£> "*-^*»«

•"., ^< V N \ ?\ *\

Si*^*^- ^^^^ ** ^^*- ^£sJ ^§^%_

*^*^i__ "v. ^Lu* ^o> \ "^5*i"

'*Z*^s, ~-~«_ ^4££ %L s ^S Sy \ fefe- "

*" ^"^^J ^<Sr$ ^k ", «.J"^^ ^Jr*y ~~

*•• "^^

* 3r '"is^l/ S/r- v -» \J1 *" * » .. _" <&J& i> ^

\ "^V

I s* ^ >^ x ^5«^9 ""*•« ~"*1s&>_ "*V^W - <r> * <S^P, 1 _ ,^v. ^S* i

% v N?> "•V^ <9 v ^^r^>^ »,

V N. ~ ^L*?- - ^ *^N&

^V*j "^^^c/ 7<??- fc. N

%

* % ^r.

N ^C <y. /VV.'^> "> N^X^

V ^ - N

V »^v V\ *•*<_ * Wi v Ot> X.^. <*3 >

*

% ^>Gi

\ ^ "^^

s ^5 tn N \ X^- y^so ^ °liv

*"« *S '*«

kg * % ~Gpr1M £

"^^ rh

£*7/?y OT Ubserx ecieLevt icons DecMt ?20,f89 9 <rf iSa vdLoLS ^3 ""•>_ w

££* Sapfflt oZO. i •> e •«. ^^* sx ?:

"* ->^ <V PI J» i Aujj 1\ 3 , i£S 9Isla Orarut &

g

%

» . o

1^

G4~ it 11 i < JllLv 11 to2QJfiS> 8 at? S» rvfi/ns to "*j!L - F»G 4

rS > s tg s vj 1 V. -, ' 50,000 i6o,oo6 Distance irh feet from Lake

S Doc^V^57 l

APPENDIX H, FIG. 6

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar April Map June July Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar April May

J

S Doc/4 oi 1

Appendix T.

REPORT OF HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS IN NICARAGUA

MADE FOR THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

By Arthur P. Davis, Chief Sydrographer.

CONTENTS.

Page. Letter of transmittal 118 Stream measurements 119

Pacific slope - 120 Grande River 120 Tola River 120 Lake Nicaragua 124 Viejo River - 125 Nueva River 126 Quebrada Honda 126

Station at Tipitapa 127

Station at Fort San Carlos 133

Frio River 136 Dry season inflow 136 San Juan River 140

Station above Savalos 142

Station at Castillo 144

Tributaries of San Juan above Boca San Carlos 147 Ochoa Station on San Juan River 153 Machado River 163 San Francisco River 164 Sarapiqui River 164 San Juanillo River 166 Miscellaneous tributaries to San Juan River 168 Indio River 171 Negro branch 171

Rainfall 172 Daily rainfall on Lake Nicaragua r 174 Daily rainfall at Ochoa 180 Daily rainfall at Greytown 181 Monthly rainfall at all stations 182 Evaporation 186 Observations on evaporation pans 186 Dry season evaporation from Lake Nicaragua 186 Control of Lake Nicaragua 187 Season of maximum supply 191 Season of minimum supply 192 Temperature and relative humidity 195 Sediment 197 Wind movement 200

117
118 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. 1. Momotombo from the west.

2. San Juan River above Toro Rapids.

3. Elevation of Lake Nicaragua.

4. Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water bad been held.

5. Mica Island, San Juan River.

6. Sediment trap.

7. Gauging San Juan River at Ochoa.

8. Fluctuations of San Juan and San Carlos rivers.

9. Hill on left bank of San Juan River.

10. Head of San Juanillo, on San Juan River.

11. Castrilo Rapids.

12. Surf at Greytown.

13. Monthly rainfall at Masaya and Granada.

14. Comparative rainfall at Greytown, Fort San Carlos, and Granada.

15. Comparative rainfall at all stations.

16. Lowering sediment trap on Sarapiqui.

17. Diagram of wharf at Granada.

18. Rise of lake, with no outflow or evaporation, compared with rainfall at Granada.

19. Rise of lake, with no outflow or evaporation, compared with rainfall at Masaya.

20. Discharge capacity of canalized San Juan River.

21. Estimated inflow to lake during 1897.

22. Fluctuation of lake during driest and wettest years.

Washington, D. C, March 25, 1901.

Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the hydrography of the Nicaragua Canal route. It includes a full account of

the work prosecuted by me under your authority, and also the more

important of the results of the hydraulic investigations made for the

Nicaragua Canal Commission.

During a portion of the time covered by these investigations I was

absent from Nicaragua on duties requiring my presence in Panama,

Washington, and Paris. At such times the work was in the immediate charge of Mr. H. C. Hurd, until he was required for office work in Washington in November, 1900, since which date Mr. Fred Davis has

had charge of fieldwork in Nicaragua. Acknowledgments are due to these gentlemen for their care and fidelity in the discharge of their

duties.

Yours, with respect, Arthur P. Davis,

Chief /Iydi < ><//•( ipher.

Rear-Admiral J. G. Walker,

President 1*1 hrm'<m Canal Commission.

HYDROGRAPHY OF NICARAGUA CANAL ROUTE.

The hydrographic observations of the Isthmian Canal Commission

consisted in the main of a continuation of those inaugurated by the

Nicaragua Canal Commission, some extension of rainfall observations

in the basin tributary to Lake Nicaragua being the principal difference.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 119

The information required relates to the solution of four principal

problems.

First. Water supply for the use of the canal and to replace loss by

leakage and evaporation.

Second. The quantity of rainfall and volume of streams considered

as obstacles to construction.

Third. The volume and habit of excessive floods with reference to

their permanent control and discharge without injury to the canal or

other property.

Fourth. The evaporation from Lake Nicaragua, this being thepiincipal draft upon the water supply.

The desired information therefore required an investigation of the

discharge of all streams of importance which it was proposed to control during construction or for which it was necessary to provide

diversion channels or spillways; and measurements of rain fall at points

as widely distributed as possible throughout the basin of Lake Nicaragua, San Juan River, and the adjacent region.

It also required an approximate determination of the rate of evaporation on Lake Nicaragua and some investigation of the sediment

carried by the larger rivers. STREAM MEASUREMENTS.

The general method used in observing the regimen and discharge of

streams is substantially as follows:

A point is selected as near as may be to the location at which knowledge is desired, having reference to the condition of the stream itself,

the aim being to secure high permanent banks on both sides of the

river, a straight channel as uniform in depth and velocity as may be,

and avoiding any location which is a short distance above an important

tributary, and which for this reason might be affected in the matter of

backwater by floods in that tributary. A gauge is placed in the stream

near one bank, graduated to feet and tenths, and so situated, if possible, as to be read conveniently from the shore. It is usually possible

to fasten such a gauge in deep water to the trunk of an overhanging

tree and in a vertical position. The height of water indicated by this

gauge is read and recorded usually twice every day and the mean of

the two readings taken as the mean gauge height for that date. At

various intervals, depending upon the facilities available and the change

of gauge height, measurements of discharge are made with a current

meter. Soundings are taken at known distances from an assumed

initial point and the velocity measured by submerging an electric

current meter at six-tenths of the measured depth and holding it in that

position for a length of time sufficient to make a good determination of

the velocity at that point, usually one hundred seconds or more. This

operation is repeated at short intervals for the entire width of the

stream, and from these observations the discharge in cubic feet per

second is computed for each section by multiplying the depth, width,

and measured velocity together. The discharge of the several sections

being added together form a result for the discharge of the entire stream. At the beginning and end of the gauging a careful note is made of the stage of the water indicated on the river gauge, and the mean of those two observations is taken as the mean gauge height at
120 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the time of observation. It is the effort to have such observations well

distributed with reference to the height of water in the river in order

to show the relation of the indications of the gauge rod to the actual

discharge of the stream. This relation is found to be reasonably

definite and uniform for most of the streams, and by plotting the gauge

heights as ordinates and the discharge results as abscissas their general

relation is established and a curve is drawn, satisfying as nearly as possible all the observations made. Where no such relation could be

established the measurements only are published.

PACIFIC SLOPE.

All streams with which the canal is concerned flow eventually into

the Atlantic, except the Grande and its tributaries. This stream rises

in the hills of the continental divide, and empties into the Pacific- Ocean at Brito. The canal line follows its valley from the deep divide

cut to the sea. The principal tributary is the Tola River, which

enters from the north and which formerly, in common with the other

headwaters of the Grande, flowed into Lake Nicaragua. The reces- sion of the continental divide toward the lake turned them toward the

Pacific, and the proposed canal cut through the divide is the site of

the former stream bed of this drainage.

GRANDE AND TOLA RIVERS AT THEIR JUNCTION.

A gauge was kept on the Grande River a short distance below the

junction of the Tola, and the latter river was observed about a mile

above its mouth.

During a portion of the dry season the Grande is entirely diw above

the mouth of the Tola, and the waters of the latter are ponded for some

distance up the Grande.

A perceptible quantity of the water is lost by evaporation and seep- age from this pond, so that for a time the discharge of the Tola at the

station was slightly greater than that of the Grande below the mouth

of the Tola.

The largest Hood yet observed at this station occurred on the 22d

day of October, 1900, when 5,450 cubic feet per second was flowing in the Grande below the Tola.

Daily gauge In ight of Gram 11 Itim- at Tula Gauge Slulion j<>r 1899.

Day.

1

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.55

1 . 52

I. •! 1.5] 1.64

1 . 7'.) L.59

1.63

L. 54

1 ,.

1 . 52

1.6] 1.50

1 . 52

1.68

1.45

l..r>0 1.50 1.50

I. 16

1 . 19 1.52

1 . 83

1 . 59

l . :. i

l . 52

l . :. I L.55 1.76

L. 63

1.70

2. 42

2. 29

2. 2]

2. 16

•_>. 15

L3

2. i;: 2. in

2. 20

2. Ill

•J. IIS 2.08 2.06

2. 06

.Mil

2.46

2.34 2.30

2. 25

2. 14

2. 14 2.11

2. 11

2. 10

•J. IIS 2.11 2.08

'J. OS

•J. OS 2.07

2, oi

17 . 1.60

1 . 52

1 . .r

).S

1 . .r>2

1 . 52

1.51

1.50

1 . 53

I 60

1 . 88 L.65

1.57

1 . 56

2. 1 1 2.06

1.51

1 . 52

1.64

1 . 55

L.68

1.51 1.50

L.61 L.5]

1 . 52 1.49

1.50

1.47

1.46

•J. OS 1.69 1.55 1.60

1.60

1.86

i.'.u

197

2. 70

1.60

7. 65 4.42

3.38

2. 77 2.60

2. 02

2.0-2 2.02

2.01 2.00

2. OH

2.01

2. 02 2.03 2.02

2.00

2. 10 8.10 3.30

2.02

2.01 2.00

2.00

1 . 07

1 . 96

1 . 99

1 . 99

1 . 98

1 . 07 1.97

1.95

1 . 95

1.95

1.94

2 is..

;; 19 A... 20...

21 6 22

28

9

24. 25..

10... 26..

11... 27 .-... 12... 28..

13 1.60

L. 51

1 . 52

L.50

'.".I 11 30

15 1G

11.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daih/ (/inn/,' bright iif llritnilf Hirer at Tola Gauge Station for 1900.

121

Day. .Inn. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Bept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

l 1.96 1.95

1.95 1.93

1 . 93 1.93 1.93

1 . 92 1.92

1.92 1.92

1.92

1.95

1.94 1.91 1.93 1.92

1.92

1.91 1.89

1.89

1.88

1.88

1.87

1.87 1.87

1.87

1.87

1.87

1.87

1.87

1.86

1.86

1.S6 1.85

1.84

l.si l.si

1 . 82

L. 82

1.81

1.81 1.80

l.si 1.80

1.78 1.78

1.79 1.78

1.78

1.76 1.75

1.75

1.74 1.73

1.73

1.72 1.72

1.71

1.71 1.71

1.71

1.71 1.71 1.71

1.71 1.70 1.70

1.70

1.70

1.70 1.70

1.70

1.70 1.70

1.70 1.70

1.70

1.70 1.69

1.68

1.68

1.67

1.67

1.67 1.66

1.65

1.65

1.64 1.63

1.62 1.62

1.62 1.62

1.62

1.62 1.62 1.62

1 . 62

1.62 1.62

1.62

1.61

1.61 1.61 1.60

1.60 1.60

1.60

1.59

1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58 1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58

1.58 1.58

1.58

1.57

1.57

1.56

1.56 1.56

1 . 55 1.54 1.54

1.67

1.63

1.77

1.67

1 . 68

1.63 2.23

1.87 3.02 1.89

1.79

2. 04 2.12

2.04

2.15

1.95

1.98

1.90 2.59

1 . 91

1 . 79 1.75 1.92

1 . Si 2.09 4.32

3.61

2. 62

2. 5

2.34 2.09

2.05

2.14

2. 01

2.112

2. 13

2.0(1 1.96

2. 05

2.51 2.15

2.12

2.63

2.07 2.04

2.01 2.49

2.13

2.47

2.65

2. 80

2. 99

2.51

2. 61 4.87

2. 5s

2. 15

2. 16

;;. 75 4.S4

:;. 95

3. 13

2. 76

2. 63 2.60

2. 12

2. 49

2. i:: 2.39

2.34

2.51

2. 15 2.38

2.35

2.31 2.29 2.30

2.29

2.27

2.33

2.27

2.2^

2. 22 2.19

2. IS

2. IS 2.16

2. 13

2. 1 1 2. 12

2. 10

2.11

2. 14 2.14

2.12 2.10

2.07 2.05

2.05

2.11 2.10

2. 12 2.11 2.15

2.12

2.14 2.13

2.09

2.08

2.07 2.08

2.09

2. 05

2.U1 2.08

2. 16 2.11 4.87

3. 87 3.07

2. S3 2.67

2. 58

2. 51

2. 15 2.39

2. SO 3.32

2.81

1.1)5 3.28

3.02

3. 52 4.52

4.35

3.47

3.77 3.24

3.09 5.45

6.00

6.00 4.20

1. 35 L30

4. 05 5.07

3. 95

3. ss 5.67 3.80

3.77 3.74 3.62

3.63

3.47 3.50

3.55

3.50

3.65

4.64 8.00

8.90

7.15 6.12

5.90

4.S9

4.64 4.32

4.20

3.99

3.81

3.76

3. 67

;; 60

3. 57 3.52

3.46 3.37 3.34

3.32

3.30

3.27' 3.21 3.19

3.17

3.13

3.13

3.11

3.08 3.08

3.07

3.07 3.06

3.04 3.03

3.01

2. 99 2.96

2.94

2.94 2.94

2.93

2. 91 2.90

2.88

2.85'

2. 84

2. 82 2.80

2 7S

2. 77 2.75

2. 75 2.75

2. 72 2^70

2. 70

2. 70 2.69 2.68

2. 68 2.67

2.66

2.64 2.63

2.60

2.59

2.58

2. 57 2.57

2.54 2.53

2

4

6

89

10

11

1213

14

151617

18

1920

2122

23

2425

26

2728

29

30

31

Rating table for Grande River at Tola Gauge Station.

[This table is applicable only from August 13, to December 31, 1899, and May 19, 1900, to March 29, 1901.] Gauge

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge.

Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 1.3 3.3 212 5.3 781 7.3 1,484

1.4 4 3.4 236 5.4 816 7.4 1,519

1.5 7 3.5 260 5.5 851 7.5 1,554 1.6 11 3.6 284 5.6 886 7. 6 1,589

1.7 14 3.7 308 5.7 921 7.7 1,624

1.8 18 3.8 332 5.8 956 7.S 1,659

1.9 21 3.9 356 5.9 991 7.9 1,694

2.0 25 4.0 380 6.0 1,027 8.0 1,730

2.1 34 4.1 409 6.1 1,062 8.1 1,764

2.2 42 4.2 438 6.2 1,097 S.2 1,800

2.3 51 4.3 467 6.3 1,132 8.3 1,835

2.4 60 4.4 496 6.4 1,167 8.4 1,870 2.5 73 4.5 524 6.5 1,202 8.5 1,905

2.6 87 4.6 553 6.6 1,238 8.6 1,941

2.7 100 4.7 582 6.7 1,273 8.7 1,976 2.8 118 4.8 611 6.8 1,308 8.8 2,011 2.9 136 4.9 640 6.9 1,343 8.9 2,046

3.0 155 5.0 675 7.0 1,378 9.0 2,081

3.1 173 5.1 710 7.1 1,413 9.1 2,116

3.2 191 5.2 745 7.2 1,448 9.2 2,151

Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River below month oftJie Tola, 1898.

Discharge.

Total. Months.

Discbarge. Months.

Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean. Maxi- mum.Mini- mum.

j Total. Mean.

January (6-31). February

Sec.feet. 75

55

40

3585

1,990 2,030

Sec.feet. 60

4125

17171755

Sir. fnt. 69

19 3526

28 110

121

Acre-feet. 3,340 2,720

2,150

1. 190 1,720

6, 550 7,440

August

September

October November

December

Total

Si eject.

'115

2, 975 2,065

1,028 190

Sec.feet. 45

55 260

190

97

Secjeet. A eve-feet. 67 4, 120 253 15,050 596 36,650 282 16,780 May 130 7,990 July . , 106, 000
122 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Grande River at Tola gauge station.

Month.

1899. August 13-31.. September

October November

December

Total

1900. January

February March

Discharge. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum.

See.feet. 37

18

2,081 385

Sec.feet.7

65

26

19

2,081

Mean.

Sec.feet, 118

113

1432

Total.

Acre-feet. 401 496

6,954 2,646

1,954

12, 451

762

482

343

Month.

1900. April May

June

July , August

September

October November

December The year .

Discharge. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum.

Sec.feet. Sec.feet.2

21648

2926 260

144

69

5 216 i 953

1,272

5'.; 5,400

5, 450

382

142

5, 450

Sir. fat.3

19

63 12336 238

603

197

105

119

Total.

Acrt -frit. 182

1,196 3,745

7,569

2,225

14, 166

37, 008

11,746 6,434 85,918

Daily gauge height of Tola, River, 1 mile above its mouth, for 1899.

Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 2.06 2.05 2.04

2.04

2.06

2.15

2.09 2.05

2.03 2.03

2.03

2.03

2.03 2.02

2.04 2.05

1.98 2.01 2.00

2.01 1.99

2.02

2.04 2.23

2.09

2.02

2.02

2.03

2.04

2.03

2.03

2.11

2.40 2.38

2.32

2.28

2.26

2.26

2.26

2.25

2.29

2.31

2.21 2.20

2.19

2.18

2.17 2.13

2.41 2.34

2.28

2.26 2.22

2.20

2.17 2.16

2.15

2.14

2.16

2.14 2.15

2.14

2.13

2.13

17 2.00

2.02 2.02 2.00

2.02 2.00

2.00

2.01 2.06

2.14

2.08

2.06 2.04

1.98

1.64

2.02

2.03

2.07 2.04

2.03 2.02

2. 02 2.00

2.01

2.03 2.00

2.01 2.00

1.99

2.12

2.03 2.00

2.03

2.02 2.15

2.21 2.18

2.23

2.97 5.32 4.70

3.30

2.75

2.50

2.11 2.10

2.10

2.11 2.16

2.14 2.16

2.15

2.16

2.15

2. 21 2.26

2. 82 2.97

2.10

2.08

2.07

2.07 2.05

2.04

2. 08

2.08

2.07

2.07

2. 07 2.07

2.06 2.05

2.05

2 18

3 .. 19 4 20

6... 21

6.. 22

7... 23

8 24*. 9... 25

10 I 26

11 27

12... 28.....

13. 2.00 2.02

2.05

2.02

29

14 30

15. 31 16

Daily gauge height of Tola, River, 1 mile above its mouth, for 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 2.04

2.04

2.04 2.04

2.03

2.03

2. 02

2. 02 2.02

2.01

2.01

2.01 2.03

2.03

2.1)2 2.03

2.01 2.01 2.01 2.00

1.99

1 . 98 1.98

1 . 98

1.98 1.98

1.97

1.97 1.97

1.97

1.97

1.96

1.96

1.95 1.95

1.94

1.93 1.93 1.91

1.91

1.91

1.91

1.91 1.91

1.91 1.91 1.90

1.90

l.'.m 1.90

1 . 90 1.90

l.'.KI 1.90

1.90 1.89 1.89

1 . 89 1.89

1 89 1.80

1.80

1.80

1.80

1.80

1.80 1.80

1.80

1.80 1.79

1.79 1.79

1.79

1.79 1.79

1.78

1.78

1.78 1.78

1.77

1.77

1.77

1.77 1.77

1.77 1.77

1.77 1.76

1.76 1.76

1.76

1.76

1.76 1.76

1.75 1.75

1.74 1.74 1.74

1.74

1.74 1.73

1.82

1.82 1.96

1 . S3

1.84

1.80

2. 02 1.93 2.00

1.83

1.81 2.67 2.18

1.99

1.96

1 . 92

1.91 1.89

1.95

1.84 1.86

1.83

2. 02 1.95 2.20

2.19

3.18 2.39

2.17

2. 21 2.10 2.05

2. 12 2.02

2.00

2.07

2.02

1.99

2.11 2.40

2.21 2.14 2.35

2.11 2.08

2.08

2.51 2.11

2. 60

2.75

2.31 2.29

2. 42 2.55

2.48

2. 36 2.30

2.30

2.52

2.66

2.27 2.55

2.53

2.60

2.47

2.39

2.46

2.43

2. 12 2.39

2.58

2.50

2.44 2.40

2.35

2.31

2. 31

2. 30 2.29

2. 31

2.26

2.19

2.21

2. 20 2.18

2.19

2.21 2.16

2.14

2.09

2.10

2.07

2.07

2.22 2.08

2.03

2. 02 2.00

1.99 2.08

2.06

2.11 2.09

2.26 2.12

2.16

2. 14 2.07

2.07

2. ot; 2.08

2.07

2. 06

2. 01 2.08

2.15

2.09

2.80 2.55

2.35

2. 30 2.33

2.30

2.28 2.25

2. 20

2.72

2.88

2.64

3.47

3.07

2.91

3.01 3.62

3.57 3.20

3. 13

3. ()•"> 2. 95

1.92 5.00

5. 00 4.42

3.67

4.30 3.90

4.42 4.20

3.78 3.65

3.61 3.54 3.49

3.46

3. 44 3.24 3.09

3. 31 3.22

3.62

3.60

5.53

10.82 6.09

6.24

4. 72 4.30

1.06 3.85

3.70

3. 55

3. 50

3.31

3.24 3.17 3.05

2.99

2.91 2.85

2.77 2.70

2.70

2. 66 2.61 2.55

2.54

2.52

2.52

2.52 2.47

2. 17 2.41 2.40

2.37

2.32

2. 29

2. 28

2. 24

2. 22 2.20

2.19

2. IS

2.16

2. 13

2. 12

2. 09 2.08

2. ot; 2. 01 2.01 2.03

2.03

2. 02

2.01 2.00

1.99

l . 98 1.98

1 . 97 1.96

1.95 1.95

1.93

1.93 1.91 1.88

1.87 1.81

1.84 1.83

l.Sl 1.78 1.78

2 11

1

11

111

11

1

111

11

11

1

11

11

I11

11

1

1

89

89

8988

88

88

SS87

8787

878786

86

st; 86

st; 86

86

86

868685

s",

s.

r

. SI84

8882

SI

3

4

6

8

9

10

11... 1213

14

ir> 16

171819

20

2122

23

24

2526

2728

29... 30

31
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rating table for Tula River, 1 mile above its mouth.

[This table is applicable only from August 13, 1899, to April 30, 1900.]

123

Gauge

height. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge.

Feet. 1.0 M

1.2

1.3

1.1 1.5

i.e. 1.7

1.8 1.9 2.0

2.1

Sec. ft. Feet. 2.2 2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6 2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.1

3.2

3.3

Sec. ft.24

3040

50

6070

80

93

106

119

132 145

Feet. 3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8 3.9

4.0

4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4 4.5

Sec. ft. 158

171 184

197 210

223 236

249

262 275

288

301

Feet. 4.6

4.7 4.8

4.9

5.0

5.1 5.2

5.3

6.4 5.5

5.6

5.7

Sec. ft. 314

327 340

353 366 379

392 405

418

431

13

5

712

18

Rating table for Tola River.

[This table is applicable only from May 1, 1900, to October 20, 1900.]

Gauge

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge.

Fed.

1.0

1.1 1.2 1.3

1.4

1.5 1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9 2.0

2.1

2.2

Second-feet. Feet. 2.3

2.4 2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9 3.0

3.1 3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

Second-feet. 49

59

70

81

93 105

118

131 145

161

177 193

209

Feet. 3.6

3.7 3.8

3.9

4.0

4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4 4.5

4.6

4.7 4.8

Second-feet. 225

241 257

273

289

305

321 337

353 369

385

401

417

Feet. 4.9

5.0

5.1 6.2

5.3 5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7 5.8

5.9

6.0

6.1

Second-feet. 433

449 465

481

497 513

529

545

561

577 593

609

10

1419

25

32

40

Rating table for Tola River.

[This table is applicable only from October 21, 1900, to March 29, 1901.]

Gauge

height. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gauge

height. Discharge.

Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. 1.0 10 2.4 145 3.8 369 5.2 593

1.1 14 2.5 161 3.9 385 5.3 609

1.2 19 2.6 177 4.0 401 5.4 625

1.3 25 2.7 193 4.1 417 5.5 641

1.4 32 2.8 209 4.2 433 5.6 657

1.5 40 2.9 225 4.3 449 5.7 673

1.6 49 3.0 241 4.4 465 5.8 689

1.7 59 3.1 257 4.5 481 5.9 705

1.8 70 3.2 273 4.6 497 6.0 721

1.9 81 3.3 289 4.7 513 6.1 737 2.0

2.1 2.2

93 105

118

3.4 3.5

3.6

305

321 337

4.8

4.9

5.0

529 545

561

6.2 6.3

6.4

2.

1 131 3.7 353 5.1 577 10.82 1,651
124 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Tola River 1 mile above its mouth, 1898.

Discharge.

Total. Months.

Discharge. Months. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum.

Mean. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean.

Total.

June (9-30).... Julv

Si C. ft 1 1. 355

163

57 364

452

Sec.feet. 12

2120

39

130

Sec.feet. 53

46

30

112 246

Acre-feet. 2,310

2, 830

1,840

6, 660

15, 125

November

December

Total....

Sec.feet. 270

100

Sec.feet. 100

65

Sec.feet. 160

79

Acre-feel.

9, 520 4,860 August

September

October

452 12 106 43, 145

Estimated monthly discharge of Tola River at 1 mile above its mouth.

Discharge.

Total. Months.

Discharge. Months. Maxi- mum. M illi- nium. Mean. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean.

Total.

1899. August (13-31). September, October

Si c. feet. 26

17 408

173

41

Sec. feet. 28.5

81815

Sec.feet. 13

1449

3020

Acre-feet. 490

841 2,993

1,759

1, 256

1900. Sec.feet. 5.3

89 187.3 99

47

Sec.fect.4

1115

2824

28

145

11166

Sec.feet.5

1940

62

34

120 370

17989

Acre-feet. 276 1,182

2,384 3,840 June

Julv December , August 2,023

7 154 Total 408 2 26 7,345 October November

December The year.

3,047

291

113

22, 765

10, 679

1900. 5,496 January

February

15.3

11.7 9.5

10

75

138

6

770

428

381 3,047 4

' 79 57, 378

LAKE NICARAGUA.

Lake Nicaragua is one of the notable fresh-water lakes of the world.

It has an area of 2,975 square miles. It greatest length is from northwest to southeast, and is about 100 miles. Its extreme width is about

45 miles.

West of the center is an island occupied by the volcanoes Ometepe

and Madera, which stand about 5,000 feet above the lake level, adding

greatly to the scenic beauty.

Madera is the most southern of a line of volcanoes of comparatively

recent origin, which extends in a northwesterly direction nearly to the

Bay of Fonseca, including Ometepe, Zapatero, Mombacho, Chiltepe,

Momotombo, and many others.

The prevailing easterly trade winds cause a moderately heavy surf

to beat almost constantly on the western shore, causing the formation

of a decided beach on that side, while on the eastern shore aquatic vegetation grows far out into the water. This shore is flat and muddy, with no well-marked beach.

Except in the southeastern portion the lake is deep, reaching at one

point near the southern foot of Madera to a depth of 200 feet. Lake Nicaragua receives the waters of a large number of tributaries,

the most important being Rio Frio and Rio Pisoteon the southern end,

which rise in the high mountains of Costa Rica and maintain some How

throughout the dry season, and Malacatolla and Tipitapaon the north- ern end, the latter bringing the waters of Lake Managua. The drain-


REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 125

age area, as estimated from the best information obtainable, is as follows:

Square miles. Area of land surface draining directly to Lake Nicaragua 6, 640 Area of Lake Nicaragua 2, 975 Lake Managua and tributary basin 3, 035

Total 12, 450

VIEJO RIVER.

This stream rises in the neighborhood of Jinotega, and flows in a southerly direction to Lake Managua, being therefore in the basin of

Lake Nicaragua.

The station on this river is about 500 yards above the ford known as Pasa Real, where the Matagalpa-Leon road crosses the stream. A

record was kept for the Nicaragua Canal Commission irom February

1, 1898, to Januaiy 22, 1899. The station was reestablished in August,

1899, and a record kept till the end of the year. The observer at this station also made some observations of the dis- charge of the Nueva River, which approaches very near the Viejo at

this point, but flows into the Atlantic.

Rating table for Viejo River, near crossing of Matagalpa-Leon road. This table is applicable only from August 18. 1899, to January 22,

1900:

Gauge

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge.

Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. Feet. Second-feet. 2.0 15 3.4 165 4.8 516 6.2 1,034

2.1 21 3.5 183 4.9 548 6.3 1,073 2.2 27 3.6 202 5.0 581 6.4 1,112

2.3 33 3.7 220 5.1 615 6.5 1,151

2.4 10 3.8 241 5.2 650 6.6 1,190 2.5 18 3.9 263 5.3 686 6.7 1,230

2.6 57 4.0 286 5.4 723 6.8 1,270

2.7 67 4.1 310 5.5 761 6.9 1,310

2.8 78 4.2 335 5.6 800 7.0 1,350

2.9 90 4.3 361 5.7 839 7.1 1,401 3.0 103 4.4 398 5.8 878 7.2 1,452

3.1 117 4.5 426 5.9 917 7.3 1,503

3.2 132 4.6 455 6.0 956 7.4 1,554

3.3 148 4.7 485 6 1 995 7.5 1,605

Estimated monthly discharge of Viejo River at crossing <>f Matagalpa-Leon road, 1898.

Months.

1898. February

March

April May

June

July August . .

September

Discharge.

Total. Maxi- Mini- mum. mum.

Sec.feet. Sec.feet. Sec. feet. Acre-feet. 35 15 24.0 1, 332

25 5 13.0 800

5 3 3.6 214

5, 520 2 324.0 19, 920

15,600 50 2, 170. 129, 120 2,400 155 613.0 37, 680 2,750 125 330.0 20, 290

9,745 220 1,765.0 105, 025

Months.

1898. October November

December

1899. January The year

Discharge. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum.

Sec. feet. 3,830

253

92

94

15, 600

Sec.feet. 23C

7439

35

Mean.

Total.

Sec. feet. Acre-feet. 965.0 ! 59,340

130. 7, 735

59. 3, 630

3,013

536.0 388,099
126 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of Viejo River at crossing of Matagalpa-Leon Road.

Months.

Discharge.

Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

August 18 31 1899. Sec. feet. 110

93 9,014

322

681

Sec. feet.2418

18 100

40

Sec. feet. 't,.k 40.4

863.7

159.7 98.6

Acre-feet. 1,327 2,406

53, 110 9,505

6, 066

9,014 18 268. 72, 414

1900. 40 33 35.3 1,541

NUEVA RIVER.

This station is at the bend of the Nueva River, where it approaches

nearest the Viejo, in the neighborhood of Paso Real, and was intended

to throw light on the quantity of water that might be added to the

supply for Lake Managua by diverting this river into it. Measurements were made by wading at low water and by means of

floats at high water. The stage of the river was ascertained by measuring downward with a tapeline from a nail driven in an overhanging

trunk of a tree. These measurements were carried on by the same

observer who had charge of the station on the Viejo.

Estimated monthly discharge of Nueva River near Viejo River.

Months.

Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Total.

1899 August 19-31 September

October November

December

Total

1900. January 1-22

Sec. feet. 242

64 2,602

402 820 2.602

Sec. fni. 52.0

8.4

L8.0 62.0

27.0

Sec. feet. 79. 6 21.1

177.1 170.

155.6

8.4 196. o

Acre-feet. 2,053

1,303

29, 886

10, 136 9,568

52, 396

QUEliRADA HONDA.

This stream is tributary to the Viejo River about 2 miles below the

station on the latter. A gauge was placed one-half mile above the

wagon ford on the road from Leon to Matagalpa, and graduated to

feet and tenths. At low water measurements were made by wading;

at high water, by means of floats.


REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 127

Di&chargt mxis/ir,',, huts made on (Jiu'hmda Honda ahonernssi ,,,/ .Wafiirja/jHt-Lron road.

[Hydrographer, Fred Davis. No flow from August 18 to October 10.]

October 10 . .

October 15 . .

October 17... October 20 . .

Octobers;... October 29 . .

November 8 . November 16 November 23 December 3.

December 16. December 30.

January

Date.

1899.

Meter number. Gauge

height.

Fnt.

3.78 3.72 4.40

4.20

13.30 7.30 4.70

4.56

4.50

4.60

4.45

4.28

Area of

section.

Sijimri ft. 3.70 2.15

2819.50

535. 60

169. 50 24.50

4.80

3.90 12.80

1.50

(")

Mean

velocitv.

Ft. per nee. 0.62

.43 1.70 1.14 4.28

3.01

.85

.52

.61 7.43

1.50

Discharge.

Squarefeet. 1.92

.92 47.72 22.20

2, 293.

510.

20.82 2.49

2.37

9.51 2.25

* Floats. t> No flow. Note.—Seventy per cent of maximum surface velocity used in calculations.

TIPITAPA. The gauge in this river is about 100 yards above Tipitapa Falls, and

serves both to register the stage of the river and the height of Lake

Managua, upon which the stage of the river depends. During low

water the river was too sluggish above the falls for accurate measure- ments with current meter, and gaugings were made from the bridge

below the falls. As the river rose it became very turbulent and swift

at the bridge, but at the same time the velocity in the upper river

increased and good measurements were made above the falls. Observations of rainfall and evaporation were also made at this point.

Lake Managua lies to the northwest of Lake Nicaragua and drains

into the latter through Rio Tipitapa. Its area is about 438 square

miles.

Reports of the discharge of Tipitapa River are conflicting. All

agree that the stream goes dry in the latter part of every dry season. Some authorities assert that it has been dry for several years in succession, the inflow during the rainy season being insufficient to compensate for evaporation, while others maintain that there is more or

less outflow every year in the rainy season. Investigations were therefore made to determine roughly the feasibility of diverting the Rio

Nueva, which now drains into the Rio Grande into the Rio Viejo, and

finally into Lake Managua. Near the station on Rio Viejo the two

rivers approach within about a mile of each other and the intervening

country is low and flat. The river channels are 30 to 40 feet deep, and

a cut of this depth connecting the two could be made to conduct the

waters of Rio Nueva into Rio Viejo, if a dam were built in Rio Nueva

below the point of connection. There is rock on the bottom of Rio

Nueva showing fairly good foundation for such a structure, but the

excavation of the canal would be almost entirely alluvial earth.
128 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily gauge height of Tipitapa River at Tipitapa, 1899.

Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee.

1 2. 95

2. 98 3.01

3.01

3.06 3.02

2. 96 3.02

3.07 3.00

2. 99

2. '.17 2.99

2. 96

2. 96

2. 98

2.80

2. 75 2.82

2.80

2. 7.") 2.80

2. 85

2. 92 2.90 2.88

3.08 3.10

3. 28

3.31

3. 42

3. 43

5. 55

5.51

5. 51

5. It; 5.49 5.48

5. 16 5.54

5.63 5.62

5.56

6. 62 5.62 5.52

5.51

5. 19

5. 77 5.74

5. 69 5.68

6. 66 5.62 5.65

5.61

5.61 5.59

5. 57

5. 51

5. 58 5.56

5.53

5.51

17 2.87 2.92

::. 63

3. 60 3 55

3.53

3.46 3.65

3.80 4.10

4.32

5. 1

5. 16

5. 16

5. 42 5.44

5.47

5. IT 5. 16

5. 19 5.1»

5. 55

5. 62

5. 65 5.77

5.37 5.33

5.31 5.32

5. 28

5. 23 5.25

5. 20

5. 19

5. 15 5.16

5. 1

5.16 5.13

5.07

2 18

3 19 2. >s

4 20 2.87

2. 83 2.S7

2. 85

2. 85

2. 90

•2. 92 2.97

2. 95 2.97

2.93 2.92

2. 82 2.81

2. 86 2.73

2.73

2. 73

5

6

78

2122

23

L'4 9 •25 10 26 2.84 1.61 11 •27 '2. 72 2.73 2.69

2.75

1.92 5.39

5.53 5.53

1213

28

29

14 30

15 31

16

Daily gauge height of

rri/>it<ij><t River at Tipitapa, 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. (let.

1 5.09

5.04 5.00

5. 03

1.92 4.92 4.89

!.'.>:; 1.90

4. 91 4.93 4.89

4.86

4.84

4.90

4.88 4.90

4.80

1. 85

1.69

1.74

4. 74

1. 72

1.72 1.78

1.65

1.68 4.72

1.61 1.58 L59

4. 53 4.47

1. 11 4.48

4. Id 4.44 4.46

1.35

4. 40 4.40

4. 17

4. 12 4.43 4.35

4.32

1.34 4.33

1.27 4.17

4.14

4.16

1. 15 4.15 4.17

4.09

4. 08

1.15 L09

4.06

3.91

3. 94 3.82

3.73 3.78

3.84

3.78

3. 72 3.78

3.75. 3.73

3. 72 3.68

3.74

3.77 3.75

3.65

3.66

3.64

3. 53 3.37 3.48

3.52

3.52 3.54

3.49

:;. 19 3.50 3.50

3.42

3.33

3.33

3.31 3.33

3.25

3.21 3.21

3. 28 3.25 3.28

3.22

3.16

3.14

3.12

3.07

3.01

2. 97

3. 02

•2.96

2. HI 2.93

2. 92 2.96

2. 96

3.01 3.01

2. '.1

2. 96

2. 92 2.96

2. 94 2.88

2.77 2.66

2.66

2.66

2.66

2.62

2. 63 2.64

2.67 2.63

2.71

2.77

2. SI

2. SI 2.82

2.81

2.90

2. 96

2. 99 2.98

3.03

3.06

3.06

3.23

:•>. 26

3. 51

3.6]

3.51

3. 12 3.56

3.61

3.81 4.07

4.13

4.63 4.57

1.57 4.65

4.80

1.77

1. 64 4.72

4. 75

1.71 4.77

4.80

1.80

1.80

1.78 4.80

5. 17 1.99

l.'.ts 1.98

1.95 1.90 1.95

5.01 5.07

5. 15

5.2:; 5.26

5. 20

5.11

5. 27

5. 41) 5. 07 5.86

5.99 5.90

6.07

o. i;; 0. 1 1 6.20

0. 25 6.22

0. 20. 6.26

6. 22

6. 21

0..2I

0. 22

0.21 6.20

0,. 10

6. 21

0,. 22

6. 15

6. 14 6.17

6. 1

6.12 6.09

6.09

6.09

6.08

0,. 1

6.10

0. 07 6.03

i.93 5.91

5. 92 5.91 '

5. 91

5. 90 5.84 5.82

5.83

5. S3 5.83

5.85 5.85

5. S7

5. 82

5. 78 5.71 5.75

5. 72

5. 72 5.73

5. 73

5. 75 5.73

5.75

5. 70. 5.77 5.78

;.. 7s 5.75

5. 70, 5.71

5. 73

5. 73

5. 70, 5. 75 5.73 5.72

5. 72

5. 70 5.73

5. 73 5.77

5. 75 5.75

5. 7 1 5.75

6.75 5.78

5.78

5.86

5. 95 6.10

6.17

6. is 6.18

6.17

6. 15 6.16

6.37 6.48

0. 10

6. 4S 6.50

6.48

6.52

6.50

6.51 6.50

6.74

6.90

6.96

7.30

7.20

7.18

7.19

7.19

7. 19 7.20

7.2:;

•>34

5

68

910

1112

1314

15

16

1718

1920

•21 •22 23

24... 25

26

27

28

2930

31...

Rating table for Tipitapa River <it 'J'i/>il<i]»i.

[This table is applicable only from August 20. L899, toOctober 30, 1900.]

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge. Gaugeheight. PiM-haw. Gauge

height Discharge.

AW/. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. /; - /. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. Jot.

2.0 1 8.8 30 5.0 280 0,. 2 1,200

2.7 2 8. 9 39 5.1 820 6.3 1,287 2.S 3 4.0 IS 5.

375 6.4 l,S76 2.9 4 1.

60 5. :; no 6.5 1,462

3 6 1.2 72 5. 1 500 6.6 1 . ... ,1

::.l s 1.0 90 5. 5 587 6.7 1,0,07

:;. 2 10 1. 1 110 5. 0, 075 6.8 1 , 725

3.3 12 4.5 0:i, ). / 762 6.9 1,812

:;. 1 11 1.0, 1.,.: - 7.0 1 . 900

16 4.7 L80 937 7.1 1 , 987 3.6 18 4.8 210 6.0 1.025 7.2 2,075

:;. 7 21 1.9 2 15 6. 1 1.112 7.3 2. 102
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 129

Estimated monthly discharge of Tipitapa River at Tipitapa, 1898.

Months Maxi- mum.

Discharge.

Mini- mum.

L808. Srr. fat. Srr. fat February 126 37 Uarch 36 3 April 4 May 18 June 700 13 July 922 280 August 930 487 September 3,230 | 910

e. Total. Mean.

Sec. feet. Art' ft. 77.0 1,275 16.6 1 , 020

0.5 29 3.8 234 121.0 7,200

662. 40, 700 626.0 38,490

2, 045. 121,690

Mouths.

October . .

November

December.

Discharge. Maxi- Mini- mum, mum.

Sec. feet. 5,380

5,500

2, 630

1899. January (1-28) 1,470 The year. 5, 580

8ec. feet. 2, 910

2,150

1,470

950

Mean.

Sec. ft < I. 4, 040.

3, 640.

1 , 950.

Acrejt.

248, no

216,600

119,900

1,210.0 55,200 1,208.0 853,748

Estimated monthly discharge of Tipitapa River at Tipitapa.

Discharge.

Total.

Discharge. Months. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean.

Months. Maxi- mum.

Mini"

! Mean mum. ' - Total.

1899. August 20-31...

Sept* mber

Sec./eet.5

7

Sec./eet. 3.0

2.0

2.0 517.0

308.0

Sec./eet. 4.0

4.5

101.5

612.7 545.0

Acre-/eet. 97

266 6,244 36,459

33, 505

1900.

, March

Sec./eet. 55

1317 358

1,275 1,348

866 2,804

Sec./eet. 5.7

.4

.2 12.0 284.0

749.0

762. 832.0

Sec./eet. 25.0

8.0

5.0 173.0

919. 974.0

801.0

1,527.0

Acre-/t. 1,515 474 October 631 309 November 824 December 824 June

Julv

10, 277

56, 500

59, 900

47, 667 93,917 Total ....

1900. Januarv

Februarv

August

September

October

Total

824 2.0 291. 76, 571

316

137 148.058.0 223.0

94.0

13, 724

5, 232

2, 804 2.0 400.0 289,515

REGIMEN OF LAKE NICARAGUA.

The rise and fall of the lake is the most important element in the

measurement of the water supply to the summit level of the canal, the

rate of inflow and of evaporation. To obtain this element with the

greatest possible accuracy, four gauge rods were established at approximately equal intervals on the margin of the lake, at Sapoa, Granada,

San Ubaldo, and Fort San Carlos, upon which daily observations were

taken.

S. Doe. 54, pt 2 9
130 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Sapoa, for the year 1899.

[Elevation of zero of rod, 100.02 feet.]

Day. July. A.ug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec

102. 65

102. 60

102. 67

102. 62

102. 65

102. 65

102. 68

102. 68

102. 64 L02.59

102.59

102. 60

102. 58 102.59

102.62

102.59 102.60

102. 65

102. 66

102. 69

102. 71

102. 74

102. 72

102.84

102. 85

102. 97

103. 12

103. 12

103. 17

103. 25

103. 26

103. 23

103. 19

103. 21

103. 23

103.2.5

103. 26

103. 25

103.24

103. 28

103. 28

103. 25

103. 22

103. 20

103. 21 103.21

103. 17

103. 19

103. 19 103.21 103.20

103.27

103. 29

103. 34

103. 38

103. 35

103. 37

103. 35

103. 35

103. 33

103. 32

103. 32 103.34

103.34

103. 33 103.34

103. 35

103. 35

103. 36

103. 36

103. 37

103. 37

103. 38

103. 48

103. 64

103. 67

103. 69

103. 71

103. 75

103. 82

103. 81

103. SO

103. 84

103. 91

103. 91

103. 91

103. 91

103. 98

104. 12 104.28

104.31

104. 37

104. 33 104.33

101.31 104.36

104.31

104. 27 104.28

104. 34

104. 51

104. 54 104.51

104.57

104. 64

104. 52 104.58

104.53

104.51 101.49

104.50

104. 52

101. 19 101.53 101.56

101.5.5

104. 55

104. 57

104. 63

104. 64

104. 71

104. 96

104.94 104.97

101.07 105.05

106. 1

104.98

101.05

104.91 104.89 101.95

104.91 104.90

101.91 104.95 104.97

101.93

101.91

104. 93

L04.87

1()1. 88 KH.7I

101.77

1 III. 05

104. 67

104. 74 101.73

104.64

104. 65

104. 65

104. 60

104. 52

6

10

11

1

' 13M

15

16 102.36

102. 35

102. 36

102. 38

102. 40

102. 42 102.42

102. 52 102.60

102. 59

102. 08

102. 61

102. 68

L02.69

102. 68

102. 71

17IS

19 20

2]2223

242526

272829

30

31 .

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Sapoa for the year 1900.

[Elevation of zero of rod: January 1 to July 31, 100.02 feet; Aug. 1 to Dec. 31, 97.19 feet.]

Hay. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Auk. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee.

1... 104. 49 104.08 103. 26 102. 46 101.57 102. 03 102. 65 104.04 101.50 105.53 107.39 106.88

2... 104.47 104.06 103. 25 102. 53 101.55 102. 10 102. 67 104.07 104.56 10.5.76 107.39 106.77

3... 104.62 103. 96 103.28 102.33 101.55 102. 05 102.66 OH. os 104.58 105.76 107.37 106. 77

1... 101.51 103.89 L03.31 102.28 101.53 102. 08 102.71 nil. 18 104.66 105.05 107.35 106. 75

5... L04.52 103. s,3 L03.24 103.28 101.55 102. 08 102.71 101. 17 104.73 105.05 107.27 106.75

6... 101.51 103. 92 103.17 102.30 101.02 102. 11 1-02. 83 101.22 101.68 105.99 107.29 106.76

7. .

llil. 17 103.82 103.11 102.25 101.61 102. 02 102. si 101.25 104.63 106.17 107.31 106. 75

8... li U. 12 103. 76 103.13 102. is 101.41 102.22 102.86 104.28 104.66 106.19 107.31 106.77

. 1(11.30 103.80 L03. 11 102.18 101.53 102.28 102. 00 101.31, 104.72 106.17 107.33 106.70

10... L04.33 103. 77 in::, no 102.16 101.37 102. 28 103.01 104.37 101.64 106.23 107.37 106. S|

11... 101.20 103.76 102.93 102.17 101.40 102. :;i 103. 16 104.38 104. 7C 106.27 107.46 106.70

12... 101.29 103. 6S 102.92 102.13 101.35 102. 35 L03.28 104.39 10 1.76 106.28 107.38 106.77

13... L04.35 103.71 102. s:; 102. (is 101.28 102.35 103. 11 L04.34 101.7:; 106.32 107. 3.7 L06.78

1 1... 104.38 103.71 102. si 102.06 101.34 102. I:; 103. 46 101. 10 104.74 106.32 107.31 106.73

15..-. L04.31 103. 57 102.75 102.00 101.20 102. 46 103. 58 104.47 1(11.72 106.31 107.28 106.72

111... 101. 'JC L03.67 102.7:; 102.00 101.21 102. 1,. 103. 67 101. 13 101.78 106. 3.5 107.23 106.71

17... 104.26 103.50 102. 70 101.05 101.23 102. 48 103. 60 104.38 ioi.sc 106. 51 107.23 106.70

18... 104.26 103. 59 102.76 101.05 101.25 102. 10 103.54 mi. io 104.88 106. IS 107.13 lot',. 71

10... nil. 2: 103.72 102.75 101. SO L01.31 102. 46 103.88 101.32 105.01 L06.50 107.06 L06.73 20... L04.2J 103.62 102.71 101.87 101.35 102.50 103.00 104.38 101.05 100.55 107.03 106.77 21... 104. a 103. 12 102. 79 mi. si mi.:;:; 102. 46 103.97 104.31 104. 92 106.61 107.01 100.75

22... Hi). 1- 103. H 102.71 L01.82 nil. ii 102. 48 LOS. 98 mi. u 101.06 106.90 107.03 106.66 23... 101. 11 103. 12 102. 72 101.77 L01.8S 102. 49 103.81 101. 16 101.07 107.171 106.99 106.66

21 . .

101.11 103. 32 102.57 101.75 101.38 102.57 103. 77 104. 55 105.11 107.35 106.91 106.61 25... 101. 1( 103. 31 102.55 101.62 101.46 102.53 in;;, os 101.56 105.0'. 107. 12 106.02 L06.68

jo... 101. 11 103. 3-1 102. 50 101.01 101.58 102.52 L03.95 101.6,0 105. 11 107. 38 106. OS 100.67 27... 101. Hi::. 12 102. is L01.68 101.01 102. 10 loi.oi 101.56 105. 11 107.36 107.01 106.57 28... 104. CM 103. 2! 102. 17 loi.oi 101.72 102.60 103.93 104.55 105. It 107.35 L06.97 106.5s 29... L03.9 102. 11 101.61 101. 7$ 102.50 103.97 104.56 105. 26 107.38 106.02 L06.55

30... 103.87 102. K 101. 60 loi. os 102. 50 103.9'. 104. 56 105. 51 107.36: 106.93 lot;. 58

::i . .

103. '.K 102.51 102. i: 108.91 101.57 107. 36 1 106. 17
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL OOAfMISHlON. 131

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua at initialled by the gauge rod at Granada for the year 1899.

I Elevation of zero of rod, 100.37 feet] Daw Jan.

in. 11.

12. 13.

14.

15.. 16/

17.. 18..

19.. 20..

21..

22.. 23..

24 .

25.. 26/. 27..

28..

29..

30.. 31..

105. 67

105.

6' 105. 67

105. 67

105

105. 67

105. 77

105. 77

105.77

105. 77 105.77

105.87 105.87

105.77

105. 77

105. 67

105. 57

105. 57

105. 57

105. 57

105. 57

105. 47 105.47

105. 17 105. 47

105.37

105. 37

105. 47

105. 17

105. 17

105. 17

105. 17

105. 12

105. 12

105. 07

104. 97

Mar. Apr.

105.02 104.87

104.87

104.871 104.871

104. 87

104.

104. 87

104

104. 67 104.57

104. 57

104. 57

104. 57 104.57

104.

5' 104.

5' 104. 57

104. 47 104.47

104.42

104. 37

104. 3' 101. 32 104.27

104. 27

104.17 104.17

104.

104. 17 104.17

104.17

101.07

104. 07

104.07 101.07

104.07

104.07

104. 07

103. 97

103. 97

103. 87

103.77

103. 67

103. 67

103. 67

103. 57

103. 57

103. 57

103. 57

103. 52

103. 47

103. 57

103. 57

103. 57

103. 47

103. 37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 32

May.

103. 27

103.27

103. 27

103. 17i 103. 17l 103.17

103.07, 103.07

103. 07

102. 97

102. 87 102.87 102.87

102.82

102. 77

102. 77

102. 72 102.67

102. 67

102.67

102. 67

102. 67

102.62

102. 57

102. 57

102.57,

102.57'

102. 47

102. 47| 102.47 102.47.

Jtine.

102. 47

102. 47

102. 4 102.3

102. 3' 102. 47

102. 47

102. 47

102. 37

102. 47

102. 57

102. 57

102. 67

102. 47 102.47

102. 47

102. 47

102. 57

102. 47

102. 67

102. 52

102. 47

102. 47 102.47

102. 57

102. 47

102. 57

102. 47

102. 37

102. 37

.lulv.

102. 37 102.37

102.37

102. 47 102.47 102.37

102. 37

102. 37

102. 27

102. 27

102. 17, 102.07

102. 07| 102.17

102.27

102. 27 102.27

102. 27

102. 47

102. 37' 102. 77 102.67

102. 57 102.37

102.47

102. 57

102. 57

102. 67

102. 67

102. 67

102. 67

Aug.

102. 67

102. 77 102.67

102.67

102. 67

102. 67

102. 67

102. 57' 102. 57: 102. 57; 102. 67

102. 67

102. 67

102. 57

102. 57

102. 57 ! 102. 62! 102. 57. 102. 67

102. 57

102. 57

102. 57

102.67

102. 67

102. 77

103. 07

103. 07

103. 07

103. 37

103. 37

103. 32

Sept.

103. 27

103. 27 103.27

103. 27

1113.27 103.32

103. 37

103.22!

103. 27! 103.17

103. 27! 103. 22

103. 17

103. 17

103. 07

103. 07

102. 97

103. 07

103. 17

103. 62i 103. 37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 32

103. 42

103. 47

103. 47

103. 52

103. 42! 103. 37

Oct.

103. 37

103. 32

103. 37 103.32

103.37

103. 37 103.47

103. 52

103. 37

103. 42

103. 37

103.42, 103.42!

103.(17' 103.67

103.67

103.67!

103. 67 J 103.77

103.671

103. 67| 103.87

103.87!

103. 97| 103. 97! 104. 07 104.17

104. 27

104. 27

104. 27

104. 37

104.27

104. 27 101.22

104. 17 :04.27

104.27

104.17 104.27

104.57 101.57 104.67

104.62 104.57 104.62

104. 57

104. 47

104. 47 104.47

104. 57, 104.47,

104. 57

104. 57; 104 57

104. 57

104. 57

104. 57! 104. 67

104.67

104. 67

104. 87

104. 87

105. 07

105. 07

104.97

105.07

105.02

104.87

104.82

104. 97 104.97 104.87

104.77

104. 87

104.87 104.87

105. 07 104.97

104. 97 104.87

104.87

104.87

104. 77

104. 77 104.77

104. 37

104. 57 104.57

104. 57

104. 47

104. 47

104. 47

Daily elevation for Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Granada for tht year 1900.

[Elevation of zero of rod: January 1 to April 6, 100.37 feet; April 7, 98.44 feet.]

Day. Jan.

10.. 11..

12..

13.. 14..

15..

16..

17..

18.. 19.. 20.. 21..

22..

23.

24..

25..

26.. 27.. 28..

29..

30..

31..

104. 47 104.47

104. 37

104. 37

104. 37

104. 47

104. 37

104. 37

104. 37

104. 37

104. 37 104.37

104. 37

104. 37

104. 27

104. 27

104.17

104. 17

104. 17

104. 17 101.17 104.17

104. 12! 104.17

104.17 104.17

104.171 104.07

103. 97' 103. 97

103. 97

Feb. Mar.

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 97

103. 77

103. 77

103. 77

103. 77

103. 77

103. 77

103. 57

103. 47 103.37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 37

103. 47

103. 47

103. 47 103.37

103. 37

103. 47

103. 37

Apr. May.

103. 47

103. 47

103. 37

103. 27

103. 27

103. 37

103. 37i 103. 371 103. 37

103. 37

103. 37, 103. 371 103. 37

103. 37: 103. 27

103. 17

103.171 103.17 102.97

102. 77

102. 97

102. 871 102. 87

102. 77! 102.77! 102.87

102. 77

102. 57

102. 57

102. 57i 102.47'.

102. 47

102. 47

102. 47

102. 37

102. 47

102.47i

102. 44; 102. 44

102. 44

102. 34

102. 24

102. 24

102. 24

102. 24

102. 34 102.34

102. 24

102. 14

102. 14

102. 04

102. 04

102. 04

101.94

101. 94 101.94

101.94

101.94

101.84

101.74

101. 74

101.74

101.74 101.84

101.84

101.84

101.94

101.84 101.84

101.74 101.74

101. 64 101.64 101.64

101.44!

101.441 101.411

101.34- 101.34

101. 34 101.39

101.44

101. .54 101.54

101. 59

101. 59 101.94

102. 19

102. 14

102. 14

102. 19

102. 24

June,

102. 34

102. 34

102. 39

102. 24

102. 24

102. 19

102. 24

102. 14

102. 24

102. 54

102. 59

102. 54

102. 49

102. 54

102. 54

102. 54, 102. 59j 102. 59

102. 59

102.64! 102.74

102. 74! 102. 74

102. 79! 102.74

102. 74

102. 69

102. 74

102. 74

102. 74

July. Aug.

102. 74

102. 74

102. 79

102.84

102. 94

102. 94 102.94

102. 94

102. 99

103. 24! 103. 44j 103. 49' 103. 64

103. 64

103. 84

103. 84

103. 84

103. 94

103. 94

103. 94

104. 04

104. 04

104. 14 104.14

104. 14

104. 14

104. 14

104. 14

104. 14

104. 24

104. 24

104. 34

104. 34

104. 34

104. 34

104. 44

104. 44 104.44

104. 44

104. 54

104. 64

104. 74

104. 74

104. 84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 94

104. 94

104. 94

104. 94

105. 04

105. 04

105. 04

105. 14

105. 14

105. 14

105. 04

105. 04 105.04

105. 04

Sept.

104. 84

104. 94

104. 94 104.84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 84

104. 94

104. 94

104. 94 j 104. 94! 104.94:

104.94.

105. 04

105. 04

105. 04

105. 04

105. 04

105. 14

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 24

105. 34

105. 34

105. 49

105. 59

105. 69

105. 74

105. 94

106. 04

106. 04 106.04

106. 14

106. 24

106. 44

106. 541 106. 54

106. 64

106. 74

106. 94

107. 04

107. 14

107. 24

107. 34

107. 34

107. 34! 107. 34

107. 34

107. 34

107. 44 107.44

107.44

107. 44

107.44

107.54

107.54

107. 44

107. 44! 107. 34

' 107. 34

107. 34

107. 44

107. 44

107. 44! 107.44!

107. 54: 107. 54

107. 74

107. 74

107. 64 [ 107.64

107. 74

107. 64

107. 64

107. 64! 107.54

107. 44! 107. 44

107.44!

107. 44

107. 34 ' 107. 34 : 107. 34[ 107. 14

107.14

107. 14

107. 14

107. 14

107. 04

107. 04

107. 04

106. 94

106. 94

106. 94

106. 94

106. 94

106. 94

106. 91

106. 84

106. 74

106. 74

106. 74

106. 94

106. 94

106. 84

106. 84

106. 84

106. 84

106. 84

106. 84

106. 79

106. 79

106. 84

106. 84

106. 84
132 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at San TJbaldo for the year

1899.

[Elevation of zero of rod, 96.90 feet.]

Day. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

102. 35

102.46

102. 40

102.47

102. 37 102.38

102.33

102. 32 102.27

102. 30

102. 40

102.28

102. 32

102. 35

102. 37

102. 43

102. 38

102. 40

102. 47

102. 40

102.47

102. 53

102. 70

102. 65

102. 67

102. 63

102. 70

102. 63

102. 73

102. 70

102. 72

102. 78 102.73

102. 68

102. 67

102. 72

102. 71

102. 72

102. 72

102. 67

102. 65

102. 70

102. 70

102. 67

102. 67

102. 66

102. 66

102. 65

102. 70

102. 67

102. 68

102. 77

102. 70

102. 73 102.84

102. 83

103. 09

103. 21

103. 23

103. 23

103. 31

103. 35

103. 37

103. 34

103. 35

103. 34

103. 35

103. 31

103. 33

103. 41

103. 36

103. 37

103. 33

103. 29

103. 30

103. 34

103. 27

103. 25

103. 25

103. 24

103. 20

103. 26

103. 34

103. 35

103. 36

103. 10

103. 42

103. 44

103. 49

103. 42

103.45

103. 45

103. 49

103. 15 103. 46

J 03. 52

103. 51

103. 55

103. 54

103. 54

103. 54 103.49

103.61

103. 62

103. 69

in:;. 74

103. 91

103. 95

103. 86

103. 87 103.89

103. 84

103. 94

103. 99

104. 10

104. 20

101.35

104. 28

104. 35 104.40 104.40

104.39

104. 41

104. 37 104.42

104. 38

104. 37 104.40

104. 42

104. 44 104.45

104. 60

104. 60

104. 57 104.50

104.51

104. 33

104.49 101.49

104.54

104.61 104.63

104.61

104. 62

104. 68

104. 68

104. 68

104. 76

104. 73

104. 78

104.82

104. 88

105.14

105. 1

105. 10 105.15 105.02

104. 94

104. 93

104.92

104. 95

104. 95 104.93

104. SS 104.95

104. 90

104. 93

101. SS 104.83

104. 78

104. 74

104. 67

104. 70

104. 71 104.72

104.71

104. 68

104. 72 104.70

104.61

104. 55

104. 58

104. 53

104. 55

3

456

8

;t ! 10... i 11. 12

13. ; 1415

16.. n

18 102. 50

102. 35

102. 65

102. 50

102. 55

102. 40

102. 58

102. 45

102. 48

102. 38

102. 27

102. 45

102. 55

19

20

2122

23

2425

26

2728

2930

31

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at San Ubaldo for the year 1900.

[Elevation of zero of rod: January 1 to June 12, 96.90 feet; June 13, 94.94 feet.]
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

STATION AT FORT SAN CARLOS.

133

A gauge was established at this point by Lieutenant Hanus, U. S. Navy, January 4, L898. It was simply a graduated stick driven in the

sand in shallow water and supported by two stakes in the form of

braces. On March 13 a more substantial gauge was placed in deeper

water and firmly fastened to the iron remains of an old wreck o'f a Vanderbilt steamer about a quarter of a mile north of the town of

San Carlos. It was driven as far as possible into the mud and fastened

with bolts and cable to the iron wreck.

Bench mark No. 1 is on the highest point of the shore end of the

stranded boiler and is 12.933 feet above the zero of the gauge last described and 9.78 feet above the zero of gauge established by Lieutenant Hanus. From the 8th of March, when a special observer was sta- tioned at San Carlos, rainfall, evaporation, temperature, and humidity

observations were taken.

Daily elevation <f Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Fort San Carlos for

the year 1899.

[Elevation of zero of rod = 96.436 feet.]

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

1 Dec.

1... 106. 23 105.70 105.00 104.04 103.24 102. 36 102.33 102. 68 103.51 103.67 104.50 105. 15 2... 106. OS 105.64 104.88 103.99 103.32 102. 42 102. 22 102. 65 103.51 103.54 104.37 105. 06

3... 106.19 105.61 104.83 103.93 103.36 102. 40 102. 38 102. 79 103.50 103.67 101.40 105. 16 4... 105. 97 105.48 104.94 103.79 103.21 102. 34 102. 37 102. 67 103.41 103.59 104.41 104.90

5... 106.10 105.41 104.84 103.84 103.32 102.38 102. 41 102. 68 103.41 103.55 104.55 104. 97

6... 106. 15 105.59 104.70 103.96 102.87 102. 49 102.37 102. 75 103.37 103.57 104. 51 105. 03

7 ... 106. 00 105.60 104.86 103.91 103.12 102.43 102. 35 102. 71 103.28 103.56 104.56 104. 93

8... 106. 05 105.65 104.59 103.82 103.05 102. 60 102.40 102.55 103.40 103.47 104. 59 104. 98

9... 106. 09 105.55! 104.54 103.59, 102.87 102.54 102. 26 102. 67 103.36 103.59 104.65 105. 02

10... 106. 06 105.59: 104.65 103.76; 102.82 102. 50 102. 36 102. 76 103.35, 103.66 164.57 105. 00

11... 106. 08 105.541 104.60 103.77 102.91 102. 79 102. 27 102. 90 103.31 103.71 104. 57 105. 11 VI... 106. 04 105.64 104.51 103.62 102.89 102.38 102. 29 102. 69 103.32 103.79 104. 63 105. 00

13... 106. 02 105.21 104.53 103.57 102.65 102. 61 102. 34 102. 69 103.30 103.70 104. 61 104.89

14... 106.00 105.03 104.56 103.72 102.66 102. 57 102. 55 102. 70 103.26 103.87 104. 60 104.91

15... 106.01 105.13! 104.60 103.58, 10"2. 67 102.59 102. 51 102. 64 103.28, 104.32 104. 54 104.88

16... 105. 92 105.34 104.41 103.61 102.67 102.65 102. 44 102. 72 103.13 104.19 104. 48 104. SO

17... 105.98 105.33] 104.43 103.69 102. 74 102.45 102. 32 102. 50 103.171 104.19 104. 58 104. 90

18... 106. 09 105.24 104.50 103.69 102.781 102 62 102.42 102. 58 103.16] 103.92 104.61 104.82

19... 105.99 105.15; 104.47 103.64 102.73 102.6s 102. 44 102. 68 103.15, 103.76 104. 60 104. 73

20... 106. 04 105.17' 104.52 103.63 102.55; 102.84 102.46 102. 77 103. 351 104.05 104. 72 104.82

21 . .

105. 92 105.24; 104.46 103.58 102.61 102.69 102.50 102. 61 103.28 104.03 104. 61 104. 69

22... 105. 93 105.16; 104.32, 103. 35 102.54 102.49 102.50 102. 75 103.32: 104.10 104. 61 104. 62

23... 105. 89 105. 12 : 104.40 103. 36 102. 59! 102.38 102. 59 102. 79 103.41J 104.14 104. 77 104. 78

24... 105. 88 105.20; 104.32 103. 24 102.55! 102.41 102. 62 102. 87 103.42; 104.22 104.80 104. 73

25... 105.85 105.10; 104.31 103. 28 102.471 102.44 102.58 102. 99 103.39; 104.16 104. 93 104. 70 26... 105. 81 105.261 104.22 103.29 102.541 102.42 102.52 103. 16 103.51! 104.29 104. 82 104. 61 27... 105. 82 105.00 104.14 103. 31 102.49 102.41 102. 80 103. 25 103.39 104.48 104. 82 104. 64 28... 105. 82 104. 82 104.22 103.28 102. 68 102. 34 102. 79 103. 23 103.34 104.69 105. 02 104.61 29... 105. 78 104. 21 103. 27 102. 38 102. 47 102.64 103. 33 103.44 104.47 104. 95 104.59

30... 105. 65 104. 18; 103. 16 102. 40 102.39 102. 80 103.311 103.54 104.56 104. 97 104. 46

31... 105. 74 104. 22! 102. 24 102. 81 103.24 104.43, 104. 60
134 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSI* >N,

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua as indicated by the gauge rod at Fori San Carlos for the year 1900.

Dav. Jan. Feb.

10. 11.

12.

13.

II. 15.

16.

17. 18.

19. 20. 21. 22.

23. 24.

25.

26. 27.

28.

•J'.). 30.

31.

104.68

104. 49 104.55

104. 51 104.45 104.41

104. 34

104. 34

104. 47

104. 37

1C4. 51 104.39

104. 49

104. 13 104.40

104.35 104.30

104. 38 104.29

104. 15 104.15 104.17 104.20

104.14

104.24 104.18

101. 14 104. 18 104.01

104. 07 104.08

Mar. Apr.

103..SI 103. 831 103. 76

103. 93

103.87;

103. 73

103. 77

103. 89 103.84

103. 79

103. 64

103. 78

103. 62

103. 61

103. 61 103.64

103. 55

103. 54

103. 23

103.41 103.55

103. 35

103. 39 103.78

103. 50

103. 42 103.25

103. 17

103.22

103.07|

103. 13

102. 99

102. si 102.91

1(12. ss

102. 99

102. 96

102. 96

102. 85

102. 89. 102. 87: 102. 86

102. 94

102. 89! 102.85;

102. 56

102. 58, 102. 75i 102. 36

102. 49

102. 46

102. 52i 102.53

102. 53

102. 57

102.5;, 102. 52

102. 53

102. 42

102. 38

102. 15

102. 22

102. 08

102. 15

102. 19

102. 08

102. 26

102. 10

102. 10

102. 10

102. 17

101. 99

102. 04 101.94

101.95

101.55 101.83

101. 89

101. 87

101. 94

101. 86 101.93

101.90

101.97

101.91 101.94

101.94 101.85

101.74

May.

101.88

101.82

101.66 101.46

101. 34 101.51 101.19 101.25 101.40

101.61 101.50

101. 10

101. 52

101. 50

101.67

101. 38 101.58

101.33

101.34 101.90

101. 43

101. 52

101. 51 101.43

101.67

101.66

101.93 101.82

102. 12

102. 12 102.04

June. July Aug. Sept Oct.

102.02

102. 06

102. 17

102. 28

102. 23

102. 36

102. 25

102, 102. 66

102.61 102.55

102. 55

102. 45

102. 43

102. 36

102. 38

102.

102. 56

102. 63

102. 49

102. 62

102. OS

102. 6' 102.70

102. 54

102. 63

102. 56

102. 63

102. 63

102. 66

102. 54

102. 72

102. 95 102.90

102. 44

102. 96

103. 11

102. 92

103. 08

103.38

103. 47

103. 51

103. 47

103. 65

103. 72

103. 55

103. 87

103. 72

103. 84

103. S3

103. 95

103. 85

104. 13

104. 05

103. 98

104. 08

104. 02

104.14 104.02 104.05

104. 08

104.07

103. 97 104.06

103. 91

104. 18 104.36

104. 32

104. 23

104. 26

104. 20

104.29

104.41

104. 25

104.45

104.20

104. 28

104. 44

104. 28

104. 24

104. 50

104. 52 104.54

104. 58

104. 54' 104. 29

104. 58: 104.53 104.58

104. 62

104. 68

104. 72

104.70

104.65

104. 79' 104.9!

104. 96

104. 91

104. 88

104.92

104. 92

104. 96

104. 82

104.188

104. 85

104. 72

104. 99

104. 90

104. 86

104. 90

104. 76

105. 10

105. 13

105. 04

105. 09

105. 10

105. 18

105. 23

105. 10

105. 21

105. 43

105. 50

Nov.

105. 51

105. 78

105. 89

100. 09

106. 00

106. 02

100. 41 100. 25

106. 24

106. 17

106. 43

106. 43 106.49

106. 53

100. 49

106. 48

106. 58, 100. 52' 100. 65

106. 69

107. 05

107. 08

107. 25

107. 30

107. 40

107. 40

107. 46

107. 50

107. 39

107. 37

107. 41

107. 35

107. 42

107. 37 107.33

107

107. 36

in;

1(17 107

1H7 107 107.20

107.1 107.09

107. IS

107. 19 107.2

107.2

107. 13 107.13

107. 02

107. 10

107. 06 107.10

107. 04

100. 90

100. 99

107.01 106.98

Dec.

100. 95

ioo. si; KH'i. 78

106. 85 106.82

106. 70

106. 81

106. 78

106. 59

106. 67

100. 78

106. 70 106.78

100. 70

106. 74

106. 77

106. 66

106. 55

106. 69

106. 73

106. 64

106. 73

106. 07

100. 05

106. 65

106. 59

106. 53

100. 59

100. 50

106. 49

106.54

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua, 1898.

[Computed from gauge-rod readings at Fort San Carlos, Jan. 4, 1898, to Dec. 31, 1898; LasLajas, Feb. s, 1898, to Dec. 31, 1898; Morrito, Apr. 9, 1898, to Sept. 21, 1898.]

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1... 104.49 KM. 42

104. 52 104.48

103. 80 103.89

103. 82

103. 86

103. 02 103.02

102. 98

102. 96

102. 29

102.21

102. 23

102. 21

102. 48 102.49

102. 44

102. 39

103. 50

103. 47

103. 55

103. 70

104. 50

104. 51

104. 51 104.58

104.90 104.97

104.95

104.94

105. 66

105. 74

105. 70

105. 74

100. 41 L06.87

100.31

100.2(1

100.04

lOO.C,:; 100.59

106.65

2...

3...

4... 11)1.92 5... 104.90 104.51 103. 78 102. 92 102. 20 102. 42 103. 62 104.61 104. 97 105. 75 100.22 100.07

6... 1115.02 1(14.43 103. 75 102. 90 102. 20 102. 45 103. 78 104.57 105. 05 105. 73 100.2i; 100.02

7..

104.93 101.43 103. 76 102. 92 102. 14 102. 52 103. 79 104. 60 105.02 105. 75 100.22 106.64

s... 101.94 104.43 103. 73 102.86 102. 12 102. 49 103. N2 104.70 105. 05 105.79 100. 19 106. 50

9... L04.88 10-1. 42 103. 72 102. 83 102.11 102. 48 103. 90 104.07 105. 05 105.73 106.22 100.55

10... 104. 79 104. 32 103. 02 102.77 102. 09 102. 48 103. 89 104. 05 105.11 105. 73 100.21 100.5S

11... 104.85 104.30 103. 6-1 102. SI 102. 08 102. 48 103. % 104. 65 105. 19 105.71 10c. 20 100.57

12... L04.87 104.31 103. 62 102. 81 102. 04 102. 54 103. 99 104. 59 106.29 105.75 100.34 100.55

13... 104.80 1(11.41 103. 61 102. 76 101.96 102. 51 108. 98 104.74 105. 44 105. 75 100. 10 100. 19 14... 104.76 1(14.32 103. 52 102. 74 102. 03 102.47 103. 98 104.73 105.45 105.84 106.42 100.49

15... Oil.;:. 1(11.29 103. 57 102. 09 101.97 102.48 104. 03 104. 78 105. 48 105. 88 100.47 100. 17 10... 104.79 104.23 102. 68 102.05 102. 44 104. 07 104. SO 105. 53 105. si; LO6.50 100.50

17... 104.78 1(11.21 102.0s 102. 01 102.47 104.04 104. 83 105.58 105. 92 100.50 100. II is... 104.83 101.21 102.05 102.13 •102.47 104.07 104.78 105.57 100. 08 106. 57 106. II 19... 1111. si KM. 10 108.26 102.01 102.10 102.59 101.10 104.78 105.57 106. 14 100.51 L06.89 20... mi. '.17 101.11 103. 30 102.55 102. 11 102.05 104.25 104. 78 105. 58 106.15 100. 41 106.41 21... 101.90 101. OS 103. 33 102.59 102.15 102.70 101.17 104.82 105.65 100. 13 100. 02 106.37

22... L04.82 101.01 103. 14 102.56 102.43 102.91 104.25 104.88 105. 71 100.21 100.50 106.82 23... 104.73 101.00 103.27 102.5;', 102.-10 102.97 104.23 104.77 105.60 106.28 100. 37

•J 1 . .

KlI.C! 101.0s 103. 29 102.45 102.51 103.01 104.32 101. so 105.74 100.30, L06.89

25. .

26...

101.71 104.70

101.01

104.06

103. 30

102.99

102.43

lo'j. U

102.57 103.09

102.55 10:!. 01 101.33 104.35

101. SI 101.7s 105.72

1O5.0S

106 :;•", 106.85

106.86 100. 51 100. 38 27... L04.69 Hi:;. 91 103. 19 102.42 L02.59 103. 10 L04.89 104.88 105.0,:: 100.3s 100.59 100.29 28... 1(11.07 108.98 103. 12 102.37 L02 56 103.SC loi. 16 104.82 105.71 106.84 10i;. 02 106.27 29... 104.52 103. 09 102.33 in-. :.. 103.42 104.38 101.91 105.70 100.41 100.03 106.88

30... 101.64 103.10 102. 32 102..... 103.47 L04.54 104.95 105. 75 106.41 100.70 106.87

31... 104.57 102.97 102.50 104.51 104.90 106. 38 106. 44

JANUARY O SO

FEBRUARY

'O 20 MARCH

10 SO APRIL

IO 20 MAV JUNE

IO 20 JULY 1 august

IO 20 10 20 SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

IO 20 NOVEMBER DECEMBER10 20

IS op

\ 1 r

\y

in 9D

1

19 DO

1

FIG. 3—ELEVATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA.
REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 135

Daily elevations of Lake Nicaragua, obtained l>// averaging the daily elevation as indicated by gauges at San Carlos, Granada, San Ubaldo, ana Sapoafor the year 1899. a

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1... 106.23 105.73 105.01 104.10 L03.25 102.41 102.35 102. 69 103.35 103. 16 L04.37 105.02

>... 106.08 10.V 70 104. ss 104.03 103.29. 102.45 102.35 102. 69 103.33 103.41 101.35 105. 05

L06. L9 105.69 104.85 104.02 103.31 102.43 102.38 102. 70 103.33 103.46 104.33 105.09

1... 105.97 105.68 101.90 103.93 103.19 102.35 102.44 102.66 103.31 103. 44 104.33 105.01 106.10 105.61 104.85 103.95 103.24 102.38 102. 11 102.68 103. 32 103. 44 104.38 105.03

6... 106.15 105.68 104.79 104.01 103.02, 102.48 102.37 102.69 103.32 103.46 104.37 101.99

106.00 105.68 101.92 103.99 103.09 102.45 102.35 102.71 103.31 103. 48 104.36 104.92

8... 106.05 105.66 104.73 103.94 103.06 102.53 102.36; 102. OS 103. 32 103. 47 104.41 104.91

9... 106.09 105.56 104.65' 103.78 102.97 102.46 102.27 102.61 103.32 103. 47 104.58 104.96

10... loo. or, 105.58 104.661 103.86 102.89! 102.48 102.31 102.64 103.29 103. 48 104.57 101.96

11... 106. OS 105.55 104.58! 103.82 102.89 102.68 102.28 102.71 103. 29 103. 52 104.59 104.94

12... 106.04 105.61 104.541 103.69 102.88 102.47 102.21 102.67 103. 26 103. 55 104.58 104.90

13... 106,. 02 105.39 104. 55 103. 62 102.761 102.64 102.24 102.65 103.24 103. 57 104.58 104.89

14... 1116.00 105.25 101.57 103. 70 102.74 102.52 102.36 102.6: 103. 25 103. 73 104. .54 104.91

15... 106.01 105.30 104. 58 103. 62 102.72 102.53 102.3s 102.62 103. 21 103.89 101..54 104.90

16... 105.92 105.40 104.49 103.59 102.72 102.56 102.381 102.6c 103.15 103. 88 104.49! 104.91

17... 105.98 105.40 104.45 103.63 102. 73 102.46 102.33, 102. 58 103. 14 103. 86 104.53 104.89

18... 106.09 105.30 104. 53 103. 63 102.72; 102.56 102.36 102. 63 103. 17 103. 80 104. 54 104. 86

19... 105.99i 105.26 104.47 103. 60 102. 70| 102.50 102.44 102. 67 103. 18 103.81 104. 58 104. 78

20... 106.04! 105.32 104. 50 103.57 102.61 102.75 102.41 102. Si 103. 36 103. 84 104. 58 104. 82

21... 105.92 105.20 104.44 103. 48 102.64, 102.57! 102.54 102.67 103. 31 103. 86 104. 57 104. 75 22... 105. 93 105. 17 104.34 103. 46 102.61 102.501 102.53 102. 69 103. 33 103. 95 104. 60 104. 72 23... 105. 89 105. 14 104.38 103. 47 102. 60 102.42; 102.58 102. 73 103. 37 104. 01 104. 64 104. 73

24... 105. 78 105. 18 191.32 103. 40 102. 56 102.49! 102.56 102. 80 103.38 104.07 104. 65 104.71

25... 105. 76 105. 11 104. 29 103.37 102. 52 102.49! 102.58 102.86 103.39 104. 10 104.70 104. 63

26... 105. 74 105.19 104. 23 103. 33 102. 56 102. 46 102.60 103.07 103. 45 104.14 104. 67 104. 65

27... 105. 74 105. 02 104. 15 103. 3<J 102. 53 102. 45 102.67 103.22 103. 42 104. 24 104. 72 104. 62

28... 105. 75 104. 89 104. 20 103. 32 102. 57 102. 36 102. 68 103. 22 103.41 104. 37 104. 79 104. 59

29... 105. 72 104. 19 103. 32 102. 42 102. 43 102. 08 103. 27 103.41 104. 36 104. 80 104. 57

30... 105. 71 104. 17 103. 24 102. 43 102. 44 102. 71 103. 31 103.42 104. 38 104. 98 104. 52

31... 105. 75 104. 19 102. 35 102. 73 103, 29 104. 39 104. 53

a Jan. 1-23; San Carlos gauge. Jan. 24-June 17, average of San Carlos and Granada gauges. June 18- July 15, average of gauges at San Carlos, Granada, and San Ubaldo. July 16-Dec. 31, averages of gauges at San Carlos, Granada, San Ubaldo, and Sapoa.

Daily elevation of Lake Nicaragua, obtained by averaging the daily elevations as indicated by gauges at San Carlos, Granada, San Ubaldo, and Sapoafor the year 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1... 104.55 103. 96 103. 28 102. 42 101. 75 102. 14 102. 66 104.12 104. 73 105. 49 107. 42 106. 94

2... 104. 50 103. 95 103. 23 102. 37 101.72 102. 16 102. 71 104.10 104.71 105. 70 107. 42 106. 90

3... 104.46 103. 91 103. 23 102.33 101.69 102.17 102. 79 104. 11 104. 75 105. 78 107. 38 106. 87

4... 104. 43 103. 92 103. 17 102. 28 101.63 102. 17 102. 80 104.11 104.79 105. 89 107. 36 106. 89

5... 104. 44 103. 92 103. 09 102. 27 101.59 102. 17 102. 73 104.22 104.83 105. 91 107.36 106. 89

6... 104. 44 103. 87 103. 14 102. 30 101.66 102. 22 102. 87 104.31 104.82 105. 98 107. 33 106. 81 7... 104.40 103.85 103. 12 102. 27 101.56 102. 21 102. 95 104.33 104.79 106. 20 107.32 106. 83

8... 104. 3s 103.87 103. 13 102. 29 101.52 102. 32 102. 93 104.32 101. si 106. 18 107. 34 106. 79

9... 104. 42 103. 80 103. 09 102. 25 101.56 102. 40 103. 03 104.36 104.85 106. 18 107. 32 106. 74

10... 104.37 103. 78 103.06 102. 21 101.53 102. 48 103. 21 104.38 104.84 106. 20 107. 30 106. 78

11... 104. 39 103. 74 103. 03 102. 17 101.50 102. 48 103. 33 104.43 104.83 106. 31 107. 35 106. 79

12... 104. 37 103. 74 103. 00 102.16 101.42 102. 48 103. 43 104.45 104.85 106. 37 107.35 106. 78 13... 104.40 103. 70 103. 01 102. 09 101.47 102.45 103. 42 104.46 104.84 106. 43 107. 33 106. 80

14... 104.30 103. 69 102. 99 102,11 101.48 102. 48 103. 58 104.51 104.81 106.44 107. 34 106. 78

15... 104.32 103. 01 102. 97 102. 10 •101.43 102.45 103. 69 104.48 104.81 106. 47 107. 32 106. 76

16... 104.30 103. 59 102.92 102. 09 101.37 102. 47 103. 66 104.47 104.89 106.50 107. 30 106. 76

17... 104.27 103. 53 102. 89 101.94 101.38 102. 50 103. 78 104.52 104.91 106. 63 107. 29 106. 71

18... 104. 28 103. 52 102. 82 101.98 101.33 102. 54 103. 78 104.51 104.94 106. 66 107. 30 106. 68

19... 104. 25 103. 43 102.77 101.97 101. 35 102. 56 103. 89 104. 48 104.94 106. 69 107. 27 106. 76 20... 104.21 103. 45 102. 77 101.94 101.51 102. 55 103. 89 104.57 105.03 100.75 107. 22 106. 77

21 . .104.2C 103. 45 102. 69 101.94 101.41 102. 60 103. 97 104.56, 105.06 106. 95 107. 22 106. 73

22... 104.18 103.42 102. 07 101.91 101.49 102. 63 103. 95 104.62 105.05 107.07 107.17 106. 73 23... 104.17 103.43 102.67 101.90 101.46 102. 63 104. 02 104.65 105.09 107.24 107. 16 106. 71 24... 104. 10 103.51 102. 02 101.87 101. 48 102. 67 103. 99 104.66 105.14 107.32 107. 12 106.69

25. .

104.18 103. 41 102.62 101.85 101.58 102. 61 104.03 104.62 105.17 107. 37 107. 12 106. 69 26... 104.16 103.29 L02.66 101.86 101.72 102. 63 104.05 104.71 105.19 107. 37 107. 11 106.67

27... 104. 12 103. 35 102. 61 101.85 101.87 102. 60 104.04 104.70 105.18 107. 42 107.05 106.61 28... 104.10 103. 28 102. 73 101.80 101.87 102. 65 104. 05 104.70 105.20 107. 41 107. 05 106. 63

29... 104. 00 102. 51 101.75 101.99 102. 64 104.04 104.72 105.32 107.41 107. 03 106. 64 30... 103, 90 102. 52 101.75 102. 09 102. 53 104. 09 104.73: 105.43 107. 39 106. 99 106. 63

31... 103. 99 102.45 102. 12 104. 09 104.75 107. 39 106. 59
130 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

List of discharge measurements made on Frio River.

Date. Hydrographer.

1899. Mar. 12 Mar. 18

.Mar. 27 Apr. 4 Apr. 15 Apr. 27 Mav 6 Mav 17 May IS June 16 July 10 Sept. ll Sept. 17 Oct. 2 Nov. 1 Nov. 21 Dec. 12 Dec. 15 Dec. 23 Dec. 31

1900. Jan. 2 Jan. 18 Jan. 31 Feb. 12 Mar. 4 Mar. 10 Mar. 24 Apr. 2 Apr. 10 Apr. 17 Apr. 30 Mav 12 May 28 June 21 July 13 July 29 Aug. 12 Aug. 26 Sept. 5

H.C.Hurd

....do

H. H. Morrin . .

....do

....do ....do

....do ....do

C. Hayman

A. Ahrling

....do W.W.Schlecht.

....do

II. W. Durham . ....do

....do H.G. Heisler...

....do

....do ....do

Meter number. Gauge

height.

B. B.,No.l do

do

....do

Ellis, No. 1 ....do do

B.and B.,No.l

Price, No. 63 ... Price, No. 93 ... ....do

Price, No. 34 ... ....do ....do ....do do

Price, No. 93 ... do

do

do

H. G. Heisler Price, No. 93 H. S. Reed Price, No. 63

C. Hayman do . do do

H. C. Hurd Price, No. 34 . .

C. Hayman do

do Price, No. 63 . .

H.O. Hurd Price, No. 35 ... C. Hayman Price, No. 63 . .

do do

do do

do do

do do

H.G. Heisler B. and B., No. 1 do do

do do do do

do do

do do

Fn t. 5.17

5. 75 4.75

4.32

4.07

3.71 3.40

3.40

6.45 2.16

2. 02 3.15

5.80

10.00 9.85 12.83

11.00

10.81 10.85

10.89

10.93 9.85

9.45 8.70

8.20

7.82

7.78

7.45

7.31 6.54

6.79

6.58

7.70

8.45

9.64

11.52 10.76

10.42 11.39

Area of Mean Dis- section, velocity, charge.

Sq. feet. Ft.

2, 913

2, 320

1,690 I 1,788 1,920

1,704

1

666 1,632

2,021

2, 638

2, 013

2, 685

2, 647

2, 658

2, 438 2,911 2,980

2, 960 2,980

2, 980

2, 950 2,658

2,641 2,460

2,174 2,286 2,275

2,187

2, 181

2, 640 2,092

2, 07". 2,210

2,383

2, 818

2,918

2, 881 2,792

3.009

rsee. Sic. feet. 0.79 2,314 .79 1,837 .68 1,154

.74 1,323

1.47 2, si"

.73 1,238

.42 TUT

.74 1,202

.67 1,364 1.33 3,508

1 . 36 2,716

1 . 60 4,262

1.61 4,264 2.00 5, 312

.90 2,203

2. 76 s, 038

1.96 5, S49

1.71 5, 468

1.95 o, ,SU9 2.20 6, 584

2. 13 1.58

.87

.60 .60

.65

.72 .34

-).52

').30

1.87 1.57

1.82

2. 44 1.98

1.78

2. 02

6, 294 4,213

2, 299 1,478

1,363 1,489

1,645

742

(»)1,065 C)

637

4. 126

3, 757 5,140

7, 145

5, 705 5,018

6, 147

a No current.

List of dischargi measurements to determine the dry season inflow to Lake Nicaragua, 1900.

[Made by J. Oscar Jones and Charles Hayman.]

Date. Area of section. Mean

velocity.

Dis- eh'arge.

Feb. 12 Feb. 25 Mar. 14 Mar. 17 Mar. 30 Apr. 3 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 May 4 May 12 Mav 17 Mav 31 Feb. 11 Feb. 24 Mar. 13 Mar. 29 Apr. 4 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 Mav 3 Mav 11 Mav 17 Mav 30 Feb. n

Feb. 23

Sq. ft.

1112

88

6

655

45

1 58

16

119

I

76

66

7627

5

4

Ft. persec. 0.91

.S3 1.16

1.14 1.06 1.16

1.17

1. 17 1.06 1.13

1. 11

2. 07

1. 11

1. IS l.os

l.ls 1.30

1.34 1.32 LOT

1. is 1.16 2.36

.27 .29

Sec. ft. 10 Do 9 Do 10 Do 9 Do 6 Do 7 Do 6 Do 6 Do 4 Do 6 Do 4 Do 121

IS Do 18 Do 10 Do s Do 9 Do S Dm 8 Do .

. 6 Do . . . s Do . .

. 7 Do . .

. 62

2

1
REPORT OK TIIK ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 137

list of discharge measurements to determine the dry season inflow to Lake Nicaragua, 1900—Continued.

Date. Area of section. Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

Guajinequil River—Continued. Do Mar. 12 Mar. 18 Mar. 28 May 29 Feb. -1 Feb. 12 Feb. 18 Mar. 12 Mar. 14 Mar. 30 Mar. 30 Mar. 30 Apr. 3 Apr. 15 Apr. 17 Apr. 22 Apr. 24 May 4 May 15 May 16 May 16 May 25 May 31 Feb. 9 Feb. 22 Feb. 28 Feb. 9 Feb. 11 Feb. 21 Feb. 26 Mar. 13 Mar. 17 Mar. 29 Apr. 4 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 May 3 May 11 May 17 May 30 Feb. 1 Feb. 4 Feb. 20 Feb. 21 Mar. 4 Mar. 7 Mar. 24 Apr. 9 Apr. 23 Apr. 27 May 23 Feb. 11 Feb. 25 Mar. 13 Mar. 17 Mar. 29 Apr. 3 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 May 4 May 11 May 17 May 31 Feb. 4 Feb. 18 Mar. 12 Mar. 15 Mar. 30 ....do...

Sq.ft.

44

2

4 212

2 Hi 166 129

116

73

6773

83

52

52

57

6245

94

87

8170 193

4

3

Ft.persec.

.44 .42

. 52 1.00

1.32

.85 1.16

1.-07 1.16

1.26

1. 16 1.10

1.56 1.27

1.24 1.35

1.37 1.13 1.66

1.30

1.22 1.32 2.16

.44 .40

2.34

.46 2.40

2.35

2.30

2.02

1.46 1.39

1.42

1.40

1.39

1.27

2.34 .95

.81 .82

.52

.77 .75

.75

.74

.72

.71 1.70

1.87

1.69 1.85 2.00

1.86

1.81 1.66

1.65

1.61

1.72

1.74 2.84

1.26

1.06

1.01 .65

.78

.71 .72

.53 .50

.69

.98

.72 1.03

.53

.46

.57 .44

.38 .49

1.11

Sec. ft. z

Do

Do 1 Do 4 282 Do 209 Do 193 Do 138 Do 134 Do . . . 93 Do 7s Do 81 Do .

. 129 Do 67 Do 65 Do 76 Do 85 Do . . 51 Do .

. 156 Do 114 Do . .

. 99 Do 92 Do . . 4172 Do 1 Do

53

10849

30

27

173835

3429

33

35

8142

40

4740

44

42

4038

40

40

56

3732

24

2123

23

212115

19

16. 92 880

440

385

144.

337

1,119

1,237 1,047 1,069

977

989

24

119

3

3

2

1 19

124 Do . 50 Do 117 Do . . 71 Do 61 Do . . 35 Do . : 55 Do . . . 49 Do .

. 49 Do 40 Do . . 46 Do 44 Do 190 Ochomogo River Do

40

33 Do .

. 39 Do 21 Do 34 Do . .

. 32 Do 30 Do . .

. 28 Do 29 Do . . 28 Do 95

69 Do 55 Do 15 Do 42 Do . . . 42 Do 41 Do 34 Do 34 Do . . . 24 Do 34 Do 27 Do 262

1,113 Do 476 Do 389 Do 941 Do 262 Do 790 Do Mar. 31 Apr. 22 Apr. 24 Mav 17 May 26 Feb. 11 Feb. 23 Mar. 12 Mar. 18 Mar. 28 Apr. 4 Apr. 13 Mav 2 Mav 29

893 Do 552 Do 539 Do 674 Do 966 Puehlo River 17 Do 12 Do 5 Do 3 Do 2 Do 1 Do .60 Do 2 Do 21
138 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

List of discliarge measurements to determine the dry season inflow to Lake Nicaragua, V.tOO—Continued.

Date. Area of section. Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

Feb. 11 Feb. 21 Mar. 13 Mar. 17 Mar. 29 Apr. 4 Apr. 11 Apr. 18 Mav 3 Mav 11 May 17 Mav 30 Feb. 14 Feb. 27 Mar. 12 Mar. 19 Mar. 28 Apr. 5 Apr. 13 Apr. 19 Mav 2 Mav 10 Mav 18 Mav 29 Feb. 12 Feb. 25 Mar. 13 Mar. 17 Mar. 30 Apr. 3 Apr. 14 Apr. 18

Sq.ft.

4134

312828

25

22

21.

2129

2486

146

99

817545

4240

39

4140

Ft. per sec. 1.07 1.20

1.35 1.30

1.36

1.42 1.50

1.40 1.50

1.67 1.22 2.58

.54 .53

.66

.71 1.21 1.19

. 22 1.24 1.20

1.20

Sec. ft. u

4142 Do 37 Do 38 Do . 35 Do . . . 33 Do . 30 Do * 31 Do 48 Do 30 Do 220

79 Do 52 Do 53 Do 53 Do 55 Do 50 Do . 48 Do 49 Do 49 Do 48 Do 102 1.30 134 Do 276

9

65

4

45

4

445

3

218855

53

3 159

10

95

12

2.34

.90

.65

.87 .83

.80 .87

.79

. 77 .71

. 92

.87

2. 05

. 32

. 16 .30

2. til

. 82

.71 .63 .39

.18

6608

Di i 4 Do 6 Do 4 Do 3 Do 4 Do 3 Do 8

3 Do Mav 12 Mav 17 Mav 31 Mar. 3 Mar. 21 Apr. 13 Mav 1 Mav 22 Feb. n

Feb. 24 Mar. 13 Mar. is Apr. 4 Apr. 14 Apr. 18 Mav 11 Mav is Maj 30 Feb. 8 Feb. 2 Feb. 16 Mar. 7 Apr. 19 Apr. 25 Apr. 26 Apr. 26 Max 18 Mav 11 Mav 16

43 Do 442825

16 Do 9

131

/62

2

1 .44

4 .49

4 .49

2

2

2

5

7 28

91 221 192 284

.64 .79 1.97

. 52

'J. B8

2. 67

1. 16

45

55

47

636

513 Do 412

413 1.3] 515

115 2. (6 258 1.08 283 278

379

162

37] 268

1 . 32

3.07

1 . 22

1.33

501 Do 196

154

;;.>7

Estimated monthly flow into Lake Nicaragua in excess of evaporation.

Month-; Stored in lake. outflow. Net inflow.

is'.is. Acre-feet. January 4-31, inclusive 666, ioo February 1,218,600 March .'. 1,827,800 April 1,237,600 Mav I 342.700 June 1-1,840,900 July H.980,200

A UgUSt + s";

- sl "' 3eptember " •"'

Act

I i. ++

+

+

+

I,

• I.

i

i -I'nt. 082, 100 928,800

863,600

724, nut

723, 300 841,600

190,900 202,200

313,600

+ l.(

' 2,

I 8,

' I +

1 -flit. Sec. feet. 366,1 294,800 5,310 964,200 15,680 513,500 8,680 066,000 I 17,310 688,500 I 15,200

171, 100 1 51,570

059,000 ! 33, 190 817,800 f 17,850

JA MUA pry

3 •Z 3RUARYO 20 M ARCH

o 20

1kPRIL O 20 MAY

10 ao JUNE

10 20 JULY

10 20 AUGUST

IO 20 SEPTEMBER

IO 2® OCTOBER

10 2o MOVEMBER XCEMBCR

•1

98

15

"

«' P*,

9> P

^ 11 ^

r/ j£ £S <

r

£ ^ t^

^ 10

K

l(

' l(

l(

18 99

'

1

OS

1

r^1 ^

1

ri 605

•,?>/

< £ f>r^ 3^ 55 J^l

19 00

<C" *,

•i p>

$? 3^

#; ^0 kW"

g>>»

^1

- /~

FIG. 4.—ELEVATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA IF ALL WATER HAD BEEN HELD BY A DAM.
KKl'ORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 139

Estimated monthly flow into Lake Nicaragua in excess of evaporation —Continued.

Month.

October... November

December.

1898.

Total for 1898

January

February . March

April May

June

July August September

October November . December.. The year

January...

February.. March

April May

June

July August September

October . .

November

December. The year +3, 922, 240 i +13, 404, 271

Stored in lake.

Acre-feet. + 1,199,500 + 009, 300

- 495, 000

-2,894,200

313,760

637, 440

332, 800

808, 800

094, 560

171,360

552, 160

000, 240

247, 520

S40, 880

123, 360

856, 800 -3,636,640

-1, -1,

-1, -1, ++

+2,

+1,

+1,

+3,

028, 160 351,840

580, 320 332,800

704, 480

780, 640

970, 240

256, 640

294, 720 731,840 761,600

761,000

Outflow. Net inflow,

Acre-feet. + 1,440,000 + 1,512,000 f 1,540,000

Acre-fret. + 2,040,100 + 2,121,300 + 1,045,000

Sec. feet. + 42,900 + 35,050. + 16,990 +13,308,100 i +16,202,300 + 1,443,254 + 1,154,774 + 1,103,500

890, 008

788, 584 + 765, 329 + 881,716 + 944, 403 + 1,021,693 + 1,115,681 + 1,211,088 + 1,250,254

+ 129, 494

482, 666 - 229, 300 - 912, 792 - 905, 976 + 930, 089 + 1,433,870 + 2,010,703 + 1,209,213 + 2,902,501 + 2,334,448 + 393, 454 + 12, 570, 344 + 1,083,292

830, 958

755, .503 062, 205 071,212 + 741,117 + 1,073,149 + 1,288,735 + 1,206,473 + 1,752,367 + 1,679,231 + 1,653,969

8, 939, 704

+ 55, 132 - 514, 882 - 824, 817 - 670, 535 + 1,375,092 + 1,521,757 + 4,043,389 + 2,545,375 + 2,501,193 f 5,484,207 + 917, 631 + 892, 369 + 17,386,511

+ 2,100 - 8,091 - 3,729 -15,341 -14,735 + 15,743 +23,319 + 32,537 + 21,331 +48, 179

4 39,234 + 6,399

+ 897 - 9,270 -13,413 - 1,295 +22,372 +25,575

+65,756 +41,395 +43,045 + 89,189 +15,422 +14,512

Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water had been held by a dam at Sabalos, 1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1... 106. 26 106. 51 106. 39 106. 05 105. 67 105. 25 105. 59 106. 36 107. 55 108. 19 109. 69 110.98

2. 106. 13 106. 50 106. 28 100. 00 105. 73 105. 30 105. 61 106. 38 107. 55 108. 16 109. 69 111.03

3... 100. 26 106. 51 106. 27 106.01 105. 76 105. 29 105. 65 106.41 107. 57 108. 23 109. 69 111.09

4... 100.07 106. 52 106. 34 105. 93 105. 65 105. 22 105. 72 106.39 107. 57 108. 23 109.71 111.03

5... 100.22 106.51 106. 31 105. 97 105. 72 105. 27 105. 71 106. 43 107. 00 108. 25 109. 78 111.08

6... 100.29 106. 57 106. 27 106. 05 105. 51 105. 38 105. 68 106. 40 107.01 108.28 109. 79 111.06

i . .100. 18 106. 59 106. 42 100. 05 105. 60 105. 36 105. 67 106. 48 107. 61 108. 32 109. 80 111.01

8... 100. 25 106.60 106. 25 106. 01 105. 59 105.45 105. 69 106.43 107. 63 108. 33 109. 87 111.02

9... 106. 31 106. 52 106.19 105. 87 105. 51 105. 40 105. 61 106. 40 107. 64 108. 34 110.06 111.09

10... 106.31 106.56 106. 22 105. 96 105.44 105. 43 105.67 100. 47 107. 63 108. 37 110.08 111.11

11... 106. 35 100. 55 106. 16 105. 94 105. 46 105.64 105. 66 106. 56 107. 65 108. 43 110.12 111.11

12... 106. 34 106.63 106. 14 105. 83 105. 46 105. 45 105. 61 106. 53 107. 64 108.48 110.13 111.10

13... 100.34 106. 44 106. 17 105. 77 105.35 105. 64 105. 65 106. 52 107.64 108. 51 110. 15 111.11

14... 100.35 106. 32 106. 21 105. 87 105. 34 105. 53 105. 78 106. 52 107. 67 108. 69 110.13 111.15

15... 100. 3.S 106. 39 106. 24 105. 80 105.34 105.65 105. 81 100. 52 107. 65 108. 87 110.15 111.16

16... 100.32 106.51 106. 17 105. 79 105. 35 105. 60 105. 83 106.54 107. 60 108. 88 110.13 111.19

17... 100.41 106. 53 106. 14 105. 84 105. 37 105. 51 105. 79 106. 51 107. 60 108.88 110.19 111.19

18... 100.55 106. 45 106. 24 105. 86 105. 38 105. 62 105. 83 106. 57 107. 65 108. 84 110 22 111.18

19... 100.47 106. 43 106. 20 105. 85 105. 37 105. 58 105. 93 106. 63 107. 68 108. 87 110.28 111.12

20. .

100. 54 106. 61 106. 25 105.84 105. 29 105. 85 105. 92 100. 06 107. 88 108. 92 110.30 111.19

21. .

100.44 106. 42 106. 21 105. 77 105. 33 105. 68 106. 06 105. 66 107. 85 108. 96 110.31 111.14

22... 100.48 106.41 106. 12 105. 76 105. 31 105. 62 106. 07 106. 70 107. 89 109. 07 110.30 111.13

23... 100. 47 106. 40 106. 18 105. 78 105. 32 105. 55 106.14 106. 76 107. 96 109. 15 110.42 111.16

24... 106. 38 106. 46 106. 14 105. 72 105. 29 105. 63 106. 13 106.85 107.99 109. 23 110.40 111.16

25... 106. 38 106. 41 106.13 105.70 105. 27 105. 65 106. 16 106.93 108. 02 109. 29 110.53 111.10

26... 106. 38 106. 51 106.08 105.68 105. 32 105. 63 106.20 107. 16 108. 10 109. 34 110.52 111.14

27... 100. 40 106. 37 106. 02 105. 71 105. 31 105. 63 106. 29 107. 33 108. 09 109. 40 110. 59 111.13

28... 106. 44 106. 25 106. 09 105. 70 105. 36 105.56 106. 33 107.35 108. 09 109. 61 110. 68 111.12

29... 106.43 106.09 105. 71 105.22 105. 65 106. 33 107. 42 108. 11 109. 62 110.71 111.12

30... 106. 44 106. 09 105. 65 105. 24 105. 67 106. 38 107.48 108.13 109. 60 110.91 111.09

31... 106.51 100. 13 105. 18 106.41 107. 47 109. 09 111.12
140 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Elevation of Lake Nicaragua if all water had been held by a dam at Sabalox, 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec

1... 101.57 101.5fi 104.33 103. 83 103. 52 104. 25 105.16 107.19 108.48 109. 90 112.70 113.16

2... 104. 64 104.50 101.28 103.79 103. 51 104. 28 105.22 107.19 108.48 109. 89 112.79 113.15

3... 104.52 104.51 104.30 103. 76 103.49 104. 30 105.31 107.22 108.54 110.14 112.7s 113.15

4... 104.51 104.57 104.25 103. 73 103. 44 104.31 105.34 107.25 1OS.00 110. 39 112.79 113.20

r>..

104. 54 104.59 104.18 103. 73 103. 41 104. 32 105.29 107.39 108.66 110.44 112. 82 113.23

6... 104.56 101.50 104.24 103.77 103. 49 104. 38 105.44 107.51 108.67 110.54 112.82 113,. 17

7. .

101.51 104.55 104.23 103. 75 103. 10 104. 38 105. .54 107 55 108.06 110.79 112.84 113.22

s... 104. 54 104.58 lol. 25 103. 79 103.37 104. 51 105.5*' 107.57 108.70 110. 80 112.89 113.21 9... 104. CO 104.52 101.22 103. 76 103.42 104. 61 105.65 107.63 108. 76 110. 83 112.90 113.19

10... 104.57 104.52 104.21 103. 73 103. 40 104. 70 105.85 107.67 108. 77 110. 88 112. 91 113.26

11... 104. Gl 104.50 101.20 103. 70 103. 38 104.71 105.99 107.74 108. 78 111.02 112.99 113.30

VI... 101.01 104.52 101.19 103. 70 103. 31 104. 72 106.11 107.78 I OS. 82 111.11 113. 02 113.32

13... 104.65 101.50 1(11.21 103. 64 103. 37 104. 70 106.12 107. si 108. 83 111.20 113. 03 113.37

14... L04.57 104.50 104.20 103. 67 103. 39 104. 74 100. .19 107.88 108. 82 111.23 113.07 113.37

1.-,... 104.01 104.43 104.19 103. 68 103. 35 104.72 100.43 107.87 108. 84 111.28 113.08 113.39

16... 104.01 104.42 104.15 103. 68 103. 30 104. 70 106.42 107.88 108.94 111.34 113.09 113. 12 17... 101.00 101. 37 104.13 103.54 103. 32 104. 81 106.56 107.95 108. 98 111.50 113.11 113.40

IS... 104.63 L04.38 101.07 103. 59 103.28 104.87 106. 58 107. 96 109. 04 111.56 113.15 113.40

19... 104.61 104.31 104.03 103. 59 103. 31 104. 91 106. 71 107. 95 109. 07 111.62 113.15 113.50

20... 104. 58 104.35i 104.05 103. 57 103. 48 104. 92 106. 73 108.06 109. 19 111.71 113.13 113.54 21... 104. 59 104.37 103.98 103. 58 103. 39 104. 98 106. 83 108. 07 109. 24 111.95 113.16 113.53

22... 104.59 104. 36 103. 97 103.56 103. 48 105. 02 106. 83 108. 15 109.25 112. 11 113.14 113.55

23... 104.60 104. 38 103. 98 103. 56 103. 46 105. 03 106. 92 108. 20 109.31 112.31 113.16 113.56

24. .

104.61 104. 48 103. 94 103. 54 103. 49 105. 09 106. 91 108. 23 109. 38 112.12 113.14 113.57

J.".... 104. 65 104.39 103.95 103. 53 103. 60 105. 04 107. 03 108. 21 109. 44 112.50 113.17 113.59

26... 101.04 104.28 104.00 103. 56 103. 76 105.07 107. 01 1 OS. 3,2 109.48 112. 53 113.19 113.60

27... 104.63 104.35 103.97 103. 57 103. 92 105. 05 107. 01 L08.34 109. 49 112.61 113.16 113.57

28... 104. 63 104.29 104.10 103. 53 103. 93 105. 11 107. 04 108.36 109. 53 112. 63 113.19 113.62

29... 104.55 103.89 103. 19 104. 06 105. 11 107. 05 108. 40 109. 68 112. 66 113.19 113.65

30... 104. 46 103.91 103. 50 104. 17 105. 02 107. 12 108. 11 109.82 112.67 113. 18 113.69

31... 104.56 103.85 104.22 107. 14 108.48 112. 70 113.65

SAN JUAN RIVER. The San Juan River is the sole outlet of Lake Nicaragua and its tributary drainage basin. Its total length from the lake to the sea is 122 miles and it is usually navigable for light-draft river steamers.

It leaves the lake at Fort San Carlos at an altitude varying from about

1*7 feet to about 110. Its course for a distance of 27 miles is through

a low swampy country, relieved by occasional hills. Through this course the river is sluggish and receives several tributaries of small

discharge, which, in the dry season, are practically still water. The

principal of these are the Melchora, Medio Queso, Palo de Arco, and

Negro. The first tributary of importance to the San Juan River is tin- Sabalos, which enters from the north and empties 27 miles east of

Fort San Carlos. About half a mile below the mouth of the Sabalos

are the first rapids, called "Toro Rapids/1 These rapids are caused

by bowlders and gravel, probably brought into the river by the Sabalos

in former times, but do not seriously obstruct navigation except in times of extremely low water. Below this point the San Juan receives

the waters of a few streams, the principal of which are the Poco Sol

and the Santa Cruz. Ten miles below Toro Rapids occur the largest

rapids on the river, at Castillo Viejo. At this point the river falls about .) feet in a few hundred feet, and steamers are seldom taken over

the rapids except in high water. A railroad about 2,000 feet long is provided for the portage of freight and passengers on the right bank

of the river. Below Castillo are the Diamond, Balas, and Machuca rapids, the

latter being 12 miles from Castillo. All of these rapids admit the pas- sage of river steamers except at extreme low water. Below Machuca

there are no more rapids. The river is deep and sluggish for a dis- tance of about 15 miles to the point where it receives the waters and
KKl'ORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 141

sediment of the San Carlos. This river is the largest tributary of the

San Juan, rising far to the southward in the mountains of Costa Mica,

and bearing such a volume of sediment that a delta has been built up

at its mouth and from this point to the sea the San Juan is a shallow

stream with sandy shifting bed. Twent}r -tive miles farther down the

Sarapiqui empties into the San Juan from Costa Rica, being the tributary next in size to the San Carlos, and, like the latter, bearing large

quantities of sediment in times of Hood. Eight miles below the mouth

of the Sarapiqui the San Juan assumes decidedly the character of a

deltaic stream and sends out a small tributary known as the San

Juanillo, which meanders through the swamps to the northward, and,

after receiving the drainage of the Deseado, reenters the San Juan 1

miles above its mouth. Five miles below the exit of the San Juanillo, or 103 miles from Lake Nicaragua, the main stream of the San Juan

separates into two large distributaries, the larger, called the Colorado,

flowing eastward directly to the Caribbean, and the smaller, or lower

San Juan, meandering to the northeast and finding its exit into the ocean at Greytown. Between the mouth of the Colorado and the

lower San Juan another distributary, called the Taura, finds its way

from the lower San Juan to the sea. The principal obstructions to free navigation of light-draft river

craft from Greytown to Fort San Carlos consist of the shoal character

of the lower San Juan, especially in times of low water, and of the

rapids lying between Machuca and the mouth of the Sabalos. For

purposes of a ship canal the river also requires deepening below the

mouth of the San Carlos and between the Sabalos and Fort San Carlos.

The only portion of the river which is suitable in its present state for a ship canal is the part from Machuca to a point a short distance

above Boca San Carlos, or about 15 miles out of 122, and even here some dredging must be done and two sharp bends eliminated to permit

the safe passage of the largest ships.

Rating table for San Juan River at Fori San Curios.

Lake ! Dis- height. charge.

Fnl.

9ti.il 9li.l 96.

96. :i 96.4

96. 5

9(1. 6

96. 7 96.8

96. 9 97.0

97.

97. 2

97.:: 97. 1 97.5

97.6 97.7 97.8

97.9

98.0

98.1 98.2

98.3

98.4 98.5

98.6

98.7

Sec. feet. 3,000

3,115

3,230

3, 345

3, 400

3, 575

3, 690

3,810

3,930 4,050

4,170

1,290

I. Ill) 4,535

4.660

1,785 4,910

5,035

5,160

5,290

5, 120

5, 550

5,680

5, 810 5,945

6,080

6,215

6, 350 6,490

Lake Dis- height. charge.

Feet. 98.9

99.0

99.1 99.2

99.3 99.4

99.5

99.6

99.7 99.8

99.9

100.0

100.1 100.2 100.3

100.4

100.

100.6

100.7 100.8

100.9 101.0

101.1 101.2

101.3

101.4 101.5

101. (1 101.7

Sec. feet. 6,630

6,770

6,910

7,050

7,190

7,330

7, 475 7,620

7,770

7, 920

8,070

8,220

8, 375 8,530

8.6S5 8,840

8, 995

9, 155 9,315

9, 475 9,635

9, 795

9, 958 10,115

10,280

10, 450

10. 625

10,800 10,975

Lake Dis- '• Lake Dis. height. charge. height. charge.

Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feel. 101.8 11,150 104.7 18, 350

101.9 11,325 101.

18, 675 102.0 11,500 104.9 19, 000

102.

11, 675 105. 19, 325

102.

11,850 105.

19,650

102. 3 12, 025 105.2 19, 980

102. 1 12, 215 105.3 20, 310

102. 5 12, 400 105. 4 20, 680

102. 6 12,590 105. 5 21,055

102. 7 12, 780 105.21.435

102.S 13, 000 105.

21,815

102.

13, 220 105.22, 195 103.0 13, 450 105.

22, 595

103.1 13, 680 106.0 22, 995 103.2 13, 910 106.1 23, 395

103.3 14, 140 106.2 23, 795 103.4 14,410 106.3 24, 195

103.5 14, 680 106.4 24, 790 103.6 14, 950 106.5 25, 490

103.7 15, 220 106.6 26, 290

103.8 15,490 10C. 7 27, 600

103.9 15, 760 106.8 27, 920

104.0 16,080 106. 9 28,240

104.1 16, 400 107.0 28, 560

104.

16, 725 106.1 28,880

104.3 17,050 107.2 29, 200

104.4 17, 375 io7.:; 29,550 104.5 17,700 107.4 29, 900

104.6 18, 025 107. 5 30,250
142 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

SAN JUAN RIVER ABOVE LOS SABALOS.

A record has been kept of the discharge of the river at this point ever since January, 1898. The station used during 1898 and a portion

of 1899 was found objectionable in some respects, especially showing

evidence at times of being affected by high water in the Sabalos River,

which enters the San Juan half a mile below. In October, 18!)! t, a gauge was placed farther up the river at the mouth of an insignificant

tributary called Farina. The discharge at this point is the same as at that previously occupied, there being no tributaries between. This

gauge was connected with the bench mark of the precise levels showing the zero of the rod to be at elevation 90.794 feet above sea level.. In October, 1899, a gauge rod was placed on the right bank of the

San Juan one-half mile below the east end of Isla Grande, near station

121 of the river survey. The zero of this is 95.29 feet above sea level. Occasional readings were taken of this gauge when convenient to compare with those observed at Los Sabalos for determining the slope

of the river between the gauges. Eight cross sections were measured

between these points at known gauge heights, by Mr. H. C. Hurd,

showing the average cross section of 8,714 square feet with the Isla Grande gauge rod at 4.9. Cross section No. 3, which occurs just above

Isla Chica, a mile below the upper slope rod, gives an area of 8,799

square feet.

Daily gauge height of San Juan River, Isla Grande, 1900.

Month. Day. Feet. Month. Day. Feet. Month. Day. Feet.

1120

413

3

4

7

10 14

16

17182

10

1112

II15

it; 18

19

6.37 6.20

5.99

5.06

4.60

4.65

4.55

4.50 4.50

4.41

4. 26

4.20

4.28

4.15 4.05

4.07 4.15

1.07 4.12 4.10

4.05

2122

2325

2628

29

31

1

•ji

.>6

78

9

1213

1115

4.12

4.05

4.02

4. 22 4.28

4.72 4.90

1.72 4.60

4.71 4.74

4.90

4.87 4.90

5. 12 5.09

4.95 4.98 4.93 4.92

2122

3

8

13 14

19 20

2127

313

8

13

Hi 24

31

1

13

5.07 Do. . Do Do 5.15 Do July 5.30 March Do Do 6.02 Do Do 6.61 Do... Do Do 6.32 Do... Do Do 6.65 Do.. Do... Do 6.44 Do... Do 6.41 Do. Do Do 6.21 Do... Do Do 6. 52 Do... Do 6.95 Do... Do 7.06 Do Do Do 6.65 Do Do... Do 6.61 Do... Do... Do 6. 76 Do Do... Do

September

October December

(i. ST Do Do... C. 85 Do... Do... 8. •_''< Do Do s. |f> Ho
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 143

Daily gauge height of San hunt River at Los Sabaloe Station, 1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. i Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 10.82 10. 32 9. 90 3.36 8.88 8.43 8.81 8.80 9.41 9. 12 9.76 10. 31

i — 10.79 10. 31 9.90 9. 30 s. ss 8.45 8. 98 9.00 9.37 9.58 9.77 10.27

10.70 10.29 9. 85 9. 25 8. 87 8. 43 8. 89 S.89 9.37 9.47 9.79 10.14 J

l 10.71 10. 26 9. 85 9.17 8.90 8.43 8.90 8.85 9.33 9.51 9. 84 10. 20

10.76 10. 22 9. 85 9.19 8.86 8.41 8.63 S.90 9. 25 9. 11 9.95 10.16

6 10.75 10. 27 9.80 9. 22 8.78 8.46 8. 53 8.90 9.22 9. 37 10.16 10. 15

/ 10.71 10.27 9.75 9.20 8. 72 8 53 8. 55 S. S I 9.19 9. 10 10.11 10.16

10.71 10. 25 9.70 9.17 8. 72 8.56 8. 51 s. 93 9.19 9. 32 10. OS 10.14 10.73 10.21 9.70 9.14 8. 62 8.65 8.53 9. 05 9. 21 9.33 10.19 10.17

in 10. 79 10.21 9. 65 9.12 8.62 8.78 8.61 8.91 9.24 9.35 10. 13 10.19 n 10.77 10. 22 9. 65 9.13 8.62 8.79 8.78 8.S7 9. 28 9.42 10.11 10.19

12 10.83 10. 26 9. 65 9.11 8.60 8.78 8.83 8. 83 9.30 9.56 10.16 10. 15

13 10.84 10. 20 9.65 9.10 8.54 8.78 8.78 8. S3 9.19 9. 53 10. 15 10.14

11 10.76 10.07 9. 66 9.11 8. 57 8.69 9.10 8.85 9.15 9.75 10.07 10. 12

15 10. 96 10. 09 9.60 9.10 8.54 8.71 9.00 8.82 9.14 10.00 10.35 10. OS

16 10.78 10.09 9.60 9.07 8.54 8.68 8.77 8. 91 9.08 9.75 10.13 10. 01

17 10.75 10. 12 9. 55 9.08 8.53 8.64 8.70 9.00 9. 22 9.95 10.08 10.04 18 10.71 10.19 9.55 9.09 8.55 8.65 8.70 9.40 9.39 9.72 10.06 10.04

19 10.64 10.11 9.60 9.09 8.52 8.70 8.73 9.34 9.50 9. 52 10. 03 10.04

20 10. 59 10.11 9.60 9.04 8. 52 8.81 8.76 9. (Hi 9. 70 9.49 10.08 10.05

21 10. 57 10.08 9. 55 9.04 8.52 8.72 9.53 9.00 10. 26 9.56 9.98 10.03

22 10.58 10.04 9. 55 8.98 8.45 8.63 9.42 9.10 10. 85 9.65 10.08 9.99

10. 56 10.01 9. 50 8.91 8.49 8.55 8.97 9.22 11.00 10. 10 10. 01 9.98

24 10. 54 10.00 9. 15 8. 85 8.51 8.55 9.05 9.49 9.69 10.11 10. 05 9.98

10.50 9.97 9. 45 8.83 8.50 8.56 9.24 9.86 9.50 9.86 10. 05 9.93

26 10. 45 9.98 9.45 8.88 8.48 8.55 9.46 9.98 9.49 9.79 10.07 9.87

-'7 10.47 9.95 9.40 8.88 8.46 8.54 9. 24 9.54 9.37 9.79 10.15 9.87

28 .... 10. 43 9.90 9.40 8.87 8. 45 8.68 9.03 9.49 9.34 9.84 10.11 9.88

29 10.41 9.40 8.85 8.47 8.69 8.87 9.40 9.37 9.86 10.17 9.88

30 10.39 9.35 8.82 8.44 8.58 8.89 9.35 9.35 9.84 10. 24 9.85 «.... 10.34 9.40 8.53 8.82 9.35 9.79 9.85

Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Los Sabalos Station, 1900.

Day. Jan.

1 Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 9.88 9.45 8.97 8.47 8.16 8.41 S.72 9.88 10. 21 11.11 11. 72 11.51

2 9. 85 9.43 8.90 8.40 8.18 8.46 8.81 9.85 ! 10.20 11.68 11.71 11.45

3 9. S3 9.39 8.93 8.40 8.11 8.46 9.17 10. 45 ! 10. 18 11.40 11.74 11.45

4 9.84 9.43 8.84 8.37 7.99 8.51 9.07 10.78 10.16 11.39 11.71 11.48

5 9.84 9.41 8.77 8.34 7.87 8.60 9.29 11. 53 10.18 11. 28 11.67 11.41

6 9.80 9.35 8.76 8.31 7.86 8.61 8.99 10.87 10.20 i 11.20 11.68 11.37

7 9. 7S 9.32 8.74 8.35 7.81 8.61 9.16 10.70 10.18 i 11.40 11.70 11.41 8 9.78 9.32 s. 77 8.37 7.86 8.81 9.71 10.46 10.15 1 11.76 11.72 11.40

9 9.74 9.35 8.77 8.34 7.85 8.77 9.40 10. 20 10.12 11.50 11.68 11.45

10 9.72 9.25 8.80 8.27 7.95 8.76 9.65 10. 20 10.14 i 11.44 11.69 11.39

11 9.78 9.25 8.79 8.32 7.92 8.75 9.57 10. 15 10.20 : 11.31 11.75 11.41 12 9. 78 9.26 8.77 8.33 7.93 8.72 9.60 10.10 10.19 11.27 11.67 11.65 13 9.74 9.29 8.71 8.26 7.95 8.80 10.21 10.03 10. 14 11. 23 11.60 11.62

14 9.70 9.24 8.75 8.24 8.02 8.66 9.81 10.26 10.11 11.21 11.56 11.51 15 9.70 9.21 s.71 8.18 8.08 8.63 9.66 10.20 10.14 11.26 11.52 11.42 16 9.6S 9.24 8.73 8.19 8.00 8.66 10.61 10.03 10.35 11.28 11.52 11. 38 17 9.71 9.23 8.68 8.10 8.02 9.13 10.18 9.9. 10.26 1 11.29 11.53 11.36 IS 9.07 9.19 8.63 8.09 7.96 9.31 10.07 9.97 10.22 1 11.32 11.52 11.35 19 9. 68 9.10 8. 59 8.14 7.97 8.94 10.07 10.01 10.43 1 11.42 11.53 11 38 20 9.64 9.12 8.68 8.15 7.97 8.82 9.88 10.02 10.39 ' 11.58 11.53 11.36

21 9.60 9.12 8.52 8.20 8.00 8.77 9.78 10.10 10.32 12.66 11.54 11.32 22 9.61 9.10 S.51 8.13 8.00 8.77 9.79 10. 24 10 52 12. 75 11.58 11.29 9.59 9.05 8.52 8.15 7.95 8.78 9.S7 10.14 10. 52 12. 41 11.51 11. 25 24 9.60 9.13 8.60 8.11 8.01 8.75 9.85 10.14 10.51 12. 21 11.48 11. 22 9.58 9.06 8.58 S. 14 8.06 8.64 9.73 10.16 10.60 12. 09 11.48 11.20 1 26 9.58 9.01 8. 58 8.23 8.16 8.63 9.71 10.36 10.59 11.96 11.44 11.14 ' 2/ 9. 55 9.00 8.57 8.27 8.30 8.67 9.68 10.57 10. 54 11.87 11.39 11.12 28 9.57 8.95 8.53 8.17 8.44 8.68 9.72 10. 45 10.50 | 11.81 11.36 11.10 29 9.53 8.54 8.18 8.49 8.74 9.74 10.30 10.70 t 11.79 11.33 11.09 30 9.50 8.52 8.08 8.47 8.73 9.72 10. 29 11.14 11.77 11.36 11. 05

3] 9.50 s.40 8.47 9.97 10.20

1 11.731 11.03
144 REPORT <>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rating table for San Juan River at Los Sabalos.

[This table is applicable only from January 1, 1898, to December 31, 1899, and from March l, 1901, to April 30, 1901.]

Gauge

height.

/•; - t.

Discharge.

ScCOTld fit 1.

Gauge

height. Discharge, i Gauge

height. Discharge. Gaugeheight. Discharge.

Ft l. Second-feet. Feet. Second feet. Feet. Second-feet. 8.0 11,130 9.0 11,710 10.0 20, 010 11.0 25, 310

8.1 11,320 9.1 15,240 10.1 20,540 11.1 25, 840

8.2 11,530 9. 2 16, 770 10.2 21,(170 11.2 26, 370

8.3" 1 1 , 760 9. 3 16, 300 10.3 21,600 11.3 26, 900

8.4 12,040 9.4 16, 830 10.4 22,130 11.4 27, 430 8.5 12,380 9. 5 17, 360 | 10.5 22, 660 11.5 27, 960

8.6 12,760 9. 6 17,890 10.6 23, 190 11.6 28, 490

8.7 13,200 9.7 18, 420 10.7 23, 720 11.7 29, 020

8.8 13,680 9.8 18, 950 ' 10.8 24, 250 11.8 29,550

8.9 L4,180 9.9 19, 480 10.9 24, 780 11.9 30, 080 :

[This table is applicable only from January 1, 1900, to February 28, 1901.]

7.7 10,400 8.8 12, 720 9.9 18, 840 11.0 25, 000

7.8 in. 190 8.9 13,250 10.0 19, 400 11.1 25, 560

7.9 10, 600 9.0 13,800 10.1 19,960 11.2 26, 120 8.0 10, 740 9.1 14, 360 10.2 20, 520 11.3 26, 680

8.1 10, 890 9.2 14, 920 10.3 21,080 11.4 27, 240

8.2 11,050 9.3 15, 480 10.4 21, 640 11.5 27, 800

8.3 11,220 9.4 16, 040 10.5 22.200 11.6 28, 360

8.4 11,400 9.5 16,600 10.6 22. 760 11.7 28, 920

8.5 11,600 9.6 17, 160 10.7 23, 320 11.8 29,480

8.6 11,900 9.7 17,720 10.8 23, 880 11.9 30, 040

s.7 12,280 9. 8 18,280 10.9 24,440 12.0 30, 600

Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River at Station Sabalos.

Monl hs.

1899. January

February March

April May

June

idly August September

i (ctober November

i December The year

Discharge. Maxi- mum.

Sec. ft. 25, 100 21.720

19. ISO 16,618

I I, 121 13,730

17,519

19,904 25,310

20,593 21,865

21,653

Mini- mum.

25, 310

Sec. ft

21,810

19,480

16,560

13, 780

12, 176 11,942

12,418

13, 680

15,134

I.'), 169

111, 135

17,21:;

Total.

Sec. ft. 23, 472

20, 792

17,946

15, 658 12,825

12, 862

14, 193

15, 360

17, 170 18,144

20, 353

20, 333

11,942 17,37012,576,344

Acre-feet.

1, 443, 254 1,154,774 1,103,500

896, 008

788, 584

765, 329 881,716

944,463

1,021,693

1,115,681

1,211, OSS 1,250,254

Months.

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September. .

October November . .

December . . The year

Discharge. Maxi- mum, mum.

Sec. ft 18,943

16,320 13,635

11,540

12, 588

15,536 22,816

27, 968

25, 784 34,800

29, 200

28,640

34,800

MiniSec.ft. 16,600

13, 800

1 1 , 520

10,407

10,263

1 1 . 420

12,368 17,649

19,338 23,466

25, 345

25, 168

10, 263

Total.

Sec. ft. 17,618

15,070

12,287, 11,128

10,916 12,455

17,453, 20,959

21,283

28, 199 28,220

26,915,

Acre feet. 1,083,292 836,958

755, 503 662,265

671,212

711,117

1,073, 119

1 . 2SS, 735

1 , 266, 473

1,752,367

1,679,231

1 . 653, 969 18,60013,461.271

CASTILLO STATION ON SAN JUAN RIVER. Twogauges were placed in the San Juan River at Castillo, one above

the falls and one below. The upper gauge was fastened to the downstream support of the first building below the steamboat wharf above

the rapids. The lower gauge was fastened to the northeast corner of

the wharf at the lower Bodega below the rapids. The zero of the

upper gauge is 5.65 feet above the zero of the lower. Mr. John S. Augustine, the agent at Castillo, was employed to read the gauges,

daily readings being taken of both. He also kept a record of rainfall. Old residents testify that on August 30, 1892, the water reached an

elevation which would correspond to a reading on the lower gauge of

11.1. This is marked on custom-house Bodega, with date.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 145

One year later, November 20, 1893, the water came still higher,

being about 4 inches over the floor of custom-house. This would make

a rod reading of 12.3. These rod readings correspond to the lower

gauge at the custom-house.

Daily gauge height of San Juan Hirer at Castillo above falls, 1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar.

3.10 3.10

3.10

3.00 3.00

3.00

3.00 2.90

2.90

2.90

2.90 2.90

2.90 2.90

2.90

3.80

3.80 3.80

3.80

2.90

2.90

2.90

2.90

2.90

2.90 2.80

2.80

2. 80 2.80

2.80 2.80

Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept.

3. 10 3.00 3.00

2.90 2.80

2.70

2.70 2.35

2.30

2.30

2. 45 2.90 2.80

2.80

2.60

2.60 2.70

3.20 3.20

3.50 4.50

5.70 5.55

3.80

3.50 3.40

3.35

3.30

3.30

3.30

Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 3.80 3.80

3. 80 3.90

4.00 4.20

4.20 4.90

4.30

4.10

5.00 5.00

4.80

4.20

4.00

4.10

4.00

3.80

3.80

3.70

3.70

3.70 3.80

3.80

3.80

3.80 3.70

3.70

3.70

3.50

3.50 3.50

3.50

3.50

3.40

3.40

3.40

3.30

3.30

3.30

3.30

3.50

3.50

3.50 3.50

3.40

3.30

3.30

3.30 3.20

3.20

3.20

3.30

3.30 3.30

3.30

3.30 3.00

2.80

2.80

2.70 2.70

2.65

2.70

2.80

2.80 2.80

2.80

2.70

2.80

2.70 2.70

2.60

2.55 2.40

2.40

2.40 2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40

2.40 2.40

2.40

2.40

2. 20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20 2.00

2.00

2. 20

2.20

2.20

2.20 2.20

2.20

2. 20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20 2.20

2.20

2.20

2.20

2. 20

2.20

2.20

2. 20 2.20

2.20

2.10

2.10

2.10

2.50 2.50

3.00

2. 50

3.00 2.60

2.10 2.10

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.10 2.10 2.10

2.10

2.10

2.10

2.10

2.10

2.10

2.50

2.40 2.60

2.40

2.80 2.80

2.80

2.60

2.50

2.00

2.10 2.15

2.70 3.40

3.00

2.80

3.70

2.30

2. 30

2.30

2. 75 2.75

2.75

4.00

3.80 3.50

2.50

2.70

4.00

3.35

2.50

2.50

2.50 2.45

2. 50 2.90

2.85

2.85

2.90 2.75

2.80

2.70 2.70

2.90

2.60

2. 55 2.50 2.60

2.60 2.60

2.80

3.30

3.60 2.95

2.90

3.20

3.10

3.50

4.00 3.60

3.60

3.30 3.20

3.10

3.50

3.05

3.00

3.00

3.30

3. 10 2.95

2. 90

2. 90

2. 90

2. 90

2. 90 3.10

3.00

3.55

3.80

3.30

3.30

3.20 3.00

2.95

3.00

3.00

3.90

3.80

3.25 3.10

3.10

3.05 3.05

3.05

3.05

3. 00

3. 00 3.00

3.10

3. 40 3.70

3. (10 3.60

3.60

3.80

3. 80 3.30

3.80

3. 80

3. Ml 3.70

3.70 3.65

3.65

3.60

3.60

3.55

3.45

2.40

3.40

3.35

3.30

3.30

3.40

3.40

3. 50 3.50

3. 55 3.40

3.40 3.30

3.35

3.40

3. 45 3.50

3.50 3.45

3.40

3.35 3.30

3.20

3.20

3.20

3. 00 3.50

3.40

3.40

3. 35 3.30

3.25 3.20

3.20

3.20

3.20

3.00

3.00

3

4

78

9

10

111213

1415

1617

181920

2122

23

24

2627

28

2930

31

Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Castillo, above falls, 1900.

Dav.

2.70

2.70

2. 75

2. 75

2.80 2.70 2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70 2.70

2.60

2.60

2.60

2.60

2. 50 2.50

2. 50 2.50 2.50

2.50

2.50

2. 50 2.40 2.45

2.40

Mar.

2.40

2.50

2. 50

2. 45

2. 45 2.40

2.40

2.30

2.30

2.30

2.30 2.30

2.20

2. 15

2. 15 2.15

2.15

2.15

2.30

2.30 2.30

2.20

2. 20

2. 20

2. 20 2.00

1.80

1.75 1.50

1.30

.80

Apr.

1.00

1.00 1.80 1.80

1.80 2.00

2.00

2.00 2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00 2.00

2.00

2.00

1.90 1.70

1.80 1.80

1.80 1.80

1.80

1.80

1.80 1.80 2.00

2.00

1.80 1.80

1.70

May.

1.70

1.70 1.70

1.50

1.50

1.30

1.30

-.40 .40

.40

.60

.50

.50

.50

.55

.55

.55

.50

.50

.45 .45 .45

.45

.45

.50 .70

.70 1.30

1.00 1.00

1.00

June.

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00

1.00 1.00

1.00

1.00 1.00

1.00 1.00 1.00

1.00 2.10

2.30

1.40 1.40

1.00

1.00 1.00

1.00 1.00

.95

.95

.95 1.00

1.00

July.

1.00

1.00

1.00 1.50

1.50 1.50

1.40 2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00 2.00

2.80

2.30

1.70 2.80

2.80

2.30

2.30 2.30

2.10 2.10

2.00

2.00

2.00

1.95

1.95 1.95

1.95 1.95

1.95

Aug.

2.70

2.70

3.85 5.15

5.00

4.85

3.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

3.10

3.80

5. 50 3.40

2.40

2. 25

2.65

2.65

2.60

2.80

2.70

2.30

2. 35

2.40

2. 45 4.25

2.70

3.85

2.70

2. 60

Sept.

2.00 2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

1.90

1.90

1.90 1.90

1.95

2. 20

2.30

2.35

2. 35 2.30

2. 35 2.65

3.00 3.10

3.00

3.00 3.05

3.05

3.15

3. 25

3. 35 3.35

3. 55 4.55

5. 55

Oct.

3.60

3.85

3.90 3.85

3.40

3.23

3. 20

3.60 3.30

3.30

3.20 3.10 3.10

3.00

2. 85 3.00 3.00

2.90

3.00

4.85

5.10

4.10

4.00

3.90

4.00

4.00 4.00

3. 50 3.50 3.20

3.30

Nov. Dec.

3.20 2. 80

3.20 2.85

3.25 2.80

3.20 2. 70 3.20 2.70

3.10 2.70 3.15 2.80

3.15 2.90

3.10 2.90

3.10 2.95

3.10 3.15

3.10 3. 85

3.10 3.90

3.00 3.70

3.10 3.55 3.10 3.60

' 3.10 3. 50 3.10 3.40

3.10 3. 10 3.10 3.10 3.10 3.00

3.10 3.00

3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00

3.00 3.00

3.00 3.00 2.90 3.00 2.90 3.00

2.80 3.00 2.80 3.00 3.00 »New rod; elevation of zero = S. Doc. 54, pt 2 10

:.63 or 0.90 higher than old rod.
14(5 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily gaugi height of San Juan River at Castillo, below falls, 1899.

Dnih/ i/iiiii/r height of Sun Juan River at Castillo below falls, 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Auk. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

5.00 1.50 4.50

1.50

1. 50

1. 40

1. 10 1.40 4.35

4. 35 4.32

4.32 4.42

4.50

4.50

4.50

4.40 4.35

4.30

4. 25

1.20

1.20 4.20

4.20

4.30 4.30

4.30

4.25

4.00

3.90

3.90 3.90

3.80 3.80

3.80

3.80

3.70 3.70

3.70

3.70

3.70

3.70

3.70

3.70

3.60

3.52 3.50

3.50

3. 50 3.50

3.50

3.50

3.50

3.40

3.40

3.40

3.45

3.40

3.40 3.40

3.30 3.30

3.30

3.27 3.25

3.30

3.32 3.35

3.40

3.40

3.30

3. 35

3. 30 3.30

3. 30 3.30 3.30 3.30

3.30 3.30

3.40

3.40 3.40

3.50 3.55

3.50

3. 50 3.50

3.50

3.50

3.50

2.80

2.80 2.80

2.80 2.80

2.80

2.80 2.80

2. 80 2.80

2.80

2.50

2. 50

2.70 2.70

2.60

2.60

2.60

2.60

2. 60

2. 60 2.60

2.60

2.60

2. 60

2. 60 2.60

2.60

2.60

2.60

3.05

3.00 3.00

2. 95 3.00

3.00

3.00

2.90

2.90

3.55

3. 20

3.60

3.35

3.30

3.15

2.80

2. 80

2. 90 2.55

2. 15

2. .50 2.50 2.50

2. 50 2.50

2.50

2.50

2. 85 2.80

3.00

2. 85 3.30

:;. 75 3.50

3.40

3.30

2.60

2. 52

2. 65

3.02 3.78

3.90

;;. 80 4.45

2.90 2.85

3.00

3.30

3.30 3.35 4.25

3.90

3. 35 3.62 4.65

4.20

3. 60

3. 10 3.40

3.30

3. 15 3.50

3. 52 3.50

3.60

:;. 52

3. 55 3.70

3. 98 3.40

3.18

3.02 3.00

3.50

3.00

3.05

3. 50

5.10

5. 12 3.50

3.60

4.20

4.05 4.60

5.25

5. 05

4.72

4. 25 4.00 3.85

3.82

3.90

3. 60 3.00

3.50 3.50

3. 40 3.40

3. 42 3.40

3. 40 3.50

3.50

3.40

3.40 3.20

3.20

3.50

4.15

4. 00 4.50

6.15

7.30

6. 55

I. 70 4.48

4.40

1.20 4.20

4. 20

4. 20

4.00

4.00

4.00

4.20

3.90

3.50

3.55

3.45

:;. id

:;. in 3.50 3.90

3.70

1.75 4.98

1.00

1.00 3.90

3. 75 3.70

3. 60

3. 72

... in 4.95

1.35 4.00

1.00 4.00

3.90

3.90 3.90

3.80

3.95

3. 75 3.90

1.3S

4. 95 4.90

4.80

4.80

5.00

5.30

5. 92 5.02

5.00

5.00 4.95

4. 95

4.90

I.SO 4.70

1. 65 4.60

1. 45 4.30

4.30

4.30

1.20 4.20 4.10

4.10

1.50 4.50 4.50

1.38 4.40

1.30

1.38

1. 40 4.40 4.50

4.50

4.42 4.40

4. 3s 4.20 4.25

4. 22 4.20

4. 50 4.62

4.40

1. 42 4.30

1.30 4.30

1.20 4.20

4. 20

1.20 4.05

1.05

23 5.00

5.00 5.15

5

6

5. 25 5.45

5.30 9

10 5.60

5.50

1213

5. 85 6.30

6.20

5. 85 6.00

1415

16

21... 4.20

4.20

4.80

t.80

1.80 4.80

4. 75 4.75 4.70

4.50

22

24... 25

26

27... 2829

30

31

Day. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. A (IK. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee.

1

• > 3

4

5

3.30

3.30

3.30

3.30

3 30

3. 25

2. Ml

2. 60

2. 60

2 60

2. 20

2. 10

2. 05 2.05

'' III!

1 . 85

1.80 1.80

1.60

1 . 10

1.3(1 1.30 1.30

•1.65 1.95 1.75

1.70 1.70

1.80

1 . 85

1 . 85

1.80 1.80

1.75 1.75 1.75

1.75

1

75 1.80

2.00 2.20

2. 9(1 2.70 2.70

2. 70 2.70

2. 70 2.70

2.70

2. 70

2. 70 2.70

2. 70

2. 70 2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70

2.70

2. 70

2. 70 3.00

1.70 3.00

3.00

2. 70 2.70 2.70

2. 70

2. 70

1. 65

2. 65

2. 70 2.70

2. 70

2. 70

2. 70 2.70

3.20

3.20

3. 20

1.20 4.20

1.20

1.20

1.20

5. .50 4.60

4.00 5.50

5. 50 4.60

1.60 4.60

4.40

4.40 4.60

1.20

1.20

1.20 3.95

3. 05

3. 05

8.95 3.96

3.05

3.85

3.85

5.60

6. (HI 5. 75

5. 35

1.85 4.70

4.70

1.70

l.so

1.80 5.10

6. 75 4.36

1. 45

1.50 4.90

4.60

4.40

1. ."HI 4.65 4.65

4.65 4.60

1.80

."». 15

:.. 36

I.oo 4.80

1.70

1.70 1.55

1.20 4.20

4.15

4.15 4.10

4.10

1. 10 4.00

4.30

1. 30

1.35 1.35

I. in

1. 15 1.60 1.00

1.05

5. 05

l.so

1.80 5.00

5. 02 5.35 5.45

5. 15 5.70

7. 00 7.00

6.00

6. 45

6. 45 6.30

6.00

5.90

6. 15

6. 70

6. 30 6.30

6.15

..so 5.80

;>. .v. 5. 70 5.00

5.60

5. 50

5. 60

o. 35 7.00

0.70

6. 40 6.30 0.50

6.60

6. 50

6. lo

o. lo 0.2O 6.20

6.10

6. 10

6. 20 6.20

(i. 20 6.10

6.10

6. 10 6.10

6.10

6.10 6.10

6. 10 6.00

6.10

6.10

(',. 10 6.10

5. 00

5. SO 5.80

6.00

6.80

5.80

...Ml 5.60

5. 60

5. .50 5.60

5. .50

5. 60

5. .50 5.50

5. 45

5. 40

5. 40 5.50 5.50

5. 70

5. 70

5. 83 6.30

6. 70 6.60 6.40 6.40

6.40 6.30

6.20

6.20

<;. oo 6.00

6.00

6.00

6.00

6.00 6.00 5.90

5.90

5.90

6.90

6

789

3.30

3.30

3.30 3.30

2. 60 2. 00 2.00 2.10

2. 60 2. 10

2. 50 2. 20

2. 50 2. 20 2.50 2.10

2. 50 2. 00

2. 15 1. 90

2. 40 1. 90 2.40 1.90 2.40 1.90

2.40 1.80

2.30 1.80 2.40 1.70

2. 10 1.70

2.10 1.70 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 1.90 2.30 2. (HI 2. 30 2. (HI 2.20 1.80 2.20 1.80 2.10 1.70

2.10

10

111213

1415

16

17..

3.30

3.30

3.30 3.30

3.30

3.30

3.30

3 30

is

Ill 20

3.30

3.20

;; 20

21

22

23

3. 20 3.30

:; 30

2125

3.30

26 3.25 28

29

3.25 30

31

"New rod; elevation of zero = 81.59.
REPORT OK THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 147

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan Rwer above Bora San

Carlos. MELCHORA KIVER.

Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge

height. Area of section. Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. Oct. 3 H. W. DurhamFeet. Sq. feet. 126

166 270

172

374 380

236

265

Fl.persec. 0.55

.00

.16

.17 .76

.26 .35

.64

.Sec. feet.68

1900. Jan. 19 H.S.Reed Price No. 63 H. G. Heisler B. & B. No. 1 . .

43 June 22 ...do do 28 July U ...do do 287 July 30 do do... 96 Auk. 13 do do 83 do do 172 Sept. 8 Sept. 21 do do do do

MEDIO QUESO RIVER.

1899. Oct. 3 H.W.Durham Price No. 34 1,114

765 1,066

1,292

0.77

.27 .42

.18

(») C)

.80

.67

1.01 .68

.41

.46

856 Nov. 2 do do 206 Nov. 14 do do 455

1900. Jan. 19 H. S. Reed Price No. 63 231 June 1 H.G. Heisler B. &B. No. 1 June 22 do

July 14 do do 1,017

1,087

1,147

1,160 1,173

1,192

816 July 30 do do ... 733 Aug. 13 dodo

do 1 160 Aug. 27 do 800

Sept. 8 do do.... 487

Sept. 21 do do 554

PALO DE ARCO RIVER.

1899. Oct. 3

1900. June 1 June 22 Julv 14 July 30 Aug. 13 Aug. 27

Sept. 8 Sept. 21

H. W. Durham Price No. 34

H.G. Heisler

....do

....do

....do

....do ....do

....do

....do

B.&B.No.l

do

do

dodo

do

do

do

220

107 103

395 405

362 534

.26

.31 .54

.56

.23

.40

( a

)

. 29

32

214 227

86

214

CANO CHICO.

1899. Oct. 4 H. W. Durham Price No. 34 500 460

0.38

.22

(»).65

.71 .65

(').33

Nov. 23 do do.

1900. Jan. 19 H.S. Reed Price No. 63" July 14 H.G. Heisler B.& B. No 1 735

587 829

478 Julv 30 do do 422 Aug. 13 do do... 540

Sept. 8 do

Sept, 21 do 619 206

"No current.
148 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. —Continued. NEGRO RIVER (ABOVE LOS SABALOS).

Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge

height. Area of

section. Meanvelocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. Sept, 13 Oct. 5 Oct. 12 Oct. 27 Nov. 8 Nov. 16 Nov. 27

1900. Jan. 16 Feb. 4 Mar. 5 Mar. 12 Mar. 19 Mar. 26 Apr. 2 Apr. 8 Apr. 17 Apr. 23 Apr. 30 Mav 14 May 28 June 17 June 26 July 2 July 9 July 16 July 23 July 29 Aug. 6 Aug. 12 Aug. 21 Aug. 27 Sept. 3 Sept. 11 Sept. 26 Oct. 1 Oct. 8 Oct. 15

Oct. 23

Oct. 29 Dec. 1 Dec. 9 Dec. 16 Dec. 23

1901. Jan. 6

R. H. Morrin Stackpole No. 1

H. W. Durham Price No. 31 do do

do do

do do

do do

do do H.W.Durham

T.F. Boltz

do. do

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

.do.

B. & B. No. 1 .

....do Haskell No. 2. .do .do.

.do.

.do,

.do.

.do,

.do,

.do.

.do.

.do,

.do,

.do.

.do,

.do.

.do,

.do,

.do, .do.

.do,

.do.

.do.

.do,

.do.

.do.

.do,

.do.

.do.

.do, .do. .do Price No. 68. .do do

.do. .do.

.do.

.do,

.do,

.do

Feet. 3.61 3.54

3.72

3.03

1.97 3.15

4.05

3.98

3.10

3.05

3.00

2. ss 2.78

2.71

2. 50 2.55

2.46 2.60

5.92

4.40 3.15

5.09 4.95

6.24 4.55

6.70

6.00 8.33

4.90 4.67

5.27 6.32

7.70

5.85

6.42

6.61 6.88

6.09

5.98

Sq.feet.90

437

139

130

163

189

146

64 18638

35

22

3125

Ft.per see. 1.05

.41 .80

.39

.91 1.20

.65

.30

.21

.19 .15

•.18 .15

27

179

131 145

150

144 605

IKS 134 592

219

IKK 270

18687

155

188

231

211 733 123

195

214 175

172

15K

.54 1.38

.98

.25 1.21

.98 2.11

1.34

.66 1.26

1.45

1.21 1.88

.49

.37 .49

.94 1.28

. 25

.95

.48

.90

1.11 .14 .52

Sec. feet.95

178 11050

157

22796

SABALOS RIVER.

1899 Jan. 3 Jan. 19 Feb. l Feb. 1

Feb. 2] Feb. 25 Mar. 6 Mar. 21 Mar. 31 Apr. L5 Do... Apr. 21 Apr. 29 Do...

Do...

Do... May 12 May 17 May 23 June 7 June 16 June 23 Do...

R. H. Morrin

....do

....do

....do ....do

....do S.Wilson

....do

....do

....do

....do

....do ....do

....do ....do

....do

....do

....do ....do dodo

do

do

Stackpole No. 1. do

do

dodo

dodo

do

dododo

do

do

Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole No. 1

Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole No. l. do

do

do

do

do

Stackpole No. 7.

5. 69 510 1.05

5. 51 167 .85 4.98 336 . 28

4.81 354 .36 4.85 340 .53 4.68 320 .21 1.55 811 .24

1.30 110 .90 1.13 17:1 . 12

:;. 87 140 .63 3.87 101 .80

3,81 134 .49 3.65 94 .40

3. 65 94 .84

3. 66 112 .37

3. 66 112 .31

8. 65 105 .65

3.41 95 .46 3.30 86 . 17 8.81 83 .83 3.70 316 .60

8. 17 299 .25

:>. 17 299 .30
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 149

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. —Continued. SABALOS RIVER—Continued.

Date. Hydrographer.

1 v.i July Aug.

Aug.

Sept. Sept.

Sept. Oct. Oct.

Oet. Oct.

(let. Oct. Oct. Nov.

Nov.

Nov.

Nov.

Nov.

Nov.

Dec.

Dec.

Dec. Dec.

Dec.

1900. Jan

Jan. 3 Jan. 14 Jan. 21 Feb. 6 Feb. 9 Mar. 4 Mar. 10 Mar. 17 Mar. 24 Mar. 31 Apr. 7 Apr. 14 Apr. 21 Apr. 28 May 5 May 12 May 27 June 2 June 11 June 16 June 19 June 23 July 16 Julv 18 July 21 July 25 July 28 Aug. 7 Aug. 7 Aug. 11 Aug. 15 Aug. 19 Aug. 22 Aug. 25 Aug. 29

Sept. 1 Sept. 5 Sept. 8 Sept. 12 Sept. 15 Sept, 19 Sept. 26 Sept. 29 Oct. 2 Oct. 6 Oct. 9 Oct. 13 Oct. 17 Oct. 20

Oct. 23

Oct. 27

S.Wilson do

do

it. II. Morrin .. do

do

dododo

do

do

....do

....do

....do

....do do

....do

....do ....do

....do H. W. Durham

....do

....do

....do

H. W. Durham

do

H.G.Heisler .. H.S.Reed.....

T.F. Boltz

....do

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do. ..do.

..do.

..do.

..do. ..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do. ..do.

..do. ..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do.

..do. .do.

..do.

..do. .do. .do.

.do. .do.

Meter No.

Stackpole No. 7. Stackpole N'n. )

do

dodo

... do

do

do

dodo

dodo

do

do

do

do

....do ....do

....do ....do B.and B.No. 1 .. ....do

....do

....do

B.and B. No. 1. do

dodo

....do

....do

....do ....do

....do

....do

....do

....do ....do

....do

....do Haskell No. 2

do

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

Gauge

height.

Feet. 4.74

6.02

3.68

4.25

3.97 4.95

4.72

4.16

4.24

4.52

8.41 4.69

3.40

5.55

4.82

5.23 5.13

5.29 4.89

4.78 4.75

4.70 4.50

4.50 4.45

4.35

Area of section,

3.90 3.95

3.61 3.60

6.57 6.48

6.38

6.29

6.20 6.14

6.11 5.94 5.99 6.30

6.50

6.63

6.84 7.89

6.99 8.85

8.29

8.12

8.50

8.96

11.72 8.64

9.85

8.54 9.08

8.99

8.88 8.30

8.10

8.05

8.08

8.17

9.11 9.49 8.82

10.27 9.26

9.46 9.10

9.34

14.20 11.20 9.80

Sq. feet. 422

581 376

423

412 2,618 498

459

387 404

451 874

427

402

569 457

482

494 514

475

517 510 490

451

453

441

129

437 126

126

114

111 110

106

103

10099

98

9785

101 112

116 104 147

584 488

1,913

687 618

609 652

720

2,034

721 864

699 760

752 722

641 139

136

141 625

761 795

706 867

742

752

711 747

2,145

2,082

790

Mean

velocity.

Ft. persec

1.31

2. 32 .65

.93

.02 4.63

1.23 1.05

.64

.71 .78 2.80

.73

.38 1.49

.70 1.24

1.04 1.28

. 72

^54

.57 .63

.36

.33

.29

1.19

.26

.90

.92

.81 .60

.54

.47 .37

.37 .33

.30

.23

.27 .40

.97 .79

.56 1.48

.99 .46

1.54 1.22

.85

.74 .99 1.36 1.36

.90

1.54 .88

1.12 1.10

1.02

.54 1.54

1.39

1.39

.45 1.10

1.27

.63

1.29

.67

.61 .38 .64 1.89

.78

.57

* Heavy flood. Gauging made one-half mile above mouth. River too swift to reach gauge rod.
150 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc. —Continued. SABALOS RIVER—Continued.

Date.

1900. Oct. 31 Nov. 3 Nov. 11 Nov. 14 Nov. 17 Nov. 22 Nov. 24 Nov. 28 Dec. 1 Dec. 5 Dec. 8 Dec. 12 Dec. 15 Dec. 19 Dec. 22 Dec. 26

Hydrographer.

T. F. Boltz Haskell No. 2. do do

do do

do do

do i do

.do ' Price No. 68..

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do. .do

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do,

.do,

Gauge

height.

Feet. 9.49

9.58

10.54 9.39

9.46

9.92

9.34

9.12

11.41 9.63

9.63

10. 22 9.32 9.74

9.18

9.00

Area of

section.

Sq.feet. 477

543 890

747 752 812

739

165

1,020 770

773

847

730 789

717

697

Mean

velocity.

Ft.pt rsec

.49

.07 1.37

.39

.51 1.15

.53

1.17

2. 00

.97 .1.03 1.30

.66 1.12

.53

.35

Dis- charge.

»<•. feet. 333 366

1 , 222 290

387 936

395

194

2, 102

747 796

1,091 480

886

381

244

POCO SOL RIVER.

1899. Oct. 5 Nov. 2 Nov. 25

1900. Jan. 22 Feb. 13 Mar. 14 Apr. 6 Apr. 20 May 6 June 2 June 25 July 15 July 26 Aug. 14 Aug. 28

Sept. 8 Sept. 22

H.W.Durham

....do

....do

Price No. 34. do

do

H.S. Reed Price No. 63 H. C. Hurd Price No. 34 do I do

do ' Price No. 35

do ! do

C. Havinan I Price No. 63 H. G. Heisler B. and B. No. 1

.do. .do..

.do..

.do.,

.do..

.do..

.do..

.do.

.do. .do. .do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

1.08

.85 1.42

.40

- .10

- .07 -1.20

1.35

-1.61

- .03

- .50 2.15

1.97 3.90

3.00

1.25

981 919

1,007

1,030 945

570

336

281 1,358

751 1,000

1,110

1,212 1,181 846

1,082

1.54

.00 1.29

.55

.20

.15 .29

.10

.35

.92

.52

2. 65 2.11

1.89

2. 03 1.04

1.96

1,513

(ill

1 , 204

556

204

142 167

3499

1258

391 »2,651

>> 2, 442

2,303

2, 399

886

2, 123

SANTA CRUZ RIVER.

1899. Oct. 5 Price No. 34 do

u. 85 .80 1.23

.10

.50 - .92

1 , 035

1,359

781

65

163

9798

165 131 382 329 488

533 2,415

1,132 886

989

0. 62

. 26 .30

1.31

1. 11 .37

.17

. 56

.31 .33 .36

. 12 .04

1.20

1 . 26

. 12 .48

638

...do... 347 Nov. 25 ...do... do 237

1900. Feb 13 H.C. Hurd Price No. 34 do

86 do 68 Apr. 6 Apr. 20 May 7 May 20

...do Price No. 35 do

36 do. . 47 Price No. 03 B.and B. No.l.... do

1.34 -1.20

- .04 - .35 1.02 1.12

12.00 2.45

1.20 2.10

93 H.G. Heisler 41 ...do 130 do do 121 July 15 July 26 Aug. 14 Aug. 28

Sept. 8 Sept. 22

...do do 207 .do do 342 ...do do 10,30] .do do 1 , 137 do do 379 ...do do 182

» Gauging made below gauge.

>> Gauging made above gauge.

'Flood. Impossible to go to ^hiilm-. branches of trees. Elevation determined approximately August 28 by drift in
KKl'OKT OF T1IK ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 151

List of discharge measurement* made on tributaries of Son .hum River, etc. —Continued. SANTA CRUZITA RIVER.

Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge

height.

1900. Aug. II Aug. 28

1899. Oct 6 Nov. 6 Nov. 25 Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Men. 14 Apr. 24 May 21 June 3 June 20 Julv 17 July 31 Aug. 15 Aug. 29 Sept. 10 Sept. 23

H.G.Heisler. do Rand B.,No. 1. do

Area of section. Mean

velocity.

Sq. feet. Fl.persec.

' 345 1.80

331 ! .71

BARTOLA RIVER.

H. W. Durham Price, Ni ». 34. .

do do

do do

H.s. Reed Price, No. 63... H.C.Hurd Price, No. 34... do do

do Price, No.' 35. .

H. G. Heisler B. and B., No. 1 .do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do . .do.

.do.

.do. .do

.do

.do

0.95

2.1 2 1.48

.83 - .30 - .30 -1.00 - .00 - .03

.20 -3.20

1.63 2.99 4.50

1.45

2. 35

412 499

457

47199

10188 145

lis 217 507

483

640

860

162 316

Dis charge.

Sec. feet. 623

0. 59

. 57

. 39 .45

.25

.91 .45

.50

. 43

.31 1.39

.01

.81

2. 83

.37

.04

245

280

179 214

00

0040

03

09

792 293

521 ,437

170 204

INFIERNITO RIVER.

1899. , Oct. H.W.Durham

Nov. 6 do

Nov. 20 : do

1900. Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Mch. 15 Apr. 24 May 31 June 3 June 20 July 17 do. July 31 do. Aug. 15 do.

H.S. Reed.... H.C.Hurd...

do

do

H.G.Heisler.

.do do

Aug. 29

Sept. 10 Sept. 23

.do.

.do. .do.

Price, No. 34. ....do

....do

Price, No. 03... Price, No. 34... ....do ....do B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

0.84

3.68

1.25

.55

- .10

- .00 -1.20

-1.03

- .03

- .40 3.50

1.35

3.73

3.80

1.60 2.70

1.547

1,283 940

1,137 550

074 392

929 788

781 1,025 958

1,229

1,440

1,088 900

.00 .63

. 25

.20

.36

.07 .29 1.19

.00 1.47

1.17

.80 1.50

1 . 0S4 2,449

753

683

347 170

80 293

528 227

1 , 226

037 1,815

1 , 089

.X73 1,513

MACHUCA RIVER.

1899. Oct. Nov. 6 Nov. 20

1900. Jan. 23 Feb. 14 Mar. 15 A ]ir. 24 May 21 June 3 June 20 Julv 17 July 31 Aug. 15 Aug. 29

Sept. 10 Sept. 23 Dec. 14

H.W.Durham

....do ....do

H.S. Reed.... H.C.Hurd ... ....do ....do H.G.Heisler. do

do

do

do

do

do

do

do

E. W. F. Reed

Price, No. 34. ....do

....do

Price, No. 63

Price, No. 34 ....do

Price, No. 35

B. and B., No. 1 ....do

....do podo

do

do

do

do

Price, No. 65

220 0. 58 128

316 .44 140 253 .38 97

107 1.17 197

94 .54 54

79 .03 50

40 .06 27

54 .52 28

109 .31 34

103 .47 48

:;i I .71 225

ISC, . 52 97

51 1 .06 339

551 1.03 573

255 .49 126

170 .73 128 511 .80 M41

Floodfalling rapidly from 5 feet to 4 feet while gauging one-half hour.

*> Mad. 2 miles above mouth.
152 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San .Juan River, etc. —Continued. CRUCITA DEL NORTE RIVER.

Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Gauge

height. Area ofsection. Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. Oct. 7 Price, No. 34..

Feet. Sq. feet. 200

Ft. per sec. 0.13

(»).21 .29 C)

n e. /< a.

1900. June 3 H.G.Heisler do

B. and B., No. 1... do 276

367

54 Aug. 29 do do 108 Sept. 10 do do

Dec. n E. W. F. Reed Price, No. 65

LA CRUCITA DEL SUR RIVER.

1900. Aug. 15 H.G.Heisler B. and B., No. 1... 209

307 310

0.40

.47 .52

85 Aug. 29 do do 144 Dec. 14 E. W. F. Reed 152

LA CRUZ DEL NORTE RIVER.

1899. Oct. 7 H. W. Durham Ml

202

124

73

188 115

335

311 548

721 224

324

0. 42

.16 .53 .39

.24 .24

.28 .35

.50 .38

.37

.29

( b)

84

1900. Jan. 23 H.S.Reed Price, No 63 . 32 Feb. 14 H.C.Hurd Price, No. 34... 66 Mar. 15 do ...do.. 28 June 3 H. G. Heisler B. and B., No. 1... 47 June 26 do 29 Julv 17 do ....do... 96 July 31 do do ... 111 Aug. 15 do do ... 293 Aug. 29 do ...do... 280

Sept. 10 do do... 86

Sept. 23 do do 97 Dec. 14 E.W.F.Reed Price, No. 65 | LA CRUZ DEL SUR RIVER.

1899. Nov. 6 H. W. Durham Price, No. 34 276 0. 28 77

1900. Aug. 15 H.G. Heisler B.and B.,No. 1 ..

EL JARDIN RIVER (NEAR CONCHUCA).

1900. May 2 H.S.Reed Price, No. 65 . .

41 10049

59

105

100

86 123

167

294 222

309

297 278

178

241 399

346

287 297

248

469

192

0.61 1.16

.85 1.39

.97 .52

. 66

. 62 .55

. 39 .59 1.50 2.50

.86

.77

.78 .70

.39

.11 .30

.36

.77

. 52

25 May 9 do do 116 May 16 do ...do ... 42 May 22 do ...do ... 83 May 30 do ...do. 103 June 12 do ..do. 53 Juno 28 do ...do... 57 June 30 do ...do 76 Julv 11 do ...do... 86 July 19 do ...do ... 115 July 25 do ...do. . 131 Aug. 9 do ...do 463 Aug. 25 do do 742 Aug. 31 do do . 237 Sept. 7 do do... 137 Sept. 20 do do... 188

Oct. 1 do do ... 277 Oct. 9 do do... 131 Oct. 13 do do ... 117 Oct. 30 do ...do 88 Nov. 27 E. W. F. Reed do 90 Dec. 13 do do ... 359 Dec. 31 do do... 100

''Buck water; no current.


REFORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 153

List of discharge measurements made on tributaries of San Juan River, etc, —Continued LA TIGRE RIVER (NEAR OONCHUCA).

Gauge

height. Area of Meansection. velocity.

Sq. feet. Ft.persec.

89 0.44

34 1.22

50 .74 60 .37 115 .53

101 .32 143 .29

191 .22 239 .30

166 .42 357 .70 319 1.76 226 .50

177 .31 259 .33 269 .30 232 .22 182 .21 183 .22

142 .31 334 .44

131 .34

Dis- charge.

Sec. fnl.

174137

22

613342

43

73

70 249

560

11355

85

8153

3840

44

14644

OCHOA STATION ON SAN JUAN RIVER. A camp was continued at this point under charge of Mr. H. S. Reed,

keeping rainfall and temperature records and rod readings on the river. Measurements of discharge were made from a boat, its position at each

observation being determined by stadia from shore.

Records were also kept of gauge height, discharge, and rainfall at the station on San Carlos River.

From the time when the camp on the San Carlos was removed —

August 31, 1898 —to the present writing, daily trips were made to the

San Carlos station, never omitting a day. Therefore, we have over

three years'

1 complete record of discharge for both the San Carlos near

its mouth and the San Juan at Ochoa. By taking the difference

between them we obtain the discharge of the San Juan above Boca

San Carlos, and by deducting from this the discharge measured at Sabalos we obtain the discharge of the tributaries between Sabalos

and Boca San Carlos. The comparative flow of the San Carlos and

the San Juan at Ochoa and at Sabalos is shown in figure 8. The bench mark at Ochoa is a standard United States Geological

Survey copper tablet bench mark planted horizontally on top of a scarf cut into the inside larger root of a tree situated at the mouth of

the first creek just above the camp, about 250 feet above the gauge.

It is 28.10 above zero of rod and 71.33 feet above sea level. The bench mark on San Carlos River is a large wrought-iron nail driven into the top of a scarf cut into the root on the river face of tree that acts as cable support. It is 31.67 above zero of rod and 81.13 feet above sea level. At the Ochoa station two extra rods were placed in the river, one above and the other below the regular station, and were carefully

connected by level lines, so that from synchroneous readings the slope

of the surface of the river could be obtained. The indicated slope at each gauging taken is given in the table of discharge measurements on page 156.
154 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The bench mark established for the upper-slope rod is one spike

driven in center of a triangle of 40-penny nails midway of bottom of

scarf made in root of large tree situated 80.4 feet south from gauge

rod and is 22.42 above zero of that rod. The bench mark established for the lower slope rod is one rod nail driven in advance of four 10-penny galvanized nails at point of scarf cut in root of large tree first on point of knoll bearing southwest 71

feet from rod and is 22. -12 above zero of rod.

Upper rod is 2,273.4 feet above the regular rod at Ochoa and lower

rod is 505.0 feet below, so that 2,839 feet is the total distance between

rods. For purposes of current meter measurements it was not permissible

to extend a cable over the river at Ochoa on account of navigation.

It was first intended to make measurements by means of a boat anchored

to a small cable stretched across the river which should carry tags indi- cating distances from the initial point and which, when not in use, was to be held against the bottom of the river by means of sinkers. Experience on this line, however, soon demonstrated that it would be diffi- cult, if not impracticable, to maintain a small cable in the position

proposed on account of the large quantities of driftwood, leaves, and

brush passing down the river, especially in times of flood, when the

gauging apparatus would be most in demand. Another project was

therefore inaugurated, which was the anchorage of a number of buoys

at known distances from the initial point, said buoys to be constructed

of "balsa,'1 a very light, bulky, endogenous wood much used in the

construction of rafts, etc. This method of marking distances from

the initial point was successfully employed for several months during

the season of low water, but as the rains increased and freshets began

to. come down the river the great quantity of leaves and brush carried

by the water attached themselves to the buoys and their anchorages

until they were either carried beneath the surface of the river or washed away entirely. The method permanently adopted required

the employment of an additional instrument man to manipulate a telescope on shore and measure the distance of the boat during the

process of gauging by means of a stadia rod. The highest measurement of discharge yet made at this point was on November 17, 1S98, at a gauge height of 17.43 feet, when the river was discharging 1()4,!>28 cubic feet per second. At this stage the river was about 8.5 feet below the flood plain at Ochoa, the formation of

which indicates that it is sometimes overflowed.

Dr. C. W. Hayes, geologist, expresses the opinion that this Hood plain

is at intervals of ten to thirty years covered by the floods of San Juan

River to a depth of more than inches, but less than 3 feet. In other

words, maximum gauge readings of 20.5 to 29 may be expected with

moderate frequency at Ochoa station. Plotting all observations of discharge, so far taken as abscissas, with

corresponding gauge heights as ordinates, we obtain a curve indicating

the relation of gauge height to discharge, showing that the ratio of

discharge to increase of gauge height is not constant. The curve is concave downward, tending toward a horizontal position, showing that

the increase of discharge for increase of gauge height is greater at high stages than at low stages, but above a medium stage of the river

the. line curves but slightly, and though the concavity is still downward the curve approaches a straight line, or, in other words, the ratio


REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 155

between gauge height and discharge approaches constancy. If we

assume as constant the direction given to the line by the higher measurements, and continue it as a straight line, we obtain as the discharge

corresponding to a gauge height of 28 feet about 200,000 cubic feet per second. If any curvature be given the extrapolated portion of the curve it will increase this amount.

If the same course of reasoning be applied to the flood-plain on the

San Carlos River, we find that its maximum discharge must be about

100,000 cubic feet per second.

Similarly it may be shown by extrapolating the curve discharge of

the San Juan River at Fort San Carlos that at the stage of 111 feet above sea level the lake must have discharged nearly 45,000 cubic feet per second.

When the measurement of November IT, 1898, that gave a discharge

at Ochoa of 104,928 second-feet was made, the San Carlos River was

discharging onl}r 32,265, leaving 72,663 as the amount coming down the

San Juan proper, of which probably not more than 28,663 were flow- ing from the lake, leaving 44,000 to be supplied b}r the small tributaries between the lake and Boca San Carlos. With such an indicated

discharge it would not be excessive to assume a maximum for these

tributaries of 55,000 cubic feet per second, and we have the maximum

flood at Ochoa made up as follows

Second-feet. Maximum, San Carlos River 100, 000 Maximum discharge from lake 45, 000 Maximum, small tributaries 55, 000 Maximum at Ochoa 200, 000 The highest observed discharge of the Sarapiqui is 62,000 cubic feet per second. It is probable that the extreme maximum is not less than

80,000 cubic feet per second. The Machado, San Francisco, Tamborcito, and San Juanillo, and a large number of lesser creeks contribute

a large aggregate in time of flood, so that it is probable that at rare

intervals the increment to the waters of the San Juan below Ochoa

may amount to over 100,000 cubic feet per second. Such an occur- rence coincident with extreme flood conditions above Ochoa would

make a total of over 300,000 cubic feet per second discharging into

the Caribbean through the various mouths of the San Juan.
156 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Fio. 7. —Gauging San Juan River at Ochoa.

List of discharge measurements made on San Juan River at Ochoa by II S. Heed with Price meter No. 65.

Date. Gauge

height. Area of Mean , Dis- section. | velocity, charge.

1899.

( ictober 5 October 6 ... October 10 .. October 28 .., -November 5. November <i. November 8. November 15 November 25 December l . December . December 12 . December hi

1900. January 1 January 6 January 24. .

January 27.

January 30.

February 15.. February 26. March 9 March 16 March 30 April 5 April 12 April 25 April 28 May 1 May 5 May 21 .May 28 June 2 June 11 June 18 June 21 June 28 July2

Jul', 12 July n

July 16 August -4 August 7 August 1-' . .

August 80 . .. September 4. September 18 September 21 September 29 September 80 October 3 . .. October hi .. October 22 .. October23 .. November 6. N < > \ ember 24 November 30 December 9 -

I December in December 12 December 21

Feet. 7.90

7.31 C.84

7.21 11.21 13.38

10.49

14.31

8.51

10.97

l'J.14 9.24

8. 31

8.63

11.28

7.01 7.17

C..S9

Sq.feet. Ft.persec

9,204 3.55 8,713 3.41 8,079 3.40

8,554 3.46

12, 617 4.16

15, 301 4.63

12, 147 3.94

16,678 4.50

10, 373 3. 52

12,96-1 3.86

13,864 4.33

1

1

, 006 3.64 10,099 3.54

10,289 12,742

8,621

8, 721

8, 366 7,219

7, 223

6, 926 6,467

6,317 6,116

5, 930 5,980

5,622

5, 453 5,048

6,280

10,000

8, 305

7,872 10,503

7, 991 7.316

8,629 9,497

10,473

11,804

13,923 13,223

12, 142 12,698

10,169 11,582

10, 175 13,287

16,501 15,395

1 1,333 17,952

14,884

12,592

1 1 , 926

13,610

20,111 17,110

16,723

11,211

3.73 4.10

3.29

3. 42 3.37 3.15

3.03

2.98

2.90

2. 86

2. 84

•I 79

2. 77

2. 77 2.69

3.04

3. 59

3. 21 3.16

3.66

3.16

3.10

3.41 3.66

3.90

4.28

4.38

4.09

4.11

4 22

3! 55

3. 7.s 3.00 4.29

4.69

4.72 4.35

I.S9 4.31 3.99

3.69

1.17

6, 02

1. 19 1.48

.;. 7:;

Sec. feet. 32, 693

29, 731 27,453

29, 633

52, 476

70, S70

47,868

74, 882

36, 500

50, 057

60, 105

40, 020

35, 735

38,346

52, 194

28, 396

29, 824

28, 164

22, 746

21,913

20, 647 18,711

18, 085

17,358

16, 551

16, 694

15, 550

15, 079

13, 560

19,101

35, 880

26, 685

24, 843

38, 405

25, 272

22, 702

29, 407

34, 758

40, 800

50, 513

61, 026

54, 128

49, 880

53, 523

36, 064

43, 791

37, 709

57, 035

77, 429

72,721

62, 427

87, 696

61,212

50, 329 44,038

56, 696 101,135 77,012

70, 442 41,869

Wetted

perimeter. Hydraulic 1 radius. I Slope,

866

865

864 S65

878

880 875

896

868

875

877 863

867

800 876 863

863

862

862

861 857

857 855

855

853 850

851 850

847

859 860

865

863

862

864 863

867

867 865

874 879

877 875

876

860 869

862 878

897 893

S84

876 870

10.63

10.07 9.35

9.89

14.37

17.27

13.88

18. (13 11.96

14.82

15.81

12. 74 11.65

11.97

14.55 9.99

10.11

9.71

8. 37

8. 39 8.08 7.55

7.39

7.16 6.95

7.03

6.61

6. 12 5.06 7.31

11.64 9.60

9.12

12.18

9.24

8.48

9.96

10.95

12.11

13.51

15.84 15.08

13.87 14.50

11. 82 13.33

12. 15 15.13 18.40

17.24

16.21

14.37

13.71

15. 47

880 874

17.87

12.83

0. 000187

.000190

.000107

. 000206

. 000190

.000192

. 000185

.000160

.000180 .000183

. 000180

.000178

. 000176

. 000180

. 000173

. 000173

. 000180

.000176

.000183 .000180

.000182

.000176

. 000166

.000173

.000173

.000173 .000169

.00016'.! .000176

.00017,8 .000173

.000187 .000187

. 000176

.000183

.000187 .000187 .000182

.000173

. 000189

.000190

.000173 .000190

.000180

.00018:; .000178

.00018.-,

. 000180

.000169

. 000107

.00018:;

.000107 .000185

.000190

.000101

. 000176

0.029

. 029

.028

. 029

.030

.031 .031

.031

.031 .033

.030

.031 .030

. 029

.030

.029

.028

. 028

.027 .028

. 028

. 027 .026

.026

.027

.027

. 025

. 025

.025

. 025

. 020

. 030

.020 .030

. 020

.028

.029

.028

. 027

. 028

.031

. 030

.030

. 029

.031

.031 .031 .030 .030 .028

.031

. 033

.033

.032

. 030

.031

,1
KKI'OKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rating table for San Juan River at Ochoa.

[This table is applicable from April i. 1899, to December 1, 1900.]

157

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge.

Sec. feet.

height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Feet. Secfeet. Feet. Feet. Secfeet. Feet. Sir. fa t. Feet. Sec.feet. 3.0 12,000 6.0 23, 550 9.0 38, 300 12.0 55,200 15.0 77, '100 3.1 12, 200 6.1 24,000 9.1 38,800 12.1 55, 800 15.1 78, 000

3.2 12, 400 6.2 24,450 9.2 39, 300 12.2 56, 400 15.2 78,900

3.3 12,700 6.3 24, 900 9.3 39, 800 12.3 57,000 15.3 79,800

3.4 13,000 6.4 25, 350 9.4 40, 300 12.4 57, 600 15.4 80, 700

3.5 13,350 6.5 25, 800 9.5 40, 800 12.5 58, 200 15.5 81,600

3.6 13,700 6.6 26, 300 9.6 41,300 12.6 58, 800 15.6 82,500

3.7 14,050 6.7 26, 800 9.7 41,800 12.7 59, 500 15.7 83, 400

3.8 14,400 6.8 27,300 9.8 42, 300 12. 8 60, 200 15. 8 84,300

3.9 14, 750 6.9 27, 800 9.9 42,800 12.9 60,900 15.9 s :>,;;{ in 4.0 15, 100 7.0 28, 300 10.0 43, 350 13.0 61,600 16.0 86, 300

4.1 15,500 7.1 28, 800 10.1 43,900 13.1 62, 300 16.1 87,300 . 4.2 15,900 7 2 29, 300 10.2 44,450 13.2 63, 000 16.2 88, 300

4.3 16, 300 7.3 29, 800 10.3 45,000 13.3 63, 700 16.3 89,300 , 4.4 16,700 7.4 30, 300 10.4 45, 600 13.4 64, 400 16.4 90, 300

4.5 17, 100 7.5 30, 800 10.5 46,200 13.5 65, 100 16.5 91,300 L6 17, 500 7.6 31,300 10.6 46, 800 13.6 65, 800 16.6 92, 300

1.7 17,900 7.7 31,800 10.7 47, 400 13.7 66, 500 16.7 93, 300

4.8 18,300 7.8 32, 300 10.8 48,000 13.8 67, 200 16.8 94,300

4.9 18, 700 7.9 32, 800 10.9 48, 600 13.9 67, 900 16.9 95, 300

5.0 19,100 8.0 33, 300 11.0 49,200 14.0 68, 600 17.0 96, 300

5.1 19, 500 8.1 33, 800 11.1 49, 800 14.1 69, 400 17.1 97, 300

5.2 19, 950 8.2 34,300 11.2 50, 400 14.2 70, 200 17.2 98, 300

5.3 20,400 8.3 34,800 11.3 51,000 14.3 71,000 17.3 99, 300

5.4 20, 850 8.4 35,300 11.4 51,600 14.4 71,800 17.4 100, 400

5.5 21,300 8.5 35, 800 11.5 52,200 14.5 72, 600 17.5 101,500

5.6 21,750 8.6 36, 300 11.6 52, 800 14.6 73, 500 17.6 102, 600

5.7 22, 200 8.7 36,800 11.7 53,400 14.7 74, 400 17.7 103, 700 5.8 22,650 8.8 37,300 11.8 54,000 14.8 75, 300 17.8 104, 800

5.9 23,100 8.9 37,800 11.9 54,600 14.9 76, 200 17.9 105, 900

[This table is applicable only after December 1, 1900.]

7.0 28,300 9.8 42,300 12.6 57, 650 15.4 73,600 18.2 91,900

7.1 28,800 9.9 42,800 12.7 58,200 15.5 74,250 18.3 92, 600

7.2 29,300 10.0 43, 350 12.8 58, 750 15.6 74,900 18.4 93, 300

7.3 29,800 10.1 43, 900 12.9 59, 300 15.7 75, 550 18.5 94, 000

7.4 30,300 10.2 44, 450 13.0 59, 850 15.8 76, 200 18.6 94, 700

7.5 30,800 10.3 45, 000 13.1 60, 400 15.9 76, 850 18.7 95, 400

7.6 31,300 10.4 45, 550 13.2 60, 950 16.0 77, 500 18.8 96, 100

7.7 31,800 10.5 46, 100 13.3 61,.500 16.1 78, 150 18.9 96, 800

7.8 32,300 10.6 46, 6-50 13.4 62, 050 16.2 78, 800 19.0 97, 500

7.9 32,800 10.7 47, 200 13.5 62, 600 16.3 79, 450 19.1 98, 200

8.0 33,300 10.8 47, 750 13.6 63, 150 16.4 80, 100 19.? 98, 900

8.1 33,800 10.9 48, 300 13.7 63, 700 16.5 80, 750 19.3 99, 600 8.2 34,300 11.0 48, 850 13.S 64, 250 16.6 81,400 19.4 100, 300 8.3 34,800 11.1 49, 400 13.9 64,800 16.7 82, 050 19.5 101,000

8.4 35,300 11.2 49, 950 14.0 65, 350 16.8 82, 700 19.6 101,700 8.5 35,800 11.3 50, 500 14.1 65, 900 16.9 83,350 19.7 102, 400 8.6 36,300 11.4 51,050 14.2 66,450 17.0 84, 000 19.8 103, 100 8.7 36,800 11.5 51,600 14.3 67, 000 17.1 84, 650 19.9 103,800

8.8 37,300 11.6 52, 150 14.4 67, 550 17.2 85, 300 20.0 104,500

8. '.) 37,800 11.7 52, 700 14.5 68, 100 17.3 85, 950 20.1 105,250

9.0 38,300 11.8 53, 250 14.6 68, 650 17.4 86, 600 20.2 106,000

9.1 38,800 11.9 53, 800 14.7 69, 200 17.5 87, 250 20.3 IOC. 7511 9.2 39,300 12.0 54,350 14.8 69, 800 17.6 87, 900 20.4 107,500

9.3 39, 800 12.1 54,900 14.9 70, 400 17.7 88,550 20.5 ION, 250

9.4 40,300 12.2 55,450 15.0 71,000 17. s 89, 200 20.6 109,000

9. 5 40,800 12.3 56, 000 15.1 71,650 17.9 S9,S5I.I 20.7 109, 750

'J. 6 41,300 12.4 56, 550 15.2 72, 300 18.0 90, 500 20.8 110,500

9.7 41,800 12.5 57, 100 15.3 72, 950 18.1 91,200 1 20.

111,250
158 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily gauge height of San Juan River at Ochou for 18l>9.

Day.

1....

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee.

8.60 7.60 7.22 5.85 4.80 5.45 6.95 9.12 8.00 8.30 7.01 11.29

2.... 9.32 7.58 7.12 5.82 4.80 5.18 7.25 8.75 7.82 8. 30 6.90 9.80

3.... 9.85 7.47 7.02 5.75 4.80 5.02 7.80 8.48 7.67 7.85 6.92 9.41 4.... 9.30 7.38 6.92 5.75 4.82 4.85 7.45 10. 52 7. 65 7. 85 7.22 8. 99 5.... 9.55 7.30 6.88 5.55 4.88 4.75 7.30 10. 02 7. 30 7.45 11.26 9. 58 6.... 9.28 7.30 6.78 5.90 4.82 4.70 7.40 9.12 7.17 7.42 11.95 11.93 8.92 7.50 6.78 5.95 5.15 5.10 7.28 8.65 7. 05 7.35 12. 05 13.37

8.... 9.07 7.45 7.28 6.05 4.88 6.85 7.30 9.42 7. 25 7.14 10.61 12.29

9.... 8.92 7.30 7.40 6.48 4.70 6.92 9. 15 10. 12 7.10 6.89 11.35 11.48

10.... 9.07 7.25 6.98 6.35 4.58 8.45 12. 60 9.05 7.15 6.86 11.50 10. 13 11... 8.97 7. 25 6. 75 6.90 4.50 7.42 15. 25 8.22 7. 52 6.81 11.76 9, 69 VI.... 9.85 7.45 6.65 6.70 4.52 7.28 12. 45 7.72 8.00 7.36 13.87 9. 26

13.... 10. 37 8. 38 6.60 6.30 4.58 7.02 11.65 7.78 7.57 7. 58 13. 41 9.02

14.... 9.90 8.98 6.55 6.10 4.60 6.32 14. 85 7. 85 7.37 8.54 12. 93 s. 49

15.... 9.97 8.15 6.52 5.88 4.50 6.40 12. 68 7.90 7.17 9.14 14.30 8.56

16.... 10. 55 7.98 6.48 5.70 4.42 6.20 10. 85 7.90 7. 35 8.23 12.95 8. 33

17.... 9.95 7.90 6.35 5.58 4.42 6.15 9. 85 8. 25 7.60 8.12 11.90 8.61 18.... 9.42 8.25 6.30 5.48 4.45 6.22 9.00 8.82 8.10 8.07 11.28 10.21 10.... 9.17 8.20 6.28 5.48 4.62 6.25 9.10 9.58 8. 20 7.57 10. 65 10. 37

20. . .

9.02 8.00 6.25 5.42 5.15 6.92 8.52 8.05 8.60 7.30 10.19 9. 92

21 ...

8.75 8.22 6.22 5.32 4.80 6.75 9.62 8.65 9.87 7. 21 9.80 9. 93 22.... 8. 52 7.80 6.12 5.25 4.78 6.25 10.80 9.20 13.57 7.76 9.39 -.). 60

23.... s. 45 8.10 6.02 5.15 5.10 6.00 8.55 8.88 14.05 9.04 9.02 9.06

24.... 8.35 7.90 6.00 5.05 5.28 5.98 8.35 9.98 11.00 8.80 8.75 9.26

25. . .8. 35 7.70 5.98 5.00 5.55 6.02 9.35 10.42 9.47 8.03 8.50 9. 22

26.... 8.15 7.42 5.90 4.95 6.35 5.78 10. 35 10.30 8.97 7.50 8.34 9.37

27.... 8.02 7.50 5.82 4.95 6.60 5.82 11.32 10.05 8.82 7.24 8.55 9.44

28.... 7.97 7.40 5.80 4.95 6.08 6.68 10.38 9.00 9.20 7.19 9.44 9. 11 29.... 7.82 5.80 4.92 6.42 6.92 9.52 8.42 8.85 7.26 9.08 9.20

30.... 7.72 6.78 4.85 6.50 6.68 8.55 8.20 8.42 7.19 9.07 9.04 31.... 7.65 5.70 5.90 9.30 8.05 7.17 9.83

Daily gauge height of San Juan Hirer at Ochoa for 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 9.48 6.61 5.67 4.55 3.83 7.60 7.13 8.58 lu.00 12. 95 10.91 12.97

2.... 8.99 6.56 5.58 4.73 3.89 7.51 6.85 8.68 9.63 14.43 10.87 11.86

3.... 8. 54 6.69 5.55 5.15 3.77 6.72 6.77 9.61 9.03 13.79 11.14 11.06

4.... 8.54 6.58 6.52 4.72 3.64 6.76 7.85 12.15 8.63 12.79 11.67 11.09 11.68 6.41 5.64 4.53 3.47 7.06 7.37 14.93 8.39 12. 38 11.63 11.23

6.... 11.60 6.33 5.66 4.40 3.57 6.83 7.18 12.54 8.13 11.97 11.30 11.69

7.... 10. 27 6.20 5.37 4.37 4.04 6.35 7.43 11.73 8.38 12. 21 10.84 13.82

8.... 9.62 6.14 5.25 4.35 3.89 7.04 9.51 10.87 8.59 12. 62 11.07 20.28

9.... 9.13 6.15 5.18 4.33 3.83 6.76 8.91 10. 52 8.58 11.87 13.99 19.15

10.... 8. 60 6.17 5.21 4.30 3.76 6.27 9.00 11.83 8. 28 12.60 14. 51 16.52

11.... s. 32 6.02 5.17 4.30 4.44 6.09 8.83 11.67 8.55 11.84 14.41 14.74

12.... 8.08 5.93 5.13 4.60 4.09 6.33 8.29 11.50 8.31 10.97 13.31 1 1.97 13.... 8.00 5.90 5.15 4.92 4.11 6.45 9.79 10.91 8.19 10. 55 12.25 13. 79

14.... 7.88 5.84 5.05 4.58 4.42 6.08 9. 55 10. 75 8. 45 10. 29 12.94 12. 59 7.70 5.81 5. 01 4.35 4.36 5.70 8.56 11.02 8.35 10.20 12.88 11.76 16.... 7.57 5.83 4.99 4.18 4.35 6.84 10. 53 9.50 8. 53 10.02 11.97 11.15

17.... 7.38 5. 83 4.92 4.17 4.10 8.22 11.65 9.36 9.45 9.93 11.33 10.83

18.... 7.26 5. 83 L92 4.18 3.90 9.22 10.64 9.60 9.95 10.04 L0.82 10.52

19.... 7.12 5.75 1.82 4.31 3.80 7.52 11.66 10.16 9.97 10.36 10.54 10. 69 20.... 7.05 7.04 4.79 4.45 3.84 6.89 10. 56 9.07 9.66 11.05 10. 40 10.31

21 ...6.95 7. 20 l.M 4.34 4.61 6.51 9.79 9.13 9.05 13.95 10.84 10.00

22.... 6. 98 6.36 6. 07 4.23 4.91 6.05 9.85 9.51 9.03 L5.88 10.53 9. 69

23.... 7.01 6.04 5.19 4.10 4.45 5.96 10. 63 9.24 9.79 13.76 10.80 9.50

24.... 7.02 5.81 6. 35 4.02 4.64 5.72 10.10 9.43 9.62 12.63 10.18 9. 26

6.91 5. 76 5.24 3.96 4.73 5.66 9.13 10.34 9.88 12.76 9.85 9.12

26 . .

6.77 5. 60 5.05 4.09 6.79 5.57 8. 59 10.21 11. is 12.08 9.70 8. 96 27... 7.12 5. 85 4 90 4.07 8.19 5.40 8.57 10.78 11.37 1 1 . 86 9. 60 8.83

28... 7. 32 5.95 4.81 4.03 8. 55 5. .50 8.71 10. 82 10.76 11. 17 9. 78 8. 69 29... 7.68 4.69 4.05 7.18 6. 17 8.65 11.95 11.95 1 1 . 09 10.52 8.6] 30... 6.90 4.62 3.88 6.55 6.92 8.44 11.30 14.60 10.79 1 1 . 63 8. 50

:;i . .

6.70 J. 53 7.29 8.64 10.45 10.89 8. lo
REPORT <)K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 159

Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River at Ochoa.

L898. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

OctoDer November

December The year

1899. January

February Ma reh

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The year

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The vear

Daily gauge height of San Carlos River at station 3 miles above mouth, for 1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 11.90 11.85 12.40 11.15 10. 80 12.35 113.30 5.25 13. 15 13.10 12.50 17.40

2.... 12.75 11.85 12. 20 11.45 10.80 12.10 13.30 14.70 13.05 13.35 12. 35 15.50

3.... 14. 35 11.80 12. 15 11.45 10.75 11.90 13. 50 14. 35 13.00 13.05 12.40 15.25

4.... 12.80 11.70 12. 05 11.40 10.80 11.65 13. 50 17.90 13.00 13.10 12. 55 14.75

5.... 12. 60 11. 65 12.00 10. 20 10.80 11.55 13. 80 15.60 12.85 13.15 17. 95 15. 90

6.... 12.40 11.60 11.85 12. 05 10.85 11.50 14.70 15. 30 12.70 12.80 19.10 19.15

7.... 12.15 12. 05 11.85 11.75 11.55 11.90 14.70 14.85 12.60 12. 90 16. 75 19.40

8.... 12.55 12.00 12. 70 11.60 11.20 12.20 14.20 14.65 12.80 12.60 15. 50 18.70

9.... 12.50 11.70 12.80 12. 75 10.90 12.80 15.10 15. 70 12.45 12.40 17.15 17.30

10.... 12.35 11.70 12.20 12. 20 10.90 13. 95 19.00 14.75 12.65 12.40 16.70 16.10

11.... 12.20 11.70 11.95 12. 60 10.80 13. 50 22.95 14.10 13.10 12.40 18. 20 15.30

12.... 12.35 11.70 11.80 12. 50 10.80 13.45 17.50 13.70 14.05 12. 55 19. 45 14.90

13.... 13.00 12.70 1 1 . ?:. 12.00 11.05 12. 95 18.80 13.50 13.50 13.15 18. 25 14.65

14.... 13. 25 14.70 11. HO 12. 00 11.20 12.75 20.60 14.30 13. 35 13.60 17. 95 14.30

15.... 12.90 13. 45 11.70 11.80 10.90 12.90 17.50 14.20 13.00 13. 65 18. 95 14. 05

16.... 15. 00 13.25 11.65 11.65 10. 85 12. 75 16.80 14.30 13.00 13.10 17.60 13. 95

17.... 13.60 12. 70 11.55 11. 50 10.80 12. 90 15. 60 14.05 13.30 13.45 16.90 13.90

18.... 13. 25 12. 85 11.50 11.40 10.70 12.80 14.90 13.90 13.00 13.40 16. 25 16.20

19.... 13. 20 12.95 11.50 11.30 10.80 12.70 15.50 13.70 13.00 13. 15 15. 75 15. 00

20.... 13.20 12. 85 11.40 11.30 11.20 13.90 14.40 13.50 12. 75 12.85 15.45 14.70

21.... 12. 85 13.30 11.40 11.20 11.35 13. 25 15.60 14.25 12.85 12. 70 15. 05 14. 50

22.... 12. 65 12. 85 11.30 11.15 11. 35 12. 70 14.90 14.75 14.15 13.30 14. 65 14. 95

23.... 12. 55 13.70 11.25 11.10 12. 20 12. 75 14. as 13. 65 14.50 13.40 14.30 14.45

24.... 12. 50 13.20 11.20 11.05 12.60 12. 55 14.55 13.80 14.25 13.30 14.35 15. 30

25.... 12.60 12.90 11.15 11.00 12. 00 13. 00 14.30 13.70 13.20 13.05 14.00 15.20

26.... 12.35 12.55 11.10 10. 95 12. 65 12. 50 14. 35 13.90 13. 05 12. 70 13.75 15.80

27.... 12.20 12.80 11.10 10.90 13. 80 12. 35 16.90 14.00 12.85 12.50 13.50 15.68

28.... 12.50 12.60 11.05 10.90 13.00 14.00 16.40 13.65 13.75 12.50 16. 25 15.45

29. . .

12. 05 11.10 10. 95 13. 30 13. 70 15. 45 13.30 13.85 12.60 15. 30 15. 03

30.... 12.00 11.10 10.90 13. 60 13. 55 14. 65 13. 15 13.20 12. 65 15.55 15.09

31 ...

11.90 11.05 12.95 16.40 13. 20 12.70 16.57
160 REPORT OB" THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Daily gauge height of San Carlvs River at station 3 miles above mouth, far 1900.

Day. .l.-i n

Fed. Mar. Apr.

11.18

May. June.

14. 12

July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 16.09 12.."'7 11.98 10.97 14.17 14.56 15. 26 17.70 15.70 is. 12 2.... 15.16 12.65 11.92 11. 92 10. 92 11. 12 13.70 14.17 14.75 19. 20 15. 39 16.44

3.... 14.63 12. 47 11.78 12.53 10.84 14.23 13.62 14. i 14.30 17.35 15.55 15. 50

1.... 14.91 12.37 11. 82 11.60 10.84 14.27 13.91 15. 97 13.98 16.76 16.31 15.11 20.00 12. 23 12. 07 11.18 10.74 14.39 13.90 16.13 13.72 16.50 16.35 16.19

6.... 18.26 12. 15 12. 15 11.34 10. 73 14. 11 14.19 15.25 13. 50 16.83 16.14 14.90

7.... 16.80 12.08 11.76 11.21 11.15 13.64 14.11 15. 50 13.73 17.83 15. 48 17.77

8.... 16.06 12. 00 11. 62 11.19 11.36 14.80 16.45 14.73 14.24 17.75 16.40 27. 70

9.... 15.30 il.94 11.55 11.16 11.17 | 13.76 14.40 14.65 13. 93 16. 32 21. 58 22. 48

10.... 14.76 12.00 11.61 11.18 11.16 1 13.16 14.62 15. 63 13.79 18.95 19.77 20.53

11.... 14.40 11.90 11.48 11.19 10.97 ; 13.41 14.93 15. 20 14. 03 16.60 19. 25 17.93

12.... 14. 12 11.79 11.54 12.23 11.20 13.41 14.61 15.67 13.62 15.82 18.23 17.69

13.... 14.06 11.72 11.65 12.21 11.24 13.39 15. 71 15.41 13.38 15.66 17.50 16.77

14.... 13.84 11.70 11.41 11.73 11.85 13.12 15.00 14.57 13.65 15.00 18.60 15.98

15 ... 13.58 11.60 11.36 11.42 11.54 12. 87 14. 29 14.60 13.97 14.87 18.48 15. 68

16.... 13. 13 11.62 11.29 11.26 11.65 13.63 14. 35 14.11 13.75 14. 65 16.96 15. 25

17.... 13. 22 11.72 11. 25 11.40 11.35 15.28 17.80 13.91 15.00 14. 57 16.19 14.90

18.... 13.09 11.70 11.22 11.48 11.23 13.97 16. 53 13.90 15. 58 15.07 15. 57 14.68

19.... 12. 94 11.90 11.20 11.89 11.22 13. 35 17.85 13. 95 15. 04 15.38 15.25 14. 52

20.... 12. 86 14.00 11.15 11.92 11.44 13.41 16. 27 13.59 14.62 17. 03 15.04 14. 38

21 ...

12. 78 13.70 11.10 11.69 12.78 13.22 15.73 13.69 14.16 16.75 14.95 14.20 22.... 12. 70 12. 60 11.21 11.46 12. 58 12. 92 15. 29 13.95 14.10 18.23 15. 20 14. 02

23.... 12. 70 12.21 12.10 11.34 11.98 12. 96 16.54 14.27 14.79 16.70 15.97 13.90

24.... 12.80 12.00 12.15 11.25 12.24 12. 65 15.44 14.43 14.48 16.44 14.75 13. 70

25.... 12.72 11. 85 12. 03 11.12 12. 78 12.65 14.70 14. 62 15.59 16.85 14.49 13.58

26.... 12.54 11.75 11.71 11.24 14.73 12. 70 14.23 14.27 17.07 16. 23 14.28 13. 46 27.... 13.43 12.30 11.50 11.05 16. 30 12. 45 14.05 14.25 17.76 16.98 14.30 13. 32 28.... 13.63 12. 52 11.36 11. 16 14.90 13.82 14.57 14.81 16.46 15.87 14.68 13. 2:? 29.... 13.20 11.29 11.12 13.78 13. 54 15.00 16.77 1 17.04 15.16 15.82 13.05

30.... 13.00 11.20 11.00 13.18 14.10 14.20 16.85 20.72 14. 95 17. 95 L3.02 31.... 12.70 11.19 14.34 14. 25 15.80 15.56 12. 95

Rating table for San Carlos River at station S miles above mouth.

[This table is applicable only from April 1, 1899, to September 14, 1900.]

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge I lis height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Feet. .Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. .See. feet. Feet. Si,-, flit. Feet. Sec.feet. 1 10.7 2. Slid 13.1 8,160 15.

15, 200 17.9 24, 360 20.3 36,160* 10.8 2, 960 13.2 8,420 15.6 15, 520 18.0 24, 800 20. 1 36, 680

10.9 3, 1211 13.3 8,700 15.7 15.S40 18.1 25, 240 20. 6 37, 200

11.0 3,320 13.4 8, 980 : 15.8 16, 200 18.2 25, 680 20. 6

: '.7.720 11.1 3, 520 13.5 9, 260 15.9 16, 560 IS. 3 26, 160 20. 7 38,240

11.2 3, 720 13.6 9,540 16.0 16,920 18.4 26, 640 20.8 38,760

11.3 3, 920 13.7 9, 820 16.1 17, 280 18.5 27, 120 20.9 39,28(1

11. 1 4,140 13.8 10,100 16.2 17, 640 is. 6 27,600 21.0 39, Slid 11.5 1,360 13.9 10, 380 I 16.3 18,000 is.

28,080 21.1 40, 320

11.6 1,580 11.11 10, 660 16.4 18,860 18.8 28,560 21.2 lo. sin

11.7 1,800 11. 1 10, 940 16.5 18, 720 18.9 29, 040 21.3 41,360

LI. 8 5, 020 11.2 11,220 16.6 19,120 19.0 29, 520 21.4 41,880

11.9 5,240 11.3 11,500 16.7 19, 520 1 19.1 30,000 21.5 42, 400

12.0 5, 180 11. 1 11,800 16.8 19, 920 19.2 30, ISO 21.6 42, 920

12.1 .'..7211 14.5 12, 100 16.9 20, 320 : 19.3 30. '.160 21.7 43, 440

12.2 6,960 11.6 12. 100 17.0 20, 720 i'.i. 1 3,1, ISO 21.8 18,960 12.3 6,200 14.7 12,700 17.1 21,120 19.5 32.000 21.9 11, ISO

12. 1 6, mi 1 1.8 13,000 17.2 21,520 19.6 32,520 22. 15,000 12.5 6,680 14.9 13,300 17.3 21.920 19.7 33,, OKI 22.

15,510 12.6 6,920 16.0 13.6(H) 17. 1 22.320 19. S 83,560 22. 2 16,080 12.7 7.160 15.1 13,920 17.5 22, 720 19.9 31. (ISO 22.3 16,620

12. S 7. 100 16.

14,240 17.6 23,120 20.0 3,1.660 22. 1 17.160

12. '.1 7.6111 15. 3 1 1,560 17.7 23,520 20. 1 35, 120 22.5 17.7(H) 13.0 7,900 L6. 1 14,880 17.8 2:;. 920 20.

36, 6 10 22. 6 18,240

SQOOO ^ —

to,ooo

FIG. 8.—FLUCTUATIONS OF SAN JUAN RIVER AT SABALOS AND OCHOA AND OF THE SAN CARLOS NEAR ITS MOUTH.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 161

Rating table for San Carlos River at station S miles above month —Continued.

[This table is applicable only from September 14, 1900, to December 31, 1900.] Gauge Dis- i rauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

F, 1 1. .-v r. ft 1 1. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. S < n 1 1. Feet. Sec. feet. 12.7 li.s 11,920 16.9 18, 520 19.0 26, 960 21.1 36, 460 12.8 1 1 . '.i 12,200 17.0 18, 880 19.

27, 400 21.2 36, 920

12. 9 7, 200 15.0 12, iso 17.1 19, 240 19.2 27,840 21.3 37, 380

13.0 7, tld 16.12, 760 17.2 19, 600 19.3 28, 280 21.4 37, M0

13.1 7, est) 15.2 13,040 17.3 19, 960 19.4 28, 720 21.5 38, 300

13.2 7, "120 15.

13,320 17.4 20, 320 19.5 29, 160 21.6 38, 760 13.3 8,160 15.4 13,600 17.5 20, 680 19.6 29, 600 21.7 39, 220 13.4 8,400 15.

13, 920 17.6 21,040 19.7 30, 040 21.8 39, 680 13.5 8,640 15.6 14,240 17.7 21, 440 19.8 30,480 21.9 40, 140 13.6 8,880 15.7 14, 560 17.8 21,840 19.9 30, 940 22.0 40,600

13.7 9,120 15.8 14, 880 17.9 22, 240 20. 31,400 22.

41, 060 13.8 9,360 15.9 15,200 18.0 22, 640 20.1 31,860 22.2 41,520

13.9 9,600 16.0 15, 520 18.1 23, 040 20.2 32, 320 22.3 41,980

14.0 9,840 16.1 15, 840 18.2 23, 440 20.3 32, 780 22.4 42, 440

14.1 10, OSO 16.2 16, 160 18.3 23, 880 20.4 33, 240 22.5 42, 900

14.2 10, 320 16.3 16, 480 18.4 24, 320 20.5 33,700 22.6 43, 360

14.3 10, 560 16.4 16, 800 18.5 24, 760 20.6 34. 160 22.7 43, 820

14.4 10,800 16.5 17, 120 18.6 25, 200 20.7 34, 620 22.8 44, 280

14.5 11,080 16.6 17,440 18.7 25,640 20.8 35, 080 22.9 44, 740 14.6 11,360 16.7 17, 800 18.8 26,080 20.9 35,540 23.0 45, 200

14.7 11,640 16.8 18,160 18.9 26, 520 21.0 36,000

Estimated monthly discharge of San Carlos River 3 miles above its mouth.

[Drainage area 1,450 square miles, approximately.]

Month.

Discharge.

Maximum. Minimum. Mean

Total. Per

square

mile. Depth.

Rainfall.

1898. January 10-31 . February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year .. 1899. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October , November , December , The year

Sec.feet.

28, 000

34,300

11,341

10, 080

11, 880

32,250

41,600

15, 730

14, 200

32, 500

32, 260

19, 920

Sec.feet.

10, 560

7.400

5,140 4,220

4,100

5,200

8,400 S.800

7,420 8,180 9,680

5,850

Sec.feet

16, 055

13, 530 7,030

6,038

5,560

10, 720

14, 094

10, 990

10, 319

12, 880

15, 440

9,290

Acre-feet.

700, 582

751, 380

432, 260

359, 285 341,870

637, 880

866, 605

675, 750

614,023

791,960

918, 750

571, 220

Sec. feet. 11.10 9.30

4.80 4.20

3.80

7.40 9.70

7.60

7.10

8.90 10.60

6.40

Inches. 9.09

9.68 5.53

4.69

4.38

8.26

11.18 8.76

7.92 10.26 11.88

7.38

Inches.

7.52 11.66

20.12 20.79

18.26

11.68

41,600 4,100 10, 996 7,661,565

14, 200

17, 340 8,060

7,280

10, 100

12, 314

50, 130 24,360

12, 100 9,757

34, 737 31,480

5, 720 4,940

4,300

3,120

2,800

4,360

8,700

8, 290 6,560

6,440

6,320 10,380

7,865

7,360 5,400

4,410

4,559

7,381

16, 909 11,678 8,467

7,808

17, 106

16, 057

483, 600

408, 750

332, 030

262, 457

280, 308

439, 206 1,039,701

718,067

500, 829

480, 701 1,027,893

991,347

5.42

5.08

3.72

3.04

3.14 5.09

11.66 8.05

5.84

5.38

11.79

11.07

6.25

5.29 4.29

3.39 3.62

5.68

13.44 9.28

6.52

6.20 13.15

12. 76

"6.03

20. 32

16.03

50, 130 2,800 I 9,583 6,967,889

35, 457

10, 783 5,840

6,752

18, 000

14,496

26, 074

20, 120

34, 608

27, 840

38, 432

66, 820

6,776

4, 5S0 3,520

3, 320

2,848

6,560

9, 596 9,512

8,924 11,276

10,524

7, 320

66, 820 2, 848

11,670 5,946

4,525

4,316

5,844 9,530

13, 665

13, 187

12, 936

17,202

17, 380

16,256

717,543

330, 249

278, 257

256, 835

369, 353

567, 079 840,358

817, 815

769, 784 1,057,745

1,034,237

999, 545

8.05

4.10

3.05

2.98

4.03

6.57

9.42 9.10

8.92 11.86

11.98

11.21

9.28

4.27

• 3.52

3.32 4.65

7.33

10.86

10.49 9.95

13.67

13.36

13. 02

8.79

4.96

6.56

3.00 15.42

11.26

15.53

22.72 21.36

6.45

16. 56 24.69

11,038 8, 038, 800

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 11

From Oct. 12 to 31.
162 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharge of San Juan River above the mouth of the San Carlos.

[This is obtained by subtracting the discharge of the San Carlos from that of the San Juan at Oehoa.]

Month.

Discharge.

Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Sec. feet. Acre-feet.

23, 270 19, 500 21, 030 917, 650 34,900 18,500 22, 080 1, 226, 260 22,000 14,600 16,850 1, 036, 070 25,800 12, 900 15, 120 899, 700

19, 200 11,700 14, 130 868, 820 39,200 13,000 22, 410 1, 333, 500 43,100 26, 200 32, 720 2,011,870

38,400 23, 000 26, 170 1, 609, 130 41,300 22, 800 29, 210 1, 738, 120 37,600 24,700 29, 320 1, 802, 820 70,500 26,800 36, 460 2, 169, 520 41,800 26, 300 31,570 1, 941, 160 70,500 11,700 24, 756 17, 554, 620

38,900 26,300 31,800 1, 955, 300

28, 200 23, 100 25, 180 1, 398, 430 23,100 19, 600 21, 540 1,324,450

20, 880 15, 388 17, 575 1, 045, 777

16, 740 13, 390 14, 981 920, 979 30,580 13,540 17, 229 1, 025, 231 38,030 17, 000 25, 777 1,586,005 35,900 21, 050 26, 253 1, 614, 281 56,900 21,250 27, 472 1, 634, 741

29, 320 20, 910 25,548 1, 471, 747

41, 720 21, 460 28, 959 1, 723, 175

32, 710 23, 450 26, 706 1, 642, 110 56,900 13, 540 24,085 17, 342, 226

26,854 19, 640 21,994 1, 352, 370

19, 832 16, 597 18, 292 1,025,925

16, 633 13, 520 15, 133 930, 495

13, 620 11,122 12, 186 725, 127

22, 750 10, 188 12, 569 772, S60

22, 060 11,144 16, 524 983, 237

34, 730 17, 5.54 24, 496 1,406,242

59, 082 23, 770 33, 946 2, 0S7, 339

38, 892 24, 628 28, 156 1, 675, 415 61,528 30, 512 37, 999 2, 336, 492

43, 820 30, 098 34, 277 2, 039, 662

55, 742 27, 980 36, 633 2, 252, 502 61,528 10, 18S 24. 3S0 17, 587, 656

1898 January, 10-31 February , March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

1899. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

1900, January

February March , April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to San Juan River between Boca San Carlos and Los Sabalos Station. Drainage area, 750 square miles (approximately).

[This is the difference between the discharge of the San Juan above Boca Sun Carlos and at Sabalos

Station.]

Months.

1898. January (10-31) February March

April May

Jane

July August

September

October November

December The year

Discharge.

Maximum. Minimum. Mean

Sec. feet.

5, 101) 17,61)0

Cjilll) 12,700 7.000 21,000 21,600

16, 100

15, 900 11,900

16, > 15, 600

46,000

Sec. feet.

'..III!

'J. Voo 1,300

1, 100 500 1,000

7, soo

;;, loo

•j, 600

•j, ooo

•j, son

2, 900

500

S,v feet.

6",ll

I. ,11 820

960 380

270

350

680 140

ii. ,n 080

640 6,270

Total.

Icre-feet. 111,770

802,680

17;;, ion

L76, L30

1 16,340

192, loo 820,860

404,590

121. Mil) 878,000

669,360

102, 150

I, 190,210

Run-olT.

Per square

mile.

Sec. feet. 3.51

7. 27

s! 76

:;. 96 3.17

LI. 08

17. so 8.77

9. 52

8. 04 14.76

8, 72

Depth,

/ riches.

2. 87

7. 57 4.31 4.40

8 in; 12.31 20.52

in. 11 10.62 9.30

16. 17 10. 05

.a

IP

'- .

: - «6? J

-

- ' \- * mm"

m

%
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 163

Estimated monthly discharge of tributaries to San Juan River between Boca San Carlos and

Los Sabalos Station. Drainage area, 750 square miles (approximately) —Cont'd.

Months. [Maximum. Minimum

1899. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December The vear

Discharge.

Sec feet. 14,400

7,100

4,400

5,481 5,773

11,446

22, 970

15, 833 31,590

9,704

19, 855

11,853 31,590

8, 574 5,008

4,010

2,258 11,270

8,884

11,914 31,114

14, 574

26,728

14, 620

28, 222 31,114

Sec. feet. 4,300

3,200 2,800

1,600

972

1, 296 4,430

7,067

5, 795 3,048 2,008

3,604

972

2,977

2,517

2,000

44690

2,124

2,802

5,042

4,170 2,320

3, 524 2,712

90

Mean.

Total.

Sec. feet. 8,330

4,390

3, 590

2, 517 2,156

4,367

11,585

10, 892

10, 362 5,790

8,604 6,373

6,580

4,574

3,186

2,845

1,124 1,886 4,214

7,365

12,983 6,922

9,559

6,234

9, 715

5, 884

Acre-feet.

512, 190

243, 810

220, 750

149, 772

132, 573

259, 862

712, 309

669, 818

616, 619

356, 056

511, 967 391,649

4, 777, 375

281,262

176, 984

164, 965

66, 877 116,025

250, 778 452,885

798, 317 411,870

587, 739

370, 954 597,335

Run-off. Per square

mile.

Sec. feet. 11.10 5.85

4.80

3.36

2.87 5.82

15.45

14.52

13.82 7.72

11.47 8.50

4, 275, 991

6.10 4.25

3.79

1.50

2.51

5.62 9.82

17.31 9.23

12. 75

8.31 12.96

Depth.

Inches.

12. 80

6.09 5.53

3.75

3.31 6.49

17.81 16.74

15.42 8.90

12.80

9.80

7.03 4.43

4.37

1.67 2.89

6.26

11. 32 19.96

10.30

14.70 9.27

14.83

Estimated monthly discharge of Machado River.

Months.

1899. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December The year

Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean

Sec. feet. 339

1.50 300

213 424

251 1,035

930 1,158 225 1,252

1,464

1,464

258

311 105

83

221 196

472 989

648

355 375

2, 602 2,602

Sec. feet.

56

60

53

95

170

198 180

10079

110

Sec. feet. 214

97 118

101 160

159 335

337

302

154

309 338

Total.

Acre-feet.

13, 178 5,405

7,252

6,030 9,854

9,471 20,570

20, 747

17, 994

9,471

18, 373

20, 797

219

95 146 9,011

73 120 6,665

62 / / 4,740

37 55 3,255

30 94 5,796

79 112 6,653

101 258 15, 862

209 528 32, 490

170 337 20, 025

80 169 10, 378

113 267 12, 327

168 600 36, 538

159, 142

163, 740
164 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

SAN FRANCISCO RIVER. The most important stream that will be intersected by a canal line from Boca San Carlos to Greytown, on the left bank of the San Juan,

is the San Francisco. Its principal branch is the Chanchos. Above

their junction measurements were made throughout 1898. The sum- mary of monthly discharges of the river near its mouth is given in the

table following. In 1899 and 1900 fifteen current meter measurements were made, which are also given below.

Estimated monthly discharge of San Francisco River at Us month.

[Obtained by combining observations taken on the Upper San Francisco and Chanchos rivers and

Nicholson Creek.]

Months.

Discharge.

Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

1898. Sec. feet. 1,270 1,360 390

1,260 560

1,100 1,890

800 1,280

510

1, 520

1,090

Sec. feet. 230

170

120 no

125

115 270

185

150

130 100

160

Sec. feet. 583

489

199

254

232 373

684

364 382

274 502 398

Acre-feet.

35, 850

27, 160

12, 240

15, 110 14,260 22,200

42, 060

22,380

22, 730

16, 850

29, 870

24, 470

1,890 100 394 285, 180

Discharge measurements made on Sun Francisco River,,

Date. Hydrographer. Meter No. Area of

section. Meanvelocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. H \V. Durham Price No. 34 do

Sq.feet.

491 1,083

834

662 503

415 270

848 508

417 810

842 978

626

751

Ft.perscc. 0.52

1.12

.30

.64 .26 .36

.10

.36

.64

.42

.57 1.16

1.21

.54 .73

Sec. feet. 256 Nov 7 do 1,212 Nov 28 do do 247

1900. H.G Heisler... Price No. 63 Price No. 34 do

129 Feb 16 H.C Hurd 131 Mar 18 do 148 Apr. 29 May 21 do... Price No. 35 B. & B.No.l do

27 H. G. Heisler 126 do 326 .do... do 176 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30

Sept. 11 Sept. 24

do. do 465 do. do 968 ...do... do 1,187 ...do... do 340 ...do do 554

SARAPIQUI RIVER. A station for the measurement of rainfall and discharge on the Sara- piqui was maintained about 6 miles above the mouth of that river from

August, L898, to the end of the year 1899, and the record is complete

for that period. A native observer took rainfall and gauge-height

observations throughout 1900, and approximate results for that year

also are given.


REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 165

Daily gauge height of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth, for 1899.

Day. Jan. Pebi Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 7.30 7.33 8.53 6.90 6.27 9.20 9.13 11.28 9.74 9. 7 1 8. 82 12.60

2.... 12.14 7. 41' 8.32 6.98 6. 15 8.95 10. 24 11.06 9.19 9.37 8.60 10.77

3.... 10.00 7. 26 8.15 8.63 6.11 8.49 9.73 10. 75 9.11 10.04 8. 42 10.76

4.... 8.41 7. IS 8.26 7.10 5.98 8.05 9.77 13. 85 8.81 9.64 9.80 10. 30

5.... 9.60 7.08 7.90 7.56 6.00 8. 37 14.23 11'. 81 8.61 9.79 13.62 15. 63

6.... 8.30 7.74 7.56 8.84 6.80 8.70 12.23 12. 29 8.72 8.97 17.10 20. 15

/ 8.55 7.90 7. 52 7.80 6.72 9.83 14.25 11.42 8.73 9.26 13.61 IS. Ill 8.... 8.61 7.43- 10.10 8.66 6. 25 10.50 13.74 11.48 9.83 8. 54 12. 64 18.75

9.... 8.66 7.14 8.86 9.37 6.02 10. 75 15. 86 13.51 9.02 8.50 16.80 15. 17, 10.... 8.34 7.09 7.96 8.63 5.96 13.72 25. 17 11.14 11.41 8. 28 13.34 13.29

11.... 8.08 7.06 7.55 9.58 6.10 11.68 24. 80 10.61 12. 66 8.07 16. 58 12.17

12.... 9.01 7.19 7.33 7.15 6. 28 13.84 17. 55 10. 05 11. 92 12. 42 15. 28 11.46

13.... 11.63 14.40 7. 41 7.97 7.20 10.87 19.40 9.63 10.46 9.55 14.67 10. 92

14.... 9.98 13.80 7.62 7.98 6.71 10.08 18. 02 10.22 9.46 10.04 17.23 10.39

15.... 9.88 9.58 7.84 7.37 6.26 10.61 14.68 10. 58 10.00 10.40 17.03 10.27

16.... 13.10 8.77 7.71 7.31 6.21 10.38 13.30 10.10 9.56 9.19 15.10 10.14

17.... 10.70 8.18 7.32 7.03 6.09 9.68 12. 12 9.97 9.42 9.81 13.75 11. 12 18.... 9.76 8.46 7.30 6.93 6.35 9.94 11. 59 9.74 9.75 10.41 12.72 14.69

19.... 10.16 8.30 7.15 7.04 9.37 9.15 12. 04 9.47 9.31 9.05 12. 52 11.93

20.... 9.48 9.71 7.14 8.75 7.79 10.65 10.88 9.00 9.35 8.55 11.36 10.89

21 ...

8.98 8.71 6.93 7.01 8.10 9.82 10.94 9.87 9.47 8.39 10.80 12.07

22.... 8.65 9.50 6.82 6.83 9.56 9.27 10.98 10.76 9.98 8.96 10.29 10.71

23.... 8.39 9.84 6.75 6.65 11.24 9.16 10. 75 9.47 11.65 10.29 9.92 10.66

24.... 8.46 10. 92 6.72 6.47 10.76 8.80 10. 21 10. 24 11.15 11.39 10.10 11. 28

25.... 8.72 9.76 6.75 6.38 9.30 8.79 10. 20 10. 15 10.33 9.85 9.79 11.56

26.... 8.30 9.64 6.72 6.28 12. 00 8.80 10.65 10.35 9.73 10.64 9.49 12.09

27.... 8.10 9.64 7.05 6.28 14.09 8.72 14.70 14.50 9.37 9.00 10. 08 11.11

28.... 7.86 9.36 7.14 6.78 11.86 10.27 12. 67 11.09 9.37 8.56 11.96 10. 59

29.... 7.65 9.27 7.00 11.83 9.94 11.00 10.13 9.78 9.74 10.34 10. 55

30.... 7.50 6.92 6.61 10. 75 9.33 10. 22 10.40 9.16 8.97 11.06 10.40

31 ...7.35 6. 75 9.82 14. 59 9.71 9.81

Daily guage height of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth, for 1900.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1.... 10.65 9.90 4.95 7.50 7.15 10.06 11.15 10.20 9.90 16.05 12.95 16. 55

2.... 9.90 9.75 4.90 14.00 6.80 11.74 9.95 10.00 9.55 17.45 11.20 13.15

3.... 9.45 9.50 4.85 9.50 6.65 12.50 11.65 12.20 9.05 13.80 14. 05 11.80

4.... 13. 25 9.50 4.95 7.95 6.45 11. 15 11.40 16.65 8.75 13.20 12.90 11.70

5.... 20.80 9.35 7.65 7.70 6.35 12. 95 10.60 14.45 8.45 13.80 13. 25 11. 55

6.... 15.50 9.20 5.25 7.20 6.30 12.50 11.40 12. 65 8.35 13.00 12.05 12.35

7.... 13.70 9.15 4.75 6.95 7.60 11.75 12.90 12. 65 8.55 16.65 10.95 14.75

8.... 13.30 9.05 4.50 7.35 7.40 10.65 13.20 11.35 8.95 13.15 13.10 30. 25

9.... 11.85 9.10 4.40 7.30 7.75 11.75 11.85 14.50 8.40 12.15 23.50 28.75

10.... 10. 95 9.35 5.00 6.90 7.15 9.80 12.65 16.15 8.05 15.35 18.25 21.65

11.... 10.45 9.05 4.65 6.90 7.10 9.30 11.70 14.55 8.25 12.20 18.30 17.00

12.... 9.95 6.85 4.60 12. 65 7.25 9.40 11.00 16.60 9.30 11.45 16.30 15.75

13.... 9.95 6.80 4.90 8.85 8.55 10. 65 11.20 14.10 8.15 10. 65 17.40 14. 40

14.... 9.80 6.85 4.60 7.80 9.75 9.60 11.10 12.40 8.25 10.20 17.20 13.00

15.... 9.30 6.90 4.50 7.30 10.60 9.25 10. 35 12.05 8.05 9.95 17.00 12. 75

16.... 9.00 6.90 4.45 7.15 9.30 9.00 11.15 11.00 9.65 9.60 14.45 12. 05

17.... 8.80 6.78 4.40 7.70 8.00 9.25 13.90 10.75 12.40 9.50 13.20 11.30

18.... 8.55 6.90 4.40 8.10 7.60 11.10 12.30 10.10 12. 45 9.60 12. 10 10.85

19.... 8.40 6.85 4.00 8.70 7.25 9.20 16.60 10.60 10.05 9.90 11.45 10.55

20.... S.30 10.55 4.00 9.20 9.85 8.90 14.60 10.10 9.50 10.70 11.10 10.15

21.... 8.15 7.35 4.00 8.40 9.65 9.65 13.15 9.90 9.05 14.15 11.00 9.95

22.... 8.00 5.75 4.75 8.88 8.70 9.90 12.30 9.75 9.20 13.60 10.90 9.70

23.... 8.00 5.50 9.90 7.30 8. 55 9.25 12.66 9.35 11.25 11.80 12.15 9.45

24.... 8.20 4.85 7.75 8.65 9.50 8.80 12.70 10.45 9.65 11. 25 10. 65 9.35

25.... 8.20 4.75 6.45 7.60 11.45 8.35 11.40 10.05 10.10 12.00 10.05 9.15

26.... 7.95 4.75 8.45 7.15 14.20 8.90 10. 65 10.05 14.10 12.00 9.80 8.90

27.... 9.65 6.25 7.05 6.95 14.30 9.35 10.55 10.10 13.45 12. 50 11.95 8.75

28.... 9.00 5.50 6.80 7.35 13.20 8.65 10.15 10.95 13.55 11.80 13. 15 8.70

29.... 8.30 6.60 6.90 11.30 10.60 10. 45 11.30 15.75 10.30 13.25 8.55

30.... 8.00 6.50 6.95 10. 15 11.60 10. 65 11. 75 19.25 9.95 15. 00 8.45

31.... 9.85 6.40 12.20 10.00 11.00 13.50 8.40
166 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Eating table for Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth.

[This table is applicable only from Apr. 1, 1899, to Dec. 31, 1900.]

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. 1 height. charge.

Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 4.0 800 6.4 2,022 11.5 9, 290 19.0 28, 000

4.2 860 6.6 2, 200 12.0 10, 190 20.0 31,000

4.4 920 6.8 2,400 12.5 11,100 21.0 34, 000

4.6 980 7.0 2, 600 13.0 12, 090 22.0 37,000 4.8 1,040 7.5 3,100 13.5 13,110 23.0 40,000

5.0 1,100 8.0 3,690 14.0 14,180 ! 24.0 43, 000

5.2 1,188 8.5 4,320 14.5 15, 300 25.0 46,000

5.4 1,276 9.0 5,020 15.0 16, 500 26.0 49, 000 5.6 1,398 9.5 5,800 15.5 17, 800 27.0 52, 000 5.8 1,554 10.0 6,630 16.0 19, 200 ! 28.0 55,000

6.o 1,710 10.5 7,510 17.0 22,000 ; 29.0 58,000

6.2 1,866 11.0 8,390 18.0 25, 000 30.0 61,000

Estimated monthly discharge of Sarapiqui River 5 miles above its mouth.

[Drainage area, 1,100 square miles, approximately.]

Month.

Discharge.

Total. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

1899. Sec. feet.

22, 077

27, 100 8,972

6,481 18,054

16, 766 61,479

23, 347 15,076 15,670

26, 678

42, 110

Sec. feet. 3,000

2,710 2,240

1,928

1,694 3,753

5,223

5,020

4,474 3,778

4,219

6,876

Sec. feet. 5,420

5,200

3,350

3,173

4,357

6,553 14,173

8,094 6,418

5,920

11,605

11,512

Acre-feet.

333, 260

288,800

205, 980

188, S35 267,905

399, 916 871,488

497.708

381, 931 363,982

691,724 685,012

61,479 1,694 7,150 5,176,541

1900.

33, 637 7,598

6,464

14,180

14, 852

11,991 27,038

21,077 28,946

23,498

11, SOS 62,236

3,631

1 , 025 800

2,500

1,944 4,530

6,547

5,566

3,753

:>,soo 6,298

1, 194

7,458

3, 598

1, 726 4,055

5,472

7,041

'.'. s.s(l 10,257

7,652

.11,094

1 1,258

13, (121

458, 575 199,828

106, 119 241,065

336, 441 418,997

607, 532

630,690

155,340 682,211

848, 106 837,718

62, 236 800 8,043 5, 822. 917

SAN JUANILLO RIVER.

Lull route, variants I, II, and III, all require that the San Juanillo

River be diverted below the mouth of the Deseado River and conducted

to the sea north of the canal line. To obtain data on this problem, a gauge was established on that river January 1, 1900. Daily readings
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 167

of the gauge and occasional measurements of discharge were made,

the results of which are as follows:

Daily gaugt hi ighi of San Juanillo River below the mouth of Deseado, for 1900.

Day.

89

10.

11.

12.

13. 14.

15. 16.

17 . 18 . 19. 20. 21.

22.

23 . 24.

25.

26 . 27. 28.

29.

30 . 33 .

Jan.

8.82 8.82

8.57

8.41

9.14 9.56

9. 71 9.67

9.40

9.09 8.79

8.45

8.10

7.79

7.60 7.42

7.08

6.74

6.39 6.17

5.89

6.16

6.92

7.45

7.31 6.95

7.65 7.70

7.81 7.60

7.24

6.87

6.51

6.41 6.36 6.10

5.93

5.62 5.32

5.22

5.11 5.30 5.20

4.75

4.44 4.29

4.23

4.50

4.51

4.32

5.69 5.60

7.92

7.68 7.22

7.00 6.30

6.00

5.66

Mar.

5.40

5.90 6.00

6.25

6.20 6.25

5.90

5.90

5.58

5.50

4.90 4.90

4.90

4.80 4.50

4.50

3.50

3.20

3.55

3.40

3.80

3.93 4.55

4.68

4.49 4.15

4.00

3.60

3.39

3.25

3.15

Apr.

3.15

3.12

3.20

3.22

3.00 2.90

2.81 2.75

2.70 2.65

2.60 2.70

4.00

4.00

4.00

3.45 3.10

2.90 2.90

2.90

2.90 2.90

2.90

2.80

2.70

2.60 2.45

2.40

2.40

2.40

May.

2.35

2.32

2.30

2.20

2.15

2.10

5.65

6.00

6.40

6.20 6.70

6.80

6.75 6.70

6.60

7.30

7.00

6.30 5.90

5.10 5.00

4.95

4.70

4.55 4.15

3.90

3.90

4.20 4.50

4.65

4.80

June.

4.80

5.20

5.00

4.85 4.75

4.60

4.45

4.30 4.40

4.80

5.00 4.90

4.90

4.80

4.75

4.40

3.90

4.20

4.00

July.

5.92 6.75

7.50

7.00

7.15 7.10

7.10

7.05

7.00

6.95 6.70

6.50 6.35 6.20

6.20

6.40

6.70

7.30

7.25 7.40

7.75 8.35

8.60

8.43 8.10

8.10

8.05

8.20

8.50

8.65 8.70

Aug.

7.35 9.00

9.40

9.90

10.10

10. 50 10.30

10.00 9.70

9.67 9.90

10.05 10.30 10.25

10.00 9.X0

9.67 9.50

9.40

9.55

9.40

9.10

9.00

8.90

9.25 9.35

9.40

9.40

9.60

9.60

9.45

Sept.

9.30 8.50

8.50 8.45

8.30

8.20

7.95 7.80

7.55

7.25

7.05

6.90

6.75

6.80

7.70

7.80

7.90 8.20

8.60

9.05 9.50

9.00

9.70 9.60

9.50

Rating table for San Juanillo River, below the mouth of the Deseado.

[This table is applicable only from January 1, 1900, to December 31, 1900.]

Oct.

9.20

9.45

9.40 9.60

9.80

9.00

8.80

8. 55 8.20

7.90

7.70

7.55 7.40

7.35

7.35 7.20

7.05 7.00

6.90

7.50

9.20

9.45 9.60

8.32

Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- Gauge Dis- height. charge. height. charge. height. charge. height. charge.

Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. Feet. Sec. feet. 2.0 240 4.2 501 6.4 1,097 8.6 1,849

2.1 245 4.3 522 6.5 1,131 8.7 1,883

2.2 250 4.4 544 6.6 1,165 8.8 1,918

2.3 255 4.5 566 6.7 1,199 8.9 1,952

2.4 260 4.6 588 6.8 1,234 9.0 1,986 2.5 265 4.7 611 6.9 1,268 9.1 2,020

2.6 270 4.8 634 7.0 1,302 9.2 2,054

2.7 280 4.9 657 7.1 1,336 9.3 2,089 2.8 290 5.0 680 7.2 1,370 9.4 2,123 2.9 300 5.1 704 7.3 1,405 9.5 2,157 3.0 310 5.2 729 7.4 1,439 9.6 2,191

3.1 320 5.3 755 7.5 1 473 9.7 2,225

3.2 330 5.4 782 7.6 1,507 9.8 2,260

3.3 340 5.5 810 7.7 1,541 9.9 2,294

3.4 355 5.6 838 7.8 1,576 10.0 2,328 3.5 370 5.7 867 7.9 1,610 10.1 2,362 3.6 385 5.8 897 8.0 1,644 10.2 2,396

3.7 400 5.9 928 8.1 1,678 10.3 2,431 3.8 420 6.0 960 8.2 1,712 10.4 2,465 3.9 440 6.1 994 8.3 1,747 10.5 2,500 4.0

4.1 460

480

6.2 6.3

1,028

1,062 8.4

8.5

1,781 1,815

10.6

10.7
168 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Estimated monthly discharg< of San Juanillo River below tin mouth of the Deseado.

Month.

Discharge. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

1900 January

February March

April May

June

July August September

OctoberTen months

Second-feet. 2,520

1,616 1,044 460

1,405

729 1,883

2,500

2, 225

2, 260

Second-feet. 925

507

325

260

245 440

934 1,489

1,215

1,268

2, 520 245

Si cond-ft. 1,603

904 626

311

744 619

1.421 2,184 1,786

1,794

icrs .' 98. 50

38

is45

36

8' 134 106 110

1,211

.<

181 508

534

76."> sj-

. 458

, 305

292 ,330

Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui.

River. Date. Hydrographer. Meter. Gauge

height. Area

of sec- tion.

Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28

1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 21 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 10 Aug. 30 Sept. 10 Sept. 24

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28

1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 21 June ! June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Auk. 16 Aug, 30 Sept. li Sept. 24

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7

1900. Jan. 21 .Mine 1 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 An- u; Aug. 30

Sept. 21

H.W.Durham

do

Feet. Sq.ft. 369

739 548

425

312 279

190

264 455

349 644

470

571

734 526

590

168

137 284

206

119

6138

74 16696 319

224

847 430 235

318

115 256

125

9052

132

177

152 177

136

Ft.p.sec. 0.41 1.09

.75

.67

.30

.28 .23

.36

.71 .32

.82

.85 2.00

1.02

.91 1.01

.41 .81

.24

.70 .24

.47

.31 .32

.82

.54

.61 .49 .96

.81

.61

.58

.24

.44

.23 .15

.17

.21 .22 .33

. is .25

Sec. ft. 153 Do do 808 Do do do 413

Do H.G.Heisler H.C. Hurd

Price No. 63 Do do 93 Do dodo

78 Do

B. and B. No. 1.. 43 Do H.G.Heisler do

95 Do... do 322 Do... do... ...do 114 Do... do do 539 Do... do ...do 403 Do... do ...do 1,145 Do... ...do 735 Do... do do 482 Do do do .'.H.

H.W.Durham....

do

do

69 Do do 355 Do... ...do 69

Do H. G. Heisler H.C Hurd

do

145 Do... 28 Do do 28 Do do Price No. 85

B. andB. No. 1.. 12 Do II. G. Heisler do

24 Do do 137 Do do... ...do ... 52 Do do... ...do... 197 Do do... do 111 Do do... ...do... 335 Do do ... ...do... 348 Do do ... ...do ... 142 Do do ... ...do ... 186

II. W. Durham .... do

Price No. 34 27 Do do 111

Do II. G. Heisler do

Price No. 63 30 Do... B. andB. No. 1.. 13 Do do do 9 Do... do do 29 Do. do do... 40 Do . do do ... 51 Do do do ... 85 Do do do 31
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 169

Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui—Continued. Boca

River.

San DiTouimo

Do

Do

Taniborcito. Do

Do

Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Copalchi Do...

Do...

Do. Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Gausimo.

Do... Do...

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Cafio de las Ceibas

(near San Juan on

Sarapiqui). Do

Do

Do

Do

DoDoDo

Do

DoDo

DoDoDo

Do

Do

Date.

1900. Mar. is May 22 June 4

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28

1900. Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30

Sept. 11 Sept. 24

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28

Hydrograplier.

H.C.Hurd...

H.G.Heisler.

....do

H.W. Durham.

....do ....do

H.C.Hurd...

....do

....do H. G. Heisler. ....do

....do

....do ....do

....do

....do

H. W. Durham

dodo

Meter.

B.and B.No.l.

....do

....do

Price, No. 34

....do

....do

....do ....do

Price, No. 35... B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do.

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

Gauge

height

F< et.

do

H.G.Heisler. do

dodo

do

do

do

do

1900. Jan. 24 H. G. Heisler. Feb. 16 ! H.C.Hurd...

Mar. 18 | do

Apr. 29 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1 Aug. 16 Aug. 30

Sept. 11 Sept. 24

1899. Oct. 9 Nov. 7 Nov. 28

1900. Jan. 24 Feb. 16 Mar. 18 Apr. 29 May 22 June 4 June 27 July 18 Aug. 1

H.W.Durham..

....do ....do

H.G.Heisler. do H.C.Hurd...

....do H.G.Heisler.

....do

....do

....do

....do

Price, No. 34 ....do ....do

Price, No. 63 . .

Price, No. 34 . .

do

Price, No. 35 . .

B.andB.,No. 1 do.

.do

.do.

.do. .do.

.do. .do.

Price, No. 34

....do

....do

Aug. 16 ; do. Aug. 30 ' do.

Sept. 11 ! do.

Sept. 24 do.

1899. Sept. 21 T. F. Boltz

Sept. 27 do.

Oct.

Oct. 17 Oct. 27 Nov. 7 Nov. 19 Nov. 27 Dec. 10 Dec. 16 Dec. 26

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do.

.do. .do. .do.

.do.

.do.

Price, No. 63 . .

Price, No. 34 . .

....do

Price, No. 35 . .

B.and B.,No. 1 ....do .do

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do.

Price, No. 68

1900. July 19 I H.G.Heisler. Aug. 2 do

Aug. 17 I do

Aug. 31 do

Sept. 12 I do

.do.

.do. -do. .do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do. .do.

B.and B.No.l. do

do

do

do

5.60

10.00

6.39

7.79

Area

of sec- tion.

Sq.ft.

1612

409 797

177

364

270 205

290 660

445

576 723

480

553

143 455

224

145

91

50

46

17879

278

206

292 425

210

271

121 431

117

9249

27 11549

7438

89

97 177 230

139

201

318

165 288

241 592

468

261 534

307

177

832 295 325

420

297

Mean *$£ charge.

Ft.p.sec. Seaft. 1.04 i 17 .99 11 .15 I 3

.66 .S3

.61

.13 .08

.32 .55

.59

1.08

. 77 .62

.51

1.40

1.69

.88

1.13

.62

1.31 .37

.65 1.16

1.08

.91 1.82 .97

.66

.79

.67 1.22 1.23

.26

.35

.37

.39 .48

.62

1.01 .40

.31

1.65

.91 .92

.86 2.22

1.02

.45

.98

.60 1.48

1.21

.87 1.13

.33

272

661 295
170 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Discharge measurements of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River below Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapigui—Continued.

River. Date. Hydrographer. Meter. Gauge

height. Area

of sec- tion.

Mean

velocity.

Dis- charge.

1899. Sept. 21

Sept. 27 Oct. 7 Oct. 17 Oct 27

T.F.Boltz doPrice, No. 68 ...

Feet. Sq.fL

133

123

79

10983

250 23896

225

184

177 233 287

238

412

Ft.p.sec. 1.25

.89 .53

.81

.40

.99

.55

.27 .60 1.87

1.48

.58 1.96

.69

.51

(*)

1.34

.81 .27

.21 .23

.31 .46 .18

1.08

1.17

.44

.27

. 72 !63

.56 1.49

.93

.53 .99

1.43

.78 .96

.40 .98

.46 1.02

.45

.40

.32

.47

.59 1.13

1.07

.70

.18

.71

. 17 1.11

.82

.Ml .98

.82

.82

.26

.03

Sec. ft. 167 Do do 110 Do do do 42 Do do do 88 Do ...do... do 33 Do Nov. 7 Nov. 17 Nov. 27 Dec. 10 Dec. 17 Dec. 27

Oct. 14

...do do 248 Do ...do do 131 Do. do do 5.37 8.73

7.88

7.79

26 Do ...do... do 135 Do. do 313 Do ...do... do 261 H.W. Durham ... do

134 Do .. do 565

Do

1900. Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31

1899. Oct. 14

1900. Apr. 30 May 23 June 5 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12

1899. Oct. 14 Nov. 8 Dec. 2

1900. Jan. 25 Feb. 18 Mar. 19 Apr. 30 May 23 June 5 June 28 Julv 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 24

1900. Feb. 18 Feb. 25

.Mar. 19 Apr. 30 May 24 June 5

1899. Oct. 11 Nov. 8 Dec. 2

1900. Jan. 25

Feb. 18 June 6 June 28 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. IT Aug. ;;i Sept. 12 Sept. 25

1900. Jan. 14 Feb. 11

H. G. Heisler do B.and B.,No.l. do164 Do... 212 Do. ...do... do

H.W.Durham....

H.C.Hurd

H.G. Heisler

...do...

74

8

1453

91 102 12680

363

767 676

381

96

174

74 209

428 280

798 385 518

678

425 565

75 11295

58

65

87

68

184

91

63

2859

25 196

55

1(15 153

80

115

408

254

100

Do Price, No. 34 7 Do B.and B., No.l. do

4 Do 11 Do ......do... do 22 Do do do 32 Do do do 59 Do... do do 14 H.W.Durham

do

Price, No. 34 392 Do . do 894 Do do do 300

Do . H.G. Heisler do 105 Do H.C.Hurd do 69 Do do Price, No. 35 110 Do ...do... do 41 Do H.G. Heisler

...do B.and B.,No.l. do

313 Do 396 Do ....do... do 149 Do ...do... ...do 790 Do ...do do 545 Do ...do... do 406 Do . ...do do 652 Do . ....do do 172 Do... do do 554

H.C.Hurd do 75 Do... ...do Price, No. 34 119 Do... ...do... do 43 Do... ..do... ...do 24 Do H.G. Heislet do B.and B.,No. 1. 21 Do... do 41

H.W. Durham....

do

Price, No. 34 41 tributary. Do do 151 Do ...do... do 97

Do H.G. Heisler

11. C. Hunl

H.G. Heisler do

Price, No. 68 46 Do... 4 Do 1', and H., No. 1.. 42 Do do 12 Do... do ...do 199 Do. do ...do 45

I>o do ... ...do ... S5 Ho do ...do... 151 Do . do do 66 Do... do do 95

T.F.Boltz Price, No. 34 .... do6. 12 4.00

102 Do H.G.Heisler 78 >No current. > Below Sarapiqui.

FIG. 11—CASTILLO RAPIDS.

FIG 12.—SURF AT GREYTOWN.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 171

Discharge measurement* of tributaries and distributaries to San Juan River, beloiv Boca San Carlos, excepting Machado, San Francisco, and Sarapiqui—Continued.

River. Date.

1900. Colorado (below San May 24 Juan). Do June 6

1900. San Juan (below Mar. 21 Colorado junction)

Do Apr. 30 Do May 24 June 6 June 28 Aug. 2 Aug. 17

Sept. 21 Sept. 25

1899. The Parado Oct. 14 Distributary Nov. 8 Do Dec. 2

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

The Taura..

Distributary Do

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

San Juanillo Tributary to Lower

San Juan.

1900. Jan. 25 June 6 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 25

1899. Oct. 14 Nov. 8 Dec. 2

1900. Jan. 25 Mar. 19 Apr. 30 June 6 July 19 Aug. 2 Aug. 17 Aug. 31 Sept. 12 Sept. 25

1899. Dec. 2 May 4

Hydrographer.

Heisler & Reed...

....do

H.C.Hurd.

....do H.G. Heisler. ....do ....do ....do

....do

....do

....do

H. W. Durham

....do

....do

H. G. Heisler. ....do ....do

... do

....do

....do ....do

....do

H.W.Durham...

....do

....do

H.G. Heisler. H.C.Hurd...

....do H.G. Heisler. ....do

....do ....do

....do

....do

....do

H.W.Durham.... H.C.Hurd

B.andB.,No. 1. do

Price, No. 34 Price, No. 35 . .

B.andB.,No.l. do

.do. .do.

.do.

.do. .do.

Price No. 63. do

do

B.and B. No.l. do

.do.

.do.

.do. .do.

.do.

.do,

Price No. 34. ....do

....do

Price No. 63... Price No. 34... Price No. 35... B.andB.No. 1 dodo

do. do

do

do

Price No. 34. Price No. 35.

Gauge

height.

Feet.

Area

of sec- tion.

Sq.ft. 9,030

961

761 944 2,356

1,225 2,402 2,948

2, 201 2,744

74

154 105

76

90

170

85

94

152

76

97

333 740

632

25664

4 285 803

428

521 727

339

451

1,393

746

Mean

velocity.

Ft.p.st <

1. 17

1.06

.73 1.84

2.32

1.77

2.62

2.25

2.13

2. 29

.72 1.40

1.53

.44 .60 1.56

.81

.98 1.36

.97 1.41

1.53 2.26

1.92

1.52

.13

.68 1.20

2.05 1.26

1.12

1.76

1.01 1.78

.42

.51

Dis- charge.

Sec. ft, 22, 336

39, 034

1,021

559 »1,741 »5,473

»2,168

>>6,310

»> 6, 637

* 4, 695

b 6, 273

54

215

162

3455

265

71

93 20874

137

509

1,669 1,218

391"3

344

1,284

343

815

4 587 d380

» One mile below Boca Colorado.

b One-fourth mile below Taura.

c Discharging into San Juan

d These gaugings made short distance above mouth, and the discharge includes the discharge of Deseado and Silico Lagoon. STATION ON NEGRO RIVER TRIBUTARY TO INDIO RIVER.

Surveys were made in 1899 to test the feasibility of the canal route from Machuca to the Caribbean by way of the Indio River. In this connection it was desirable to know something of the volume of the

streams to be intercepted, and it was also desired to secure data as to the position and extent of the Greytown district of heavy rainfall. To

attain these ends it was decided to establish a station on the Indio in

October, 1899. In November the station was removed to the Negro

River as being the branch most likely to be followed by a canal location. The station was discontinued September 26, 1900.

A vertical pine rod, marked in feet and tenths, was fastened to a tree on the right bank and observations taken twice daily of the height

thereon, gaugings being made near the same point by means of a Price
172 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

meter. As the supply of water became lower the stream at this point

became too sluggish for accurate measurement and in April the station was moved to a point about 4 miles up, just below the entrance of a small tributary. Here the discharge was practically the same as at the first station, there being no tributaries between; but, the velocity

being higher, neasurements could be made with greater accuracy.

List of discharge measurements mail on Negro Hirer.

[12 miles above Indio River. S. H. Harris, hydrographer.]

Date. Meter

(Price) No. Gauge

height. Area ofsection. Meanvelocity.

Dis- charge. Remarks

December 19 December 27 .

January 1... January 4... January 13.. January 16.

January 19.. January 23.. January 26.. January 29.. February 9.. February 10. February 12. February 14. February 17. March 24 March 27 March 28.... April 12 April 13 April 16 April 17 April 20 April 24 April 25 April 28 Mav8

May 9 May 12 May 15 May 17 MavlS

May 28 May 29 June 9 June 15 Julvl3

Jul v 14 July 17 July 18

Jul v 20 July 24 July 25 July 28 August 13 . .. August 15... August 20...

68

F, ( /. 11. 35 8.85

8.47

8.67

8.07

8.37 7.55

9.05 7.55

7.92 8.32

7.92

8.25

7.40

7.52 8.00

7.15 7.25

7.07

6.90

6.60

6.45 7.10

6.80

6.25 6.40

9.05

8.60

8.60

11. 25

8.07 6.67

6. 55 8.65

7.55 8.10

8.72

6.55

13. 75 9.12 8.82

7.82

9. 35 8.27 15.5

15.6

13. 37

Sg. fa i. 2,175

1,830

1,795 1,838

1, 920

1,975

1,885

2, 100 1,890

1,923 1,965

1,940

1,970

1,873

1, 880 1,193

304 1,135

1,116 280

1, 072 257

1,106

1,087 245

1, 054

1, 336

386 1,300

1, 553 376

1,069 1,049

392

323

350

399

1, 082 983

1, 350

1,284 1,200

419

1,245 990 2,190

1,863

Ft. per zee,

2. 58 .86

.67

.41 .41 .48

.47 1.24

.55

.32

.38

.37

.35 .20

.32

.34 .50

.23

.22

.49

.17 .36

.12

.09

.39

.10

.58

.70 .35 1.30

.65

.30

.34

.77 .59

.59

.87

.42 1.81

.86

.96

.61

.81

.51

2. 12

1.77

1.47

.Sec. feet. 6,074

1,791

1,370

876 929

1, 124 1,038

3,094 1,233

701 912

889

797 473

761 451

174 316

308

160

227 108

162

113

114

117 832 305

491

2, 224

272 410

430

333

221 235

386

535 1,999

1

250

1,355

821 869

704 2,105 3,896

2, 736

At new camp. Upper rod. New camp.

Bo. Upper rod. New camp. Upper rod. New camp.

Do. Upper rod. New camp.

Do. Upper rod. New camp.

Do. Upper rod. New camp.

Do. Upper rod. Do.

Do.

Do. New camp. Upper rod. New camp.

Do.

Do. Upper rod. New camp. Upper rod. New camp.

Do.

RAINFALL.

Observations of rainfall were made at each river station, the form of

gauge used at most of the stations being a metal funnel which caught

the rain and discharged it into a bottle, from which it was measured

in a graduate bearing a known relation to the diameter of the funnel.

The gauge was always placed in a position as exposed as possible,

but nearly always this was a small clearing in the forest which was

still well sheltered from the wind.

One of the most remarkable characteristics of Nicaragua is its rainfall, and the radical and striking differences in the climate of the east and west coasts with reference thereto.

MASAVA GRANADA

FIG. 13.-M0NTHLY RAfNFALL AT MASAYA AND GRANADA.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 173

From the records it will be seen that there is no definite dry season on the eastern coast, but that rain may be expected any day in the

year and the expectation will seldom be disappointed.

On the Pacific coast, on the contrary, there is little rain from the

beginning' of January till the middle of May, when the rainy season

begins, but the region is subject to violent downpours during the rainy

season, the precipitation for a single day being often several inches:

Mr. William Climie reports a rainfall of 9 inches in 9 hours at Nandaime, a small town south of Granada.

No less remarkable is the excessive aggregate of rainfall in a limited

district of which the nucleus seems to be in the vicinity of Greytown.

The annual rainfall at this point, as deduced from the mean of six years'

observation, is about 260 inches, while that at Bluefields is only about

105, at Fort Limon somewhat less, and at San Jose de Costa Rica, about

70. While there is a slight increase of rainfall with altitude on the

headwaters of the Deseado and Limpio, yet in general it may be said

that the rainfall decreases as we pass up the San Juan.

So far as known no satisfactory theory has yet been advanced to account for this local phenomenon.

The heaviest fall of rain observed in Nicaragua was, on the" report of

Mr. Howard Scharschmidt, at Silico Station, on Lake Silico, November 4, 1899, 10.5 inches in six hours, or an average of 1$ inches per

hour. On the same date Mr. Charles D. Scott, at Greytown, observed

12.48 inches in twenty-four hours, of which 8 inches fell in about six

hours. These are the heaviest falls for a single day yet observed.

The heaviest monthly rainfall observed by this Commission was at Greytown for November, 1900, 55.39 inches.

The following records of heavy rainfall were compiled by the Nicaragua canal board of 1895, and are published in Appendix E of its report:

Large monthly rainfalls at Greytown.

Month.

November, 1889 (in 24 days) December, 1889 June, 1890 July, 1890 August, 1890

Inches.

50.70 64.39

41.56

52. 59 36.61

December, 1890 December, 1891 May, 1892 July, 1892 November, 1892

Inches.

41. 65 32.74

50. 88 38.96

36.93

Large daily rainfalls at Greytown.

July 1.1890 July 2, 1890 July 11,1890 July 12,1890 Julv 13, 1890 July 14,1890 July 15,1890 September 7, 1«90 October 9, 1890 November 5,1890 December 27, 1890 January 20, 1891 April 28.1891 June 5, 1891 June6,1891

Total for 2 davs June 22, 1891 (9 hours) July 18, 1891 (9 hours) December 8, 1891

4.20

4.31 4.18

2.19

5.02

4.66 2.57

4.05

4.00

4.10

7.65

4.35

5.75

3.83

4.95

8.78

4.51

8.17 4.05

May 1,1892. May 2, 1892. May 3, 1892. May 4, 1892. May 5, 1892. May 6,1892. May 7,1892. May 8, 1892.

5.08 4.95

4.57

1.62 5.10

5.80

4.10 4.20 Total for 8 days

July 23,1892 October 29, 1892 October 30, 1892 October 31, 1892

35. 42 5.30

5.78

3.50

8.02 Total for 3 days. November 20, 1892 December 5, 1892 June 3, 1893 June 19,1893

17.30 5.12 8.95

4.00

5.00
174 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Large daily rainfalls at Camp No. 4-

Month.

July—,1890. July 5, 1891 .

Inches,

5.25

7.70

Month.

July 6, 1891.

Inches.

6.70

Large daily rainfalls at Camp Carazo.

June 27, 1888 December 4, 1888 May 21, 1889 October 20, 1889..

December 19, 1889 December 28, 1889 January 22, 1890..2.90

3.50 3.00

Large daily rainfall at Silico Lake.

April —, 1890

Rainfall observations at Sapoa, Nicaragua, 1899.

Day. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Day. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 0.10 0.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.01 .19

.04 .02

.45 1.52

.00

.00 .00

.03

.28

.00

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.03 .00

.43 .10

.05

.10

.01 .23 1.67

.02

.10

.02

0.00

.21 .04 .35

.24

.15

.33 .03 1.63

.16

.13 .00

.02

.11 .23

.00

.00

0.05

.42

.01

.07 .00

.00

.19

.02 .49

.08

.02

.01 .04

.01 .04

.00

.00

18

19

20. . 21

22

23

2425

26 .... 2728

2930

31Total

0.00

.56

.57 1.84

.17

.24 .22

.40

.49

.62

. 22 !oo

.00

.07

1.38

.14 .95

.47

.06

.31 .18

.26 1.15

.37 .06

.16

.35

.04

0.25

.31

.81

.01 .44

.00

.02

.00

.00 .00

.42 .48

.06

0.00

.17

.86 .00

.10

.14 .00

.39 .24

.99

.71 .09

.00

.00

0.09

.96 .08

.40

.11

.01 .19

.09

.00

.52 .70

.62 1.19

0.05

.34

.01 .03

.01 .00 .00

.00 .00

.02

.00 .03

.04 .00

2 .07 1.41 .09

.35 .10

.00

.00 .00

.00

.02

.02 .03

.09

.51

.00

.07

3

45

6

7

89

10

11

1213

11

16

17 6.66

.02 5.42 8.74 5.34 6.45 8.59 1.98

Total, July 16 to December 31, 1899, - 36.52.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION,

Rainfall observations at Sapoa and Tortuga, Nicaragua, 1900.

175

[July 16 to July 19 estimated. January 1 to July 15, Sapoa. July 20 to December 31, Tortuga.—H. C. Hogan, observer.]

Day.

3.4.

5.

6.7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12. 13.

14.

15.

16. 17. 18.

19. 20.

21.

22. 23.

24.

25.

26. 27.

28.

29. 30.

31 . Total.

0.00

.02 .00

.00

.00

.03

.02

.02 .00

.04

.24

.04

.09

.11 .00

.03

.06

.01

.01 .00 .05

.01 .00

.00 .05

.00

.01 .00

.00

.02

.25

Feb. I Mar.

1.11

0.00

.00

.03

.07

.01 .01

.17

.01

.14 .01

.00 .00

.00

.01 .00

.00

.02 .04 .00

.00

.00

.00 .05

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.57

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.18

.02

.00

.02

.00

.02

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.02

.11 .01 .05

.04

.01 .06

.01 .00

.02

.00 .00

.06

.00

.00

Apr.

. tr,\

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.04

.00 .00

.00 .12

.04

.00 .02

.20

.09

.01 .00

.02

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

May.

0.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.07 .15

.02

.12

.54 .55

.22

.04

.01 .00

.00

.00

.09

.92 .09

.02

.16

.08

.60

1.34

.03 1.02 1.17 1.55

1.42

June.

0.01

.54 .42

.11

.11 1.80

.10 1.09

.05 .72

.02

.00

.98

1.36 .32

.57 .76

.02

.00

.00

.11

.01 .07

.42

.76

.01 .00

.31

.78 1.40

July.

. 54 10. 21 12. 85

0.53

.04 1.94

.22 1.23 2.65

.16

.53 .56 .15

.30

.31 .43

.21 .39 .40

.10

1.80 .25

.00 .00

.34

.22

.12

.12 .19

.00 1.03 .27 .35

.10

Aug.

0.87

.04 .57 .49

.06 .24

.05

.20

.22

.37

.04

.24 .19

.18

.35

.03

.22 .00

.27

.39

2.39 .02

.09 .84

.99

.62

.46 .15

.02

.10

.00

Sept.

0.49

.00

.00 1.64

.03 .04

.20 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.92

.70

1.64 1.85

.98 1.54 .91 .30

.05

2.11 2.69

.96 2.03

1.09

.13 .30

.78 2.37

Oct.

0.00

2.43

.06 .52

.72 6.43

.02

.11

.86

.41 .16

.04

.04 .00

1.20 .18

.63

.82 1.12

.85 1.54

2.65

.03

.73

.09 .20

.04 .00

.00 .00

.40 14.74

Nov.

0.78

.00 .20

.26

.20

.13

.17 .13

.00

.00

.00

.00

.02

.00 .43

.53 .00

.05

.00 .00

.00 .35

.00

.00

.35

.11 .03 .00

.00

.17

10.70 23.75 22.28 3.51

Dec.

Total from January 1 to December 31, 1900=103.60 inches. Rainfall observations at Rivas, Nicaragua, 1899.

[Dr. Earl Flint, observer.]

Day.

12.

3.

4.5.

6.

7.8.

9.

10.

11. 12. 13.

14.

15. 16.

17 . 18.

19.

20.

21 . 22. 23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31 .

Jan.

0.10

.00 .00

.12

.00

.03

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.16

.00

.43

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.01 .00

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 Total. .85 1.70

Feb.

0.00

.02

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.52

.00

.00

.33

.00 .00

.00

.00

.69 .02

.12 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

Mar.

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.05

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .09

.51

Apr.

.65

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

May.

.00

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.90

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.04

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.58

.00

.00 .10 .00

.00

June.

1.62

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .06

.99

.00 1.15

.62 2.76

.00

.45 .13

.00 .00

.00

.00 .34

.31 .35

.00

.00

.00

.00

.32 .00

.00

.06 .00

.00

July.

0.00

.93 .08

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.04 .00

.00

.11 .00

.16 .20

.70 .00

.00

.00

.20 2.09

2.32

.00

.40

.83 1.80

.71 .00 .00

.10

.02

Aug.

7.53 10.69

0.00

.00

.01 .19

.02 .02

.00

.00 .00

.00

.03

.00

.00

.17

.58 .03

.04

.01 1.20

.20

.46 .06

.00

.95

.34 2.22

1.04 .00

.07 1.40

.22

Sept. Oct.

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.93 1.93

.00

.00

.00

.06 .05

.00

.00 .00

.08

.21

.00 .00

.57

.04

.51 .00

.08

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .69

.00

9.26 I 5.15

0.00

.00

.00

.84

.00

.65 .20

.95

.07

.00 .10

.36 1.99

.65

.07

.50

.22

.01 .09

.00 1.07

.40

.01 .10 1.01 2.84

4.21 1.70

.80

.00 1.55

Nov.

20.39

0.00

.00 .00

.32

.00 .00

.00

.30 1.07 .10

.00

.00 .00

.31 .04

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.26

.10

.36 .00

.38

.00 .44

.53 3.15

1.70

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .07

.00

.00

.00

.08

.03

.00 .12

.00 .30

.17 .17

.41 .19 .04

.04

.20

.00

.06

.38

.02

.03

.00

.00 2.31

Dec.

0.06

.04 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.02

.04 .24

.00

.00

.02

.00

.01 .00

.00 .20

.00

.00

.06

.23 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.III! . 92

Total January 1 to December 31, 1899=66.35 inches.
176 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall at Masaya, Nicaragua.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.

1886....

1887....

(») 0.30 8.23

7.39

15.26

5.74

15. 34 9.1511.19

23.56 0.69

.94 0.02

.99

72. 70 0.00 0. 00 0.00 2.42 10.73 61.22

L888-... .05 .14 .00 .00 7.09 12. 09 4.95 9.50 17.21 7.67 .00 .00 58.70

1889.... .00 .00 2.39 1.18 6.43 17.00 7.87 13.43 14.53 13.36 2. 34 .25 78. 78 1890.... .14 .00 .00 .60 1.82 3.00 2.86 2. 66 2.95 5.89 .42 .18 20. 52

1891.... .19 .00 .00 1.02 .48 20. 94 4.52 4.20 10.40 6. 45 2.78 .00 49.98

1892.... .00 .00 .00 .00 7.36 14.42 8.70 6. 75 9.64 15. 71 1.66 .30 64. 54

1893.... .00 1.15 .00 .00 9.26 11.78 11.47 15.82 12.67 6.51 2.70 1.50 72. 86

1894.... .32 .50 .00 .00 7.87 4.77 3.32 4.00 7.49 13. 42 1.08 .11 42.88

.00 .00 .00 .41 4.57 4.71 5.22 2.90 8.36 14.46 .57 .06 41.26

1896.... 1897 .. .23 .00 .00 .09 5.62 7.90 7.13 2.98 6.62 4. 22 4.85 .00 39. 64

1898 .28 .00 5.30

2.02 9.368.62

7.06 4.19

3.27

9.47

9.03 2.80

13.71 10.35 2.19

5.54

.53 1.20

50.73

1899.... .50 .48 .07 45.24

1900.... Mean..00 .00 .00 .00 8.66 15.52 10.27 4.70 7.23 11.24 1.91 .22 59.75

.14 .19 .20 .28 5.30 10.83 6.66 7.19 9.53 11.17 1.98 .38 54.20

'Estimated rainfall January to June, 1886, inclusive, is 21.97 inches.

Rainfall observations at Granada, Nicaragua, 1899.

[Observer, S. Vargas.]

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June. July. Aug. Sept, Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 0.00

.05 .00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.04 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .43

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.03 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.01 .00 .00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.07 .00

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.02

.00 .00

.00

.00

..00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.00

.00

.00

2. 23

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.07

.04 .00

.01 .08

.00

0.00

.00

.00

.01 .00

1.64

.35 1.84

.78

.76

.39 .22

.00

.26

.04 .00

.00

.17 .50

.32

.22 .00

. .05

.00

.48

.17 .58

.00 .00

.00

0.01

.00

.00

.01 .00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .62

.00

.00

.14 .00

.00 .00

.00

.51 2.34

.00

.00

.00 1.30

.87 .06

.53

.00 .00

.06

0.31

.00

.02 .20

.02

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .40

.30

.02 1.21

1.51

.11 .03 .39

.39

.25

.51

8. 25 1.50

.02 .00

.20 .00

0.06

.00

.00

.00

.13 .00

.28

.52

.73 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.17 .12

.00

.00

.00

.07 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.31 .00

.00

.00

.00

0.66

.15

.00 .00

.00

.111 1.56

.31 .02

.00

.65 .00 .46

.

- 51 1.48 1.07

.00

.00 .00

.16

.39 1.80

.07 .78

.07 .36

.60 2.03

.00

.00 1.56

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.10

.03

. 75 .06

.00 .00

.00 .00

.06 1.00

.00

.04 .08

.00

.00

.18

.15

.00

.00

.00

.19

.38 .39

L.83

0.00

.36

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.08

.13

.00

.00

.00

. 00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

2

3 ......

i5

6

7

,s910

1112

13

1415

16

17

is 1920

212223

21

•J."> 0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

26

27

28

•j'.i 30

31 Total... .00 . 52 .11 .02 2.43 8.78 6.64 15. 44 2.39 14. 79 5.24 . 57

Total from January 25 to December 31, 1899=56.93 inches.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall observations at Granada, 1000.

[Stephen Vargas, observer.]

177

Hay. Jan. Fob. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 0.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.03

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.23 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.03

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

'.00 .00

0. 00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .02

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

0. 00

.00 .00

.00

.06

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .40

.00

.00

.00

.09

.02

.00

.68 3.55

.00 1.79 2.89

.90

.00

.54 1.14

0.00

.42

.12

.OS .00

2. 85

. 06 3.62

.70 .25

.21

.117 1.4&

.75

.00

.00

.25

2. 05

.10

.00

.12 .00

.90 2.47

.00

.11 .00 1.05

.00

.00

0. 22

.60

.35 .10

.36 .4548

.42

.37

.80

.00 2.47

.00

.00

.00 2.15

.23

.03

.00 .80

.00 1.29

.00

.25

.00

.00

.00

.00 .30

.38 .35

0.10

.00

.12

.00 .18

.00 .00

.00

.00

.20

.00 .00

.00

.00 .15

.00

.10

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

2. 75

.00

.33

.33 .00

0.00

.00

.14 .00

.00 .00 1.45

.00

.00 .00

.00

1.88

.15

.00 .00

.00

.00

.87 1.35

.80

.00

.00

.56

.00

.21 .00

.00

.00

.19

.00

2.25

.00

.55

.00

.00 1.95

.00 1.73

.00

.00 1.04

.54 1.97

.00

.00 1.68

.00

.00

.00

.00 1.73

.00 2.73

.00

.34

.00 .00

.00

.00

.19

.00

0.00

.14 .00

.00

.00

.10 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 1.05

.13

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

0.00

.00 .00

.00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.05 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

2

3

46

78

9

10

1112...

13

141516

17181920

21

222324

25

26

2728

29

30

31 Total. .26 .00 .03 .02 12. 06 17.63 12.40 3.93 7.60 16.70 1.42 .05

Total for the vear, 72.10.

Rainfall at Granada, Nicaragua.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.

1876 5.77

11.57 13.6510.24

26.61 10.12 4.96

1877 0.00 0.00 0.00 .00 5.32 17.36 5. 27 0.87 0.59 6L34

1883 .35 .00 .00 .18 .28 5.20 2.66 5.47 9.74 19.91 3.64 .00 47.43

1884 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 8.25 3. 99 1 3. 75 8.82 8.63 2.28 .26 35.98

1897 .00 .00 .97 1.77 16.63 30.79 8.88 10.87 10.21 11.97 1.25 .28 93.62

1898 1.07 .00 .02 .00 12.82 10.44 6.09 7.30 5.25 10. 49 1.87 .24 55. 59

1899 .00 .52 .11 .02 2.43 8.78 6.64 15.44 2.39 14.79 5.24 .57 56. 93

1900Mean

.26 .00 .03 .02 12.06 17.43 12. 40 3.93 7.60 16.70 1.42 .22 72.10

.24 .07 .16 .28 7.70 13.10 9.67 7.13 , 8.77 12. 54 2.37 .31 60. 42

1876, Ramon Espinola; 1877, Dr. Earl Flint; 1883-4, National Institute; 1897-98, William Climie;

1899-1900, Stephen Vargas.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2- -12
178 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall observation* at San Ubaldo, Nicaragua, 1S99.

June.

Total

0.01 .00

.00 .05

.00

.10

.60

.01 .17

.86.

Jnlv.

0.01

.30

.76 .35

.02

.00

.00

.00 .06

.02 .00

.23

.01

.31 •«*

.11 .00 .10

.17 .12 .04

.05

.30

.27

.00 .22

!oi

.00 .05 .00

Aul<. Sept.

0.31 0.00

.30 .04 .12 .10

.01 1.53

.84 .00 .00 .23 .00 .11 .00 1.18

.00 .93 .00 .17 .07 .00 .00 .00

.01 .00

.20 .00

.30 .00

.49 .36

.30 9.45

.00

.00

.25

.00 .05

.18 .02

.49 .12 .53 .09 1.52 .03

2. 27 .00 .03 .00

.16 .35

.21 .04 .19 .04 .45

Oct. Nov. Dec.

0.56

.00

. 36

.10

.29 .00

.02 .20

.05

.07

.09

.54

.01 .77 1.79

.08

.07

.38 .05

.32

.16

.21 1.22

.04

..50 .96 1.58

.63

.00 .03

.02 11.10

0.00

.00

.00

.10

.00

.03 .04

.03

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.10

.83

.02

.00

.00

.01 .39

.33 .00

.00

.10

.91 .93 1.31

.09 3.49

.60

0.01

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.02

.12 1.22

!oi .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.01

.01 .00

.00

.06

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .11

.00

1.87

Total, June 21 to December 31, 1899, 44.05.

Rainfall observations at San Ubaldo, 1900.

[G. C. W. Magruder, observer.]

Day.

12

3

15

(i7

89

10

111213

II15

L6

17IS

1920

2122

23

2125

26

27

2829

30

::l Total.

Jan.

0.00

.05

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.03

.07

.(U .00

. 65

.or, Jil .00

.03 .00

.00

. 15 .00

.01

.(10 .00

.mi .no .00

.00

.00

.00

.11

.01

Feb.

1.22

0.00

.02 .00

.00

.00

.00

.03 .00

.00

.07 .00

.00 .00

.00 .03

.00

.02 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.02 .00

.00 .00

.00

Mar. Apr. May. June.

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

.02 .00 .00 . 17 .03 .00 .00 .97

.00 .00 .00 .28

.02 .00 .00 .05 .00 .00 .00 .14 .00 .00 .03 .09

.06 .00 .00 2. 27 .07 .00 .01 .00

.01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .69

.0(1 .00 .00 .20 .00 .00 .07 1.72

.00 .00 .02 .22

.00 .00 .73 .00

.00 .00 .00 .00

.00 .00 .05 1.01

.01 .00 .01 .46

.00 .00 .98 .62

.01 .00 2. OS .05

.00 .07 .01 .12

.01 .00 .01 . 05

.no .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 . 26 .00

.00 .00 .60 .07 .00 .00 .36 .00

.Oil .00 .28 .07 .00 .00 .15 .2:! .00 .00 .01 .05

.00 .02 1 . (10 .01 .00 .09

.27 .09 7. 11 9. 85

July.

2. 53

.75

.24 2.40

1.60

.36

.00 3.17

1.65

3. 53

1.34 .12

2. 88

. 12 .00

.72

.28 .02

.01 1.75

.53

.10

.03

.06

.(Hi .00 .00

.00

. 59

.01 .00

21.91

Aug.

0.43

.00

.06 .39

.11 .02

.08 .15

. 22 .00

.00

.00

.00

.i:; .21 .01 .00

.00 .00

.20

.12

.31 .29

.75

. 10 .88

.OS

.12 .00

.01

. 29

5. 32

Sept.

0.07

.00

.01

2. 52

. 56 .13

.01 .00

.00

.23

.01 .23

.00

.oo

.87

1 . 99

.19

. 1 I .32

. 69

.00

1. r, .09

. 17 .19 .00

2. 69

.63

.07

. 12

Oct.

0.20

.90

.81 .00 .00

.00

.01 .00 .16

.03 .00

.11 .00

. 13

. 00

.31 .00

.20

. 12

2. 95

. is 1.70

.01 .35 .00

.00

.00

.02 .00

.00

.00

II. os s.-.n

Nov.

0.23

.17

.00

.00

.00

.01 .00

.01 .02 .00

.00

. 25

.00

.00

.01

.11 .02

.01 .17

.01

.0(1 .00

. 12 .09

.0(1 .00

.00 .00

.00

.11

1. i:;

Dec.

o.os

.00

.02 .09

.16 .00

. 00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

. 05

,o| .00

.03 .00

.00 .00

.00

IMI .no .00

.02

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

Total for the year, 74.26.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 17V>

Daily rainfall at Solentiname Island, Lake Nicaragua, Nicaragua, woo.

Pay. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 0.04

.00

.04 .00

.03 .17

.07 .18

.01

.31 .00

.02

.13 .05

.05

.01

.05 .03

.04 .00 .03

.05

.05 .00

.00 .00

.18

.00 .08

.04 .00

0.00

.48

.64 .00

.10

.01 .00 .00

.22

.00

.00

.01 .00

.00

.00 .02

.06

.00 .20

.04

.02

.00

.00

.00

.04

.00 .09

.02

0.06

.02

.32 .15

.02

.12 .05

.00

.00 .03

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.02

.03

.01 .04

.19

.00

.00 .00

.04 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.02

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.05

.05

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.08

.17

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 1.03

.00

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.03

.12 .08

.16

.00

.00

.04

.01 .00 .00 .00

.00

.00

.00 1.00

.30

2. 40

.04 .10

.05

.99 2.00

.15

.70

.71 3.34

.25

0.13

.25

.25

.07

.00 .00

.06

.16

.00

.00

.02

.00

.00 1.05

.15

.24 1.52

.02

.00

.10

.51 .02 .00

.00

.00

.12

.21 .43

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.22

.13 .58

.04

.79

.36

.11 .38

.72

.11 .24

.50

.02

.10

.94

.40

.46

.37 .00 .05

.15 .06

.05

.21 .00

.19

.06 .36

.70

.33

1.30

.17 1.60

1.67

.19 .45

.25

.02

.50

.10

.47 .50

.06 1.05

.45

.08

.33 .46

.00 1.30

.00 .18

.12 .25 .32

.83

.42 .72

.10

.02 .30

0.11

.00 .00

.00 1.10

.43 .10

.13

.14

.36 .56

.17 .30

.20

.30

.50

.10

.11 1.12

.88

.10

.11 .40

.42 1.62 .60

1.06

1.50

.71 2.30

0.02

.05

.70

.42 .90

.40

.60 .45

.50

.00 .00

.00 1.02

.00

.51 .05

.32 .60

.40 .32

.09 3.00

3.85

.15

.30

.08 .03

.04

.01 .00 .08

0.13

.22

.07

.10

.09 .12

.04 .56

.23

.12

.08

.17 .03

.05 .66

.31 .04

.02 .00

.05

.10

.13

.19

.11

.00 .05

.00

.01 .06

.30

0.14

.23 .20

' .10

.11 .09

.12

.07

.10 .23

.31 .12 .06

.10

.22

.18

.10

.14 .05

.06

.10

.11 .18

.00

.00

.02 .45

.00

.00

.00 .00

2

3

4

6

8

910

1112

13

14

1516

1718

1920

212223

2425

26

2728

2930

31 Total. 1.66 1.95 1.10 1.40 12.47 5.31 8.63 14.21 15.43 14.89 4.04 3.59

Total for the year, 84.68 inches.

Rainfall observations at Fort San Carlos, Nicaragua, 1899.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

1 0.35

2 .00 3 .74 4

5 .17

6 .00

.03

8 .06

9 .38

10 .17

11 .05

12 .47

13 .05

14 .58

15

16 .53

1718 .26

19 .05 20 .00

21 .22

22 .08 23 .05

24 .25

25 .05 26 .10 27 .05 28 .00

29 .10 30 .00

31 .20 Total.

0.00

.15

.00

.10

.00

.24 .00

.00

.00 .00

.54

.08

.00 .13

.11 .59

.08

.32

.00

.05

.00

.05 .00

.00

.10

.25

.00

.00

0.06

.00

.06 .00

.00

.12

.04

.21 .00

.00 .00

.04 .00

.00

.10

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.42

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .02

.32

.04

.09

.29 .40

.22 .10

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.67 .00

.00 .00 .10

.00 .15

.00 .02

.00

.00

.00

.05

.22

.05 .03

.02

.05

.00

.20

.30

.00

.50

.76

.04 .02

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.28

.95 1.20 2.10

1.06

.31 .00

.51 .03 .35

.81

.18 .54

.21 .02 .04

.00

.32

.01

.17 1.42

.14 .15

.44

0.21

.71 .54

.07

.01 .00

.04

.33

.00

.08

.76

.07

.86

.43

.00

.00

.00 .00

.52 .06

1.19

.00 1.08

.44 .26

.72

.15 .36

.37 .02

.00

0.10

.00 .00 .18

.02 .00

.12

.42 .02

.00

.00

.00

.59

.16

.18

.01 .62

.93 .08

.33

.20

.41

.71 .69

.92

.88 .60 .10

.09 .03

.84

0.01

.00

.00 .20

.07

.12

.07 .16

.12 .06

.03

.06

.00

.21

.92 1.44 .05

.21

.41 2.33

1.00

1.39

.03 .08

.12

.00

.15 .80

.07

.56

2.74

.00

.09

.12 1.09

.22

.10

.01

.17 .40

.12

.92

.00 3.88

.07 .05 .05

.04

.03 .29

.00

.04

.00

.00

.00 .00

.13

.09

.00

.00

0.00

.03 .81

.41 .72 1.11

.28

.19

.48 .06

.00

.14

.01 .06

.70

.06

.81 .29

.12

.00

.01 .07

.72 .13

.07

.06 .34 .09

.32

.73

4.99 2.79 1.05 1.48 3.18 9.28 9.23 I 10.67 10.66 i 9.43

01 .40

.02 .10

.11 .01 .07 .00

.95

.02

.11 .06 .12

.31 .02

.06

.02

.15

.22

.12

.03 .00

.08

.10

.03

.01 .05 .02

.00

.00 3.20

Total, January 1 to December 31, 1899, 77.20.
180 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall observations at Fort San Carlos, Nicaragua, 1900.

[Fred Davis, observer.]

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Doc.

1 0.00

.00

.02 .00

.03

.61 .06

.23

.00

.01 .00

.64 .22

.01 .29

.03

.OS

.00

.00 .00

.02 .03

.08 .00

.06

.00

.21 .00

.18

.22

.03

0. 09

.54

.54

.00 .08

.03

.00

.00

.62

.01 .00

.00 .00

.09

.13

.16

.01 .00

.10

.14

.01 .02 .00 .00

.00 .00

.09 .00

0.00

.01 .31

.02 .05

.06 .00

.01

.01 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .08

.06 .19

.00

.01 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

0.02

.07

.00

.00

.01 .00 .00

.01 .00

.03

.09 .04

.04 .00 .00

.00

.06

.01 .03

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

0.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.07 .58

.10

.26 .00

.52

.19

.00

.01 .01 .00

.00

.15 1.80

1.62

.64

.45

.00

.08

.68 2.02

.36

.94 .95 2.08

.68

0.02

.21 .15

.27

.11

.01 .13

.06 .00

.00

.06

.00

.07 .30

.15

.45 1.25

.86

.09

.01 .00

.01 .00

.00

.28

.03

.00 1.03

.32

.18

0.96

.01 .51 .59

.53 .40

.00

.17 .79

.70

.10

.27 1.51

.27

.05 2.92

.49 2.14

.09

.31 .01

.26 .22

.10

.04

.01

.41 .36 .48 .66

.08

0.96

.38 1.19

1.20

.37 2.59

.47

.77

.01 .19 .14 .05

.02 1.08

.39 .12 .20

.46

.03

.71 .12

.23

.32

.52

.41 .50

.85

.13

.24 .59

.05

0.61

.01 .00 .00 1.14

.00 .08

.00

.00 .30

.87

.46

.18

.12 .00

.94

.60

.19 1.34

.07 .08 .02 2.33

.72

.05

.03 1.80

.62

1. 02

1.51

2.28

.48

.74 .46

.17

. 59 .75

.00

.35

.00

.06 .00 .29

.06

.21 .68 .18

.95

.15 1.45

.03 1.96

.40

.81 .12

.21 .00 .00

.05

.00

.16

0.26

.11 .05

.06

.20 .00

.62 .78

.50

.00

.00

.08

.00

.00

.31 .16

.00

.00

.09

.20

.34

.17 .10

.39

.07 .25

.01 .00

.01 .66

0.23

.07

.57

JIN .03

.44

. 23 .53

.16

.21 .90

.37

.20

.20

.17 .38

.11 .52

.07

.07 .39 .03

.06

.01 .00 .00

.25

.05

.(12 .00

.03

23

4

5

678

9

10

1112

13 ... 14

15

lti 1718

1920

212223

2425

262728

29

30

31 Total. 3.09 2.66 .81 .41 14.19 6.04 15.44 15. 29 15. 02 13. 59 5.42 6. 38

Total for the year, 98.34.

Rainfall observations at Ochoa, San Juan River, 1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 1.17 1.83

.58

.84

1.31 .05

.67 .25

.17

. 22

.51

1 . 28

.24

.21

1. 19 .80

.01

. i:; .16

.22

.51 .44 .01

.31 .03

.04

.01 .00

.02 .00

.05

0.37

.11 .08

.01 .18

.22

.00

.00

.11 .17 .08

.99 .49

.01 .13 .58

.33

.95 1.45

.27 .33 .09

.16

.06

.05

.or, .33

. 35

0.Z5

.01

.14 .05

.00

.02 1.36

2. 51 .06

.00

.05

.03 .35

.26

.24 .09

.09

.01 .00

.00

.02 .00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.01 .02 .00

.01

. 22

0.37

.09

.35

.17 .65

.71

.01 1.60

1.17

.43

.51 .47

.27 .08

.00 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.06

.(H) .15

.(1(1 .00

.on

.(Ml

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.17

.07 .00

.00 .00

.24

.31 .15

.00

.19

.32

.01 .11

. 69

.31 1.57

. 39 .13

.01 .is

2. 11 2.03

1.75

.10

. 85

.21

.(11

0.26

.03

.00

.00

.00

.00 1.26 3.24

.20

2. 51 .21 .19

.02

.is

.41 .09

.65

1. 11 .26

.33 .00

. 29 .00

2.41

.04 .03

.72 .79

.24

. 19

0. 24 1.03

.11 .69

.03 1.10

.93

1.16 6.90

2.81

.67 .43

:;.::i 1.07 .04

.19 .15

.41 .07 .53 1.00

.70

.08

.01 1.49 2.18

. 17 .78 .20

.00 1.09

0.23

.66

.03 2.36

.08

.06

.79

2.21

.07 .00

.00

.00 1.18

.01 .74

.05

.90

.31 .05

.71 2.20

.20

. 16 1.75 1.02

.62

.11 .13

.05 .38

.12

0.20

.00

.55 .00

.00

.26

.09

.55

.06 .79

.31 .00

.00

. 05

.(H)

l.:;i .02

.11

.01

1 . 52

1.3s

1.21 1.72 .19

.57

.00 .M

.31 .03

.00

0.43

.01 .33 .93

.03

.17

.01 .55

.02 T. "

. 19 .01 .02

. 90

.11

. 69

.36

.00

.11

. 35

.01 .89

.48

. 21 .60

.01

.00

.00

.00

.(H) .10

0. 02

.16

.S3 3.29

.51

. 98

.30

. is .77

.SI 1.97

2. 04 2.00

1 . 15 .94 .30 .36

.47 .52

.02

.00

.00 .00 .05

. 12 .00

.20

.04 .26

.76

.00

0. 02

.19

.16 .42

.83

.85

1.94 1.54 .28

.01 .31 .19

.31

.16

.21 .13

3. 20

1. II

. 91 2.69

.83 .09

. 58

.15

.04 .88 1.30

.66

. 50

.SO

. 09

2

3

45

6

8

910

111213 . .

1115 ... 16

17 . . 18 ... 19

•JO 212223

2125

26

27

28

293D

:-,l Total. 14.02 7.96 5.80 7.09 12. 60 15.69 30. 20 17.50 15. 49 7. 85 20. 58 22. 13

Total, from January 1 to December 81, 1899, 176.91.

» Trace.

J>\N. FEB. MAR APR. Ms\y JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. Nov. DEC. J/VN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUI>4E JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV. DEC.

—

18 99

/

\ /

\

1

\

\\

19 00

/

\

II

\

\/

\

1-

X

X

X 1\ j i /

;

•

1

/ V f— _J —1 v ^ \ \l \ ,i \J

A

' / y

Y** \

,' \ O /•., \ \ ;

', ,* i. />% w —1—

I s

\ ^

_/_ ^ ' X

V

I

1 \ * V

\ J

/

/

1

• —\

( / : , : \

* / A

11

.

** \

: \ \ \

f 7

/

/

->*, -«*

1

1

* A —

\

- v V

• y

s'"

1 : 1/

•

\\ ~-

-"U* >.

X, S3?

//

.7 y

/

' ' \ =3_J

^ 1 _ ' G RA \ / '•

FIG. 14.—COMPARATIVE MONTHLY RAINFALL AT GREYTOWN, SAN CARLOS, AND GRANADA.
8

9

10.

11 12.

13.

11 . 15.

16.

17 . 18.

19 . 20 . 21.

2LJ . 23.

24 . 25.

26.

27. 28. 29.

30.

31 .

REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Kit in foil observations at Ochoa, 1900.

[H. S. Reed, observer.]

181

PllV.

Total.

0.00

.06

. 23 .34 1.10

.40

.30 .10

.00

.37

.00

.13 .23

.09

.45

.05

.02

.01 .60

.09 .50

1.34

.68

.01 .02

.00

.87 .35

.38

.31

.09 y.12

Feb. Mar.

0.15

.13

.54

.02

.12 .13

.28

.02

.56 .00

.02

.02

T..06

.28

.05

.13

.33 1.29

.11 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.19

.06 .00

4.49

0.00

.78

.54

.73

.49 .02

.00

.00

.17

.42

.38 .16

.00

.00 .00

.00 .00

.94

.00 .43

.43 1.68

.12

.16

.08 .03 .00

.00 .00

.00

.02

Apr.

0.51

.12

.01

.14 .00

.00

.00

.04

.00

.10 .79

1.33

.20

.01 .00 .05

.00

.00

.01 .00

.00

.19 .00

.00

.00

.68

.00 .10

.00

.01

May.

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.04 1.52 1.92

.19 1.62

.01 .55

.07

.87 .33

.20

.00

.00 .00

.19

.24 .39

.10

.34

.30

.08 1.11 1.09

1.35

.02 .50

.33 7.58 13.36

June.

0.04

.22

.97

.61 .10

.02 .23

.00

.00

.00

.14 1.52

.73

.23 .05 2.75

1.45

.09 .03 .42

.01 .00

.00 .09

.06

.05

.00

.27

.14 1.02

11.24

July.

0.37

.01 .03 1.74

.04

.53 .23

.65

2. 55

.13

.21 .08 .52

.49

.01 2.16

.06

.53 .54

.13

.10 2.40

.14 .08

.12 .00 1.67

.51 .14 .28

.00 16.45

Aug.

0.28

1.40

.30 2.56

.61

.31 .83

.46 1.66

1.68

1.48 2.75

.01 .32

.62

.11 .83 1.38 1.24

.07 .04

.02

.18

.18 3.23

.89

.60

.57 1.54

.03

.28

Sept.

26. 46

1.06

.01 .00

.00

.00

.70 1.60

.04 .03

.00

.71 .00

.31 3.20

.01

.21 .26 2.20

.53 .35

.07

.19

.23

.16

.14

.77

.16

.16

.82 2.75

16.66

Oct.

0.27

.07 .02

.47

.03 .00

.06

.01

.01 .06

.00

.01 .06

.59

.02 .00

.12 .00 .15

.08 2.52

.17

.36 .89

.66

.76 .36

.01

.14 .60

.03

Nov.

8.53

0.06

.67 .25 1.65

.14

.03 .16

.47 1.61

.27 1.03

.02

.20 1.46

.56 .26

.25

.01 .13

.33

.19 1.23

.09 .15

.07

.54 .28

.02 1.59 2.07

15.69

Total, from January 1 to December 31, 1900, 158.83.

Rainfall observations at Oreytown, Nicaragua, 1899.

Dec.

0.23

.03 .65

.68 1.94 2.68 4.87

5.96

1.23

.31 .92 2.22

.09 .29

.11 .19

.33 .19

.13 1.03

.01 .30 .00

.02

.34

.02

.10

.00 .09 .00

.00 24.96

Day.

9

10

1112

13

1415

16

1718

1920

2122

23

242526

2728

29

30

31 Total.

Jan.

1.44

.80 .92

.27 .50

.59

1.61

.67 1.17

1.91 2.08 2.46

.49

.46 2.50

1.32

.01 2.21

.19

.29

.49

.19

.12

.56 .00

.11 .00 .00

.05

.02 .06

Feb.

23.49

0.08

1.00

.00

.47 .25

.02 .45

.00

.00

.02 .30 2.45

.10

.04 1.51 .45 1.06

1.23

.87 .45

.13 .00

.00 .38

.01 .00

.23 .19

.00

0.52

.00

.03

.00

.00

.00 1.00

.45

.00

.03

.01

.06

.02 .55

.30

.05 2.19

.03 .00

.00

.00

.00

.04 .25

.02

.09 .08

.25

.00

.00 1.36

Apr.

0.27

.03

.28

.40

.30

.12

.00 2.35

1.57

1.36

.48 1.36

.37

.00

.08

.00 .00

.00

.05 .00

.02 .00

.00

.00

.00

.05

.00

.00

.00

.00

May.

8.33 9.09

0.00

.00 .00

.00 .00 4.43

.30

.00

.00 .69

.57

.03

.00

.00

.11 .00 1.46

1.00

1.02

.40 .20

.27 .00

.28

1.23 4.00

.52 .35 2.85

1.16

.37 21.24

June.

0.35

.00

.00 2.15

.11 .46

.00 .16

.00

.06 .00

.06

.47

.22

.00 1.12 2.40

3.07

.14 .00

.30

.00 5.25

.21 .22

.67 1.85

20. 97

July.

2.46

2.14

1.05

.40

.10

.45 2.14

.46 3.05

3.08 4.89

.06 3.63

.67 .36 .28

.34

.71

.06 1.92

1.90

.49 1.02

1.03

1.07 2.24

2.17

.00

.00

.12 1.33

39; 62

Aug,

0.30

.67 .00 5.70

.07 .70

.36 1.40

.09 .00

.00

.00 1.06 .28

4. 23

.23

1.01 1.36

.86 .08 .80

.27 .60 1.97

.20 1.75

.16

.68

.00 1.58

.06

29. 50

Sept.

0.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.30

.85 .98

.00 1.73 5.60

1.26

.53 1.05

.06 3.23

.00 1.25

.15 6.10

.65 3.52

.71 1.20 3.15

.00 2.23

2.40

.00

.00

Oct.

36.95

0.10

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

1.21 .00

.00

.00

.26

.00 1.76

.00

.00

.97 .00

1.12 4.69

.00

.88

.00

.00

.60

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.85

Nov.

12.44

0.41

.00 .18

12. 48

.78

.00

.00 .14 3.24

4.90

4.35

2.40

.70

.38 1.84

1.09

.59 1.38

1.25

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.65 2.20

.00

.00

1.40

Dec.

10. 36

0.00

.49

.40 2.60

1.23

.70 1.58

.35

.38 .00

.00

.00 1.30

2.33

.00 1.10

2.12 2.82

.93 2.03

.93

.87 2.10

.67

.97 1.83

1.04

.62

.15 2.53

.38 32.25

Total, January 1 to December 31, 1899, 285.93.
182 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall observations at Greytown, Nicaragua, 1900.

[Charles I). Scott, observer.]

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 1.05

.75

.10 3.15

0.00

.54 1.04

.10

0.20 2.25

1.25

.22

0.00

.27 .00

.24

0.00

.00

.00

.00

0.00

.00 1.40

.00

1.45

.00

.64 2.07

1.68 1.30

.41 4.40

0.30

.00 .00

.00

0.00

.00 1.00

.22

2.43

7.40

8. 76 5.70

0.16

1.63

.91 .63

2

3

4

5 4.16 .00 .65 .00 .30 .68 1.74 3.10 .00 1.77 .42 1.60

6 1.40 .58 .11 .00 5.60 .18 .64 .92 .00 .00 1.81 1.47

7 .86 .05 .00 .44 2.79 .48 .64 .98 .71 .00 1.34 2.60

8 .73 .00 .00 .11 .42 .00 .00 1.50 .00 .21 4.83 .00

9 .12 .63 .00 .00 .60 .00 .00 .53 .00 1.13 1.83 .82

10 .00 .00 .24 .00 5.08 .00 .00 3.68 .00 2.30 .54 .32

11 .00 .00 1.23 .30 2.10 .28 .22 3.29 .16 .00 .83 1.10

12 .80 .08 .00 .22 .00 .32 .12 .58 .00 .00 .98 .53

13 .57 .00 .00 .00 .00 .40 .18 1.18 2.06 .00 .32 .58

11 .00 .18 .00 .00 .18 .52 .00 3.68 6.29 .00 .32 .00

15 .80 .15 .00 .00 1.38 1.28 .13 .24 .00 2.03 1.43 .00

16 .25 1.23 .00 .00 .00 .29 1.58 .30 .00 .00 .00 .76

17 .00 .50 .00 .00 .00 .13 1.98 .20 .00 .00 .10 .75

18 .00 .00 .18 .59 .00 .00 1.69 1.26 .68 1.30 .06 1.46

19 .32 .18

.49 1.00

.95 2.58

.00

.00

.00

.00 .75

.00

.00 .00

.00

.23

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.13 .00

.00

1.08

.48 1.08 3.20

.90 1.36

.56

.91

1.41

.00 .28 1.86

1.28 4.97

1.45

.00

.15

.67 1.60

.57

.42 .00

.32

.92

20

2122

23 1.38

.00

.00

.18 1.42

.86

.10

.19

.34

.00

.00

.00

.48 1.15

.48

.39 .00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

.00

1.81

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00 .00

.41

.58

.00 .00

.00

.00

.86 .29

.76 1.12

.20 .00 2.28

.10

.00

.10 2.42

.24

.00

.10 .20

.29 3.95

.41 .10 3.26

.00

.46

.56 1.40

1.46

.56

.12 1.18

.26

.00

.98 2.12

2.43 1.40

.58 3.41

.58 1.20

.39 1.30

.80

.42

.00

.00

.00

.93

.94

.00 .00

.53 3.32

2.68

3.03 2.20 1.53

.12 .00

.38

.68 .00

.00 .00

.18

.00

2125

26

2728

29 . .

30

31 Total. 21.20 10. 72 7.47 4.62 22. 06 11.43 27.13 38.96 26. 45 22. 44 55. 38 18.24

Total, from January 1 to December 31, 1900, 266.10. Rainfall at Greytown, Nicaragua.

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual.

1890

1891

1892 1893

1*98

1899 1900Mean .

26.80

20.80

28. 57 17.70

0.36

2. 57

11.38

7. 53

5.93

1 . 95 4.98

3.93

L0.16

s. 33 7.47

18. 11

10. 10 18.38 9.99

7.82

9.09

4.62

4.93

13. 78

50. 88 2.77

9.37 21.24

22. 06

46.84

26. 95 13.42

52.55

23.57

38.96

35.72

19. 49 23.63

8.14

14.16

11.47

24.36

20.21 27.95

25.55

28. 15 36.93

41.65

32. 74 24.65

296. 94

214. 27 291.20

19.44 2:.. 17 23.49 11.69 21.20 jlO.7219. 52 20.97

11.43

24.63 39.62

27. 13

16. 38

29. 50

38. 96

7. 24 36.95

26.45

12. 50

12. 44 22.44

32.35

40.36

55.38

17. 06

32. 25

18. 24

201.64

285.93

266. Id

22. 50 10.77 6.11 11.20 17.86 23. 19 34.41 27.28 17.40 19. 98 36. 45 27. 76 259. 35

Monthly rainfall of Nicaragua, 1898.

Station.

BritO and Tola . Etivas Las I a jus Rio Vk'jo

Tipitaj a Morrili i Fori San Carlos. Sabalos

Castillo Machuca

Kin San Carlos . Ochoa

San Francisco *. Sarapiqui Deseado b Greytown

Jan.

0. 25

1.07

. 25

Feb.

0.00

.12

.(15 .01 .00

Mar.

0.08

.10

i.::i .66

.26

1.21 2.10

13.07 11. us

1:..:::: Is, i:;

7. 52

8.04

8. 72 21.92 26.98 19.44 25.17

11.76 10.16

Apr. May.

(i. us ii.;;n .00 16.17

.28 Ki.oo

.on L3.78

. 00 S. 56

.(17 S. 92

:s. (id 8.22

('..(III II. 69

June. July.

11.66

L2.23 11.25

s. 88

7. 82

2(1. 12 15.25

18.87

I I. sr, 15. 95

13.511 13.45

16. SS

11.115 15.56

L7.13

11.42

13. 65

10.64 4.01 6.24

13.84 13.35

20. 69 18.92

20. 79

21. 17 1S.S7

I I.M IS.CC, 9.37 19.52

18. 26 21.60

19. 22

26. 86 24.63

Aug.

6.17

11.85

s. II 11.66 7.82

10.20 8.00

11.33 11.46

6. 52 11.68 12.08

13.45

13.31 16.38

Sept.

10. 60

13.99 6.79

7.28

11.25

10.56

11.42

16.22

12. 86

15. 12 10.95

II. 19 5.23

7.24

Oct.

25. 70

20. S3

16. 19 8.99

7.12 8.93

I I..si 1.61 9.83

8. (12 9.09

11.35

11.92

12. 50

6.01 8.19

1.41 .61 .93 9.86

12.17

14.04

15.65

2.41

3. 11

2. 26

.17

. 17

5. 62

1(1.20 11.61

6. 75 21.59 8.88 22.28 10.61 18.68 7. 12 29.25 21.07 32.35 117.06

Dec. Total.

94.88

108.06

71.75

611.62

59. 23

84.81 111.51

L70.84

172. 17 210.63

201.61

» Record incomplete from January 1-6, inclusive, and from December 29-81, inclusive; so the rainfall at Ochoa for those days is added.

b Rainfall not observed from December 25-31, 1898; so the record was completed by Including the

corresi • "irling days of 1897.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall iii Sicaraijna ami < usla Rica durini/ 1SU9, in inches.

183

Location. 1 >li server. Total. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

Bluefields

Castillo 114.60

58. 20

10.82

.00 6.47

.00 10.72

.52

.43 11.69

2. 02

.00 11.83

.11 .00

8. 33

2, 21 .60 13.17

56. 93

GO. 33

285. 93

.(II) .30

23. -19

.02 DO Nicaragua Sugar Estates

('has. D.Scott

.00 9.09

S. H. Harris .

W. H. S. Grigs) >v

93.08 12.96 4.61 i.65 5. 61 T. Bird . .

J. Weist 15. 24 .50 .48 .07 .00 W. K. Henlev .

H.S. Reed 176.91 14.02 7. 96 5.80 7.09

T. W White

Earl Flint 67.82 .85 1.70 .65 .00 Do

H. S. Reed

98.55

67. 22 77.20

9.82

.00 4.99

4.33

.44 2.79

2.73

.00

1.05

2.65 San Antonio plantation ... Nicaragua Sugar Estates

E. Humphreys

.00 1.48 San Miguelito S. F. Cuadra

M. C. Hogan

T. F. Boltz et al 190.40 16.57 7. 77 5.67 9.13

T. Montiel

.26

Do

*

May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Established.

Acoyapa

Basillas Bluefields

Castillo Chichigalpa Colorado Granada Do

Greytown

Indio ( Negro ) , Javali mine , Juigalpa La Libertad Machuca Managua

Masaya

Matagalpa

Momob mibo Moyogalpa Ochoa , Penon Rama

RivasDo

Rio Frio Rio San Carlos , Sabalas San Antonio plantation

San Carlos San Francisco , San Miguelito San Ubaldo

Sapoa

Sarapiqui Sardinas

9.60

5.90

.88 19.11 2.43 2.48

21. 24

7.08

'2*02'

5.50

2. 12 3.18

9.29

4. 56

8.78

10.19 20.97

is. 11 5.13

43.99

6.64

7.47 39.62

2.18

17.73 6.88

29. 78

15. 44 14.77

29. 50

3.30

.49 29.11

12.01 4.06 2.39

3.78 36.95

S.58 18.33

4.25

7.05

18.79 4.19 9.47

15.69 1 30.20 17.50

7. 53 10. 69

2.65

9.26

11.31 15.87

9. 82 8. 08

11.24 9.28

12,15 9.60

9.23

4.30

5.42

24.89

9.45

8.74

21. 05

5.60

.83 2.85

5.69

2.21 2.80

1.43

.97 3.08

15.49 4.94

11.58 5.15

15.32 5.95

8.10

8.21

32. 29

11. 92 14.79

15.13 12.44

.25 8.81

12. 97 8.33

1.91

18. 59

10. 35 15.88

26. 55 18.32 7.85

9.11 10.90

20.39

8.95

9.22 9.55

15.33 3.80

1.20

1.96 9.75

6.90

.00

14.70 5.50

10.67

.82 6.22

5.34

17.05

.90 6.03

6.67 26.85

10.66 1.60

8.13 11.10 6.45

10. .".5

5.24

4.85 40.36

18.55 7.65 10.26 9.12

4.09

2.79

5.54 6.29

5.30

5.99

20. 58

5. 24 13.42 9.06

5.91 8.36 20.32 8.09

4.81 9.43

6.82 6.95

9.31

8. 59

29. 29 11.59

.57

.87 32.25

18.65 4.78

.60 5.46

3.78

.11 1.20 1.18

.62 7.03

22. 13 2.02 8.33

.92 .57 3.53

18.03 4.73

.00 3.20

3.00 2.78

1.87

1.98 20.75

1.71

Aug. 10 Sept. 26 Aug. 26

Jan. 25

Oct. 27

Sept. 17 Aug. 19 Aug. 16 Sept. 16

Sept. 12 Sept. 16 Sept. 1 Sept. 13 Aug. 18 Nov. 7 Oct. 21 Oct. 12

Sept. 23 Oct. 5 June 21 July 16 Nov. 1
184 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica during 1899, in inches—Continued.

Location. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Established.

13. 72 2.57 3.35

2.04

2.27 9.45

13.95

11.69

29. 49

15.95

16.91 8.04

10.57

30.32

5.42

5.48

6.11

19.88

.44

.52

.00

Sept. 17

(») Aug. 13 2.22

4.81

Sept. 2 1.39 Aug. is 11.63

2.29 .08 16.23 6.18

14.78 i 7.09

12.33 July 3 Do Oct. 3

» Discontinued January 24; reestablished August 20.

Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica daring the year 1900, in inches.

Location. Observer. Total. Jan. Feb. Mar.

Acoyapa, Nicaragua

Arena], Costa Rica a Basillas Island, Nicaragua. .

Boca Sucia, Costa Rica

Bluetields, Nicaragua , Castillo, Nicaragua

Frio (5 miles up), Costa Rica. Granada Wharf, Nicaragua.

Granada City, Nicaragua Greytown, Nicaragua

Juigalpa, Nicaragua

Las Haciendas, Nicaragua .

Machuca, Nicaragua Managua, Nicaragua

Masaya, Nicaragua

Matagalpa, Nicaragua

Momotombo, Nicaragua

Moyogalpa, Nicaragua Negro (Indio), Nicaragua . .

Ochoa, Costa Rica

Palo Seco, Costa Rica b Rama. Nicaragua

Kivas, Nicaragua

Bivas, Nicaragua c , Sabalos, Nicaragua San Antonio plantation, Nic- aragua. San Carle is River, Costa Rica San Carlos, Nicaragua

San Juanillo, Nicaragua San Miguelito, Nicaragua .., San Ubaldo, Nicaragua

Sapoa, Nicaragua d Sihco, Nicaragua , Sarapiqui, I losta Rica

Sardiuas, Nicaragua

Solentiname, Nicaragua f ... Tipitapa, Nicaragua s Tola gauge station, Nicaragua. Valle Menier, Nicaragua

Zapote (Upper), Costa Rica.

Modesto Cuadra

Godfrey Hahn .. S. Wilson et al ..

65.04 121.70 77.10 Thomas W. Waters John Augustine Fred Davis Stephen Vargas Nicaragua Sugar Estates. Charles D.Scott

J.Jesus Sequeira

R. de Hennin

J. S. Martinez et al T.Bird

J.Wiest W. K. Henley et al A. Peterson K. B. Luna

S.H.Harris H.S.Reed

A. Quintania .• G.W.White etal Earl Flint Charles Havman

Thomas F. Boltz

127.63

0.58 4.45

1.78

9.65

5.70

10-.'. 66 72.10 82.46

266. 10 37.73

3.17

.26 .45 21.20

.05

0.21 2.73

1.04

.80 6.95

4.37

2.31

.00 .00 10.72

.12

0.22

3.18

.52

3. 55

2. 22

.92

.03

.00 7.47

.18

JL S. Reed

Fred Davis et al... Fred Appleby

J. F. Cuadra

G. 0. W. Magruder. M.C. Hogan

E. A. Keys

Paulino Gonzalez. Tomas Montiel

.1. M. Boniche

L. Roy Cannon

J. O.Jones V.Gavinet (Nandaime

(i. B. Zampierl

137. 88 53.55

59.70

85.68

55.21 71.70

158.83

1.37

.00

.00

.24

.00 .13 12.32 9.12

110. 35 94.68

2.52

.19

1.67

.00

.00 .36 .00

.03 12.69 4.49

4.37

3.31

.02

2.05

.00 .00

.87 .00

.22

6." 60 7.58

5.47 3.20

.11

107. 34 95.68

157. 30 98.34

249. 20

81.11

74. 26

103. 60

3.19

.00 8.79

3.09 18.79

1.38

1.22

1.11

3.84

.00 4.96 2.66

11.79 1.02

.19

.57 151.48

84. 68

96f6i"

9.65

1.89

1.66 .00

.17

.00

1.09

5. 00 2.73

1.95

.02

.00

.00 2.62

1.69

.55 6.56

.81 7.18

.49

.27 .63 1,08

10.76

.61 1.10

.00

.01

.00

2. 29

Location. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

11.31

17.: v.

9.54

10.19

7.11

1. 19

12.91 L6.95 10.67

4.76

13. 71 14.05

9.36

15.42 12.48

12.96

11.61 14.45

1.12

13.61 2.97

1.26

12. 30 Ha si lias [aland, Nicaragua ... 4.77

Bluetields, Nicaragua 10.40

IS. Ill 13.61 L2.06

it;, in 22. 06

6. I-.I

8.90

9.82

11.68

L7.63

19.71 11.43 2.05

11.60 18.42

13. 29 12.40

18. Iti 27. 13 3.42

23.55

33.83

12. 21 3.93

5. 58

38. 96 3.77

11.20

15. 24 11.76 7.60

9.46

26. If. 9. 79

12.32 21.38

20. 15 16.70

15.90

22. 1

10. .56

14.90

6.86

6.19

1.42 1.60

56. 88

.63

1 1. 61 16.93 Frio 1 •"> miles u|i 1, < losta Rica

1

. ranada Wharf, Nicaragua .

Granada City, Nicaragua Greytown, Nicaragua

Juigalpa, Nicaragua

6. 62 .05

.22

18. 24

.45

» Upper San Carlos River.

b Established February 7. Established June 15.

1 Removed to Tortuga July 16.

- Established March 22. Discontinued July 6-

r lsla Venado, Lake Nicaragua.

I Discontinued October 30.

LOCATION RAINFALL INCHES 1899

3 29 40 60 80 IOO 120 140 160 ISO 200 220 240 260 280 SOO CASTI CHICHlGALPA GRANADA i»t-»^

SAN ANTONIO PLANT'S! FORT SAN CARLOS.. J.

LOCATION RAINFALL INCHES 1900

BO 41 M no IOO 120 140 ICO 180 200 220 £40 StK5 280 JOC

FRIO 5 MILES UP-- .- GRANADA (/JrKtr1)_ ^^_ _ GRANADA (Ci'y) .-,---- SREYTOWN. j—e TTM

MANAGUA _ .,- MATAGALPA , MOMOTOU BO.-_-_ MOV0GALPA-__

rvun* | _U . M,, RIVAS-~r^_ „.-„».

I..II

' "' '

SAN ANTONIO PLANT'N

SAN CARLOS RIVER FORT SAN CARLOS— -- SAN JUANILLO- __.-. SAN MIGUELITO-,.-- . - SAN U8ALDO -„s.-_ - . _ SAPOA m^-rn^^ SARAPIQUI ^--•--

SOLENTINAME.- - • - TOLA GAGE STATION ZAPOTE (Upper)

III

"j 1 | 1 | |

FIG. 15 —COMPARATIVE RAINFALL AT ALL STATIONS.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 185

Rainfall in Nicaragua and Costa Rica during the year 1900, in inches—Continued.

Location:

Las Haciendas, Nicaragua . .

Machuea, Nicaragua Managua, Nicaragua Masaya, Nicaragua

Matagalpa, Nicaragua

Momotombo, Nicaragua

Moyogalpa, Nicaragua Negro ( Indio) , Nicaragua

Ochoa, Costa Rica

Palo Seco, Costa Rica b Rama, Nicaragua

Rivas, Nicaragua

Rivas, Nicaragua • Sabalos, Nicaragua San Antonio Plantation, Nicaragua San Carlos River, Costa Rica. San Carlos, Nicaragua San Juanillo, Nicaragua San Mignelito, Nicaragua San Ubaldo, Nicaragua

Sapoa, Nicaragua d Silico, Nicaragua « Sarapiqui, Costa Rica

Sardinas, Nicaragua

Solentiname, Nicaragua f Tipitapa, Nicaragua e TolaGaugeStatlon, Nicaragua

Valle Menier, Nicaragua

Zapote (Upper), Costa Rica ..

May. June.

8.95

17.70 6.62

8.66

16.06 6.67

13. 59

18. 13

13. 30

16.01 12.70

11.19 8.57

6.05

15.42 14.19

17.18 13.58

7.44

10.21

15. 81 10.54

12. 47

13. 53 12.91

10. 36

12. 13

7.58

7.46

8.54

15. 52

14.49 13.48 11.46

10. 41 11.24

13.98 6.73

16.38

5.07 8.37 22.46

11.26 6.04

6.53

10. 19 9.85

12. 85 8.72

9.84

July.

16.45

22. 65 7.97 10.27

13. 13 6.96

8.28

12.67

16.45

15. 15

16.30

10.61 6.93 16.89

18.81

15.53

15. 44

22. 66 15.83

24. 91 14.74 6.28

22. 24

5.31

12. 60

12.29

11.00

7.11

8.63

12.58

15.67 9.94

17. 55

Aug.

12.05 25.80

3.83

4.70 5.12

.90 7.95

40. 15

26. 46

24. 96

19. 56 9.16

6.82

20. 40 6.80

22. 72

15. 29

41.01 8.46

6.32

10.70

23. 48 14.21

6.04 4.53 4.64

14.50

Sept.

20. 61

18. 20

7.57

7. 23 10.40

5.63 12.44

12.85

16.66

18.34

19. 58 22.58

16.86

11.24 13.69

21. 36

15. 02 28.18

7.20 14.08 23.75

6.99

15.43

8.32 24.15

11.54

23. 93

Oct.

22. 14 10.68 17.48

11.24 17.35

18.78

15.63 8.53 11.18

10.97

21. 93 18.12

16. 34 24.45

6.45

13.59 24.84

13.41 8.91

22. 28

ll.i

14.89

15.00

18.46

17.46

18.22

Nov.

5.58

12.35

1.37

1.91 4.27

2.06

1.58 15.69

18.12 7.61 1.18

• .87 6.72

1.85

16.56 5.42

43.34

4.71

1.43 3.91

24. 86 "i"ei'

.87

"i3.43

Dec.

15.56

.tl

(17)2.30

.73

.34 24.96

25.80

6.39

1.31

.62 9.45

.00 24.69

6.38

25. 42 3.44

.55 2.31 24.86

3.59

'"."65

11." 33

Rainfall. SAN ANTONIO PLANTATION.

[Latitude, 12° 32' N.; longitude, 86° 59' W.; elevation, 66 feet.]

Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total.

1896....

1897....

1898....

1899....

1900. . .

0.00

.00

.00

.24 .00

.00

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.44 .00

0.00

.00 1.26

.00

.00

.55

.20

.59

.00

.00 1.02

7.98

12. 20

18.23

16.00 2.12 6.05

6.29 10.50

14.53 11.60 9.82 22.46

3.36 7.54

6.81 8.37

8.08

18.81

5.07

4.71

13.86

14.85 9.60

6.80

21.68

13.39

10.94

16.71 5.50

13.69

21.71

11.22 31.06

7.60 26.85

24.45

3.42 4.76

.98 5.64

4.81 1.85

0.32

.98

.00

.04

.00 .00

69.83

65.50

98.26

81.05

67. 22 95.68

VALLE MENIER.

[Latitude, 11° 46' N.; longitude, 85° 57' W.; elevation, 492 feet.]

1880....

1881....

1882.... 1883....

1899.... 1900....

0.00

. 55

.00

.00

.00 .00

0.00

.00

.00

.00

.00 .00

0.00

.00

.000o

.00

.00

0.00

.00 .00

.00

.00

.31

13.48

9.94

1.93 1.35

9.92

12.88

12. 7.44

2.24

7.52

S73.94

9.96

8.86 6.30

6.77 9.10

4. 92

13.46

22.68 19.13

2.72

9.33 2.76

0.00

.98 .00

58.55

81.84

47.91

2.04

11.54

15. 95

17.46

6.11 .00

10.36 11.00 9.94 4.64

MANAGUA.

; Latitude, 12° 7' N.: longitude, 86° 16' W.; elevation, 148 feet.]

1891....

1892....

1899....

0.00

.00 0.00

.00 0.00.00 0.00.00 1.08 8.58

14.00

11.34

5. 04 6.35

3.04 7.98 8.43

9.24

2.21 7.57

9.64 20.55

18.59 17.48

7.24 3.09

2.79

1.37

0.43

.11 .17

48.90

67.13

1900. . . 53.55

.00 .00 .00 .00 0.62 8.54 7.97 3.83
186 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

EVAPORATION.

The observation of evaporation b}* means of pans floating in the

water was carried on under both the Nicaragua and Isthmian Canal

commissions.

The inherent obstacles to accurate work by this method are great at

all times, and. as might be expected, results are rather discordant.

They are summarized in the tables following:

Monthly evaporation of Lake. Nicaragua.

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1898. 6.42 8.13

4.92

6.26

5.98 4.56

5.19 4.35

4. 20

5.08

3.38 3.84

4.87

3.41 3.696.77

4.74

2. 73 3.51 2.73 4.093.00 3.393.01 4.03

i 5.25 6.49 5.60 4.58 4.10 3.99 3. IS 3.41 3.20 3.52

1899. 3.40

3.72

3.39 3.284.25 Fort San Carlos 4.34 5.01 4.65 3.60 2. 02 3.78

2.85

4.40

3.56

5.42

2.23

3.72 3.24

3.97

2.70

3.87 3.87 3.71

3.91 Tipitapa 5.58 5.79

3.79 4.06 3.29 4.03

1900. 2.89

4.57 4.36

3.28

3.16

4.24

5.40

4.02

4.36

5.47

6. 33 5.89

4. 62 5.79

6.41 6.66

4.34

7.59 5.12

7.28

3.93

4.95

3.19

5.16

2.63

5.46

2.54

4.49

2. 24

5. 05

2.30

4. 25

3.24

1.71 3.36

4.89

2.35 4.643.39

3. 90

3.04 4.03 5.18

3.78 4.21 5.61 5.87 6.08 4.31 3.78 3.46 4.06 4.06 3. 64 3. 53 Allowance must be made in the use of these results for the fact that

the conditions prevalent on the lake can not be duplicated in the evaporating pan. During the greater part of the year the trade winds blow

strongly from the eastern side of the lake to the western. Except

along the eastern shore the surface of the lake is blown into billows,

the waves often attaining a considerable height and being crowned with

whitecaps, and the total water surface in contact with the wind is much

greater than the level surface of the lake. Most of the lake surface

must therefore lose by evaporation a greater depth of water than the pan. The rate of evaporation during the dry season was obtainable by

another method. The fluctuations of the lake were observed, and by

appl}'ing to this the observations of rainfall upon the lake, the inflow

from streams, and the discharge of San Juan River we obtain the

evaporation actually taking place upon the lake. During April, 1898,

the evaporation was found by this method to be 6.12 inches. The

results for 1900 are given in the following table:

Evaporation from Lah Nicaragua—Dry season of 1900.

[Evaporation = fall of lake + rainfall + inflow outflow.]

February March ... April May 1-15

Rainfall

Fall of lake.

Oil sur- face of lake.

Inflow. Total. Outflow.

Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 0.71 0.08 0.14 0.93 0. ii .83 .04 .10 .97 . in .70 04 .1)7 81 . 85 .32 .08 .03 . 13 .17

Evaporation

/'/. In.

0. 19 5.88

.57 li S|

. 46=5. 52 .26=3.12

inches

per day.

0.21

. 22

.18

.21

Area of lake, 1, '.tin, niiii .mii-. Rainfall "ii surface of lake is an average of (lie rainfall at Basillas, Granada, Moyogalpa, San Carlos, Ban Mlguelito, San Ubaldo, Sapoa, and Soleutiuanie.

FIG. 16.— LOWERING SEDIMENT TRAP ON SARAPIQUI.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 187

REGULATION OF LAKE NICARAGUA.

Lake Nicaragua being the summit level upon which the water .supply

for the canal depends, and from which the surplus water must be dis- charged, its history, and especially the extreme variations of its supply,

are important. Its fluctuation depends upon four factors:

1. The inflow, which is a function of the amount and character of

rainfall in the basin.

'2. The storage capacit3T of the lake.

3. The evaporation, which varies with the seasons.

4. The outflow, which varies with the elevation of the lake. The problem of the storage capacity is simple, and its solution is known with all desirable accuracy. The area of the lake is 2,975

square miles, or 1,904,000 acres. The evaporation from the lake has been fairl}r well determined and

can be allowed for without important error. It is given in the table,

page 1S6. The outflow was observed during 1898, 1899, and 1900 at Camp

Farina, above Rio Sabalos, which is the first important tributary to the river. The inflow has been observed by noting the fluctuation of the lake

surface at four stations—San Carlos, San Ubaldo, Granada, and Sapoa.

This, after allowing for evaporation and outflow, gives the inflow.

It has not been possible to fix with certainty the limits of the natural

fluctuation of Lake Nicaragua, but the best information obtainable

indicates that the range is about 14 feet, from 97 as the minimum to 111 as the maximum.

The maximum stage was estimated as follows:

All the oldest inhabitants in the vicinity of the lake agree that a stage attained in 1861 was higher than any since reached. No more

definite statement could be established than that it was "nearly up to the top of the wharf at Granada." The top of the wharf, in the lowest

place, is at an elevation of 111.24 feet above sea level. If the mean

lake level was within half a foot of the top of the wharf during the

customary breeze in that region, it is probable that the waves would

wash over the wharf, and the report would be that the water was over

the top of the wharf. It is thought that the facts indicate 111 as about

the elevation of the stage reported, as nearly as it can be determined.

The low-water limit of 97 feet is taken on the information of Mr.

William Climie, who testifies that the lake was lower in 1886 than it has been since, and all obtainable evidence on the subject is to the effect that no lower stage has occmred within the memory of persons now

living.

All available testimony, and especially that of the engineman on the

steamer Victoria, who has been in continuous service for sixteen

years, is to the effect that the steamer Victoria has in that period

always been able to discharge her cargo directly upon the wharf, but

at times of extreme low water, occurring at very rare intervals, she

could not come alongside, but had to lie off the end of the wharf.

touching only her bow. This was the condition in May, 1897. A dia- gram of the wharf is shown in the sketch, figure 17. At the time it was made the water stood at 5.8 reading on the gauge-rod, or 104.24 feet above sea level. It shows the bottom of the lake to be at an elevation

of about 93 feet near the end of the wharf, and somewhat lower, say
188 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

92 feet, off the end, where the .steamer la}T at low water. The boat

draws from 4 feet of water, when empty, to 7 feet when fully loaded.

Allowing her 6 feet of water in May, 1897, the stage of the lake was about 98 feet above sea level, or at least it could not have been

lower than this. If the lake were 1 foot lower than this in 1886, it would give a stage

of 97, and this is probably near the true minimum.

These data hx the natural limit of fluctuation at 11 feet, though no

fluctuation approaching this amount occurs in any one year, nor even

in any two. The low water of 1886 was preceded by three successive

years of low rainfall, as shown by the Granada record for 1883 and

1881, and by the Rivas record for 1885, the latter being the lowest

in the Rivas record of twenty years, with one exception. A study of

the rainfall tables indicates another stage of extremely low lake just

before the rainy season of 1897; this being preceded by three years of

less than normal rainfall. This indication is confirmed by popular

reports of an extremely low lake level at that time, and accounts for

the fact that the heaviest rainfall of the record, 1897, did not produce

as high a lake as had occurred in other years. Though no observations of the lake were made in 1897, those of 1898, considered with

the rainfall record of 1897, indicate that the lake did not reach stage

107. (See diagram, figure 21.) Its stage at the end of 1897 is known

to have been about 105, by observations of the Nicaragua Canal Commission.

Judging from the table of rainfall, considered in the light of known

facts, the lake has passed through minimum stages in May of the years

1886, 1891, and 1897; and maximum in the autumns of 1889, 1893,

1900. None of these stages is exactly known except that of 1900, in

which year the lake reached a maximum stage of 107.12 feet on the

27th day of October, and maintained about the same elevation for one

week.

In this discussion we are concerned mainly with the years of maximum and minimum rainfall, as giving the extreme conditions under

which Lake Nicaragua must be controlled. All the records and tradi- tions at hand indicate that the year 1897 was the year of greatest precipitation in this vicinity ever recorded. Dr. Flint gives for Rivas a total for that year of 123.13 inches, a rainfall over 15 inches greater than any

other in his record, while the report of Mr. Climie, for Granada, substantially confirmed by that of the sugar company, gives 93.62 inches

for that year, being greater than any other year in either Granada or Masaya records. It may therefore be taken as the year of maximum

rainfall within the range of the records. It is fortunate that this is the case, for we then have direct comparison by the same observer of

the rainfall for L897 with that for the three years covered by the

observations of the fluctuations of Lake Nicaragua by this Commission.

The year of minimum rainfall occurs in the Masaya record for* L890,

being only 20.52 inches, and being but little more than half of that for

1896, which is the next driest year in the Masaya record. The year

is also the year of smallest precipitation in Dr. Flint's record at Rivas,

and gives very much less rainfall than he gives for any other year

covered by the Masaya record. It seems safe to conclude, therefore,

that 1890 was actually the year of smallest precipitation within the

records.

The Rivas record is the longest and most continuous, and is nearly


REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 189

on the canal line and nearly on the lake shore. In all these respects

it promises very desirable and valuable information, completely cover- ing the period from 1880 to date. An examination of this record,

however, ia somewhat disappointing. During the year 1S98 Mr. J. A.

Bull, an observer of the Nicaragua Canal Commission, was stationed

at Las Lajas, near the point where the canal leaves the shore of the

lake. This point is only about 5 miles from Kivas, not greatly differ-* ent in elevation or surrounding conditions that might affect the rainfall, and yet the precipitation recorded at Rivas exceeded that observed

at Las Lajas by the percentages shown in the following table:

Las Lajas. Rivas. Excess. Las Lajas. Rivas. Excess.

May

Inches. 10.60 13.50

10.64 8.44

6.79

Inches. 16.17

18.95

13.65

11.85 13.99

Per rent. 52.5

40.4

28.3

40.4

106. 03

Inches. 16.19

4.41 2.26

Inches.

20. 83 8.19

3.14

Per cent. 28.7 June

July November 85.7 38.9 August September Total * 72.83 106. 77 46.6

This table indicates that the Rivas record is too large. Comparing

it year by year with the recent records at Granada and Masaya also

tends to confirm the result indicated above.

Granada. Masaya. Rivas. Excess. Granada. Masaya. Rivas. Excess.

1890

Inches. Inches. 20.50

49.98

64.54

72.86 42.88

41.26

Inches. 31.81 66.03 78.27

106. 13 47.32 47.68

Per cent. 50.3

32.1 21.3

45.7

10.3

15.56

1896

Inches. Inches. 39.64Inches. 47.80

123. 43

108. 06 67.82 94.68

Per cent. 20.6

1891 1897

1898

1899 1900

93.62

55.59 56.93

72.10

31.8

1892 94.4

1893 .. 19.10

1894 31.3

1895

While Granada and Masaya are at considerable distance from Rivas

and under somewhat different topographic conditions, there is no obvi- ous reason wiry they should have less rainfall; and this evidence, so far

as it goes, tends to confirm the indication of the Las Lajas record, that

the record at Rivas is too large. A similar result is obtained by a comparison of the Rivas record with the movements of Lake Nicaragua.

Many months occur in which the rise of the lake, if all water had been

held by a dam on the Rio San Juan and evaporation eliminated, would

have been much less than the reported rainfall at Rivas, proving that

the rainfall on the surface of Lake Nicaragua is less than recorded at Rivas.

These facts, coupled with the great importance of the accuracy of

any record on which estimates are to depend, led to the establishment,

in June, 11*00, of a rainfall observer in Rivas, whose gauge is located not more than 300 yards from that upon which the long record has

been taken. The observer employed by the Commission was Mr.

Charles Hayman, who thoroughly understood the work and who was

cautioned to be extremely careful. The comparison of the observations is given below. It shows that the record of Dr. Flint exceeded

that taken by Mr. Haynian in every month, and seems to establish the

fact that the results reported by Dr. Flint are too large.
190 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Comparison of rainfall observations made at Rivas, Nicaragua, by Dr. Earl Flint and the observer of the Isthmian Canal Commission, June 15 to November 30, 1900.

Day.

June. July. August. September. October. November.

Dr.

Flint. Commission.

Dr.

Flint. Commission.

Dr.

Flint, Commission.

Dr.

Flint. Commission.

Dr.

Flint. Commission.

DrFlint. Commission.

1 0.99

.00

.20 1.55

.85

.55 .20

0.79

.00

1.01

.15

.38 .35

.15

0.18

.00 .60

.40 .14

.46

.07 .00 .48

.00

.02

.30 .00 1.60

.13

.03 .00

.00

.00

.10

.49 1.61

.50

.90

.02 .43

.70 .00

.00

.00

.00

0.04

.00

.47

.24

.35

.10

.02 T.

.35

.02 .20 T.

.00 1.10

.02

.01 T.

.00

.15

.20

.02

.34 1.35

.59

.01 .70

.13 .00 .00

.00 .43

0.75

.00

.00

.71

.14 .00

2. 70 .63

.16

.40

.09

.74 .20

.06

.00 1.70

.40

.07 1.97

.50 .00

0.01

.00

.00

.52

.21 .03 2.53

0.17

1.30

1.50

1.30

.92 1.29 2.00

0.10

.98 1.26

1.20

.27 1.43

.98

.07

.00

.02

.01 .39

.11 .11 .04

.17

.60

.44

.33 1.95 3.50

2.71

.19 .65

.61 .00 .00

.00

.00 .00

.00

0.00

.00

.05

.00

.00 .00

.06 .08

.08 .00

.00

.02 .08 .00

.00

.30

.28

.04 .00

.08

.00

.00

.00

.00

.01 .00

.11 .00 .00 .00

0.00

.03

.09

.00

.00

.00 .00

.05

.06 .00

.02

.00

.00

.00 .04 .39

.00

.01 .01 .04 .00

.00

.00

.00 .00

.00

.06 .00

.00

.07

2

3

4

5

6

78 . 26 . 35 .37 .13 9 .66 T. .00

.21 .87

.30 1.49

.07

.00 .40

.20 .80

.30

.05

.00

.10

.07

.04 .00

.00

.00

.00

.37 .08 .00

.36

.28

.45 1.07

.04 .06

.17 .16

.16

.44 .10

.01 .02

.00

.00 .10

.00

.00 .00

.18

.02

.06

.07

10 .17 .00

.69

.03 .00

.98

.44

.13

.00 1.95

.00 .00

.00

.00 .50

.11 .33

.02

.31 .80

.30 .79

.01 3.15

4.80

.31 .90

.99

.00 .00

.00

.00

.00

.00

1112

13

1415 0.00

.70

.60 .60

.00 1.26

1.50

.00

.30 1.48

.00

.00

.00

.07 .00 .75

0.01

.04 .99

.01 .00

.92 1.18

.18

T. 1.19

.01 .00

.00 .03

.00

.51

16

1718

19

20

2122 1.70 1.42 23 1.42 1.07

24 .57 .00

.08

.00

.00 4.18

3.41

.37

.01 .05

.00

.00 3.40 2.48

2627

29

30

31

Excess .

7.26 5.07 10.61 6.93 9.16 6.84 22. 58 16.86 21. 93 18.12 1.19 .87 iSP.ct. 53 P. ct. 34 P. ct. 34 P. ct. 21 P. ct. 37 P. ct.

These comparisons show that the record of Dr. Flint exceeded that

taken for the Commission in every month, the average excess being

about 37 per cent, confirming the indications previously referred to. For these reasons it is deemed safer at present to eliminate the Rivas

records from consideration in estimating the probable relation between

the recorded rainfall and the action of Lake Nicaragua. We have then

left available for comparison only those records for Masaya and Granada. Some of these arc published in the report of the Nicaragua Canal

Commission, pages 280 and 281, and comprise a complete record at Granada for 1 S77 taken by Dr. Flint, and complete records for 1883-

L884 observed by the National Institute at Granada. From the end of

L884 to the beginningof 1897 we have no records for Granada, but for

L887 to 18H*i, mclusive, we have a complete record for the town of

Masaya, taken by Mr. William Climie. This record is believed to be

entirely reliable, but is not coincident with any observations of Lake

Nicaragua. Early in 1M>7 Mr. Climie removed his gauge to Granada,

and gives the record for LS'»7and ISDN at that place. The rainfall was

also observed in 1897 by the officials of the Nicaragua sugar estates in the city of Granada, and their record continues up to the present time.

It gives about 2 per cent less rainfall for 1897 than that of Mr. Climie,

but the results are sufficiently accordant to confirm the substantial

accuracy of both. During 1899 and 1900 a guage was maintained by

this Commission at Granada, and these observations also serve to con-

cooooooo RAINFALL AT GRANADA. INCHES

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REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 191

firm the substantial accuracy of those furnished by the Sugar company. We therefore have a continuous record from 1887 to date, the

worst feature of which is that during the first ten years it was taken at Masaya and the last four years at Granada. Masayais at an elevation

of nearly 600 feet above Granada and is not on the drainage of Lake

Nicaragua, but lies in a small basin which drains into Lake Masaya.

Observations taken under the direction of Mr. Jacob Wiest in Masa}7 a are at hand covering the period from June 11, 1898, to November 30,

1900, which includes the major portion of three rainy seasons coincident with observations taken in Granada. The distance from Masaya

to Granada is about 10 miles, which precludes comparison day by day,

but a monthly comparison is shown below, which shows considerable

difference from the precipitation observed at Granada, that at Masaya

being less.

Comparison of Granada and Masaya rainfall records, 1S99 and 1900.

Months.

1899. January 25-31 February March

April May

June

July August

September...

October November ... December ... Total ..

Granada,

0.00

.52

.11 .02 2.43 8.78

6.64

15.54 2.39

14.79

5.24

.57 56.93

Masaya.

0.50

.48

.07

.00 2.02

8.62

4.19 9.47

2.80

10. 35 6.54

1.20

45. 24

Differ- ences.

0.50

.04

.04

.02

.41

.16 2.45

5.97

.41 4.44 .30

.63

Months.

11.69

1900. January . .

February .. March ..... April May

June

Juiy August

September

October . .

November. December

Total

Granada.

0.26

.00

.03

.02 12.06

17.63 12.40

3.93 7.60

16.70

1.42

.05

Masaya.

0.00

.00 .00

.00 8.66

15. 52 10.27 4.70

7.23

11.24

1.91

72. 10 59.53

Differ- ences.

0.26

.00

.03

.02 3.40

2.11 2.13

.77

.37 5.46

.49

>No record. MAXIMUM SUPPLY TO LAKE NICARAGUA.

To obtain the probable inflow to the lake during the season of greatest rainfall, 1897, we compare the rainfall at Granada for that year

with the rainfall at the same place for some year during which the

behavior of Lake Nicaragua was observed. For the purpose of this comparison the diagram, figure 18, has been prepared. It shows three

lines, each of which represents the relation of Granada rainfall to the run -off from the basin for one rainy season, the lines being

plotted with the Granada rainfull as ordinates and the fluctuation of

Lake Nicaragua that would have occurred if there had been neither

outflow nor evaporation as abscissae. This diagram is essentially accurate, involving no errors excepting those of observation. Apparently

the two years of observation most suitable for comparing with 1897

are the years of 1898 and 1900, these being the years of greatest rainfall of the three observed. A diagram was plotted in which the line for 1898 was used as the basis for estimating the run-off corresponding to rainfalls observed in 1897. On this basis the fluctuation of the

lake in 1897 would, if all water had been held, have amounted to nearly 14 feet, bringing the elevation of the lake in the spring of 1897

below 92 feet. There is abundant evidence that this stage of lake did

not occur, and that the indication of the observations of 1898 is therefore erroneous, giving a much greater fluctuation than really occurred.
192 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

This could only be the case if the rainfall for 1898 was lower in proportion to the run-off of the basin than that of 1897. That this was really

the case is indicated by an examination of the annual total rainfalls

for Granada and Rivas on page 189. These show that whereas the rec- ord for Granada exceeded that for Rivas by 32 per cent in 1897, 19

per cent in 1899, and 31 per cent in 1900, in 1898 the excess was 94.4

per cent. Though the rainfall record of Rivas is rejected as inaccurate, the above indication is significant when taken in connection with

the known facts of the fluctuation of Lake Nicaragua.

The estimate of run-off for 1897 was next made, using the observations

of 1900 as the basis. The results were obtained by months, taking

the run-off indicated by the given rainfall from the 1900 line on the

diagram (fig. 18), and adding thereto the evaporation corresponding to the period covered. The result is taken as the fluctuation of

the lake due to the rainfall and considered with evaporation in full play and with a dam in the river preventing outflow. This result is shown by the continuous line in the diagram (fig. 21). The dotted

line in the same diagram shows the fluctuation of the lake on the

assumption that the outflow to the San Juan River was that occurring

in the state of nature due to the altitude of the lake. It therefore

represents the actual changes that took place in the lake surface during 1897 as inferred from the observations of 1898 and 1900.

The rainfall in 1897 was greater than that for 1900, and it was

necessary to extrapolate the line indicated in figure 18 for 1900.

This is shown by the discontinuous line on the diagram for 1900.

The fluctuation of the lake as indicated by this method is about 10

feet in the aggregate, or a little over 8 feet net. The stage of January

4, 1898, having been observed by the Nicaragua Canal Commission, it is known that the lake stood at about 105 at the end of December,

1897. The elevation indicated for May, 1897, 96.7, is somewhat lower

than that indicated by the estimate on page 187 and by reports of people who were in Nicaragua at that time, notably Mr. William Climie.

But if this is the case, the errors are on the side of safety and the

indications of the diagram may safely be taken as correct. THE SEASON OF MINIMUM SUPPLY.

To obtain the probable fluctuation of the lake during nineteen

months ending May, 1891, which, as has been shown, includes two

dry seasons, and the driest rainy season in all the records at hand,

comparison is made between the rainfall for that period at Masaya

and the rainfall for 1900 at the same place when the behavior of the

lake was observed. The only two years available for this comparison

are 1899 and 1900, the former being not quite complete. The relation

of rainfall at Masaya and the fluctuation of the lake is shown in fig. 19, page 193, two lines being plotted, for L899 and L900 respectively,

as indicated, on the same basis as figure 18, already described.

It will be seen from the diagram that by taking 1900 as the basis of

comparison we obtain more conservative results than if 1899 were

used; that is, a given rainfall at Masaya corresponds to less inflow

to the lake than in 1899, this difference being for a dry season on the

side of safety.

On both diagrams it will be noticed that in the latter part of the

year the line tends to approach a horizontal position, there being a

RAINFALL AT MASAYA, I N CH ES

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REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 193

considerable run-off during the months of November and December

with little or no rainfall, this, of course, being- due to the rainfall of

previous months. During- 1890 there were only 20.52 inches of rainfall at Masaya, and this quantity corresponds to the rainfall plotted

in the diagram before the end of June at a time when the rainy season had only endured a little over a month and when considerable rain had

fallen that had not yet reached the lake, but which did so later on.

This introduces an actual error into the assumption which may be

important, but the magnitude of which can not be accurately estimated.

Against this error must be placed the well-known fact that for a large

rainfall the percentage of run-off is greater than for a small one on an

average, or, in other words, the ratio of run-off to rainfall in 1900 was

in the aggregate greater than in 1890. How far these two errors balance each other can not, of course, be known, but it is practically

certain that their resultant is to an important degree an error on the

side of safety.

The result is shown in figure 22, and indicates the fall of the lake

from the 1st of November, 1889, to the end of May, 1891, the driest

consecutive period of nineteen months of which we have record. It indicates that if all water had been held by a dam at the outlet of the

lake, and 1,000 cubic feet per second had been used for canal purposes

throughout that period, the surface of the lake would have declined

6.2 feet. No resistance can be offered to the decline of the lake during a dry period, except to keep all sluices closed, and therefore we

ma}7 expect an unavoidable decline under extreme conditions of 6.2 feet

in nineteen months.

The rise of the lake in seasons of excessive rainfall can be combated

b}T the discharge of water through the dam at Boca San Carlos and

into the valle}7 of Grande River on the west side. It is not permissible to use the latter outlet extensively, owing to the danger of carrying to the sea an excessive quantity of detritus and

thereby obstructing the harbor at JBrito. It is necessary, therefore,

that the surplus waters be discharged to the eastward through the San

Juan River.

If adjustable sluices be provided at Boca San Carlos, to discharge

any desired quantity of water, the problem resolves itself into the

estimation of the capacity of the canalized San Juan River. This is a

function of the cross section, roughness, and slope, the latter depending

upon the stage of the lake. To determine the coefficient of roughness, computations were made

of the value of the factor il n" in Kutter's formula, using measured

slope, velocity, cross section, and discharge of the San Juan River.

These computations, which were exceedingly laborious, were made by

Mr. S. H. Woodard, and the resulting mean values of "«," varied from

0.022 to 0.024. Applying the latter value to the canalized river, its discharging capacity was computed for the various elevations at the

lake and at Boca San Carlos. The accompanying diagram (fig. 20) has

been constructed by Mr. Woodard, showing his results. It shows

that with water at the dam held at 104 the discharging capacity varies

from zero to 63,000 cubic feet per second, while the lake level rises from 104 to 110. Applying these facts to the lake supply shown in figures 18 and 19, we obtain results shown in figure 22. That is, if the canal had been constructed and the lake surface at

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 13
11)4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

1 < ) 7 . 3 on the 1st of June, 1897, the lake would have risen to 110.6 by

the end of June, in spite of the discharge through the river with sluices

left open, holding the water level at 104 at the dam. During July and

August the discharge would have been greater than the inflow, and the

lake might have been drawn down to 109.8. It would have risen

slightly in September, and receded again in October. But after June

the discharge would have been checked, because it is necessary to hold

the lake at 110.2 at the end of October to provide against exceptional

drought. The aim would have been, therefore, for obvious reasons,

to hold the lake as nearly as possidle to the line ABC, and after the

end of June this could have been accomplished.

If, instead of the very wet year 1897, the driest year in the record,

1890, had occurred, the sluices would have remained closed, and the

lake surface would have declined 3.3 feet under the combined influence

of inflow, evaporation, and the consumption of 1,000 cubic feet per

second, from 107.3 to 101, by the opening of the following rainy sea- son, when the lake may be expected to rise. If the elevation of 101 feet be adopted as the minimum summit level to be permitted, the lake must be at a stage not lower than 107.3 feet

at the beginning of the rainy season, as it may be a season of minimum

precipitation, so that the lake will decline 3.3 feet in the ensuing

twelve months. To do this, each rainy season must be closed with the

lake at 110.2 as the unavoidable loss during the dry season is 2.9 feet, as shown by figure 22. Should the following wet season be one of

heavy rainfall like 1897, the lake will rise to about 110.6 in spite of

all the discharge of which the river is capable. If, instead of a very

wet season, the rainfall should be slight, like that of 1890, the lake

would decline to 104 by the opening of the next rainy season, with all the sluices closed. Our present information indicates, therefore, that the lake can be

kept within limits of 6.6 feet, provided two minimum years do not occur in succession, which seems to be a safe assumption.

As neither the maximum nor minimum years have been actually

observed, there is necessarily some uncertainty in any estimates that can be made for such years. It has been the effort to make the esti- mates conservative, as indicated in the discussion. If actual conditions should occur which are more extreme than those we have considered, it might be necessary to allow a greater fluctuation than 6.6

feet. If a season of greater inflow than that estimated for L897 should

occur, it would be necessary to allow the lake to stand temporarily at

a higher level than 110.6. If experience should show a season of less inflow than that estimated for 1890, it would be necessary to begin

each rainy season with the lake surface higher than 107.3 and to close

it with the lake above 1 10.2 in order to prevent its decline below 104. A very slight increase in the upper limit allowed is a great relief to the conditions, since this not only increases the allowable fluctuations,

but also increases the discharge capacity of the river. If the lake

should reach a height of 1 1 1 feet, it would only be repeating the conditions that have probably occurred in its natural state. The water

might rise to a height of I 1 -1 feet, or even higher, without doing any

great amount of damage, and il is probable that permission to allow

this could without difficulty he included in the concession. We

could then begin each month of June with the lake at elevation LOS;

if the rainy season should furnish 20 per cent more water than that

estimated for 1897. we could still control the lake within the 112-foot

oooooooooo ELEVATION OF WATER SURFACE AT LAKE

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REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 195

limit. If, instead, the rainy season should furnish only one-half the

supply estimated for 1890, the lake would fall to just 104 by the opening oi the next rainy season. This is certainly a very wide margin

of safety.

TEMPERATURE AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY.

The temperature of Nicaragua is remarkably uniform. While some'

of the higher mountain regions have a rather cool climate, there is never any frost, and in general it may be said that in the inhabited

portion of the country the temperature seldom exceeds 95° or falls belows 70°, and in any given locality the annual fluctuation is usually

still less. The relative humidity is high, except during the dry season on the west side of the isthmus.

Temperature and relative humidity at Tola gauge station, Nicaragua.

Temperature. Mean rel- ative humidity. Months.

Temperature. Mean rel- Months. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean. Maxi- mum.

Mini- mum. Mean.

ative humidity.

1900. January

February

86.0

86.5

91.5

94.0

93.0 86.5

74.0 73.0 73.0

75.5

73.5

72.0

79.0

81.0

82.5

84.8

82.0

80.5

81.0

79.6 78.2

79.0

88.2

86.2

1900. July 87.0 88.0

90.0

88.0

87.0

88.0

73.0

75.5 72.5

72.0

72.0

74.0

78.9 80.6

80.6 79.0

79.6

79.8

89.4 August

September

October November

December

93.2 94.0

95.2 88.6

88.6

Temperature and relative humidity.

SAPOA, NICARAGUA.

Months. Temperature. Maximum. Minimum Mean. Mean

relative humidity.

1899 August

September

October November

December

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December

87.0

96.0 94.0

•86.0 84.0

84.5

86.0 89.0

94.0

93.5

91.5 89.5

87.5

88.0

86.0

86.0 86.0

72.0

70.0 71.0

70.0

72.0

73.0

73.0 73.0

75.0 75.0

72.0

74.0

74.0 74.0

71.0 71.0

72.0

79.6 80.5

78.9

78.5 80.3

77.9

79.0 80.3

80.4 82.8

81.3

79.9

80.8

79.8 78.9

78.9

79.1

87.8

89.0 89.4

89.8

87.0

88.6

87.8

85.0

82.6

84.6 88.4

89.8

90.0 92.0

94.0

91.8 91.4

RIVAS, NICARAGUA.

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August September

October November

December

75.0 76.2

73.0 77.4

74.0 78.5

79.0 81.0

77.0 80.0

75.0 78.6

75.0 77.8

76.0 79.0

76.0 77.8

74.0 77.0

73. 77.4

72.0 77.7

86.2

80.8

78.6

80.8 85.4

89.8

89.4 86.2

90.2 91.0

89.0

82.6
196 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Temperature and relative humidity—Continued. SAN UBALDO, NICARAGUA.

September

October . .

November. December

January...

February.. March

April May

June

July August September

October November. December

Months.

1900.

Temperature. Maximum. Minimum. Mean.

95.0

91.0

91.0 88.0

92.0

93.0

99.0

98.0

101.0 94.0

92.0

93.0

93.0

91.0

90.0 91.0

72.0

72.0

72.0 67.0

69.0 69.0

68.0

72.0

75.0

75.0

71.0

73.0

73.0

70.0 71.0

70.0

81.7

79.8

80.0

78.5

79.6

80.7 82.9 86.3

85.8

82.9 81.4

83.0

83.1 80.6

80.3 81.2

Mean

relative humidity

FORT SAN CARLOS, NICARAGUA.

January

February . March

April May

June

July August September

October . .

November

December

84.0

85.0

90.0

93.0

93.0

69.0 75.9

66. 76.9

70.0 77.6

69.0 79.6 71.0 80.4

73.0 78.6 72.0 78.0

73.0 79.1 73.0 79.2

72.0 77.7 69.0 76.5

72.0 77.6 70.5 76.9 January.. February

1900.

86.0

87.5

89.0 86.5

84.0

84.0

85.0 85.5

CAMP SABALOS, NICARAGUA.

January

February .. March

April May

June

July August September

October. . .

November . December..

1899. 86.0

86.0

90.0 91.0

92.0

66.0 75.2 64.0 76.0

68.0 77.1

67.

78.

70.0 79.4 71.0 78.8 71.5 77.8

71.5 78. 1 71.0 Vs. 9 71.0 77.2 66.0 75.1

66.75.3

68.0 76. 67.0 76.8 67.5 79.5

72.0 80.4

71.0 79.0

72. 77.0

72. 5 77.0

72.0 78.7

71.0 77.8

68. 5 74.6

68.

76.

January

February . March

April , May

June

July August

September

October November

December..

88.0

92.0

91.0

91.0 87.0

81.0

85.0

87.0

89.0

96. 95.5

90.0

87.0

86.

92.0

89.0

86.0 85.0

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1

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REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Temperature and relative humidity—Continued.

OCHOA, COSTA RICA.

197

Months. Temperature. Mean

relative Maximum. Minimum. Mean. humidity.

1899. 84.5

86.0

91.0 88.5

89.5

86.0

85.5

86.0

90.0

88.5 87.0

84.5

83.6

87.0

87.0

93.5

92.5

91.0

87.0

86.0

92.5

87.5

86.0

85.0

07.0

68.0

67. 68.0 70.0

72.0

72.5

71.5

72.0 72.5

72.0 68.0

70.0 70.0

69.0

69.0

74.0

73.0 71.5

73.5

73.0 72.5

70.5

70.5

74.8 75.3

75.6

76.6 77.9

77.7 77.3

77.5

78.4

79.0

77.4 75.1

75.7 76.6

77.1 79.8

80.4

79.6 78.0

77.9

80.0

78.6 77.0

76.8

93.2

91.9

89.7 87.0

90.6 90.2 July. 92.6

92.2 89.8

89.0

91.4

92.6

1900. 90.6

87.8

87.0

85.4

87.0

88.6 Julv 90.6

92.6 87.0

89.8

91.0

90.6

GREYTOWN, NICARAGUA.

1899. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December

1900. January

February March

April May

June

July August

September

October November

December

87.0

89.0

89.0

94.0

93.0

92.0

91.0

89.0

92.0

91.0 88.0 86.0

69.0 77.8

66.0 77.2 72.0 79.7

70.0 80.6

72.0 81.0

74.0 79.5 73.0 78.7

72.0 78.0

73. 79.3 72.0 80.3

73.0 78.2

70.0 76.0

71.0 77.4 71.0 78.6

71.0 78.3

70.0 81.7

74.0 81.2

75.0 81.1

73.0 78.6

75. 80.0

74.0 80.9

73. 79.3 72.0 77.2 71.0 78.6

87.3

87.7 80.9

78.0 84.0

85.4

86.2 87.4

86.6

84.2 88.6

88.2

87.0 85.0

83.0

80.8 85.6

83.2

87.8 86.2

84.8

87.8

89.8

84.2

SEDIMENT OBSERVATIONS.

An}^ proposition for a ship canal which involves the use of the San

Juan River below the mouth of the San Carlos requires for its intelli- gent consideration some idea of the quantity of sediment carried by

that stream, and if the San Juan is to be used below the mouth of the

Sarapiqui the sediment carried by that stream becomes also an important factor. To determine these quantities samples of water were

taken daily, allowed to settle, and the sediment measured. The sam-
198 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

pies were taken at not less than a dozen places in the river, the water

taken aggregating several gallons, and representing approximately the

average of the various parts of the current. The samples were thoroughly mixed, and one sample of 100 cubic centimeters taken from the

mixture and the rest rejected. The sample taken was allowed to settle for twenty-four hours, the clear water poured off, and another sample

added to the remainder, the clear water was decanted, the next day

another sample added, and so on. accumulating any sediment that

remained until it became a measurable quantity, when its depth was

read on the graduated glass in which the settlement was made. This

reading gives, of course, only the bulk of the loose mud, and not the

dry solid matter. The relation between the mud and dry matter as determined by a series of experiments for a similar purpose made on

sediment from the Gila River, Arizona, was live parts of mud to one

of dry material. This factor has, therefore, been used in reducing the

results. The taking of water samples and measurement of sediment therein

would not furnish all the required data, as these streams roll large

quantities of sand and gravel along their beds, which could not be

taken in water samples. So far as could be learned, no attempt at such

measurements had ever been made, and it was recognized as a task of

difficulty. The method devised was as follows:

A galvanized sheet-iron pan was provided (tig. 6, p. 155), 1 meter

square and 8 inches deep, with one side hinged so that it could be

opened to lie in the same plane as the bottom of the pan, and a weight

and stays were provided to hold it in this horizontal position. Four

chains, attached one to each corner of the top of the pan, met about

4 feet above the pan and united in a ring, and the whole was sus- pended from a cable stretched across the river, with the door open

upstream. An anchor was thrown about 100 feet upstream to hold

the pan firmly in position, while it was gently lowered from the cable

by means of a rope from shore working in tackle blocks. The pan was allowed to settle firmly on the bottom and to remain for a limited

time, usually one hour. The attempt is to cause the minimum dis- turbance of natural conditions in the stream, and to intercept and

hold in the pan the sediment traveling along the bottom in the section

it occupies. When it is desired to close the observation, a small copper wire which has been fastened to the open door and passed through

the ring above the pan is stoutly pulled until it raises the lid from the

bottom of the stream, whereupon the current catches and slams the

lid shut, where it is automatically fastened by a latch on each side. Then, by means of a windlass on shore, the pan is hoisted and brought

to land and the entrapped sediment measured.

There is nothing about this operation to increase the motion of

sediment along the oottom into the pan, so it is thought that results can never be too large. On the other hand, some sand may pass under

the edge of the lid when the bottom of the river at this point is marred

with local inequalities. This is supposed to be one cause of the small

results on certain days, when other observations immediately before

or after give large results. Another persistent source of error of

unknown magnitude is the washing out of the sediment by the current over the weir formed by the back of the pan. To test the importance

of this theoretical possibility a temporary partition was placed in the

pan perpendicular to the current, and nearly as high as the sides of the

c

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3:

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28

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si

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REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 199

pan, the theory being that if all sediment were stopped by the partition and deposited in front of it that would be good evidence that in the absence of the partition all would be stopped by the back of the

pan and none lost. In the first experiment more sediment was

deposited behind than in front of the partition, and the quantity that

passed out of the pan is unknown. This result was essentially re- peated for most of the experiments, showing conclusively that moreor less sediment is carried out over the back of the pan by the scour which it occasions. It is important to bear this fact in mind when

studying the results, for it is certain that the results are quantitatively too small, and should be regarded as showing that large quantities of

sediment are traveling on the bed of the stream, and as roughly indicating the relative amount.

Sediment by water samples from San Juan River at Sabalos Station.

[Five cubic yards of mud are assumed equal to 1 cubic yard of solid matter.]

Months.

1900 January

February March

April May

June

Mud.

Cubic yds.

1.224J 120

677, 936

609, 691

641, 073

758, 470

717, 401

Solid matter.

Cubic yds.

244, 824

135, 587

121, 938

128, 215

151, 694

143, 480

Months.

1900. July August

September...

October November

December

Mud.

Cubic yds.

1, 038, 808

831, 234 612,973

566, 014

542, 392

534, 232

Solid matter.

Cubic yds.

207, 762

166, 247

122, 595 113,203

108, 478

106, 846

Sediment, by water samples, from San Juan River at Ochoa.

1899. 1900. Months. Mud. Solid matter. Mud. Solid matter.

Cubic yards.

1, 139, 623

860, 125

765, 275

1, 055, 212

1, 162, 524

709, 230 2,969,998 2,257,480

3, 107, 248 1,260,497

2, 658, 002 1,696,789

Cubicyard;-.

227, 925

172, 025

153, 055 211,042

232, 505 141,846

594,000

451,496

621,450

252, 099 531,600

339, 358

Cubic yards.

1,348,513

651,461

585, 215

474, 309

913, 695

1,26V, 086

1, 526, 670 1,869,237 2,759,489

3, 727, 661 2,498,526 2,097,570

Cubicyards.

269, 703 130,292 117,043

94, 862 May 182, 739

253, 417 July 305, 334 373,847

551, 898 745,532

499, 705 419,514

Note.—Five cubic yards of mud are assumed equal to 1 cubic yard of solid matter.

Sediment rolled on bottom of San Carlos River. COSTA RICA.

Date.

1899. April 18 April 24 April 29 Mavll May 22 May 26 June5

June 13 June 27

Gauge

height.

11.40

11. 05

10. 95 10.80 11.40

12.80

11.55

12.90

12 75

Amount

collected per hour.

Cubic cen- timeters.

27, 124 950

9,954

53, 088

31,400

44,993

28, 203

34,839

94, 563

Total for

river.

Cu. yards

per hour. 7.10

.25 2.60

13.89

911.17 7.38

9.11 24.74

Mean for month.

Cu. yards

per hour.

3.32

11.55

"41.23

Total for month.

Cubic

yards.

2, 390

8,593

'•29 ](\SG

Remarks.

Gravel and sand. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.
200 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Sediment rolled on bottom of San Carlos River—Continued. COSTA RICA—Continued.

Date. Gauge

height. Amount

collected per hour.

Total for

river. Mean for mouth.

Total for mouth.

Cu. yards

per hour.

26. 47

Cubic

yards.

' 19, 694

•J). M3 15, 498

15. 13 10.80

3.01

11,257 7,776 2,239

2. 80 9.65

2, 083 7,180

6. 23

1,34 4,486

997

16. 97 12, 218

Remarks.

1899. July 19 August 2 August 12 August 18 August 25 August 28 October 7 October 30 October 31 November 4 December 4

1900. March 15 March 21 March 23 May 14 June 27 June 29 August 29 September 6 Septembers

15.40

14.80

13.70 13.86

14.45

13.60

13.00

12.70

12.80

12.50

14.72

11.36 11.10

12. 13 11.70

12.41 14.16

14.37 13.50

14.50

Cubic cen- timeters.

101, 200 115,530

46, 752

105, 660

78, 555

61, 615

102, 465

29, 100 41,940

41,300

11,500

6,300 4,400

21,350

36,900 31,080

16, 537 5,124

64, 075

65, 700

Cu. yardi per hour.

26.47 30.22

12. 23 27.64

20. 55 13.50 26.80

7.61 10.97

10.80 3.01

1.65

1.15

5.69 9.65 8.13

4.33

1.34 16.76

17.19

Gravel and sand. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

. Do. Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

D.». Do.

Sediment rolled on bottom ofSarapiqui River. COSTA RICA.

Date.

1899 March 2 March 9 March 14 April 5 April 7 April 12 April 22 May5

May 15 May 24 May 29 June 7 June 15 June 20 June 27 July 2 July 8 July 20 July 29 August 1 August 10 August 23 August 26

Gauge

height.

8.3

8.9

7.6 7.6 7.8

Amount

collected per hour.

Cubic centi mi d rs. 6,500

10,000 1,500

15,500

40, 000 41,000 4,000

1,000 2,060

7,400

5,000

7,000

31,.500

32, 500 3,200

10,600

29, 500

36, 000 4,000

60,000

118,500 71,000

20, 000

Total for

river.

Cu. yards

per hour.

0.84

1.30

.20 2.01

5.20 5.33

.52

.13

.27

.96 .65

.91 4.09

4.22

.42 1.38

3.83

4.68

.52 7.80

15. lo

9. 23 2.60

Mean for ; Total for month. ' month.

Cu. yards

per hour.

,.~>o

I 'libit- yards.

Remarks.

2. 3-17

L.735

Sand and gravel.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do. Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do. Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.

WIND MOVEMENT.

One point of interest in the consideration of the isthmian canal is the strength and persistence of winds, considered as motive force for

sailing vessels and as annoyance to the navigation of the canal and to ships entering and leaving port.

The persistence of the trade winds lias frequently been mentioned

in discussions of the Nicaragua Canal route. In 1898, it being neces- sary to take gauge readings at Las Lajas, on the western margin of the

lake, for transferring the level line across the lake, a camp with an

observer was established here, who observed the gauge height of the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 201

lake at the hours of 6 and !> a. in., 12 noon, 3 and 6 p. m. Note of

the condition of the lake surface was made at each observation, and

from January L9, 1898, when the observations began, until the 1st of

May a heavy surf w as beating on the beach at this point at every observation, due to the persistence of the trade winds. A few days of calm

occurred in May and at later periods during the rainy season. On May 16, 1900, an anemometer was installed at Greytown and'

observed at 8 a. m., 12 noon, and 6 p. m. each day, and the record was

kept practically continuous to the end of the year. In all this time

not a single day occurred without wind movement. The highest velocity recorded was something over 40 miles per hour, and this only

occurred on one day, November 13, the mean for that day being 24.5. The results of the observations are shown in the following table:

Anemometer record, Greytmim, Nicaragua. Anemometer readings. Miles. Day. Anemometer readings. Miles. Day.

8 a.m. 12 m. 6 p.m.

Per

day. Perhour. 8 a.m. 12 m. 6 p.m.

Per

day. Perhour. May 16 78.0 93.6 117.

68.7 2.9 July 14... 310.1 349.2 395.0 153.9 6.5 May 17 ...

146.7 178.0 212.

99.4 4.1 July 15... 464.0 478.0 502.5 108.2 4.5 May 18 ...

246.1 271.0 313.6 127.

5.3 July 16... 572.

590.0 664.5 145.8 6.1 May 19 ...

373.2 399.0 403.3 62.3 2.6 July 17... 718.0 733.0 761.5 102.

4.3 May 20 435.5 450.3 497.5 97.6 4.1 July 18... 820.2 860.1 895.0 142.8 5.9 May 21 533.1 553.4 589.0 85.2 3.6 July 19... 963.0 991.5 47.0 121.6 5.1 May 22 ...

618.3 639.3 688.6 105.0 4.4 July 20 . .

84.6 91.2 116.0 62.5 2.6 May 23 ...

723.3 755.5 801.2 99.9 4.2 July 21... 147.1 166.5 182.3 84.4 3.5 May 24 ...

823.

869.0 916.1 119.8 6.0 July 22... 231.5 246.2 276.0 73.6 3.1 May 25 943.0 984.1 41.7 139.5 5.8 July 23 . .

305.1 330.0 363.2 83.4 3.5 May 26 82.5 95.5 130.9 91.1 3.8 July 24... 388.5 406.5 438.0 83.5 3.5 May 27 ...

173.6 195.2 226.0 115.2 4.8 July 25... 472.0 490.1 543.2 107.0 4.4 May 28 288.8 317.8 353.5 129.8 5.8 July 26 . .

579.0 602.

650.8 134.0 5.6 May 29 ...

418.6 438.8 467.7 84.7 3.5 July 27... 713.0 725.8 758.0 81.0 3.4 May 30 ...

503.3 521.

549.1 101.7 4.2 July 28... 794.0 836.0 889.2 135.0 5.6 May 31 ...

605.0 626.2 652.1 72.4 3.0 July 29... 929.0 941.3 994.0 84.5 3.5 June 1 677.4 786.1 754.5 127.4 5.3 July 30... 13.5 24.1 55.2 76.0 3.2 June 2 804.5 922.

980.9 121.8 5.1 July 31 . .

89.5 102.3 156.2 110.5 4.0 June 3 926.

950.8 3.2 118.8 4.5 Aug. 1.... 200.0 215.8 250.0 127.2 5.3 June 4 45.1 81.5 100.4 164.9 6.5 Aug. 2.... 327.2 339.3 381.2 93.8 3.9 June 5 200. 222.

278.9 195.7 8.2 Aug. 3.... 421.0 433.6 552.

230.5 9.6 June 6 395.7 413.5 431.0 94.5 3.5 Aug. 4 651.5 663.7 700.0 71.6 3.0 June 7 490.2 525. 562.4 133.5 5.6 Aug. 5 723.1 732.

778.3 85.9 3.6 June 8 623.

659.1 694.0 106.3 4.4 Aug. 6 809.0 838.7 874.0 104.2 4.4 June 9 730.0 754.0 801.0 102.1 4.3 Aug. 7 913.

924.2 950. 86.8 3.6 June 10 832.

835.0 842.5 99.4 4.2 Aug. 8.... 1,000.0 9.2 29.0 120.7 5.0 June 11 931.5 973.1 19.0 123.8 5.1 Aug. 9.... 120.

141.9 196.0 119.5 5.0 June 12 55.3 111.0 133.0 114.7 4.9 Aug. 10... 240.2 252.

284.8 148.8 6.2 June 13 170.0 193.

221.81.0 3.4 Aug. 11... 389.0 415.0 487.6 215.5 8.9 June 14 251. 283.0 315.2 101.1 4.2 Aug. 12... 604.5 612.0 625.

74.2 3.1 June 15 352.

370.7 416.3 97.7 4.1 Aug. 13... 678.7 700.2 734.5 48.0 2.0 June 16 449.8 473.1 499.0 75.8 3.2 Aug. 14... 726.7 820. 867.5 216.7 9.0 June 17 525.6 554.1 569. 78.4 3.3 Aug. 15... 943.4 975.0 32.5 118.9 4.9 June 18 604.0 620.2 653.

128.0 5.3 Aug. 16... 62.3 79.6 116.1 93.3 3.9 June 19 732.0 751.6 784.1 93.7 3.9 Aug. 17... 155.6 182.3 246.8 141.4 5.9 June 20 825.7 837.2 855.

79.3 3.3 Aug. 18... 297.0 312.4 349.5 101.1 4.2 June 21 905.0 832.0 953.2 82.1 3.4 Aug. 19... 398.1 416.2 446.7 97.1 4.0 June 22.... 987.1 10.7 45.2 78.7 3.3 Aug. 20... 495.2 506.4 549.0 102.1 4.3 June 23 65.8 81.2 186.7 146.3 6.1 Aug. 21... 597.3 646.6 680.0 102.0 4.2 June 24 212.

237.3 307.2 117.0 4.8 Aug. 22... 699.3 718.7 743.2 75.8 3.2 June 25 329.1 343.3 378.8 72.5 3.0 Aug. 23... 775.1 787.4 818.1 78.6 3.3 June 26... 401.6 419.1 470.0 98.4 4.1 Aug. 24... 853.7 877.4 944.2 138.6 5.8 June, 27 600.0 615.

567.2 103.0 4.3 Aug. 25... 992.3 18.7 65.5 114.3 4.3 June 28.... 603.0 624.2 664.0 129.0 5.4 Aug. 26... 106.6 117.8 141.

84.2 3.5 June 29 732.0 744.2 822.5 147.0 6.1 Aug. 27... 190.8 214.6 261. 137.2 5.7 June 30.... 879.0 897.6 967.0 155.1 6.5 Aug. 28... 328.0 346.2 409.0 138.1 5.8 July 1 34.1 50.0 69.1 77.8 3.2 Aug. 29... 466.1 424.5 511.9 74.9 3.2 July 2 111.9 152.2 172.4 97.1 4.1 Aug. 30... 541.0 552.7 536.2 140.0 5.8 Jnly3 209.0 219.1 235.8 54.2 2.3 Aug. 31... 681.0 698.3 739.6 87.4 3.6 July 4 263.2 281.0 328.

113.9 4.7 Sept.l.... 768.4 782.0 799.3 70.7 2.9 July 5 . .

377.1 397.4 463.5 140.9 5.9 Sept. 2 839.1 848.3 890.1 81.4 3.4 July 6

518.0 532.1 568.9 99.0 4.2 Sept. 3.... 920.5 947.2 999.0 79.5 3.3 July 7

617.0 625.1 683.1 167.8 7.0 Sept. 4 1,000.0 19.9 76.5 102. 4.3 July 8 784.8 806.1 843.2 88.4 3.7 Sept. 5.... 102. 120.2 163.8 97.2 4.1 July 9 .

873.2 890.920.1 94.8 3.9 Sept. 6.... 199.2 211.1 250.4 108.2 4.5 July 10.... 968.0 995. 2 62. 5 102.0 4.3 Sept.7.... 307.4 326.4 369.0 89.6 3.7 July 11.... 70.0 83.2 105.

58.1 2.4 Sept. 8.... 397.0 411.5 461.0 89.7 3.8 July 12.... 128.1 140.

169.7 85.7 3.0 Sept. 9.... 486.7 507. 2 553.

114.7 4.8 July 13 ...

213.8 230.0 276. 5 96.3 4.1 Sept. 10... 601.4 621.0 673.1 99.9 4.2
202 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION

Anemometer record, Greytown, Nicaragua—Continued.

Hay.

Sept, 11.... Sept. 12.... Sept. 13.... Sept, 14.... Sept. 15.... Sept. 16.... Sept. 17.... Sept. 18.... Sept. 19.... Sept. 20

Sept. 21.... Sept. 22.... Sept, 23.... Sept. 24.... Sept. 26.... Sept. 26.... Sept. 27.... Sept. 28.... Sept. 29.... Sept, 30.... Oct.l Oct.2

Oct. 3

Anemometer readings.

a. m. 12 m. 6 p. m

Oct. 4

Oct. 5 Oct. 6 Oct. 7 Oct.8

Oct. 9 Oct, 10.... Oct. 11. ... Oct. 12.... Oct. 13.... Oct. 14.... Oct. 15.... Oct. 16.... Oct. 17.... Oct. 18.... Oct. 19.... Oct, 20....

Oct. 21.... Oct. 22.... Oct. 23.... Oct. 24.... Oct. 25.... Oct. 26"... Nov. 1 . . .

Nov. 2.... Nov.3.... Nov. 4 Nov. 5 Nov. 6 Xov.7....

Nov.8....

701.3

803.1 860.7 941.7

37.2

146.7

292.

452.0

523.

614.

765.1 884.7 996.0

82.3

231.

337.4

534.7 675.5

801.3 986.0

127.8

236.3

333.0

447.2

598.1

729.

831.1 901.2

31.3

117.1

229. 298.

386.0

438. 6 591.1 679.0

797.3

902. 17.3 109.3

217.1

321.1 443.3

194. 7 612. 769.4

319.

574.5

693.7

siiT.:; 8.7

92. 9

453.

719.5

815.

873.4

953.1 52.1 160.5

321.6

472.1 540.8

632.4 783.9 899.0

15.6 100.2

243.6

361.2

553.1 693.3

824.4 20.1

162.2 251.2

347.1 472.3

623.0

747.8 846.2

923.

57.6

122.

246.

316.

399.4 463.1

608.7 699.3

812.5

912.

38.2

125.

232. 339. 477.0

516.

650.

805.

326.

593. 716.5 912.0 25.8

74.5

763.3

845.0

911.6 1,000.0

102.

223.2

401.3

501.3

601.2

681.1 830.5

948.9 49.5

161.1 299.4

433.1

612.2

759.1 900.0

97.3

203.

300.0

406.4 557.9

693.2

795.9 880.0

1,000.0

111.1

202. 6

273.

359.

427.1

556.

648.6

753.2

860. 995.1

76.1 198.6 275.4

381.2

488.2

578.3

700.3

867.4 515.2

631.9

694. 980.9

125.6 118.2

Miles. Per Per

day. hour.

403. 480. 5 210. 6

101.8

57.6 81.0

95.5

109.5

145.5

159.8 71.0

91.2

150. 9 119.6

111.3 86.3

149.2

105.9

197.3

140.8

125.8

184.7 141.8

108.

96.7 114.2

150.9

131.2 101.8

70.1

130.1 85.8

111.9 69.4

87.6

52.6

152.

87.9 118.3

104.7 115.3 92.0

107.8

104.0

122.2 51.4

117.3

157.4

255. 119.2 113.6

201.4 84.2

4.2 2.4

3.4 4.0

4.5

6.1

6.6

3.0 3.8

6.3

5.0

4.6

3.6

6.2 4.4

8.2

5.9 5.2

7.7 6.9 4.6

4.0

4.3

6.3

5.4

4.2

2.9

5.4

3.6

4.7

2.9

3.6

2.2 6.4

3.6 4.9

4.4 4.8

3.8 4.5

4.3

5.1

2.1 4.9

6.6

10.6 5.0

4.7 8.4 3.5

Day.

Nov. 9 .

Nov. 10 Nov. 11. Nov. 12. Nov. 13

Nov. 14 Nov. 15 Nov. 16

Nov. 17. Nov. 18. Nov. 19. Nov. 20

Nov. 21. Nov. 22

Nov. 23. Nov. 24

Nov. 25. Nov. 26 Nov. 27 Nov. 28 Nov. 29

Nov. 30. Dec.l .. Dec. 2 .. Dec. 3 .. Dec. 4 .. Dec. 5 .. Dec. 6 .. Dec. 7 .

Dec. 8 .. Dec. 9 .. Dec. 10 . Dec. 11 . Dec. 12 . Dec. 13 . Dec. 14 . Dec. 15. Dec. 16 . Dec, 17 . Dec. 18 . Dec. 19 . Dec. 20 . Dec. 21 . Dec. 22 . Dec. 23 . Dec. 24 . Dec. 25 . Dec 26 Dec. 27 Dec. 28 . Dec. 29 . Dec. 3d Dec. 31 .

Anemometer readings.

8 a. m.

663.6

860.7

97.1 246.0

424.2 12.8 84.3

294.7

358.

437.9

563.0

702.5

860.1 938.9

994.2

191.0

504.

620.

820.

936.2

992.0

458.6

610.5

835.1 963.4

106.8 261.0

510.0

798. 4 894.0

92.3

209.

294.7 401.2

16C. I 536.

631.5

761.8 894.0

997.1 142.9

296.

480.2

598.

693. 860.1

694.0

907.1

145.3 234.6

608.5

81.1 94.7 213.6

411.0 490.4

592.8

740.6

878.0 963.4

14.8

214.6

524.0

769.8

846.2

958.7

210.

521.4

674.2

92.8

168.2

22] . I 289.6

338.

866.4 21.0

150.1 296.5

646.3

824.0 976.5

141.6 261.2

312.1 419.5 484.6

581.2

649.0

794.0 931.4

12. 1 186.1 361.2

511.2

623.

768.

978. 111.4

179.0

236. 302.5

356.4

6 p. m.

747.8

955.2

136.6 227.9

870.0

87.4

135.7

355.

428.2

499.0

640.7

794.3 921.6

986.0

132.5 384.0

657.7

798.3

910.1

971.6 401.6

539.0

760.1

902.

49.2

187.6 330.0

741.0

866.2

997.0

188.9 278.6

329.

439.2 504.9

001.4 684.0

822.

962.0

87.6 241.0

398. 531.4

641.7 802.0

Miles. Per dav. Per

hour.

197.1 236.4

148.9

178.2

588.

71.5

210.4 63.9

79.3

125.

139.5

157.6 78.8

55.3 196.8

313.2

116.7 199.5

115.8 55.8 466.6

151.9

61.7

137.

194.7 252.3

319.8

879.

128.3 143.4

155.

249. 288.4 95.6 198.3

117.2 85.2 106.5

64.9 70.0

95.4 130.3

132.2 103.1

145.8

15;',. 4 1S3.9 118.4

91. 1 167.1

8.2 9.9

6.2

7.4 24.5

3.0 8.8

2.7

3.3 5.3

6.8

6.6

3.3

2.3

8.3

13.0 4.9

8.3 4.8

2.3

19.4 6.3

75.4 53.2

68.2

48.

74.2

5.3 6.0

6.5

10.4

12.0 4.0 8.3

4.9

3.6 4.4

2.7 2.9

4.0

6.4 5.5

4.3

6.1 6.4 7.7

1.9 3.9

7.0

3.1 2.2

2.8 2.0

3.1

•No record for Oct. 27-31.
REPORT <>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Observations of wind velocity at Ochoa station.

I Representing estimated mean velocity of wind, in miles per hour, for daytime only.

203

1899.

Day. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

1 716

1175

5

83

3

3

3

7

38

5

438

8

5

75

73

58

8

3

3

85

13

8

7

788

3

35

13

5

3

35

385

11

115

4768

8

53

3

5

5

51313

13

13

115

8

73

11138

8

5

3

55

5

88

5

4

5

8

5

8

13

7

78

6

5

135

5

3

3

5

5

78

55

8

8

8

8

138

8

8

8

8

5

35

3

35

35

8irn

5

5

13

23

5

13

322

6

3

1013

13

22

4

35

3

4

35

5

38

5

32

1

1335

5

8

3

3

78

8

3

5

5

8

5

8

55

88

3

8

3

3

3

5

8

3

4

72

313

3

38

7

5

7o

7

3

34

6

5

44

4

3

5

75

3

5

45

8

3

14

3

1

3

4

3

3

4

45

5

75

3

3

445

8

3

7

1

3

35

33

43

5

44

3

7

5

35

3

5

74

3

55

8

3

3

713

313

7

74

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

5

3

8

18

133

3

44

5

4

3

1

5

5

3

3

3

""6"

54

3

8

78

11

58

87

918

738

18

7

4

7

2

3

4

8

9 . 10

1112

13 . 14

15

1617

18

1920

212223

2425

26

27

2829

30

31

1 11

73

8

77

18

74

3

11184

73

4

7

7

4

44

73

3

8

8

75

75

13

3

135

718

13

is13

3

1111

8

38

8

5

6

8

8

8

8

18

418

13

13

3

3

5

7

5

31318

18

1818

18

8

38

7

5

8

8

5

13

135

1313

3

8

8

513

1318

1618

1122

5

13

8

4

8

5

3

8

8

713

8

8

3

73

5

8

8

8

8

513

715

14

2

2

5

8

6

8

55

44

3

85

7

4

•0

3

1

55

78

5

8

4

9

4

4

84

8

44

4

3

3

3

8

73

4

5

3

3

3

3

3

3

35

8

54

35

7

68

7

38

7

3

13

4

3

5

35

4

55

34

7

3

74

7

74

8

4

715

77

6

813

75

5

2

3

4

3

4

6

22

7

118

28

5

4

6

4

51134

75

11

. 78

7

74

5

3

3

i

74

7

3

33

3

4

3

3

3

1

15

135

8

115

7

35

7

75

11

5

75

23

4

5

6

7

8

910

1112

13

1415

16

1718

1920

2122

23

2425

26

2728

29

30

31

Appendix J. SURVEYS OF UPPER SAN JUAN TO HEADWATERS OF THE INDIO.

By A. B. Nichols, Division Engineer.

Concerning the surveys made to determine the practicability of a route for the Nicaragua Canal from some point on the upper portion

of the Rio San Juan to the Caribbean Sea b}*- way of the Rio Indio or

its tributaries, I have the honor to report:

That, for the purpose above mentioned, examinations were made

of Rios Bartola, Machuca, and La Cruz del Norte, tributaries of the

San Juan, and of the Rio Negro, one of the two streams which unite

to form the Indio proper, and of a portion of the Rio Salvador, a branch of the Negro.

The waters flowing into Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan from the

northeast are separated from those flowing eastwardly into the Caribbean Sea by the Chontales, a ridge which rises from the swamps back

of Greytown, runs nearly due west to a point in the vicinity of Conchuda and about 4 miles directly east from the mouth of La Cruz del

Norte, and thence strikes nearly northwest, rising gradually with more

or less uniformity.

The surveys were made to determine whether there is in this ridge

a place low enough, and where the headwaters of the streams on each

side are sufficiently near together, to afford a more desirable route for

the canal than that projected by way of the lower San Juan.

RIO BARTOLA SURVEY.

This survey was made by Mr. M. W. Tenny, assistant engineer. The

stream rises in the Chontales and flows into the San Juan about 5 miles

below Castillo. It consists of two main branches which come together

7.3 miles (by the stream) from the San Juan. The general direction

of flow of the North Branch, so far as it was traced, is about 30 degrees

west of south; that of the South Branch for about 2 miles close to

its head, nearly southwest, thence nearly west to its junction with the

North Branch; and that of the main stream below the junction about

18 degrees south of west. A stadia line, carrying elevations, was run from the mouth of the river 15.4 miles to near the head of the South

Branch to an elevation of 478.6 above mean sea level, and thence leav- ing the river, a few hundred feet farther and part way up the ridge,

to an elevation of + 636.8. An observation taken during the Machuca

survey indicates that the main ridge rises near here to an elevation of

+ 1,500 or over, although at the heads of the streams there may be

places somewhat lower.

205
206 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

A stadia line was also run up the North Branch to a point 13 miles

(by the line) from the San Juan to an elevation, on the stream, of

+224.8. The region between the two branches is occupied by a high

spur of the Chontales, which attains an elevation of +1,500 or more.

It was deemed unnecessary to carry the line farther up this branch,

because both the nature of the country and the distance involved would

preclude its use for canal purposes. The valley of the Bartola is generally narrow, its bottom of rock, and the hills abrupt. The height of

the main ridge renders a canal by this route impracticable.

MACHUCA-NEGRO SURVEY.

This survey was made by the writer.

The Machuca (called by the natives Sarnoso) rises in the Chontales

southeast of the sources of the Bartola, and flows into the San Juan

near the foot of Machuca Rapids. Like the Bartola, it consists of two

main branches, which come together 5.7 miles (b}r the river) from the

San Juan. The North Branch comes in from a little east of north.

The general direction from the head of the East Branch to the mouth

of the main stream is about 19° 22' south of west, making, however,

in the lower two-thirds of its course quite a detour to the south of this

line. The distance from the mouth to the summit of the survey (Ity the line) is 15.2 miles.

The Rio Negro heads in the Chontales eight-tenths mile nearly south

from the head of the East Branch of Machuca, and flows a little east of north until it approaches the latter within 400 feet, at the place

where the survey line crosses the ridge. From this point to the foot

of the Great Falls of Negro, where the survey ended, a distance of

13 miles (by the line), the bearing is about 17° 36' north of east, the

river, however, making a long detour to the north. It receives three

large branches between its source and Great Falls. Only one of them

is of interest in this connection, as the other two come in from the

left. This branch enters from the southwest about 1.8 miles (by the

line) above the foot of Great Falls. It is 60 to 70 feet wide at its mouth, and appears to carry about one-half as much water as the Negro

immediately above their junction. A reconnaissance was made of

it for about 2 miles from its mouth, to a point where it forks, one

branch coming in from the southwest and the other from the south.

Each of these branches is nearly as wide as the main stream. This

river, for convenience of reference, I have called the Salvador. The

branch from the southwest is apparently the same stream whose

headwaters were examined by Mr. Tenny during the La Cruz del Norte survey, and will be noticed under that head.

The survey along these streams was made by stadia, and the elevations determined partly by stadia and partly by Y level. The crest line south of the Machuca was developed to a point above

the forks, and reconnoissanccs made between that point and the main

ridge to determine the approximate course and relative elevation of

the crest. The valley of the Machuca is narrow and the slopes abrupt in most

places. The bottom of the stream is largely of rock, which causes numerous rapids and occasional falls. The ridge to the south dividing

it from La Cruzita del Norte and La Cruz del Norte is generally very narrow at its crest, especially in the Saddles, where it is not unusual
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 207

to find the top not more than 15 or 20 feet wide, the ground dropping

sharply, and with practically the same slope on each side. The elevations in the Saddles for 5 miles from the mouth of the river range from

+235 to +345 above mean sea level, and then the ridge rises with more or less uniformity until it reaches +723, where it joins the main

ridge at the point where the waters of the Machuca, Negro, and La

Cruz del Norte have their common source. At the summit the line passes from the Machuca to the Negro through a gap in the ridge not over 100 feet wide, the ground rising rapidly on each side on a slope

of perhaps 15 to 20 degrees. The distance from water to water in the

two streams is about -100 feet, the relative elevations being as follows:

Surface of water in Machuca + 539.

Surface of ground at summit + 544.2 Surface of water in Negro +520.8

The valle}r of the Negro is narrow, the slopes of the hills are steep.

Falls and rapids are numerous and the country more rugged than along

the Machuca. From a point a short distance below the mouth of the

Salvador to below the foot of Great Falls the river runs through a gorge, over rock bottom, forming a favorable place for damming the

stream. The line having been run as much as possible along the

streams, the survey shows nearly the minimum possible profile. A

profile along a projected canal line would necessarily be much heavier,

both streams being tortuous, with narrow valle}r s. With the bottom at +69, a canal by this route would have a cut- ting about 24£ miles long, with a depth at the summit of 475 feet. LA CRUZ DEL NORTE SURVEY.

This survey was made by Mr. M. W. Tenny, assistant engineer. A

reconnoissance was first made, by means of pocket compass and aneroid barometer, of the main stream and all the larger branches, especially those putting into it from the east, with the result that the first one above the mouth was found to have the lowest summit and the

desired general direction.

A stadia line, carrying elevations, was run up this branch, beginning at the mouth of the main stream at the San Juan, to a point

eight-tenths mile beyond the summit, and 6.4 miles (by the line) from

the San Juan. Beyond this point a reconnoissance was made with

pocket compass for nearly 2£ miles.

The La Cruz del Norte flows into the San Juan about 7 miles below

the mouth of the Machuca. It occupies a somewhat oval-shaped vallley,

the major axis of which is a line from the head of Rio Negro (as determined by the Machuca-Negro survey) to the point where the stream

flows into the San Juan, about 5.4 miles in length. The declivities are therefore necessarily steep, as the water has to descend nearly 700

feet in this distance.

The surve}7 shows that the valley of the East Branch is comparatively

straight and the rise to the top of the ridge rapid. Beyond the summit, where the line strikes the headwaters of the Salvador, the fall is very gradual for about 1^ miles, where the stream plunges over a

30-foot fall, and from this point to the end of the reconnoissance

drops over a succession of falls and rapids, a portion of the way

through a narrow gorge so rough as to be difficult of passage. Coi-
208 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

lating the information obtained by this and the Machuca-Negro survey, we have:

Surface of water in San Juan at month of La Cruz del Norte + 56 Elevation of summit, 5.6 miles from mouth of La Cruz -j- 468. 7 Elevation at top of 30-foot falls of Salvador, 6.9 miles from mouth of the La Cruz, about +394

Surface of water in Rio Negro at mouth of Salvador, about 14.3 miles from

mouth of La Cruz + 68

Surface of water in Negro at foot of "Great Falls," 15.8 miles from mouth

of La Cruz + 41 With bottom at +69, a canal by this route would involve a cutting

about 15^ miles long, with a depth at the summit of 400 feet, but with

a heavier profile than is shown by the survey, the latter having fol- lowed the stream very closely, whereas a projected canal line would,

on account of the crookedness of the streams, cut into the hills more

or less. Bearing upon a supply of stone for use in the construction of a canal,

these surveys show that along the streams falls occur at elevations at or near +200, +300, and +400 with great uniformit3T

, indicating .that at these elevations there is rock capable of withstanding the elements. In the valley of La Cruz del Norte these formations may prove to be

useful, no part of the valley being more than 5^ miles in a straight

line from the projected service railroad, and, owing to the abruptness

with which the hills rise, available outcrops are likel}^ to be found.

Profiles of the Machuca-Negro and the La Cruz del Norte lines are submitted herewith, marked plates 61 and 62.
Appendix U.

TRANSLATION OF THE CONTRACT ENTERED INTO BETWEEN THE

GOVERNMENT OF NICARAGUA AND THE ATLAS STEAMSHIP

COMPANY, LIMITED, DATED AT THE CITY OF MANAGUA, ON

THE 30th DAY OF SEPTEMBER, 1897.

The National Legislative Assembly decrees:

Only article. The contract entered into between the minister of

public instruction, provisionally in charge of the portfolio of public

works, on behalf of the Government, and Louis Wichman, representative of the Atlas Steamship Company, Limited, is, with the modifications subsequently agreed upon by both parties and the modifications

introduced by the House, approved in the following terms: Manuel Coronel Matus, minister Of public instruction, provisionally

in charge of the portfolio of public works, representing the Government of the State, and Louis Wichman, representing the Atlas Steamship Company, Limited, in accordance with the power of attorney

exhibited, have agreed on the following contracts, with the object of

expediting steam navigation on Lake Nicaragua and the river San Juan

del Norte, which each da}r offers greater difficulties; of facilitating

communication with the Atlantic coast, on which great interests depend,

and in the hope of commercial and agricultural development that shall improve the condition of the country.

I. In consideration of the great expenses that the Atlas Steamship

Compan}r

, Limited, hereinafter called "the company," shall incur for

the aforesaid object, the Government grants it the exclusive right

during thirty years to navigate by steam the Silico Lagoon, counting

from the final ratification of this agreement, and the exclusive right

during the same period to construct tramways and railways at con- venient places along the line of the river San Juan to avoid obstacles

therein.

II. The company binds itself to construct on its own account a narrow-gauge railway that shall put the place known as Colorado

Junction, or another suitable point, in communication with the Silico

Lagoon, so as to avoid the navigation of the diy and most difficult part of the river San Juan and effect more rapid transit to the port of

San Juan del Norte during the summer. The length of this line shall be 5 miles, more or less, and at its terminals the company shall erect houses and piers that shall combine the requisites for passenger traffic,

the transportation of merchandise, and for other services.

III. The Government shall subsidize the company to the extent of

$5,000 for each mile of the said railway, payable in successive monthly

installments of $1,000 from the time the governor of San Juan del Norte advises that the construction works of the railway have comS. Doc. 54, pt 2 U 209
210 EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

inenced, and providing- the works are not interrupted. In case the

works are interrupted, payments shall be suspended until the works

are reeontinued.

IV. The Government declares this work to be of public utility, so

that the company may expropriate lands of private property required

for right of way in accordance with the laws in the matter. The com- pany shall have for the same purpose the right to occupy, free of

all charge, such national lands as the line may cross, together with a

strip of land luO yards wide along the entire length of the line. V. The Government also grants the company the right to cut in the

national forests adjacent to Lake Nicaragua and the river San Juan,

free of all charge, all the wood it may require for the use of the steamers, tramways, railways, piers, houses, and workshops, and for other

purposes of the traffic. VI. The Government concedes the right of occupying, in the ports

and places of transit, such lots of national land as may be necessary

for the establishment of stores, tramways, offices, workshops, stations,

etc. It is understood that such lots shall be selected b}T agreement

with the Government, and that in case any of them should be private

property, the Government shall authorize their expropriation, in ac- cordance with which the company shall pay the just price as fixed by

experts, unless the price shall have been agreed upon between the owners and the company.

VII. The company's employees and laborers shall be exempt from

civil and military service, and to this effect the respective authorities

shall issue such exemptions as may be necessary to insure the good

service of the company.

VIII. The steamers, railways, tramways, stations, service houses,

and other indispensable things for the purposes of the company shall,

during the term of this contract, be exempt from national and municipal

contributions.

IX. The company shall import, free of local and customs dues, the

machinery, tools, materials, coal, provisions, and other articles neces- sary for its service, excepting strong liquors, but with strict observance

of fiscal regulations and the requirements of the ministry of finance for

due control and statistical purpose.

X. The company in the service of- its enterprise shall have, subject

to the laws of Nicaragua, the free use of the national telegraph lines,

but this concession shall not prevent the Government from selling the

said lines unconditionally.

XI. When the railway from the Silico Lagoon shall be finished,

should the Government consider it convenient to its interests and those

of the company, it shall remove the custom-house from Castillo to a

point that will hinder as little as possible the rapid transportation of

merchandise.

XII. The company is obliged to make at least three trips a month

with its steamers from Granada to San Juan del Norte, and vice versa, and to call at least once a month at all the established ports of the lake

which the steamer Victoria^ or another of her size, can reach. The

company shall carry the mails of the State on all trips free of charge.

The aforesaid trips shall be subject to an itinerary of which the Government and public shall be notified and which can not be altered without three months previous notification to them. For each unjustified

infraction of the itinerary the company shall pay a fine of from $25

to $100, which shall be collected by the Government.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 211

XIII. Passengers and freight tariffs shall be in the money of the

country and as moderate as the company can make them. The Government shall enjoy a rebate of 30 per cent on the transportation of

its employees, other persons who travel for its account, its troops, and

cargo. XIV. In case of war, the company's steamers shall be placed at the

order of the Government, which shall take them for its own account,'

acknowledging, upon returning them, the losses and damages their use may have occasioned. These losses and damages shall be appraised

by an engineer, chosen by mutual agreement, or by two experts, one

for each part}7

, providing the parties hereto can not agree on the

nomination of the former. Should the experts fail to agree on the

estimate of losses and damages, the decision of an umpire appointed

by the experts prior to their disagreement shall be final, and his

decision can not be appealed from.

XV. The compan}T binds itself to undertake as soon as possible such

works along the river San Juan as may be necessary to facilitate the

uninterrupted transportation of passengers and merchandise during

the whole year by means of vessels and railways between San Juan

del Norte and Lake Nicaragua.

Should the company, after careful study of the obstacles to navigation, wish to undertake works of greater magnitude, so as to secure a depth of water of 6 feet in the river San Juan at all seasons, and to deepen the bar of the port so that vessels of large tonnage can cross

it, the Government shall give the company permission so to do.

XVI. This contract may be transferred to any foreign person or compan}', but in no case, neither in whole nor in part, neither directly nor indirectly, to' any government. Should the contract be trans- ferred to a company whose domicile is abroad, it shall constitute a

representative in Nicaragua fully authorized and instructed for all affairs, judicial or otherwise. The said company shall be subject to the

laws of Nicaragua.

XVII. For the purposes of the preceding article the company shall have an agent in Nicaragua.

Any difference that may occur in regard to the meaning and application of this contract shall be decided by one arbitrator chosen by

mutual consent, or by two arbitrators, one for each party. In this case, should the arbitrators not agree as to the amount of losses and

damage, the matter shall be decided by an umpire appointed before

proceeding to the arbitration, and his decision shall be final. The

tribunal of arbitrators shall be established at the latest within fifteen days from the time one party has notified the other of any difference

that may occur, and it shall give its decision within six months, at the

latest. Such decision can not be appealed.

XVIII. Should the railway from the Silico Lagoon to the river San

Juan be not finished within three years from this date, this concession

shall for that reason be forfeited.

The works of construction of the said railway shall commence at the

latest within one year from the date upon which this agreement is signed, and should the company not do so it shall lose the deposit of

$5,000 gold which it binds itself to make in the general treasury of the

State within six months under penalty of the forfeiture of this contract. The said deposit shall be returned to the company when the works

of the railway referred to are finished.
212 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

XIX. This concession shall never be an obstacle to the carrying out

of any contracts the Government may decide to make in regard to the

opening of an interoceanic canal over the same route, nor shall it affect in the least those it may have alread}^ made.

XX. It is understood that during the term of this agreement the

Government can not subsidize any other company of steamers on Lake

Nicaragua.

XXI. In case of expropriation owing to the opening of the inter- oceanic canal, and considering the expenses the company may have

incurred, it shall be indemnified by whom it may concern for the value

of the materials of the enterprise, according to such title as the com- pany may be able to show, it being understood that the Government

of Nicaragua shall not pay in any case any indemnity whatever.

XXII. To determine the indemnity mentioned in the preceding

article the procedure stipulated in Article XIV shall be followed in

its entirety.

XXIII. Should either party not appoint its arbitrator within fifteen days after having been notified of any difference arising, or should the

party appointed not accept, or should he be absent, the president of

the supreme court of justice shall, within three days, and upon the

petition of the other party, appoint an arbitrator.

XXIV. In no case and for no reason shall the company or whoever

may represent it have the right of appealing to diplomatic intervention. In proof of which arc signed two of same tenor at Managua on the

5th day of June, 1897.

M. C. Matus,

Louis Wichman,

JFbr the Atlas Steamship Company, Limited.

Given in the hall of sessions, Managua, September 28, 1897.

M. Morales, D. P.

Santiago Lopez.

Leandro Garcia.

Approved.

National palace, Managua, September 30, 1897.

J. S. Zelaya.

J. C. Munoz,

Acting Minister of Public Wo?'ks. This conforms to the contract published in the official daily.

Department of public works, Managua, October 31, 1898.

Munoz.

The undersigned, minister of interior relations of the State of Nicaragua, certifies that the signature of the minister of public works

by the law which precedes this, reading ""Munoz," is authentic.

Managua, November 2, 1898.

Erasmo Calderon.

I, the undersigned, consul of the United States, do hereby certify

that the above signature of Erasmo Calderon is true and genuine.

Managua, November 2, 1898.

Chester Donaldson,

United States Consul.
Appendix C C 1. TREATY OF AMITY, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN

FRANCE AND NEW GRANADA. SIGNED AT BOGOTA, MAY 15, 1856. RATIFICATIONS EXCHANGED AT BOGOTA, JULY 24, 1857.

Numerous commercial relations having for a long time been established between the French Empire and the Republic of New Granada,

it was deemed expedient to regulate their existence and to promote

their extension by means of a treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation.

For that purpose, full powers have been conferred, to w

T it: By His Majesty, the Emperor of the French, upon Baron Celean

Goury du Roslan, commander of the Imperial Order of the Legion

of i Honor, Grand Cross of the Pontifical Order of St. Gregory the

Great, etc. By the Vice-President of New Granada, in charge of the executive

power, upon Mr. Lino de Pombo, secretary of state for foreign relations. Who, after exchanging the said full powers, and finding them in good form, have agreed upon the following articles: Article I. There shall be constant peace and sincere and perpetual

friendship between His Majesty the Emperor of the French, his heirs

and successors, of the one part, and the Republic of New Granada, of

the other part, and between the subjects and citizens of either State,

without distinction of persons or places.

II. Frenchmen in New Granada and Granadians in France shall reciprocally enjoy the same liberty and security as the nationals in entering

with their ships and cargoes, all places, harbors, and rivers that are or may hereafter be opened to foreign commerce. They shall, whether

touching at several ports in succession or engaging in the coasting

trade, be respectively treated in the same manner as the subjects or

citizens of the most favored nation.

HI. The subjects and citizens of either of the two contracting

parties, shall be permitted, on the respective territories, freely to

travel, sojourn, engage in trade, wholesale or retail, hire and occupy

such dwellings, warehouses, and shops as they may need, effect shipments of merchandise and money, and receive consignments from the

interior or from abroad and in all or any of these operations the said

subjects or citizens shall not be subjected to any obligations other than

those borne by the nationals.

In all their purchases and sales they shall be free to determine and

establish the price of the effects, merchandise, or other articles,whether

imported or domestic, whether sold in the interior or intended for

export, provided they shall expressly comply with the laws and regulations of the country.

They shall enjoy like liberty for attending in person to their busi213
214 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

ness, making their own entries in the custom-house, or having themselves represented by whomever they may see tit, attorneys, in fact,

factors, agents, consignees, or interpreters, either for the sale or purchase of their property, effects, or merchandise, or for the lading,

unlading, and clearing of their vessels. They shall likewise have the

right to discharge all the duties with which they may be intrusted by

their fellow-countrymen, by aliens, or by nationals in the capacity of

attorneys in fact, factors, agents, consignees, or interpreters; and in no event shall they be subjected to charges, taxes, or imposts other

than those to which are subjected the nationals or the citizens or subjects of the most favored nation.

IV. The subjects and citizens of either contracting party shall enjoy,

in both States, the most complete and constant protection for their

persons and property. They shall, in consequence, have free and easy

access to the tribunals of justice for the prosecution and defense of

their rights in every stage of proceedings and at every degree of jurisdiction established by law. They shall be free to employ, under all circumstances, such lawyers, attorne}T s, or agents of all classes as they

may deem expedient to cause to act in their names. In line, they shall, in this respect, enjoy the same rights and privileges as may be accorded

to the nationals and shall be subject to the same conditions as are imposed on these latter. V. Frenchmen in New Granada, and Granadians in France, shall be exempted from all personal services, in the land or sea forces, either

in the national guard or militia, as well as from all war taxes, forced

loans, military requisitions or services, of whatever nature. In all other cases they shall not be subjected, on account of their property,

real or personal, to charges, demands, and imposts other than those to which the nationals themselves or the citizens or subjects of the most

favored nation, without exception, may be subjected; it is well understood that whoever may claim the application of the latter part of this

article will be at liberty to select that of the two treatments which will seem to him more advantageous.

VI. The subjects and citizens of either State shall not, respectively,

be subjected to any embargo, nor be detained with their vessels, car- goes, and effects for any military expedition whatsoever nor for any

public use of any kind, without an indemnity previously agreed to and

determined by the parties interested and adequate to the use to be

made and to the injuries, losses, dela}r s, and damages occasioned by or

likely to result from the use to which they may have been put. VII. Frenchmen in N.ew Granada, and Granadians in France, shall enjoy the most complete and unlimited freedom of conscience; they

shall be permitted to practice their religion, publicly or privately, in temples or chapels, where religious functions are celebrated, or within

their dwellings, in accordance with the system of toleration prevailing

in both countries; they shall also be at liberty to bury their dead in the cemeteries of their religious communities, or in such others as they

may designate and establish with the assent of the local authorities.

The graves shall not be disturbed, nor the the ceremonies of interment

and disinterment interrupted, in any way nor or any pretense. VIII. The subjects and citizens of either contracting party shall have the right to own real estate within their respective territories

and to dispose of said real estate and of all other property held by

them by means of sale, donation, barter, testament, or an}- other method
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 215

that may best suit them. In like manner, the subjects and citizens of

either State who should fall heirs, under a will or ab intestate, to property situate in their respective territories shall succeed to the said

property without hindrance, and dispose of the same at will, without

paying inheritance taxes other than or different from those that should

be paid by the nationals of the country in which the property may be.. IX. If, which God forbid, the peace between the twr o countries

should, under circumstances that can not be foreseen, happen to be

broken, there shall be granted on either side a term of not less than

six months to traders on the coast and of one year to those in the

interior of the country in which to wind up their affairs, dispose of

their property and move it wherever they shall see fit; in addition,

the}T shall be given a safe-conduct with which to embark at such port

as they will designate of their own accord, unless such port be occu- pied or beleagured by the enemy, and their own safety or that of the

State should stand in the way of their departing from that port, in which event they shall make their departure in such manner and by

such route as may be practicable. All the other subjects or citizens

having a fixed and permanent establishment in the respective States for the practice of some profession or industry of any kind, shall be

permitted to hold said establishment and continue in the practice of

their profession or industry without being in anyway molested, and

they shall be left in full and complete possession of their liberty and

property, so long as they shall commit no offense under the laws of the

country.

X. In no case of war or conflict between the two nations shall the

property or estates, of whatever nature, belonging to their respective

subjects or citizens be subjected to any seizure, sequestration, or charges and imposts other than are demanded of the nationals. Furthermore, under the circumstances herein supposed, moneys due b}^

private persons, as well as public funds, or bank or corporation stock,

shall never be seized, sequestered, or confiscated to the detriment of

the respective subjects and citizens. XI. In no event shall the impost duties imposed in France on products of any kind whatever, of the growth or manufacture of New

Granada, be other or higher than those to which are or will be subjected like products of the most favored nations. The same principle

shall be observed in regard to exports. No prohibition of or restric- tion on the importation or exportation of anj7 article whatsoever shall take place in the reciprocal trade of the two countries, unless it be

equally applied to all other nations, and such formalities as may be

required to prove that the merchandise respective^ imported in either State was produced in or came from the other, shall also be common

to all other nations. In brief, French commerce in New Granada and

Granadian commerce in France shall be treated in all cases and in every respect like that of the most favored nation.

XII. All the products of the growth or manufacture of either country, the exportation of which is not expressly prohibited, shall pay in the port of the other the same import duties whether laden in French

or Granadian vessels. In like manner, exported products shall pay

the same duties and enjoy the same exemptions, allowances, and drawbacks as are now or may hereafter be reserved for exports shipped in

national vessels. XIII. French vessels entering ports in New Granada or clearing
216 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

therefrom, and Granadian vessels entering or clearing from ports in

France, shall not be subjected to tonnage, light-house, harbor, pilotage,

quarantine, or other dues, dues charged to the vessel itself, different

from or higher than those to which national vessels are or may be

subjected.

XIV. French vessels in New Granada and Granadian vessels in France .shall have power to discharge part of their cargoes in the port

of their iirst arrival, and thence proceed with the remainder of their

cargoes to other ports in the same State, either to finish discharging

their cargoes or to complete their outward cargo at such ports, and

shall not pay in each port dues other or higher than those paid by

national vessels under similar circumstances.

XV. When vessels owned by subjects or citizens of either of the

two contracting parties shall be wrecked or stranded on the coasts of the other, or when, in consequence of stress of weather or positive

damage, the}7 shall enter the ports or anchor on the coasts of the

other, they shall not be subjected to any navigation dues, under whatever denomination such dues may be established, except pilotage and

other dues representing compensation for services rendered b}7 private

concerns, provided that such vessels shall not discharge goods intended

for consumption nor take a cargo for export. They shall, however,

be permitted to land in storage and to warehouse a part or the whole

of their cargoes, to prevent the perishing of merchandise, and no

other dues shall be demanded of them than such as ma}7 pertain to the

hire of warehouses and public }

T ards that they may need for the stor- ing of the goods or the repairing of the damage to the vessels. XVI. All vessels shall be considered as French in New Granada and

as Granadian in France that shall navigate under the respective flags

and carry the license and other documents required by the legislation

of the two States as evidence of the nationality of merchant vessels. XVII. The vessels, merchandise, and effects belonging to the respective subjects and citizens that may have been captured by pirates

within the jurisdiction of either contracting party or on the high seas and brought into or found in the harbors, rivers, roadsteads, and bays

controlled by the other, shall be turned over to the owners upon payment, if any, of the cost of recapture as determined by the proper

tribunals, after giving evidence of ownership to the said tribunals.

It is well understood that the claim for restitution must be presented

within a year bj7 the party in interest, its attorneys, or by the agents

of the respective Governments.

XVIII. The war vessels of either power shall be permitted to enter,

sojourn in, and go into the gearing docks of the ports of the other

which are opened to the most favored nation. They shall be subject

to the same regulations and enjoy the same advantages.

XIX. If one of the contracting parties should happen to be at war

with a third power, the other power shall not under any circumstance

authorize its nationals to take or accept commissions or letters of

marque for hostile operations against the former, or for the purpose

of molesting the commerce and property of its subjects or citizens. XX. Both contracting parties adopt, in their nautical relations, the

principle that free ships make free goods. In consequence, should one

of the parties remain neutral while the other is at war with another

power, merchandise protected by the neutral Hag shall also be deemed

to be neutral, even though it should be the property of the enemy of the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 217

oilier contracting party. It is likewise agreed that a free flag also insures

the freedom of persons, and that individuals belonging to a hostile

power who might be found on board a neutral vessel shall not betaken

as prisoners unless they be soldiers and for the time being in the service

of the enemy. As a consequence of the same principle under which

the flag and the cargo are assimilated neutral property found on board,

a vessel of the enemy shall be considered as enemy's property unless

it .should have been shipped on said vessel prior to the declaration of war or before it was known at the port whence the vessel may have

saiiedt The two contracting powers shall apply this principle as regards other

powers to those only which also recognize it. XXI. Should one of the two contracting parties be at war with

another power, and its vessels have occasion to exercise the right of

visitation at sea, it is agreed that, if they come across a vessel belonging to the other party, the latter having remained neutral, they shall send in a boat two examiners charged with the dut}T of examining the

papers relative to the nationality or the cargo. The commanders shall be responsible, personally and pecuniarily, for any vexation, insult, or

act of violence that may be committed on the occasion. Visitation

will be allowed on board such vessels only as may navigate without a convoy. In regard to convoyed vessels, it will be sufficient for the

commanding officer of the convoy to declare, orally and upon his word

of honor, that the vessels placed under his protection and escort belong

to the State whose flag he flies, and to declare, when the vessels shall be bound for a port of the enemy, that they do not carry contraband

of war. XXII. In the event of war between either party and another power,

nation, or State, the subjects or citizens of the other party will be

permitted to continue trade and navigation with the said States, excepting the cities or ports that may be actually blockaded or beleaguered.

It is, however, well understood that this freedom of trade and navigation shall not extend to articles deemed to be contraband of war, such as cannon and firearms, side arms, projectiles, powder, saltpeter,

articles of military equipment, and all implements whatsoever made

for warlike purposes. In no event shall a merchant vessel owned b}T subjects or citizens of

either country, bound for a port blockaded by the forces of the other,

be seized, captured, or condemned, unless it shall have received previ- ous notice or warning of the existence of the blockade from some vessel belonging to the blockading squadron or division. And in order that

ignorance of the circumstances ma}T not be alleged, and that such vessel

as may have been duly warned shall be liable to capture if it should

again repair to the same port during the blockade, the commanding

officer of the war ship that shall have met it for the first time shall enter on the papers of the said vessel the da}7

, place, and distance of

his visit, and aforesaid notification made by him with the requisite

formalities.

XXIII. Consuls of each one of the two countries may be established

for the protection of commerce; but these officers shall not enter upon

their duties or enjoy the rights, privileges, or immunities to which they

may be entitled until they shall have obtained the authorization of the

Government of the country. The latter will, moreover, retain the right

of determining the residences at which it shall see fit to receive consuls.

It is well understood that, in this respect, neither Government shall
218 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

oppose to the other any restriction that does not apply in its country

to all nations in common. XXIV. The two contracting parties engage to negotiate, as soon as practicable, a consular convention which will determine in a clear,

final, and reciprocal manner the rights, privileges, and immunities

that the respective consuls, their chancellors and clerks, shall enjoy in the respective countries as well as the duties they shall have to dis- charge and the obligations to which they shall be held. In the meanwhile French consuls and vice-consuls in New Granada and Granadian consuls and vice-consuls in France shall, respectively, receive the same treatment and consideration as those of the most favored nation.

XXV. The Republic of New Granada shall enjoy, in all the French

possessions and colonies, the same rights, privileges, and the same

freedom of commerce and navigation as is now or shall hereafter be

enjoyed by the most favored nation, and, reciprocally, the inhabitants

of the French possessions and colonies shall enjoy, to this full extent,

the same rights and privileges and the same freedom of commerce

and navigation as are, under this treaty, granted in New Granada to the French, their commerce and their navigation.

XXVI. It is formally agreed between the two contracting parties

that, independently of the foregoing stipulations, the diplomatic agents,

the subjects of all classes, the vessels and merchandise of either State

shall, as of right, enjoy in the other the exemptions, privileges, and

immunities whatsoever conceded to the most favored nation, and this

gratuitously, if the concessions be gratuitous, and for the same consideration if it should be conditional.

XXVII. The present treaty shall remain in force for a period of ten years counted from the day of the exchange of ratifications, but if, one

year before the expiration of that term, neither contracting party should

announce, by an official declaration, its intention to terminate or revise

it, it shall continue binding on both parties for five years longer, and

so on, from five to five years, so long as the official notice hereinabove mentioned shall not have been made at least twelve months in advance. In the event of one of the contracting parties deeming that some of

the stipulations of the present treaty may have been infringed to its detriment, it shall first lay before the other, together with its demand

for redress, a statement of the facts, accompanied by such documents

and evidence as may be necessary to show that its complaint is well

founded, and it shall not, in any way, authorize reprisals or declare war unless the redress demanded by it shall have been denied or unfavorably received.

XXVIII. The present treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, in twenty-eight articles, shall be ratified by His Majesty the Kniperor of

the French and by the President or the person in charge of the executive power in New Granada, with the approval of the Congress, and the

ratifications shall be exchanged at Bogota within a term of eighteen

months or sooner if possible. During that time and pending the

exchange of ratifications the treaty of October 28, 1844, shall continue

in force and effect. In witness whereof the plenipotentiaries have signed the said treaty

and hereunto affixed their private seals at Bogota, on the 15th day of

May of the year of the Lord 1856.

[seal.] Baron Goury du Roslan.

[seal.] Lino de Pombo.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMTSSION. 219

ADDITIONAL ACT. The undersigned, plenipotentiaries of His Majesty the Emperor of

the French and of the Republic of New Granada, signers of the treaty

of amity, commerce, and navigation concluded on May 15, 1856,

recognizing the necessity and expediency of elucidating the sense and.

purport of some of the stipulations embodied in the said treaty, while

the exchange of ratifications is still in abeyance, and with a view of

removing for the future all grounds of doubt or controvers}^ on the

subject, by virtue of the full powers with which they are vested, have

agreed upon the two following articles: Article I. The reciprocitjr of rights, exemptions, and allowances

regarding the importation and exportation of natural products, established, in favor of the flags of both countries, by Article XII of the

treaty of Ma}r 15, 185G, does not include that which relates to special

advantages or encouragements that may now or hereafter be conferred

upon the national fisheries in either country.

II. It is stipulated that the freedom of commerce and navigation in

all the French possessions and colonies, on the footing of the most

favored nation, granted to New Granada by Article XXV of the said

treaty, is and must be understood to be a compensation for the concessions, made by New Granada to France, in matters of commerce

and navigation, and specially those in Article II relative to the coast- ing trade. These two articles, additional to the above-mentioned treaty of May

15, 1856, shall be included in the instruments of ratification of the said

treaty, and shall have the same force and validity as if they had been

therein inserted word for word.

In witness whereof the two plenipotentiaries have signed and affixed

their private seals unto the present article, done in duplicate, at Bogota,

the 27th day of January of the year 1857.

[seal.] Baron Goury du Roslan.

[seal.] Lino de Pombo.

Appendix C C 2. CONVENTION OF ALIENAGE, COMMERCE, AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN THE REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA AND THE FRENCH REPUBLIC.

[Translation.] The President of the Republic of Colombia and the President of the

French Republic, being- equally animated by the desire of drawing

closer the bonds of friendship which united the two States, and desiring to establish definite rules for the government of the commercial

and maritime relations between Colombia and France, have determined

to conclude an arrangement for that purpose, and have named as plenipotentiaries:

The President of the Republic of Colombia, Senor Marco Fidel

Suarez, under secretary of state, acting minister for foreign affairs; and

The President of the French Republic, M. Alexander Napoleon

Mancini, charge d'affaires of the French Republic at Bogota, Knight

of the Legion of Honor;

Who, after having exchanged their respective full powers, found to be in due and proper form, have agreed upon the following articles: Article I. The two high contracting parties reciprocally guarantee,

each to the other, the treatment of the most favored nation in whatever relates to the settling of their respective citizens [in the territory

of the other], and in whatever relates to commerce and navigation, as well as in respect to importation, exportation and transit, and generally

all matters connected with custom-house duties and commercial operations, as also in respect to the carrying on of trade or manufactures,

and in respect to the payment of the taxes pertaining thereto.

Article II. The present arrangement shall be ratified and the rati- fications shall be exchanged in Paris as soon as possible, and shall go

into effect eight days after the exchange of ratifications, and shall remain in force until the expiration of one year after the day on which

one of the high contracting parties shall have denounced the same.

In faith whereof the respective plenipotentiaries have signed the

present arrangement and affixed their seals thereto.

Done in Bogota, in duplicate, the 30th day of May, 1S92.

[seal] Marco F. SuArez.

[seal] A. Mancini.

221

Appendix D I). TREATY OF PEACE AND FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN SPAIN AND

COLOMBIA SIGNED AT PARIS, JANUARY 30, 1881.

[Ratifications exchanged at Paris, August 12, 1881.] The Republic of the United States of Colombia, of the one part, and

His Majesty Don Alfonso XII, Constitutional King of Spain, of the

other, desiring to put an end to the disunion which has unhappily

existed between the two States, have resolved to enter into a treaty

of peace and friendship, which may perpetuate the alliance that ought

naturally to unite the citizens of Colombia and the subjects of Spain,

and to that end have named and appointed for their pienipotentaries,

to wit:

His Excellency the President of the United States of Colombia, Don

Luis Carlos Rico, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary

of that Republic to the French Republic; and His Majesty the King of

Spain, Don Mariano Roca de Tagores, Marquis de Molins, Viscount

de Rocamoza, Grandee of Spain of the first class, Knight of the famous

Order of the Golden Fleece, Knight of the Order of Calatrava, Grand

Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Order of Charles II, Grand

Cordon of the Order of the Legion of Honor of France, of Pius IX,

of the Rose of Brazil, etc., and his ambassador to the French Republic;

Who, after exchanging their full powers, and having found them in due order, have agreed on the following articles: Article I. There shall be total oblivion of all that is past; and there

shall be a solid and inviolable peace between the Republic of the United

States of Colombia and His Majesty the King of Spain.

II. As soon as this compact comes into force each of the high contracting parties shall send a diplomatic representative to the other, as well as such consuls, vice-consuls, or consular agents as it may be

judged convenient to establish in their respective ports, cities, or possessions; and both shall enjoy reciprocally all the privileges, exemptions, and immunities that are enjoyed by similar agents of the most

favored nation.

III. The citizens of Colombia in Spain and the subjects of His

Catholic Majesty in the Republic of Colombia shall be exempt from

all compulsory service in the army, navy, and national guards, and

from every contribution and impost not paid by the citizens or subjects

of the country in which they may be residing. With regard to the

distribution of taxes, imposts, and other general burdens, to libertj^

and protection in the exercise of their calling, and to the other rights

relative to property and the security of person, and with regard to the

administration of justice they shall be held to be on the same footing

223
224 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

as the natives of the respective countries, subject in all cases to the

laws and regulations of the one in which they may be residing.

IV. Until such time as the high contracting parties may have con- cluded a treaty of commerce and navigation, thej^ agree that the citi- zens of the United States of Colombia, their ships and merchandise,

shall enjoy within the territory of Spain, its canals and ports, all the

advantages and exemptions accorded to the most favored American

nation, gratuitously if the concession be gratuitous, and with one and

the same compensation if it be conditional; and that the subjects of his Catholic Majesty, their ships and merchandise, shall enjoy in the United

States of Colombia, its canals and ports, all the advantages and exemptions accorded to the most favored European nation, gratuitously if the concession be gratuitous, and with one and the same compensation

if it be conditional.

V. The present treaty shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be

exchanged in Paris, as soon as may be possible. In witness whereof the undersigned plenipotentiaries of the Republic

of the United States of Colombia and of His Majesty the King of Spain,

have hereunto set their names and seal in Paris, on the 30th January,

1881.

[seal.] Luis Carlos Rico.

[seal.] Marquis de Molins.
Appendix F F. CONTRACT BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA AND

THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY, MADE IN 1867, AS MODIFIED BY THE CONTRACTS MADE IN 1876 AND 1880.

CONTRACT REFORMATIVE OF THAT OF APRIL 15, 1850, CONCERNING THE

CONSTRUCTION OF A RAILROAD, FROM ONE OCEAN TO THE OTHER,

ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA.

The secretary of finance and public improvements of the United

States of Colombia, duly authorized by the executive power, on the one part, and on the other George M. Totten, engineer in chief and

general igent of the Panama Railroad Company, with full power and

authority from the directors of said company, having in consideration

the stipulation in Article II of the contract made with said company

and approved by the legislative decree of the 4th of June, 1850, and

desiring to provide whatever may be needful for the perfection of the

work of the said railroad, in order that it may better answer the necessities of the commerce of the world, and at the same time furnish a sure and permanent revenue to the treasury of the Republic, have

agreed to modify and reform the said contract in the terms set forth in the following stipulations:

Article I. The Government of the United States of Colombia con- cedes to the Panama Railroad Company the use and possession, for

ninety-nine 3

T ears, of the railroad constructed by it, and which actually exists, between the cities of Colon and Panama. This concession

comprises not only the road, but also the buildings, warehouses,

wharves, dockyards, telegraph between Colon and Panama belonging

to the road, and, in general, all the dependencies and other works of

which the said company is now in possession necessary to the service

and development of the enterprise, and those which in the future it may establish with the same purpose.

Article II. The Government of the Republic binds itself, during

the time that the exclusive privilege which is conceded to the company

for the working of the railroad remains in force, not to construct for

itself nor to concede to an}7 person or company, by any title whatever, the power to establish any other railroad on the Isthmus of

Panama; and it also stipulates that while the said privilege continues

in force the Government shall not have the power of undertaking for

itself nor permitting any person to undertake, without the concurrence and consent of said company, the opening or working of an}7 maritime

canal which may unite the two oceans across the said Isthmus of Pan- ama to the west of the line of Cape Tiburon on the Atlantic and Point

Garachine on the Pacific; but it remains stipulated that the right which

is conceded to the company to give its consent does not extend to its S. Doc. 54, pt 2 15 225
226 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

opposing the construction of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama

(except on the actual route of the railroad itself), but only to its exact- ing an equitable price for such privilege and as indemnification for the

damages which the railroad company may suffer by the rivalry or competition of the canal.

If the sum which may be demanded by the company shall not appear

equitable to the Government of the United States of Colombia, then

it shall be fixed by arbitrators in New York or Panama, one to be

named by the Government and the other by the company, and in case of their not agreeing the two shall name a third, whose decision shall be without appeal. In pronouncing their decision the arbitrators shall take into consideration the grounds upon which the company rests and the information which the Government shall give upon the matter, and in view

thereof they shall decide without appeal as they may deem most just

and equitable.

The sum, whatever it may be, which shall be finally designated,

shall belong one-half to the railroad company and one-half to the

Government of Colombia.

Article III. In compensation of and as a price for these concessions

the railroad company binds itself to pay to the Government of the United

States of Colombia $1,000,000 in American gold, or in bills on New York

payable in the same kind, as the Government may elect, on the day on which this contract shall be approved Irv Congress, and to pay from

the present time, and until the expiration of the present privilege, an

annual revenue of $250,000 a in American gold. The company will

make the payments quarterly in New York to the agent designated by

the Government of the United States of Colombia, or if the Government should desire, the company will place the money in London or Panama, the Government giving the necessary notice to the company

in New York. These quarterly payments shall commence to count

from the date of the approval of this contract by Congress.

From the revenue which the Government acquires by this contract there shall be set apart annually during twenty years $25,000, which

the company shall deliver to the Government of the State of Panama.

Article IV. The company hinds itself to extend the railroad on the

Pacific side to the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or

other place in the bay where there may exist a permanent depth of

water for large vessels. Whereas a certain contract was made between the Government of the United

States of Colombia and the Panama Railroad Company, dated the fifth day of July, one thousand eighl hundred and sixty-seven, in abrogation of and to take the place

of another contract between the same parties of the fifteenth day of April, one

thousand eight hundred and fifty, which first-mentioned contract was afterwards approved by the said < iovernment, by legislative decree, on the sixteenth day of August, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, with certain modifications,

which modifications were accepted by the said railroad company; and whereas it was stipulated by the said new contract, by Article 1 V of the same, that the said railroad company should extend its railway to the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or any other place in the Bay of Panama where a permanent anchorage may he found for huge vessels, as by reference to said contract will more fully and precisely appear; And whereas the said railroad company has not yet completed the said work, and

denies any present obligation to proceed with the same; and whereas the Congress

"$225,000 of this annual subsidy was advanced and paid by the company to the Colombian (iovernment in November, 1880, for the full period intervening up to March 27, 1908.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 227

of the United States of Colombia, on the twenty-sixth day of July, one thousand

eight hundred and eighty, by an act passed on that day, authorized the executive power of the said United States of Colombia to enter into negotiations with the Pan- ama Railroad Company, in order to declare it li Iterated from the obligations it assumed

by the aforesaid Article IV of the contract made on the sixteenth day of August, one

thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, for the extension of the said railway in the harbor of Panama as aforesaid, by which act a sum of money was to be paid to the

said Republic of the United States of Colombia sufficient, in the judgment of the executive power of the said Government, to compensate for the release from the said

article as aforesaid

And whereas the national executive power of the said Government has appointed Mr. Solomon Koppel as its agent and attorney for the purpose of negotiating with the

said railroad company for the abrogation of the said Article IV, and has given to him

full, complete, and absolute power to enter into, carry out, and conclude, in the name of the Government of the United States of Colombia, the negotiations for the purpose of abrogating the aforesaid Article IV of the said contract; And whereas the chief executive of the said Republic of the United States of Colombia has exercised the discretion conferred upon him by the aforesaid act of Congress, by the issue to the said Solomon Koppel of instructions by which the said Solomon Koppel, as such agent and attorney of the Government of the United States

of Colombia as aforesaid, is directed to negotiate only for an exemption or abrogation

of the aforesaid Article IV for a period of not exceeding thirty consecutive years, and

has further exercised the aforesaid discretion and authority conferred by the said act

of Congress by fixing the amount to be paid by the said Panama Railroad Company

for the abrogation of the said Article IV, and which, by the aforesaid written instructions, is limited to the sum of ten thousand dollars per annum for each of the years during which the said Article IV is suspended or abrogated;

And whereas the said Solomon Koppel is now in the city of New York, and has had a negotiation with the Panama Railroad Company touching the matters aforesaid, and has agreed with the said company to the suspension of the said Article IV

for the full period of thirty years from the first day of November, one thousand

eight hundred and eighty, upon condition that the said company should pay to the said Government of the United States o

f Colombia the full sum of ten thousand

dollars per annum for each of the said thirty years, making an aggregate payment to the said Government for the suspension and abrogation aforesaid of three hundred

thousand dollars in American gold; in all of which actings and doings the said Solomon Koppel has complied exactly with the written instructions of the said chief executive of the United States of Colombia as the same were communicated to him,

and as the same have been handed by him to the Panama Railroad Company:

Now, therefore, this agreement witnesseth that, in consideration of the premises

and for the aforesaid sum of three hundred thousand dollars in gold coin, payable at the rate of ten thousand dollars in each year from the execution hereof by the Pan- ama Railroad Company to the United States of Colombia, the said Government has

fully exonerated, released, and discharged, and does hereby fully exonerate, release, and discharge, the said Panama Railroad Company from all its obligations of every

nature whatsoever arising upon or growing out of the aforesaid Article IV of the

contract of the fifth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, by

which article the said company was bound to extend its railroad on the Pacific side, as is provided in and by the said contract, to which special reference is hereby made,

and the said contract, in so far as concerns the extension of the said railroad into the bay of Panama aforesaid, is hereby, in accordance with the full power granted to the chief executive of the said Government by the Congress of the United States of Colombia, abrogated and annulled. But this abrogation, suspension, and annulment

of the said Article IV shall continue only for the period of thirty years from and

after the first day of November in the year one thousand eight hundred and

eighty, and at the expiration of the said term of thirty years the said Article IV of the said original contract of the fifth day of July, one thousand eight hundred and

sixty-seven, shall again be revived, and shall be and remain thereafter in force and

effect as the same now exists. And the said Panama Railroad Company, in consideration of the aforesaid suspension, release, and abrogation of the said Article IV

for the term and period as aforesaid, hereby agrees to pay to the said Government

of the United States of Colombia the just and full sum of three hundred thousand

dollars in gold coin, as follows, viz: The sum of ten thousand dollars on the first day

of November in each and every year, payable in the city of New York, during the

S£.id term of thirty years, the first of said annual installments to be payable on the

first day of November, which will be in the year one thousand eight hundred and

eighty-one, and on each first day of November thereafter until the whole sum of
228 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

three hundred thousand dollars shall have heen paid. And it is further provided

and agreed that in case the said Panama Railroad Company, or its successors, shall determine to extend its said line of railway to the islands in the bay of Panama, or

to deep water in accordance with the terms of said Article IV as originally agreed,

and shall actually construct the same, that then and from thenceforward the annual payment of ten thousand dollars for each of said thirty years shall cease for the remainder of said term then unexpired, anything herein contained to the contrary in anywise notwithstanding; but this termination of said annual payments shall not

take effect until the expiration of six months after said Panama Railroad Company

shall have given notice to the Government of the United States of Colombia of the

actual completion of said extended line in the bay of Panama as aforesaid.

Contract of 1880. Article V. During the whole term of this privilege the company

shall have exclusive right to establish across the Isthmus of Panama,

within the zone indicated in Article II, any class of carriage roads

whatever, from one ocean to the other. The Colombian Government

binds itself not to undertake for itself, nor to permit any other com- pany or person to undertake within said zone, any other carriage road,

either macadamized or of plank, or of any other class suitable for the

use of wheeled vehicles, between the two oceans across the Isthmus of

Panama. It being, nevertheless, well understood that the privilege of

which this article treats can not and must not, in any manner, prevent

the construction of any kind of roads in a direction distinct from that

expressed, nor the completing, preserving, and improving of roads

already existing, or which are actually being constructed on said

isthmus.

Article VI. The eompan}r shall have the right for the whole term

of this privilege:

First. To regulate and direct the use of the ports, embarking and

disembarking places, wharves, anchorage grounds, etc., at the termini

of the railroad, and to establish agents with powers to carry into effect the regulations that it ma}r make in this particular in conformity with

the laws of the Republic. These regulations shall be submitted to the

approval of the executive power, without which they can not take

effect. The executive power may refuse its approbation, alter and

revoke them, as it ma}^ deem convenient.

Second. To use the embarking and disembarking places, wharves, etc.

that it has constructed or may construct in the ports situated at the two

extremes of the road.

Third. To use the landings necessary, and especiall3T those designated

for the storage and free deposit of all goods and merchandise admitted

for transit over the isthmus on the railroad constructed by the company. By virtue of this privilege the company may collect as compensation for the use of the line of communication, means of transportation,

landings, warehouses, and establishments of all kinds belonging to it such tolls lor transporting, wharfage, storage, and labor as it may deem

proper to establish. The company continues in the exercise of all the rights conceded to it in the sixth

article of the contract of -r>th of July, 1867. Consequently it may regulate and direct the use of the ports, embarking and disembarking places, wharves, anchorage

grounds, etc., at the termini of tin; railroad, and establish agents witli powers to carry into effect the regulations that it may nuke in this particular in conformity

with the laws of the Republic. These regulations shall be submitted to the approval

of the executive power, without which they can not take effect; but the executive power, after having once approved them, can not change them nor revoke them

without the consent of the company.

Article I of contraci of 1876. Article VII. —The executive power shall determine the forms to be observed in the landing of goods on either ocean, and theinterven-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 229

tion therein of the officers of the Republic to prevent the effects destined for transit From one ocean to the other from being left on

the way or fraudentlv introduced for internal consumption. Said pre- cautions shall be such as may tend to prevent all frauds to the injury

of the public revenue, without delaying or embarrassing the rapid

dispatch and transit of passengers and packages of merchandise, luggage, and goods of all kinds which may be subjects of lawful commerce. Article VIII. —The company may give to the actual railroad a

different direction from that which it now has, and which it may deem

most favorable to the enterprise, it being free to choose the points of

departure and arrival which may appear to it most advantageous and

most convenient for the entrance and anchorage of vessels, or for

ports properly so called, and for embarking places, dry docks, places

for lighterage, landings, warehouses, stations, hotels, and establishments of all kinds, and this without prejudice to what is stipulated in

Article IV of this contract. Article IX. The Government of the United States of Colombia

ratifies the concession made to the Panama Railroad Company by the

contract of the 15th of April, 1850:

First. Of the lands that it has required and that it may require for

the establishment of the line of railway in its whole extent, provided

such lands belong to the Government;

Second. Of the lands which were necessary for seaports, dry docks,

river ports, landings, embarking places, places for lighterage, warehouses, stations, hotels, and generally for all the necessities of the

service of the railroad, always provided that such lands shall be the

property of the Republic;

Third. Of the concession made by gratuitous title and in perpetuity

of 64,000 hectares of vacant lands in the territory of the State of

Panama, with exception of the islands in both oceans and of the districts which formed on the 1st of January, 1849, the territories of Bocas

del Toro and of Darien, limits of which were fixed by the law of the 9th

of January, 1855. This concession may be extended to 96,000 hectares, if there shall be that number disposable within the limits of the

ancient provinces of Panama and Veraguas in such manner that the

Government can adjudicate them as vacant lands; and the company

shall have the right to select them in the continental part of said

provinces as they may deem most convenient. But it is stipulated

that in the lands which the company ma}T select on the line of road,

and its vicinity, there shall positively be left regular intervals equivalent in extent to those (tracts) which shall be given to the company

in order that the Government may be enabled to make grants or sales of land for other establishments which may desire to locate themselves on the line and in the neighborhood of the road.

Paragraph. —The lands granted to the company by sections first and

second of this article shall be returned to the Republic at the expiration of the present privilege in the terms and with the formalties pre- scribed in this contract. Article X. In the grant of vacant lands in perpetuity made to the

company by the contract of 1850 and ratified in section third of Article IX of this contract, there is not included the number of hectares

contained in the island of Manzanillo in the bay of Limon, but they

are included in the grants treated of in the first and second sections of

the article cited, with the exception of 4 hectares which the Govern-
2J3U REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

ment reserves as an area for the construction of buildings for public

offices, schoolhouses, prison, and other objects of public use, which

shall be delivered by the company properly graded and in condition

for building upon them. But it is understood that in the designation

by the Government of the place or places in which it desires to take

the 4 hectares reserved to it by this article, it shall not choose those

which may be necessary for the«construction and service of the railway

and its dependencies, nor those which may be already occupied b}'

buildings now standing or which are to be reconstructed.

This selection may be made by the Government in anticipation, as it may see fit, in accordance with the plan of the city, in order that the

lands may be delivered to it so soon as the nature of the ground per- mits of the grading being carried on. Article XL The lands conceded to the company by Article IX,

section third, shall be delivered as may be requested on compliance

with the legal formalities established for such cases, and it being incumbent on the company to prove their character as vacant lands, to measure them, and to make the respective plans. The adjudication of said

lands shall be made by the executive power, and from the time the

declaration is made in the premises they shall be considered definite^

adjudicated to the company; but the provisional adjudication shall be

made by the president of the State of Panama, submitted always to the

examination and approval of the national executive power, and while

not disapproved it will only produce the effect of preventing any ulte- rior grant of the same lands in favor of a third party. The Republic

is not bound in any case to the vacating and guaranteeing the title of

the vacant lands which may be adjudicated to the company.

The executive power will fix a time in agreement with the compan}T within which the latter shall be bound to designate the vacant lands to which it has the right.

Article XII. When the lands which may be required for the extension of the line of the railroad, as referred to in Article IV of this contract, or for changes of direction of the line, or for the establishment

of a second line of rails, shall be the property of private individuals,

the company shall have the right to obtain them on an official appraisement and the just indemnification of the proprietor, in conformity with

the dispositions of the law of the 22d of Miiy, 1866, "concerning the

mode of proceeding in those civil cases, the cognizance of w

T hich appertains to the tribunals of the Union."

Article XIII. The railroad enterprise is esteemed of public utility.

Article XIV. The company is authorized to propose to the executive power the regulations which it may judge proper for the police,

security, and preservation of its ways of communication, ports, works,

and establishments of all kinds; but such regulations shall not be put

in force without the express approval of the executive power, which, even after having approved them, may amend or annul them as it may

deem proper, proceeding always in conformity with the laws of the

Republic.

The company continues authorized to propose to the executive power the regulations which it may judge proper for the police, security, and preservation of its ways

of communication, ports, works, and establishments of all kinds. Such regulations shall not be carried into effect without the express approval of the executive power; but the latter, after having approved them, can not change

them nor annul them without the consent of the company.Article II of contract of

1S7G.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION 231

Article XV. The tariff of charges and freights on money, carriage

of merchandise, and transport of travelers over the railroad, board

and storage in the depots and establishments of the company, shall be

fixed by it, and modified as it may deem best for its interests, but it shall be bound to inform the local authorities of said tariffs and modificationa with at least thirty days' previous notice.

Article XVI. Tin' company binds itself to transport gratis over

the railroad the national and state mails that may have to be carried

from ocean to ocean or to any intermediate point; and it may make

such pecuniary arrangements as it thinks proper for the transportation

of foreign mails, the passage of which over the isthmus is declared

free to all nations; but the Government of the Republic may prohibit

the passage by the railroad of the mails of those nations that may be

at war with it, in which case the company shall refuse to carry them

over the railroad.

Article XVII. The compan}7 may freely introduce into the isthmus

without payment of duties or imposts of any kind all the implements,

machines, tools, materials, provisions, and manufactured articles intended for the construction, working, and preservation of the rail- road, and the provisioning of the workmen employed on it. Article XVIII. The eompan}T is exempt from paying taxes or

contributions, national, municipal, of the State, or of any other kind,

upon the railroau, its warehouses, wharves, machines or other works,

things and effects of any kind belonging to it, and which in the judgment of the executive power are necessary for the service of the said

railroad and its dependencies.

Article XIX. In compensation for these exemptions the company

binds itself to transport gratuitously, and without the Government

having to pa}T anything either for freight or for any other cause, the

troops, chiefs, and officers, and their equipage, ammunition, armament,

clothing, and all similar effects that may belong to, are or may be

destined for the immediate service of the Government of the Republic, or of the State of Panama, as also their officials in service or in commission, and those individuals who, with their families and baggage,

may come to the country in the character of emigrants, and of new

settlers, with the permanent character of such, for account of the

Government, up to the number of 2,000 annually. The executive

power shall dictate the provisions as it may deem proper in such cases, in order to prevent those passengers whose entry into Colombian ter- ritory may be purely accidental from availing themselves of this concession.

The executive power of the Union shall dictate the provisions which may be necessary, at the request of the company, to prevent abuses in the gratuitous passage which Article XIX of the aforesaid contract concedes to national employees and

those of the State of Panama.

Article IV of contract of 1876. Article XX. Colombian productions shall be transported b}T the

railroad during the first twenty years of this contract, paving only

one-half the rates of freight or transportation previously fixed by the

company for foreign products of the same class, but, this term being

concluded, they shall pay a charge or freight not exceeding two-thirds

of that previously fixed in the tariff of the company—tariff rates which

the company can not increase in future in regard to Colombian productions.

In order that Colombian products may be transported by the railroad under the

conditions of Article XX of the same contract, there must" precede a declaration of
232 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the shipper, duly attested by the bill of lading of shipment, with a certificate of the

administrator ofthe national treasury at the port of shipment, or other similar docu- ment, at the time of offering them, that such products are really Colombian; a nec- essary condition, without Which there shall be no ground for any claim.

Article V

of contract of 1876. Article XXI.—Passengers, money, merchandise, objects, and

effects of all kinds, destined for interoceanic transit over the railroad,

while they remain in the warehouses and depots of the company, or in

its possession, are exempt from dues and taxes, national, municipal, of

the State, or of any other description. In like manner the vessels which may enter the ports at the termini of the railroad, as well as their officers, crews, and their agents, shall be exempt from the payment of tonnage dues, or of any other tax or contribution whatever

on account of service applied directty to the interoceanic transit. Article XXII.—Travelers passing from one sea to the other over

the railroad shall not require any passports to pass over it, excepting

in cases of foreign war or internal commotion, when the Government

may deem the presentation of passports expedient for the security of

the country or the preservation of public order. Nevertheless, per- sons who have been expelled from the territory of the Republic, or

other individuals whom the laws forbid an entrance into the country,

shall not pass over the railroad.

Article XXIII. In case the present privilege conceded to the com- pany shall be declared forfeited by the competent tribunal, it shall return to the Republic such lands granted in ownership, and by gratuitous title, as may not be alread}- transferred in fee to a third party,

and it shall have no right to exact any indemnification for improvements nor for any other cause. Article XXIV. It is obligatory upon the compan}T to make a sur- vey of the lands, with notice to the owners of adjoining lands, and to make a topographical plan of the road, with all its dependencies, such

as bridges, aqueducts, viaducts, and other works which it may have

constructed for the service of the railroad, in order that by means of

such plan it may be clearly known what the companjT holds in ownership and to what purpose the exemptions provided for are destined.

Article XXV. The company binds itself to execute constantly,

with all care, punctuality, and celerity, the transportation of the travelers, cattle, merchandise, goods, and materials of all kinds that may

be confided to it, payment being made of the charges and prices of

transportation that may be fixed in the respective tariff. The disposition of this article is, nevertheless, no obstacle to the company's

entering into special contracts for the transportation of articles whose

bulk, weight, or exceptional nature do not allow of their freights

being fixed beforehand.

The provision of the final part of Article XXV of the aforesaid contract of 1867, by which the company was permitted to enter into special contracts for the trans- portation of articles whose bulk, weight, or exceptional nature would not allow of their freights being fixed beforehand, is made applicable to all kinds of articles of commerce.

Article III of contract of 1876. Article XXVI. Vessels of nations which may be at war with the

United States of Colombia shall not be admitted to the ports situated

at either extremity of the railroad, nor shall the productions, effects,

and property of such nations enjoy the free transit of the isthmus over

the said road.

Article XXVII. It is obligatory upon the conipanv to maintain
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 233

constantly in Panama or Colon a representative with sufficient power

and authority to treat, whenever it may be necessary, personally with

the Government on matters having relation to the enterprise.

Article XXVI 1 1. The present privilege can not be ceded or trans- ferred to any foreign Government; that is to say, to any Government

existing outside of Colombian territory, under pain of forfeiture of

the said privilege by the mere act of attempting or verifying such ces- sion or transfer, which act, from the present time, is declared absolutely null and of no value or effect. This privilege shall also be for- feited in case the railroad company shall not execute the transportation during a period exceeding four consecutive months (fortuitous

cases excepted).

This privilege will also be forfeited by the failure of payment, after

being one year overdue, of any of the quarterly payments. Delay in

the payments for a less period subjects the company to the payment

of interest at the rate of 7 per cent per annum.

None of the cases of forfeiture of the privilege fixed in Article XXVIII shall go

into effect until the resolution of the Government in which the declaration of for- feiture is made is served in due form, and at least three months in advance, on the company and on the agents of the persons to whom the Government may transfer or hypothecate the revenue to which it is entitled by Article III, if said transfer or hypothecation shall have taken place; it being understood that if, after the notifica- tion has been given, and during the aforesaid three months, the company, or the

interested persons of whom mention has been made, shall satisfy the Government,

causing the reason for complaint or forfeiture to disappear, the said declaration shall not be carried into effect.

Article VI of contract of 1876. The Government reserves to itself the right to hypothecate, in whole or in part, the revenue, of which mention has been made in Article VI of this contract (except the right of the State of Panama to the annual proportion of $25,000), before the time at which said revenue is to be paid, and whatever may be hypothecated shall be payable in such a manner as the Government may direct; and the railroad com- pany binds itself, on being notified of any transfer or hypothecation, to accept it and

to make payment at the maturity of the installments to the persons or parties in whose favor the transfer or hypothecation may have been made.

Article VIII of

contract of 1876. Article XXIX.—In case of the forfeiture of this privilege from

any cause, the ownership and full possession of the railroad, with all

its dependencies, appurtenances, and accessories, shall pass to the

Republic without the company's having thereby any right to indemnification or remuneration of any kind.

Article XXX.—The Government of the Republic binds itself to protect and maintain in all their integrity the rights of the company

resulting from the present contract; provided the company complies

punctually on its part with the duties and obligations which it undertakes, and that the privilege continues in force. Article XXXI. The rights which said Republic reserved to itself by the contract of the 15th of April, 1850, to redeem the privilege of

the company, being especially lrypothecated as an additional security

for the loan contracted by the said Republic in London under date of

the 1st of October, 1863, it is stipulated that the products from the

railroad, which by this contract belong to the Government, remain

subsidiarily applicable to the payment of the obligations of the Government of the Republic, in regard to that loan, whether it be to complete

the annual installments which the Government is obliged to pay in

London on account of the interest and amortization of the capital, or

to redeem the bonds of the loan at par, if in 1874 their redemption

shall not have been completed.
234 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Article XXXII. In consequence of the stipulation in Article III, the Government renounces the benefit or participation of 3 per cent which by Article LV of the primitive contract it had in the net products of the enterprise, and the quota of 5 per cent which had also been

reserved in its favor by Article XXX of said contract in the transportation of correspondence, and which quota it was stipulated should not

be less than $10,000 annually. The account of these profits shall be

liquidated immediately in the terms fixed by Article LV, up to the

da}7 on which the present contract begins to rule and have effect, and

the payment of the balance which may result in favor of the Republic

shall be made by the company in New York to the order of the Government.

Article XXXIII. Questions which may arise between the Government of the Republic and the railroad compan}7 concerning- the understanding or the fulfillment of this contract, shall be decided by the

courts and tribunals of the Colombian Union according- to the constitution and laws of the Republic.

Questions that may arise between the Government of the Republic and the rail- road company as to the understanding or the execution of this contract, and of those

of 1850 and 1867, to which this one refers, shall be decided without appeal by the

federal supreme court of the Colombian Union without the intervention of any other

tribunal.Article VII of contract of 1876. Article XXXV. The ninety-nine years of the duration of the privilege conceded by this contract shall be counted from the date on which

it may be approved by the Congress. a Article XXXVI. At the expiration of the term of the privilege, and

by the sole fact of its expiration, the Government of the Colombian

Union shall be substituted in all the rights of the company, and shall enter immediately into the enjoyment of the line of communication, of

all its fixtures, of all its dependencies, and of all its products. The

company shall be bound to deliver to the Government, in good order,

the roads, the works which compose them, and their dependencies,

such as landing and discharging places, offices, machines, and in general whatever movable or immovable objects, whether destined for

the especial service of transportation or applicable to an}f other object

connected with the enterprise.

Article XXXVII. The present contract contains all the concessions and privileges which the existing Panama Railroad Company has

acquired for the future. In virtue of which it is declared, and the

parties hereby expressly agree, that at no time can the company claim

rights or privileges which are clearly not contained in this contract,

unless they may be granted by subsequent acts. Article XXXVIII. The contract of the 15th of April, 1850,

approved by the Legislative decree of the 4th of June of the same year, is hereby re-formed by the terms of the present contract; and extended as

it is in thirty-eight articles, it shall be submitted to the approval of the

executive power of the Republic, and, when obtained, it shall be pre- sented to Congress, the consent of which is required in order that,

being enacted into a law, it may be carried into effect.

1 '

» Which was August L6, L867.

b Congress approved August 16, 1867.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 235

AMENDMENTS AGREED UPON BETWEEN THE PANAMA RAILROAD COMPANY

AND THE REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA, AUGUST 18, 1891.

Article I. Article XX of the contract of July 5, 1867, approved

by law No. 16 of the same year, shall read as follows:

From and after Jul}' 1, 1892, Colombian products passing over the

Panama Railroad shall pay onl}r half of the rate of freight established'

by the company for foreign products of the same class. Article II. Salt from the Colombian salt pits of the Atlantic coast intended for the national ports of the Pacific shall be transported by

the same railroad company at the following- rates: A quantity not exceeding 6,000,000 of kilograms each year, and

which shall in no case exceed 1,000 tons per month, at the rate of $2

gold per ton without any deduction. Shipments of the salt referred

to that may exceed the quantity above stated shall pay the rate that is established for the other Colombian products in the previous article.

Appendix G G.

WYSE CONCESSION, MARCH 20, 1878. R

CONTRACT FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF AN INTEROCEANIC CANAL ACROSS

COLUMBIAN TERRITORY.

Eustorgio Salgar, secretary of the interior and of foreign relations

of the United States of Colombia, duly authorized of the one part,

and of the other part Lucien N. B. Wyse, chief of the Isthmus Scientific Surveying Expedition in 1876, 1877, and 1878, member and dele- gate of the board of directors of the International Interoceanic Canal

Association, presided by General Etienne Tiirr, in conformity with

powers bestowed at Paris, from the 27th to the 29th of October, 1877,

have celebrated the following contract: Article I. The Government of the United States of Colombia

grants to Mr. Lucien N. B. Wyse, who accepts it in the name of the

civil International Interoceanic Canal Association, represented by their

board of directors, the exclusive privilege for the construction across

its territory and for the operating of a canal between the Atlantic and

Pacific oceans. Said canal may be constructed without restrictive

stipulations of any kind.

This concession is made under the following conditions:

First. The duration of the privilege shall be for ninety-nine years

from the day on which the canal shall be wholly or partially opened

to public service, or when the grantees or their representatives com- mence to collect the dues on transit and navigation.

Second. From the date of approbation by the Colombia Congress

for the opening of the interoceanic canal, the Government of the

Republic can not construct, nor concede to any company or individual,

under any consideration whatever, the right to construct another canal across Colombian territory which shall communicate the two oceans. Should the grantees wish to construct a railroad as an auxiliary to the

canal, the Government (with the exception of existing rights) can not grant to any other company or individual the right to build another

interoceanic railroad, nor do so itself, during the time allowed for the

construction and use of the canal. Third. The necessary studies of the ground and the route for the

line of the canal shall be made at the expense of the grantees by an

international commission of individuals and competent engineers in which two Colombian engineers shall take part. The commission shall determine the general route of the canal and report to the Colombian

a Translation from the Diario Official of Bogota, Wednesday, May 22, 1878. 237
238 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Government directly, or to its diplomatic agents in the United States or Europe, upon the results obtained, at the latest in 1881, unless una- voidable circumstances, clearly proven, should prevent their so doing- . The report shall comprise in duplicate the scientific labors performed

and an estimate of the projected work.

Fourth. The grantees shall then have a period of two years to organize a universal joint stock company, which shall take charge of the

enterprise and of the construction of the canal. This term shall com- mence from the date mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

Fifth. The canal shall 'be finished and placed at the public service

within the subsequent twelve years after the formation of the com- pany which will undertake its construction, but the executive power

is authorized to grant a further maximum term of six years in the case of encountering superhuman obstacles beyond the power of the company, and, if after one- third of the canal is built, the company should

acknowledge the impossibility of concluding the work in the said

twelve years.

Sixth. The canal shall have the length, depth, and all other conditions requisite in order that sailing vessels and steamships measuring

up to 140 meters long, 16 meters in width, and 8 meters in draft shall,

with lowered topmast, be able to pass the canal. Seventh. All public lands which may be required for the route of the

canal, the ports, stations, wharves, moorings, warehouses, and in general

for the construction and service of the canal as well as for the railway,

should it be convenient to build it, shall be ceded gratis to the grantees.

Eighth. These unoccupied public lands shall revert to the Government of the Republic with the railroad and canal at the termination of

this privilege; there is also granted for the use of the canal a belt of

land, 200 meters wide, on each side of its banks throughout all the dis- tance which it may run, but the owners of lands on its banks shall have

free access to the canal and its ports as well as to the right of use of

any roads which the grantees may open there; and this without paying

any dues to the company.

Ninth. If the lands through which the canal shall pass or upon

which the railroad may be built should in whole or in part be private

property the grantee shall have the right to demand their expropriation by the Government according to all the legal formalities in such

cases. The indemnity which shall be made to the landowners, and

which shall be based on their actual value, shall be at the expense of

the company. The grantees shall enjoy in this case, and in those of

temporary occupation of private property, all the rights and privileges

which the existing legislation confers.

Tenth. The grantees may establish and operate at their cost the

telegraph lines which they may consider useful as auxiliaries in the

building and management of the canal. Eleventh. It is, however, stipulated and agreed, that if, before the

payment of the security determined upon in Article II, the Colombian

Government should receive any formal proposal, sufficiently guaranteed in the opinion of the said Government, to construct the canal in less time and under more advantageous conditions for the United

States of Colombia, said proposal shall be communicated to the grantees or their representatives that they may be substituted therein, in which

ease they shall be preferred; but if they do not accept such substitution the Colombian Government, in the new contract which they may
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 230

celebrate, shall exact, besides the guarantee mentioned in Article II, the sum of $300,000 in coin, which shall be given as indemnity to the

grantees.

Article II. Within the term of twelve months from the date at which the international commission shall have presented the definite results of their studies, the grantees shall deposit in the bank or banks

of London, to be designated by the national executive power, the sum'

of 750,000 francs, to the exclusion of all paper money, as security for

the execution of the work. The receipt of said banks shall be a voucher for the fulfillment of said deposit. It is understood that if the grantees should lose that deposit by virtue of the stipulations contained in clauses 2 and 3 of Article XXII of the present contract, the sum referred to, with interest accrued, shall become in toto the property

of the Colombian Government. After the conclusion of the canal,

said sum, without interest, which latter will in this case belong to grantees, shall lemain for benefit of the treasury, for the outlays

which it may have incurred or may incur in the construction of buildings for the service of the public officers. Article III. If the line of the canal to be constructed from sea to sea should pass to the west and to the north of the imaginary straight

line which joins Cape Tiburon with Garachine Point, the grantees

must enter into some amicable arrangement with the Panama Railroad

Company, or pay an indemnity, which shall be established in accord- ance with the provisions of law 46, of August 16, 1867, "approving

the contract celebrated on July 5, 1867, reformatory of the contract

of April 15, 1850, for the construction of an iron railroad from one

ocean to the other through the Isthmus of Panama."

In case the international commission should choose the Atrato, or some other stream alread}^ navigable, as one of the entrances to the

canal, the ingress and egress by such stream, and the navigation of its waters, so long as it is not intended to cross the canal, shall be open

to commerce and free from all imposts.

Article IV. Besides the lands granted in paragraphs 7 and 8 of

Article I, there shall be awarded to the grantees, as an aid for the

accomplishment of the work, and not otherwise, 500,000 hectares of

public lands, with the mines they may comprise, in the localities which

the company may select. This award shall be made directly by the

national executive power. The public lands situated on the seacoast, on the borders of the canal or of the rivers, shall be divided in alternate

lots between the Government and the company, forming areas of from

one to two thousand hectares. The measurements for the allotment or

locating shall be made at the expense of the grantees and with the

intervention of Government commissioners. The public lands thus

granted, with the mines they may hold, shall be awarded to the grantees

as fast as the work of construction of the canal progresses, and in accordance with rules to be laid down by the executive power.

Within a belt of 2 myriameters on each side of the canal, and during five years after the termination of the work, the Government shall not.have the right to grant other lands beyond the said lots until the

company shall have called for the whole number of lots granted by this

article. Article V. The Government of the Republic hereby declares the

ports at each end of the canal, and the waters of the latter from sea to

sea, to be neutral for all time; and, consequently, in case of war among
240 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

other nations, the transit through the canal shall not be interrupted

by such event, and the merchant vessels and individuals of all nations

of the world may enter into said ports and travel on the canal without

being molested or detained. In general, any vessel may pass freely

without any discrimination, exclusion, or preference of nationalities or persons, on payment of the dues and the observance of the rules

established by the company for the use of the canal and its dependencies. Exception is to be made of foreign troops, which shall not have the right to pass without permission from Congress, and of the

vessels of nations which, being at war with the United States of Colombia, may not have obtained the right to pass through the canal at

all times, by public treaties wherein is guaranteed the sovereignty of

Colombia over the Isthmus of Panama and over the territory whereon

the canal is to be cut, besides immunity and neutrality of the said

canal, its ports, bays, and dependencies and the adjacent seas. Article VI. The United States of Colombia reserves to themselves the right to pass their vessels, troops, ammunitions of war

at all times and without paying any dues whatever. The passage of

the canal is strictly closed to war vessels of nations at war, and which

may not have acquired, by public treat}' with the Colombian Government, the right to pass by the canal at all times.

Article VII. The grantees will enjoy the right during the whole

time of the privilege to use the ports at the termini of the canal, as well as at intermediate points, for the anchorage and repair of ships

and the loading, depositing, transshipping, or landing of merchandise.

The ports of the canal shall be open and free to the commerce of all nations, and no import duties shall be exacted except on merchandise

destined to be introduced for the consumption of the rest of the Republic. The said ports shall therefore be open to importations from the

commencement of the work, and the custom-houses and the revenue

service which the Government may deem convenient for the collection

of duties on merchandise destined for other portions of the Republic

shall be established, in order to prevent introduction of smuggled

goods.

Article VIII. The executive power shall dictate, for the protection

of the financial interests of the Republic, the regulations conducive to the prevention of smuggling, and shall have the power to station, at the cost of the nation, the number of men which they may deem neces- sary for that service.

Out of the indispensable officials for that service, ten shall be paid

by the company, and their salaries shall not exceed those enjoyed by

employees of the same rank in the Baranquilla custom-house.

The company shall carry gratis through the canal, or on the auxiliary railway, the men destined for the service of the nation, for the

service of the State through whose territory the canal may pass, or

for the service of the police, with the object of guarding against foreign

enemies, or for the preservation of public order, and shall also trans- port gratis the baggage of such men, their war materials, armament,

and clothing which they may need for the service assigned to them.

The subsistence of the public force which may be deemed necessary

for the safety of the interoceanic transit shall likewise be at the expense

of the company.

Article IX. The grantee shall have the right to introduce, free of

import or other duties of whatever class, all the instruments, machin-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 241

ery, tools, fixtures, provisions, clothing for laborers which they may

need during all the time allowed to them for the construction and use

of the canal. The ships carrying cargoes, for the use of the enter- prise shall enjoy free entry into whatever point shall afford them easy

access to the line of the canal. Article X. No taxes, either national, municipal, of the State, or' of any other class, shall be levied upon the canal, the ships that navigate it, the tugs and vessels at the service of the grantees, their warehouses, workshops, and offices, factories of whatever class, storehouses,

wharves, machinery, or other works or property of whatever character

belonging to them, and which they may need for the service of the

canal and its dependencies during the time conceded for its construction and operation. The grantees shall also have the right to take

from unoccupied lands the materials of any kind which they may

require without paying any compensation for the same. Article XL The passengers, money, precious metals, merchandise,

and articles and effects of all kinds which may be transported over the

canal, shall also be exempt from all duties, national, municipal, transit,

and others. The same exemption is extended to all articles and merchandise for interior or exterior commerce which may remain in deposit, according to the conditions which may be stipulated, with the

company in the storehouses and stations belonging to them.

Article XII. Ships desiring to cross the canal shall present at the

port of the terminus of the canal at which they may arrive their

respective registers and other sailing papers, prescribed by the laws

and public treaties, so that the vessels may navigate without interruption. Vessels not having said papers, or which should refuse to present them, may be detained and proceeded against according to law.

Article XIII. The Government allows the immigration and free access to the lands and shops of the grantees of all the employees and

workingmen of whatever nationality, who may be contracted for the

work, or who may come to engage themselves to work on the canal, on

condition that such employees or laborers shall submit to the existing

laws, and to the regulations established by the company. The Government promises them support and protection, and the enjojmient of

their rights and guaranties, in conformity with the national constitution and laws during the time they may sojourn on the Colombian

territory.

The national peons and laborers employed on the work of the canal

shall be exempt from all requisition of militaiy service, national as well as of the State. Article XIV. In order to indemnif}^ the grantees of the construction, maintenance, and working expenses incurred by them, they shall have, during the whole period of the privilege, the exclusive right to establish and collect for the passage of the canal and its ports, the dues

for light-houses, anchorage, transit, navigation, repairs, pilotage, towage, hauling, storage, and of station according to the tariff which they

may issue, and which they may modify at any time under the following express conditions:

First. They shall collect these dues, without any exceptional favor,

from all vessels in like circumstances.

Second. The tariffs shall be published four months before their

enforcement in the Diario Oticial of the Government, as well as in the

capitals and the principal commercial ports of the countries interested.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 16
242 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Third. The principal navigation dues to be collected shall not exceed

the sum of 10 francs for each cubic meter resulting from the multiplication of the principal dimensions of the submerged part of the ship

in transit (length, breadth, and draft).

Fourth. The principal dimensions of the ship in transit—that is to

say, the maximum exterior length and breadth at the water line, as well as the greatest draft—shall be the metrical dimension inserted in the official clearance papers, excepting any modifications supervening

during the voyage. The ship's captains and the company's agents may

demand a new measurement, which operations shall be carried out at the

expense of the petitioner; and,

Fifth. The same measurement—that is to say, the number of cubic

meters contained in the parallelopipedon circumscribing the submerged

part of the ship—shall serve as a basis for the determination of the

other accessory dues.

Article XV. By way of compensation for the rights and exemptions which are allowed to the grantees in this contract, the Government of the Republic shall be entitled to a share amounting to 5 per

cent on all collections made by the company, by virtue of the dues

which may be imposed in conforming with Article XIV, during the

first twenty -five years after the opening of the canal to the public

service. From the twenty-sixth up to the fiftieth year, inclusive, it shall be entitled to a share of C per cent; from the fifty-first to the

seventy-fifth to 7 per cent, and from the seventy-sixth to the termination of the privilege to 8 per cent. It is understood that these shares

shall be reckoned, as has been said, on the gross income from all sources, without any deduction whatever for expenses, interest on

shares or on loans or debts against the company. The Government

of the Republic shall have the right to appoint a commissioner or

agent, who shall intervene in the collections and examine the accounts,

and the distribution or payment of the shares coming to the Govern

ment shall be made in due half-yearly installments. The product of

the 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent shall be distributed as follows:

Four-fifths of it shall go to the Government of the Republic, and

the remaining one-fifth to the government of the State through whose

territory the canal may pass. The company guarantees to the Government of Colombia that the

share of the latter shall in no case be less than the sum of $250,000 a

year, which is the same as that received as its share in the earnings of

the Panama Railroad, so that if in any year the 5 per cent share should

not reach said sum, it shall be completed out of the common funds of

the company.

Article XVI. The grantees arc authorized to require payment in advance of any charges which they may establish; nine-tenths of these

charges shall be made payable in gold, and only the remaining one- tenth part shall be payable in silver of 25 grams, of a fineness of 900. Article XVII. The ships which shall infringe upon the rules established by the company shall be subject to the payment of a fine which

said company shall fix in its regulations, of which due notice shall be

given to the public at the time of the issue of the tariff. Should they

refuse to pay said fine, nor furnish sufficient security, they may be

detained and prosecuted according to the laws. The same proceedings

may be observed for the damages they may have caused.

Article XVIII. If the opening of the canal shall be deemed finan- cially possible, the grantees are authorized to form, under the imme-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 243

diate protection of the Colombian Government, a universal joint-stock

company, which shall undertake the execution of the work, taking

charge of all financial transactions which may be needed. As this enterprise is essentially international and for public utility, it is understood that it shall always be kept free from political influences.

The company shall take the name of The Universal Interoceanic

Canal Association; its residence shall be fixed in Bogota, New York,

London, or Paris, as the grantees may choose; branch offices may be

established wherever necessary. Its contracts, shares, bonds, and titles of its property shall never be subjected by the Government of Colombia to any charges for registry, emission, stamps, or any similar

imposts upon the sale or transfer of these shares of bonds, as well as on the profits produced by these values. Article XIX. The company is authorized to reserve as much as 10

per cent of the shares emitted, to form a fund of shares, to the benefit

of the founders and promoters of the enterprise. Of the products of

the concern, the company take, in the first place, what is necessary to cover all expenses of repairs, operations, and administration, and the

share which belongs to the Government, as well as the sums necessary

for the payment of the interest and the amortization of the bonds,

and, if possible, the fixed interest or dividend of the shares; that

which remains will be considered as net profit, out of which 80 per

cent at least will be divided among the shareholders.

Article XX. The Colombian Government may appoint a special

delegate in the board of directors of the company whenever it may

consider it useful to do so. This delegate shall enjoy the same advantages as are granted to the other directors by the by-laws of the

company.

The grantees pledge themselves to appoint in the capital of the Union,

near the national Government, a duly authorized agent for the purpose of clearing up all doubts and presenting- any claims to which this contract may give rise. Reciprocally and in the same sense, the Government shall appoint an agent who shall reside in the principal estab- lishment of the company situated on the line of the canal; and,

according to the national constitution, the difficalties which may arise

between the contracting parties shall be submitted to the decision of

the federal supreme court. Article XXI. The grantees, or those who in the future may suc- ceed them in their rights, may transfer these rights to other capitalists or financial companies, but it is absolutely prohibited to cede or mortgage them under any consideration whatever to any nation or

foreign government.

Article XXII. The grantees, or their representatives, shall lose the right hereby acquired in the following cases:

First. If they do not deposit, on the terms agreed upon, the sum

which by wa}^ of security must insure the execution of the work.

Second. If, in the first year of the twelve that are allowed for the

construction of the canal, the works are not already commenced, in this case the company shall lose the sum deposited by way of security,

together with the interest that ma}' have accrued, all of which will remain for the benefit of the Republic.

Third. If, at the end of the second period fixed in paragraph 5 of

Article I, the canal is not transitable, in this case also the company

shall lose the sum deposited as security, which, with the interests

accrued, shall remain for the benefit of the Republic.
244 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Fourth. If they violate the prescr ptions of Article XXI; and,

Fifth. If the service of the canal should be interrupted for a longer

period than six months without its being occasioned by the acts of

God, etc. In cases 2, 3, 4, and 5, the federal supreme court shall have the right

to decide whether the privilege has become annulled or not. Article XXIII. In all cases of decisions of nullity, the public lands

mentioned in clauses 7 and 8 of Article I, and such lands as are not

settled or inhabited from among those granted by Article IV, shall revert to the possession of the Republic in the condition they may be

found in, and without any indemnity whatever, as well as the buildings,

materials, works, and improvements which the grantees ma}r possess

along the canal and its accessories. The grantees shall only retain

their capital, vessels, provisions, and in general all movable property.

Article XXIV. Five years previous to the expiration of the ninetynine years of the privilege, the executive power shall appoint a commissioner to examine the condition of the canal and annexes, and, with

the knowledge of the companj7 or its agents on the isthmus, to make

an official report, describing in every detail the condition of the same

and pointing out what repairs may be necessary. This report will serve to establish in what condition the canal and its dependencies shall be delivered to the National Government on the day of expiration of

the privilege now granted.

Article XXV. The enterprise of the canal is reputed to be of

public utility.

Article XXVI. This contract, which will serve as a substitute for

the provisions of law 33, of May 26, 1876, and the clauses of the contract celebrated on the 28th of May of the same year, shall be submitted for the approval of the President of the Union and the definite

acceptance by the Congress of the nation. In witness whereof they sign the present in Bogota, on the 20th

March, 1878.

ElJSTORGIO SALGAR,

Lucien N. B. Wyse.

Bogota, March 23, 1878.

Approved:

Aquileo Parro,

Preside?) t of the (hi ion

KUSTORGIO SALGAR,

Secretanj of the Interior <tnd of Foreign Relations.

(By decree of Congress, May 17, 1878, approved May IS, 1878, the

foregoing contract, with certain modifications in the original draft, was

duly approved. In the foregoing translation of the contract the modifications introduced by this decree have been incorporated for conveni- ence with the contract as originally signed, so that the translation

represents the actual form of the contract as modified and finally

approved by Congress.)

Note from Lucien N. B. Wyse, wherein he declares he accepts all the modifications made by law 28 to the contract for the construction

of the interoceanic canal.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 245

To the honorable Secretary of the Interior and Foreign Relations:

I have the honor to inform yon that I accept each and all of the modifications introduced by Congress to the contract which 1 celebrated with Sefior Eustorgio

Salgar, yonr worthy predecessor in the department of the interior and foreign relations, for the construction of the interoceanic canal, which contract was approved by

the executive power under date of March 23 last. The modifications to which I have alluded are those recorded in law No. 28 of the

18th instant.

I hasten to lay this declaration before the Government of Colombia, so that it may

be taken in consideration, in order that said law may be effective in all its parts. Bogota, May 18, 1878. Lucien N. B. Wyse,

Chief of the International Scientific < 'ommission for the Survey of the Isthmus, Member and Delegatefrom the Board of Directors of the Interoceanic Canal Association.

Appendix H H.

ADDITIONAL CONTRACT MODIFYING THAT OF MARCH 23, 1878,

APPROVED BY LAW 28 OF THE SAME YEAR—LAW 107 OF

1890. (DECEMBER 26.)

EXTENSION OP TEN YEARS FOR THE OPENING OF THE INTEROCEANIC

CANAL ACROSS COLOMBIAN TERRITORY.

The Congress of Colombia decrees:

Only Article. The contract modifying that of March 23, 1878, for

the opening of an interoceanic canal across Colombian territory, con- cluded between his excellency the minister of foreign affairs and Mr.

Lucien N. B. Wyse, special representative of the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal de Panama, is approved in all its parts,

which contract is literally as follows:

Antonio Roldan, minister of foreign affairs, duly authorized by His

Excellency the President of the Republic, hereinafter called the "Government," of the one part, and Lucien N. B. Wyse, naval commander,

engineer, original concessionary of the interoceanic canal, and special

delegate of the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal de

Panama, under powers of attorney executed at Paris May 16, 1890,

hereinafter called the " concessionary," of the other part, have agreed

to modify the contract of March 28, 1878, for the opening of an interoceanic canal across Colombian territory, approved by law 28 of the same year, in accordance with the following stipulations:

Article I. The Government grants to the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal de Panama an extension of ten years, within which the canal is to be finished and put in public operation.

The said extension is consented to subject to the following conditions:

First. The concessionary agrees to transfer all the plant of the

company in liquidation to a new company, which shall undertake the

completion of the work of the interoceanic canal. Second. The new company shall be formally organized with a capital

sufficient for this purpose, and shall resume the work of excavation in a serious and permanent manner not later than February 28, 1893.

Third. The concessionary, or his successors, shall furnish monthly

to the National Government at Panama the sum of 10,000 piasters, in Colombian coin of 0.835, for the maintenance of 250 men of the mili- tary garrison of the department of Panama, whom the Government

undertakes to assign for the preservation of order and for the security

of the line of the canal during the work of excavation, and upon its termination for the protection of interoceanic transit. In case the company should have need of a greater number of men

of the public forces, the Government will assign them to said service,

247
248 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

taking- them from the military garrison of the department, but the

additional expense occasioned by this increase, reckoned upon the basis

already established, shall also be borne by the company.

The company binds itself to furnish places set apart for the occu- pancy of the troops upon points on the line at which the Government

has none of its own. The last part of article 8 of the original contract for the privilege is modified in these respects.

Fourth. The navigation of the lakes which may form part of the

canal shall be free to small vessels, in accordance with the regulations

which the company may prescribe for this purpose. The latter shall not be responsible for the inherent risks of this navigation. The

internal regulation of the lakes shall be settled by the Government at the proper time, taking into account the general interests of the enterprise.

Fifth. The company binds itself to reestablish public transit at the

mouth of the Rio Grande by means of bridges or boats, as it shall consider most practicable; and if, in consequence of the number of vessels, passage should become hereafter too difficult, the company shall reestablish it between Emperador and Arraijan to the satisfaction of

the Government.

Article II. Besides the public lands granted gratis by the contract

of 1878, the expropriation of lands, buildings, and plantations which

shall prove necessary to the canal and its dependencies shall be made

by the Government, on account of the company, in conformity with

the ninth condition of Article 1 of the aforesaid contract, approved by

law 28 of 18T8. Such expropriations shall be made with all speed which the legislation of the country upon the subject permits. The expropriated real estate shall be immediately delivered over to the concessionary, or his successors. Article III. The Government also undertakes to take the necessary

steps for restoring to the new company the complete enjoyment of

the lands belonging to the company in liquidation unlawfully occupied

by private persons, and to procure a judicial decree that all persons

who, without previous consent, shall have built or planted upon the

lands bought by the company in liquidation for the purpose 01 works

of excavation, installation, and unloading shall have no right to any

indemnity.

Article IV. As compensation for the services which the Government agrees to render, in accordance with the two preceding articles, the

concessionary, or his successors, shall pay to the Government 10,000,000

francs in gold, and shall issue to it gratis in addition 5,000,000 francs

in 10,000 dividend-bearing shares of the new company of 500 francs

each, full paid, having the right to no other dividends than those which

are declared on ordinary shares. The said L0,000 shares shall remain

attached to their respective stubs until the other shares shall be full paid, but, upon notice to the company, the Government shall have the

power, when it shall see fit, to assign or pledge them.

The 10,000,000 francs to which this article refers shall be paid by the

concessionary, or by his successors, in live equal annual installments, the

first being paid three months after the new company for the completion of the canal shall be fully organized, in conformity with the sec- ond condition of Article I. From this sum shall be deducted 2,500,000

francs, as well as the interest accrued up to the date of the present
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 249

contract, which the Government owes to the company in liquidation

for the loan of L883, the deduction being made, in the first place, for

the purpose of fixing the amount of the five installments just mentioned.

By this payment the said loan shall be finally discharged.

Article V. A special member, whom the Government has the right

to appoint in the company's board of directors, in conformity with

article 20 of the contract in force, shall enjo^y in the new company to be organized for the completion of the canal, t lie same advantages

and compensation granted to the other directors by the charter of the

company, but neither the said appointee nor the official agent of the

Government residing in the isthmus, shall make any publication rela- tive to the company without the express authorization of the Government.

Article VI. If the new company for the completion of the canal

shall not be organized, and if the work of excavation on the canal

shall not be resumed within the period fixed by the second condition of

Article I, the contract in force shall lapse and the Republic shall enter

into the possession and enjoyment, without the necessity of a previous

judicial decree, and without indemnity, of the works of the canal and

its annexes, which revert to it in accordance with article 3 of the contract of 1878.

Section 1. It is understood that the contract shall also lapse, and

the provisions of this article shall become applicable if, the company

for the completion of the canal not being organized before February

28, 1893, the legal representative of the Compagnie Universelle du

Canal Interoceanique or its successors abandon the maintenance of

the works, plant, and buildings now existing upon the isthmus, and

belonging to the company.

Sec. 2. The maintenance of the property enumerated in the preceding paragraph shall be considered abandoned when the legal representative of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique in liquidation, or his successors, shall discharge the force of employees

which he now has on the isthmus, or shall cease to make the necessary

expenditure for preventing the loss or deterioration of the said property.

Sec. 3. It is, moreover, understood that the buildings, plants, works,

and improvements which are to become the property of the Republic

under the circumstances provided in this article, and in conformity

with article 23 of the contract of 1878, shall be inalienable, and are to be in good condition, subject to deterioration arising from use, from

unavoidable causes, or from accident.

Article VII. As soon as the company for the completion of the

canal shall be legally organized, and shall have resumed the work, in conformity with the provisions of the second condition of Article I of

this contract, the Government shall assign to it in the department of

Panama the 250,000 hectares of public lands to which it has been

already declared by decisions of the executive power to be entitled,

and shall issue to it the respective patents, provided that the legal

formalities in the premises be accomplished on the part of the company.

Article VIII. The security of 750,000 francs deposited by the canal

company in accordance with article 2 of the contract in force shall be

maintained as a guaranty for the fulfillment of the obligations arising

from the said contract and of those assumed by the concessionary

under the provisions of the present contract.
250 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Article IX. All rights and obligations created by the contract of

March 23, 1878, for the opening of an interoceanic canal across Colombian territory, approved by law 28 of the same year, shall continue in

full force and vigor without other restrictions and modifications than

those contained in the present contract. Article X. In order that the present contract may have full force

and effect, it shall be submitted to the approval of His Excellency the

President of the Republic, and to that of Congress.

Done in duplicate, at Bogota, the 10th day of December, 1890.

Antonio Roldan.

Lucien N. B. Wyse.
Appendix I I. CONTRACT OF EXTENSION.8

CONTRACT GRANTING EXTENSION TO THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY, IN LIQUIDATION.

Between Marco F. Saurez, minister of foreign affairs, duly authorized by His Excellency the Vice-President of the Republic, and in accordance with the powers granted to the executive power by law 91

of 1892, hereinafter called "the Government," of the one part, and

Francois Mange, engineer, director of the operations of the liquidation on the Isthmus, special representative of the receiver of the Compagnie

Universelle du Canal de Panama, under powers of attorney granted

him at Paris, January 24, 1893, hereinafter called ''the concessionary,"

of the other part; it has been agreed to modify the contracts of March

23, 1878, and December 10, 1890, for the opening of an interoceanic

canal across Colombian territory, in conformity with the following

stipulations:

Article 1. The extension of ten years granted in article 1 of the

contract of 1890 to the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du

Canal de Panama remains in force, subject to the conditions then provided, except the second, which is modified by the extension until

October 31, 1894, of the period within which the new company is to be

formed and work on the canal is to be resumed in a serious and per- manent manner. The term of ten years shall begin to run from the date of the formal

organization of the new company.

Article 2. The concessionary or his successor acknowledges the

validity of the former contracts and of the present contract, and binds

himself to do, in France, all acts necessary to insure its validity.

These proceedings are to be concluded not later than August 31 next. Article 3. As compensation for the extension which the Government grants by article 1, and to indemnify it for the advantages

which it relinquishes accordingly, the concessionary or his successor acknowledges an indebtedness in favor of the Republic amounting to the sum of 2,000,000 francs in gold, which added to the 10,000,000

provided in article 4 of the contract of 1890, constitutes a total indebtedness of 12,000,000 francs in favor of Colombia, exclusive of

5,000,000 francs in 10,000 shares, also mentioned in the article aforesaid. Article 4. The contracting parties further agree that from the

12,000,000 which have just been mentioned in the preceding article shall be deducted the sum of 4,000,000 francs which the Colombian

a Translation from Diario Oficial of Bogota, April 5, 1893, No. 9125.251
252 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Government and the treasury of the department of Panama owe to the

company in liquidation for the loan of 1883 and its interest, and for

services and material furnished to the administration of this department from 1881 to 1892. Accordingly, this debt becomes finally

extinguished, leaving- the Republic free from all obligation with regard

to this matter, and reducing to 8,000,000 francs in gold, the sum which

the new company is to pay to the Government.

Article 5. The 8,000,000 francs mentioned in the preceding article

shall be paid by the concessionary or his successor in the following manner: 150,000 francs August 31, 1893; 150,000 francs October 31,

1893; 200,000 francs December 31, 1893. The remainder shall be paid

in four installments, the first to be paid three months after the new

company for the completion of the canal shall be formally organized.

The first of these installments shall be 1,500,000 francs and the three

others 2,000,000 francs each.

Article 6. The Republic shall enter into possession and ownership,

without need of previous judicial decision and without any indemnity,

of the canal itself and the annexes dependent thereon, in conformity

with the contracts of 1878 and 1890, in each of the following cases:

If the new company shall not be organized within the period fixed

by article 1. If the work shall not be resumed within the period fixed by the same

article. If the receiver sells the property which is to belong to the Republic

in case of lapse, or abandons its maintenance, all in conformity with

the provisions of the previous contracts, saving and excepting deterioration arising from use, unavoidable causes, or from accident.

If the inventory mentioned in article 7 of the present contract shall not be made

If the conditions of article 2 of the same contract shall not be fulfilled. Article 7. A general inventory of the property of the company in liquidation, which shall comprise as well the property which is to belong to the Government in case of lapse as that which is to belong

to the company in liquidation, shall be prepared upon the Isthmus.

It is understood that rolling stock and floating plant shall be comprised

in this inventory, which is to be made in conjunction with the agent of

the Government at Panama, and is to be completed not later than

August 31, 1893.

Article 8. The security of 750,000 francs deposited in conformity

with the contract of 1878 by the canal company and confirmed by the

contract of 1890 shall be maintained as a guaranty for the fulfillment

of the obligations arising from the said contracts and those to which

the concessionary agrees by the present contract. Article 9. Disputes which may arise between the contracting parties with regard to the present contract or the former contract shall be submitted to the supreme court of justice of Colombia.

In conformity with the provisions of article 7 of law 115 of 1888,

the concessionary waives the right to diplomatic intervention concerning the duties and rights arising from the three contracts, except in case of denial of justice.

Article 10. All rights and obligations arising from contract of

March 23, 1878, and contract of December 10. 1890, for the excavation of an interoceanic canal across Colombian territory, approved by
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 253

law 28 of 1878, and by law 107 of 1890, shall continue in full force

and vigor, without other modifications than those provided in the

present contract. Article 11. The concessionary declares that he accepts all the provisions of the present contract which impose special obligations upor

the receiver, as well as those which affect the company which may be

formed.

Article 12. The present contract must, in order to be valid, be

approved by His Excellency the Vice-President of the Republic.

Done in duplicate at Bogota the 4th day of April, 1893.

Marco F. Suarez.

Francois Mange.

Executive Government, Bogota, April 4, 18!)->. Approved.

[seal.] M. A. Caro.

The Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Marco F. Suarez.

Appendix J J. CONTRACT RELATIVE TO THE GRANTING OF AN EXTENSION

OF TIME TO THE NEW COMPANY OF THE PANAMA CANAL.a Whereas the national executive power has dictated the following

decree No. 721 of 1900 (April 23), by which provision is made for the

granting of an extension of time to the new company of the Panama

Canal, the President of the Republic having seen the memorial by

which the new compan}r of the Panama Canal has solicited of the Government an extension of six years for the completion of the work and

putting it into public service; and having seen the communications in which the special agent, Dr. Nicolas Esquerra, expounds to the Government the public expediency of granting the extension herein considered, decrees:

Article 1. The Government ma}T grant to the new company of the

Panama Canal an extension for the fixed term of six years to complete

the work and put it into public use: Provided, That it shall deposit at the disposition of the national treasury, within one hundred and

twenty days, computed from the date on which this instrument shall be notified to the said company, in such bank or establishment as may

be designated by the Government, 5,000,000 francs in French gold.

Article 2. The said extension will begin to run on the 31st day of

October, 1901; consequently the canal must be completed and put into

public use on the 31st day of October, 1910, at the latest. Let it be communicated and published.

Given at Pena, department of Cundinamarca, this 23d day of April,

1900. Manuel A. Sanclemente.

Rafael M. Palacio,

Min ister of State. Carlos Cuervo Marquez,

Min ister of Foreign Affairs.

Carlos Calderon,

Minister of Finan<;

Jose Santos,

Minister of War.

Morco F. Suarez,

Minister of Public Instruction.

Marceliano Vargas,

Min ister of the Treasury.

Now, therefore, we, to wit, Carlos Calderon, minister of finance of

the Republic, duly authorized by the executive power, on the one part,

and, on the other part, Alejandro N. Mancini, in his capacity of agent

a Translation from Diario Oficial, Bogota, May 7, 1900, No. 11278 (ministry of finance). 255
256 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the new company of the Panama Canal and as representative of the same, by virtue of the power of attorney which he has laid before the

ministry of finance, have executed the following- contract: Article 1. The Government of the Republic grants to the new com- pany of the Panama Canal a delay of six years, from the 31st of October, 1904, in which to complete the work on the canal and deliver it to the public service, under the terms of the existing contracts. In con- sequence the said work shall have to be completed and put into the

public service on the 31st day of October, 1910.

Article 2. In consideration of the extension referred to in the fore- going article, the new company of the Panama Canal will pa}r to the

Republic the sum of 5,000,000 francs in French coin, in the city of

Paris, ninety days from the date on which this contract shall have been

approved by the Most Excellent President of the Republic. Said payment shall be made by the company to the firm or bank in the cit}^ of

Paris in whose favor the minister of the treasury of the Republic may

draw.

Article 3. This contract requires the approval of the council of

ministers and that of the Most Excellent President of the Republic.

In witness whereof we have signed three copies of even tenor, at Bogota, this 25th day of April, 1900.

Carlos Calderon.

Alejandro N. Mancini.

Presidency of the Council of Ministers.

Bogota, April ..''>. WOO.

In the session of this day the foregoing contract was examined and

unanimously approved.

Carlos Cuervo Marquez,

President.

Alejandro M. Olivares,

S< oretary ad hoc. National Executive Power,

Pena, Department of Cundmamarca, April 86, 1900. Approved.

Manuel A. Sanclemente.

Carlos Calderon,

Minister of FinanCi
Appendix K K.

Memorandum of legal status of the New Panama Canal Company,

including translations of French laws and judicial decrees affecting its organization, and the charter of the company.

The general incorporation law of France of July 24, 1867, under

which the old Panama Canal Company was organized, is found in the French Code of Commerce, by Leopold Garrand, London, 1880,

page 703. The amendatory act of August 1, 1893, which modified the law prior

to the organization of the new company, is found in Bulletin Des Lois

de la Republique Francaise, twelfth series, volume 47, page 491,

published in Paris, 1894. Extract from the judgment of the civil tribunal of the Seine,

rendered february 4, 1889, pronouncing the dissolution of the

Compagnie Univ'erselle du Canal Tnteroceanique de Panama

and appointing a receiver.

The court, in consideration that the civil or commercial character of a company is recognized, not by the particular form which it takes,

but by the nature of the enterprise which constitutes its principal

object; that it therefore matters little that the Compagnie du Canal

Interoceanique de Panama is a societe anonyme, this circumstance not being enough to impress upon it a commercial character; In consideration, that as to its object, according to article 2 of its articles, it comprises the construction of a maritime canal for deepwater navigation between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean,

across the part of the American isthmus which belongs to the United

States of Colombia, as well as the operation of said canal and of the

various enterprises which are connected therewith; that in reality

the company is formed for the operation of the canal and in view

of the profits which it may obtain and that the construction itself is not the principal aim of the enterprise, but only a necessary means for

carrying it out; That the operation can not be assimilated to a transportation business,

the company limiting itself to the opening of a new way for navigation

upon payment of fixed tolls; In consideration, that therefore, the company has for its principal

object the development of real estate under conditions under which the

State of Colombia might have developed it itself if it had not granted

the concession to third parties; that it is therefore purely civil, and

that on this account, its duration being moreover limited, any one of

the associates may apply for its dissolution in conformity with article 1871 of the civil code;

S. Doc, 54, pt 2 17 257
258 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In consideration that the objection would be unavailing, that the

present application has been made in violation of article 74 of the

articles of incorporation, according to which no proceeding at law can be taken b}^ one or more shareholders against the company, its board

of directors, or one of the members of the board, until it has been

submitted to the examination of the shareholders' meeting, whose

opinion is to be submitted to the court at the same time with the action;

that on the one hand this provision, which implies a simple opinion to be stated by the shareholders' meeting and not at all a preliminary

consent to be given by it, is not of such a character as to be binding

upon the court when it is not set up by the defendant; that it could

not, moreover, prevail against the right which eveiy member acquires

by article 1871 of the civil code, the protection of which concerns considerations of public policy; that, on the other hand, it appears from

the papers in the case that if the special shareholders' meeting of

January 26 last could not be legally organized, in spite of the reiterated

notices sent to the shareholders, there is no reason to hope that a new

call would have a more efficacious result; that thus the plaintiffs would

be deprived, by the mere force of circumstances and without possible recourse, of a right which article 1871 of the civil code intended to assure them; that, finally, the calling of a new meeting would involve,

according to the articles, such delays that the corporate interests

which are now at stake might suffer irreparable injury; In consideration that the further objection can not prevail that, in accordance with article 68 of the articles of incorporation, the dissolution of the company before its expiration must be voted by a meeting

of shareholders held under special conditions fixed in article 69; that none of the terms of these articles implies the idea that the right in question belongs exclusively to the shareholders' meeting and that the

courts are deprived of it; that such a provision would be in contradiction with the principle laid down in article 1871 of the civil code, and

would obviously nullify its object;

That, furthermore, what was said above relative to the shareholders'' meeting of January 26 last, and the impossibility of calling to any useful purpose a new meeting within the period fixed by the articles, is pertinent here again, and that from every point of view the application should be received; In consideration that on the merits article 1871 of the civil code

confers upon the court the power of deciding finally whether the company, under the circumstances contemplated, can still continue its normal course or whether its dissolution is rendered necessary by the

very situation in which it is placed; that it is now established that

the Coinpagnie du Canal de Panama has ceased to act in a regular way;

that it has suspended payment upon its securities and that the continuation of work on the canal is insured only for a very limited time;

that since December 14 last it has been necessary to confide its management provisionally to appointees of the court, who have taken the

necessary measures to protect temporarily the important interests

connected with its existence, that these wholly provisional measures

are now insufficient or will shortly become so, and that it is important

to take action to ward off dangers, the consequences of which would

be irreparable; In consideration, therefore, that there is occasion for pronouncing

the dissolution of the company and providing for its winding up; that
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 259

there is occasion also for ordering- a provisional execution of the pres- ent judgment, notwithstanding appeal, and without security, applying

article 135 of the code of civil procedure;

For these reasons, pronounces the dissolution of the Compagnie

Universelle du Canal Interoceanique de Panama and orders that it be

wound up;

Appoints Mr. Joseph Brunet receiver of said company with the

broadest powers, especially to grantor contribute to any new company

all or a part of the corporate assets, to enter into or ratify with the

contractors for the Panama Canal all agreements having for their purpose the insurance of the continuance of the works, and to this end to contract all loans and form all sinking funds;

Declares that in case the receiver appointed can not act, provision

will be made for replacing him in the ordinary way;

Authorizes him henceforth to apply in the same way for all special

powers which may be necessary for the performance of his duties, and,

if he thinks tit, for the addition of one or more receivers;

Orders provisional execution of the present judgment, notwithstanding appeal and without security;

Condemns the defendant company to the expenses.

ACT OF JULY 1, 1893, RELATIVE TO THE LIQUIDATION OF THE UNI- VERSAL COMPANY OF THE PANAMA INTEROCEANIC CANAL.

The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies have adopted and enacted,

and the President of the Republic promulgates, the following law:

Article 1. From the date of the promulgation of the present law,

all actions now in course of procedure that have been brought by

holders of bonds or obligations emitted by the Universal Company of

the Panama Interoceanic Canal, or that have been brought by any

creditors of the said company, whether against the receiver in his

official capacit}^ or against the directors to enforce their responsibility, or against third parties for restitution, or arising in any other manner

whatsoever, are hereby declared discontinued and suspended.

The plaintiff may follow up and prosecute said actions only by complying with the requirements of articles 2 and 3 hereof.

All proceedings concerning attachments and execution, even those now in course of enforcement and procedure, against the personal or

real estate or property of the said company, are likewise discontinued

and suspended.

1. —Bond or obligation holders' attorney.

Article 2. All rights of action, of any character whatever, accru- ing to owners of obligations emitted by the Universal Company of the

Panama Interoceanic Canal whether against the receiver in his official capacity, or against the directors to enforce their responsibility, or for

a right to restitution arising from anjr other cause, shall be enforced

and sued on by an attorney or representative appointed for the purpose, on request of the commonwealth's attorney for the jurisdiction

of the civil tribunal of the Seine, by a decree in chambers.

In case there should arise a divergence or opposition of interests
260 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

between the different classes of bondholders, one or more special attor- neys may be appointed in the manner and form just above provided

for. The powers of the attorneys aforesaid may be revoked at the same request and in the same manner. There shall be no appeal from

said orders or decrees.

However, any obligation holder shall have the right to enter an

action for damages in connection with a criminal matter or to inter- vene in proceedings instituted by the attorney or representative aforesaid, doing so at his own expense and cost without in any way dekying

the proceedings or judgment.

Moreover, every obligation holder shall have the power to bring any

action, in his individual right and at his own risk and peril, which the

attorney shall have refused or failed to enter within one month after

he shall have been notified and requested to enter the same.

Suits brought by the attorneys or representatives shall not block

the right of action on the part of the company belonging to the receiver.

The attorneys shall have power to call on the receiver for communication of all documents tending to shed light on the truth; their legal

residence shall be the jurisdiction within which shall be carried on the

winding up or liquidation of the company's affairs; the tax costs arising

from the exercise of their official duties shall be defrayed from the

credits of the receivership, so far as this may be done without impairing the reimbursement to the latter of the sums which it shall have

advanced.

Article 3. All actions emanating from the receiver or from the

attorneys, or from interested parties individually, shall be brought

before the civil tribunal of the Seine. Such proceedings as may arise

from the distribution of the credits or balance remaining in favor of

the company shall be brought likewise before this tribunal. Suits

instituted by parties intervening in damages shall remain in the jurisdiction where already the prosecution has been inaugurated.

Article 1. The attorney shall have full and complete enjoyment of

the "judicial assistance privilege'1 (consisting in the exemption from

payment of the usual costs attending a judicial proceeding) in the car- rying on of actions and in the executing of verdicts or decisions which

he shall have obtained. Likewise he shall enjoy the same in all inter- ventions sounding in damages, and in the case of all recording taxes which might be otherwise exacted. On his request presented to the

commonwealth's attorney, pleaders, advocates, and sheriffs shall be

appointed in the manner and form prescribed by article 13 of the law

dated January 22, 1851.

However, the "judicial assistance privilege 1

' shall not extend to costs of transportation for judges, for Government officials, or for

experts, nor to the hitter's fees, nor to witness taxes. As to stamp

duties, costs of recording, and court costs in general, the treasury

shall exact them from the debtor only, after the payment of such

judgment as shall have been obtained by the plaintiffs attorney.

Article 5. The attorney shall have power to compromise or to

desist from further action, though he may do so only after consult Jul; with three jurists appointed by the commonwealth's attorney; and all compromises or withdrawals of actions shall have to be ratified and

approved by judicial decree rendered in chambers.

lie alone shall be empowered to levy execution on judgments pro- nounced by the court, or to receive the sums obtained on compromise,
RKPORT Ol1 THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 2C)1

whether «uch compromise have been obtained on his own demand or on that of obligation holders acting in an individual capacity; all sums

thus received shall ho deposited by him at the deposit bureau, and the

receiver shall give him due quittance therefor.

II.

The recewer. Article 6. Before proceeding at all to distribute the credits of the

company, the receiver shall publish in the Journal Officiel and in the

Journal Otticiel (Commune edition) a notice calling on all parties inter- ested to produce their claims against the company and the proofs thereof

within the space of six months, under pain of becoming barred from

bringing any action on the said claims.

The production of the claims and the transmission of proofs in support thereof may be made by simple registered letter. Article 7. The receiver shall proceed to verify and to admit said

claims in the manner and form prescribed by articles 495 and 497, first paragraph, of the Code of Commerce.

Article 8. Should the claim be contested, notice of this fact shall be sent by registered mail to the claimant in question, and the latter shall have a term of three months within which he must institute pro- ceedings before the civil tribunal of the Seine, in order to have his claim adjudicated.

Judgment must be pronounced hereon within the space of one month,

as in the case of matters demanding immediate and summary adjudication. An appeal from such decision must be entered within ten days

from the notification of said judgment either to the party in person or

at his domicile.

Article 9. The distribution of all dividends arising from an action

brought by the company or from actions brought by the attorney or

representative of obligation holders, or from any other source whatever, shall be made by the receiver, who alone shall have competency

to receive opposition or objections to the same. Article 10. All acts tending to alienate any assets of the company,

all contracts entailing a transfer or contribution of the whole or of a part of the assets of the concern, emanating from the receiver of the

Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, shall be subject

to the approval or ratification of the civil tribunal of the Seine, who

shall, on the report of one of the justices, pass on the question in

open court. Article 11. All decrees of approval or ratification rendered in accordance with the preceding article shall be published, within a term

of ten days, in the Journal Officiel and in the Journal Officiel (Com- mune edition).

This decree may be attacked by a third party, by the shareholders,

by the attorney of obligation holders, and by other creditors of the

company within a delay not exceeding one month from the date of

publication aforesaid. The civil tribunal shall adjudicate the question

within the space of one month, as in the case of matters demanding an immediate and summary adjudication. The appeal from such decision

must be entered within ten days from the time of notification of said

judgment to the party in person or at his domicile.

Article 12. The Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic

Canal, the civil, i. e. non-trading, company formed for the purpose of
262 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

redeeming the obligations or bonds of the Panama Canal (issue of

March, 1888), and the civil or non-trading company for the redemption

of the lottery bonds of the Panama Canal, are herein exempted from

the payment of all stamp duties, and of all transfer or transmission

taxes now due or about to become due on any shares, obligations, or bonds of the said companies.

Article 13. Beginning with the date of the promulgation of the

present law, no limitation in bar of actions in damages shall begin to run against the creditors of the Panama Canal Universal Company

until the balance remaining to the credit of the company shall have

been realized on and entirely distributed.

Article 14. Shareholders, subscribers, or buyers of stock having

acquired title to the same before the company was placed into the

hands of a receiver, provided they represent at least one-twentieth of

the capital stock, may join a common interest and entrust one or more

attorneys or representatives with maintaining any action and with

representing them in court. The present law, deliberated upon and adopted by the Senate and

Chamber of Deputies, shall be enforced as a law of the State. Done at Marlj'-le-Roi on the 1st day of July, 1893.

Carnot.

By the President of the Republic:

E. Guerin,

Keejxf of the Seals, Minister of Just i<<

P. Peytral,

Minister of Finance.

The following is the charter of the New Panama Canal Company,

organized under general corporation laws of France, October, 1894:

Title I.

Formation and object of tin company—Name—Principal

office—Duration.

Article 1. There is formed between the present founder and the

subscribers to the shares hereinafter created a commercial joint-stock

company under the name of the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de

Panama, in conformity with the acts of July 21, 1807, and August 1, 1893.

Article 2. This company has for its objects:

1. The completion of the Maritime Ship Canal between the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans.

2. The exploitation of the said canal and of the various enterprises

connected therewith.

3. The construction and exploitation of all lines of railway within

the vicinity of the canal and the management of all interests which the

company may possess and acquire in lines already constructed.

1. The exploitation of lands granted and mines therein contained.

All under the clauses and conditions of the concession as fixed by

the act of the Congress of the United States of Colombia, dated May

18, 1878 (law 28 of L878), and of the extensions of the concession dated

December 2(>, 1890 (law L07 of L890), and April 1, 1893.

Article 3. The principal office of the company is at Paris, provisionally fixed at No. <'>:> his Rue de la Victoire, and hereafter at such

place as the board of directors shall designate.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 263

Article 4. The company shall begin from the date of its formal

organization. Its duration shall he the same as that of its concession;

that is to say. ninety-nine years from the date when the canal shall be

open in whole or in part for public service or when the company shall begin the collection of dues for transit and navigation.

Title II. — Con tributions—( 'a/pital—Ska/res—/ *aymenf8.

Article 5. A party to these presents is M. Jean Pierre Gautron,

judicial administrator of the civil tribunal of the Seine, residing at No. 13 Rue Tronchet, Paris.

"Acting as and in the capacity of sole receiver of the Compagnie

Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique de Panama, by virtue of the powers conferred by judgment of the civil tribunal of the Seine, dated

February 4, 1889," M. Gautron, appointed to said office of receiver by

a judgment of the chambre du conseil of the civil tribunal of the Seine,

dated July 21, 1893, in his said capacity contributes to the compan}^:

First. All rights accruing to the company in liquidation from the

laws of the government of the United States of Colombia, dated

May 18, 1878, and December 26, 1890, as well as from any decrees, acts, or things whatever which have occurred in the execution of these laws,

with all the advantages provided by these laws, together with all lands

and real estate granted to the company in liquidation or acquired by it. All subject to the fulfillment of the conditions of the laws and extensions of the concessions and to the payment of all sums remaining due

from the receiver to the Colombian Government.

Second. The works executed and under execution, workshops, buildings, hospitals, plant, erected and not erected, materials and supplies,

etc., belonging to the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique

in liquidation, as well as all deposits as security made by said company

in liquidation.

Third. The plans, estimates, studies, documents of every nature col- lected by the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique, relating

in any manner to the study, execution, or exploitation of the canal or

its dependencies, as well as the benefit of all agreements with all third persons. Fourth. The rights of every nature, part interests, and generally

any others whatsoever which may belong to the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoeeanique, in liquidation, in the railroad from

Panama to Colon, operated by an American company called the

Panama Railroad Company, whose principal office is at New York, as

said rights are enjoyed and exist; M. Gautron, as receiver, binding

himself to transfer the same to the present company in the form re- quired b}T the laws of the United States of America.

In such manner, moreover, as the said rights and properties are enjoyed and exist and in the condition in which they are. The present company shall be the owner of the property and rights

granted and contributed from the date of its formal organization,

except as hereinafter provided with respect to the Panama Railroad.

This grant and contribution are made by M. Gautron with the reser- vations and subject to the conditions hereinafter expressed, to wit:

First. There shall be appropriated to the receiver 60 per cent of the

net protits of the enterprise, as these profits shall be determined under

articles 51 and 52 hereof.

Second. There shall be appropriated 50,000 shares, full paid, on

account of those now issued to the Government of the United States of

Colombia, in accordance with the extension law of December 26, 1890.
264 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANA.L COMMISSION.

Third. The rights of every nature in the Panama Railroad belonging to the estate in liquidation and contributed by M. Gautron under

section 1 of this article shall become the property of the present com- pany from and after the stockholders' meeting provided for by article 75 hereof without any pecuniary compensation, but upon the express

condition that the canal be constructed within the time fixed by the

agreement of concession. Upon default in completion within such

time said rights shall revert to the estate in liquidation.

If, contrary to all expectation, the meeting in question should not take

the necessary action for the completion of the canal, or if the course of

action adopted b}T the meeting can not be carried out, the said rights in the railroad shall remain the property of the present company, but

it shall pay into the estate in liquidation the sum of 20,000,000 francs

by way of indemnity, and the share of profits set apart for the estate in

liquidation shall be half the profits of the present company without

other deductions than those provided in sections 2 and 3 of article 51

hereof. - Accordingly said rights shall remain inalienable in the hands of the new company until either the payment of said sum of 20,000,000 francs or the entire completion of the canal. Fourth. Until the entire completion of the canal, M. Gautron, in his official capacity, shall have the right to appoint a commission of

control, composed of three members, taken as far as possible from among

the engineers of the department of bridges and roads and the inspect- ors of finances, to inspect the progress of the works, the conditions

and maintenance of the plant and buildings, as well as the accounts

relating to these different objects.

The expense of this commission shall be borne by the new company.

Article 6. The capital of the company is fixed at 65,000,000 francs,

divided into 650,000 shares of 100 francs each.

Of these 650,000 shares 50,000 full paid are set apart for the Government of the United States of Colombia, in accordance with the

extension law of December 27, 1890, as provided in the preceding

article. As for the balance of 600,000 shares they are to be issued for cash

subscriptions.

Capital may be increased once or several times by vote of the regular stockholders' meeting, and, upon the proposition of the board of

directors, by the issue of new shares.

Article 7. The 50,000 shares set apart for the Government of the

United States of Colombia, though full paid, shall not be entitled to

interest or dividends on the same terms as the shares issued on subscription.

These 50,000 shares shall remain attached to their respective stubs,

and shall be negotiable under the conditions provided by article 2 of

the French law of August 1, 1893, and by the concession laws. Article 8. A preference is reserved to the stockholders and bondholders of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique, in Liquidation, in subscribing for stock of the present company, to the extent of one-half the present capital and the total amount of all future issues. Article 9. The amount of each share is payable in cash into the

company's treasury or to the representatives who shall be appointed

for subscriptions by the new company.

It shall be payable as follows: Twenty-five francs immediately on
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 265

subscription, 25 francs on October 15, 1894, and the balance* as calls shall be made by the board of directors.

Payments shall become due in accordance with calls made by the

board, upon notice published one month in advance in one of the Paris

newspapers designated for the publication of legal notices. Any shareholder may, however, pay up his shares in advance and at any time.

Article 1<>. The first payment is represented by a receipt in the name of the subscriber which, within two months from the organization of the company, shall be exchanged for a provisional certificate, also in his name.

All further payments, except the last, shall be indorsed upon this

provisional certificate. Upon the last payment being made, a permanent certificate shall be

issued to the shareholder, which shall be either to bearer or in his name, at his option.

Article 11. The board of directors shall fix the form and style of

the certificates of stock. Provisional and temporary certificates shall be taken from a book

with stubs; they shall be numbered in order and stamped with the seal of the company; they shall be signed by two directors, or by one

director and a person appointed by the board of directors.

Article 12. All payments in arrears upon calls shall bear interest

at the rate of 6 per cent per annum from the day when the}7 shall be

payable, for the benefit of the company.

In default of payment within the month wherein the same shall become payable the board of directors may, at its option, bring action

at law, or sell the certificates on which payment shall not have been

made.

Such sale may take place fifteen days after notice published in the

Journal Officiel or one of the other papers in the department of the

Seine designated for the publication of legal notices. It shall take

place at the risk of the person in defaidt through an agent de change

of the Paris Bourse or through a notary, at the option of the board of

directors.

The certificates for the shares sold will become void and will be

replaced by a new certificate, in the name of the purchaser, of the same

number.

The price of the sale will be deducted from the sums due the com- pany from the subscriber for the share and his assigns, who will all remain jointly and severally liable for the difference and entitled to any surplus.

Article 13. Shares shall stand in the names of subscribers until

fully paid, in accordance with the law of August 1, 1893.

Moreover, no share can be sold, and the board of directors can not

authorize its transfer, until it shall have been fully paid.

This prohibition, however, will not apply to shares belonging to future issues. Every owner of shares to bearer shall alwa3T s have the right to require the conversion of shares to bearer into shares registered in his name. Article 14. The shares confer a right to a proportional part in the

corporate assets, in profits to be distributed as interest or dividends,

and in reserve funds.
266 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Interest and dividends are paid to bearer either upon presentation

of the certificate to be stamped for registered certificates, or upon

presentation of the coupon for certificates to bearer, at the company's

office at the times which shall be fixed by the board of directors.

Article 15. The transfer of shares to bearer is effected by simple

delivery.

That of registered certificates shall take place by a declaration of

transfer entered on the books of the company and signed by the trans- ferer and transferee or their attorneys.

The expenses of transfers, changes, and conversions shall be borne

by the new assignees.

Article 16. The board of directors may authorize the keeping and

deposit of certificates to bearer in the company's treasury. In that

case, it shall determine the form of the registered certificates of

deposit, the conditions of their delivery, and the precautions with

which the execution of this measure should be surrounded in the

interest of the company and of the shareholders.

Article 17. Shareholders shall not be liable upon the contracts of

the company beyond the amount of the shares which they own.

In no event can any call be made for funds beyond the amount of

the shares.

Article 18. The shares are indivisible as regards the company,

which recognizes only a single owner for each share. All owners of undivided parts of a share must be represented in dealing with the company by one and the same person.

Article 19. The rights and obligations attached to the share follow

the certificate into whatever hands it comes. The possession of a share imports full consent to the statutes of the

company as well as to all acts of a stockholders' meeting.

The heirs, creditors, or assigns of a shareholder can not, on any

pretext, require a partition or sale of the corporate property, obtain an attachment, require the sealing of the company's books, registers,

papers, and securities, nor interfere with its administration.

They must, for the exercise of their rights, rely exclusively upon

the corporate statements, the action of the stockholders' meetings, and

the decision of the board of directors.

Title III. —Hoard of directors. Article 20. The company is administered by a board composed of

not less than nine nor more than fifteen members, chosen from among

the shareholders.

Article 21. The directors do not, in consequence of their duties, contract any personal or joint and several obligations. They are responsible only tor the performance of their duties.

Article 22. Directors are appointed by the stockholders' meeting

for not more than six years.

If the board is composed of nine, twelve, or fifteen members, onethird shall be elected every two years, the outgoing members to be

determined during the first period of six years by lot, and thereafter

by seniority.

If the number of directors be any other than those above specified,

the stockholders' meeting shall determine the mode of choosing new members and the duration of their terms. Outgoing directors may always be reelected.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 267

The second meeting- of stockholders for organization shall fix the

number of members of the first board and shall proceed to choose them.

This first board may, if it think fit, add to itself new members within

the limits hereinbefore fixed, and must cause appointments so made

to be ratified by the first regular stockholders' meeting.

Article 23. In case of vacancy arising from resignation or death,

the board of directors may till the same until the next meeting of

stockholders.

Directors thus appointed continue in office only until the expiration

of the terms of their predecessors.

Article 24. Every director must be the owner of 250 shares, which

are registered in his name and inalienable. They shall be stamped to indicate this inalienability, and remain deposited in the company's

treasury during the whole term of office of the owner. These shares constitute a guaranty for all acts of management.

Article 25. The board of directors shall appoint each }-ear from

among its members a president and, if there be occasion, one or more

vice-presidents.

The president and vice-president may always be reelected. In case

of the absence of the president and of the vice-president or vicepresidents, the board may appoint, at each session, one of its members

to fulfill the duties of the office. Article 26. The board of directors shall meet at least once a month. It shall meet, also, at the call of the president, as often as the

interests of the company require.

Questions shall be decided by a majority of the members present. In case of equal division, the vote of the president shall preponderate.

Five directors at least must be present to form a quorum.

When only five or six directors are present all action, to be valid,

must be taken by a majority of 4 votes. No member of the board can vote by prox}\

Article 27. The proceedings of the board of directors shall be

recorded by minutes signed by the president and one of the members

present at the meeting.

Copies or extracts from these minutes must, to be produced in evi- dence elsewhere, be certified by the president or by two directors.

Article 28. The board of directors is vested with the broadest

powers for the management and administration of the affairs of the

company, for the selection and exploitation of the public lands granted

by paragraphs 7 and 8 of article 1 and by article -i of the concession

law.

The board of directors ma3T ask an}r new concessions, consent to all agreements with third parties for the purchase of enterprises or of

concessions connected with any of the objects of the company.

It shall appoint and dismiss employees, determine their functions

and powers, fix their salaries and pay.

It shall order and regulate expenditures.

It shall sign correspondence as well as all notes, indorsements, drafts,

checks, transfers, and conversions of public stocks and securities

belonging to the company, and it shall contract and consent to all advances.

It shall take all financial measures necessary to the progress of the

company, and make all loans other than those which must be authorized by the stockholders1 meeting.
268 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

It shall lay before the stockholders' meeting- all propositions con- cerning loans on mortgage and the issue of obligations.

It shall administer the rights in the Panama Railroad Company

contributed to the company under the terms of article 5. It shall arrange the order of business for stockholders' meetings

and the accounts which are to be submitted to them. It shall make a report to each stockholders' meeting upon the accounts and the condition of the corporate affairs. It shall tix provisionally the dividend and determine, if occasion

arises, the installment to be paid on July 1 on the receipts and dis- bursements closed by the inventory June 30 preceding.

It shall decide upon the following subjects, to wit:

1. Calls for money upon the shares.

2. Temporary investment of funds in hand.

3. Studies and projects, plans and estimates for the execution of the

works.

4. Agreements and bargains for works of various characters, bargains

with penalty, and contracts not concerning the works.

5. Hiring, selling, letting, and exchanging real and personal property,

purchasing and hiring vessels or machines necessary for the execution

of the works and the exploitation of the enterprise.

6. Annual budgets.

7. Fixing and modifying dues of every nature to be collected by

virtue of the concession, conditions and manner of collecting tolls.

8. Disposition of reserve funds.

9. Regulation of deposit of stock and obligation of the company.

It shall sue for the collection of dues, the recovery of all debts,

give all acquittances and discharges, consent to all replevies of mortgaged property, distresses, attachments, and other impediments, with

all releases of preference, mortgage, and suit for cancellation, all lie- fore or after payment. It may ratify all previous acts. It shall authorize all judicial actions, whether as plaintiff or as defendant, treat, adjust, and compromise the said actions, as well as

all affairs of the company.

In general, it shall do, in the corporate interest, all acts which it thinks accessary and useful, the powers above recited being purely

declaratory and not in limitation of the rights of the board of

directors.

ARTICLE 29. The board of directors may, for the general administration of the company, delegate all or a part of its powers either to one or more of its members, with the title of director-delegate, on to one or more managers or submanagers taken from outside the board.

Il may, moreover, delegate either to one or more directors, or to one of the employees of the company, or to one or more third persons, all or a part of its powers, by special authorization, and for one

or more definite affairs or objects.

Article 30. The directors shall be compensated, over and above the

share of profits fixed in article 52, by tokens of attendance, the

amount of which shall be determined by the stockholders' meeting,

and which if shall be the duty of the board of directors to distribute

to its members.

Title IV.—-Technical t inniniKsion.

Article 31. The board of directors is authorized to associate with

itself a technical commission chosen from among persons competent in
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 269

matters of public works and especially from the retired inspectors

general of the departments of bridges and roads and finance.

This commission, upon communications made to it by the board of

directors, shall give its opinion on questions relative to the execution

of the works.

The number of members of the technical commission, as well as their remuneration, shall be fixed by the board of directors.

Title V. — < bm m ission ers. Article 32. The stockholders' meeting- shall appoint one or more

commissioners, members or not, invested with the functions committed

to them by law.

If any of the commissioners can not act, the one or more who remain

shall act without them.

A compensation is allowed them to be fixed by the stockholders'

meeting.

Title VI.

Stockholders'1 meeting.

Article 33. A regularly constituted stockholders1 meeting shall represent all the stockholders.

Article 34. The stockholders' meeting shall be composed of all holders of at least ten shares.

All holders of less than ten shares may unite to form the necessary

number and cause themselves to be represented by one of their number, as provided by the law of August 1, 1893.

The meeting shall be regularly constituted when the shareholders

who compose it represent a quarter of the capital of the company.

Article 35. When, upon first assembling, the stockholders present

do not comply with the conditions above specified, in order to make

the proceedings of the meeting valid it may be adjourned for not less than twenty days.

A second call shall be made in the form prescribed by article 37

hereof.

The deliberations of this second meeting can only relate to the order

of business provided for the first meeting. Its acts shall be valid,

whatever may be the amount of capital represented by the stockholders.

Article 36. A stockholders' meeting shall be held every year at a day and place fixed by the board of directors before December 31. Extraordinary meetings also shall be held whenever the board of

directors may consider it useful. Article 37. Ordinary and extraordinary meetings may be called by means of a notice inserted at least twenty days previously in one

of the Paris papers designated for the publication of legal notices.

Article 38. Shareholders in order to have the right to take part in or to have themselves represented at stockholders' meetings must

prove, at the domicile of the company, at least five days before the

meeting, by the deposit of their certificates in the company's treasury or in that of one of the establishments designated for this purpose by

the board of directors.

Deposits made under these conditions give a right to the issue of

cards of admission in the name of the depositor.

Registered holders of registered shares or of certificates of deposit

have also the right to be represented at meetings b}^ proxies furnished
270 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

with regular powers, the form of which shall be determined by the

board of directors.

Holders of powers must deposit their proxies at the domicile of the

company within the time fixed b}7 the board of directors for each

meeting.

No one can represent a shareholder at the meeting unless he is himself a member of the meeting.

Married women, however, may be represented by their husbands if they have the management of their rights and shares, and in like manner minors or incompetents may be represented by their guaruian.

Usufructuaries and naked owners must be represented by one of

them, furnished with a power from the other, or by a common proxy

who is a member of the meeting.

Companies which are stockholders, as well as the Government of

Colombia, may each be represented by a delegate who is not himself

a shareholder.

Article 39. The stockholders' meeting shall be presided over by

the president or one of the vice-presidents, and, in default of these,

by a director appointed by the board.

The two largest shareholders present at the opening of the meeting,

who accept, shall be appointed tellers. The board shall appoint the secretary.

Article 40. Action by the stockholders' meeting shall be determined by a majority of votes of the members present or regularly

represented. In case of equal division the vote of the president shall preponderate.

Article 41. Ten shares shall give the right to one vote. The same

shareholder can not cast in all more than two hundred votes, whether

as shareholder or as proxy.

Article 42. A secret vote may be required by ten members repre- senting together at least twr o hundred votes. Article 43. The action of the stockholders' meeting is recorded

in minutes signed by the president, the tellers, and the secretary.

Copies or extracts from these minutes to be used in proceedings at law or otherwise must be certified by the president or by two directors.

Article 44. At each stockholders' meeting a list shall be kept

of members present. It shall contain the names and residences of the

shareholders and the number of shares held by each. This list shall be certified by the officers of the meeting and deposited with the company's records.

Article 45. The order of business for the stockholders' meeting

shall be fixed by the board of directors.

No other questions than those contained in this order of business can be brought before the meeting.

Article 4b\ The stockholders

1 meeting shall hear the report of the board of directors on the corporate affairs.

It shall also hear the report of the commissioner or commissioners

upon the condition of the company, on the balance sheet, and on the

accounts presented by the board of directors.

It shall discuss and, if need be, approve the accounts.

It shall authorize, on proposal of the board, the creation of special

supplemental reserve and sinking funds which may be found useful.

It shall Hx the dividend to be paid.

It shall elect directors in place of those retiring and the commissioners.
BEPOBT OF THE [STHMIAN (ANAL COMMISSION. 271

It shall vote all loans hy means of the issue of obligations or by

mortgage.

It shall audit the first accounts after the execution of the works.

It shall pass upon the propositions of the hoard of directors.

It shall vote upon the increases of capital proposed by the board of

directors.

It shall consider and finally decide upon all the interests of the company, and confer upon the hoard of directors all the supplementary

powers which shall appear useful.

It shall have extraordinary power of decision upon the course to be

taken in accordance with article 75 hereof.

Article 47. The action of the stockholders' meeting, taken in con- formity with the statutes, shall bind all shareholders, even although

absent or dissenting.

Title VII.

Statennntx of condition -Inventories.

Article -18. The corporate year shall begin July 1 and end June 30. The first period shall comprise the time between the formal organization of the company and June 30, 1895. Article 49. The board of directors shall prepare every six months

a summary statement of the condition of the company as to assets and

liabilities. This statement shall be submitted to the commissioner or commissioners.

Article 50. There also shall be made up at the end of each corporate year an inventory showing the real and personal property of the

company and all indebtedness due to or by it. This inventory shall be presented to the stockholders' meeting.

Title VIII.—Ann ual accounts-^ Sinking funds—Interests-Reserve fun ds—Div iden ds. Article 51. —The annual income from the enterprise shall be first applied to the payment of

1. The share for which the United States of Colombia has stipulated

for its own benefit, according to the terms of the concession law.

2. The expenses of maintenance and exploitation, the cost of administration, and all corporate charges in general, interest and sinking

funds on loans which may have been contracted.

3. The previous deduction of one-twentieth of the net profits, after

payment of all the charges hereinbefore mentioned, for the formation

of a legal reserve fund.

4. Five per cent upon the corporate capital, the income of which

shall be applied by the stockholders' meeting, in accordance with the

propositions of the board of directors, not only to form the sinking

fund to be established in accordance with article 55 hereof, but also to provide dividend on the shares not extinguished.

_ Article 52. The excess of annual income after the various deductions provided in the preceding article constitutes the net income or

profits of the enterprise.

From these profits shall be deducted 5 per cent for the benefit of the

board of directors.

The surplus shall belong to the amount of 40 per cent to the shares

issued and to the amount of 60 per cent to the Compagnie Universale

du Canal Interoceanique in liquidation.
272 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Article 53. The payment of interest and dividends shall be made at the company's office or at the offices of the representatives designated

by the board of directors.

The payment of interest shall be made at two- periods, January 1 and July 1 in each year. Dividends shall be pa}T able on January 1 next after the vote of the

annual stockholders' meeting.

The board may. nevertheless, if it thinks lit, authorize a payment on

account of dividends on the preceding 1st of July.

Article 5-1. Interest and dividends remaining unclaimed at the

expiration of rive years from the time when payable shall become the

property of the company.

Article 55. The extinguishment of the shares shall be accomplished

in ninety-nine years from the putting of the canal in operation.

Provision shall be made for this extinguishment by means of the

deduction hereinbefore provided for in article 51 , the amount of which

shall be fixed by the stockholders' meeting on recommendation of the

board of directors.

The shares to be paid off shall be designated by drawing lots, which

shall be publicly done at the times and in the manner fixed by the

board of directors.

Article 56. The numbers of shares drawn for payment shall be

posted in the company's principal office. Article 57. Shares drawn for payment shall be paid at the places

designated for the payment of dividends and interest. Holders of extinguished shares have the same rights as holders of

shares not extinguished, except as to the dividend which may be paid

in accordance with article 51 hereof.

Article 58. The share of 60 per cent set apart for the Oompagnie

Universelle du Canal Interoceanique in liquidation, may, if the receiver

so requests, be represented by certificates, to such number as he shall

fix, leaving it to him to make a proper distribution thereof among the

parties in interest. This right to <i shari in th> profits shall not <jir< to any ofthosi who

enjoy if any right to tah part in an;/ way in fin acts <>/• administration

of fin company.

In all cases the provisions of articles is and l!> hereof concerning

shares are equally applicable to the certificates of interest. All expenses and formalities connected with these certificates must

he borne by the holders. Before distributing these certificates the receiver must make arrangements for their being represented in dealings with the new company;

these arrangements must be satisfactory to the hoard of directors of

the present company.

Article 59. Tin 1 reserve fund is composed of the accumulation of

the sums deducted from the annual profits in accordance with article 51 hereof.

When this reserve fund reaches one-tenth of the capital of the com

pany, its creation may he suspended. It must be resumed when the

amount of the reserve has sunk below one-tenth of the capital of the

company.

Title IX. Modification of the statutes Dissolution.

AirriCLE 60. If experience shows the desirability of making modifications in or additions to the present statutes, the stockholders' meet-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 273

ing shall provide for the same in the manner fixed in articles (51 and

62 hereof.

It may especially determine upon a reduction of the capital of the

company, a reduction in the duration, the prolongation, the earlier

dissolution of the company, or its consolidation with other companies.

It may even introduce modifications in the objects of the company,

without, however, changing their essential character.

Article 61. Meetings which are to consider the different subjects

mentioned in the preceding article will not be regularly constituted, nor will their action be valid, unless they are composed of a number

of shareholders representing at least one-half of the capital of the company; but in such case the board of directors shall have the right in

its calls to reduce, as far as it shall think desirable, the number of

shares which must be held in order to take part in the meeting, and in such ease the holder of the minimum number of shares necessary to take part in the meeting shall have one vote, the holder of ten shares

shall have two votes, the number of votes increasing at the rate of two

votes for ten shares, provided that the total number of votes of any

member shall not exceed two hundred.

Moreover, all owners of a number of shares less than that fixed for

admission to the meeting may unite to form the requisite number of

shares and may cause themselves to be represented by one of their

number in accordance with the law of August 1, 1893. Article 62. It is here explained that it is in order to conform to the French law now in force that the present statutes require the rep- resentation of one-half the capital of the company at the stockholders'

meetings called to consider the subjects specified in article 61 hereof,

and a representation of one-quarter of the capital in the other meet

ings; but it is expressly understood that the company may take the

benefit of any new laws which lmvy decrease the amount of capital necessarily represented in stockholders' meetings, and that new lsgislative

provisions concerning this question will become applicable to the cornpan)' hereby created upon a resolution to that effect of a meeting of

stockholders called in accordance with the rules laid down in articles 34 and 35 hereof.

Article 63. In case of dissolution of the compan}7

, the meeting

of stockholders on recommendation of the board of directors shall determine the method to be adopted either for the liquidation or reor- ganization of the company as a new company. It may appoint one or more liquidators, and may confer upon them the broadest powers.

Article 64. During liquidation the powers of the meetings of

stockholders shall continue as during the existence of the company.

It shall have, especially, the right to approve the accounts of the

liquidation and to give acquittance therefor.

The appointment of Liquidators ' shall terminate the powers of the

directors and of all mandatories.

Title X.

Conferring ofjurisdiction—Suits.

Article 65. In accordance with article 20 of the concession law of

May 18, 1878, differences which may arise between the Government

of the United States of Colombia and the company shall be submitted

to the Federal supreme court (Colombia).

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 18
274 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

But for till other litigation the company .shall have its domicile at Paris.

Article 06. The company shall be considered commercial in its essence as in its form, and shall accordingly be within the jurisdiction

of the tribunal of commerce of the Seine.

Article 67. Suits concerning the general and collective interests of

the company can not be brought either against the board of directors or against one of its members, except in the names of shareholders

representing one-twentieth of the capital of the company. Actions

concerning the rights of members can not be brought by a shareholder, or group of shareholders, representing less than a twentieth of the

company's capital.

And no action at law brought by one or more shareholders against

the company, its board of directors, or one of its members can be

brought into court until after having been submitted to the examination of a meeting of shareholders, whose opinion shall be submitted to the magistrates at the same time with the complaint itself. Article 68. Every shareholder in case of litigation must make elec- tion of a domicile at Paris, and all notices and summonses to him may

be lawfully served at the domicile by him elected, without regard to the distance of the real domicile. In default of election of a domicile, he shall be deemed to have

elected for notices, judicial and extra judicial, the office of the attorney

of the Republic at the civil tribunal of first instance of the Seine.

The domicile elected, actually or impliedly, as has just been stated,

shall carry with it the conferring of jurisdiction on the competent

tribunals of the Seine.

Article 69. In all litigations which may arise between the company

and third persons, notice of all judicial or extra judicial documents

must necessarily be given by service of a copy personally upon the

president of the board of directors at the principal office of the

company.

Title XI.Temporary provisions.

Article 7<>. The subscription of the entire capital of the company,

and the payment of at least one-fourth the capital in cash, shall be

evidenced by a declaration of the founder acknowledged before a notary.

To this declaration shall be annexed a list of the subscribers and the

state of the payments made.

Article 71. This declaration, with vouchers, shall be submitted to the first stockholders' meeting} which shall verity its accuracy.

The same meeting shall cause the value of the contribution hereinbefore mentioned, and the consideration for the advantages agreed to be given, to be appraised.

Article 72. A second meeting shall be called to approve, if proper,

the contribution and advantages in question.

The same meeting shall elect the directors and the commissioners

created by article 32. The minutes of the meeting shall show the acceptance of the direct- ors and of the commissioners.

The company shall be organized upon their acceptance.

Article 73. Stockholders' meetings called for the organization of
REPORT OF THK ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 275

the company shall be composed of all the shareholders, who have each

a vote, provided that the holders of several shares shall have one vote

for every ten shares; but no person shall have more than ten votes. The meetings for organization must be composed of a number of

shareholders representing half the capital of the company. The capital, one-half of which must be represented for verification of the eon-. tribution, shall be composed only of the payments not subject to

verification.

If the meeting does not include a number of shareholders repre- senting half the capital, it nan act only provisionally; in such case a new meeting shall be called. Two notices, published eight days apart, at least one month in advance, in one of the papers in which legal notices are published in Paris shall give notice to the shareholders of the provisional action

taken by the first meeting, and this action shall become final if approved

by a new meeting composed of a number of shareholders representing

at least one-fifth of the capital of the company.

Article 74. All general provisions of Title VI, relative to stockholders' meetings, not inconsistent with those contained in this title, shall be applicable to meetings of stockholders for organization; except

that meetings foi organization may be called by a notice inserted in a newspaper in which legal notices are published in Paris, as follows:

For the first meeting, two days beforehand, and for the second meeting at least ten days beforehand.

Article 75. When the amounts expended as well for the work done

upon the canal as for the discharge of the burdens resulting from the

contribution of Mr. Gautron shall reach about one-half of the cash

capital of the company at the minimum, a special technical commission,

theretofore appointed at a proper time, shall pronounce upon the

results obtained from the work already done and upon the conclusions

to be drawn therefrom as to the remainder of the enterprise.

This commission shall be composed of two members appointed by

the board of directors of the present company and of two persons

appointed by the liquidation of the old Compagnie Universelle du Canal

Interoceanique. These four members shall appoint a fifth, who shall be president of the commission, and if they can not agree this president shall be appointed by the president of the tribunal of commerce

of the department of the Seine.

The board of directors shall be required to make public the opinion

of this commission and to call a special meeting of stockholders in the manner provided in articles 61 and 02 hereof.

This meeting shall consider the ways and means tending to insure

the completion of the work and the stipulations contained in article 5, section 4, No. 3, hereof.

Title XII.

Publications.

Article 76. Within the month of the organization of the company

the directors shall file in the registry of the tribunal of commerce of

the Seine and of the justice of the peace of the ninth arrondissement

of Paris

1. A copy of the articles of association.

2. A copy of the document showing the subscription of the capital

and the payment of one-fourth.
276 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

3. A copy or a certified copy of the action of the stockholders' meeting in accordance with articles 71 and 72 hereof.

4. A cop}^ or a certified copy of the list of the names of the subscribers.

Article 77. Within the same time an extract from the documents

and proceedings specified in the preceding article shall be inserted in one of the newspapers publishing legal notices in Paris in pursuance of

law.

Article 78. Full powers are granted the holders of the documents

for the filing and publication in question.

Article 79. Finally, it is noted that all the provisions contained in the two last preceding titles relative to the organization and publications of the present company have been dictated only by the requirements of the French law as to joint-stock companies now in force. Express reservation is made of the benefit of all new provisions

which the legislature may introduce into the law.

EXTRACT FROM THE MINUTES OF THE CIVIL TRIBUNAL, LOWER COURT,

FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE, SITTING IN THE PALACE OF

JUSTICE, PARIS, JUNE 29, 1894, APPROVING AND RATIFYING THE

CHARTER OF THE NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

The civil tribunal, lower court, for the department of the Seine,

sitting in the palace of justice, Paris, has rendered, in open and public

sessions of its first division, the following judgment:

Done at the sitting of the 29th day of June, L894. The tribunal having examined and considered the petition ]>resented

by Gautron as receiver of the court for the Universal Company of the

Panama [nteroceanic Canal, which petition is signed by De BieVille, his counselor, and the tribunal having also examined and considered

the documents produced, and the petition aforesaid being conceived

as follows:

To the honorable the president and justices of the first division of

the civil tribunal of the Seine, the petitioner, Air. Jean Pierre Gautron,

receiver of the court, residing in Paris, No. 18 Tronchet street, represents as follows:

That he is acting in his capacity as receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama [nteroceanic (anal, whose legal residence is in Paris. No. 63 Rue de la Victoire; that he was named receiver as aforesaid by a decree rendered in chambers by the civil tribunal of the

Seine on the 21st day of July. 1893. That he. through his attorney and counselor, . Mr. de BieVille,

respectfully states that on the 4th day of February, L889, Mr. Joseph

Brunet was named, by recorded decree of the first division of this tribunal, receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama Inter- oceanic (anal, and was given most extensive powers, notably that of

granting or making a cont ribution of either the whole or a part of the

assets of the company to a new company or association.

That by a recorded decree of this tribunal rendered in chambers on

the 13th day of February, L890, Mr. Achille Monchicourt was named

coreeeiver for the said company with Mr. Joseph Brunet, and was

given the same powers, to use individually or in conjunction with the

latter.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 277

That owing- to the resignation of Mr. Brunet, Mr. Aehille MonchiI'ourt has been confirmed by a chamber's decree dated the 8th day of

March, L890, as sole receiver for the said company, with the broadest

powers, notably that of giving or making a contribution to a new

company or association of cither the whole or a part of the assets of

the company aforesaid, of entering into and rectifying with contractorsall contracts and agreements aiming to the continuation or preserving

of the work, and of prolonging and renewing all agreements, of giving

all guarantees necessary for this purpose.

Finally, that by a decree rendered in chambers on the 21st day of

July. 1893, Mr. dean Pierre Gautron was appointed coreceiver with

Mr! Aehille Monchicourt, with the same and equal powers, to use indi- vidually or jointly with the said Mr. Monchicourt.

That owing to the decease of Mr. Aehille Monchicourt, which

occurred on the 11th day of March, 1891, Mr. Gautron remains sole receiver of the Panama interoceanic Canal Company.

That a new company is in process of formation at the present time

for the purpose of resuming the work and completing the canal. That the constitution and by-laws of this company, called the New

Panama Canal Company, have been drawn up and deposited for record

by Mr. Gustave Ramet, formerly president of the tribunal of com- merce at Rennes, and have been tiled also in the records and minutes

of Mr. Lefebvre, notary, in Paris.

That your petitioner, by virtue of the powers conferred by the orders

and decrees aforesaid jn the receiver for the Panama Interoceanic Canal

Company, is preparing to make contribution to the new company now

being constituted:

First. Of all rights whatsoever accruing to the old company from the

laws of the Government of the United States of Colombia, dated May

18, 1878, and December 20, 1890, as well as from all decrees, acts, or

facts whatever having followed upon these laws in the course of their

execution, and all advantages and benefits accruing therefrom and

stipulated by these laws and decrees, together with all territory and

real estate having been granted and ceded to the interoceanic company now in process of liquidation, or acquired by the same; all this provided the new company fulfill the conditions prescribed and imposed

by the laws and acts passed in granting or extending the concession,

and provided it pay and discharge all sums and indebtedness remaining

due to the Colombian Government by the old company.

Second. Of the work already done and accomplished, of the yards,

workshops, buildings, hospitals, plant mounted and unmounted, and

of the stores, etc., belonging to the receivership, as well as of all deposits.

Third. Of the plans, estimates, surveys, and specifications, and of

all documents whatsoever gathered and collected by the Universal

Company of the Interoceanic Canal bearing in any manner on the

study, construction, or improvement, and operation of the canal or of

its appurtenants, as well as the privileges attached to the same and all contracts or agreements with third parties.

Fourth. Of all rights of any nature and description, part ownership or any othei rights whatsoever which may belong or accrue to the Interoceanic Canal Universal Company now being liquidated, in the Panama Railroad at Colon, now worked and operated by an American

company known as the Panama Railroad Company, whose legal resi-
278 REPORl OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

dence is in Now York. The said rights shall be transferred such as they are, carrying with them all privileges entailed by them; and Mr.

Gautron binds himself in his official capacity to invest with them the

present company in the form and in compliance with all formalities

required for such transfer by the laws of the United States of America.

The said rights shall be transferred, as well as the said property, in

full, such as they exist and with all that they entail. Your petitioner further respectfully shows as follows:

That the said grant and contribution are made, or are to be made,

by him with the following reservations and under the following conditions, to wit:

First. The receivership shall have and receive a part in the net

profits and gains of the enterprise, amounting to 00 per cent of the

said profits and gains, such as the same shall be determined and computed under articles 51 and 52 of the by-laws.

Second. Fifty thousand shares of entirely paid-up stock shall be

given to the Government of the United States of Colombia, as pre- scribed by the extension act of December 20, 1890.

Third. The rights of every nature and description accruing to the

receivership from the Panama Railroad, and ceded by Mr. Gautron,

as set forth in paragraph 4- above, shall become the property of the new company from the date of the meeting provided for by article 75

of the constitution and by-laws. No pecuniary compensation is required

of the new company for the cession of said rights, hut they are trans- ferred on the condition and with the full understanding that said

transfer shall be void if the canal be not completed within the time

appointed by the giant. Should the work not be completed within

the .said period of time, the said rights shall revert to the receivership.

If, contrary to all expectations, the meeting in question should fail to take the necessary measures to complete the canal, or if the measures

thus taken by said meeting should fail of execution by reason of

impossibility to carry them out, the present company would still retain

the said rights accruing from the railroad aforesaid; but it would have

to pay to the receivership a sum of 20,000,000 francs as an indemnity,

while the receivership's share in the gains and profits of the new com- pany would then be equal to one-half of said gains and profits without

further previous deduction than such as is provided for by paragraphs

2 and 8 of article 51. Fourth. Until the full completion of the canal Mi'. Gautron shall have power, in his capacity as receiver, to appoint a controlling or

supervising committee, composed of three members selected as much

as possible from among civil engineers and finance inspectors, in order

to inspect the progress of the work, the condition and maintenance of

the plant and of the real property, as well as the accounts kept in relation to these various objects.

The compensating of this committee shall be at the expense of the new company.

Your petitioner further shows that it is proper for him to submit to the civil tribunal of the Seine, for ratification and approval, the conditions of the said giants and contributions and the constitution and

by-laws of the company formed for the completion of the canal. Wherefore your said petitioner, acting in his official capacity, respectfully requests and prays the honorable president and associate justices

of this court purely and simply to ratify and approve the purport and
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 279

conditions of the grants or contributions intended to bo made by the

receiver for the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal

to the New Panama Canal Company now in process of formation, as well as the constitution and by-laws of the last-mentioned company.

All proper reservations being made, justice will be done.

A. de Bieville.

Having- considered the order issued b}r the president of the court,

dated the 27th day of June, 1894, appended to the said petition and

directing:

That this be communicated to the commonwealth attorne3r

, and that

Mr. de Boislisle, vice-president, is hereby appointed to make a report.

Done at the palace of justice, Paris, on the 27th day of June, 1894, and

signed "Baudouin."

Having considered the written opinion of the commonwealth attor- ney, likewise appended to the said petition, which opinion is thus conceived:

The attorney for the commonwealth refers the matter to the tri- bunal of justice.

Cabat.

Having considered articles 10 and 11 of the act of July 1, 1893,

which articles are thus framed:

Article 10. All acts tending to alienate any assets of the company, all contracts

entailing a transfer or contribution of the whole or of part of the assets of the concern, emanating from the receiver of the Universal Company of the Panama Inter- oceanic Canal, shall be subject to the approval or ratification of the civil tribunal of the Seine, who shall, on the report of one of the justices, paes on the question in open court. * Article 11. All decrees of approval and ratification rendered in accordance with

the preceding article shall be published, within a term of ten days, in the Journal

Officiel and in the' Journal Officiel (Commune edition). This decree may be attacked by a third party, by the shareholders, by the attorney

of obligation holders, and by other creditors of the company, within a delay not exceeding one month from the date of the publication aforesaid. The civil tribunal

shall adjudicate the question within the space of one month, as in the case of matters demanding immediate and summary adjudication. The appeal from such decision must be entered, within ten days from the time of notification of said judgment, to the party in person or at his domicile. Having heard at the sitting of the court Mr. de Boislisle, vicepresident, in his report, and Mr. Cabat, assistant attorney for the

commonwealth, in his opinion, and having deliberated upon the same

in accordance with law.

Whereas it appeal's from the terms of article 5 of the constitution

and by-laws of the New Panama Canal Company, which constitution and b}T -laws have been duly acknowledged before Lefebvre and

his colleague, notaries in Paris, under an act of June 26, 1894, that

Gautron, acting in his official capacity as receiver for the Universal

Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, has declared himself

as ceding or contributing to the said company newly formed:

First. All rights whatsoever accruing to the old company by virtue

of the laws of the Government of the United States of Colombia, dated

May 18, 1878, and December 26, 1890, as well as those accruing from

all decrees, acts, or facts having followed upon these laws in the course

of their execution, and all advantages accruing therefrom and stipulated by these laws and decrees, together with all territory and real estate granted and ceded unto the interoceanic company now in process
'280 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of liquidation or acquired by the «ame—all this provided the new com- pany fulfill the conditions prescribed and imposed by the laws and acts passed in prolongation or extension of the grant, and provided it dis- charge and pay all sums and indebtedness remaining clue to the Colombian Government by the old company.

Second. The work already done and accomplished, the yards, workshops, buildings, hospitals, plant, mounted and unmounted, and the

stores, etc., belonging to the receivership of the Universal Company

of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, as well as all deposits which may

have been made by the said company now in process of liquidation.

Third. The plans, estimates, surveys, and specifications, and all documents whatsoever gathered and collected by the Universal Company of the Panama Interoceanic Canal bearing in any manner on the

study, construction, or improvement and operation of the canal and

its appurtenants, as well as the privileges attached to the same, and all contracts or agreements with third parties.

Fourth. All rights of any nature and description, part ownership,

or any other rights whatsoever which may belong or accrue to the

Interoceanic Canal Universal Company, now being liquidated, in the

Panama Railroad at Colon, now worked and operated by an American

company, known as the Panama Railroad Company, whose legal resi- dence is in New York, the said rights being transferred such as they

are and exist, carrying with them all the privileges which they entail; and Mr. Gautron binding himself, in his official capacity, to invest

with them the present company in the form, and in compliance with

all the formalities, required for such due and valid transfer by the

laws of the United States of America.

Whereas, moreover, the said rights are to be transferred, as well as the said property, such as they exist and with all that they entail, and

whereas these cessions or grant and contribution have been made by

Gautron, in his official capacity, with the following reservations and

under the following conditions, to wit:

First. The receivership shall have and receive a share in the net

profits and gains of the enterprise amounting to 60 per cent of the

said profits and gains, such as the same shall be determined and computed under articles 51 and 52 of the constitution and by-laws.

Second. Fifty thousand shares of entirely paid-up stock shall be

given to the Government of the United States of Colombia, as pre- scribed by the extension act of December 26, 1890. Third. The rights of every nature and description accruing to the

receivership from the Panama Railroad, and ceded by Mr. Gautron,

as set forth in paragraph 4 above, shall become the property of the new company from I he dale of the meeting provided for by article 75

of the constitution and by-laws. No pecuniary compensation is required of the new company for the cession of these rights, but they

are transferred on the condition and with the full understanding that said transfer shall be void if the canal be not completed within the time

appointed by the grant. Should the work not be completed within

the said period of time, the said lights shall revert to the receivership.

If, contrary to all expectations, the meeting in question should fail to take the necessary measures t<» complete the canal, or if the measures

thus taken by the said meeting should prove impossible of execution,

the present company would still retain the said rights accruing from

the railroad aforesaid; but it would be bound to pay to the receiver-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 281

ship a sum of 20,000,000 francs as indemnity, while the receivership's

share in the gains and profits of the now company would then be equal

to one-half of the said gains and profits without further previous

reduction than such as is provided for by paragraphs 2 and 3 of

article 51. Consequently, the said rights shall remain inalienable in the hands of the new company aforesaid, either until the payment of" the said 20,000,000 francs or until the full completion of the canal. Fourth. Until the full completion of the canal Mr. Gautron shall have power, in his official capacity, to appoint a controlling or supervising committee composed of three members, to he selected, as far

as possible, from among- civil engineers and finance inspectors, in order

to inspect the progress of the work, the condition and maintenance of

the plant and real property, as well as the accounts kept in relation to these various subjects. The compensation of this committee shall be

at the expense of the new compan}T

. Whereas, according to the terms of article 51 of the constitution and

by-laws of the said new company, the annual proceeds of the enterprise shall be used to pay and discharge:

First. The share in the gains and profits stipulated and reserved to

itself by the Government of the United States of Colombia according

to the terms of the grant.

Second. The costs of maintenance and the operating expenses, the

expenditures entailed in the management of the concern, and, generally

speaking, all charges incurred by the company, as well as the payment

of interest and the redemption of all loans which may have been contracted. Third. The deduction of one-twentieth, levied on the net profits

after the settlement and cancellation of all items of indebtedness above

enumerated, the said deduction to be applied to the formation of the

legal reserve fund.

Fourth. Five per cent of the capital stock, the same to be applied

by the general meeting, as the board of directors may advise, both to the formation of the redemption fund which is to be established under

article 55 and to the payment of interest on unredeemed shares. Whereas, according to the terms of article 52, the net gains and

profits of the enterprise will consist in whatever will be left of the

annual proceeds after deduction of the various items enumerated in the

preceding article hereof, while 5 per cent of these net profits will be

set apart for the benefit of the board of directors, and the surplus shall go 40 per cent to the shares created and 60 per cent to the Interoceanic

Canal Universal Company now in process of liquidation.

Whereas, finally, by the terms of article 75, when the expenses

incurred for the work done on the canal and for the settlement of

obligations resulting from the contribution made by Gautron in his

official capacity as receiver shall have reached a sum equal to at least one-half of the capital stock (excluding nonspecies portion of the same),

the results then achieved from the work already done and the conse- quent decisions to be taken for the future of the enterprise shall be

passed upon by a special technical commission brought together at some previous and opportune time, the said commission to consist of

two members designated by the board of directors of the present company and of two persons named by the receivership of the former

universal company for an interoceanic canal, together with a fifth member whom the other four shall designate and who shall be president

of the said commission, but who in case the other four members shouid
282 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

fail to agree, shall be appointed by the president of the tribunal of commerce for the department of the Seine.

Whereas the board of directors shall be bound to make public the

report made b}T this commission and to summon an extraordinary or

special general meeting.

Whereas this meeting shall have to deliberate on ways and means to insure the completion of the work and on the stipulation herein above

set forth, article 5, paragraph 1, No. 3; whereas the constitution and

by-laws in question must be submitted, by the terms of article 10

above mentioned, of the law dated July 1, 1893, to the tribunal for

ratification touching the contributions intended to be made to the New

Pananni Canal Company by Gautron in his official capacity, and

whereas this ratification is prayed for b}T Gautron.

Whereas the said contributions are within the competency of the

receiver, according to decrees which appointed him with the broadest

powers, notably with that of ceding or contributing to a now com- pany all or a part of the company's assets; whereas the conditions

stipulated for the benefit of the Universal Company of the Panama

Interoceanic Canal seem to be in accord with its own interests, and

therefore it is proper to ratify and approve the agreement declaring

these contributions and conditions:

For these reasons the court, leaving unimpaired the right of shareholders, of the attorney or representative of obligation holders, and of

other creditors of the company to intervene and make objection under

article 11 of the law dated July 1, 181*3, does hereby approve and ratify,

purely and simply, the constitution and by-laws of the New Panama

Canal Company as received by Lefebvre and his colleague, notaries,

in Paris, on the 20th day of June, 1894, touching the contributions

made by Gautron in his capacity as receiver of the Universal Company

of the Panama Interoceanic Canal, and the court hereby orders that

the present decree be published within the space of ten days, in the

Journal Officiel and in the Journal Officiel (Commune edition), according to article 11 of the law of July 1, 1893.

Baudouin.

De Boislisle.

Lasniek.

Done and adjudged by Messrs. Baudouin, president; De Boislisle,

vice-president; Laporte, judge; Tassart, supernumerary judge; LeBerquier, supernumerary judge, in the presence of M. Cabat, assistant

attorney for the commonwealth, attended by Lasnier, clerk, June 29,

1894.

The order was signed by the honorable president of the court, by

the reporting judge, and by the clerk. Recorded in Paris, July 11, 1894, folio 50, thir subdivision.

Received 9 francs and 38 centimes, decimes included.

[Translation.—Paris, June 8, 1888.] LAW AUTHORIZING THE COMPAGNIE UNIVERSELLE DTJ CANAL INTER- OCKAMOUIO DE PANAMA TO [SSI K IN FRANCE SECURITIES REPAYABLE

WITH PRIZES. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies have adopted, the President

of the Republic promulgates the law of the following tenor: Article 1. The Compagnie Universelle du Canal tnteroceanique de
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 283

Panama is authorized to create, up to 600,000,000 francs, an .ssue of

securities, payable with prizes by lot, upon the following conditions:

First. The securities issued shall hear annual interest, the rate of

which can not be less than 3 per cent on their par value.

Second. The total annual sum distributed in the form of prizes can not, in any case, exceed 1 per cent of the par value.

Third. The par value of the securities issued can not be less than

300 francs; subsequent division of the securities issued is forbidden.

Fourth. The payment of this loan in a period of ninety-nine years,

at furthest, shall be secured by a sufficient deposit, for this especial

purpose, of French Government bonds, or of securities guaranteed by

the French Government. The Compagnie Universelle du Canal Inter- oceanique de Panama, to meet the obligation imposed upon it, is authorized to increase, under the same conditions, the said loan of six

hundred millions, by the sum necessary for the formation of this guaranty fund, this increase of loan not to exceed 20 per cent of the par

of the issue. Article 2. If the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interoceanique

de Panama should hereafter convert all or any of its former obligations, the provisions of article 1 shall be applicable to the new securities created by means of this conversion.

Article 3. All material necessary for the completion of the works

shall be manufactured in France. The raw material must be of French

origin.

Article 4. All prospectuses, posters, publications, and other documents intended for advertising must bear, in type of the same size as that used for announcing the loan, and below the amount of the loan,

the notice: Loan authorized in conformity with the provisions of the law of May 21, 1836, by

the law of June 8, 1888, but without any guaranty or responsibility of the State. The same notice shall be put at the top of the temporary or permanent certificates issued to subscribers.

Any violation of the above provision will entail the withdrawal of

authorization by simple order of the minister of finance.

The present law, considered and adopted by the Senate and Ivy the

Chamber of Deputies, shall be executed as a law of the State. Done at Paris June 8, 1888.

Carnot.

By the President of the Republic:

P. Peytral,

Minister of Finance.

law of JULY 15, 1889, authorizing sale of lottery bonds at

REDUCED RATES.

Article 1. The receiver of the Universal Company of the Inter- oceanic Canal of Panama is authorized to negotiate, at any price and

without interest, such of the lottery bonds authorized by the law of

el une 8, 1888, as had not been placed or sold up to the 4th day of February, 1889, when the said company was dissolved and was turned

over into the hands of a receiver.

The sums resulting from the negotiation or sale of the said bonds
284 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

shall be free from attachment or execution up to the amount of

34,000,000 francs. In case the receiver should contribute or give to a company formed

for the purp< se of completing the canal all or a part of the assets of

the receivership, the new company shall only have power to emit and

issue bonds as yet unplaced or unsold by complying- with the terms of

the law of June 8,1888, touching the minimum price of sale and the

distribution of interest. Article 2. As the sale shall proceed of those bonds on which full payment has not been made of the sum required to constitute the

guaranty fund or capital prescribed and provided for by the first article of the law of June 8, 1X88, the receiver must turn over the complement of this sum to the civil, i. c, nontrading, company created

with a view to the formation of the said fund or capital.

The deposits made by the civil or nontrading company by virtue of

the law of June 8, 1888, and also of the present law, shall not be withdrawn, but shall preserve their special character and shall remain

specially pledged until complete discharge of the lot guaranty and of

the capital reimbursement.
Appendix M M.

CONTRACT BETWEEN NICARAGUA AND THE AMERICAN ATLANTIC

AND PACIFIC SHIP-CANAL COMPANY, SIGNED AT LEON AUGUST

27, 1849.

The supreme director of the State of Nicaragua and The American

Atlantic and Pacific Ship-Canal Company, composed of Cornelius Vanderbilt, Joseph L. White, Nathaniel H. Wolfe, and their associates,

being always citizens of the United States, desiring- to settle the terms

of a contract for facilitating the transit across the Isthmus of Nicaragua

from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, by means of a ship canal or

railroad, have appointed as commissioners on the part of the supreme

director of the State of Nicaragua, Messrs. Hermenegilda Zepeda and

Gregorio Juares, and on the part of the said company Mr. David L. White, with full powers to arrange and conclude a contract for the

above-named purposes, which commissioners, having exchanged their

respective powers, have agreed upon and concluded the following

jirtic'es:

Article I. The State of Nicaragua grants to the said company the

exclusive right and privilege of constructing a ship canal across its territory, by a single route and at its own expense, from the port of

St. Johns, of Nicaragua, or any other more feasible point on the

Atlantic, to the port of liealejo. Gulf of Amapala, or Fonseca, Tamo

rinda, St. Johns of the South, or any other point on the Pacific Ocean

which the engineers of the company may decide upon, by means of

the St. Johns River, Lake Nicaragua, River Tipitapa, Lake of Leon,

or any other rivers, lakes, waters, and lands situated within its terri- tory, with the object of connecting the two oceans, and to make use

of, for its construction and navigation, said rivers, lakes, waters, and

lands, both public and private. And the State also grants to the

company the exclusive right to the administration, management, and

control of the said canal, according to the following articles:

II. The dimensions of the canal shall be such as may be necessary

for the passage of vessels of all sizes, and the point at which it shall terminate on the Pacific, in the event that the engineers of the com- pany shall decide upon two or more points as equally practicable, shall be that one most consistent with the mutual interests both of the State and the compan}'.

HI. The com] >any binds itself to construct, at its own expense, in the harbors at the extremities of the route of said canal, custom-house

buildings of the necessary capacity for the use of the State and

company.

IV. The exclusive rights and privileges herein granted to the said

company by the said State shall be enjoyed b}r the same for the fixed

285
286 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

period of eighty-five years, counted from the day in which the canal

shall be completed and put in use. V. The company hereby agrees to pay to the said State for the said

grant the following- sums of money, namely:

First. Ten thousand dollars by draft on the said company in the

city of New York as soon as this contract shall be ratified b}r the

Legislature of the State. Second. Ten thousand dollars at the expiration of one }

T ear from

this same date, and $10,000 each year thereafter until the completion

of the said canal, the above sums to be paid to the State in the city of

Leon, or in the city of New York, as the State may elect. Also the

said company makes a free donation to the said State of $200,000 of

stock in the enterprise, which shall be delivered to the State as soon

as the certificates of stock shall be distributed by the company.

VI. Said State shall receive for its proportion of the income of said

canal, after the same shall be put in use, the following interests,

namely: For the first twent}7 years, 20 per cent annually out of the net

profits after deducting therefrom the interest of the capital employed

in its construction at the rate of 7 per cent per annum, and 25 per cent each year thereafter out of said net profits, after deducting the said 7

per cent, until the expiration of the full period of the term hereinabove

granted. And the State shall also receive 10 per cent out of the net

profits, without any deduction of interest, of any route which the

company may establish between the two oceans, whether it be by rail- road or carriage road or by any other means of communication, during

the twelve }

r ears herein granted for the construction of said canal. VII. The said company shall be bound to make and present an annual

report and account to the Government of Nicaragua, setting forth the

receipts and expenditures, as well as a statement of the condition of

the works of the canal, which report shall be certified by the proper

officers of the company. The State, however, shall have the right,

through any commissioners which it may appoint for that purpose, to inspect and examine at any time the books of the company to satisfy

itself of the correctness of the said receipts and expenditures.

VII J. It is hereby stipulated that the State of Nicaragua shall have

the privilege of taking stock in the said canal, to the amount of

$500,000, within one year from the date of the ratification of this contract, which it may distribute, as it ma}7 deem proper, among any of

its native citizens or the citizens of the adjoining States, upon giving

notice to the company of such intention through the United States consul in the city of Leon.

IX. It is further stipulated that a majority of the stock of said canal

shall always be owned by citizens of the United States; in evidence of

which the stock hooks of said company shall always he open to inspection at the principal office of the company, wherever the same may be

located. X. The company binds itself to commence the preliminary surveys

for said works within the period of twelve months from the date of the

ratification of this contract, and also to complete the said canal within

twelve years from the same date. But if any fortuitous or unforeseen

events, beyond the control of the company —as, for example, earthquakes, epidemics, wars, or any other events of this nature—should

appear during the progress of the work to suspend its execution, the

time thus lost shall not be reckoned as a part of the stipulated time
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 287

above given for its completion. In case such event should occur, the

company shall give Immediate notice to the Government of the .same, for the purpose of deciding, in connection with the company, upon

the nature of such event. XI. If none of the events which are expressed in the preceding

article should occur, and the work shall not he completed within the

said period of twelve years, then whatever may have been done by the

company to that time in the prosecution of the work shall be forfeited

to and become the property of the State without any indemnity.

XII. The State gives to the said company the right to take, free of

any charge or indemnity, any of the public lands or forests within the

State., all the wood, stone, lime, timber, or any other materials which

it may require for the construction and use of said canal and its dependencies. And the said State hereby further gives to the corn- pan}7 the right to take and make use of such portions of the public

lands as it may require for the establishment or erection of houses,

stores, docks, w7 harves, stations, and all other useful objects connected

with the works of said canal. XIII. In case the company shall require any materials, such as wood,

lime, stone, etc., which may be found in or upon the lands of particular individuals, it shall be obligated to pay for the same at such price

as may be agreed upon between the company and such individuals;

but all the lands which may be required for the passage of the canal in

its entire route shall be at the expense of the State, and the company

shall not be liable to pay any indemnity for the same. XIV. All the articles that the company may require, both for the

surveys and explorations, and for the construction and use of the

works of the canal, such as machines, instruments, tools, etc., and all other necessary materials, shall be admitted into the State free of

duties of all kinds, and may be discharged in any of its harbors or at any other point within its territory that the company may select, in

this last case, however, giving notice of such intention to the proper

Government officer. But the company shall have no right to introduce within the territory of the State any goods, merchandise, or any

other articles of commerce for sale or exchange without paying the

duties established by law. And they are also prohibited from importing any articles or materials which may be monopolized or prohibited

by the State for any purpose, except for the use of the works of the

canal. XV. The State binds itself to facilitate and aid in every possible

way the engineers, contractors, employees, and laborers who may be

employed in the explorations and surveys of the route, and in the construction of the works of the canal, and to this end stipulates that all citizens of the country who may be so employed by the company shall be free and exempt from all civil or military service of the State whatsoever; but to entitle them, however, to the right of exemption from

such military service they shall have been previously in the employ

of the company for at least the period of one month. The State also guarantees to all foreigners who may be employed on the works of the

canal the same rights, liberties, and privileges as are enjoyed by inhabitants of the country, and also that they shall not be molested or dis- turbed in their labors wmile thus emplo}7 ed by any internal commotions

or disorders of the country, and at the same time that they shall be

free and exempt from all taxes, duties, or direct contributions whatsoever during the time they may be in the company's employ.
288 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

XVI. The said companj agrees to receive from the State as laborers

upon the works of the canal any convicts who may be capable of labor

upon such terms as may be agreed upon between the company and the

State. XVII. The said company agrees to transport across the said canal

all passengers, goods, merchandise, and materials of every description

which may be intrusted to it; and also stipulates that the canal shall be open to the transit of vessels of all nations, subject to tixed and

uniform rates of tolls that may be established by the company.

XVIII. The company shall establish a tariff of fees or tolls for the

transportation of all passengers, goods, wares, merchandise, and property of every description, and for vessels of all kinds passing through

or along the said canal, which shall have the force of law from the

moment in which it shall be communicated to the Government of

Nicaragua, which shall be obliged to sanction the same within eight

days after its reception; and at the same time, with a view to induce

the largest and most extended business by this route, the said com- pany agree to fix the said tariff of fees or tolls for the same at the

lowest possible rate consistent with the mutual interests both of the

State and the company; and in case that the company should determine at any time to alter such tariff, it shall be incumbent upon it to give six months1 previous notice of such determination in the State paper of Nicaragua and in the principal seaport towns of the United

States. XIX. The rate of tolls and charges for the transit of the products and

manufactures of the State of Nicaragua and the adjoining States shall be regulated by a particular and more favorable tariff, which shall be

agreed upon between the State and the company.

XX. The State grants to all steamers and vessels of the company

during the continuance of this contract the right of ingress and egress

to. from, and through all its harbors, rivers, and waters, both on the

Pacific and Atlantic oceans and the interior, and the use of the same

free of all duties or charges of any kind whatsoever, as, for example,

anchorage, tonnage, etc

XXI. The State hereby stipulates that all vessels and steamers of the

company, and also all goods, merchandise, manufactured articles, or any

other property which may be conveyed therein passing through the said

canal from one sea to the other in either direction to any foreign country, shall be free and exempt from all kinds of Government duties or

taxes whatsoever, and shall also be secure and protected from all inter- ruption or detention in their course on the part of the State. XXII. The company shall furnish to the State annually a list of al

its vessels employed in the navigation of the route, containing the names and descriptions of each of such vessels, which shall be registered in the archives of the State, and thereupon the State shall give

to the company a separate certificate of the register of each one of the

said vessels, signed by the proper officer of the Government, which

certificate shall serve always as a passport for said vessels through all the harbors of the State upon presenting the same to the custom-house

or harbor officer. XXIII. The exclusive right which the company has acquired by

this contract of navigating the said lakes, rivers, and waters of the

said State by means of steam vessels, from one sea to the other, is understood as not to exclude the natives of the country from free
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 289

interior navigation by means of sailing or any other vessels, excepting

steam vessels. XXIV. The company hinds itself to transport by the said canal, on

board of any of its vessels, all the principal officers of the Government

and its subalterns, in case of Government necessity, from one point of

said route to any other one at which said vessels may stop, without

any charge to the State therefor.

XXV. The company is to convey by any of its steamers or vessels,

free of cost or charge, over the route of the said canal all the official cor- respondence of the State, in consideration of which the State agrees

not to collect or recover any postage or duties of any kind upon any

of the correspondence of the said company.

XXVI. The company binds itself to construct, at its own expense,

bridges upon that part of the canal that may be made between the

lakes and the Pacific, upon such principal highways as may be agreed

upon between the State and the company. The said State, with the consent of the company, shall establish rates of toll or charges upon such

persons or things as may puss over said bridges, the profits from which

shall be appropriated to redeem the capital invested in their construction, and the interest thereon at the rate of 7 per cent per annum; and

when such capital and interest shall have been reimbursed to the com- pany then the profits shall be divided equally between the State and

the company for the remaining period of this contract, but such

bridges shall continue under the control and management of said company.

XXVII. The State of Nicaragua, with the object of facilitating the

colonization of the lands contiguous to the river St. John and the

adjacent rivers, and of the canal which in or along it may be constructed, makes a free donation to the company of eight stations or

sections of land to be located at such points upon either one or both of

the banks of the said river or canal as the company may elect, each one of which stations shall be of 6 English miles in length, fronting

upon the river or canal, and 6 miles in width, measured from the bank

of the canal or river toward the interior. And the State further

grants to the company the right of alienating the lands which compose

said sections to settlers, or any other person or persons who may wish

to locate themselves upon the same. Said sections of land are granted

upon the following conditions:

(1) They shall be located by the company in such a manner that

they shall be at least ?> English miles distant from each other.

(2) That no one of them shall be located within the distance of 4£

English miles from the mouth of the St. Johns River.

(3) The State reserves to itself the right to such points as shall be

necessary for its military fortifications and public buildings.

(4) That the lands granted shall not be alienated to settlers until six

months after the commencement of the survey of the route of the said

canal.

(5) The State reserves to itself the supreme dominion and sover- eignty over said lands and their inhabitants.

(6) That said lands shall not be alienated b}^ the company to any

government whatsoever.

XXVIII. The colonics which the company may establish upon said

lands shall be colonies of Nicaragua, and thereupon the settlers shall be

subject to the laws of the State the same as the natives of the country,

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 19
290 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

being, however, exempt for the term of ten years from all taxes and

direct contributions, and from all public service, as soon as each colony

shall contain at least fifty settlers. XXIX. The State further agrees that in case any event may hereafter occur, as named in the preceding- Article X, to suspend or pre- vent the construction of the canal, or if the said contract shall become

forfeited or annulled by either or both of the parties, and also in case the said contract shall continue in force for the full period of eightyfive years, mentioned in the preceding Article IV, the said State shall always acknowledge as private property the lands which may have

been alienated or ceded by the company to settlers or other persons in virtue of the legal title which the company has acquired by this contract to the said lands. XXX. The company shall have the exclusive right to construct rail or carriage roads and bridges, and to establish steamboats and steam

vessels on the said rivers and lakes as necessary accessories to and in furtherance of the execution of the canal; but the company hereby

stipulates and agrees that, in case the construction and completion of

the said canal, or any part of it, becomes impossible by any unforeseen

event or insurmountable obstacle of nature, to construct a railroad or

rail and carriage road and water communication between the two

oceans, provided the same may be practicable, within the same period

as is stipulated for the building of the said canal, and subject to the same terms, conditions, regulations, and restrictions as far as they can be made applicable to the same. XXXI. The State hereby binds itself not to sell or dispose of any

of its public lands located upon or near the river St. .Johns, or upon

or near any of the routes or points designated in Article I of this contract, until after the surveys shall have been made and the route determined of the said canal. XXXII. The State also binds itself to protect and defend the com- pany in the full enjoyment of the rights and privileges granted in this contract, and also binds itself not to contract with or cede to any

government, individual, or companies whatsoever the right of con- structing a ship canal, railroad, or any other communication across its territory Wet ween the two oceans, or the right of navigating by means

of steam vessels any of its rivers or lakes which may be occupied by

this company while this contract continues in force. But should this contract become forfeited or annulled, then the State shall be privileged

and fret' to contract with any other individuals or companies as it may

deem proper.

XXXIII. Iii case any dispute or controversy shall arise during the

existence of this contract between the State and tin1 company, the same shall be determined by a reference to five commissioners, to be

chosen in the following manner, viz, two to be named on the part of

the State, two named by the company, and the fifth to be selected by

the four thus appointed, who shall hear and determine the matters in controversy, and decide upon the same; which decision of the said

commissioners shall be final and without appeal, and binding upon both

the State and the company.

XXXIV. It is further provided that in the event of the four commissioners thus chosen not being able to agree upon the selection of

the fifth, the State and the company shall then choose three individuals,

out of which number they shall select one to act as such fifth commis-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 291

sioner; but should they disagree in such selection, then the choice shall be made out of said number by lot. XXXV. After the period of the eighty-five years herein granted to the company shall have expired, the company shall surrender to the

State the canal or roads, and its dependencies, revenues, and privileges,

free from all indemnity, tor the capital which may have been invested

in the said work. But it is nevertheless stipulated that the company

shall receive 15 per cent annually out of the net profits of the canal

for the period of ten years after such sin-render, provided the cost of

the same shall be less than $20,000,000; but should the cost be

$20,000,000 or more, then the company shall receive said 15 per cent

for the period of twenty years after such surrender.

XXXVI. It is expressly stipulated on the part of the State of Nicaragua that the vessels, products, manufactures, and citizens of all nations shall be permitted to pass upon the proposed canal through the

territory of the State, subject to no other or higher duties, charges, or taxes than shall be imposed upon those of the United States: Provided dl/ways, That such nations shall first enter into such treaty stipulations and guarantees respecting said canal as may hereafter be entered

into between the State of Nicaragua and the United States. XXXVII. It is finally stipulated that this contract and the rights

and privileges which it confers shall be held inalienable by the indi- viduals composing the company herein named and their associates, and

that it shall never, in whole or part, be transferred or assigned to any

other company, nor in any way become dependent upon or connected

with any other company, whatever may be the objects of the same. XXXVIII. The present contract shall be ratified by the legislature

of the State in the shortest possible period; and, on the part of David

L. White, shall be ratified immediately after, as agent of the company

which he represents, in virtue of the powers conferred on him to this

effect. In testimony of which we, the respective commissioners, have signed

and sealed the present contract in triplicate, in the city of Leon, in the

State of Nicaragua, the 27th day of August, in the year of our Lord

1849.

[seal.] Hermend Zepeoa.

[seal.] Gregorio Juares.

[seal.] David L. White.

Appendix N N.

REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL.

By Emory R. Johnson, Ph. D.

CONTENTS.

Chapter I.Scope and method of the investigation.

1. The purposes of the investigation.

2. The industrial and commercial sides of the investigation.

3. Scope of the investigation.

4. Sources of information.

5. Character of the conclusions.

6. Authorities used in preparation of industrial and commercial maps. Chapter II.

The isthmian canal and (lie industries and trade of the Southern States.

1. Geographical relation of the Southern States to the canal.

2. The canal and the cotton industries.

3. The iron and steel industries oi the South.

4. The exportation of Southern lumher and forest products.

5. The fertilizer industries of the Southern States.

6. The canal and the commerce of the Gulf ports. Chapter III.

The canal ami the industries and trade of the northeastern section of the United States.

1. Geographical limits of the section.

2. Industrial characteristics.

3. The canal and the textile industries.

4. The canal and the commerce of the North Atlantic ports of the United States. Chapter IV.

The caned and the central West.

1. Industrial resources of the central West.

2. Present routes of shipment from central West.

•'!. The canal and the industries of Cleveland.

4. Cincinnati and the canal.

5. The canal and Indiana.

0. The canal and Illinois and Wisconsin.

7. The canal and St. Louis.

8. The effect of the canal upon the transportation facilities of the central West. CnAPTER V.

The canal and the Pacific Coast States.

1. Pacific Coast States separated from their best markets.

2. The canal and California.

3. The canal and the lumber and grain industries of Oregon and Washington.

4. The west coast fisheries.

5. The hops, wool, and mineral industries of the Pacific coast.

6. Effect of the canal upon the trade of the west coast ports. 293
294 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Chapter VI.The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific—The canal and the coal trade of the United States.

1. Industrial and commercial importance of coal.

2. Sources from which the coal consumed on the Pacific is now obtained.

3. Puget Sound coal.

4. The fuel supply of California.

5. Prices and costs of coal in different sections of the United States.

6. River transportation of coal from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama

7. Coal prices along the Suez route.

8. Concerning the marketing of Appalachian coal west of the canal. Chapter VII.

The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries of the United States.

1. The United States as an exporter of iron and steel products.

2. Conditions of present competition of the United States with Europe.

3. American iron and steel trade with Pacific countries.

4. The manner in which the isthmian canal will affect the American iron and

steel industries as a whole, and those of the Southern States in particular.

Chapter VIII. —The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United

States.

1. Importance of the maritime industries.

2. The canal and shipbuilding.

3. The ownership of ocean vessels by exporters.

4. The canal anil the American merchant marine. Chapter IX.

Concerning the use of an isthmian canal by sailing vessels.

1. The place of the sailing vessel in the commerce of the world and of the United

States.

2. The future use of sailing vessels by special classes of traffic.

3. Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels clearing from the United Kingdom and

Germany for Eastern countries.

4. Merits of the steamer and sailing vessel compared.

5. Would sailing vessels use a canal at Panama »>r across Nicaragua?

b\ Saving to sailing vessels by use of isthmian canal instead of Cape route. Chapter X.

The canal and the traffic of American railways.

1. <ieneral statement of the possible effects of the canal upon railway traffic.

2. Concerning the statistics of transcontinental railway traffic.

3. The nature of the competition of the canal with the railways.

4. The canal and the traffic of the Atlantic roads.

5. The canal ami the traffic of the Gulf roads.

6. The canal and the traffic of the railways of the central West.

7. Effect <>f the canal upon the traffic of the Pacific railways.

8. Conclusions. Chapter XI.

The trade am! industries of western South America ami the effect of the canal n/ion them.

1. Area and population compared with North America.

2. The trade /.ones of South America.

:;. Inadequate transportation facilities of western South America.

4. Dependence of western South America upon foreign capital and large organizations of capital.

5. Disadvantages of the United States in trading with western South America.

Effect of the isthmian canal.

(J. Geography, resources, and industries of Chile.

7. The canal and the trade of the United States with Chile.

8. Tropical section of western South America. General description.

t>. The Peruvian coast. Its industries and the effects of the canal upon them.

10. The Andean plateau.

11. Relation of canal to industries and trade of eastern slope of Andean plateau.

12. Industries of Pacific slope of Ecuador and Colombia.

1.'!. The Cauca Valley in the Colombian Andes.

14. Summary of the effecl which the canal will have on western South America.

15. Effect of canal upon Atlantic South America will not be great.
REPORT OF THE TSTHMTAN CANAL COMMISSION. 295

Chapter XII. Japan and the isthmian canal.

1. The salient characteristics of Japan's resources.

2. Japan as a manufacturing and commercial country.

3. Analysis of Japanese trade with reference to effects of the canal. Chapter XIII. -China ami tin isthmian rami/.

1. Geographical divisions of China.

2. Resources and trade of north China, Manchuria, Hoangho Valley, and Shantung.

3. Resources and trade of central China, Yangtse Valley.

4. Resources and trade of southern China.

5. The foreign trade of China.

6. Trade of United States with China and effects of canal. Chapter XIV.

The canal ami the industries ami trade of Australasia.

1. Australian industries require large foreign trade.

2. The canal and distances to Australia.

3. General geography of Australia.

4. Pastoral and agricultural resources.

5. Mineral resources.

6. The canal and the commerce of Australia with the United States.

7. New Zealand and the canal. Chapter XV.

The canal and (he Philippines ami Hawaii.

I. THE PHILIPPINES.

1. The geography and industries of the Philippines.

2. The commerce of the Philippines.

3. The location of the Philippines with reference to trade routes from the United

States.

II. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

1. Soil and climate of the Hawaiian Islands.

2. Resources of the Hawaiian Islands.

3. The canal and the trade of Hawaii. Chapter XVI. —The canal and Central America ami western Mexico.

I. CENTRAL AMERICA.

1. The population and general geography of Central America.

2. The Central American industries.

3. The canal and the foreign trade of Central America.

II. WESTERN MEXICO.

1. Agricultural resources of western Mexico.

2. Mineral resources.

3. The canal and the commerce of western Mexico.

Chapter XVII.

Comparison of distances % the isthmian canal and other routes.

1. Distances via the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and South

America.

2. Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits

of Magellan.

3. Distances from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes.

4. Distances from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Xicaragua and Suez

routes.
296 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

5. Distances between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes.

6. Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes.

7. Comparisons of distances from New York and Liverpool to Australasian and

Asiatic ports via the Nicaragua and Suez routes. 8 Comparison of distances from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals. Chapter XVIII.

Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce thai would use an

isthmian canal in 1S99.

1. General description of the three traffic investigations contained in the report.

2. Nature and limitations of the information available from official statistics.

3. Four tables giving the value and cargo tonnage of that part of the foreign trade

of our two seaboards that would have passed through an isthmian canal in 1899.

4. Methods employed in preparing the tables.

5. The average value of the cargo ton.

6. Tonnage of the commerce between Europe and the west coast of South and

Central America and British Columbia and Hawaii.

7. Summary of the cargo tonnage of the foreign commerce of the Atlantic American seaboard with Pacific countries and of Europe with Pacific America in 1899. Chapter XIX.

Tonnage of the vessels employed in the commerce that would have used an

isthmian canal in 1899.

1. Concerning statistics of entrances and clearances.

2. Vessel tonnage of commerce between Europe and western South America.

3. Importance of the Chilean commerce.

4. European trade with western Central America and Mexico.

5. Trade of the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii

with Europe.

6. United States Atlantic coast tonnage with foreign countries.

7. Traffic across the Isthmus of Panama.

8. Coasting trade of the United States available for the canal.

V». Summary of commerce of Europe with Pacific America and of commerce of Atlantic United States with Pacific countries. Chapter XX.

Traffic investigation by the new Panama Canal Company—Comparison

of results of the three investigations.

1. Plan of the investigation.

2. Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

:;. Concerning use of American canal by commerce of Europe with the Orient.

4. Evidences of increasing number of round-the-world voyages.

5. Tonnage of available canal traffic.

6. Comparison of the tonnage of 1888 and 1898.

7. The substitution of steamers for sailing vessels.

8. Comparison of the results of the three traffic investigations.

Chapter XXI.Growth of canal traffic 1899 to 1914 and 1914 to 1924.

1. bate of increase shown by table of Panama Canal Company.

2. Growth in value, ixs<i 1899, trade of United states Atlantic coast with foreign countries on the Pacific.

.">. Increase in trade between Europe and western coast of America.

4. Growth in trans-Pacific trade of the west coast of the United States.

5. Probable available canal traffic in 1914.

li. Estimate of growth of traffic during first decade of the use of the canal.

7. Suez ( 'anal traffic.

8. The estimate for L924. Ch \itkk XXII.

The question of tolls.

1. Concerning the general policy of tolls.

2. Suez Canal tolls.

3. Suez Canal tonnage and traffic receipts.

I. Effect of tolls upon volume of traffic of Suez Canal,

5. isthmian canal tolls and the Chilean traffic.

6. Isthmian canal tollsand the Australian trade.

7. The Philippine trade.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 297

Chapter I.

Scope and method of the hwesHgation.

This study of the isthmian canal from the standpoint of its use, or

its industrial and commercial value, has been made for the accomplishment of two purposes. One object was the presentation of an

analytical discussion of the more important relations of the proposed

waterway to the commerce of foreign nations and to the industries,,

transportation interests, and domestic and foreign trade of the United

States. The other purpose was to compare the commercial advantages

of the Nicaragua route with those of one across Panama, all other

routes having been eliminated from consideration.

There are two sides to an investigation of the value of an isthmian

canal, one industrial and the other commercial. A careful stud}T of

the leading industries of the different sections of the United States is requisite to an analysis of the effects which the canal will accomplish

or to a fruitful discussion of the commerce that will use the waterway.

Commerce is but the auxiliary of industry; and a complete discussion

of the economic value of an isthmian canal first requires an examination of the leading industries of the United States and other important

countries, and then a consideration of the volume of business which

those industries would bring to the canal. While this report does not discuss the entire field as thus defined, it covers those parts of the subject that are of direct importance to the

American people. The relation of the canal to the industries and

domestic and foreign commerce of the United States has been studied

with care and is presented with considerable detail, nearly half of this

discussion being devoted to the subject. A separate chapter is given

to each of the four sections of the United States—the southern, eastern,

central, and western—for the purpose of considering the manner in which the proposed canal will affect their industries and commercial

progress, and these chapters are followed by more detailed studies of

the coal and iron and steel industries and the shipbuilding and maritime interests, with special reference to the effects which the new inter- oceanic route will have upon each. The facts bearing upon the use of

the canal by sailing vessels are analyzed and the influence which the new waterwa}7 will have upon the future place of the sailing vessel as an ocean carrier is considered. The effect of the canal upon the traffic of American railways is also made the subject of a special chapter.

The foreign countries whose resources and trade have been examined

are those of the Pacific, and they were chosen for investigation partly

because it was believed that in general the effect of the interoceanic

canal upon them would be greater than upon other foreign countries;

that their commercial relations and economic conditions would be most

benefited. The present and prospective importance to the United

States commercially, and politically also, of the Pacific nations was

another reason for studying carefully the relation of the canal to the

progress of those countries. The industries and trade of the countries

of western South America and the manner in which the isthmian

canal will affect their progress and our commercial relations with them

have been examined with special care, because of the importance of

this extensive section to the world's commerce. The information con- cerning this region is comparatively meager and the significance of

the section for the traffic of an interoceanic canal and the commercial

progress of the United States is frequently underestimated. The
298 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

industries and trade of Japan. China. Australia, the Philippines,

Hawaii, western Mexico, and Central America, and the effects of the

isthmian canal upon them are also discussed.

The latter part of this discussion relates to the traffic that will use

the waterway. The effects which the isthmian canal will have upon

thelengthof the ocean routes connecting the United States and Europe

with the various countries of the Pacific are shown by eight tables,

the distances in which were calculated by the United States Hydro

graphic Office. The investigations made to ascertain the present and prospective

available tonnage of canal traffic are described in Chapters XVIII to XXI. inclusive. Three statistical studies are discussed in the report,

and after describing and presenting the results of the three investigations the tonnage figures obtained by the three different methods of

inquiry are compared.

After having determined the amount of canal traffic available in 1899,

and having ascertained the rate of increase in that traffic during the

previous decade, estimates are made concerning the probable tonnage

that will be available for the canal in 1909 and 1914. The growth in the traffic passing the Suez is analyzed and an estimate is made regarding the increase in the tonnage of the isthmian canal during the first decade of its use. In the discussion of available canal tonnage the effect of tolls upon

the use of the waterway by the traffic between the different sections

has been considered. The detailed analysis of the relation of tolls to the volume of traffic using the canal was. however, reserved for a

special chapter in which the question is treated at some length.

Printed material, books, pamphlets, and official statistical reports

published by the United States and foreign countries have been

examined, and an extensive correspondence has I teen carried on with men engaged in different lines of business so as to secure data concern- ing industrial and commercial facts in descriptive rather than statistical form. Special and different inquiries were addressed to manufacturers,

importers, and exporters, the owners, operators, and builders of ships,

and the higher officials of a number of the larger railway companies.

The information received from individual sources is frequently referred

to, but for obvious reasons the personal or corporate name of the cor- respondent is not given. The information regarding the industries and

trade1 of foreign countries was in part supplied by special reports pre- pared for the commission by consuls and ministers of the United States

in accordance with instructions sent them by the State Department.

In order to supplement the information obtained from the sources

just enumerated, visits were made by one member of the commission,

and in some instances by two, to twenty-nine large commercial and

industrial cities. The places visited included the larger seaports from

Portland, Me., to Galveston Tex., and the interior industrial cities of

Pittsburg. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit. Indianapolis. Milwaukee,

Chicago, St. Louis. Memphis. Louisville, Chattanooga, Birmingham,

and Atlanta. In each of these cities the commercial organizations,

manufacturers, and others interested in the development of their industries assisted the visiting commissioners by giving them information.

Special reports were prepared for the commission by the commercial

organizations in these and other cities. From the nature of the subject investigated, some of the conclusions
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 299

regarding the industrial effects of the canal must be based on premises

concerning which differences of opinion may exist. Moreover, the

presentation of the industrial data and a discussion of them can not be

made as brief and concise as a mathematical demonstration. These

limitations apply in less degree to the statistical material used in measuring the volume of traffic available for the use of the canal. The

conclusions to which this inquiry has led are here given without claiming that they are absolutely correct in every particular, but they are

close approximations to the truth attained by careful research.

Much time and labor have been given to the preparation of maps

locating the resources and industries of the foreign Pacific countries

discussed in Chapters XI to XVI of the report. Chapter XVII, on

distances, is accompanied by commercial maps showing the location

and length of the ocean routes by present lines of trade and by those

that would pass through a Nicaragua canal and a Panama canal. The information used in the preparation of the maps accompanying

the report was derived from numerous sources. American and foreign

government publications have been consulted, and geograpnical litera- ture and maps, both published and unpublished, have been examined.

The United States consular reports, and particularly certain special

reports prepared for the canal commission by the consular representatives of the United States in the various foreign countries, were a valuable aid, especially in the preparation of the maps of Australia,

China, South America, and Japan. In a number of cases the text of

these special reports was accompanied by maps prepared in accord- ance with suggestions made by the commission. The publications of

the Bureau of the American Republics have been used to some extent

in preparing all of the American maps. With the exception of two

countries, this is also true of Bianconi's commercial charts. The commission has secured many facts by an extensive correspondence; and

in the following specific references to the authorities for the information contained in the maps no attempt is made to give all the sources drawn upon.

The map of Chile contains much information furnished b}T the rep- resentatives of the Chilean Government, and among the other sources

of the data used special mention should be made of the work of the

United States Weather Bureau and of the book on South America by

F. G. Carpenter. The chart of northwestern South America contains

many data contributed by the Bolivian Government. The Geographic

Society of Lima sent, in manuscript, a carefully prepared agricultural

map of Peru. Some facts were taken from Carpenter's " South America

11 and from " Between the Andes and the Ocean," by W. E. Curtis.

The reports of the Intercontinental Railroad surveys were of value in the preparation of this map and also of that of Central America.

The map of Mexico is based in part upon the economic map recently

published by the Bureau of the American Republics. This information

has been largely supplemented and verified by extensive correspondence with Americans engaged in business in Mexico. The following

authorities, in addition to those more generally referred to above, w7 ere consulted: French and Belgian consular reports, and " Geographical Notes on Mexico, 11 by M. Romero.

The map of New Zealand was constructed almost entirely from information derived from the yearbook and the other excellent reports published by the government of that colony.
300 report of the isthmian canal commission.

For the Australian map the information came chiefly from the maps

accompanying the special consular reports and from the detailed

industrial descriptions contained in the official publications of the

various States. The map of China draws largely upon the economic maps published

by Beresford in "The Breakup of China," and Chisholm's "The Resources and Means of Communication of China." The data used were,

in almost every case, verified by the excellent economic map prepared

for this commission at the United States legation in Pekin or by refer- ence to some of the following works on China: Reports of Imperial

Maritime Customs; "A Journey in Western Szechuen," by Bishop;

"China in Transformation," by Colquhoun; "China in Decay," Ivy Krauss; "Through Yangtse Gorges,'' by Little; "The Earth and Its Inhabitants," by Reclus.

For the data used in the map of Japan large use was made of the

facts in Ransom's "Japan in Transition,'' which were verified and sup- plemented by reference to a special United States consular report and

to Japanese Government reports, public and special.

Chapter II.-

TJie isthmian canal and tJie industries <ni<] tnulc of the Southern States. The products of the South find their present foreign market mainly

in Europe, but they are desired in greater or less degree by nearly all countries, those of the Pacific Ocean as well as those of the Atlantic.

Because of the geographical position of the South its exports can not

readily reach the markets of the Pacific. The position of the South as regards Pacific trade is very similar to that of the west coast of the

United States as regards its commerce with Atlantic countries.

As compared with the. States adjacent to the North Atlantic, those

of the Gulf are considerably nearer the eastern terminus of an isthmian

canal. In the following table the distances of Greytown and Colon

from New York are compared with their distances from the most

important Gulf ports

Boston New York...

Philadelphia

Norfolk Savannah... Tampa

Pensacola. .

Mobile New Orleans Sabine < lity . Galveston. .

To Grey- town.

Less than

distance I from New

York to Greytown.

> I no

60

'Jll

II I 943

887

,S10

so:; tic 700

2, L65 1,981 1,960 1,779

1 . 586

1,215

1,844

1,871 1,3S0

i , it;.r

> 1. isi

Less than

distance from New- York to Colon.

21

202 395

766 637 610

C01 516

r.oo

More.

It will be seen that of the Gulf ports included in the table Tampa is nearest to Greytown and ( !olon and that the ports to the west of Tampa

are successively farther from the two isthmian ports, Tampa being

approximately 250 miles closer than Galveston is to the Caribbean

termini of the two canal routes. This would give Tampa some advantage over the other Gulf ports in the canal trade were not the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 301

benefits derivable from the shorter ocean route in part, if not quite, overcome by the Longer railway haul to that city as compared with

Pensacola and other Gulf ports from many of the sources of the

heaviest volumes of traffic originating in the Southern States. Hie proximity to the canal of the Gulf States and cities as compared with the North Atlantic section of the country will help the

South in developing a direct trade through the canal aiul in drawing a

larger amount of the export and import trade of the Mississippi Valley to the Gulf ports, but the more northerly ports, especially New

York, will possess the advantage of having more facilities for shipping

at all times to different parts of the world. However, as the com" merce of the South with Pacific countries develops because of the

opportunities afforded by the isthmian canal for dispatching- freight more promptly to different ports of the world, the Southern gateways

will enjoy in increasing measure the benefit of their relative nearness

to the canal. THE CANAL AND THE COTTON INDUSTRIES.

The raising of cotton has been the dominant industry of the South

for nearly a hundred years, and, although the development of other

resources is giving that section of the country an increasingly diversified economic life, cotton and the manufactures based upon it now hold

and will probably retain the first rank. The rapid multiplication of cotton mills and the extensive manufacture of cotton-seed products

have latterly strengthened very greatly the industrial position of the

cotton crop. The chief Pacific market for our raw cotton is Japan, which took

312,269 bales, valued at $12,712,619, during the year ending June 30,

1900, the gain over the previous years having been large. The sales for 1898 and 1899 averaged about 200.000 bales a year. The consumption of raw cotton in the mills of Japan has increased with extraordinary rapidity. In 1887 the Japanese imports of raw cotton were only

28,400 bales, by 1895 the amount had increased to 380,000 bales, and

in 1898 the imports were 660,000 bales. In 1895 57.3 per cent of these cotton imports into Japan were obtained in China. British India supplied 32.5 per cent, the United States 8.4 per cent, and other countries

1.8 per cent. Three years later the imports from China dropped to 11.1 per cent. Those from British India rose to 56.3 per cent, while

the purchases in the United States comprised 30. 8 percent, the amount

obtained from other countries remaining at 1.8 per cent. It is fair to conclude from these percentages that the United States is certain to

find a large and growing market for raw cotton in Japan.

The cotton cloth shipped from the United States finds its way to numerous Pacific countries. China, the largest buyer, took $s, 783,134

worth in 1900, her purchases for the two previous years having aver- aged $7,500,000 annually. Among the other buyers of cotton manufactures are the British East Indies, which took $524,419 worth in 1900, and Australia, whose purchases amounted to $622,228. Besides

this, the Hawaiian Islands took $572,541 worth. The demand of these

and other Pacific countries is increasing, and our sales to them are growing, even under the present adverse conditions to be overcome in reaching their markets.

About 300,000 bales of the cotton exports to Japan for the fiscal year

1900 were shipped during the first eight months of the season. 'The
302 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

distribution of these 300,000 bales among the three shipping routes gave the Atlantic ports, New York and Savannah, 44,000 bales; the

Gulf ports, New Orleans, Galveston, and Pensaeola, 87,000, and the

Pacific coast ports, which were reached by rail, 169,000 bales. Nearly

three-fifths of the cotton exported to Japan that year took the overland

route, involving a railway haul of 2,000 miles to the seaboard.

The cost of transporting such a bulky commodity as cotton from

the southern section of the United States to North Pacific countries

by rail to our west coast, and thence by steamer, or from our Atlantic or Gulf seaboard through the Suez Canal (sometimes direct, and sometimes via England or Germany), are so high as greatly to restrict the

trade. This fact is clearly shown in letters received from firms that are exporting cotton from Texas, New Orleans, Charleston, and else- where. The difficulties under which cotton is exported to oriental

markets by the existing routes can lie illustrated by quoting a few

sentences from a communication received from a representative New

Orleans firm:

Two direct steamers went last year Erom this port t<> Japanese and one to Chinese

ports (Shanghai) around the Cape, and more steamers went from Galveston, hut

these steamers are too long on the way. First of all, they have to stop in port here a long time to collect all the lots which are hound for Japan; then they travel two

or three months, whereas payment is made by Japanese and ( Jhinese buyers against

ninety days draft, thereby causing loss of interest. To avoid this loss Japan bought

last year (1898) a lot of cotton in Texas, the nearest State for shipment via San Francisco, Imt the Southern Pacific and other roads, owing to the inclement weather, etc., could not handle the big quantity, and cotton that should have gone out in January was in San Francisco by June. The rate to Yokohama and Kobe (Hiogo) is 80

cents per hundred pounds gross, to Shanghai 90 cents per hundred pounds gross; insurance 2 per cent, equal to one-eighth cent per pound. We believe China and

Japan will consume over 2,000,000 American cotton (hales) a year within the next

rive years. A good deal of cotton to China yet comes from Hamburg, < iermany, and

London. England. Any shorter and safer route would materially increase consumption and net more to the producer here, as big freight and high insurance stand in the way of trade. The cotton manufacturing industry of tin 1 South, as well as the

exporters of raw cotton, will be served by the canal. With 5,000,000

spindles already in operation and the erection of new mills constantly

going on. the growth in the cotton manufacturing business of the

South will in the future be limited only by the extent of the market

that can profitably be reached. Tin1 secretary of the New Orleans

Cotton Exchange, a recognized authority on the cotton industry, makes

the following statement in regard to the growth of the business of cotton manufacturing in tin1 United States: The American mills, north and south, took, in the year 1890, 2,346,000 hales, and

of this the census of that year tells US 2,259,000 hales were consumed. In 1891* American milIs consumed 3,589,000, or 1,330,000 Wales more. Our nulls now turn

imt more goods than necessary for this country alone, and it is essential to their prosperity that exporl facilities he had that will enable them to compete successfully with other countries in the great markets of the world, especially those of the Far

East. To the Southern Stales particularly, which have increased their consumption

from 547,000 hales in L890 to i, 100,000 in 1899, and give promise of still greater progress in the near future, an outlet through an isthmian canal is of the first importance. In a special report received by the commission from a committee of

business men in Charleston, S. C., the opinion is expressed that "within

a period of five years South and North Carolina will spin more cotton than they grow." The report also states that "the cloth they manufacture is almost entirely of the coarser grades, such as is used in South America and the Orient. The average growth of the two States
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 303

is 1,450,000 bales. They spun into cloth last year (1S99) 970,000

hales." Although, as the foregoing quotation states, the chief market in the

Orient is for the coarser grades of cottons, there seems to be a growing demand for the finer qualities. Several manufacturers report an

increasing tale of the finer qualities of cloth, and these statements would indicate that the eastern market is in the future to be one where

a variety of cotton manufactures can be sold. At present the cotton goods exported from this country to the East

go out largely by way of New York and through the Suez Canal,

although a portion of the trade is done by way of transcontinental

railways.

THE CANAL AND THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES OF THE SOUTH.

The most notable phase of the recent industrial progress of the South

has been the growth of the iron industry, whose chief center is in the

district about Birmingham, in the north central part of Alabama. Two

members of the commission visited this section, and Chattanooga,

where a large variety of iron and steel wares are manufactured, and

were strongl}7 impressed by the extent and range of the present activities, and by the possibility of future development.

A special report prepared for the commission by a committee

appointed by the Birmingham Commercial Club contains the following

statement: We have the three essential materials for iron making—coal, ore, and limestone within exceptional proximity, within rifle range of the furnaces; and in consequence

of these geological conditions and the low cost of individual materials, iron can be

produced in this district cheaper than at any other point in the known world. The use that is being made of these resources of coal and iron is concisely stated in this report:

Less than twenty-five years ago the first coal mine was opened. In 1878 fires were

lighted in its first furnace. There are now in this district about 125 coal mines, with

a capacity of about 20,000 tons output per day; about 5,000 coke ovens, with a

capacity of about 4,500 tons per day; two steel mills, with a capacity of about 1,160 tons per day; one wire, rod, and nail mill, with a capacity of 500 tons per day. In addition to these there are about 200 more small manufacturing

concerns, all established within the last twenty-five years. The Southern States, including the Virginias, at the present time

produce nearly one-fifth of all the iron ore mined in the United States,

and the Alabama and Tennessee mines yield nearly one-seventh of the

total. The pig-iron manufacture in Alabama in the year ending June

30, 1900, equaled about 1,200,000 tons. The iron industries of the Birmingham district are devoted most

largely to the manufacture of pig iron. This pig iron is in part

manufactured into cast-iron pipe, wire, and nails, and the other simpler

iron and steel products.

The iron of the Alabama district is mostly shipped outside of the

State. During the last ten years about 20 per cent of the iron has

been used in local establishments; about 5 per cent was taken by

Southern States other than Alabama, 1 per cent went to the Pacific coast and to Mexico, 19 per cent was exported to foreign countries

other than Mexico, and 55 per cent of the entire output was marketed

north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. For the last three years about one-fifth of the iron produced in the

Birmingham district has been exported. This export of iron began as
304 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

late as 1896, and during- the years 1897 and 189S was larger than it has

since been. These foreign sales of iron from the Southern furnaces

have been facilitated by the cheap rates obtainable on iron, which

makes desirable freight for a part of the cargo of steamers that load

with cotton. In the Southern States, outside of the Birmingham district, notably

in Chattanooga, machinery, engines, implements, and a variety of

ircn and steel articles are being manufactured both for the domestic

and foreign trade. Twenty-one Chattanooga firms are already shipping to or beyond the Pacific coast of the United States, and most of

these are engaged in some form of iron and steel manufacture. The

disadvantageous conditions under which they are conducting this trade

at the present time are illustrated by a letter received from the head

of one of the large establishments of that city engaged in the manufacture of steel plows. He says:

We have made several .shipments to Australia and some to China this year (1900)

Some of these we had to ship hy rail to San Francisco and pay a freight of $1.50 per hundredweight (to San Francisco), when we could have reached New Orleans and

put them on a vessel for 2-4 cents. In the foregoing discussion of the iron manufactures of the South

and the effect which the opening of a canal would have upon them the statements made are intended to be illustrative rather than comprehensive. Alabama and Tennessee contain the largest iron producing

and manufacturing regions in the Southern States, but Virginia and

West Virginia have come to be important centers for those industries.

Their industrial and commercial interests, however, are more closely

associated with the North Atlantic than with the South Atlantic and

the Gulf, and they have consequently not been considered in this discussion.

THE CANAL AND THE EXPORTATION OF SOUTHERN LUMBEK AND FOREST

PRODUCTS.

In a special study of the lumber trade of the United States made

by the United States Bureau of Statistics and published in the Monthly

Summary of Commerce and Finance, November, 1900, the importance

and general location of the timber resources of the Southern States are described in the following concise manner:

The ti in bored region of the South Atlantic and the Gulf slope is, commercially,

the most important district in the United States. A circle whose center is Chicago

and whose circumference begins with Norfolk, Va., and sweeps southwestward to the lower left-hand corner of Arkansas passes through the heart of the Southern

pine region from beginning to end. The hard-wood region of the South lies inside

of the great pine bell and south of the Ohio River, embracing the mountainous sec- tion of every Southern State east of the Mississippi, together with the whole of AVest

Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The Piedmont and mountain sections and the

river valleys of the slopes of the Southern Alleglienies are the home of the best remaining hard woods east of the Mississippi, if not the best in the entire country.

The standing supply of timber in the Southern States is estimated

to be about 700,000,000,000 feet B. M., about 30 per cent of the pres- ent total amount within the United States. The exports of forest products from the United States have reached

large proportions and arc increasing. Our total foreign sales in the

year ending June 30, 1900, of wood and manufactures of wood, not

including other forest products, were $50,598,416, and were double

the amount sold ten years ago. This increase litis been due to several
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 305

causes, prominent among which are the restrictions which European

nations are placing upon the cutting of their timber. Most of the

lumber shipped abroad is cut on the Pacific coast and in the Southern

States. The latter furnish more than half of the lumber exported

from the United States, and somewhat more than seven-tenths of the

lumber sent abroad from the South goes to Europe. One-fourth of

the Southern exports are now marketed in the West Indies, Mexico,

Central America, and eastern South America.

Although the lumber exports from the United States are large, they

are estimated to be not more than 8 per cent of the total amount

manufactured in the country. The lumber coasting trade of the

Atlantic States is much in excess of the foreign shipments from that

legion, but the opposite is true of the Gulf cities. The chief lumber-

•shipping ports on the Gulf are Pensacola, Mobile, Pearl River, Mississippi, and New Orleans, but there are now others doing a large business, the trade being well distributed. The stave trade, one of the

important branches of the lumber business, is centered at New Orleans,

which handles more than half of all the staves exported from the

country.

The large and rapidly growing exportation of lumber from the

Southern States, not onl}T to Mexico and the West Indies, but also to

Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, indicates that large shipments would

Iba made to the west coast of South and Central America if an isthmian

canal were in existence. Those sections are obliged to import a large

part of their lumber, and b}7 way of a canal they will be nearer the

Gulf cities of the United States than the mouth of the Rio de la Plata now is. There is a demand on the west coast of all three Americas

for hard wood, and from Southern California south soft woods are needed.

The hard-wood lumber is now being shipped from the Southern

States to the Atlantic South American States and to the Pacific coast

<of the United States. The cost of transportation by all water from

-Memphis through a canal to Pacific markets would be so low as to make possible the development of a more important trade. The industrial progress of the west coast of all the three Americas will greatly

enlarge the demand for lumber. This larger business will be shared

both by the regions of present supply and by other and new ones now

debarred from trade because of their inaccessibility to the markets.

Naval stores—turpentine, resin, tar, etc. —constitute an important

<class of forest products. These commodities have always been pro-

<diq<eed in the South, because that is the home of the long-leaf pine, from

Which they are obtained. Besides supplying the large home demand

for naval stores, the Southern States exported about $12,500,000 worth

in the year ending June 30, 1900. The previous year the exports were

valued at about $10,000,000, and in the year before that at about

$9,000,000. The chief foreign markets are in Great Britain, Germany,

and other European countries, but there is a growing demand for the

commodities in all Pacific countries.

Although the United States uses a vast amount of paper its annual

exports of that commodity now amount to about $6,250,000 in value,

the paper being made mainly from wood pulp, which is also extensively used for pails and other utensils. The manufacture of pulp and

paper are industries naturally associated with the use of the forests for

lumbering purposes. To some extent pulp is a by-product of the

S. Doc. 51, pt 2 20
306 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

lumber industry, because much of the material used in its manufacture

would otherwise be wasted in cutting off the forests. At the present

time the pulp mills are mostly located in the northeastern part of the

United States, partly because the poplar and spruce timber that has

thus far been used mainl}T in pulp manufacture exists most abundantly

in that section. As far as the supply of available timber is a determining factor, the pulp manufacturing- industry can be developed in the South as well as in the North. Pulp is now manufactured from

hemlock as well as spruce, and such timbers as basswood, cucumber,

buckeyT e, maple, birch, and beech are successfully used in connection

with poplar. Cottonwood is well adapted to paper making and is largely used for that purpose, being nearly as good as poplar.

Australia is a very large buyer of American paper and woodenware,

being the third heaviest purchaser, and ranking second among our

foreign markets for printing paper, of which she takes 35 per cent of

all our exports. In the Australian, South American, and other Pacific

markets, our trade in paper, woodenware, and other products made

from wood could be increased by facilities for cheaper shipments.

THE CANAL AND THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRIES OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. The South alread}T uses large amounts of fertilizers on its cotton and

tobacco plantations, its grain fields, and its truck farms, and the future

demands will be larger than the present. Much of the soil of the

South, while it possesses excellent physical characteristics, is not

strong in those chemical properties required by the various plants that are grown. Unless carefully cultivated and kept up by fertilizing, the

soil is soon exhausted; but when care is taken in tilling the ground

and restoring to it the chemical constituents that are taken by the

various crops, the farms are highly and continuously productive.

Such being the case, the South must inevitably require a constantly

increasing amount of fertilizers as the population becomes more dense

and the change from extensive to intensive methods of agriculture

becomes necessary. The South has great stores of phosphate rock, the most important

mineral constituent of commercial fertilizers. The supply of this mineral is the source of a large foreign trade and the basis of important

fertilizer manufacturing industries. The exports of crude phosphate

amounted to 776,220 tons, valued at $6,376,367, in the year ending June

:><), 1!M>(). The States in which most of the rock is mined are Florida,

South Carolina, and Tennessee. The amounts obtained from each State and the amount of increase in the production is shown by the following table. One noticeable fact is the recent prominence which Tennessee has acquired in the phosphate production. The figures are from

the latest published report of the United States Geological Survey:

Proiluclinn of jihoxphate rock, 1894 '""' 1809, a ml value where mined

State.

1894. 1899.

Tons. Value. Tons. Value.

527, 05:5 450, 108 19,188

SI, 066, 813

1 , 746, 570 67,158

726, 420

» 357, 090

430, 192 2,000

82,804,061

1,078,099 1,192,916

9,000 Total 996, 949 3, 179, 517 1,515,702 5, 084, 070

'Including 140 tuns from North Carolina.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 307

The opening of an isthmian canal will affect the fertilizer industries

of the Southern States in two ways: (1) In the manufacture of commercial fertilizers nitrate of soda is used, and this at present has to come from Chile around Cape Horn or through the Straits of Magellan.

(2) There would be a large, market for the manufactured product in California. Hawaii, and other Pacific countries if the costs of reaching

those markets were lower. Cheaper transportation will enable the

manufacturers of fertilizers in South Carolina, Virginia, and probably

in Tennessee to supply the growing demand of the Australian and

California agriculturists. With the growth of population and the

increasing value of land in those countries, present methods of agriculture are becoming unprofitable, and a change must be made.

Farming is carried on in Japan in a very intensive manner, and large

quantities of fertilizers are required. In the Hawaiian Islands there

is already a considerable demand for the article, and portions of

western South America will in time import large quantities of the

commodity.

Although Florida is the State from which the largest quantity of

crude phosphate rock is obtained, the region about Charleston, S. C,

is where the largest amounts of commercial fertilizers are manufactured. A special report prepared for the Commission by the Cotton

Exchange and Chamber of Commerce of Charleston contains the fol- lowing information in regard to the phosphate industry of that vicinity

and the benefit which.would be conferred by the opening of a canal across the Isthmus:

Inquiries have come for the manufactured fertilizers from the Sandwich Islands, and efforts are now being made to sell the manufactured fertilizers there and in Japan. In connection with this commodity, it may be stated that Charleston manufactures more commercial fertilizers than any place in the world, the output of the

factories here being 400,000 tons per annum. With cheap rates of freight that the isthmian canal would give large quantities of this fertilizer would undoubtedly move to different countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean. The only commodity

moving from Charleston to any of the countries touching the Pacific Ocean is phosphate rock, to the Sandwich Islands and Japan. About 5,000 tons, approximately

three steamer loads, of this commodity go from here annually to these countries. The value of this commodity here is $4 per ton; the steamer freight has averaged about $7.50 per ton to Japan. The high freight rate is a barrier to a large movement

of this commodity to the islands named.

The chemical company which controls a larger fertilizer manufacturing business than any other concern in Virginia and North Carolina stated in letters received from them in Ma}r and July, 1900, that

they had imported about 10,000 tons of nitrate of soda during the pre- ceding twelve months. They also say that they could use a great deal more if the cost of the nitrate were reduced. In regard to the effect which the present rates of freight have upon their west coast business,

they state as follows:

There is now a demand for goods we produce, viz, superphosphates, on the west

coast of this country. Our recent efforts to secure freights on large bulk cargoes which would make such business possible from Atlantic coast ports have proved

unavailing. Overland freights on our products from this coas*. to the Pacific coast are entirely prohibitory.

THE CANAL AND COMMERCE OF THE GULF PORTS.

Several forces are now operating to increase the future commercial

importance of the Gulf ports, and in order to appreciate the probable

scope of the influence of the proposed canal upon the commerce handled

through the Gulf gateways a brief analysis of those forces is essential.
308 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The Gulf ports have capacity for handling- a large commerce. Large

wharves and piers have been, and are being, erected by the railway

companies, which, together with other corporations, are making large

investments for the purpose of increasing the trade of these ports.

The Plant System at Port Tampa, the Louisville and Nashville at Pensacola, the Illinois Central and Southern Pacific at New Orleans,

the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe at Galveston, these and other roads are expending large sums for the development of terminal facilities. The Mobile and Ohio, the Louisville and

Nashville and other companies are developing the port of Mobile.

The Gulf ports have the commercial advantage of being nearer than

the Atlantic seaboard is to the larger portion of the Central West, the

upper part of the great Mississippi Valley. These cities are con- venient gateways for a greater or less share of the import and export

traffic of the entire Mississippi Valley. The relative distances by rail from representative Mississippi Valley points to New York and to New Orleans are shown by the following table:

From— To New To New

York. Orleans.

Miles. Miles. 912 912 1,390 1,337 1,332 1,297

- 1,321 1,279

1,422 1,258

1,402 1,070 1,079 968

1,058 695

1,006 860

1,089 554 989 708

867 746

939 557

1,932 1,336 1,335 878

Saving to New

Orleans.

Chicago, 111 Duluth, Minn

Minneapolis, Minn

St. Paul, Minn

Sioux City, Iowa .

Omaha, Nebr

Dubuque, Iowa

St. Louis, Mo

Peoria, 111 Cairo, 111 Evansville.Ind

Louisville, Ky

Nashville, Tenn ... Denver, Colo Kansas City, Mo...

Miles. 53

35

42

164 332

111 363

lit; 53"- 281

121 382

596 457

All points south and west of Lake Superior, northern Michigan, Lake

Michigan, and a line drawn from Chicago through Indianapolis, Frankfort, Ky., and on to Charleston, are nearer New Orleans and to several

other Gulf ports than to New York. While distance is not the only

factor in determining the direction in which traffic will move, itisone

of the factors, and the proximity of the industrial centers of the Central States to the Gulf cities will greatly assist those ports in securing

a large share of the South American and Pacific trade. The Gulf ports

have the advantage of being able to bring the railway car and the

steamer side by side at terminals where freight can be very economically handled, and this is a factor that will materially assist their commercial progress. The following tables show to what extent the ports of the Atlantic

and of the Gulf, respectively, have increased the tonnage of the vessels entering and clearing in foreign trade during the past ten years. The

first table compares all the ports of the Atlantic with all the ports of

the Gulf. The second table compares the increase made in ths tonnage

of entrances and clearances by each of seven of the North Atlantic

ports with the growth accomplished by each of the live leading Gulf

ports:
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 309

Tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at Atlantic and Gulf ports, years ended June 30, 1890, 1895, 1900.

Ports. 1890. 1895. tiain in tive 1onn

years. 1JW- Gain in ten

years.

10, 127, 586 4,380,176

(iaiii in ten years.

22, 649, 610

4,035,256 24,186,387

4,679,247

1,536,777 32,777,196

643,991 8,414,432

Per cent. 44.72 Guli 108. 55

Tonnage of vessels entered and cleared at the seven leading North Atlantic ports and at the fire leading Gulfports, years ended June 80, 1890, 1895, and 1900.

Port. 1890. 1895. Gain in

5 years.

1900. Gain in

10 years. Gain in 10 years.

North Atlantic ports:

260, 796

2, 613, 335 12,283,740 2,530,094

1,969,501

266, 138

183, 533

250, 312

3, 115, 478

13, 188, 085 2,711,434

1,608,257 440,046

208, 992

716.001 455,205 Per cent.174. 5 J 502,143 4,145,187 904,345 16.020.290

1,531,852 58.62

3, 736, 550 30. 42

181, 340

173, 908

25, 459

3,736,615

3,452,654

1,095,727

592, 887

1,206,521 1,483,153

829, 589

409, 354

47.69

75. 31 311.71 Norfolk 223. 04 Total 20, 107,] 37 21,522,604 1,415,467 29, 759, 361 9, 652, 224 48.00 Gulf ports: 9,080 i 174,466

815, 778 70S. 380

165, 376

( a

) 278, 386 M424, 054

208,595

1,115,382

1,054,471

3, 395, 442 1,538,300

199, 515

299, 604

800, 459

1,360,370

1,194,725

2, 197. 30 36.73

254, 012

2, 035, 072

343, 575

532, 399 1,997,769

767, 629

315. 13 66 85

347. 73 Total 3,457,517 4, 175, 643 718, 126 7, 312, 190 3,854,673 111. 49

a Decrease. In order to show the gains, above referred to, in the grain export

traffic of the Gulf cities, a table, taken from evidence prepared for the

Interstate Commerce Commission in 1899, is submitted.

Percentage of the total wheat, corn, and flour exports handled at the Atlantic, Gulf, and

Pacific ports, respectively, during the years 1880, 1885, 1890, 1895, and 1899.

Wheat. Corn. Flour.'

Atlantic ports: 1880 Per cent. 78.3

56.1 40.9

5348.8

2.5

1.9 4.5

2.5

29.4

13.9 37.9

50 5 38.3

17.3 5.3

4.1

4.1 6.2

4.5

Per cent. 83.7

79.7 75.3

78.6

76.2 3.2

12.8

14.7 9.8

15.1

0.1

0.1 0.1 0.5

Per cent. 83 7 1885 77 8 1890 79 1 1895 80

1899 » 79 4 Gulf ports: 1880 9 1885 2

1890 4 1895 1 7 1899 » 3 9 Pacific ports: 1880 10 8 1885 14 4 1890 13 1 1895 10 4 1899 » 11 4 Miscellaneous ports: 1880 87.4 9.9

11.1 8.7

4 6 1885 7 6 1890 7 4 1895 7 9 1899" 5.3

> Four months, January 1 to April 30, inclusive.
310 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The Gulf ports are making substantial commercial progress. Their

trade is growing with the industrial progress of the South, and they

are handling an increasing volume of business originating in the central section of the United States. This latter source of the commerce

of the Gulf cities is usually spoken of as due to a diversion of traffic away from the Atlantic ports. This statement, however, does not

exactly describe what has occurred. During the past score of years

there has been an enormous expansion of the industrial activities of

the central West, and at the same time the railway s3T stems leading to the Gulf have increased in number and efficiency. The result has been

that both the Atlantic and Gulf lines have handled an ever-increasing

volume of business. The business of the Gulf cities shows a greater

percentage increase, but the absolute growth in the traffic to and from

the Atlantic has been much larger than the increase in the business

handled through the Gulf gateways.

Many commodities are now moved a third of the distance across the

continent to the Eastern seaports of the United States for shipment to the Orient. At the present time, with the exception of some occasional full cargoes, mainly of cotton, the trade between the southern

sections of the United States and the Orient is carried on either by

way of the Pacific ports or through the Atlantic gateways. New York

City handles by far the larger share of the oriental and west coast South American commerce of the southern and central sections of the

United States. If an isthmian canal were in existence, the South

American and trans-Pacific trade of the Southern States would be

largely handled by the Gulf ports, and the Central States would have

the advantage of a new route, which they would doubtless adopt from

time to time in accordance with the conditions of competition prevailing

among rail and ocean carriers.

The effect of the canal upon the traffic of the Gulf cities will consist

less of diverting existing traffic to new routes than of bringing about

trade not now in existence. It will lead to a larger commerce between

the southern section of the United States and the west coast of South

America. This trade will consist largely of the importation of nitrate

of soda for use in the manufacture of fertilizers and explosives and

of the exportation of lumber,- coal, manufactures of iron, steel, wood,

and cotton goods. The southern section of the United States has

practically no direct trade at the present time with the west eoast of

South America.

The opening of the canal would lead to a direct trade between the

Gulf ports and the Orient—a trade consisting of the exchange of cotton, cotton goods, lumber, and manufactures of iron and steel, for the tea,

silk, mattings, curios, and other manufactures characteristic of the

Orient.

An important effect of the canal upon the trade of the southern sec- tion will result from giving that region a more direct and economical

connection by water with the Pacific States. The coal, steel, cotton goods, cotton-seed products, and fertilizers of the Southern States will find a growing market west of the Rocky Mountains, whence the

South will secure wool, wines, fruits, and barley.

In their efforts to increase their trade, the Gulf cities now suffer because their exports are so much greater than their imports. But

few goods are brought into the country by way of the Gulf cities. One effect of the opening of a canal will be to remove this handicap
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 311

partially, although not entirely. The Gulf cities will be ports from

which a larger portion of our imports from tropical and oriental countries will be distributed. The present one-way trade of the South,

with its consequent relatively high costs for transportation, will, to a considerable extent, give way to a reciprocal and more economically

.transported commerce. Chapter III. —The canal and the industries and trade of the northeastern section of the United States. The northeastern section of the United States does more manufacturing and has more foreign trade than any other part of the country;

and, although the central, southern, and western divisions of the

United States are rapidly expanding and diversifying fheir industries,

there is no probability that the States and seaports of the Northeast

will cease to rank first in manufacture and foreign commerce. Inas- much as the chief commercial reason prompting the United States to construct an isthmian canal is to connect our two seaboards and to promote the foreign trade of the country, the effects of the proposed

waterway upon the industrial and commercial activities of the section

of the country having the densest population, the most-highty diversified industries, and the largest trade with other nations constitute an

inquiry meriting careful consideration.

GEOGRAPHICAL LIMITS OF THE NORTHEASTERN SECTION.

The geographical limits of the northeastern section are clearly

defined on the south by the mouth of the James River and by the

railway systems from the West having their termini at Norfolk and

Newport News. South of those cities and the territory served by

the Chesapeake and Ohio and the Norfolk and Western railways the

industrial and commercial affiliations are mainly with the South

Atlantic and Gulf States. The western margin of the northeastern

section of the United States can not be so easily and distinctly marked,

because the industries of the East shade off into those of the Central

West by close gradations. The latitude being the same, the two

regions are not much differentiated b}T diversities of climate, and their

common stores of coal and iron give them the basis for several

identical industries. The industrial and commercial similarities of the

East and Central W

T est, however, have very marked limitations. East

of Pittsburg the economic activities are dominantly manufacturing

and commercial, while westward from that city agriculture grows

increasingly important, and before the State of Ohio is passed it becomes characteristic of most parts of the region.

The region about Pittsburg—that is, the western part of Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio—lies on the borderland between the Northeast

and the Central West, with both of which it has close business rela- tions. The iron ore used in this region comes mainly from the west;

its coal supply is local. Its markets are both east and west, although

the larger volume of trade is with the American States and foreign

countries adjacent to the Atlantic. Its business connections are such

as to prevent its being with strict propriety included with either the

Central West or the East; but, if placed with either, it will best be

grouped with the northeastern section, which, for the purpose of this
312 TtEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

discussion, will be held to include eastern Ohio, West Virginia, and

that part of the United States east of that region and north of the

mouth of the James River.

INDUSTRIAL CHARACTERISTICS.

The northeastern section of the United States has become much like

western Europe industrially and commercially. It has a large foreign

trade in manufactured products, made in part from materials obtained

domestically and to some extent from raw and partially manufactured

materials imported from other countries. The southern, central,

and far western sections of the United States are drawn upon alike

by Europe and the eastern part of the United States for the raw

materials of industry; indeed, those sections of our country contain

the granaries, mines, and forests that supply a large share of the needs

of the manufacturing nations grouped about the North Atlantic.

Both Europe and the northeastern section of the United States are obliged to secure a part of their supply of the crude materials required

by their manufactures from the tropical and south-temperate latitudes

of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The nitrate of soda from

Chile, the lumber and grain from the Pacific slope of the United States,

the Australian wool, meats, and hides; the teas, silks, and mattings from

the Orient; the sugar and spices, rice, jute, hemp, vegetable oils, and

gums from the British and Dutch East Indies and Oceania are examples

of the large class of imports derived by the North Atlantic nations

from the lands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. These raw materials

and oriental wares are for the most part paid for by European and

American manufactures, which are finding a large and growing market

in the countries of the western part of the American continent and in the islands and continental countries of the South Pacific and Far East. The Suez Canal has given Europe convenient access to the raw

materials and markets of the Indies and the Orient, but her ships are

still obliged to make the long detour around Cape Horn in order to reach the western ports of the Americas. The eastern half of the

United States is less favorably situated than Europe is for trading

with Pacific countries. The distances to Australasia. Malaysia, China,

and Japan are shorter from Europe than from our Atlantic coast. For the trade with the west coast of South and North America, also,

the advantages are with Europe, partly because sailing vessels, which

have been used extensively in this commerce, can make the trip from

Europe more quickly than from the United States, and also because of

the cheaper freight rates from Europe to Pacific America than from

the eastern United States to that section, the lower freight charges

being secured by the European shippers on account of the large ton- nage of vessels sailing from Europe in ballast or partly loaded. In studying the relation of the canal to the southern and western

sections of the United States, the most typical industrial resources and

activities have been separately considered and the changes that the

proposed waterway will produce have been pointed out, and that plan

of investigation could readily be followed for the Southern and Western States, because of the relatively small Dumber of Large industries

typical of each of the sections. In the Northeastern States, however,

where manufacturing has reached a high degree of development, the

number of large industries is much greater than in the South and
REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 313

West, and, in order to avoid making- the discussion prolix, it is neces- sary to group the varied economic activities in a small number of large

classes. Most of the economic activities of the Northeastern States are directly or indirectly associated with four groups of industries, a study of

which with reference to the effects of the isthmian canal will present the more important, though by no means all, of the relations of the water- way to the future industrial and commercial progress of that section

of the United States. These four groups are (1) the mining, transportation, and exportation of coal; (2) the manufacture of iron and steel and of the machines and tools made of steel; (3) the shipbuilding and

maritime interests; (4) the various classes of textile manufactures. If, in addition to considering these four groups of industries, an analysis

be made of the effects which an isthmian canal would have upon (5) the commerce, or the import and export business, of the North Atlantic

seaports, the chief relations of the proposed waterway to the economic

interests of the Northeastern States can be presented. In this chapter

only the textile industries and the commerce of the North Atlantic

cities will be discussed. The effect of an isthmian canal upon the coal- mining industry of the country, and the relation of our coal trade to the commercial use of that waterwa}r

, are subjects of such importance

that a special chapter, No. VI, has been given to their discussion.

The relation of the canal to the iron and steel industries of the United

States is discussed in Chapter VII. The effects which the isthmian

canal will have upon American shipbuilding and maritime interests are considered in Chapters VIII and IX, Chapter VIII dealing with the

subject directly and exclusively and Chapter IX indirectly, in connection with an anatysis of the factors affecting the use of the canal route by sailing vessels. THE CANAL AND THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES OF THE NORTHEASTERN

STATES. The importance which the textile industries of the United States are assuming is shown by comparing the number of machines used in the

industries in 1900 with those employed in 1890. The following table

is taken from the July, 1900, issue of the Textile World:

Comparison of textile machinery in 1900 with 1890.

1890. Per cent of increase.

(

'( >tt< m spindles Cotton looms Woolen sets of cards Wi irsted combs

Woolen and worsted looms

Knitting machines

Silk spinning and twisting spindles

Silk looms

21,057,983

490, 398 7,806

1,510

80, 759

75, 721 1,426,245

48, 246

14, 188, 103

324, 866 7,245 855

67, 817

36, 462

718, 360

20, 822

48.4

50.9

7.9 76.6

19.0 107.6 98.5

131.7

The silk industry in the United States is confined almost entirely to the New England and Middle Atlantic States, only two Southern

States having yet established the industry, and much the same state- ment maybe made regarding the woolen industries, although the mills are somewhat more widely distributed. There are now in the United
314 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

States nearly half as many cotton spindles as there are in the United

Kingdom, the country is far ahead of all others in the textile industries, and the number of our mills is rapidly increasing. The cotton manufacturing industry is increasing in both the northeastern section

of the country and in the Southern States, the growth being more

rapid in the latter region. In 1900, according to the Textile World,

the Southern States were operating 5,845,-129 spindles and the Northern mills 15,242,55-1. Ten years earlier the South possessed only

1,828,972, and the Northern States had 12,722,341. During the decade

the number of spindles in the South increased 4,016,457, or 219.6 per

cent. The gain in the number of spindles in the Northern States was

2,520,213, or 19.8 per cent. Massachusetts is far ahead of all other

States in the number of spindles, it having 8,012,331 in the year 1900.

Rhode Island ranked second, with 2,090,138; South Carolina came third,

with 1,794,657; North Carolina fourth, with 1,499,540, and then came New Hampshire, Georgia, and Kentucky.

We are now supplying ourselves with nearly all of the various

grades of cotton used in this country, with the exception of certain

foreign-made articles of a higher grade, the demand for which is kept

up by custom, and have developed a foreign trade which has amounted

to about $24,000,000 annually for the past two years. Our silk and

woolen mills are still unable to meet the home demand, and we are obliged to import large quantities both of manufactured goods and

raw materials. We have no silk exports, and the sales of woolen goods

amount to only $1,250,000 a year. Three-fourths of the raw silk comes from Pacific countries, and we are obliged to purchase wool in China, Oceania, the west coast of South America, and the west coast of Mexico and the United States. The exports of cotton manufacture from the United States are sent mainly to the countries of the Pacific Ocean. China takes about hall' of our exported cotton cloth, and the sales to Australia, the Hawaiian

Islands, other parts of Oceania, and numerous Pacific countries are slowly increasing. One significant fact concerning our foreign trade

in cotton goods is the small market which we now have in South

America. The cotton goods purchased by those countries now amounts

to between 170,000,000 and $80,000,000 a year. Barely 6 per cent of

those goods come from the United States. It seems probable that the

United States will be able in the future to supply a large share of the

demand of these countries for cotton goods. The opening of the canal

will give our mills ready access to the west coast of the continent, and

make much'more favorable the conditions of competition for the trade

of the western third of South America, a region from which we are

practically debarred.

In the manufacture of the higher grades of woolen goods it is neces- sary to import considerable quantities of Australian wool. At the

present time most, although not all, of this wool comes to North

Atlantic ports of the United Slates by way of London, which is the

great wool market of the world. The advantage of importing wool

from London is that the American buyer is able to select his purchases

from a large and varied stock. The disadvantage is that the American

exporter has to pay freight charges for a route that is somewhat roundabout as compared with tin1 future route via an isthmian canal, and

has to bear the expenses incurred in handling, storing, and selling the

wool in London. With the growth of our wool manufacturing industries
REPORT (>K THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 315 we shall be obliged to import increasing quantities of Australian, South

American, Chinese, and South African wools, and it is reasonable to expect that New York or Boston will become the wool market of this country. Should this change take place, it will be brought about

largely !>}• the effect which the canal will have upon ocean routes. The textile industries of the United States have developed later and more slowly than many other manufacturing activities, because

they have their natural home in thickly populated countries, where an abundant supply of skilled and inexpensive labor is available. The

populous States of our country now possess the requisites of textile manufacture, and the cotton, woolen, carpet, silk, and weaving- industries generally are expanding rapidly. Foreign markets will in the

future be needed for the products of our spindles and looms, as well

as for the output of our furnaces, foundries, and other manufacturing

establishments. • THE CANAL AND THE COMMERCE OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC PORTS.

Our European commerce at present includes a part of both the

import and export trade of the United States with Pacific countries.

The outbound rates from Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium being

very low, because the heavier volume of their commerce is inbound,

and the facilities for shipping directly from the eastern part of the

United States to the west shore of the American continents and to other sections of the Pacific being limited, our trade with those regions

is frequently sent to Europe and the goods there transshipped. This

roundabout route is still used, although the reduction in the rates on

our transcontinental railways, the establishment of the AmericanHawaiian Steamship Company's line between New York and San Francisco, the increased facilities and connections for handling freight via

the Panama Railroad, and the placing of more vessels on the route between New York and Australia have made the American exporters

and importers less dependent than they formerly were on securing

transportation by way of some European ports of transshipment.

After the American canal route has become available it is probable

that little, if any, of our South American and Pacific foreign com- merce will be handled by way of Europe. Possibly some shipments

to the east coast of South America, south of Cape St. Roque, will be

sent to Europe and taken thence by the lightly laden outbound vessels. This will depend upon the rapidity with which we develop our facilities, during the next ten or fifteen years, for shipping directly from

the United States to that region. Probably none of the trade between

our eastern seaboards and the west coast of North, Central, and South

America will take the indirect route after the Isthmus can be traversed

by ocean vessels. The reciprocal nature of the trade that will be carried on through

the canal between the eastern half of the United States and the west- ern part of South America is discussed in Chapter XI. That chapter

and the others dealing with the relation of the proposed canal to the

trade and industries of the countries of the Pacific should be read both

with reference to our own trade and with regard to the effect which

the canal will have on the foreign countries discussed.

The trade of the United States with Japan and continental Asia,

the Indies, and Oceania is now carried in part through the Pacific ports
3 10 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the United States and British Columbia by means of the railways

and steamship lines having- termini there; but the larger share of the

business is shipped by way of the Atlantic seaboard Several h'rms run steamers via the Suez Canal between New York and eastern

ports, and three regular lines of steamers and sailing vessels connect

New York with Australia by way of the Good Hope route. There is also a large amount of traffic between our eastern seaboard and oriental countries in tramp steamers chartered for limited periods. The

steamers going out from New York to the Indies, China, or Japan

pass through the Suez Canal and usually return b}^ the same route. Chartered steamers going out from New York to an oriental port fre- quently cross the Pacific to Chile to obtain nitrate cargoes for Europe.

Steamers returning to our eastern seaboard from Australia more fre- quently come via Suez and call at Europe, while the sailing vessels cross the Pacific Ocean to secure »a west-coast cargo for New York or some

other Atlantic port. There is an important round-the-woild move- ment of vessels at the present time, the extent of which will probably

be increased by the American canal. After the isthmian canal is completed, the shipments between our

Atlantic or Gulf ports and Japan, the Philippine Islands, Australia,

and the continent of Asia north of Hongkong will usually make use

of the American canal route; although some ships will doubtless

go and come by the Suez route, for the purpose of doing business

at intermediate ports. A large part of the world's commerce will be done by tram]) steamers whose characters will take them in whatever direction and along whatever route the movement of tonnage

is strongest. The outbound traffic of the United States to most sec- tions is heavier than the inbound; the opposite is true of European

commerce. The tramp steamer will, whenever possible, move with,

rather than counter to, the flow of traffic. One certain effect of the isthmian canal upon the Atlantic ports of

the United States will be to cause the major portion of their commerce

to and from places east of Singapore to use the American canal instead

of the present easterly routes. Between Singapore and Shanghai, and

in the region of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies, there will be a region whose trade with our Atlantic and Gulf seaboard will be

divided between the American and Suez Canal routes. It is believed,

however, for reasons stated in Chapters XIX and XX, that the conditions of competion will be more favorable for the American than for

the Suez route. Our exports to Australia and New Zealand will consist mainly of

general manufactures, and to some extent of heavy iron and steel products. The major portion of the general manufactures will be

sent out from the North Atlantic ports; the iron and steel products

will probably be shipped very largely from the Southern States. Most of the wool, hides, gums, etc., imported from Australia and

New Zealand will enter by the North Atlantic cities, which arc the

most convenient gateways to the section of the country where manufacturing is most fully developed.

After the canal has come into use probably but a small part of the

trade carried on between the Southen. States and Pacific markets will be handled through North Atlantic ports; soon after the opening of

the isthmian waterway facilities for importing and exporting directly

through Southern ports may be expected to develop.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 317

The general effect of the canal upon the commerce handled by the

North Atlantic ports will be to enlarge its volume and variety. The

Pacific countries, both American and transoceanic, will be markets for

increasing amounts of American manufactures and the source of growing- quantities of the raw materials required by the industries in the

Northeastern part of the United States. The subsequent chapters

dealing- with the industries and trade of foreign Pacific countries indi- cate in detail the character of the commerce that will be promoted by

the construction of the canal. The establishment of a new highway

for a large share of the world's commerce will necessarily change the

present routes of some trade. It will cause the ports of our North

Atlantic seaboard to cease to handle some of the traffic now passing

their gateways, and will likewise bring to them some commerce now

tributary to other cities. The chief effect of the canal upon the commerce of the ports of the Northeastern States will come from the

industrial changes that will follow upon the opening of the interoceanic

waterway. The commerce of that section must progress pari passu

with its industrial advance, and the manufacturing development of the

Northeastern States during the coming decades promises to be large

and many-sided.

Reports prepared with especial care were received by'the commission from the commercial organizations in Boston and Philadelphia.

A brief statement of some of the facts presented in those reports will

indicate some of the relations which will exist between the isthmian

canal and the trade of the North Atlantic ports.

Appended to the report from Philadelphia, which was prepared

under the joint auspices of the Board of Trade and the Maritime

Exchange, were two tabular statements, one of which gave the quantity and value of the principal items of commerce between Philadelphia and Pacific markets. The other table compared the distances for

sailing vessels and full -power steamers by way of existing routes to the Pacific markets with the distances by way of a Panama canal route and by way of a waterway across Nicaragua. Concerning the saving

in freight rates that an isthmian canal would accomplish for the commerce of Philadelphia the report states: The canal would provide a shorter water route than any now followed between

Philadelphia and certain important ports of the Pacific, notably those of the west

coast of North and South America and the Hawaiian Islands; * * * it would

appear that its existence should constitute a factor of significance in regulating freight

rates, at least with those ports. The report does not attempt to state in precise terms the saving in freight rates that would be accomplished by the canal, because of the

complexity of the factors entering into the fixing of rates, and because

of the difficulty of predicting what readjustments may take place in ocean transportation as the result of the opening of a new highway for

such a large part of the world's commerce, but it illustrates the saving

which the new route would effect in cost of ocean transportation by

presenting an estimate based upon the daily costs of operating a modern freight steamer of 6,000 tons cargo capacity. The calculation

led to the conclusion that a saving of about 75 cents per cargo ton would

be accomplished by using the canal route instead of existing water

routes between Philadelphia and San Francisco, Vancouver, or Acapulco. In this calculation a toll of $1 per net register vessel ton was

assumed. The report closed with the following statements regarding

the relation of the canal to Philadelphia:
318 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The prospect of the inevitable increase of our country's transoceanic commerce in the near future enhances the importance of an isthmian canal as contributing to the

facilities of ocean transportation, but we would, however, point out that whether

the canal exists or not, supply and demand must, in the last resolution, determine

the volume of our port's trade. The canal project, while opening a new route, would in reality open up no markets

that are not already accessible, but it would seem that the canal would be a favorable

factor by shortening the routes to some important points, and thus assist our merchants to enter into more effective competition with nations of Europe which are now enabled to underbid us in the Far East, by reason of the more economical and

expeditious transportation which their merchants enjoy by way of the Suez Canal

route. In the statement that the volume of Philadelphia's trade must, in the last analysis, be determined by supply and demand, the underlying thought evidently is that the opening of a new ocean route must

be considered as only one of the factors determining the volume of

any community's foreign trade. Supply and demand, however, it must be remembered, is but a general statement of the manner in which production and consumption are kept in equilibrium. There is no absolute law or principle explaining the final adjustment of pro- duction and consumption embodied in the general term "supply and

demand." The intensity of demand and the volume of supply are both subject to modification by any factor capable of altering costs or

prices, or both. The effect of the isthmian canal will be to lower the

cost of producing many things at Philadelphia and elsewhere, and to reduce the prices at which those products can be sold to the consumers

in Pacific markets. Stated concretely, the manifold manufacturing

industries of Philadelphia will be able, after the canal is in existence,

to produce more cheaply and will be able to put their commodities on

Pacific markets at lower freight costs. The persons who buy these

articles in those markets will be able to secure commodities more

cheaply, and the amount they consume will correspondingly expand.

The city of Boston has developed a large commerce with Europe,

but has a comparatively small direct maritime trade with Pacific countries. A small share of its Pacific business, import and export, is carried by the transcontinental railways, but a much larger part is handled through New York or via Liverpool. The report of the

special committee of the Boston Chamber of Commerce states: We have from Boston practically no water-borne commerce with the west coast of Central and South America, the west coastof t lie Tinted States and Canada, Japan

and China, Australia and Oceania. * * * While we send to the Orients considerable i|iiantity of our manufactured wares, and receive from Asia and Australasia

a targe quantity of merchandise there produced, the trade is not systematized. Transportation is carried through a variety of channels, hut only a small portion of it comes to or <roes from Boston directly. Boston's tc;i imports, according to the report, come by three routes,

by way of tin1 transcontinental railroads, or through New York, or via London. The Australian wool comes chiefly by sailing vessels direct

from Melbourne, but a part is received by vrayof the London market.

Thechinaware from Japan and China " comes chiefly across the Pacific and by rail via Vancouver and San Francisco."

The readier access to the raw materials and markets of the Pacific

countries afforded by the isthmian canal will promote the manufacturing and commercial progress of New England and of the territory

tributary to Boston. This will give Boston a larger trade and increase

the incentives for the operation of tramp and line vessels between Bos-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 319

ton and Pacific ports of the United States and foreign countries. A

large increase in American shipping during the coming fifteen years seems to be indicated by the trend of our economic development; and

this, together with the larger trade tributary to Boston, will naturally

tend to cause Boston to depend less upon other ports. What is true

of Boston in this regard will obtain with other Atlantic cities; and the

general effect of the canal upon the commerce of the North Atlantic

cities will be to increase its total volume and promote its distribution

among the several ports.

The manner in which the isthmian canal will affect the industries

and commerce of the northeastern section of the United States is illus- trated in a concrete way by a letter received from a firm located in New York and engaged in the manufacture of pumping engines and

hydraulic machinery for the home and foreign trade. The firm has a

large trade with several important Pacific countries.

We have a large trade on the western coast of the United States, and this would

undoubtedly be increased if we had a short water route, so that we might ship

machinery at a reasonable freight rate. This is probably of more importance in the

case of first-class freight, as the risk of railroad transportation to intricate machinery is greater than water transportation, and 'herefore the freight rates are unusually high,

as we are obliged to pay from $1 25 to $4 per 100 pounds. You can readily see the advantage of a canal to the fruit and other agricultural industries in California if they

are able to purchase machinery for irrigation at a lower price than they are now

obliged to pay for it. Our business in the Sandwich Islands has been very large in the past few years

at the rate of over one-half million dollars per year. This could undoubtedly be

increased, and at the same time the sugar and other industries there fostered if we

were not handicapped by the long railroad haul across the country. Our business in Japan and China has not been large, owing to the fact that we are obliged to ship by all-water route in order to keep the prices down to meet European

competition. Such a large proportion of our machinery is sold on contract where

time is so much an object that we are badly handicapped, and that which is sent out

for stock requires the tying up of considerable capital and loss of interest, owing to the long time the material is on the water in transit. Our trade on the western coast of South America is growing but very slowly. We

believe that a canal would be of great benefit to the western coast of South America

in building up their industries by enabling people to purchase machinery, etc., to so much better advantage, and that this country would receive the benefit of this, as a good line of steamers from here direct down to the western coast would undoubtedly

tend to throw most of the business to this market. As the manufacturing activities of the northeastern section of the

United States multiply, the volume of imported raw materials brought

in by way of an isthmian canal will increase, and the stream of manufactured articles flowing out through the canal to the market of our

west coast and of foreign Pacific countries will grow steadily larger

with every lowering of the costs of production and transportation.

The proposed waterway will readjust the routes of shipment and open

avenues for a larger and more varied commerce. Chapter IV.

The canal and the Central West. The term Central West is generally applied to the five States north

of the Ohio River and the seven trans Mississippi States of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, and the two Dakotas. These

twelve States have a combined area of 753,550 square miles, and a

total population of 26,335,243. That is to say, they comprise one- fourth of the area, and nearly one-third of the population of the

United States, exclusive of Alaska and our insular possessions.
320 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The eastern, southern, and western sections of the United States are

situated adjacent to or comparatively near the seaboard, and the imports

and exports received or dispatched by them through an isthmian canal

will need to be hauled a relatively short distance by rail. The Central

West, on the contrary, is situated from 500 to 1,500 miles from the

ocean, and the trade which it may have by way of a canal will, on an

average, be moved nearly 1,000 miles by railroad. Will the canal

affect the industries and Pacific trade of this interior section of the

United States ? INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF THE CENTRAL WEST.

Taking this region as a whole, its most important industrial resources

are those connected with agriculture. The States in the western part

of this section of our country are entirely agricultural, but Ohio and

Indiana are extensively engaged in manufacturing, and Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois have numerous cities in which large manufacturing

activities are carried on. In most of these States there are abundant

supplies of the raw materials of industry. Ohio and Illinois have large

fields of coal in which 30,000,000 tons of bituminous coal are annually

mined, and Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Kansas have deposits from

which 10,000,000 tons are taken yearly. The natural-gas wells of Ohio

and Indiana are a valuable source of fuel for parts of those States. In

the northern section of the Central West there are large forests of

excellent white pine, while in the central and southern portions of the

region a good quantity of hard-wood timber is available. Throughout

all these States foods are cheap,*and in the more thickly populated sec- tions there is a large supply of intelligent labor. In northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota over seven-tenths

of all the iron ore mined in the United States is obtained, the rich

deposits of those States being made available b}T the cheap transportation on the Great Lakes to the coal fields of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and

Illinois. The low costs of pig iron and steel in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,

and other States of the Central West unite with the abundant stores of

cheap fuel and good lumber to establish a sure foundation for diversified manufacturing activities. This foundation is being rapidly built

upon, and several of the States of this part of our country are manufacturing on a large scale both for the extensive and expanding home

markets and for our trade with foreign countries in all parts of the

earth.

Ohio is the leading State of the central Western group in the variety

and amount of its manufactures. Cleveland and Cincinnati, the larg- est cities of the State, are typical industrial centers, and in order to

illustrate the relation of the proposed isthmian canal to the Ohio as a whole a special discussion is given below of the industries and foreign

trade of those cities and the manner in which they will be affected by

the new water route to and from the Pacific. Indianapolis is the

metropolis and most important industrial center of Indiana, and the sann1 is true of Chicago as regards Illinois, and St. Louis with refer- ence to Missouri.

By studying the relation of the canal to these cities and a few others

of minor rank, as is done in the following pages, it is believed that

the effects of the interoceanic waterway upon the Central West generally can be adequately portrayed.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. o2l

In the tier of four States situated farthest west in the seel ion being

considered in this chapter the export business consists almost entirely

of grain and provisions, but from all the other eight Commonwealths

there are sent out to foreign markets, in addition to those articles, large

quantities of agricultural machinery, wooden ware, vehicles, tools and

implements of all kinds, stoves, engines, and other iron and steel products in great variety, boots and shoes, and many other articles enumerated in detail in the reports received from commercial organizations, the volume and variety of the export trade increasing from

west to east, from the Missouri River to the State of Ohio.

There is also an important volume of imports from Pacific foreign

countries and the west coast of the United States required in the Central West. These imports consist in part of wool, nitrate of soda,

canned fruits, vegetables and salmon, Japanese and Chinese goods in large variet}^, and hemp, jute, gums, and waxes. Those from foreign

Pacific countries come in part by way of our Pacific ports, but most

largel}T through New York.

PRESENT ROUTES OF SHIPMENT FROM CENTRAL WEST.

The exports from the central West to foreign Parific countries are now sent by various routes, most of which can be indicated by refer- ring to the shipments from Chicago, the largest and most centrally

located city of the region. The manufactures of that city, particularly

mining and other heavy machinery, are sent to many parts of the

world. Heavy freight destined for Mexico is frequently sent directly

by rail, but shipments are often made via New York, and sometimes

by way of San Francisco. Assignments for the east coast of Central

America may go either by New Orleans or New York. Most of those

for the west coast of Central America and all those for western South

America go via New York and thence either by the Isthmus of Panama

or around South America. Until four years ago most shipments of

machinery from Chicago to Australasia, Malaysia, and the Orient are reported to have been sent to some European port and there trans- shipped, but latterly vessels direct from New York have handled the

business. The shipments to Hawaii go via San Francisco or some

other Pacific port, as also do those that must reach trans-Pacific countries with a minimum of delay, but when time permits heavy freight

is sent through New York. Further information regarding the routes by which commodities from the Central West are shipped to Pacific

markets is given below, where a communication received from the

chamber of commerce of Cleveland is referred to. THE CANAL AND THE INDUSTRIES OF CLEVELAND.

The State of Ohio is situated in that indeterminate border land lying

between the northeastern section of the United States, where manufacturing and commerce are the dominant activities, and the Central

West, where agriculture still heads the list of industries. The State consequently now ranks well up in the list of manufacturing Commonwealths, and its future development must inevitably increase the magnitude and variety of its industries. Something concerning the effects which the isthmian canal will have on the economic progress of Ohio

may be found in the subsequent chapters devoted to "The canal and

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 21
322 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the iron and steel industries." By referring with some detail in this connection to the interest of Cleveland and Cincinnati in the canal, the

relation of the new water route to the foreign trade not onty of those

cities, but also of Ohio and much of the eastern part of the Central

West, will be indicated.

Cleveland, which is now the metropolis of Ohio, has become, byvirtue of its location on Lake Erie and at a point where the coal from

Pennsylvania and Ohio and the iron ore from Lake Superior can be

readily and economically brought together, a great center for the manufacture of iron and steel products and the home of a large variety

of activities. It has the advantages of cheap fuel and low transportation costs to domestic markets.

The Chamber of Commerce of Cleveland was requested to address a

circular letter to the merchants and manufacturers of the city, asking

them to state what commodities they were sending or receiving from

various Pacific countries, by what routes these shipments to and from

Cleveland were made, and to indicate how the}" would be affected by

the proposed canal. Letters were sent by the chamber of commerce

to 153 establishments and replies were received from 58, of which 38

manifested a direct interest in the canal and 9 others favored the opening of the waterway because it would inevitabl}T benefit their business.

Thirty of the 38 having a direct interest in the opening of the canal were manufacturers and 8 were importers and wholesalers. Of the 30

manufacturers who replied that they were shipping to Pacific countries,

6 thought their business was such that the canal would not be of much

help to them, and 1 person thought the canal would give his rivals in New England a greater advantage than they now possess. The foregoing analysis of the replies indicates, first of all, the well- known fact that the manufacturers of Cleveland—and the same is true

of the Central West and most of the United States at the present time

are producing mainly for the home market. It is also evident, from the

letters, that several Cleveland firms doing a foreign business have not yet developed a trade with Pacific countries. Some report that they

are debarred from this trade by the present cost of transportation.

A few Cleveland firms whose goods reach Pacific markets are unable

to report the amount of trade in those markets because their goods

are sold to New York or London exporters. Other firms having no

foreign Pacific trade report that they are doing business in our west

coast States, and they especially complain of the present high costs of

transportation by rail. The variety of commodities shipped from Cleveland to the various

countries of the Pacific Ocean is surprisingly large. In the report

submitted by the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce the articles sent to each section of the Pacific are enumerated, the routes by which the

commodities are shipped are stated, and tin1 principal imports into

Cleveland from these several sections are named. This part of the

report is so informative that it merits quotation, although the multitude of details in the statement deprives it of the usual fascination of

literature.

1. Commodities shipped from Cleveland to the following parts of the world during

1899: A. West coast of Central and South America: Carbons, iron roofing, iron houses.

wire, barb wire, wire nails, galvanized smooth wire, annealed wire, wire fencing,

telegraph wires, oil stoves, gas stoves, twist drills, machinists' tools, tackle blocks, sewing machines, ironwork.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 823

B. West coast of the United States and Canada: Sugar machinery, carbons, iron

rooting, iron houses, iron magazines, pneumatic cranes, machine tools, holts and

nuts, steel springs, barb wire, wire nails, galvanized smooth wire, annealed wire, wire fencing, telegraph wires, malleable iron castings, oil stoves, gas stoves, cloaks and suits, manufactured wool stock, oil and grease, paint and varnish, wire brushes and brooms, foundry supplies, bristle brushes and brooms, twist drills and machinists' tools, steel plate and castings, hot-air registers, imported and domestic whiskies,

brandies, <:ins, imported cordials, wines, tackle blocks, forgings, turn-buckles and

railroad iron, sewing machines, ironwork.

C. Japan and China: Nail machinery, carbons, pneumatic cranes, jacks, and pulleys, machines, barb wire, wire nails, galvanized smooth wire, annealed wire, wire

fencing, telegraph wires, oil stoves, gas stoves, twist drills and machinists' tools, automatic or self-filling buckets, rolling-mill machinery, sewing machines, iron- work.

D. Australia and Oceania: Nail machinery, carbons, bolts and nuts, barb wire, wire nails, galvanized smooth wire, annealed wire, wire fencing, telegraph wires, malleable iron castings, oil stoves, gas stoves, wire brushes, twist drills, machinists'

tools, tackle blocks, sewing machines.

E. The Indian Ocean: Barb wire, wire nails, galvanized smooth wire, annealed

wire, wire fencing, telegraph wires, oil stoves, gas stoves, sewing machines, iron- work.

2. Routes over which these commodities were shipped to each of the destinations named.

A. West coast of Central "and South America: Via New York, through New York

exporters; via Cape Horn; via Isthmus of Panama (railroad). B. West coast of the United States and Canada: Southern Pacific Railway via San

Francisco; over various railways and lakes; via Isthmus of Panama (railroad).

C. Japan and China: Via New York; via Pacific coast; Suez Canal; from Cleve- land to San Francisco by rail, to Vladivostok via Nagasaki, Japan.

D. Australia and Oceania: New York exporters; via steamers from New York and

around Cape of Good Hope; by rail to San Francisco, thence by steamer.

E. The Indian Ocean: Via New York, Suez Canal.

3. Commodities received from the countries and sections named.

A. West coast of Central and South America: Wool, nitrate of soda.

B. West coast of the United States and Canada: Canned goods, dried fruits, wine,

brandy, beans, raisins, canned fruits, salmon, nuts, wool.

C. Japan and China: Straw mattings, mattings and rugs, tea, notions, rattan cane, china reeds, split bamboos.

D. Australia and Oceania: Wool.

E. The Indian Ocean: Burlaps and jute bags.

The results of the inquiry concerning Cleveland's trade in Pacific

countries ma}' be summarized by saying that this great manufacturing

center has begun to trade with practically all sections of the Pacific,

and that some firms are now doing a business of considerable importance. The chamber of commerce and numerous individuals conferred

with believe that Cleveland's interests will be largely promoted by an

increase in the city's trade with Pacific countries. The present Pacific

trade of the city is widely distributed and comprises a wide range of

commodities.

CINCINNATI AND THE CANAL.

The industries of Cincinnati differ largely from those of Cleveland,

but are quite as typical of the manufacturing activities of Ohio,

bscause they are even more diversified. The articles produced include

a large number of commodities created b}; the application of skilled

labor to the cruder manufactures of steel, lumber, and leather. Besides

being able to secure those materials advantageously, Cincinnati has the

advantage of possessing in its population a homogeneous body of

skilled labor well trained in a variety of arts. The Ohio River has

assured the city cheap transportation for much of the crude and raw

material required, and has aided in the economical distribution of its
324 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

manufactures; and although the railroads now carry the greater vol- ume of freight, a part of their business is now subject to a water

competition.

From information obtained from the chamber of commerce, it appears that the industries which would derive most benefit from the

canal are those engaged in the manufacture of machinery in large

variety, vehicles, electric-railway equipment, saddlery and harness,

pianos, office appliances, pork products, liquors, shoes, and furniture

made from native and tropical woods.

There is at present a trade of some importance between Cincinnati

and foreign Pacific countries; but the business with the west coast of

the United States is of greater consequence. This Pacific coast trade

is now much restricted by the cost of rail transportation. Cincinnati

manufactures, moreover, find difficulty in competing in all Pacific

markets with domestic and foreign producers so situated that shipments can be made by water. The home market east of the Rocky

Mountains can be reached cheaply from Cincinnati, but in order to give her ready access to the Pacific trade, the cheaper transportation

is reported to be necessary. THE CANAL AND INDIANA.

The inquiries sent out by the Indianapolis Board of Trade to the manufacturers in Indianapolis and other parts of Indiana concerning their

business in the Pacific markets of the United States and foreign countries and the effects of the canal were replied to by 150 firms. An analysis of the letters received shows that 63 of the 150 firms making answer

are now doing business either on the west coast of the United Stales or in foreign Pacific countries; 87 of the 150 firms have as yet developed no trade in those markets; 77 of the respondents say that the

canal would either directly or indirectly assist them in the development

of the Pacific trade; 73 of the firms make no suggestion as to the effe< ts of the canal. It is probable that these 150 firms may be taken as fairly

representative of the larger manufacturing concerns of Indiana, and,

if so, somewhat more than two-fifths of the Indiana manufactories now

have trade in American and foreign Pacific markets. Somewhat over

half of these representative Indiana firms foresee that the canal would

be of direct or indirect assistance to them.

When one considers the preset)! costs of reaching trans-Pacific markets from such a section as that of the State of Indiana, tin 1 significance

of the foregoing showing in regard to the present Pacific trade of

Indiana firms becomes manifest. A manufacturer in Indiana stated in a letter to the Commission that a shipment to Australia in 1891) was

sent by way of New York at a total freight cost of $105. The freight on the same shipment would have been about $150 to San Francisco or

Portland. The firm stated that it could usually reach Australia more

cheaply than our Pacific coast. THE CANAL AND ILLINOIS AND WISCONSIN.

The National Business League, whose offices are in Chicago, for- warded to the Commission 45 replies to the circular letter of inquiry

sent to the members of the league. Twenty-one of these letters were from Chicago firms, 10 from concerns in other cities of Illinois, 8 were from Wisconsin, and 6 from other States; 34 of the respondents
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 325

reported ;i Pacific trade, and 11 no present business in that section of

the world; 35 believed that the canal would assist them, T said they

would receive no aid, 2 gave no opinion, and 1 believed the waterway

would be an injury to his business. In the city of Chicago a great variet}r of manufacturing industries is carried on, and shipments are made to all the countries of the Pacific. Railway materials and mining and agricultural machinery, however,

are especially important, mining machinery being sent to all parts of

the world, wherever mining operations are carried on. The foreign

trade of one Chicago firm engaged in the manufacture of mining

machinery amounts to 15,000 tons annually. The agricultural machinery manufactured in and about Chicago is now shipped to the west

coast of South America, to eastern Siberia, and to various parts of

Australasia. The Australasian trade of one firm last year amounted

to 11,000 tons. The shipments of this firm and presumably of others

of that part of the country are made by way of New York, except on

rare occasions, when, for the purpose of economizing time, the goods

are routed by way of San Francisco or Vancouver. The rates from

New York are usualty much lower than those by way of the Pacific

coast. The time taken to get goods from Chicago to Australia varies

from sixty-five to eight}r -five days, ten days of that time being required

for getting the goods to New York City. The average time from Chicago to the Pacific coast is eighteen da}7 s, and steamers from our Pacific coast to Australasia take from twent}r -two to twenty-eight da}\s

for the passage. The canal will shorten the distance hy water from

our Atlantic seaboard to Australasia by approximate distance to South

America more than twice that number of miles.

The southern and central parts of Wisconsin are developing important manufacturing industries and a Pacific trade, although the cost of

reaching Pacific markets is a heavy burden. A carriage company, for

instance, situated near Racine, Wis., reports that it has for some time

past exported vehicles to the western coast of South America, Australia, and the Orient, the shipments in the majority of cases beingmade via Atlantic seaports, "on account of the high cost of transportation by the transcontinental lines from here to the Pacific coast." The firm states that on business to Pacific coast points "we have to pay on a car of goods valued at $1,500 $320 for transportation." An

Oshkosh, Wis., firm engaged in the manufacture of sash, doors, and

blinds ships some of its products to jobbers in England who export

commodities to various Pacific markets. A Milwaukee company which

manufactures engines, pumping, mining, and other heavy machinery,

and has branch offices in many parts of the United States and in several

foreign countries, reports a large export trade with the Pacific coast of the United States and foreign Pacific countries. This firm states that " the rates from the European ports we generally find to be some- what lower than from various United States ports, and this feature

makes European competition more difficult to overcome."

There is a direct Pacific export business from all of the States of

the Middle West except those forming the second tier of States west

of the Mississippi River. In these four States—the two Dakotas,

Nebraska, and Kansas—agricultural and food products comprise

nearly all the commodities sent beyond their borders. Should the canal

create larger home and foreign markets for those products it would

work to the indirect, if not direct, benefit of these strictly agricultural

commonwealths.
326 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

THE CANAL AND ST. LOUIS.

It remains onty to speak of the State of Missouri. Most of the

activities of the people of this large State are devoted to agriculture.

Its hard-wood forests, however, yield an export product of much

importance. The city of St. Louis is a prominent manufacturing center, and is one of the largest jobbing and distributing cities of the

United States. Situated almost at the center of the United States, on the largest river of our country, and being the center of railway

systems radiating in all directions, it has peculiar advantages both for

manufacturing and for distributing articles required by the people

living in that great stretch of country west of the Mississippi and

south of the Missouri River. Our rapidly growing trade with Mexico

is also largely controlled by St. Louis.

The circular letter of inquiry sent out by the Merchants1 Exchange

of St. Louis was generally responded to, and the exchange forwarded

to the Commission 65 letters. Of these 65 firms making reply 32

stated that they were carrying on a trade in the western part of the

United States or in foreign Pacific countries, and 33 answered that they

have no present business in those sections; 48 of the 65 firms expressed

the opinion that the canal would assist them either in developing their

present business or in securing a trade that they were not able to engage in under present transportation conditions. Six companies

reported that the canal would not be of any assistance to their business.

Ten gave no opinion as to the effect of the canal, and 1 person expressed

the belief that the canal would enable the New York exporters to injure

his business. The most characteristic business of the city is its jobbing

trade, which is now somewhat facilitated by the cheap river transportation. The St. Louis jobbers of heavy commodities will in the future

have the advantage of economical water transportation, not only to and

from the Gulf ports, but also between their city and all points reached

by the canal route. THE EFFECT OF THE CANAL UPON THE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES OF

THE CENTRAL WEST.

The large and varied industrial development which the Central West

has enjoyed, in spite of its situation near the center of a great continent, has been due to its excellent transportation facilities. Throughout the past fifty years the Great Lakes have 1 given the Central West

the opportunity to trade with the eastern part of the United States under peculiarly favorable conditions. The commerce on the Great

Lakes is growing with marvelous rapidity, and at the present time

these lakes afford the cheapest inland transportation to be found in any

part of the world. The Ohio, the Mississippi, and other rivers of the

Central West have in the past been important auxiliaries to the commercial development of that section, and at the present time the Ohio

River is of much assistance to southern Ohio and the other regions

adjacent to the stream. With the decreasing costs of railway trans- portation, the importance of river navigation grows less; but Ohio,

Indiana, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin will in the future

derive no small benefit from the opportunites which they will possess

of shipping their commodities by. river to Gulf ports. The opening

of the isthmian canal will unquestionably emphasize the commercial
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 327

importance of the Gulf cities, and will .strengthen the reasons for

improving the great river systems of the Central West.

The existence of the canal, the larger commerce at Gulf ports, the more favorable conditions for river navigation, and the continued

growth in mileage and efficiency of the railway systems leading from

the Central West to the Gulf will tend to strengthen the power of the

Gulf seaports to share with the cities situated on the Atlantic the

traffic from and to the Middle West. While it is not probable, for reasons that are elaborated in a subsequent chapter, that so large a share of the traffic of the Central West will be handled by the Gulf

routes as by those connecting with the Atlantic, nearly all parts of the

Central West will have the advantage of being able to choose between

the Gulf and Atlantic routes, and this power of choice will insure to them that competition in transportation which always quickens industrial activity. The transportation facilities of the Central West will be made better by the ca*nal, and the increased traffic to which the canal

will give rise will lead to the extension and improvement of the agencies for rail and inland water transportation. Whatever affects the

transportation facilities of the Central West touches its economic life at the very center. Chapter V.

The canal and the Pacific coast States. With the exception of that part of the United States comprised

within the great Cordilleran Plateau or Rocky Mountain section of the

United States, the Pacific coast States have been and still are the portion of our country most burdened by transportation costs, because the

most highly developed manufacturing sections of the United States and

of the world are adjacent to the North Atlantic and its tributary waters. The economies that have been effected in the cost of transportation by

rail have so reduced freight charges as to make possible the move- ment of considerable quantities of valuable commodities across the

great mountain divide, and to a limited extent bulky freight, such as cedar shingles and finishing lumber toward the East, and raw cotton and heav}7 machinery toward the West, will now bear the cost of

transportation by rail. The amount of rail freight, however, now

being carried between the Pacific and the States east of the Cordilleras, as is shown in another part of this report, is comparatively small, so small, indeed, that it is well within the facts to say that the Pacific

section of our country is able to market its products by rail east of the

Rocky Mountains only to a limited extent. The railroads have not

yet satisfactory connected the Pacific coast States with their largest

and most natural markets.

Although the Pacific coast States of our country are developing an

oriental trade of very satisfactory proportions, and there is every rea- son to believe that this commerce will grow in the future, nevertheless the trans-Pacific trade of our west coast will probably be small

in comparison with the commerce of that section with the markets

adjacent to the North Atlantic. The western part of the United States

is now, and will be for a long time to come, devoted very largely to the production of food products, lumber, and the basic materials of

industry. The natural markets for products of this kind are in the

eastern part of our country and Europe.
328 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

THE CANAL AND CALIFORNIA.

It would be impossible, even if it were desirable, to consider every

industry of California and discuss the manner in which it would be

affected by the canal. This survey being intended to be suggestive

rather than exhaustive, the purpose of the discussion can be accomplished better by considering' only the grain, lumber, and horticultural

and mining interests of the State. These are the industries that will make the largest use of the canal, and the industrial effects which that

waterway will accomplish will be fully illustrated by a consideration

of these characteristic economic activities of the State. The two cereals that California produces for export are wheat and

barley, both of which are now produced in large quantity. The

average annual wheat crop of California for the past fifteen years has

been about 30,000,000 bushels. The annual barley crop of the State during recent years has been about 20,000,000 bushels.

It is a noticeable fact that the wheat crop of California has not

increased since 1893; indeed the recent annual productions have been

less than they were in former years. The reasons for this are to be

found partly in the low prices of wheat that have prevailed much of

the time during the past decade, and in the fact that the transportation

charges from the Pacific coast to the principal grain markets are rela- tively higher than from most of the other wheat-growing regions of

the world. While the wheat production has declined, the amount of

California wheat consumed at home and in the neighboring States has

increased with the growth of population, and the consequence has

been lighter foreign shipments than were formerly made. Twenty

years ago wheat raising was the most attractive industry of the State. but since then the crops of the State have become diversified, the great

wheat farms are being divided up, and single crop agriculture on an

extensive scale has to some extent given way to more intensive culti- vation of smaller farms devoted to the production of several crops. The wheat crop of California is, however, a large and valuable one

at the present time, and will probably continue to be. It is quite possible that better methods of culture, the use of fertilizers, and the

ability to reach Atlantic markets more cheaply will largely increase

the future wheat production of the State. California bailey is of excellent quality and is being exported in increasing quantity to England, where it is in demand for brewing

purposes. The barley of California can meet the competition of other

regions of production more easily than the wheat can, and cheaper

transportation charges would enable the State to increase largely the

sales of this cereal in foreign countries and the brewing centers in the

central and eastern parts of the United States. Corn and oats are not grown to much extent in California, barley

being used instead of them for feeding stock. Corn and oats will not be exported from California after the canal has been opened, but a small quantity of them may be imported from the eastern half of the

United States. California has both an import and export trade in lumber. The

exports by sea are comparatively light, being only 23,041,058 feet in 1899, and are sent mainly to Europe, Australia. .Mexico, and Central

America, less than one-third of the shipments being to Europe and the

eastern United States. Although the annual output of the California

sawmills is about 600,000,000 feet, the State is a large buyer of bun-
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 329

ber for use at homo and for sale in the mountain States oast of her. About 200,000,000 feet of lumber—two-thirds of Washington's maritime shipments arc scut annually from Puget Sound to California.

The Sierras of California arc well wooded with pines, spruce, and

cedar, and the redwood forests extend along- the coast from Oregon

south half the length of the State. The redwood lumber is much in demand in Atlantic countries, and in the future will probably be

exported more largely than at present. The costs of shipping lumber

by the sailing vessels which now cany the traffic have averaged about

65s. ($15.85) per ton from the Pacific coast to Europe during the past

ten years. During the past two years, 1899-1900, the charges have

been even higher on account of the scarcity of ships. By way of an

isthmian canal the rates for large cargoes would not need to be more

than half the average charges of the past to the eastern United States and to European ports. In the production of fruits, nuts, and wine California has reached a position of eminence, and the extensive horticultural interests of this and the other Pacific coast States aie rapidly increasing in value with

the betterment of the facilities for quick transportation in refrigerator

cars to the Eastern markets. Formerly nearly all the excellent fruit

of the West was dried or canned before shipment, but now a large

part of it is marketed as green fruit. The following figures will indicate the increasing magnitude of the business of selling our west

coast fruit in the central and eastern parts of the United States and

in Europe. In 1895, 4,568 cars of green deciduous fruit were shipped

from California to the Eastern cities, and in 1899, 9,694 carloads were

sent. Efforts are being made to ship the Western green fruits to Europe, 42 carloads having been shipped from California in 1896, 58

in 1897, 42 in 1898, and 123 in 1899. The citrus-fruit shipments aver- age 15,000 cars a }

r ear from California to our Eastern markets.

Western dried and canned fruits find a ready and increasing market

in Europe. There were 8,692 carloads of dried fruit shipped out of

California in 1899, about 20 per cent of which went to Europe. The

growth in the sales of California canned fruit in Europe has been

especially rapid. In 1894 there were 85,817 cases sent to England,

whereas in 1899 over half a million cases were shipped.

The production of nuts, raisins, and olives has reached large proportions. California raised 14,000,000 pounds of almonds in 1899—

one-third the total large consumption in the United States. The California raisin crop is from 70,000,000 to 100,000,000 pounds a year, the

shipments out of the State being 3,600 carloads in 1899. California

olive oil is now being sold in many parts of the United States. The foregoing figures refer particularly to California, but the development they indicate is typical of all the Pacific States. California

preceded Oregon and Washington in the development of her horticultural industries, but these two States have latterly, with the increase in

their population and the formation of better railway connections with

the East, been making the valley of the Columbia River and its tributaries a section of large production and exportation of fruit. Although fruit is a commodity w

T ith a relatively high value for its bulk,

it is also an article the consumption of which is most readily stimulated by a reduction in price. The production of fruits and other

horticultural products is capable of being largely increased in Cali- fornia and the other Pacific coast States. If cheaper transportation can be secured for horticultural products from the Pacific coast to
380 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the Eastern United States and Europe, the production and consumption of fruits will expand. The figures of present shipments indicate

that fair progress is being made in reaching our Eastern markets, but

what has thus far been accomplished is reported to be but a good

beginning.

The shipment of fruit long distances will always be made to a large extent by rail. There is, however, no doubt about the ability of the

isthmian canal route to reduce the costs of shipping canned and dried

fruits from the Pacific coast to our Eastern States and Europe. It is perhaps uncertain whether green fruits will be largely shipped by

the canal route instead of by rail. Most varieties of green fruit,

however, can be successfully shipped by water, provided proper

arrangements for refrigeration are made, and provided the market

permits of regular cargo or large berth shipments. Whether the

water route will be used for the shipment of green fruits or not will depend upon the size of the market and the arrangements for prompt

distribution among retail buyers. If the market is large enough and

well organized, shipments will probably be made in vessels especially

equipped for the service.

The production and shipment of California wine is such an important industry that it calls for special discussion in considering the

industrial effects which the isthmian canal will produce. In 1897 no

less than 34,000,000 gallons of wine w

r ere manufactured in California,

the production having doubled in a decade. Since 1897 the amount

made has fallen off, because of the ravages of the phylloxera, but the

decline will probably be only temporary. Varieties of resistant stocks are being planted that are not subject to the attack of the insect, and

there is every reason to suppose that the amount of wine produced in the future will more than equal the figures of the past.

Wine is mainly shipped in casks, and is a kind of freight adapted

equally well to shipment by rail or by vessel, and at the present time

shippers are making use of both means of transportation. In 1899 California shipped by sea to the Eastern States, most of it being consigned

to the port of New York, 13,373 tons of wine. To Europe 570 tons were sent direct. Doubtless a part of that consignment to New York

was exported to Europe. Shipments to Europe and the eastern part

of the United States are partly direct by way of the Panama Railroad

and in part around South America. Some of the 5S5 tons sent to Mexico crossed the Isthmus. During this same year the shipments

of wine by rail from the State were (>1,52<> tons, the amounts scut by

rail being between four and five times the total cargoes sent by water

to Atlantic ports. In addition to the wine, there were shipped by

rail 3,599 tons of brandy and 1,175 tons of "wine and brandy not segregated." The brandy shipments by water amounted to 346 tons. Under the present conditions of expensive transportation a fair beginning lias been made in the exportation of California wine to. Atlantic

countries, but it is certain that the wine production of the State can

be largely increased with the more favorable conditions of competition

that would result from lowering the expenses of reaching markets.

Among the other industries of California are those of fishing, mining, and grazing. These industries being common to all the Pacific coast States, they will be considered later in connection with the dis- cussion of the relation of the canal to the industries of Oregon and

Washington.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 331

THE CANAL AND THE LUMBER AND GRAIN INDUSTRIES OF OREGON AND

WASHINGTON.

The manufacture of Lumber, the raising of grain, and the catching

and packing of fish are industries of prime importance in both Oregon

and Washington. The growth of fruit, particularly in Oregon, and

the mining of coal in Washington are industries of secondary but

increasing rank. The commerce of this section of the United States centers at Portland and in the cities on Puget Sound.

The supply of timber in Oregon and Washington is so abundant

and of such excellent quality7 that the amount of lumber marketed is fixed entirely by the costs of transportation to the distant markets of

the Orient, and particularly of the north Atlantic. It is estimated by

the United States Geological Survey that the forests of Washington now contain about 115,000,000,000 feet of merchantable lumber. In the four northwestern counties of Oregon there are said to be 1,800,000

acres of standing timber, containing between fifty and sixty billion feet of lumber. These estimates may not be accurate, but they serve to show the magnitude of the forest resources from which Washington

and Oregon will draw traffic for an isthmian canal. Exports of lumber from the Pacific coast of the United States and

British Columbia are now made to the countries of the Pacific, and a

limited amount takes the long vo3T age around the Horn. In 1899 our

three Pacific coast States shipped 13,354,000 feet to Europe, 5,149,000

feet to Argentina, and 15,9-14,000 feet to South Africa.

Although western Europe and the eastern coast of the United States would be the largest markets for Pacific coast lumber if the costs of

transportation were not so heavy, the present difficult}7 of shipping

lumber from the Pacific to the Atlantic is such that California usually

sends to Europe, where the demand for redwood would be large if the

price were lower, but one-fourth to one-third of her foreign exports of

lumber. There were 422,211,000 feet of lumber shipped by sea from

Washington in 1899. California usually takes 60 per cent of the whole

amount and Hawaii one-sixth. After these countries comes Australia, then South Africa, Asia, Africa, Europe, and the east coast of

the United States. The shipments to Europe and our east coast are

chiefly spars for ships, while South Africa buys bridge material and

other choice lumber. The opening of an isthmian canal would reduce

by about 50 per cent the freight costs of marketing our west-coast lumber in Atlantic countries, and this reduction in freight expenses would

add a corresponding amount to the value of all that part of the Pacific coast lumber for which there is a demand in these countries.

All three of our Pacific coast States are heavy exporters of wheat.

The total amount produced in the three States in 1899 was 77,404,000

bushels, about one-seventh of the total production of the United States for that year. The exports to Europe were 17,396,712 bushels of

wheat and 378,763 barrels of flour. Counting 5i bushels of wheat for

1 barrel of flour, the total exports equaled 19,479,908 bushels of wheat.-

To South Africa 1,508,100 bushels were sent, making the total shipments

to the Atlantic nearly 21,000,000 bushels, or about 562,000 gross tons. In addition to this, 638,094 bushels, or about 17,100 gross tons, of barley were shipped from California and Oregon to Europe.

The wheat exports from our west coast during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, were unusually light on account of the shortage in
332 KEP0RT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the crop. During the previous fiscal year the total exports of wheat from

the three Pacific States to Europe, including Hour expressed in bushels

of wheat, were 34,869,921 bushels. The exports of wheat and Hour to South Africa and Brazil equaled 5,344,14:5 bushels. Thus in 1898 the

total exports of wheat from our Pacific coast to the Atlantic were

10,211,066 bushels, or 1,077,207 gross tons. The barley exports of

1898 were 5,628,717 bushels from San Francisco and 250,792 bushels

from San Diego, a total of 5,879,539 bushels, or 125,918 gross tons. The total gross tonnage of these wheat and barley shipments to the

Atlantic during the year ending June 30, 1898, were 1,203,125 gross

tons, more than double the tonnage of the succeeding year. The

580,000 gross tons exported in 1899 could have been carried in 65

steamers of -4,000 tons net register. To have carried the 1,203,125

gross cargo tons of grain shipped around the Horn in 1898 would have

required 135 steamers of 4,000 tons net, and that vessel tonnage,

540,000 tons ne< register, more nearly represents the average annual

requirements of the Pacific coast grain shippers than does the tonnage

of 1899.

At the present time this grain goes around the Horn in sailing vessels averaging about 1,800 tons register. After the isthmian canal

has been opened the ship used will doubtless be a steamer of not less than double, and probably three or four times, the size of the sailing

vessels now employed. The freight rates now vary from $5.50 to over §10 per long ton—from 15 to 26 cents a bushel—depending upon the

available supply of ships. A steamer of large dimensions could doubtless carry the grain by way of a canal from our west coast to Europe

for 10 cents a bushel—$3.73 a gross cargo ton—and pay from that

freight receipt $1 per register ton—less than 50 cents per cargo ton

for canal tolls. THE WEST-COAST FISHERIES.

The fisheries of the Pacific coast constitute an important industry

that gives rise to the exportation of a large volume of valuable freight.

The salmon pack of Alaska, British Columbia, and our west coast in 1899 amounted to 3,138,040 cases, each containing 48 1-pound cans. Three-fifths of this was packed in Alaska and British Columbia and

two-fifths in Washington and Oregon. A package of 4S pounds of

salmon weighs 70 pounds, and 3,138,040 cases would occupy 80,000

measurement tonsof40 cubic feet each. It would require about twenty

fully loaded vessels of 2,000 net register tons each to carry the freight.

The shipments of salmon to the Eastern part of the United States and to Europe are heavy, both from British Columbia and from San

Francisco. From San Francisco the shipments by sea in L899 to our

Eastern States were 261,683 cases, valued at $1,157,608. The total ocean shipments from our Pacific ports (mainly from San Francisco) to foreign

countries east of the Horn in 1899 were 21,014,989 pounds, or 437, sol

cases, which would amount to 11,608 measurement ton;- of 40 cubic feet. At the present time these salmon exports by sea are shipped in English

sailing vessels around the Horn, and the business is handled mostly by

English houses. In addition to the ocean shipments of salmon, there are fresh salmon,

halibut, and other kinds of fish shipped east by rail. The American

consul at Vancouver reports that one company '"takes in the open sea
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 333

to the north of Vancouver from a million to a million and a half pounds

of halibut each year. The halibut steamers bring the fish to Vancouver,

where they arc packed in ice and shipped to Boston."

THE HOPS, WOOL. AND MINERAL INDUSTRIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST.

The three States under consideration produce three-fourths of all the

hops grown in the United States, and a large share of the Western hops

are shipped to our own and European consumers. The production of

hops in the Western States can be much increased whenever the market conditions warrant a larger output. At the present time but a

small share of the hops is shipped east to our own or foreign countries

by water, and our west coast is compelled to compete with European

growers and under the limitations imposed by expensive transportation.

The Pacific coast States and the neighboring commonwealths of the

.Cordilleran Plateau supply the woolen mills of the Eastern States with

a large part of the filler they require. Only a part of the wool would

be shipped through the canal, but the freight on the large part of that

shipped by rail from points west of the one hundred and fifth meridian

would be affected by the isthmian waterway.

The principal mining industry of the Pacific States at the present

time is that of gold. Some copper is mined and a variety of other

minerals in small quantities. The effect of a canal upon them could

hardly be important. Mining machinery would be obtained somewhat

cheaper, and the canal, by promoting immigration and more rapid set- tlement in the West, might provide the mining companies with a large

and a cheaper supply of labor. EFFECT OF THE CANAL UPON THE TRADE OF WEST-COAST PORTS.

The general effect of the canal upon the people of the Pacific coast

will be that of enabling them to buy cheaper and sell dearer and to cany on a larger trade with the people of their own and foreign countries. The manner in which the seaports of the west coast will share

in this larger trade constitutes an inquiry of local and general interest. San Francisco is the centrally located port and has a harbor of great

natural excellence. Formerly that city controlled nearly all our Pacific coast trade, and in the fiscal year 1899-1900 about 67 per cent of the

foreign commerce of the Pacific ports was handled through San

Francisco. The trade of San Francisco, however, has averaged but

little more during the past five years than it averaged during the pre- ceding quinquennial period. The value of the imports of the five years ending in June, 1900, show a gain of 21 per cent over the total for the preceding five years, while the exports show a decline of 11

per cent. The other important ports of the Pacific coast, with one

exception, have had an increase in both imports and exports, and in the case of the Puget Sound section the growth of foreign trade has

been especially rapid.

The resources of the country about Puget Sound have been much

developed during the past decade, and the transcontinental railways

reaching the Sound have both increased the facilities for land trans- portation and have placed in service trans Pacific steamship lines by

means of which they are able to make through shipments between

interior points in the United States and the Orient. There is one line
33-4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

from San Francisco to the Orient operated in connection with a rail- way company—the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; but from Paget

Sound there are three steamship lines operated by the transcontinental

railway companies. The consequence has been an increase in the for- eign trade of the United States customs district of Puget Sound from

$6,206,456 in 1890-91 to $25,051,670 in 1899-1900. During the past

five years the total exports from the Puget Sound customs district were 116 per cent greater than the exports for the preceding period of

equal length. The total imports show a gain of about 500 per cent.

J n the case of Portland, or the customs district of Willamette, the

growth has been less rapid, a comparison of the totals of the two quinquennial periods showing a gain of 60 per cent in exports and 38.6 per

cent in imports. In the foreign trade of San Diego the exports of the

last five years are nearly treble those of the preceding, but the imports

have fallen off 17 per cent. The foregoing figures indicate that with the exception of Puget

Sound, where there has been very rapid increase, and Portland, where

the growth has been moderately large, the maritime foreign trade of our west coast has not developed greatby during the past decade. The

opening of the isthmian canal may be expected to increase the ocean commerce of the Pacific-coast section as a whole and enable the south- ern seaports to make a better showing, as compared with the northern,

than they have been making in the past decade.

San Diego, Los Angeles, and also San Francisco will not only have

a better route to the Atlantic than they now possess, but will have the

advantage of being convenient ports of call for vessels engaged in the

coasting trade between our two seaboards and, to some extent, for the

vessels plying between Atlantic and Oriental ports through the canal. The short-distance or great-circle route between the American isthmus

and Japan and China runs close to the coast of the United States, and,

with the exception of those vessels that desire to call at the Hawaiian

Islands, this route will be the one naturally taken by vessels to and

from the Orient. This great-circle route will also have the advantage of enabling steamers to coal on the west coast of the United States, or at Vancouver, where satisfactory steaming coal can lie secured comparatively cheaply. Vessels bound for the East will be obliged to run

against opposing winds and currents, but this disadvantage w ill probably be more than offset by the shortness of the route and by the

coaling facilities. How will the canal affect the maritime commerce of ports as far north as Portland and Puget Sound? If the industrial analysis made

in the preceding pages is accurate there will be a large increase in the

exportation of agricultural and forest products. These northern ports

will also be the natural gateways for a Large share of the export trade

of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, and for a portion of the commerce

of British ( Columbia. It would seem certain that the canal will enlarge

the export business of the northern Pacific ports.

The canal doubtless will secure some import business that would

otherwise be turned over to the transcontinental railways at Puget

Sound points and at other more southerly Pacific ports, but a study of

the through business now being done by the transcontinental rail- roads shows it to be of small amount, 80 small that the canal would

not have to create a large tonnage of new traffic for the railways to
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 835

cover what it could divert from the roads. A discussion of the trans- continental railway traffic may be found in Chapter X of this report.

There are two forces that will favor Puget Sound as a gateway for imports from Japan and the Continent of Asia. Vessels on their east- ward voyage across the northern Pacific along the great-circle route

for the southern Pacific ports of the United States, or for the Ameri- . can isthmus, will add only about 500 to 600 nautical miles to their

voyage by calling at Puget Sound. Under those conditions it would

seem that Puget Sound points would naturally become important

centers for the distribution of Japanese and Asiatic goods. But in addition to being near to the ocean highwa}7

, along which a large

quantity of imports will travel, the Puget Sound ports will be able to supply steamers with coal. The coal obtainable in these ports will be

required by the vessels engaged in the commerce of the north Pacific,

and this fuel supply will give to Washington and British Columbia the

possession of a magnet that will attract commerce with great force. That region is now deriving from its coal much assistance in the

development of its commerce; the opening of a canal will inaugurate

commercial conditions on the Pacific that will enhance rather than

lessen the efficiency of Puget Sound coal as an agency for the promotion of commerce.

In this discussion of the relation of an isthmian canal to the industries and commerce of the Pacific coast States only the larger industries of the section have been considered. The business activities here

dealt with are concerned mainly with the production of food and the raw materials of manufacture. The fisheries and horticultural business

of our Western States require a considerable amount of auxiliary

manufacturing for local purposes; but with the exception of lumber

and flour and a small amount of leather the Pacific coast manufactures

but little for export. This will be characteristic of the section for some time to come, although the use of the Puget Sound coal, and the

petroleum oil of southern California, and the application, by means of

electricity, of the abundant water power of California to industrial

purposes will make possible a greater diversification of industry than

has yet been accomplished.

The most general statement that can be made of the effect which an

isthmian canal will have on the Pacific coast is that the waterway will enable that section to meet more easily and successfully the growing

competition of those countries whose similar productions make them

commercial rivals of our Western States. Argentina is a large and

growing exporter of grain, wool, and hides; but it possesses all the

requisites of successful horticulture, and just as our Western States have done, so will Argentina become a large producer of fruits and

wine, both for domestic and foreign markets. Much the same

development may safely be predicated of South Africa and Chile.

Without an isthmian canal our West coast will have increasing diffi- culty in meeting the competition of these rival sections.

Chapter VI.The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific—The canal and the coal trade of the United States. Abundant and cheap coal and iron are resources fundamental to highly diversified industries and an extensive domestic and foreign

commerce, and their importance increases rather than diminishes with
336 KEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the development of the economic organization of society. Whatever

affects these resources and the activities directly connected with them

strengthens or weakens the foundation upon which the industrial and

commercial superstructure of society is based. Coal has become the

almost universal fuel force of manufacturing and commerce ; and

except in that limited field where electricity generated by waterpower

can be utilized it is the motive power of business activity. It more than

any other factor determines where most industries shall be located,

and the price of coal is at the present time not only determining which

sections within each country shall succeed most largely but it is also deciding which of the industrially resourceful and well-equipped

nations of the world is to achieve the highest measure of economic

success. If the abundant supply of coal in the eastern half of our country is available for export at a moderate cost, it will tend to increase the use of the isthmian canal by the merchant marine of our own and foreign

countries, to facilitate the developmentof the commerce of thePacific, and

to enhance the industrial changes that may be wrought by the waterway

on the west coast of South America and North America as far north as southern California. With the exception of the coal beds of the sec- tion of country adjacent to Puget Sound in Washington and British

Columbia, there are as yet no large and valuable coal supplies on the

entire west coast of the Americas available for the vessels engaged in the commerce of the Pacific or for the fuel which future industrial

development will require. There are coal deposits in northern Mexico,

northern Peru, and southern Chile, and there are petroleum fields in Peru. These several sources of fuel may possibly become valuable

for the commerce and industry of the Pacific coast generally, but

what has thus far been accomplished in connection with these fields would hardly warrant one in expecting them to become of much more

than local importance. Probably during the early years of the use of

the canal, and possibly for many years, the west coast of America from

California south, and the coaling stations of the Pacific generally, will draw their supply from other than Mexican and South American

sources. The routes followed by steamers is determined, when a choice is possible, almost as much by coal costs as by distances. The larger

shareof the world's ocean commerce originates or ends in the countries

about the North Atlantic, and a large share of the North Atlantic trade

with tin1 nations of the Pacific will have the choice1 of the Suez and

American canal routes. For a part of this Atlantic-Pacific trade the

Suez route will be shorter, and for another portion the American route

will have an advantage in distance. The route chosen will, to some

extent, depend upon the relative cost of coal at the stations along the

respective routes. This is equivalent to saying that, in the competition

of the two canals for the traffic free to choose between the two water- ways, the route will he more successful that can furnish vessels with

the cheaper coal, unless a disparity in toll charges and the chances foi securing and delivering cargo at intermediate ports should be sufficient to offset the advantage of cheaper fuel. An abundant supply of good coal, obtainable at moderate prices in the coaling stations of the Pacific, in addition to the commercial and

industrial benefits conferred, will be of advantage to our Nav3T

, because

of the necessity of our maintaining a number of naval vessels on that
RETORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 337

ocean. The efficiency of a naval squadron i.s even more dependent

than that of a merchant fleet upon an adequate and sure supply of

good coal, and whatever will increase and cheapen the coal supply of

the Pacific will enable the United States to protect its commercial and

colonial interests with fewer risks and less expenditure.

SOURCES FROM WHICH THE COAL CONSUMED ON THE PACIFIC IS NOW

OBTAINED.

The Pacific States of the United States are not only unable to export

much coal, but are, with the exception of the State of Washington,

obliged to import large quantities. The fuel required by the steamers on the Pacific Ocean and for industrial purposes by the countries in and adjacent to the Pacific Ocean is practically all supplied by other

countries than our own. In 1899 we sent a small amount of coal for

the first time, 34,000 tons, to the British East Indies, and less than

2,000 tons to the Dutch East Indies. This, however, was due to unusual conditions, and does not indicate the probable beginning of_

coal exports to the East Indies. For several years we have sent a

little coal to the Hawaiian Islands, probably as ballast, and in 1898 our

shipments to the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands reached 16,580 tons,

and in 1899, 80,209 tons. Nearly all of this tonnage, however, can probably be accounted for by the military operations which we carried on in the East after the spring of 1898.

Washington, our only Pacific State having a surplus of coal, pro- duced 2,000,000 tons in 1899, the output having doubled since 1893. The larger part of this coal is consumed locally, some of it used by

the steamers calling at Puget Sound ports, and California imports

about 400,000 tons annually.

The State of Oregon has coal mines of minor importance, but which

may possibly be so developed as to enable that State to supply a part

of is own fuel needs. In 1898 the output of the Oregon mines was

but 52,000 tons, and the statistics for the last ten years do not reveal

any tendency toward the increased output. However, there are said

to be veins in Oregon which are expected to yield considerable quantities of low-grade bituminous coal in the future.

British Columbia has well-developed coal mines on Vancouver

Island, and veins that are probably extensive are being opened up on

the mainland. The total coal production of Canada in 1898 was

4,172,655 tons; ten years earlier it was 2,658,000 tons. The greater

part of the present output is obtained in British Columbia, although

Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario all produce limited quantities.

Regarding the coal mines of Vancouver, the United States consul at Victoria reports that the total output of the island in 1898 was

1,117,915 tons, and for 1899, 1,666,251. The shipments to foreign

countries in 1898 were 765,961 tons, and in 1899, 769,091 tons. San

Francisco and the southern ports of California, the Hawaiian Islands,

and the steamships engaged in the trade between America and China

and Australia are consumers of this British Columbia fuel. The

imports of British Columbian coal into California in 1899 amounted to 652,926 tons, which figures represent an increase of 50 i er cent during

the last ten years, although the amount of British Columbian coal imported into the United States at the present time is considerably

less than it would be had not the coal from the State of Washington

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 22
338 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

become available for the California trade. The constantly increasing use of petroleum and electricity in California has probably made the

demand for coal in that State less than it would otherwise have been.

At the present time neither the State of Washing-ton nor British

Columbia is furnishing any considerable amount of coal to the coaling

stations of the Pacific nor sending very much coal to Pacific countries

generally. It would seem, nevertheless, that the supply of coal in this section of the United States and Canada was large enough to make

possible the development of an important coal export business.

Although a large part of the coal thus far discovered and worked is either lignite or low-grade bituminous, and but little, if any, bitumi- nous coal equal to the best bituminous of the eastern part of the United

States has yet been found, the best coal of Vancouver and the State of

Washington is satisfactory for steaming purposes and is now employed

for both industrial and commercial uses. There is no genuine anthracite coal mined in this district. For many years Japan has been developing her coal mines, with the

result that the total production rose from 1,102,000 tons in 1886 to 5,080,000 tons in 1896. During this decade the domestic consumption

rose from 726,000 tons to 2,936,000 tons. Thus, while the consumption

grew rapidly, it had not increased so fast as the total production, and

Japan was able to increase her exports during the decade from 776,000

tons to 2,144,000 tons. Since 1896 the coal exports from Japan have

increased largely. The tonnage figures for the recent production and

exportation are not available; but the value of the coal exported rose from 11,545,801 yen (15,772,900) in 1897 to 15,168,799 yen ($7,584,400)

in 1898. Japan supplies a large quantity of coal to steamers engaged

in the oriental trade, and also sends coal to Pacific ports.

Australia is a country producing a moderate but increasing amount

of coal of good quality, the total production growing from 4,179,000

tons in 1888 to 6,313,000 tons in 1898. The only colony of Australia

that has a surplus for export is New South Wales, whose foreign shipments in 1898 amounted to 2,791,796 tons. The shipments out of New

South Wales are larger than the total exportation of Australia, which

fact indicates that some of the New South Wales exports were toother

Australian colonies. The total coal imports of the Australian colonies were 1,000,000 tons, and two-fifths of this amount was drawn from

sources outside of Australia. Australian coal is at the present time

distributed quite generally throughout the Pacific, the shipments being

facilitated by the cheap transportation available. A large number of

vessels leave Australia for America with coal as ballast, and this has

enabled Australia to market her coal readily in Hawaii and in both

North and South America. For the last decade California has annually procured from 200,000 to 400,000 tons of Australian coal, and

Australia and Japan are at the present time supplying the larger part

of the coal to be found in the tropical and southern sections of the

Pacific. Another important source of the coal used in the Pacific is Great

Britain. The vessels which carry the grain, lumber, and nitrates of the west coast of America are frequently obliged to make the out- bound voyage from Europe in ballast. This enables Wales to compete even with British Columbia and Washington in the California

coal trade. A part of the coal thus imported, a portion of which is Welsh anthracite, is used for domestic purposes. The continued use
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 339

of British coal on the Pacific i.s due, in part, to its superior quality

and in part to the exceedingly cheap transportation which the coal is able to obtain. In addition to the coal supply mentioned above, California annually

purchases in the eastern part of the United States a limited amount

of anthracite. There is also brought from the Eastern States a

limited quantity of high-grade bituminous coal for smithing purposes.

This anthracite and smithing coal are obtained from Pennsylvania

and Maryland, and have hot amounted to 50,000 tons in any year

during the past decade.

The foregoing survey of the principal sources from which the coal

used on the Pacific is now secured will serve to show that the coal fields are widely scattered and are by no means so productive as those in the

eastern part of the United States or in Europe. The Australian, Washington, British Columbia, and Japanese coal fields are all capable of

development, but the increase in their output will be only moderately

rapid. Much is said but comparatively little is known in regard to the

coal fields of China. It is possible that within the next decade and a

half railroads will have been constructed from the Chinese fields to the seaboard and that foreign capital will have opened up the Chinese

mines. Should that take place, the largest future coal supply for the

Pacific will be China. Unless that does take place, however, the Pacific coal supply, until the isthmian canal has been constructed, will be drawn

from the four countries mentioned above, unless that which is highly

improbable should occur and there should be found in Mexico and

western South America richer fields of available coal than are now

known to exist. PUGET SOUND COAL.

The proximity of the coal resources of Puget Sound to Oregon and

California and their availability for the use of the steamers engaged

in the American-Asiatic trade of the North Pacific make desirable a

further inquiry into the quantity, quality, and marketability of the

coal of this section.

Although the Canadian coal production, most of which is to be accredited to British Columbia, was only 4,172,655 in 1898 and had increased

only a little over 1,000,000 tons since 1890, the reports of our consuls

and other sources of information indicate the existence of extensive

deposits. These coal beds, however, are not especially thick, and the

costs of mining have not been so low as in the great coal-mining regions

of the world. The best mines yet developed are those of Vancouver

Island and Crows Nest Pass, both of which produce a fair grade of

bituminous coal from which coke can be made. The Crows Nest Pass

field, at the eastern edge of the Cordillera Mountains, near the Canadian Pacific Railway, is a valuable source of supply for the metal-mining industries of the mountain district and for the section of the country

just east of that region, but is too far from the coast to be marketed

profitably at tide water. The Vancouver coal is favorably located for

transportation, and it has been the source of most of Canada's exports

of the mineral. Most of the foreign sales of this coal have been in the United States, where it has competed successfully with the product

of other countries, without being able, however, to monopolize the

market.

The coal mines of the State of Washington, although the product is
340 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

somewhat inferior to the better grades of the British Columbia output,

have been developed more rapidly than have the rival Canadian fields. The figures of production remained nearly constant at about 1,000,000 tons from 1886 to 1893, but for the five years ending in 1899 there was a rapid growth, the amounts being, in short tons, for 1895,

1,191,410; 1896, 1,195,504; 1897, 1,434,112; 1898, 1,884,571; 1899,

2,020,260. The latest report of the United States Geological Survey,

that for 1899, says:

Washington is the only one of the Pacific coast States whose coal product amounts

to as much as 1 per cent of the total bituminous output of the United States. It is also the only State on the Pacific coast producing true bituminous coal, the entire product of California and Oregon being lignite or brown coals. Some of the Washington coals are true coking coals, over 50,000 tons in 1899 being made into coke. Some of the coals produced in Washington approach anthracite in character, and some "natural coke" has been observed. These fields have an area about three times that of the Pennsylvania

anthracite beds, but are not especially rich deposits except in limited

and scattered areas. Like those of the Cordilleran Mountains generally, they have suffered badly by the irregular fracturing of the earth's

crust. As regards the quality of the Puget Sound coal three sources of

information may be drawn upon in this discussion—the studies of the

United States Geological Survey, to which reference has just been

made, the experience of those using the coal on vessels and in industries, and the tests made by the United States Navy.

Several large consumers of coal, including the ocean steamship companies, report that the Puget Sound coal can be used to advantage for

steaming purposes, although it is inferior to the product of the best

bituminous fields. The president of one of the steamship companies

states: The British Columbia coals that are now being mined are considered fair average steam coals. The Washington coals are lignites, semibituminous, and bituminous. The lignites are used principally as house coals, the screenings from such lignites being used at points close to the mines for steam purposes, as they are sold at a very low figure. The semibituminous and bituminous coals range from fair to good steam- producing coals. The firm using as much coal as any industrial concern on the Pacific

ordinarily secures its coal from the Washington mines, and an authority

regarding the sources of the coal used in California wrote in reply to the question, " Is the coal from Washington and British Columbia good

for steaming purposes?"

The lignite coals are not, Those of a more bituminous character are so used, but

they have not the evaporative power of the better grades of bituminous used on the

Atlantic seaboard, nor are they so good as the bituminous grade from Australia or the semianthracite coals from Cardiff and Wales. The numerous analyses and tests made by the United States Navy

of coals mined in different parts of the world indicates that the bitumin- ous coals of West Virginia and Wales rank highest, that the Alabama

coal is somewhat better than the Australian, and that the Australian

product is superior to that exported from Washington or British

Columbia.

On account of their different qualities these several coals will sell in the same market for different prices; and the decision of the question

whether the Puget Sound mines will in the future control the market

in which the ships and industries of the Pacific coast will secure their
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 341

coal will depend both on the relative qualities and on the costs of mining and delivering the competing products. The foregoing review of

the present sources of the coal used in Pacific markets shows that there

are. and will be, several regions competing for this coal trade. The

nature of this competition can be shown to advantage by a brief refer- ence to the coal trade of California at the present time.

THE FUEL SUPPLY OF CALIFORNIA.

The sources of California's coal supply constitute one of the interesting facts of the world's commerce. Every continent, except Africa

and South America, is drawn upon. Europe, Asia, Australia, and both

sides of North America export coal to California. The annual pro- duction of the State being only 160,000 tons of low-grade coal, nearly

all the supply has to be imported. At the present time about half the

amount consumed is received from foreign countries and half from

the United States. The following table shows the origin of the foreign

and domestic imports, and indicates that the American product is gaining on the foreign:

Coal imports of California. *

1889. 1894. 1899.

Tons. Per cent. Tons. Per cent. Tons. Percent.

Foreign:

417, 904

408, 032

45, 617 1,340

31.0 30.0

3.5

647, 110 211,733

176, 198

15, 637

42.4

13.9 11.5

1.0

623, 133 36.2 Australia 139,333 8.1 93,263 5.4 Japan 9,390 .6 Total 872, 893 64.5 1,050,678 68.8 865,059 ! 50.3 Domestic: Washington

California and Oregon

Pennsylvania and Maryland ..

372, 51* 87,600

18,950

27.5

6.5 1.5

395, 173

65, 263 16,640

25.9

4.2

1.1

627,450

189, 507

38, 951

36.4 11.0

2.3 Total 479, 064 35.5 477, 076 31.2 855,908 49.7 1,351,957 100.0 1,527,754 100.0 1 720 967 niii ii

a In addition to the amounts given in this table there has been a small quantity of anthracite annually obtained from Utah and Wyoming since 1893. The figures for alternate years are, for 1893, 21,562 tons; 1895, 37,530 tons, 1897, 44,*343 tons, and 1899, 19,000 tons. The anthracite imported from

Wales is included in the figures for Great Britain given in the table, The prominence ot the United Kingdom as an ocean carrier and the

possibilities of her foreign trade in coal are well illustrated by her large

shipments of that bulky commodity halfway around the world. In

past years California has received a part of her coal from Australia

and Great Britain in ships that carry her wheat to Europe. The coal from Great Britain has varied from 3| to 15 per cent of the total imports during the last dozen years, while the supply obtained from

Australia has ranged from Hi per cent to 30 per cent of the total. In

the past from 25 to 35 per cent of the California supply has been

drawn from these two foreign sources. For several reasons, however,

coal shipments from these countries are falling off. The price at which

British and Australia coal can be sold in California fluctuates sharply,

and rises and falls according to the prospect of the cereal crops and

the expectation on the part of shipowners of remunerative homeward

business. Under extremely favorable conditions freights on coal from
342 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Great Britain have been as low as 8s. per ton, while during the succeeding- year they have reached 19s. from the same ports.

When California was largely dependent upon Great Britain and

Australia for her coal supply, the practice was common of importing

the coal from those countries on a speculative basis, the coal shippers

sending out the cargo with the intention of selling the coal on or before

its arrival at the port of destination. During recent years California

buyers have adopted the practice of making contracts for the delivery

of coal at fixed prices for periods of time, and the speculative shipments have nearly ceased. This change in business methods has given an advantage to the coal miners of the Puget Sound section.

The decline of the Australian and British coal in the California trade,

and the concurrent development of the Puget Sound coal, is well illus- trated by the statistics of the coal imports of that State. In 1889

Australia furnished 30 per cent of California's coal needs; in 1899

the Australian shipments formed only 8 per cent. In 1899 but a small

amount of coal was shipped from Great Britain, whereas, in 1892, 15

per cent of the coal imports of California came from the United Kingdom. In 1899 the supply obtained from Great Britain amounted to only 5£ per cent. The State of Washington, on the contrary, supplied California with 27i per cent of her coal in 1889, and with 36.4

per cent in 1899. In 1899 the Puget Sound section, including British

Columbia, Vancouver, and the State of Washington, furnished California with nearly three-fourths of her coal supply. Ten years earlier

the amount from this section was 58£ per cent of the total. The importations of coal into California have increased very slowly,

the present amount being only If million tons, whereas twelve years

ago lir million tons were brought into the State. These figures show

clearly enough that California has not yet become a State with diversified manufacturing industries, her principal business activities being

concerned with the production of grain, fruit, and wine, the sawing

of lumber, and the mining of metals. Most of the manufacturing is auxiliary to these industries.

As has been stated in another chapter of this report, the auxiliary

manufacturing industries of California are making an increasing use

of electrically transmitted water power. Electricity thus generated is also extensively used for power and lighting purposes in the towns. Furthermore, California would be obliged to use more coal than she

does at the present time were there not petroleum oil fields in the

southern part of the State, from which increasing supplies of oil are being annually taken for industrial and domestic fuel purposes and for use in railroad locomotives.

Concerning the value of oil for fuel the secretary of the Los Angeles

Chamber of Commerce makes the following statement:

At the present time it is estimated that 4 barrels of oil are equal to 1 ton of coal, and the expense of handling the same is so much less that 3 barrels of oil are nearly

equivalent to a ton of coal. As the development of the oil fields continues the

price of oil will be reduced, ami unless the present price of coal can be greatly reduced coal will cease to be a factor in our manufacturing industries. This statement probably overestimates the industrial importance of

the development of the oil fields of southern California, nevertheless

the opening of them has resulted in an extensive substitution of oil for

coal. The oil is not adapted to lighting purposes, but makes a good

fuel.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 348

The foregoing facta indicate, that under the existing conditions of

transportation and competition the coal needs of the west coast of the

United States and Canada will be drawn mainly, and within a few years

almost entirely, from the fields near Puget Sound. The steamers of

the north Pacific, excepting such as make the trip to Australia, will draw their chief supply from the same section. Will the opening of an isthmian canal enable the coal of the eastern and southern portion'

of the United States to enter the west coast markets of our country?

Will this coal from east of the canal be able to compete with the Puget

Sound product in the markets of the tropical and southern sections of

the Pacific? In order to answer these questions it will be necessary

first to inquire into the prices at which Puget Sound coal can be sold

in Pacific markets, and then to examine the present and probable future

costs of delivering our eastern and southern coal at tide water, and to take account of the methods that will probabl}7 prevail in the transportation of coal from the eastern and southern mines to the vicinity of

the canal and beyond, when that waterway shall have become available.

PRICES AND COSTS OF COAL IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE UNITED

STATES. The prices of coal on the Pacific coast range higher than the prices

of similar grades in the Atlantic ports. In the Puget Sound cities near the mines " good steam coals " range in price from $2.25 per gross

ton for the lower grades to $3.25 per gross ton for the better qualities,

free on board vessels. Vancouver coal sells for $2.50 to $3.50 per ton,

according to quality, in the British Columbia coaling stations. Portland and Astoria secure their coal from the Washington mines at a

cost, delivered, of $4.50 to $5.25 per ton. The authority for these

figures is the general manager of a steamship compan}' doing a large

coasting business, and he also states: San Francisco uses, for household purposes, a large quantity of Washington lignite coals and British Columbia bituminous house coal. For steam purposes the British Columbia and Washington bituminous coals are used, rates ranging from $4.80 to $5.50 per gross ton at the wharf. " Another authority says:

The San Francisco prices are variable. Steam coals from Washington will vary from $5 to $6 per ton; from Vancouver Island from $5.50 to $7, and from Australia from $5.50 to $7.50 (gross tons in each case). The same gentleman reports that the price paid by a San Francisco

firm, whose business requires a large amount of coal, ranges from $4. 75

to $5.25, delivered from the ship. This coal ordinarily comes from

the Puget Sound mines in Washington.

The superior quality of the Comox and other British Columbia coal

enables them to command a somewhat higher price than the Washington product, but the Washington mines, probably on account of our

tariff of 67 cents a ton on bituminous coal, have been annually secur- ing a larger percentage of the coal business of California and Oregon.

The imports of the British Columbia coai into California have remained

about constant during the last six years.

a The unavoidable use of both long and short tons in this discussion may be confusing. Bituminous coal from Pennsylvania and West Virginia and Virginia is sold

in the Atlantic ports by the ton of 2,240 pounds; in the Gulf ports by the ton of 2,000 pounds. On the west coast coal prices are quoted on the ton of 2,240 pounds.
344 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The prices just cited are probably not the lowest ones possible in the future. When the market shall have become larger, when new

mines shall have been developed, and those now in operation shall be

worked on a larger scale, and, what is most important, when the means of land and ocean transportation shall have been improved,

enlarged, and cheapened, the Puget Sound mine operators can doubtless deliver coal in California and elsewhere considerably cheaper than

at present. It is the belief of one competent to speak that

The foreign sources of supply are becoming less important to us (California) with

the development of northern mines, and the day is not far distant when the north- ern capacity will be equal to the entire demand. At the moment it would seem to be a question of miners and water transportation, for certainly the northern coals can be laid down here at a cost so far below that of coals from Great Britain and Australia

as to overcome any possible difference in quality.

The coal exported from the eastern half of the United States will be

taken mainly from two sections, the Penns3>lvania and West Virginia

fields in the Upper Ohio Valley and the mines in north central

Alabama. The coal from the Upper Ohio Valley section is shipped by

rail to the several North Atlantic ports, where it is sold in large amounts

to industrial plants and ocean vessels, and whence a limited quantity

is now exported to foreign countries for naval and industrial purposes. In the handling of coal, both for domestic coast-wise distribution and

for foreign export, Norfolk and Newport News have some advantages over the Atlantic ports north of them, because of the exceptionally

high grade of the coals handled and the spacious and inexpensive terminal facilities possible in their harbors, which are also, because of their nearness to the ocean, convenient stations for vessels desiring to coal. The railway haul from the mines to Baltimore and Philadelphia is somewhat shorter and more economical than to Norfolk and Newport

News, but the disadvantage of the longer railway distance to the ports

at the mouth of the James is counterbalanced by the closer proximity

of those cities to the sea and their central situation on the Atlantic

coast. The Ohio River is another route used for the shipments of large

quantities of coal from Pennsylvania and West Virginia. The coal

sent down the Ohio is mainly destined for Cincinnati and other Ohio

River points, but a considerable share of the total is distributed along

the Mississippi, about 3,000,000 short tons reaching New Orleans each

year. The distance from Pittsburg to New Orleans by river is about

2,200 miles, and, as will be shown presently, it is the extraordinarily

cheap transportation which this river navigation makes possible that

will in the future give importance to the Upper Ohio Valley as a coal- exporting section of the United States. The city of Birmingham, in the Alabama coal and iron district, is about 260 miles by rail from Mobile and Pensacola and 350 miles from

New Orleans. The deposits are rich, the costs of mining are comparatively low, and the distance to good tide-water harbors is short. The prices of coal have recently been high on account of the almost

unprecedented industrial demands of the past two years. In September, 1900, two members of the Isthmian Canal Commission had a con- ference in Pittsburg with persons shipping huge quantities of coal

down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, and the price at which bitumi- nous coal was then selling in New Orleans was found to be 39 cents a

bushel, or $4.32 a ton of 2,000 pounds. It was also stated by a prominent coal merchant that $3.50 a short ton in New Orleans would be as
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 345

low a price as would be accepted at that time even on a contract calling

for the delivery of a large quantity. In reply to an inquiry addressed

to the secretary of the New Orleans Board of Trade in July, 1900, the

response received was: A large dealer here advises that $3.50 per short ton would about cover cost of Pittsburg coal, and Alabama would be about the same. The same inquiry was made of the general freight agent of one of

the Gulf railroads, and his reply, under date of July 10, 1900, was:

I have addressed dealers in coal asking for their prices free on board vessels Pensacola and Mobile for export. 1 am quoted on coal free on board vessels at Pensacola $2.60 per ton of 2,240 pounds, and at Mobile $2.35'per ton of 2,000 pounds ($2.64 per long ton). There is no export business moving through New Orleans, nor had it moved that way for some time, but the cost of coal free on board vessels at New Orleans would

probably be at least 75 cents per ton higher than to Mobile and Pensacola. The price of coal for local use was considerably higher at that time,

because the railway companies regularly make a large rebate in their

rate when the coal handled is exported or sold to vessels other than

tugs or local harbor crafts. The export price for the best Pocahontas

coal in October, 1900, was $2.50 per 2,240 pounds. The bunker price

of that coal was then $3.10 per long ton trimmed in bunkers. At the same time the price of bituminous coal in vessel cargo lots at Philadelphia was $2.30 per gross ton. The price paid by local manufacturers was $3.75 per long ton. The prices just quoted are so much above ordinary charges that it was necessary for the accomplishment of the purposes of this investigation to inquire what price conservative business men considered

would, under existing conditions of transportation, cover the costs of

mining and delivering the coal at the seaboard, including adequate

business profits.

Pittsburg firms mining and shipping coal by rail and by river state that the price of the coal at that section need not average over $1 per

short ton on the barges in the Monongahela River, and that under the

present conditions of Ohio River navigation a rate of $1 per short ton would yield a good profit to the vessel men for transporting the coal from Pittsburg to New Orleans.

One of the Pittsburg firms doing a large business in mining coal and

shipping it down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers prepared the following detailed statement of the cost of mining coal and getting it to New Orleans. The items are not estimates, but are the costs actually

incurred. The word ' w ton" means 2,000 pounds:

One ton, mine-run coal, f. o. b. works per ton. . $0. 75 Expense of transporting same to Pittsburg do 10 Transporting from Pittsburg to Louisville do 20 Transporting from Louisville to New Orleans do 37 Cost of boat containing coal do 70

Total cost of coal and boat at New Orleans do : 2. 12 Only about 30 per cent of the coal barges or flats sent to New

Orleans are brought back; the remaining seven-tenths are sold as rough lumber mainly to the planters. According to the above state- ment the purchaser of the coal is charged 70 cents per ton of coal for

the boat containing the coal. The firm that submitted the statement

accompanied the list of costs with the following explanation:

In the event that we want the boat back after having been unloaded, we buy it back from the customer at a very low price, thus enabling U9 to get the boat back

home with a profit to us.
346 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The cost of coal in New Orleans is the same, whether the barge be

towed back to the coal mines or not. This statement as to the cost of coal on the barges seems to be cor- roborated by the fact that the price of Pennsylvania bituminous at the

mine has, according to the reports of the United States Geological Survey, averaged 76.4 cents during the past decade. The testimony of

the above-mentioned firm and of other Pittsburg coal merchants is that

Pittsburg coal could be delivered with profit in large quantities on board vessels in New Orleans at a total charge of $2 to $2.25 per short

ton, or $2.50 per ton of 2,240 pounds.

In Birmingham, Ala., the committee of the Commission was informed

in September, 1900, by the vice-president of one of the large mining

and transportation companies that Alabama coal could be profitably

sold at that time, free on board vessels at Gulf ports, at $2.50 per short

ton. That this estimate was a liberal one is proven by the fact that

for the last ten years the average price of Alabama coal at the mines

has been 96 cents, and that at the time the committee visited Birmingham the railroad freight rate on coal for export from the Birmingham

district to Mobile, including "the cost of placing the coal into the

ship's hold at the coal chute," was $1.10 per ton of 2,000 pounds.

In 1898 the average mine cost of Alabama coal, as a whole, was only

75 cents, according to the report of the United States Geological Survey, and in Jefferson County, where 57 per cent of the total production of the State originated, the average mine cost was but 69 cents per ton of 2,000 pounds. The railway charges in 1900 were generally

higher than they were in previous years, and more than they need to be in the future for the conduct of a larger volume of traffic according to the most improved methods. Indeed, the export rate on pig

iron from Birmingham has been $1 per ton. In view of these figures

and of the testimony of several Alabama men engaged in the transportation and mining business, it would seem certain that coal from the

Birmingham district can now be sold free on board vessels at Mobile

and Pensacola for $1.75 to $2 per short ton ($1.96 to $2.24 per long ton).

Under the present conditions of mining and transportation the North

Atlantic seaboard price of bituminous coal free on board can be placed

at $2.25 to $2.50 a long ton, or $2 to $2.25 a short ton, depending upon

the quality of the coal and the ports through which it is handled.

Briefly stated, it appears that the price of bituminous coal, under

existing conditions of transportation, may be expected to be somewhat

higher on the North Atlantic seaboard than in the Gulf ports of Pensacola and Mobile; and that in the New Orleans market the Upper Ohio

Valley coal will normally range about 25 cents above the price of

Alabama coal in Pensacola and Mobile. In respect to the quality,

however, the coal from the Pittsburg section is somewhat superior to that from Alabama, the difference probably being sufficient to offset the greater price of the more northern product. Speaking generally,

the mine operators of the eastern and southern parts of the United

States could now offer bituminous coal for export for $1.75 to $2.25, or nt an average! price of about $2 a short ton. RIVER TRANSPORTATION OF COAL FROM PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA,

AND ALABAMA.

The Ohio River traffic is a matter of such importance in connection

with this discussion of the exportation of American coal to and beyond

the isthmian canal that a brief description ought perhaps to be given
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 347

of the manner in which the coal transportation is now conducted on

the river. The following statement of the methods of handling the

coal traffic originating in the Monongahela River Valley is taken from

a special report of the Chamber of Commerce of Pittsburg. After

stating- that the Monongahela River has been made navigable 102 miles

above Pittsburg by means of nine locks and dams constructed and

operated by the United States Government, and that the river flows

through the center of rich coal fields, the secretary says:

Three species of boats loaded on the Monongahela River for the Ohio River trade

are used by the shippers, viz: Coal boats, drawing 8 to 8$ feet and carrying 1,000 to 1,100 tons; coal barges, drawing 6 to 7 feet, carrying 500 tons, and coal floats carrying from 200 to 300 tons. The tow boats usually bring from the mines about 3,000 tons of coal in small fleets, arranged for passing the locks conveniently. * * * At Pittsburg * * * the

small coal fleets are moored while awaiting rises sufficient for navigation on the Ohio

River. * * * When rises of 10 feet occur, or sufficient for 8-foot coal barges,

fleets from 10,000 to 15,000 tons are made up for shipment to Cincinnati or Louisville. At Louisville, two, and sometimes three of the Pittsburg fleets are made up into monster fleets of from 35,000 to 40,000 tons and towed to New Orleans by powerful tow boats. A fleet conveying 40,000 tons covers about 10 acres. The coal fields of Alabama lie along streams capable of providing

navigation to Mobile for barges drawing about 6 feet of water; and

these rivers, particularly the Warrior, which flows through the most

productive coal deposits, are being improved by means of locks and

dams. Coal can now be barged from a few miles above Tuscaloosa,

Ala., through the Warrior and Tombigbee rivers to Mobile, and when

the Warrior River improvements shall have been extended 15 miles

farther to Jefferson County it will be possible to ship coal in barges

carrying from 400 to 500 tons and drawing 6 feet of water directly

from the mines to the Gulf. The barges can be constructed of the lowpriced steel obtainable in the Birmingham district, and by means of

them coal can be profitably transported to tide water for 50 cents a ton. The coal barges now so extensively used on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers are made of wood. Some of them are strongly built, and

after discharging their cargoes are towed back to the mines for reloading. A large share of the coal barges (70 per cent of those used for

shipping coal to New Orleans) are constructed as cheaply and f ragilely as possible, and, as was stated above, are sold for rough lumber in or near New Orleans. That these types of barges will be used a decade

or fifteen }

r ears hence seems improbable in view of the increasing costs of lumber and the present and declining costs of steel. The pressed

steel car is rapidly displacing the wooden one for railway coal traffic, and it is rational to expect that wood will give place to steel in barge

construction.

Steel river barges with a draft of 6 to 10 feet and a capacity of 500

to 1,000 tons will have the added advantage of being strong enough to be towed on the Gulf and Caribbean. By means of them coal can be

shipped directly from the Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama

mines, not only to the Gulf ports, but also to the coaling stations of

the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America, including the important stations that will certainly be established at the termini or along

the line of the canal.

It is possible the opening of an isthmian canal will lead to the use

of a special type of river barge for handling coal for export. A barge

capable of drawing 15 to 20 feet of water might be loaded to a draft

of 9 feet at the mines, to a draft of 12 feet at Louisville, and for six
348 EEPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

months of the year to 15 or 20 feet at Vicksburg. Barges of this size and type, could, of course, be towed through to any desired seaport,

American or foreign. The suggestion that such barges might be used was made by a gentleman who has had large experience in shipping

coal down the Ohio. Under these conditions of transportation coal

costing $1 per short ton free on board at the mine could be sold in Panama, Greytown, and other Caribbean or Gulf ports for $3 or less per ton. American coal at $3 a ton of 2,000 pounds in these ports will not onty hold the market against all foreign competition, but will be

so much less expensive than the price at which coal can be obtained

along the Suez Canal route as to give the American route a strong

commercial advantage resulting from the possession of cheap coal for steamers. In 1900, when the prices were abnormally high, coal was selling

from $5.83 to $8.63 a gross ton under yearly contracts along the Suez

Canal route, the price increasing with the distance from the British

mines. The following average contract prices of coal have prevailed

during each of the past five years at the more important stations along

the Suez route, the figures having been obtained from a large coal

merchant of London by the London representative of an American

firm of shipbrokers.

Contract price* in shillings and pence for the past five years.

[London, e c, October 31, 1900.]

Coal port. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.

g. d. 22 6 25 6 16 6 15 6-16

15 6 15 6

S. d. 29

(*) 18

15 6-16

15 6

15

s. d. 26 6 w19 6

1818

17

8. (/. 29

34

2322

22 6

21 6

g. d. 35 6

36 6 Port Said 26

2425

24

» No contracts. Note.—The above are prices at which contracts were made with the principal shipowners for the

years named, and do not show variations in "current " prices that occurred from time to time. All large shipowners contract; therefore the variations in the respective "current. " prices do not atlVct them. The contract prices in the autumn of 1900 at Port Said were 26s., but current prices there were

40s. The contract prices for 1901 were higher than those for 1900. "During the years 1896 and 1897," according to the London informant, "the Welsh coal market was quiet and freights were much lower

than for the past two years;" but even during those years the coal

costs along the Suez route were higher than the probable future cost

of coal in the stations of the West Indies and the Caribbean. Moreover, every indication points to increasing rather than diminishing

costs of coal in Europe, and the future prices of European coal in the

Mediterranean, Red, and Arabian seas can hardly be expected to be so low as they have prevailed in normal times in the past.

CONCERNING THE MARKETING OF APPALACHIAN COAL WEST OF THE

CANAL.

Well-informed men engaged in mining and shipping coal testified

in September, 1900, that the freight rate would then be about $3 per

ton for shipping coal 5,000 knots in chartered vessels. Assuming a
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 349

tide-water price of $2.50 per gross ton, a canal toll of 45 cents per

cargo ton (this would be about equal to $1 per vessel net register), and

a freight rate of $3 a ton, coal from the mines east of the Mississippi

River would have sold for about $5.95 a long ton in 1900 in California, Hawaii, and the east coast of South America. This price of

$5.95 is not suggested as the probable price of Eastern coal in Pacific

markets after the opening of the canal, but it has some value, inasmuch as it represents a maximum, and shows what would be quoted were the present conditions as regards costs of coal and transportation

to prevail.

After the canal has become available coal can be shipped through

it to Pacific ports either as ballast, as berth, or part cargo freight, as

full cargo shipments in chartered vessels, or in towed barges. The

rates for part cargoes or berth lots will in all probability be so high as usually to preclude shipments of that character, but there will be a

large amount of steam vessel tonnage going in ballast or with light

cargoes westward through the canal for the Chilean nitrate, the

Hawaiian sugar, and the grain and lumber of the west coast of the

United States and Canada. Such being the case, there will naturally

be more or less coal carried as ballast to those ports of the Pacific and

at a very low freight rate. Moreover, vessels may be owned or chartered by coal companies for the purposes of taking westward full car- goes of coal and bringing eastward nitrates, sugar, grain, or lumber.

It is furthermore probable that the steel barges described above, if they are adopted for river traffic, will be towed with their cargo through

the canal to Central American and west South American ports within a thousand miles of the canal. The smooth water of this part of the

Pacific coast will be favorable for towing, and there will be economy

in shipping direct from the mine to the Pacific port without transfer

of cargo. In view of these favorable facilities for the transportation of coal

westward it would seem conservative to expect the freight costs of

sending coal from the Gulf ports and the Atlantic ports of Norfolk

and Newport News to points 5,000 knots distant—that is, in general

terms, to northern Chile, Hawaii, and our west coast—will be as low

as $2 per ton of 2,240 pounds, and possibly less in exceptional cases. The foregoing estimates regarding the cost of coal were that, with

tne existing transportation agencies, coal can be sold at tide water on

the Atlantic and Gulf for an average price of $2 per gross ton, and

that the costs of shipping coal to the Gulf will probably be less in the

future than they now are. Assuming that the cost of coal at Gulf

and Atlantic ports will at the time of the opening of the canal

range from $1.50 to $2.25 per gross ton (depending upon the quality

of the coal, the port of shipment, and the conditions of the market),

that the ocean freight will be $2 per ton, and the canal tolls 45 cents per cargo ton, the cost of delivering Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and

Alabama coal in the ports of the west coast of the United States,

Mexico, Central America, South America as far south as northern

Chile, and the ports of Hawaii will be from $3.95 to $4.70 per ton of

2,240 pounds. Having made this detailed inquiry concerning the

present and probable future costs of delivering Appalachian coal at the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards and the cost of shipping this coal to Caribbean ports, it is now possible to consider whether and to what

extent the Puget Sound coal and that from the eastern third of the
350 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

United States will compete in Pacific markets, particularly in California. In the earlier part of this chapter the present prices at which Puget

Sound coal was selling in California and Oregon were given. Those

prices can doubtless be reduced during the coming ten or fifteen years. According to the annual report of the United States Geological Survey,

the average cost of Washington coal at the mines was $1.78 in 1899,

and for the ten years ending in 1899 the average was $2.16 per short

ton. As the supply of labor becomes greater, and when the mining

operations are conducted on a larger scale,, the wages of labor will be

somewhat lower and the total cost of mining will be less per ton; how

much it is impossible to say. Possibly $1.50 per short ton would be a

fair estimate. An average railway rate from the Washington mines

to the seaboard of $1 a ton is as low as may be expected.

These estimates would make the average cost of Washington coal at the seaboard $2.50 a short ton or $2.80 a ton of 2,210 pounds, except

for the coal from those mines close to the seaboard, which could sell their product at a lower price because of the cheap railway haul. As

was stated above, the prices of coal in the year 1900 in Puget Sound

cities ranged from $2.25 to $3.25 per gross ton. The Vancouver coal cost $3.50 per ton on an average in the British Columbia coaling sta- tions. The ocean freight rates in 1900 were high, and this accounts

for differences of $2.50 to $3 per ton then prevailing between the

Puget Sound and San Francisco prices. It would seem that $1.50 per

ton would ordinarily be a remunerative ocean rate to San Francisco

and also to Hawaii. On the basis of these estimates a possible future

price of $1 a gross ton for Washington coal in California and Hawaii

may probably be predicted. British Columbia coal will be obliged to pay the tariff of 67 cents unless the existing law is changed. These

estimates are based on too meager data to make it safe to accept them

as being closely accurate, but they are probably approximately correct; and, if they are, they indicate that Puget Sound coal will be sold in California and Hawaii at from $1 to $5 per long ton by the time the

isthmian canal shall have been opened. To Central and South American ports the freight rates would doubtless be 50 cents a ton more than

the California and Hawaiian points and a selling price of from $4.50

to $5.50 per ton of 2,210 pounds would need to be predicted.

The conclusions to be drawn from these estimates regarding the

prices at which Appalachian and Puget Sound coal can be sold in the

Pacific markets are that the Appalachian coal will doubtless have an advantage over that from Puget Sound in Central and South American

ports and that in California and Hawaii the two coal-producing sec- tions will be active competitors; the Puget Sound mine owners will apparently be able to sell at a somewhat lower price than their Eastern

rivals can afford to accept, but the producers of the Eastern and

Southern States will have an article of slightly better quality to offer. The two chief reasons why the Appalachian coal can compete in the

markets so near Puget Sound are the lower mining costs in the East and the exceptionally cheap transportation that will be available from

the Appalachian mines to the seaboard and from the seaboard west,

both in steel barges and in vessels seeking the Pacific coast for the

eastbound cargoes of lumber, grain, sugar, and nitrates. The general conclusions to this investigation of the probable sources

of the future coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 351

and of this inquiry into the effects which the isthmian canal will have

upon the coal trade of the United States are:

1. That the coal consumed for commercial and industrial uses on the

west coast of the American continents, in Hawaii, and in the coaling

stations of the eastern half of the Pacific Ocean will be supplied in the future mainly from the mines of the United States and Canada,

unless the opening- of the Chinese mines should revolutionize the coal trade of the Pacific. It is not probable that coal from the Orient or

Australia will in the future be sold on this side of the Pacific. In this case, however, China is, as usual, the uncertain and indeterminable

factor.

2. The isthmian canal will enlarge the export markets for American

coal both by creating a demand for coal in Gulf, West Indian, and

Central American stations to supply the steamers that will be engaged

in our own and Europe's commerce through the canal, and also by

opening in the Pacific ports of the American continents a coal market

that is now important and which is certain to grow. We shall secure

the larger share and probably nearly all of a coal trade that is now

possessed by Great Britain and Australia, and the industrial progress

that will result from the use of the canal will add to the volume of

that trade. At the present time the United States occupies an unimportant place

as an exporter of coal to foreign countries other than Canada and

Mexico, and while this promises to become less true in the future as the cost of our coal declines and that of the British product rises, and

as the purchases of our high-grade steaming coal by foreign governments for their navies occur more frequently, nevertheless British coal

producers will continue to have the great advantage which they now

possess of abundant facilities for shipping their coal to all parts of

the globe. The volume of Great Britain's total imports is so much

larger than the volume of her exports that a large number of vessels are regularly obliged to start in ballast from the United Kingdom on

their outbound voyages.

This enables the coal exporters of that country to secure very low

rates to distant and widely scattered foreign markets and accounts for

the fact that the foreign coal shipments from Great Britain have aver- aged 35,000,000 gross tons annualty for the past five years. While the total exports from the United States will continue to be more bulky than our imports, there will be a large tonnage movement

westward through the isthmian canal of vessels with part cargoes or

in ballast, and the canal promises to develop an important foreign and

domestic market for American coal. The ability to distribute the

excellent coal of the United States extensively among the countries of

the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean will be of great benefit to the

industries and commerce of those countries, and will redound to the

advantage of our naval, maritime, and industrial interests. Chapter VII.

The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries

of the United States. The United States holds first place among the countries of the world

in the amount of coal and iron ore mined. In 1899 three-tenths of

the world's total output of iron ore and 32 per cent of the total coal supply were produced in the United States, and the production of both
352 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of these minerals is being increased rapidly, not with the prospect of

exhausting a limited supply of raw materials, but by drawing upon

abundant resources that have but recently been put under requisition. In no other country has the increase in the amount of iron ore mined

been so rapid as in the United States. Great Britain is now mining

no more iron ore than she did thirty years ago. Germany, including

Luxemberg, ranks next to our country in the amount of iron ore produced, and the production has developed rapidly during recent years;

but although the German output was 18,000,000 tons in 1899, a large

quantit}^ of ore had to be imported, and the amount of pig iron turned

out by German furnaces was barely two-thirds the pig-iron product of

the United States, whose productions of iron equaled 13,620,703 tons

of pig and 25,000,000 tons of ore. THE UNITED STATES AS AN EXPORTER OF IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTS.

Iron and steel and their manufactures now constitute the fourth

largest class of exports from the United States, breadstuff's, raw cot- ton, and provisions being the only categories having a greater value.

For the year ending June 30, 1900, the values of these commodities were

Breadstuffs $262, 734, 026 Raw cotton 241 , 832, 737

Provisions, meat, and dairy products 184, 431 , 716 Iron and steel, and manufactures of 121, 858,344

The growth in the exportation of iron and steel in crude and manufactured form has been very rapid during the past four years. In 1896 the total value was but slightly more than one-third of that of

1900. This rapidly growing trade is widely distributed, the most

promising markets being in North and South America and the Orient.

Of steel bars and rails British North America, Japan, and Asiatic

countries were large buyers. Builders' hardware, saws, and tools found 45 per cent of their market in Europe, but Australia was also ;i large purchaser. Wire is very widely distributed. Electrical machinery, printing presses, and pumping machinery have been sold mainly

in Europe, and also in the colonies of European nations. Our best

foreign markets for locomotives are Japan, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and

Russia. American producers are finding their way into the markets

of all parts of the world.

Among the letters received from the manufacturers of iron and steel was one from a firm whose plant is on the Atlantic seaboard. This

firm reported, among other things: At present 25 to 30 per cent of our products arc exported. We expect, however,

by reason of our location at tide water, "to constantly increase this proportion ami

ultimately export from 50 to 75 per cent. In the year L899 the capacity of this linn was about $10,000,000

worth of products per annum. At the time this letter was written the

firm was rilling a foreign order for 70,000 tons of rails for the trans- Siberian railway, and also an order for 30,000 tons of rails received

from the government of Victoria, Australia. A Philadelphia firm

shipped two full vessel cargoes of locomotives to China and Siberia in 1898, one full cargo in 1899, and another shipload in 1900, 150 in all, sent out in two years.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 353

A firm iii the eastern part of Pennsylvania reported:

We shipped 3,000 tons of plates to Australia early this year, and similar quantities to various points, especially to China and Japan. * * * We shipped many

thousands of tons to the Pacific coast, a part of which goes to New Orleans and

thence overland. Some goes by way of Panama and some around Cape Horn. A firm manufacturing $750,000 worth of files and rasps, one-third

of which is sold outside of the United States, reported:

We have lately developed a constantly growing business in all the Eastern countries, Japan, China, and the Straits Settlements. We are also selling to some extent on the west coast of South America.

One of the largest manufacturers of bridge material in the United

States reports:

Business is developing throughout the world, having sold bridges for many years

to South American countries, and lately to China, Japan, and Russia. Probably 10 per cent of our present business is for export, with every evidence of large increase

in the future. Examples of this nature might be given in large number. The fore- going, however, are sufficient to illustrate the truth of the general

proposition that the present exportation of iron and steel products

from the United States, although large, is but the beginning of a rapidly increasing business that is certain to assume great proportions.

The great iron and steel manufacturers of Pittsburg, Cleveland, and

Birmingham expect this, and a visit to their great establishments and

an inspection of their methods of manufacturing and distributing their

products will convince any observer that the feelings of these manufacturers are well founded.

THE CONDITIONS OF PRESENT COMPETITION OF THE UNITED STATES

WITH EUROPE.

The chief competitors that the United States must meet in exporting

iron and steel manufactures are Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium.

In selling for delivery in Europe we are at a disadvantage as regards

costs of transportation, and must expect to overcome the handicap, if at all, by being more inventive and b^v introducing more economical

processes of production than are employed by our rivals; that is, by

making a better article at a lower cost of manufacture.

That we are now able to sell many manufactures of iron and steel and even pig iron in Europe shows that great progress has been made

in the United States in reducing the expenses of production; indeed,

we are able to enter all markets where the competitor does not have a decided advantage in lower costs of transportation. The cost of manufacturing iron and steel is lower in most of the centers of production

in this country than in Europe, and the expenses are certain to decrease during the coming ten or fifteen years. The continuation of

the present rapid growth in our foreign sales of iron and steel products

is essentially a question of securing cheaper transportation, and especially to South American and trans-Pacific countries.

Most foreign countries, however, can be reached more economically

under existing conditions by European producers than by American.

Not only the west coast of South America, but also the east side of

that continent south of the equator can at present be reached more

cheaply from western Europe than from the iron-producing sections

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 23
354 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of the United States. The Suez Canal has brought Europe nearer than the United States is to the East Indies, Australia, China, Japan,

and oriental countries generally; and until the American canal route becomes available American manufacturers and exporters of iron and

steel and other articles will hnd their lower costs of production largely

offset by the greater expenses of transporting their commodities to these promising foreign markets.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL TRADE WITH PACIFIC COUNTRIES.

The isthmian canal will affect the iron and steel industries of the

United States chiefly by lessening the time and expense of reaching

the Pacific markets of our own and foreign countries. These are the

markets in which Europe and America will strive for supremacy, and

the prize is worth}^ of zealous effort. Though now at a disadvantage

in the competitive struggle for this trade, the American producers

have already secured a desirable trade. The direct exports of our

iron and steel products to foreign Pacific countries in 1900 were a* follows:

Chinese Empire $822, 074 Japan 5, 460, 205

British Australia 7, 386, 358

Chile 655, 935

Bolivia 23, 006 Ecuador 292, 314 Peru 495, 4 1

Total 15, 1 35, 303 The principal exports from the United States to Pacific countries

are and will be breadstuff's, lumber, raw and manufactured cotton,

petroleum, and iron and steel products. The exportation of the last three of these five classes of commodities will be facilitated by the

canal; and in the case of iron and steel products, which have to meet a

specially strong competition from Europe, the isthmian waterway will be of great assistance to American exporters. The table indicates that

the canal's influence will be exerted where important results are possible. The total exports of iron and steel products from the United

States in the year ending June 30, 1900, amounted to $121,858,344,

and the exports of those commodities to Pacific countries comprised

one-eighth of the total. THE MANNER IN WHICH THE ISTHMIAN CANAL WILL AFFECT THE

AMERICAN IKON AM) STEEL INDUSTRIES AS A Wr HOLE AND THOSE

OF THE SOUTHERN STATES IN PARTICULAR.

Iron and steel and the manufactures of them being heavy commodities, with a relatively low value per unit of weight, they constitute a class of traffic for which water transportation is especially well adapted.

They will naturally seek the canal route to Pacific markets. The future

exports of iron and steel will be sent out both from the Southern States and from those north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. Of the iron ore mined in 1899, 19 per cent, or 4,800,000 tons, were taken from the

mines of the Southern Slates; 72.6 per cent came from the Lake

Superior region, and 8.4 per cent from other States. The Southern States have special advantages for tin 1 manufacture

and exportation of pig iron because of the juxtaposition of the coal,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 355

iron ore, and limestone, and the comparatively short distance of the

furnaces from the seaboard. In shipping pig- and other forms of iron

to our Western States, the Hawaiian Islands, and the Pacific const of

Central and South America, by way of an isthmian canal, the Southern

producers and the Gulf seaports will have the advantage of being nearer

the canal than the producers in other sections of the United States will

be, and this will probably give the Southern mines, furnaces, and mills

a large share of the iron and steel export trade to Pacific markets.

The Northern producer will, however, by no means be debarred from

successful competition, because the North Atlantic ports will have a greater volume of shipping and trade with the East than the Southern

ports will have, and consequently more abundant facilities for dispatching their exports.

The iron and steel manufacturers of this country anticipate a large

foreign trade with Pacific countries. An ironmaster of Birmingham,

Ala., states: The canal would open to this district a demand for pig iron from the Pacific eoasd, including South America, now filled from England because of the absence of freight communications from Birmingham, which could otherwise supply it more cheaply.

It would open up a demand for pig iron in Honolulu, Japan, China, and Australia, which would then be supplied to them more cheaply than from European markets.

It would open up a demand in the last-named countries for cast-iron pipe, which at present is largely supplied from Belgium, which could then be more cheaply supplied from this district. In Pittsburg the iron and steel manufacturers, who already ship

extensively to Pacific markets, believe that the present business could

be much increased by the use of an isthmian canal, and a special report

prepared for the canal commission by the chamber of commerce of

that city lays stress upon the possibility of exporting from the section

of which Pittsburg is the industrial center large quantities not only of

iron and steel products but also of coal, glass, petroleum, and pottery. In Cleveland, Ohio, one firm engaged in the manufacture of relatively

high-priced iron and steel products in that city and elsewhere reported

in 1900 that it was shipping annually to foreign Pacific markets 77,000

net tons, and was doing a large business with the west coast of ' the

United States, the amount of which was withheld for special reasons. Another firm having headquarters in Cleveland and doing an annual

business of over $21,000,000 in mining iron and coal and manufacturing pig iron informed the committee of the canal commission that—

The opening of a canal across the American isthmus would prove of very great

benefit to the iron and steel industries to whom we sell our raw materials hence of great benefit to us. The development of trade in the Orient promises a large volume

of business to the iron and steel industries of the world. With a canal the United

States should, and in our judgment would, control this trade. From the reports prepared for the commission by the commercial

organizations of Pittsburg, Cleveland, and Birmingham it is believed

that these statements of large iron and steel manufacturers in these

cities represent the views held by practically all of those interested in the iron and steel industries of the United States. Chapter VIII.

The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime

interests of the United States. The shipbuilding industry and the merchant marine are of great

importance to the industrial, commercial, and naval welfare of our

country. There are few industries of equal magnitude that require a
356 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

larger number of auxiliary business activities, that employ so large a force of skilled labor, and that do more to call forth inventive genius.

The permanent strength and efficiency of our merchant marine and our Navy are dependent upon our having well-equipped yards, owned

by trained builders with inventive capacity. However much men

may differ as to the policy to be adopted for building up our merchant

marine, they are agreed as to the necessity for having a well-developed

shipbuilding industry.

The desirability of having a large merchant marine under the American flag is also generally acknowledged. "The more facilities the more business." The existence of a greater number of vessels con- necting our leading seaports with various parts of the world would be

of assistance to us in developing our foreign trade. It is possible to secure a moderate amount of trade with a distant section of the world

by depending entirely upon chartered vessels, but much more can be

accomplished with the aid of regular lines of ships. The regular

liners are needed not only for the passenger and mail services between

our own and foreign countries, but also for carrying on trade at scat- tered points where the business is not large enough to warrant the use

of chartered steamers. In building up our trade with the Far East,

and with South America, we need lines of vessels as well as chartered

ships. Neither agency is sufficient b}r itself. The value of a large merchant marine as a training school for the

Nav}r

, and as a source from which to draw both men and vessels when

a sudden expansion of the naval fleet becomes necessary, is a fact recognized in the naval andmiaritime policy of many countries.

THE CANAL AND SHIPBUILDING.

The isthmian canal will operate as has the Suez Canal, and hasten

the change from sail to steam power in ocean commerce. By doing

this the isthmian waterway will modify both the shipbuilding and the

ship-operating industries. Inasmuch as few, if any, steamers will be

constructed with wooden hulls, the canal will necessitate a larger and

earlier reorganization than would otherwise occur in many of the shipbuilding plants now employed in constructing wooden vessels. This

change from wooden to steel vessels may be a burden to some builders,

but the country as a whole will be benefited.

One sure result of the opening of an isthmian waterway will be a larger coasting trade between our two seaboards. A larger coasting

fleet will be required, and the vessels for this fleet must be built in American yards. The coasting fleet engaged in traffic through a canal

will consist mainly, if not entirely, of steamers." A part of our pres- ent coasting vessels will doubtless use the canal, but it is probable that a large number of ships will be built especially for the long-distance

traffic that will be carried on through the canal. Most of them will be comparatively large ships, and will be freight vessels of the most

modern design. The use of steel barges on the Ohio, Mississippi, Warrior, and other rivers promises to enlarge the demand for those vessels, and they must be constructed in American yards. Likewise an

increase in the exports of iron and steel products will necessitate the

"Consult following chapter <>n "The use of the canal by sailiii!_r vessels."
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 357

handling of more ore on the Great Lakes, and thus add to the tonnage

of vessels constructed. In securing- data for the discussion of the effect which the canal

would have on the shipbuilding and maritime interests of the United

States circular letter containing six inquiries was sent to the American firms building and operating ships. Replies were received from

forty of the persons addressed, and in most of the communications

received each question was carefully answered. One of the interrogatories was, Will the opening of an isthmian canal and the development of its traffic stimulate American shipbuilding? Will the larger

demand for coasting vessels so increase the output of American yards

as to enable shipbuilders to construct all ships more economically, and

thus to compete successfully with foreign builders in the construction

of vessels for the foreign trade?

Nearly all the responses to this query were in the affirmative. The

genera' character of the answers may be illustrated by quoting from

two of the letters; one received from an Eastern shipbuilder and the

other from a west coast shipowner. The statement of the shipbuilder was:

In my judgment the opening of the isthmian canal and the development of its traffic would stimulate American shipbuilding to the extent of an increased demand

for vessels to be used in trade affected by said canal. As a rule increased demand

develops increased sources of supply, and the cost of product is invariably reduced

in proportion of increased business to fixed expenses of any manufacturing establish- ment, and therefore the canal would in this case tend to enable shipbuilders to construct ships more economically and more surely to compete with foreign builders. The response of the shipowner was:

The increased facility afforded for the transfer of American vessels from ocean to ocean in trading between American ports will call for an increased number of vessels, which undoubtedly will result in new shipyards being established (both for the

building and repairing of our vessels), which could be called upon when needed for the construction of vessels to carry on our foreign import and export trade. We

already know that structural steel has been produced in the United States cheaper than in any other part of the world, owing to the almost inexhaustible beds of iron ore in the region of the Great Lakes, as well as in other sections, and the skill and

economy with which it is mined and worked. When we combine this advantage

with the facility which will be developed by a large increase in our capacity for building coasting vessels, we see no reason why in the future ocean carrying vessels

of the best class may not be built as cheaply here, if not already done, as in any

other country.

The cost of building ships in American yards has declined largely

during recent years with the fall in the prices of iron and steel and

coal, and with the introduction of more economical processes of handling material and doing work. Most of the large American shipyards

are new and are equipped with the most approved labor-saving

machinery. The labor costs are said to be higher in American than

in foreign yards, but whether the cost of labor per unit of work done

is greater in the United States is hard to determine. In most lines of

iron and steel manufactures the labor costs of production in the United

States can hardly be higher than in Europe. For many commodities the

labor outlay is undoubtedly less, and it is not probable that the labor

costs of building ships in the United States will continue permanently

higher than in Europe. It is, however, hardly to be expected that

American builders can construct the small merchant tonnage now

being built by them at as low a cost per ton of shipping as can the
358 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

foreign builders. Ships are built by retail in this country and by the

wholesale abroad. "The British shipbuilders build many vessels from

the same plans, buying- or making not only duplicate or triplicate parts,

shapes, machines, etc., but like parts by the dozen or score." a The tonnage now being constructed by the American builders is nearly all for the coastwise and inland commerce, from which foreignbuilt vessels are excluded—that is, for the home market. It is, however, probable that the American shipbuilding industry will repeat the

history which other iron and steel manufactures have had during the

past ten years. From importers of large quantities of iron and steel products we have become large exporters of them, and are now rapidly

rinding our way into new markets. The present vigorous growth of

the shipyards in the United States is doubtless but an earnest of a much

larger future output, that will supply not only the home market, but

will find its way largely into the competitive field. The increase which

will occur in our domestic water commerce during the coming decade,

and particularly after the isthmian canal shall have been opened, will enlarge the tonnage built in our yards, tend to lower the costs of construction and to induce American builders to seek foreign markets for

their ships. The increase in the number of vessels built will be accu- mulatively beneficial to American builders. A larger American fleet means more repairing in the United States, and this will be a valuable

aid to our ship}^ards.

THE OWNERSHIP OF OCEAN VESSELS BY EXPORTERS.

During the investigation of the relation of the canal to the maritime

interests of the United States some gentleman well versed in maritime

matters expressed the opLi'.Dn that a considerable tonnage was to be

added to our merchant marine engaged in foreign commerce by the

purchase and operation of vessels by the large American manufacturing concerns which are now rapidly developing a heavy foreign trade. Manufacturing for export is already largely concentrated in the hands

of large combinations of producers, and some of these combinations now mid their foreign trade so important that they are considering the

desirability of providing themselves with ocean vessels. One of the

largest firms of the United States stated in a letter to the Commission

that—

The export business of our company has <*rown to such a remarkable extent that we have found it Impossible to rely upon the customary means of transportation for delivery of our goods. For some time past we have Ween chartering ocean steamers

for varying periods of lime, and have found it quite difficult to cover our require- ments even by this method. The ships we have so far built for the lake trade are

too large to pass through the present canals to the Atlantic, but we have used some

boats, owned by other companies, by the Welland ('anal route, and find this practi- cable. The matter of providing proper means of transportation for the future is a very important one; and while wo have not as yet decided the question, we are

seriously considering the building of our own ships.

A report lias come to hand that this question was decided in the

affirmative.

The Northwestern Steamship Company in April and May, 1901,

inaugurated a service between Chicago and Hamburg and Liverpool.

Four strainers were put into operation, each having a capacity of 3,506

Report of Commissioner of Navigation, L900, page 33.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 359

tons dead weight. Nineteen days will be taken for the voyage from

Chicago through the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River, the Gulf

of St. Lawrence, and across the Atlantic. The vessels are built in Chicago, and their cargo will consist of grain and the manufactures of

that city and the country commercially 'tributary to it. For reasons stated in another part of this report, it is believed that

the exportation of coal from the United States is going to increase

and that it will assume large proportions after the canal is opened.

The exportation of iron and steel products from the United States is growing and is certain to increase. The large corporations engaged

in mining and in the manufacture of iron and steel, as well as those in the lumbering business, will doubtless tind that provision must be

made by themselves for handling their water-borne foreign trade. To a considerable extent the vessels which carry the exported oil are owned by the manufacturers of the oil. A part of this exported lumber is handled by the men who manufacture the commodity. The

heavy purchases of European vessels by American capitalists during

the spring of 1901 was doubtless in part for the purpose of securing

better facilities for handling the export trade. The purchasers are

also largely engaged in manufacturing for export.

THE CANAL AND THE AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE.

The owneiship and operation of ocean vessels by the large industrial

firms as a part of their business, which has now in many cases come

to include the entire process of obtaining the raw materials, convert- ing them into usable commodities, and placing them in the hands of

the consumer, whether foreign or domestic, will, to some extent, solve

the question of our securing a larger merchant marine owned by

Americans. Whether these vessels owned by American producers

will be sailed under our flag, or under that of some foreign nation, will

be determined by forces over which the isthmian canal will have but

slight influence.

Some of the vessels employed in the commerce between our Eastern

seaboard and the trans-Pacific countries will doubtless desire to participate in the interoceanic coasting trade of the United States, and in order to do so they will need to have the American registry. The

action of Congress in restricting the commerce of Porto Rico and

Hawaii with the United States to American ships suggests that our

trade with the Philippines may also be limited to the vessels flying our flag. Should Congress take such action regarding the Philippines, a considerable share of the commerce of our Atlantic and Gulf ports

with Japan and China will be carried in American vessels, because

such ships would be able to participate in both our Philippine and

foreign trade. Any benefit conferred upon our shipbuilding industry will indirectly

aid in the enlargement of the tonnage of American vessels engaged in the foreign trade of the United States. If the American purchaser

could secure vessels at home as cheaply as in foreign yards, one of the

present reasons for registering his ships under the flag of some other

nation would be removed. The future growth of the merchant marine

under the flag of the United States will depend on numerous factors, some economic and some political. The construction of the isthmian

canal will apparently affect that growth favorably.
360 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Chapter IX.Concerning the use ofan isthmian canalhy sailing vessels. In order to reach intelligent conclusions regarding' the use which

sailing vessels will make of a canal, there are at least three questions

that must receive consideration. The first general question is con- cerning the place which those vessels now hold in the commerce of the

world and of the United States; the rate at which steam has been dis placing sail tonnage in our own and foreign shipping during the past

twenty-five years, and the commercial position which the sailing vessel

will occupy fifteen years hence should the present tendency to substitute

the engine for the sail continue to prevail. Another subject meriting

careful inquiry is whether there are special classes of traffic, such as lumber, grain, nitrates, and unrefined sugar, which have found the

steamer the more economical carrier. If there are commodities that can be freighted more cheaply by sail than by steam, are they articles that would naturally be carried through the canal? The third general

question is whether an isthmian canal, either in Nicaragua or at Panama,

is a waterway adapted to navigation by sailing vessels. Are the conditions of winds and currents that prevail at the approaches to the

canal such as to enable the sailor to use the waterway; and if the route

is possible for the sailing vessel, will the economies resulting from its use be sufficient to induce the owners of such ships to adopt the trans- isthmian route? In the discussion that follows these three general

questions will be considered in the above order of statement. THE PLACE OF THE SAILING VESSEL IN THE COMMERCE OF THE WORLD

AND OF THE UNTIED STATES. That the sailing vessel is giving place to the steamer, both on the

high seas and in domestic waters, is a well-known fact, to the significance

of which attention has been drawn on many occasions. The United

States, however, having certain obvious advantages over other nations

for the construction of wooden ships, has given up tire use of sails more slowly than any other important maritime nation, with the possible exception of Norway. In the enormous traffic of our Great

Lakes we nave come to use steam almost exclusively, but this is not

the case with our seagoing marine.

The report of the United States Commissioner of Navigation for

1899 contains tables showing the extent to which the world's seagoing

sail tonnage has declined during the last quarter of a century, and the

increase which has taken place during the same period in the world's

seagoing tonnage. The tables are taken from the records of the

Bureau Veritas. The table regarding the sail tonnage is as follows:

Seagoing sail tonnage.

( tountrj

Great Britain United stairs Norway

hilly Germany

France

All others ... Total ..

5, 320, 089

2, 182,838 1,187,177

I. 126,032 898,962 768,059 2,807,689

6,696,018 2,075,882

1,874,824 963,626

914,674 596,933 2,796,524

4,215,634

L, 913, 090

1,328,296 718,889

7:?7. 028

::.vj. us

2,870,934

14,185,836 14,317,430 Ll,636,289

2,910,666

1 , 286, 869

1,111, 1X2

163, 767 686,937 279,412

•2, 073, 767 8,693,769

Decrease from 1ST I to 1899.

Per cent.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. oox The world's seagoing tonnage declined 40 per cent during the twentyfive years from 1874 to 1899, and the decline in the tonnage of the

sailing vessels in our merchant marine has proceeded pari passu with

the change occurring in the world's marine. This table, however,

presents only one side of the change that has been taking place. When

we come to study the figures of the growth of steam tonnage, we fin4

that the United States has fallen far behind her rivals. The following

table presents the gross tonnage of the seagoing steamships of over

100 gross tons operated under the Hags of the various maritime nations

of the world. For purposes of comparison there are appended to the

table the statistics of the tonnage of the steamships engaged in foreign

trade under the American flag:

Seagoing tonnage of the world.

1873-74. 1878-79. 1888-89. 1898-99. Country. Tonnage. Per

cent. Tonnage. Per

cent. Tonnage. Per

cent. Tonnage. Per

cent.

1873-74 to

1898-99.

Great Britain 2,621,431

483, 040

316, 765 204,894

138, 675 85,045

72, 753 67,522

41,602

CO. 4 11.2

7.4 4.8

3.3

1.9 1.7 1.6

.9

3, 465, 187

609, 101

335, 219

253, 667

152, 708

84, 421

116, 149

104, 702

63, 331

62.4

10.8 5.9

4.5

2.7

1.6 2.0

1.8

.9

6, 873, 552

535, 345

752, 028

662, 331

395, 685

276, 326

197, 748

163, 556

160, 558

115, 088

913, 720

62.3

4.8 6.8

5.9

3.5 2.5

1.8

1.5

1.4 1.0 8.3

10,993,111

810, 800

952, 682 1,625,521

520, 847

420, 880

363, 200

358, 415

628, 493

439, 609 1,773,674

58.5

4.2

5.1 8.3

2.7

2.2 1.9

1.8 3.3

2.3

9.5

Per cent. 311

68 200

693

275 395

399

430 1,410

Italy

Japan

293, 466 6.8 420, 690 7.5 504 Total 4,328,193 ! 100.00 5, 595, 175 100.0 11, 045, 937 100.0 18,887,132 100.00 336 Atlantic coast

Pacific ci inst 165,280

20,451 ' 141,145 1 20,010 j 129, 961

57, 144

227, 731 131,953 38 545

The world's seagoing steam tonnage has grown from 4,328,193 gross

tons to 18,887,132 gross tons, an increase of 336 per cent, during the

twenty-five years. Our seagoing steam tonnage, however, has risen

only 68 per cent, the percentage of increase being only one-third that

of France, the nation next above us who are the lowest on the list. While we have been raising our maritime steam tonnage from 483,040

gross tons in 1874 to 810,800 in 1899, Great Britain has lifted her

figures from 2,624,431 gross tons to 10,993,111, an increase of 311 per

cent over a tonnage that had already reached large proportions at the

beginning of the period.

With the causes of our decline in the ocean-carrying trade we are not here concerned. It is evident that the decline in our seagoing sail tonnage presents no exception to the tendency of all countries to substitute steam for sails. Should our maritime sail tonnage decline only

40 per cent during the coming twenty-five years, it will be reduced to 771,515 gross tons; but there are strong reasons for thinking that the

substitution of the engine for the sail will proceed more rapidly in the

future than it has in the past. As the sailing vessels wear out they

will be replaced by steamers. The American merchant marine engaged

in the foreign trade has declined to small proportions, but there is no

doubt that economic and political conditions favorable to the restoration of our carrying trade are rapidly developing, and that our new

marine must almost certainly consist of steamships. The statistics of

the tonnage of sailing vessels and steamers constructed in the United
362 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

States during the five years from 1894 to 1899 tend to confirm this view.

During these five years 296,933 gross tons of sailing vessels were

built in American yards and 570,831 tons of steamers. The figures,

moreover, include the vessels built for the fleet on the Great Lakes,

and this fleet consists partly of schooner-rigged barges that are classified as sailing vessels, although the}r are practically always towed.

In the future construction of ocean-going vessels it is probable that we shall do as we have done in constructing our lake fleet, and substi- tute steamers for sailing vessels. The gross tonnage of the vessels on

the Great Lakes in 1875, 1880, 1890, and 1899 (not including canal

boats and small barges), is shown by the following table, which also indicates the division of the tonnage between sailing vessels and

steamers

Numbt r and gross tonnage of sailing vessels and steamers on the Great Lakes, 1875, 18S0, 1890, and 1899.

Year.

Sailing. Steam. Number. Tons. Number. Tons.

1875 1,710

1 , 459

1,272

874

339, 787 304,933

328,656

318, 175

891 202. 307

1880 931 '21 2, 045

1890 . 1,527 652,923

] 899 . 1,732 1.014. 501

The steam tonnage of the lakes grew from 203,29s tons in 1879 to 1,011,561 tons in 1899, a foretold increase in twenty years. The sail- ing vessels, although they have decreased in number, have apparently

not declined in tonnage. This is more apparent than real because, as was stated above, a part of the tonnage, classified as sailing, consists

of schooner-rigged barges. The sailing vessel has ceased to be an

important factor on the Great Lakes.

It may probably be assumed that the canal across the Isthmus will have been completed and put in operation by 1911; according to the

foregoing facts, what will then be the position of the sailing vessel

in our maritime fleet? If the rate of change from sail to steam that

has taken place during the ten years from L889 to 1899 should simply

be continued, our seagoing sail tonnage will have declined to about

650,000 gross tons by 1911, and our seagoing steam tonnage will have

grown to about I, Hoi), 000 gross tons. But the increase in our sea- going steam tonnage will undoubtedly be much more rapid during the

coming fifteen years than it has been during the past decade and a

half. During the fifteen years from 1884 to L899 the steam tonnage on the Great Lakes increased 214 per cent. If the seagoing steam

tonnage of the United States in 189!), 810,800 gross tons, should

increase by a like percentage during fifteen years, it would amount

to 2,546,000 gross tons in 1914. The assumption of such a growth as

this in our seagoing steam tonnage during the first decade and a half of the twentieth century does not seem unwarranted. An estimate

would seem to be conservative that placed our sail tonnage at about

one-sixth of our total tonnage in 1914. Should the sailing vessel after

1914 continue to give way to the steamer, the Isthmian canal will be

used by sailing vessels only to a limited extent.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 363

THE FUTURE USE OF SAILING VESSELS BY SPECIAL CLASSES OF TRAFFIC.

There are some kinds of freight, such as coal, lumber, grain, nitrate

of soda, and sugar, especially adapted to movement by sail because

they are shipped as full vessel cargoes and do not need to be trans- ported rapidly or delivered promptly. Will this traffic continue to

find the sailing vessel the more economical carrier?

If the sailing vessel is to be used for the carriage of commodities

that can be shipped as full cargoes, the prevalent type of vessel will probably be large five and six masted schooners capable of carrying

5,000 or more tons of cargo. Two six-masted schooners have been

built on the Maine coast during 1899 and several other large four and

five masted sailing vessels have been built during the past two years. One of the two six-masted schooners is 302 feet 11 inches long on the

keel and 345 feet long on deck. She has 48 feet 3 inches beam and

is 22 feet 6 inches deep; her gross tonnage is 2,974, the net tonnage

2,743, and she will carry a little over 5,000 tons of coal. According

to the owner, this vessel "was built expressly for the coal trade, yet

she is built so as to go to any part of the world with any kind of cargo."

During 1899 and 1900 there was a revival in the business of building

sailing vessels, both wooden and steel, caused by the great scarcity of

ships, the high ocean freight rates, the high price of steel, and the

unusual price of coal in Europe; but this was probably a temporary

increase in the construction of sail tonnage. If the sailing vessel is in the future to occupy a prominent place in the ocean marines of the

world, it will be because of its special adaptability to the transportation

of such commodities as sugar, coal, nitrates, grain, and lumber. The

best basis for deductions as to the future is the present practice of the

large shippers and carriers of these special commodities.

The transportation of nitrates from Chile to Europe and the Atlantic

seaboard of the United States is well adapted to the sailing vessel, and

it was formerly supposed that the steamer could not compete with the

sailing vessel in this traffic; but during the past few years a large part

of the nitrate shipments have been made by steamers. It is obvious

that the isthmian canal will make it much more difficult for the sailingvessel to compete with the steamer for this traffic. As regards the transportation of grain and lumber, much the same

change seems probable, although the lumber of our west coast is at present all shipped in sailing vessels. If sailing vessels can not advantageously use the canal in competition with the steamer—a question

that is considered at length in the latter part of this section—the grain

and lumber cargoes will certainly be taken by the steamers. The action

recently taken by a company of New York business men who have

acquired a large tract of timber in the Carolinas is significant in this connection. The lumber gotten out by this company will be shipped

from Georgetown, S. C, by two large steamers built especially for

his business.

Not long since a New York firm operating a large fleet of sailing

vessels between the two American seaboards sold out the entire fleet and in 1900 and 1901 put in its place seven steamers which are to ply

between New York and Pacific Ocean ports and Hawaiian Islands via

the Straits of Magellan.

The trade between the North Atlantic countries and Australia has

long been considered one that would be held by the sailing vessels
364 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

against steam competition. This was the opinion of Lieutenant Maury.

Three or four years ago, however, this business was invaded by steamers, which now carry the larger percentage of the traffic. The facts regarding the present division of the trade between the

Suez route and the route followed by sailing vessels are especially

important in connection with this inquiry. In order to determine the extent and nature of the present competition of sailing vessels with

steamers in the trade between Europe and the East, the following table

has been compiled from British reports. It gives the tonnage of steam

and sailing vessels cleared from British ports for the foreign ports of

the East in the years 1893 and 1898. While it does not include the

clearances from other North Atlantic countries, it undoubtedly represents the facts for the entire trade, because the major share of the com- merce between the North Atlantic and the East is in the hands of Great

Britain. Moreover, this table is to some extent supplemented by fig- ures regarding the sail and steam tonnage employed in the trade from

Germany to the East.

Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels cleared from British ports for the East in 1S9S and

1898.

Deotmaticn of \ issel.

Java Borneo and other Dutch pos- sessions in the Indian Sea French possessions in East Africa and Asia and Pacific islands Portuguese EastAfrica and India Philippine and Ladrone Islands Abyssinia Madagascar

Prussia Siam

China, exclusive of Hongkong..

Japan

Pacific islands Zanzibar

Mauritius Aden

British possessions in India: Bombay and Scinde Madras

Bengal and Burmah

Ceylon

Straits Settlements Hongkong

Australia and New Zealand: West Australia South Australia Victoria New SOUth Wales Queensland Tasmania New Zealand

Total

Steam and sail combined.

1893.

194, 873

10, 858

3, 357 8,118

32,811 2,743

706 4,047

902

34,027

83, 401 6,351 6,416

34, 920

85, 183 601,895

128,050

523, 569

211,603

297, 574

10, 943 43,692

!:::>, 95:. 148,309 199,200

50, 49(5 31,419

i in, ur.s

3, 026, 486

1898.

182, 582

2, 144

12, 5M)

346, 706

33, 876

6, 948 7,054 4,108

966 71,283

413, 906

10, 573

8,683 71,977

96, 654

485, 711

19, 273

695, 962

116,875 128,546

55, S28

46, 216

50, 353

51,416

73, 2 17 898, 848

96, 366

6, 422

209, 175

3,594,273

Increase

in five years.

» 12, 291 "8,714

9, 223 338,588

1,065 4,205

6,348

6164

37, 256

330, 505

4, 222

» 2, 733

37, 057

11,471 '116,184

'108,777 189,268 "83,057

'241,746

35, 273

6,66]

» SI, 53'J

» 70, 062

194,643

45, 870

» 24, 997

09, 107

567, 787

1893.

164,080 2,034

2, 481

l.sc.l 12, 633

85, 183

593, 953

125, 598

426,201

185, 100 267,815

5, 327

22, 559

82,439

97,329

122,658

:;:;, 1 16 29,088

103,711

170, 500

10, 921

11,023

337, 645

30, 680

6,948

2,186 4,108 476

66, 441

389, 900 3,683

55, 706

96, 654

485,711

17, 874

507, 761

106, 916

128,546 46,815

26, 148

26,041

9,721

9, 328

293, 952 67,017

176, 500

Increase

in five •years.

6, 420 8,887

• 2, 867

329, 988

» 666 4,205

2, 1S6

1 , 627 476

35.S51

815, 256 •1,178

43, 073

11,471 '108,242

'107, 724

»56,6 .1 '221,0311 20,821

:;, (82 »72, 7 is

• 88, ool 171,291

83,871

•29, 088

72. 756 2,527,729 I 3,089,801 562,072

. Decrease. From the foregoing table it appears that the total clearances, steam

and sail, from British ports for the East increased 567,781 tons during

the five years from 1893 to 1898, and that nearly all of this increase was in steam tonnage, the growth in the tonnage of steam vessels
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 365

being 562,072 tons, or all but 5,716 tons of the total increase. By

making the proper subtractions, the sail tonnage for 1893 is found to be 498,757 tons; and for 1898, 504,172 tons. The facts, then, are that

the sailing tonnage has remained practically stationary, while the steam

tonnage has considerably increased. The sail tonnage has not fallen

off absolutely, but has relatively declined. In 1893 the sail tonnage,

constituted 16.1 per cent of the total steam and sail, whereas in 1898

the sail tonnage constituted only 11 per cent of the total, the decline

having been nearly 2£ per cent in five years. The clearances from Great Britain to certain special ports in the

East present figures quite as significant as the totals referred to above.

The commerce entering Eastern Africa by way of the Portuguese possessions represents a comparatively new trade. In 1893 the trade was

ver}^ small, but in 1898 it had grown to large proportions. It is inter- esting to note that practically all of this new tonnage consisted of steamers. Japan presents a similar showing. The recent rapid

growth of the trade of Great Britain with Japan has brought into

service a large amount of steam tonnage and but a very small number

of sailing vessels. The figures for Bengal and Burmah also show

that nearly all of the large increase in the clearances from Great Britain

to those countries has consisted of steam tonnage. The same statement

applies to New South Wales. In the case of New Zealand the increase

in the steam tonnage during the five years under consideration has

been larger than the total increase in steam and sail tonnage combined.

This indicates a falling off in the use of sailing vessels. In the trade from Germany to the Far East the change from sail to steam tonnage is taking place very rapidly. German trade directly

with the East has largely increased during the past decade, and this new traffic has brought steamers, and not sailing vessels, into use. The following figures taken from the German report indicates this,

and also show that sail tonnage has fallen off. In 1890 there cleared

from German ports for British India and the islands of the Indian

Ocean sail tonnage, 76,000 net tons; steam tonnage, 219,000 tons. In 1897 the figures were: For sail 55,000. and for steam 319,000. That

is to say, during those seven years the tonnage of sailing vessels

cleared from Germany for British India and the islands of the Indian

Ocean decreased 21,000 tons, while steam tonnage increased 100,000

tons. In 1890 there cleared from Germany for China sailing vessels

with a net tonnage of 9,000, and steamers with a tonnage of 70,000. In 1897 no sailing vessels cleared for China, but the tonnage of

steamers had grown to 110,000 net tons. MERITS OF THE STEAMER AND SAILING VESSEL COMPARED.

The special advantages of the sailing vessel are that its motor power

costs nothing and that it requires a smaller crew of men than is neces- sary for a steamer of the same size. The British reports show that a

typical sailing vessel of 2,381 net tons is manned by a crew of 34 men,

22 of whom are seamen. A steam vessel of nearly the same tonnage,

2,315 tons net, has a crew of 38 men, of whom 11 are seamen and 17

are engineers, firemen, and coal passers. Taking the total British

merchant marine, the number of men was 15.8 in 1898 per 1,000 net tons on British sailing vessels, while on the steam vessel the number of men

was 22 per 1,000 tons.
366 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In the foreign trade of Great Britain the number of persons employed

on sailing-vessels for each ton net register was, in 1880, 2.32; 1890, 1.96; 1898, 1.(55. On steam vessels the number emploved for 100 tons net register was, in 1880, 2.95; 1890, 2.73; 1898, 2.32. These figures are

sufficient to show that steamers require more men than sailing vessels for an equal amount of tonnage. In large, slow-going steam vessels the number of men required is relative^ small and may, indeed, not exceed 1 man per 100 tons net register, but it is equally true that a

large schooner requires a very small crew of men—even smaller than

is needed by the large, modern, slow freight steamer. There seems, moreover, to be but a small difference in the size of crews required by the more recently constructed steamers and sailing vessels of equal capacity. A steamer of 3,000 tons dead-weight cargo

capacit}T (which would be a small steamer) and a sailing vessel of equal

capacity (which would be a relatively large sailing ship) would each

have a crew of 23 or 21 men. The sailing vessel's crew, however,

would include a larger number of unskilled laborers—seamen—than

would the steamer, and the sailing vessel's expenses for labor would be

somewhat lower than the steamer's. The disadvantages of the sailing vessel are its slow speed, its dependence upon the winds and currents, and the consequent uncertainty as to the time of delivering the cargo assigned to it. The superiority oi the steamer consists in its speed and its ability to assure the delivery

of its freight at a stipulated time unless violent storms are encountered.

The disadvantages of the steamer are the cost of coal, the large amount

of space taken up by the coal bunkers and machinery—one-fourth to one-third of the huil capacity—and the somewhat larger crew ordinarily required.

As regards the cost of coal, mechanical improvements have done a great deal to lessen the steamer's handicap. Some of these new

steamers for the trade between our two seaboards will cany 10,000

dead-weight tons, besides 2,500 tons of coal. They have quadruple

expansion engines, with boiler pressure of 210 pounds to the square

inch. These vessels will consume 40 tons of coal per day, running at

9 knots per hour. It is planned now that in making the trip via the

Straits of Magellan they will coal only at Coroncl, Chile. The con- sumption of coal between New York and San Francisco via the canal

will be about 1,000 tons each way. This will make the consumption

224 'pounds per ton of freight each one-way trip. Assuming the price

of coal free on board vessels in Atlantic ports to be $2.50 per ton of

2,240 pounds, it would take one-tenth of a ton of coal, costing 25 cents,

to transport one ton of cargo between New York and San Francisco.

The data presented in the foregoing paragraphs do not fully demonstrate the inability of the sailing vessel to compete with the steamer

in the future for the transportation of special classes of commodities,

but the evidence strongly indicates that result, That the sailing vessel will continue to be used for some time to come, especially by the

people of the United States, seems probable, but our use of the sailing

vessel, however, will be restricted mainly to two classes of service.

One of these two fields of usefulness will be that part of our coasting

trade that can not readily be so organized as to be performed by

regular lines of steamers. The other use to which we shall continue

to put the sailing vessel will be that of performing the irregular or skirmish work of international trade. There is at the present time an
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 367

irregular trade developing between the United States and several parts

of South America such, for instance, as that being carried on between

the Gulf ports and the River Plata. In the earlier stages of the

development of such a traffic the sailing vessel is a convenient agent;

but when the trade becomes larger and the exchange of commodities

between the two sections becomes regular and continuous, a line of

steamers will be established, and most of the sailing vessels will Vie obliged to withdraw from the business. The withdrawal of sailing

vessels from the trade between the United States and the Orient and

the substitution of steamers for the greater part of the traffic between

our two seaboards are instances of the substitution of the steamer for

the sailing vessel when the amount of business to be done had become

regular and large in volume.

WOULD SAILING VESSELS USE A CANAL AT PANAMA OK ACROSS NICARAGUA?

It does not seem probable that coal, lumber, grain, nitrates, and

sugar—commodities that will make up a large share of the canal's

traffic —will in the future be carried to a large extent in sailing vessels. Nevertheless, the sailing vessel will be a carrier of some importance

when the canal is opened, and possibl}T for a score of years thereafter.

Such being the case, the relative advantages of the Panama and

Nicaragua routes for sailing vessels should be compared. The extent

to which sailing vessels will use an isthmian waterway will depend

upon the actual saving in time which a sailing vessel could make by

using the canal instead of the Cape route, and upon whether sailing vessels can compete with steamers, both using the canal route. In the year 1866 Lieut. M. F. Maury, in a letter written to a friend,

made the following statement: The result of my investigations into the winds and currents of the sea and their influence upon the routes of commerce authorize the opinion which I have expressed

before and which I repeat, namely, if nature, by one of her convulsions, should rend the continent of America in twain and make a channel across the Isthmus of Pan- ama or Darien as deep, as wide, and as free as the Straits of Dover it would never become a commercial thoroughfare for sailing vessels, saving the outward bound and

those that could reach it with leading winds. * * * You will observe at a glance

that the Isthmus of Panama or Darien is, on account of these winds and calms, in a

purely commercial point of view, the most out-of-the-way place of any part of the

Pacific coast of intertropical America.

Those persons who have endeavored to prove that the Panama route

could not be used by sailing vessels have quoted the foregoing state- ments of Lieutenant Maury and have interpreted his statements to mean that no sailing vessel w

T ould or could make use of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. It is well, however, to note the exception

which Lieutenant Mauiy makes at the close of his general statement. He says the Panama route "would never become a commercial thoroughfare for sailing vessels, saving the outward bound and those that

could reach it with leading winds " In view of this, limiting clause, it would seem that Lieutenant Maury thought sailing vessels outward

bound from Europe or from any North Atlantic port to the Pacific

might pass through a Panama canal. His statement would also indi- cate him to think that vessels bound from the west coast of the United

States for the Atlantic might pass through a Panama canal during the

winter months, when the winds and currents are favorable for vessels

sailing southward toward Panama. When we consider that the larger
368 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

part of the Pacific coast grain would be exported during the later autumn and winter months and that a large part of the lumber from

the Pacific coast of North America might be shipped during the winter half of the year, we must conclude that Lieutenant Maury's

apparently strong statement does not preclude the possibility of a considerable traffic in sailing vessels through that waterway.

Hydrographers, ship brokers, and sailing masters generally disbelieve in the practicability of the use of a Panama canal by sailing vessels. There is no doubt that sailing vessels can enter and clear the

Bay of Panama—they now do so to a limited extent—nor would it be

impossible for a sailing vessel to make use of a Panama canal; but

there is little reason to think that the sailing ship would, under the

conditions of competition that will prevail after the waterway has

been opened, pass from one ocean to the other in any considerable

numbers.

It perhaps ought to be stated in this connection that sailing vessels bound from Panama either to the north, south, or west arc obliged to work their way southward and westward to the Galapagos Islands,

and usually some distance west of that group, before getting the winds

and currents that will take them to their destination. Vessels bound

from Panama to San Francisco are advised by Maury's sailing directions to work their way down the Colombia coast, and during the

months from June to January, inclusive, to change their course about

latitude 2° north, standing off the coast to the westward, passing north

of the Galapagos Islands. From February to June, inclusive, it is better for the vessel to work southward across the equator before

turning to the west. The course toward the west is maintained until the one hundredth meridian is passed, and then the vessel may "edge

away for Cipperton Rock (10° 18' N. and 109° 10' W.), after passing

which they may push to the northward for the northern trades."

Before Maury worked out these sailing directions, as the result of

his study of winds and currents, sailing vessels consumed 90 days, on

an average, in sailing from Panama to San Francisco by the direct

route. According to the geographer Berghaus, the average1 time taken

to make the voyage by Maury's route is 37 days. The distance by the

circuitous route is somewhat more than 5,000 nautical miles. The

direct route, the one followed by steamers, is nearly 2,000 knots shorter

than the one taken by sailing vessels. A most careful study of the conditions affecting the use of the Pan- ama and Nicaragua routes by sailing vessels was made by Lieut.

Frederick Collins, U. S. Navy, in L872. He studied the winds and

currents prevailing at different seasons of the year in each part of that

section of the ocean that would be traversed by sailing vessels plying

between Panama, Nicaragua, and other Pacific ports, and then estimated

the number of days that it would, on an average, take a sailing vessel to make the voyage between the two isthmian ports and other Pacific harbors. The general conclusion to which he came in regard to the

navigation of the Bay of Panama was that "no great difficulty need

be experienced in getting from the vicinity of the Bay of Panama to where good winds might be found. * * * A careful computation

gave only 10 days ;is the average time that would be consumed in getting a sufficient offing to secure good winds, provided the correct route was pursued." The route considered correct by Lieutenant Collins was the one adopted by Lieutenant Maury, to which reference was made above.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 369

The distances which Lieutenant Collins calculated sailing vessels would have to travel in proceeding from Panama and from Brito to reach San Francisco, and the number of days which each of these trips

would require, are indicated by the following table:

Miles.

Panama to San Francisco 5, 350 Nicaragua to San Francisco 3, 240

Days.1

Difference in favor of Nicaragua 2, 110

The table makes the time required for a sailing vessel to reach San

Francisco to be 14 days less when the trip begins at Brito than when

it begins at Panama. The distances and time required for the return

trip from San Francisco to Panama and Brito are indicated by the

following table:

JMiles. Days.

October to April:

3,600

3,000 26

22

600 4 April to October:

4,000

3,400

3126

600 5

According to the calculations of Lieutenant Collins, the time re- quired for a sailing vessel to make a round trip from Nicaragua to San Francisco would be nineteen days less than for a round-trip voyage between Panama and San Francisco. These figures would seem to indicate that if either route is available for sailing vessels, the Nicaragua route would possess decided advantages over the one at Panama.

However, other authorities differ from Lieutenant Collins as to some

of these conclusions. The figures given for the length of the average

vo}7 age from Nicaragua to San Francisco is 3,240 nautical miles. This seems too short; indeed, the United States Hydrographic Office esti- mates the distance to be 4,500 miles. . The great-circle distance, or the

length of the route followed by full-powered steamers, is 2,700 miles.

Furthermore, experienced navigators assert that a vessel bound for

Brito must beat up and down the coast or go far to the westward; and

that, although the Nicaragua route is more advantageous than the one from Panama for sailing vessels, it is nevertheless necessar}^ for vessels to make a long detour from a direct course. The distance for steamers from Panama to San Francisco being

3,277 nautical miles, a 9-knot steam freighter would make the run in

15 days, a 10-knot ship in 13.6 da}T s, and a vessel of 12 knots in 11.3

days. These figures are to be contrasted with 37 days, the average

time required by the sailing vessel. From Brito to San Francisco the

distance for steamers is 2.700 nautical miles. To make this run a

9-knot freighter would require 12^ days, a 10-knot ship Hi days, and

a 12-knot vessel 9§ days. Lieutenant Collins madie the time by sail

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 24
370 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

between Nicaragua and San Francisco vary from 22 to 26 days, but,

for reasons just stated, his calculations underestimate (possibly by

about 5 days ) the time that would actually be required.

SATING TO SAILING VESSELS BY USE OF ISTHMIAN CANAL INSTEAD OF

CAPE ROUTE.

Concerning the time required to make the voyage by sailing vessel from New York to San Francisco, abundant information is obtainable

from the logs of the many sailing vessels that are now navigated

between those two ports. A New York firm operating sailing vessels from New York to San Francisco has reported the time taken by eleven

different sailing vessels that made the trip during the year 1898. The

average time for these vessels was 138 da}T s, the range being from 113

to 151 days. Another New York firm doing a large business with the

Pacific coast has given the time required by seven sailing vessels whose

voyages were made at different seasons of the year. The time taken

ranges from 118 to 169 days, the average for the seven being 139 days.

Both of these firms report that they consider 110 days to be a fair average for the west-bound passage. For the return trip from San

Francisco to New York the time taken is somewhat less, and is said to average from 110 to 115 days. In order to arrive at the time a sailing vessel woidd require to make

the trip from New York to San Francisco by way of an isthmian

canal, it is necessary to add the time that would be taken for the voyage

from New York to the Isthmus, the time that would be required for

making the transit through the canal, and the number of days neces- sary for reaching San Francisco after leaving the Isthmus. When

Commander, now Rear-Admiral, Selfridge gave Lieutenant Collins

instructions to investigate and report upon the time it would take sail- ing vessels to make a voyage between the Isthmus of Panama and

various Pacific ports, he said: In composing the table you will allow an average of twenty days to and from the United States and the mouth of the Atrato; thirty days from the English Channel to the .same point, and forty days homeward to Europe.

It would take a sailing vessel practicall}T the same time to reach

Panama or Greytown that it would to reach the mouth of the Atrato. On the basis of the averages accepted by Admiral Selfridge for the

Atlantic part of the voyage, and by Lieutenant Collins for the Pacific

portion of the trip, a vessel would be twenty (lavs from New York to the Isthmus, thirty-eight days from Panama to San Francisco, a total of fifty-eight days, to which should he added one day for the passage

of a Panama canal. Lieutenant Collins estimated twenty-three days

as the time required by a sailing vessel to reach San Francisco from

P>rito. For reasons that have already been stated, this estimate seems

to be too small. If twenty-eight days he accepted as a fair estimate

of the sailing time required between Brito and San Francisco, the

time required for a sailing vessel from New York to San Francisco

would he twenty days for (he Atlantic part <>f the trip from New

York to Greytown, two days for the passage through tin 1 canal, and

twenty-eight days from Brito to San Francisco, a total of fifty days.

The probable time required by sailing vessels to make the trip from

New York to San Francisco by way of the Cape and through the two

Canals Would then he as follows: For the Cape route one hundred ami forty days; for the Panama
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 37l

route fifty-nine days, and for the Nicaragua route fifty days. According- to those figures, a sailing- vessel could save on an average eighty- one days by using a Panama canal instead of making the trip around

the Cape, and ninety days by using the Nicaragua canal instead of the

present route. The cast-bound trip from San Francisco to New York can, on accountof the more favorable winds in the Southern Hemisphere, bo made in a

shorter time than is required for the west-bound trip. One hundred and

fifteen days can probably be assumed as a fair average for the trip from

San 1 rancisco to New York around the Horn. Lieutenant Collins esti- mated that a vessel would on an average require twenty-six days from

San Francisco to Panama during the winter months, and thirty-one days during the summer months. On the basis of these estimates the time

required for a sailing vessel to make a voyage from New York to San

Francisco by way of a Panama canal would be forty-seven days during

the winter months and fifty-two days during the summer season. Thai,

is to say, a general average of about fifty days for the year as a whole.

The time estimated by Lieutenant Collins for a sailing vessel starting from San Francisco to reach Nicaragua was twenty-two days in the winter months and twenty-six days in the summer season. This would

make the time from San Francisco to New York forty-four days for

half of the year and forty-eight days for the other half, or an average

for the year of forty-six days. In view of the uncertainties attending the navigation of the Pacific

Ocean near the American coast, where sailing vessels are obliged to beat for a considerable part of the distance, it would seem conservative

to add five days to each of the foregoing averages and assume fifty-five

days for the trip by way of Panama and fifty-one davs for the voyao-e by the Nicaragua route. Assuming that one hundred and fifteen days

is the average time required for a vessel to make the east-bound trip

around Cape Horn, the Panama route would enable the vessel to save

sixty days and the Nicaragua Canal sixty-four days.

Vessel owners report that $75 per day will cover all the expenses of

operating a sailing vessel of 2,000 tons net (including wages, interest,

repairs, insurance, and all other items of expense). The foregoing

reduction in length of voyage would effect the following net saving in the cost of moving a cargo of freight by such a sailing vessel between

New York and San Francisco, which may be taken as typical Atlantic

and Pacific ports. A sailing vessel bound from New York to San

Francisco could save eighty-one days by way of the Panama route,

which would be equivalent, at the rate of $75 per day, to a saving of

$6,075. If we assume a toll of $1 per net ton and a towage cost of

$450 for a Panama canal, the saving effected by the vessel would be

as follows:

Eighty-one days, at $75 per day $6 075

Toll at $1 per ton ' $2 000 ' Towage '///."'."'.['.'/.'.'.."'. "'450

2, 450 Net saving _ 8> 625 For the Nicaragua canal the account would stand as follows:

Ninety days, at $75 per day $6j750

Towage 600 — 2, 600 Net saving 4 j^q
372 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The towage costs adopted in the foregoing estimates are on the basis

of a charge of 30 cents per net register ton for towage through a Nicaragua canal and 22? cents per net register ton for a Panama canal. In order to secure a reliable estimate of the probable cost of securing

towage through each of the proposed canals, a score of large towboat

companies were requested to submit an estimate of the charges that

would need to be made for the service of towing. The letter requesting the information stated that

The total length of a canal at Nicaragua would lie about 11*0 miles. Of this distance about 70 miles will consist of excavated channel, about 50 miles of improved river navigation, and about 70 miles of lake. And—

The distance from anchorage at Colon to anchorage at Panama is about 47 miles,

only a short distance being open for navigation. It is also probable that sailing vessels would usually desire to be towed about 100 miles from Panama out to sea, and in making your estimate of the cost of towage for the Panama Canal we should be

pleased to have you give both the cost of towage between Colon and Panama and the

cost of towing 100 miles on the Bay of Panama. The replies received in response to this request varied so largely

that they did not furnish the basis for so close an estimate as it was hoped might be made. The estimate adopted was one of those midway between the higher and lower extremes, and one submitted by a well-informed gentleman who was known to have given the question

careful consideration. His estimate of the cost of towing loaded sail- ing vessels through a Nicaragua canal was 30 cents per net ton register,

and for towing loaded ships through a Panama canal and 100 miles to sea—147 miles altogether—was 22^ cents per net ton register.

Provision was made in the Panama estimate for towing vessels 100

miles out to sea, because it was believed that a sailing ship would ordinarily save more than enough in the time of getting to sea to pay the

additional charges. Indeed, it is probable that a tow of several hundred miles would at times be found profitable.

The foregoing estimates of the savings possible for a sailing vessel

to effect by using a Panama of a Nicaragua canal instead of the Horn

route do not take into consideration the saving in insurance that would

be effected by the reduction in insurance charges that would result from

the use of an Isthmian instead of a Cape route. This reduction would

bo about 50 per cent of the existing insurance charges, and would be

the same for each of the two routes. The foregoing calculations, it may be well to repeat, are based upon

the estimated saving which a sailing vessel could ordinarily make by

the use of each of the proposed waterways. It is well known that

sailing vessels require very different times for making the run between

the same ports. The foregoing estimates are intended only to repre- sent the average savings possible.

Among I lie genera] deductions that seem warranted by the facts set forth in the preceding pages are the following:

1. A canal across Nicaragua would enable a sailing vessel to accomplish a greater net saving over tin 1 expenses of the present route around

the Horn than could be effected by using ;l Panama canal. The differ- ence in the advantages of the two routes for sailing vessels, while not

large, is sufficient to be made a factor of some importance in deciding

which route should be adopted were it probable that either route would

be largely used by sailing ships.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 373

2. Neither the Nicaragua Canal nor the one across the Isthmus of

Panama would be much used by sailing vessels. The unmistakable

tendency of commerce is to use steamers instead of sailing vessels for

all classes of traffic. The sailing vessel would compete with the steamer

for the traffic through either of the canals under conditions so unfavoid- able as to make practically certain the general substitution of the. steamer for the sailing vessel for all lines of trade through the isth- mian waterway.

The consideration of the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes from

the standpoint of their relative usefulness as commercial highwa}T s becomes mainly a question of determining which is the more advantageous route for the steamers engaged in the maritime commerce of

the United States in particular and of the world in general.

Chapter X.The canal and tJie traffic of American railways.

There are several ways in which the isthmian canal may affect the

traffic of the railwa3r s serving the different sections of the United

States. The canal will introduce a new and competing route for traffic between our two seaboards and between the eastern half of the United

States and Pacific foreign countries. There may result from this one

or all of four consequences:

1. The railwa}r lines competing with the new water route ma}7 reduce

their rates, and thus be able to hold their traffic against the new competitor. Should this be the result, the effect of the canal upon the

freight of the railroads might be small; their rates would be reduced,

but the traffic secured by the water route would consist of new busi- ness developed because of the water route, instead of traffic diverted

from the other transportation lines.

2. The waterway may divert from the railway lines a greater or

less share of their through business. Should this be the result of the

waterway, the railways will be obliged to secure a compensating amount

of new business or suffer a shrinkage in their traffic as the result of

the competition of the waterway.

3. The canal may bring new business to the railways by making

them collectors and distributors of the commodities carried between

our eastern and western seaboards by the way of the Isthmus. In our

country of great distances and of diversified industrial activities, generally distributed throughout our wide territory, the origin and desti- nation of but a small portion of the water-borne commerce of the

United States can be at seaboard points. The collection and distribution of commodities for traffic by water is and must remain mainly

the work of the railwa}T line. The major part of the traffic of the canal

must be rail traffic previous to or subsequent to being handled by the ocean vessels.

4. The canal may make possible the establishment of new industries

along the railway lines or cause an expansion of activity in the busi- ness of existing plants, and thus add to the local traffic of the railways. In general, whatever facilitates commerce establishes the most important prerequisite to industrial development.

The traffic whose routes may be modified by the opening of the

interoceanic waterway is: 1. That originating and terminating at or near the seaboard points

of our eastern and western coasts. The traffic between the territory
374 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

east of Buffalo and Pittsburg and that west of the Sierra Nevada and

Cascade Mountain ranges will be most directly subject to the influ- ence of the new waterway.

2. The trade of the central section of the United States with our

Pacific slope and with foreign Pacific countries will, after the canal

has been opened, be able to leave or enter the United States either by an Atlantic, a Gulf, or a Pacific port. If it passes in and out by an

Atlantic or Gulf gateway, it will be canal traffic; if by a Pacific port,

it will not. CONCERNING THE STATISTICS OF TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY TRAFFIC.

Statistics are not kept of the traffic which the railways now carry

between the Atlantic and Pacific sections of the United States and

between the Pacific and central parts of the country—the rail traffic that would be subject to canal competition were the waterway now in use. Some years ago the transcontinental freight bureau, whose

offices are in San Francisco, compiled figures of the through business

of the transcontinental lines, but the chief of that bureau reports:

This office has compiled no statistics whatever for several years past, neither have

they been furnished with any reports of the movements of business. The managing editor of Poor's Manual of Railways says:

This matter [the statistics of transcontinental railway traffic] has been the subject

of inquiry for some time, and without any result. The officials of the Pacific railways who were conferred with in regard to the volume of business that would be affected by the canal were unable to supply the information. The traffic manager of one

of tin 1 lines reported : So fur as our line is concerned, would say that we have virtually discontinued compiling statistics of this nature, finding after many years' experience that the expense

incurred in compiling these figures was unwarranted. One of the Pacific railway companies furnished the Canal Commission with a statement of the tonnage east and west bound for each of

the important commodities comprising its total through traffic. By

through traffic was meant that originating anywhere on the lines of

the company and turned over by the company to some connecting rail- road; also the freight received from some connecting road and carried

to sonic point along its own system of lines. This classified statement

comprises a total of nearly 2,000,000 tons of freight and gives an

interesting expose of the nature and volume of business being done by

this important Pacific railway system. The figures, however, reveal

but little information concerning what portion of this total traffic would be subject to canal competition were the isthmian waterway now

in existence.

While information concerning the present volume of traffic of the

Pacific railroads that would be subject to the competition of an isth- mian canal were the waterway now open would be interesting and

possess some value, it would not throw very much light upon the manner in which the business of the transcontinental railways will be

affected some ten or fifteen years hence by the competition of an inter- oceanic canal. Between now and the opening of the canal the position

of the railways as carriers will have become stronger, and. whatever

their business may be at the time of the completion of the waterway,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 375

their policy with reference to the retention and development of their

business will doubtless be much modified by the inauguration of water

competition by the new route. NATURE OF THE COMPETITION OF THE CANAL WITH THE RAILWAYS.

In addition to finding it impracticable to determine the amount

of railway business that would be subject to competition by a canal were it in existence at the present time, it has likewise been impossible

to draw a sharp line between the classes of commodities that would

be liable to move by water and those that will move by rail after both

agencies have become available to the shipper. An intelligent rail- way official replied in response to the question: What kinds of traffic would be diverted from the railways to the canal?

All kinds of traffic would be diverted except that which is perishable or which

demanded dispatch, unless the railroads met the competition of the canal by a reduction in rates. Similar opinions were expressed by several other railway officials who were conferred with.

It seems probable that the competition of the canal route will not be confined entirely to the bulkier commodities of comparatively low

value per unit of weight or bulk articles universally recognized to be especialty adapted to water transportation, but that the isthmian

route will be available for the shipment of practically all articles

except those whose perishable nature or whose unusually high value

demand a quick service and a prompt delivery. The distance between

our two seaboards by the isthmian canal will be about 5,000 nautical

miles and the time required to make the run will be about three weeks

for the slow freight steamers of 10 knots an hour, and about two

weeks for the 15-knot vessel. The ordinary freight service of the

railroads will be only a few days' shorter than the service by the

faster steamers using the water route. At the present time the American Hawaiian Steamship Company,

which is running steamers between New York and San Francisco

through the Straits of Magellan, is carrying a large variety of commodities. The time required for the passage between the two sea- boards by this route is from sixty to sixty-three days, but even this length of time does not restrict the freight to a limited number of

articles. On the other hand, the practice of a New York firm that manufactures a large quantity of structural steel and iron work for buildings

and bridges and all classes of ornamental steel and iron shows that

heavy freight must frequently be shipped by the quickest route. The

firm states:

It costs about $8 per ton to ship from New York to the Hawaiian Islands around

the Horn, $12 per ton to send the freight by way of Panama and San Francisco to Honolulu, and about $19 per ton to ship across the United States by rail to San Francisco or Vancouver and thence to Honolulu. The first way of shipping takes about

four to five months; the second way of shipping about three months, and the third way of shipping takes at least two months. The element of time very often enters

into the question of whether it is possible to build buildings in the time for the

requirements, and often parties are compelled to ship by the most expensive lines in order to gain time. In fact, probably seven or eight thousand tons of materials will be shipped by us in this season via the transcontinental lines, and only two or three thousand tons around the Horn.
376 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

When the canal has been opened the railways will not permit their

traffic to be taken away from them if they can hold it, and they will unquestionably so adjust their business as to retain the maximum

amount of business. It is the belief of many railway officials that

they will be able to hold most of their traffic against water competition. Whether that is so or not is not just now under consideration,

the present purpose being- to illustrate the nature and extent of the

competition that the opening- of the canal will inaugurate. The competition will be keen and will not be restricted to a limited number of

commodities.

THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE ATLANTIC ROADS.

From the nature of the subject under discussion the treatment can

not be statistical. The only bases upon which rest conclusions are

theoretical analysis and the opinions of traffic experts. The main purpose of the following pages will be to present impartially the views of

transportation experts whose opinions are worthy of consideration.

Several officials of the Atlantic lines were asked the following question:

"Will the canal promote the commerce and industries of the Atlantic

slope in such a way as to give the railway lines to the Atlantic a larger

traffic in coal, iron and steel manufactures, machinery, and other

commodities '. " Two traffic managers of the Atlantic railroad handling the largest

volume of freight expressed the opinion that the opening of the canal

by giving American manufactures readier access to western South

America and the Far East would largely increase the exports of manufactured commodities. The major share of the manufacturing done

in the United States is carried on within the territory of the lines lead- ing to the North Atlantic ports; and those roads, accordingly, expect to secure a greater volume of traffic when the canal has become available.

It was said that the amount of freight that now moves from seaboard

to seaboard by rail is comparatively small; consequently the trunk

lines to the Atlantic will receive more than they will lose from the

operation of the isthmian waterway. Much the same view was ex- pressed by a traffic manager of one of the Pacific railways.

Some railway officials, particularly those whose roads lead to the

Gulf ports, believe that one effect of the canal on the railway traffic in the United States will be to divert a considerable share of the busi- ness at present done through the Atlantic ports to the cities situated on the Gulf. This view, however, seems not be shared by the officials of the North Atlantic trunk lines, for the reason that the railway lines to the Atlantic are shorter from points east of Chicago and north

of Kentucky and Virginia than those to the Gulf are, and for the reason that the ocean rates from Atlantic ports to the Pacific coast of

the United Slates and (he foreign Pacific countries will be practically

the ^aniens those from Gulf ports.

Officials of the Atlantic lines were also asked whether "one result of the canal will be to cause a larger share of total imports of the

United States to enter the country through the Gulf ports;

1

' and

whether "the canal will divert to the Gulf gateways imports that

would otherwise enter through the Atlantic ports." The opinion

seemed to be that the Atlantic lines will be able to retain their present

strong position in the import traffic, in competition with the Gulf lines,

partly because most of the export business will continue to be handled
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 377

at the Atlantic. Both the Atlantic and Gulf roads load light from the

seaboard to interior points, the heavier volume of traffic being out- bound. The North Atlantic ports have a much larger ship tonnage at their service than the Gulf cities now have or will secure. The Northeastern section of the United States being the most important manufacturing region will continue to be the chief importing section.

Thus, while it was believed that the imports by way of the Gulf cities will probably be larger after the canal has been constructed than they

can be before that event, it was not thought that this larger trade

would be secured by drawing traffic away from the North Atlantic

cities and to the railroads serving them.

Another question asked the officials of the North Atlantic lines was

whether "the roads to the Atlantic will exchange less traffic with the

Pacific lines as the result of the canal." The replies indicated that

the Atlantic lines did not expect the canal to have the effect of reducing the volume of business exchanged between Atlantic lines and

Pacitic roads. The railways will not permit their business to be taken

away without an effort to retain it, and wherever possible arrangements

will be made for transcontinental shipments on through bills of lading

to the west coast of the United States and to countries beyond. The

present volume of business exchanged between the Atlantic and Pacific

roads is comparatively small. It will not be less after the canal has

been put into operation.

While the officials of the Eastern roads are by no means unanimous

in their opinions, the foregoing statement of their opinions is believed

to represent fairly their views.

THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE GULF ROADS.

It seems uncertain how much of the import and export business of

the section north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi will be done

by way of the Gulf ports; the testimony is not unanimous. Probably some of the trade of this region will be handled by the Gulf ports;

and the competition of the Gulf lines will affect the rates on a large

share of the business that is handled by the Atlantic roads and ports.

The opening of the isthmian canal will give the people of the States north of the Ohio and the Missouri rivers the choice of three routes

for their trade with our west coast and Pacitic countries, and the

volume of their trade will be a prize for which the Atlantic, the Gulf,

and the Pacitic lines may be expected to strive with zeal. There can be little uncertainty as to the general effect of the canal

upon the traffic of the railways located in the Southern and Southwestern States. The railways serving the Southern States will have

the same measure of benefits that may come to the industries and trade

of the region. The canal can take no business away from the South

or the Southern railways. It can only increase existing railwa}^ busi- ness and draw new industries and trade to the section.

The import business handled by the Gulf lines is small at present,

and it will doubtless always remain less than the volume of outbound

traffic, although the opening of the canal may be expected to increase

the amount of inbound business handled by the Gulf cities. The

officials of the Gulf lines who were consulted believe that the canal

will cause a moderate though not a large volume of imports to enter through the Gulf cities.
378 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

THE CANAL AND THE TRAFFIC OF THE RAILWAYS OF THE CENTRAL

WEST.

In that large stretch of country north of the Ohio and Missouri

rivers and west of Chicago, that is to say, in the region west of the

territory served by the trunk lines to the Atlantic Ocean and north

of the States occupied by the railway systems terminating at Gulf

ports, there is a network of important railways having a large volume

of traffic. Until recently the traffic of these railways in the central

West consisted almost exclusively of agricultural products, but the

diversification of industries in that part of the United States is now

proceeding with great rapidity. There is an immense volume of

export business, the major part of which is now handled by the lines leading to the Atlantic Ocean, although latterly the lines to the Gulf

have handled a portion of this traffic, and the volume of business

handled from the central West b}T the transcontinental railways has

grown to considerable dimensions. The imports brought into the

central West from foreign countries come mainly by way of the

Atlantic gateways. A certain amount of fruit comes through the Gulf

cities, and an appreciable volume of oriental goods is brought in by

way of Pacific ports.

As to the effects of the canal upon the railway traffic in the central

West opinions are not unanimous. Manufacturers and most, though

not all, railway officials anticipate that the canal will develop a large vol- ume of new business. The views of those railway officials who expect

but small results from the canal were well summarized by a prominent

official of one of the strongest roads of the central West— a system

that ramifies in seven States. He said that inasmuch as the industries

of the territory served by this road were chiefly agricultural, no large

volume of traffic would ever be exchanged with the agricultural States of our own Pacific slope. This gentleman said that if the canal were

to affect the business of railroads situated as his system is, it must be

accomplished Ity the creation of manufacturing industries, and it was

his opinion that the volume of this kind of business would not and

could not become very large. If the canal should divert this now busi- ness from the Pacific roads to the Atlantic trunk lines, or to the roads

leading to the Gulf, that result would not affect the roads of the central West, because this diversion would do little more than to change

the direction in which the traffic was hauled by his and similarly situ- ated roads. Believing that the development of manufacture would be

limited to small proportions, and that any diversion of traffic would

simply change the direction in which the outbound and inbound busi- ness was handled, it was the opinion of this gentleman that the canal

could not affect the business of his railway and other similarly situated

systems to any large extent. The traffic manager of another equally strong railway system in the

central West was of the opinion that an isthmian canal would help

build up the Upper Mississippi Valley and be a benefit to the railways

of that section. As a general pioof of this proposition he cited the

Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway as one that was particularly subject to water competition, and which was nevertheless one of

the most profitable freight roads in the United States. The canal, he

said in substance, wdl doubt less take from the railroads some shipments they would otherwise secure, but by increasing the total volume
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 379

of business by causing the centers of distribution and manufacturing

to grow and multiply, and population to increase, the water route will add to the traffic seeking transportation by the railroads. This gentle- man believes that water competition is a help instead of an injury to the railroad because of the larger industrial development made possible by the cheaper water transportation. He called attention to some

of the large wholesale and jobbing houses in St. Louis, and said that

the prominence of that city as a wholesale jobbing center was partly

due to the cheap transportation from the East by way of the Gulf and

the Mississippi River. This official also laid down the proposition

that the best conditions for a heavy railway traffic are produced by the

existence of a large number of manufacturing and distributing centers. Some railway officials, he said, seem to believe it better for the rail- roads to favor the concentration of business in a few large centers; but such a policy, he said, experience had shown would restrict the

possible development of railway traffic within unnecessarily narrow

limits. Believing that the canal will develop the territory, diversify

and distribute industry, he was of the opinion that the effect of the

waterway upon the business of the railway lines situated in the central

West would be beneficial. While these views regarding the efficacy of water competition to develop the industries of the interior part of the United States and to increase the traffic of the railways of that part of the country are not

shared by all the railway officials that were consulted, the history of

transpoitation, the evidence afforded by a study of business conditions

in different parts of the United States, and the opinions entertained by

the manufacturers and large shippers of commodities tend to substantiate th< i accuracy of the position taken by those railway officials who

expect their lines to profit rather than suffer injury by the opening of

the proposed isthmian canal. No one can visit the great industrial centers of the central West, study the vast resources of the States of

that section, and acquaint himself with the activities of the business

men without feeling certain that increased transportation facilities are

certain to result in a very large expansion of industry. The history

of the great central West shows that the measure of its industrial

development has always been the measure of its transportation facilities. New facilities mean new business; and this is more true to-day

than it was twenty-five or even ten years ago. EFFECT OF THE CANAL UPON THE TRAFFIC OF THE PACIFIC RAILWAYS.

The railway systems that will feel the competition of the new water

route across the Isthmus most severely are those whose lines connect

the Mississippi Valley with the Pacific coast. This competition may

apply to nearly all kinds of traffic. The only articles wholly exempt

will be the perishable fruits and those goods of high value sent by

express and as fast freight. The more southerly Pacific lines will feel

this competition more keenly than will those situated farther north.

The northern lines, moreover, will be able to meet the canal competition more readily than will those farther south, because the territory

crossed by the southern roads includes such a wide belt of relatively

unproductive country. The northern half of the Cordilleran highland

is not only rich in mineral resources, but is also capable of raising

considerable quantities of agricultural products. In some parts of
380 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

this region irrigation is necessary and in others not. The southern

part of this great highland, however, is capable of but a limited development. The mineral resources are less extensive. Wherever agriculture is possible it is dependent upon irrigation, and the irrigable areas are very limited. Thus the northern lines have a territory

capable of producing- a much larger amount of local traffic than can be

secured by the southern lines from the country across which they are

located.

Traffic officials of the three southern lines tothe Pacific stated their

views with frankness and in some detail. The opinions of these gentlemen, however, differ largely. The views of those who believe that

the effect of the canal will not be to create business, but that it will compel a large reduction in railway rates without affording compensation to the railroads, were fully stated by an official in charge of the

traffic business of one of the Pacific roads. He said in substance:

During the early years of the transcontinental railways the traffic from the Atlantic section of the United States to the Pacific section was drawn almost entirely from

the Atlantic seaboard. Before the railways were built the traffic was all handled by

the sea route, and the costs of transportation from the interior to the ocean were such

that the traffic was drawn almost entirely from the seaboard cities. The effect of the

transcontinental railways has been to cause a large part—three-fourths, it is estimated

of the business carried across the country westward by the transcontinental railways,

to originate in and west of Pittsburg. The effect of the canal will be to tend to cause traffic to originate nearer the Atlantic seaboard again, and thus affect deleteri- ously not only the business of the transcontinental railways, but the general industries of the middle section of the United States. The traffic of a canal will consist of all kinds of commodities except those of a per- ishable nature. The competition of the waterway with tin- railway lines will be very

severe, but the railways will not permit their traffic to be taken away from them by

the canal. The competition will necessitate a reduction in rates—such a reduction

as may throw the transcontinental railways into insolvency and require the scaling

down of capital. The railways will continue in business, however, after the owners

of the property have suffered a great reduction in the value of their holdings. As far as the export trade across the Pacific is concerned, the canal would be an

injury to the Pacific coast seaboard, because the export traffic very largely originates

in the central and eastern part of the United States. That traffic would he carried

directly to the Eastern and South American countries by way <>t' the canal. The establishment of industries along the transcontinental railway lines as a result of the opening of the canal was held to be possible only to a small extent by any of the transcontinental railways south of the Northern Pacific. The Southern roads

cross such a long stretch of arid country that general industries can not be developed

except relatively near the termini. California and the Pacific coast generally do not

constitute a manufacturing section, nor will they become such. Before criticising the remarks contained in the foregoing statements,

the views of ;i traffic manager of one other Pacific line may be stated. This traffic manager says that the canal will compel a reduction in rail rates to Pacific terminal points below the charges that would otherwise

prevail^ and that the adjustment of charges will probably result in the

establishment of blanket or identical rates between Pacific ports and

all points in the central and eastern part of the United States. The

effect of this will be to take from the cities in the central part of the

United States the advantages which they have over the Eastern cities for trade with the Pacific coast. This official does not believe that the

canal will be of much help to California, because the trade in grain,

which is and will always be the principal item of export, is going to be

carried on less with Europe ami more and more with China and Japan,

where the consumption of wheat is even now taking the place of rice.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 381

He believes that the surplus grain products of the Pacific coast will be milled and shipped to the Orient, and that the canal will not be of

benefit to this industry. Concerning the general effects oi a canal

upon the commerce and industry of the United States as a whole, this

traffic official is more optimistic than the others above quoted. He

says, and very accurately, that the transportation business of this country is so organized that if touched at one point the effect is felt eveiywhere. The opening of the canal will afford a new transportation agent of importance, and while it will compel an adjustment of

business, a revision, and in some cases a reduction, of rates, the rail- roads will nevertheless find business to do, and the travel and traffic of this country and the business done at home and abroad will so increase as ultimately to make both the railways and the canal a necessity. The construction of the canal is regarded by this traffic official as inevitable, as something which the American people have decided to be necessary for naval reasons and for the purpose of securing the

quickest and best transportation facilities for their domestic and for- eign trade. The transcontinental railwa}x s, in his opinion, would temporarily suffer from the reduction in rates, but the growth of the

country will be such that twent}r -five years from now the railways

will have nothing to fear from the canal. In the opinion of the Pacific railwa}^ officials above quoted, and of

others, the isthmian canal will be an active and rate-controlling competitor. That this is true will hardly be questioned, and if the canal can not compensate the railways with a larger volume of business they

will not share with the producing and manufacturing interests in the

benefits accomplished b}r the water route. Whether the canal will

give the Pacific railroads a larger traffic than they would otherwise

have is partly a matter of judgment and partly a question of safe

deduction from past experience.

The belief entertained by one of the officials above referred to that

the isthmian canal will draw traffic and the centers of industry back

from the central section of the United States to the Eastern States is based on an inadequate conception of the industrial strength of the

Central States as compared with the Eastern. The Central States possess vast stores of coal, iron, and timber, and these and their other

natural resources are causing the population and industrial activities of our country to become generally distributed. The railwa}7 s that serve the Central States are wisely fostering this tendenc}r

, and these

railway systems are among the strongest and most efficient of an}^ in the United States. After ten or twelve years more of progress on the

part of the industries and railway systems of the central portion of the

country, they will be quite secure against defeat from competition

with the East. Indeed, the canal will so facilitate the foreign trade of

the Central States as to make them stronger than they now are as compared with the Eastern section.

It is asserted by one of the railwa}^ officials whose opinions are given

above that the isthmian canal will injure the Pacific States b}r diverting from them the imports destined for points east of the Rocky

Mountains. The present volume of these imports by way of the Pacific coast cities, however, is small and will probably remain so. Without

an isthmian canal the goods brought in from foreign Pacific countries

will be imported into the eastern half of the United States, as most of
382 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

them now are, by way of New York and other Atlantic ports. The

importations of teas, silks, mattings, and curios by way of our Pacific

ports and the transcontinental railroads is increasing, it is true, and

may be expected to grow in volume as the costs of railway transportation decline. After the canal route has been opened the railways will

be obliged to share this traffic with the steamers using the canal. Here

again, however, it is probable that additional facilities for transportation will be accompanied by a larger demand for commodities and an

increased traffic for the old routes as well as the new. If the isthmian

canal produces any changes of importance, one effect will be to give

greater prosperity to the western third of the United States, where

the Pacific railroads must alwaj^s perform the transportation service,

to stimulate the growth of population there, and to increase the con- sumption of such articles as are imported from the Orient.

One of the witnesses above quoted thinks that the wheat exported

from the Pacific coast will, within a few years, be sent entirely to Pacific instead of Atlantic markets. There is a growing trans -Pacific trade in flour and an increasing quantity is required at home oy the

growing population of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific slope States. This, moreover, is being accompanied by a diversification of agricul- ture and the production of other cereal crops and of fruits and vegetables. Nevertheless, the western section, particularly the States of

Washington and Oregon, may be expected to remain large exporters

of wheat and also of barley to Atlantic countries for several decades

to come.

CONCLUSIONS.

The competition of the canal will affect, first, the volume and rates of

the through business of the Pacific railroads, and secondly, the amount

of their local traffic. At the beginning of their existence these rail- wa}T s depended almost entirety upon their through traffic; but their

chief aim throughout their history has been to increase the local business, which is always more profitable than the through traffic; and

although the great stretch of country crossed by them is still in the

infancy of its industrial development, the local traffic of some, if not

all, of the Pacific roads has already become of chief importance. A

vice-president of one of the railway s}\stems states that since lS(X-> "the increase in business of the transcontinental lines has not come

from the seaports, but from the development of the intermediate

country." The canal can certainly in no wise check the growth of this

local traffic, and the evidence strongly supports the belief entertained

by many persons that the canal will assist largely in the industrial

expansion of the territory served by the Pacific railways.

If this be true, the proximate effect of the isthmian canal in compelling a reduction and readjustment of the rates on the share of the

transcontinental railway business that will be subject to the competition

of the new water route will be more than offset by the ultimate and

not distant expansion of the through and local traffic that must necessarily be handled by rail. It seems probable that the increase in the

population of the country and the growth in our home and foreign

trade will early demonstrate the need of the transportation service of

both the canal and the railways.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 383

CiiArTER XI. —The trade and industries of western South America

and tin- effect of the canal upon than.

The benefits of an isthmian waterway will be felt in varying degrees

by more than half the countries of the world. In some regions this influence will be slight and indirect, or will modify only a small part

of the trade, while in others it will affect the greater part of the com- merce and will work changes that will be almost revolutionary. The

United States will obtain the most direct and far-reaching results from the canal; South America will probably be the second greatest

recipient of its advantages.

AREA AND POPULATION COMPARED WITH NORTH AMERICA.

South America is but slightly smaller than North America. It is wider between Pernambuco and Guayaquil than the United States between Oregon and Maine, long enough to reach from the isthmian

canal to Baffin Ba}T

, a thousand miles beyond the southern point of

Greenland, yet none of her shores are frozen. These rather surprising dimensions are seen more clearly by a glance at the globe, which

will correct the erroneous impressions that flat maps make by exaggerating the size of countries of high latitude and diminishing the area of equatorial regions. Viewed on a wall map, North America

appears much larger than South America, when, in reality, there is but slight difference in the area of the continents. B}T drawing a map

on the polyconic projection, as has been done in plate 75, the relative areas of the two continents can be shown.

Brazil alone is larger than the combined area of England, France,

and the United States, exclusive of Alaska, while each of five other

South American Republics exceeds in area the original thirteen States of North America with Maine, Vermont, and Florida added, and the

State of Massachusetts with its irregular shape could be completely

hidden away by being put down in the midst of the unexplored areas

of the great forests of the Amazon Valley. Although large, South

America does not have a greater proportion of worthless territory

than have most of the other continents. There are deserts in Peru and

and Chile, and mountain wastes and swampy forests in the center of

the continent; but these areas are small compared with the unoccupiable parts of North America. Canada and Alaska, comprising a third of the continent, are largely uninhabitable because of the cold cli- mate. The plains and plateaus west of the Missouri River embrace a

third of the territory of the United States that can be only sparsely

inhabited because of its aridity. The proportion of arid land in Mexico

is greater than in the United States. In South America the present sparse population has but touched the resources that can support commonwealths as populous as those of

Europe when immigration and settlement shall have occupied the

country. The present sparseness of population and backward development of South Amertca are due to three causes. The first is the

difference in character of the races inhabiting England and Spain—

difference as marked in their colonies as in the mother countries.

England and her colonies have prospered, while Spain and her dependencies have languished. Had England, not Spain, possessed South

America after the sixteenth century, the continent would now be more
884 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

highly developed, although its social institutions might have differed

from those of North America, as the result of climatic dissimilarities. South America's sparse population is furthermore due to the fact that Europe has not j

r et needed South America as a home for over- crowded peoples. Canada is still giving away farms, the United States has scarcely ceased doing the same, and in the old-settled commonwealths of the Eastern and Southern States hardty more than half of

the available area is cultivated. The United States is still a comparatively empty country. The emigrating races of Europe, which have

been chiefly the Teutonic, have found stable and friendly governments,

fellowship of race, and familiar climate in the United States, Canada,

and Australia. These attractions were not offered by South America.

Settlement there was impeded by the tropical climate of a large part

of the continent, and by the fact that the most suitable districts for

white colonization were on the inland plateaus, separated from the ocean by unhealthy lowlands which must be crossed by railroads before

commercial relations could be established with the rest of the world.

Under these conditions an extensive occupation of the country has

waited for corporate enterprises to provide the needed transportation

facilities. There have been no large European emigrations except to Argentina and southern Brazil, where the climate is similar to that of

the temperate latitudes of North America, and where the governments

have been fairly stable, and' have provided the political prerequisites

for industrial growth.

THE TRADE ZONES OF SOUTH AMERICA.

In discussing the industries and trade of South America, and the manner in which they will be affected by an isthmian canal, it is neces- sary to divide the continent into trade zones. The various countries

do not form a satisfactory division, because in some cases two or three

adjoining States have similar climate, resources, and trade connections.

Nor is a separation of the continent, into zones or latitude helpful,

because very disimilar regions are found in the same latitude. The

shape of the continent and the lack of internal communication make it necessary to treat the Pacific and Atlantic sections separate!}', and

each of these sections has a temperate and a tropic division calling for

separate treatment. In the discussion that follows the continent has

been divided into (1) the Temperate Pacific section; (2) the Tropic

Pacific section; (3) the Temperate Atlantic section, and (4) the Tropic

Atlantic section. The political divisions comprised in each section are shown in the accompanying map of South America.

From the standpoint of the world's trade, the Atlantic sections of

South America are more important than the Pacific side, but as regards

the traffic and effects of an isthmian canal the western third of the continent is of greater consequence. The effect of the canal en the trade

of the Atlantic region will be slight, but on the Pacific side the canal

will change the routes and in some measure the destination and origin

of the larger part of its foreign commerce. The references to the

Atlantic sections will he brief in the following discussions, the space

given to the four trade divisions of South America being in proportion to the importance of the canal to the economic development of

each.
S Doc^/^57 1

REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 385

Western South America will be considered first." This section of

the continent includes the Pacific coastal strip and also the Andean

plateau, and reaches from the southern limits of the habitable part of

the temperate zone northward well into northern tropical latitudes. The Republic of Chile, in the temperate zone, is as large as our New

England and middle Atlantic States with Maiyland and the Virginias'

added. Northward in Peru and Bolivia the ranges of the Andes

broaden, so that in addition to the coastal plain, often 60 miles across, there is an extensive plateau a thousand miles long and in places

several hundred miles wide. On this broad highland is the Titicaca

Basin, with a system of rivers flowing into a lake about half the size of

Lake Erie, and furnishing hundreds of miles of navigable waterways.

INADEQUATE TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA.

The Pacific frontage of South America has more than double the

population and area of our Pacific coast States of California, Oregon,

and Washington. The western sections of the two American conti- nents are, however, very differently situated commercially. Our

Pacific slope has the advantage of seven transcontinental railroads; the

Pacific coast of South America has but one, and that is incomplete.

The foreign commerce and to a large extent the domestic trade of the

west coast of South America is dependent upon inadequate and cir- cuitous water transportation. The building of the Panama Railroad

has been of comparatively small importance to the trade of South

America. The costs of transshipment at the Isthmus and the high

freight rates charged limit the use of this route mainly to passenger

traffic and the freighting of articles that need quick transportation.

Cheaper commodities take the longer route around the continent. A

prosperous industrial growth requires transporting agencies that can

profitably and cheaply move such commodities as coal, iron and other

ores, grain, etc. This the Panama Railroad can not do, and such commodities, if moved at all, must go through the Straits of Magellan or around the Horn.

The great distance that must be traversed by the ship passing between

the commercial countries of the North Atlantic and the west coast of

South America, has caused the commerce of those countries until

recently to be chiefly dependent upon the sailing vessel. The introduction of regular steam connection promises better transportation

facilities for the future, especially after the canal shall have been completed. Callao, Peru, is now farther b}T steam from New York than

is the South Pole, but an isthmian canal will bring the city 1,000 miles nearer to New York by steam than San Francisco will then be. The present difficulties of transportation restrict travel, and thus

prevent the people of the United States and Europe from becoming

acquainted with the people and trade conditions of western South

America. Commercial exchanges prosper only when knowledge and

intimacy break down mistrust and reveal the commercial needs of the

trading nations. In Pacific South America generally, as in other Latin American

countries, the difficulties of inland transportation are a great hindrance

"Consult Pis. 76, 77, and 78, upon which are located the places, resources, and

industries mentioned in this chapter. S. Doc. 54, pt 2 25
386 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

to industrial and commercial progress. Excepting a few lines of rail- roads, there are practically no means of communication in western

South America save the pack mule. This state of affairs makes the commerce of the interior districts similar to that of Europe in the

Middle Ages, when international trade was limited to silks and spices

and other light commodities of high value that could be carried long

distances by caravan and to the few bulkier articles produced along

the seacoast and navigable rivers. The inland districts of England,

France, and Germany then had considerable populations, but each

community raised its own food, made its own clothing, and knew little of the products of other countries. The improvements that have trans- formed the European countries have not yet had much effect upon the

tropic section of Pacific South America. Only a small proportion of

the population contributes an}T thing to the foreign trade. The rest

live in isolated communities, each of which is practically self-supporting.

DEPENDENCE OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA UPON FOREIGN CAPITAL

AND LARGE ORGANIZATIONS OF CAPITAL.

The nineteenth century witnessed an enormous expansion of com- merce throughout the greater part of the world, largely because

industries developed in new countries b}T means of the capital that

Europe had slowly accumulated through several preceding centuries.

The foreign trade which South America now has is almost entirely the

result of European investments. Foreign capital has worked the cof- fee plantations of Brazil, and built her railroads and those of Argentina. The flocks of Argentina are owned by Englishmen and Scotchmen, the nitrate works of Chile are in the hands of English and

German owners, and the sugar plantations of Peru are the property of

Americans and other foreigners.

The capitalistic development of western South America, particularly the northern part, has, however, not yet progressed very far. It has great stores of natural wealth, but the obstacles in the way of

their utilization have not been overcome. Large organizations of

capital are especially necessary in the Andean region and on the west

coast. In Argentina the European owner can cultivate his grain and

pasture his flocks in a level country watered by rainfall, but in Peru

irrigation is necessary to agriculture. The building of a railroad across the level pampas, to carry away the wool and grain of Argentina, is a very much easier task than building a line up the denies ol* the Andes to tap the mineral wealth of the plateau. Operation on the

east side can be conducted with moderate capital, but on the west side

the large capitalist, the mining expert, and the complicated machine

are necessary. The return to capital, however, promises to be liberal. Foreign capital has made less headway than would otherwise have

been made in western South America, because of the frequency of

political disturbances and civil wars. The deleterious effects of fre- quent revolutions and unstable political conditions are known to be

great, and are felt even more by the merchant than by the capitalist

who is engaged in mining, agriculture, or transportation. The manager for a strong corporation, which has for years operated a large

sugar plantation in the Peruvian irrigated belt, reports that the per

cent of loss that has actually occurred from civil wars has been, on the

whole, surprisingly small. 'I he country, however, suffers greatly

because capitalists are deterred from making investments.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 387

The western part of South America has been lying idle while more

accessible resources elsewhere have been levied upon. But a new era seems to be at hand. The constant tendency everywhere is to organize

capital on a large scale, and it seems probable that the development

of western South America will be undertaken by organizations of

capital similar to those that are giving the United States its industrial

preeminence. In fact, a substantial beginning has already been made,

and that beginning is responsible for the present importance of western

South America to the world's trade. In 1899 Chile exported more

tons of nitrate of soda than the port of New York exported tons of

wheat. This nitrate was produced by large foreign corporations owning their own nitrate beds and reducing plants, the railroads to carry

the product to the seacoast, and the piers and warehouses from which

to ship it. In 1899 Peru exported 110,000 tons of sugar, which had

been produced by firms that could irrigate their plantations, install expensive machinery, build lines of railway to the port or to some

main line, and, in some cases, the product was exported in the ships

of the producers. By the increase of enterprises of this character

the west coast can double and treble the amount of her contributions

to international trade. The first step to be made in the direction of these changes will be in bettering the means of transportation by the building of railways, or

starting industrial undertakings which include, as a part of the enterprise, an improvement in the existing method of transportation. This

will come about easier after the opening of an isthmian canal, which

will tend to quicken the industrial and commercial life of the west

coast of South America. Cheaper freights will enable the commodities now exported to be marketed more cheaply and other articles not now utilized will find their way into commerce. With the greater

possibilities of securing freight will come new inducements to build

railways and make other improvements in transportation. Railway

materials and the machinery necessary for the equipment of industrial

plants will be cheaper because of lower freight rates from the ironproducing countries north of the Isthmus.

The supply of capital for South America will in the future come

from the United States as well as from Europe. We have become

large exporters of the iron and steel and machinery needed b}^ new

countries. Our increasing wealth and population will furnish money

and men for industrial enterprises in foreign lands. American ownership and direction of railroads, mines, and other enterprises in Mexico have been chiefly responsible for the industrial revolution in that country during the past twenty years and for the accompanying

expansion of her commerce, the chief part of which has been with the

United States. This work is still going steadily forward in Mexico,

but we shall probably welcome opportunities lying beyond the Isthmus

of Panama.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE UNITED STATES IN TRADING WITH WESTERN

SOUTH AMERICA—EFFECT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL.

With very few exceptions the industries of western South America

may be classed as mining and agricultural. This is the case even in the seacoast regions engaging in foreign trade. There are, of course,

local manufactures of various articles in the towns and villages, such
388 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

work as is done locally in any community, but the nature of the resources of western South America is such that the region is likely to continue permanently in the extractive stage of mdustry, or at least until a period too remote for consideration here. Pacific South

America is now but half of an industrial unit; the other half, the manufacturing- complement, is in Europe and the United States. Each

one of these industrial half units needs better facilities for marketing

its produce in the other. One important service of an isthmian canal

will be to bring these separated commercial and industrial complements into closer relation.

The west coast of South America bears a relation to the manufacturing centers of Europe and the United States similar to that which

Montana, Colorado, and Texas, with their raw products, bear to the

manufacturing States of the East. The countries of the North Atlantic need and are buying the export products of the west coast of South

America—the nitrate and the ores of copper, silver, and gold, the

grain, sugar, cotton, cocoa, coffee, wool, hides, rubber, and woods.

In return for this export these South American Republics are importing from many countries, but chiefly from the United Kingdom, all kinds of manufactures, from steel rails to jewelry and tine clothes. Both parties will be benefited by increasing this trade. The production of raw material will be stimulated no less than the production of

manufactures. For any gain that comes to South America the rest of

the world must receive an accompanying or complementary advantage.

The United States will derive especial advantage from the shortening of the roundabout path of this large and increasing commerce.

Because of the present route around the continent the trade of the

west coast is mainly with Europe, but on the opening of the canal

there will be a change of front toward the United States. Both

European and American traders will have greatly improved opportunities, but the larger relative improvement will come to the east coast

of North America. Our ports will then have from 2,000 to 3,000

miles advantage over Europe in the journey to the west coast, whereas

at present the distance from New York and the ports of the English

Channel to that section of the world are nearly equal, the southern

cities of Europe having a slight advantage over the ports of the United

States. Nearly all of South America Lies east of North America. The

meridian of Washington is that of Callao. on the coast of Peru. Antofagasta and Lquique, the chief nitrate ports of Chile, have the

longitude of Boston. Valparaiso is 71 40' west longitude and New

York 74" 03'. The eastern point of Brazil lies 2,600 miles east of

New York, and is equidistant from New York Bay and the English

Channel.

The sailing vessels bound from New York for the west coast of South

America must go eastward nearly to the Canaries so as to be able to take advantage of the trade winds and get past Cape St. Roque, on the

coast of Brazil. The European sailer goes directly past the Canaries

and has an advantage of ten days over the American in a voyage to any part of South America south or west of the eastern point of Brazil. For many decades our direct commerce with South America has been

chiefly by sail, and we have competed with Europe under most unfavorable conditions. The small part of our trade that has not gone by

sail has gone by steamers to Panama for transshipment to the two

lines of steamers going down the west coast. These lines have com-
RKPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 389

bined to keep the rates at such a figure that for most of the time during

the last thirty-five years it has been cheaper to ship American goods

to South America via England or German}'. Jt has often cost the

American shipper from 30 to 50 per cent more to send freight 3,500

miles direct to western South America by Panama than to send it 14,000 miles indirectly by way of Europe. Shipping around the Horn

by sail is such :i slow and irregular means of reaching the markets as

to prevent the development of a satisfactory commerce in these modern

times, when expedition is the order of business. Our share in the

trade of the west coast of South America has not been gratifying to national pride; indeed, we have done little more than to sell in those

countries the commodities that they could not secure elsewhere.

Europe has taken nearly all of their exports and supplied them with

most of their imports.

Since 1890 two American companies have been running chartered

British vessels around to Guayaquil, and during this period the value

of our exports to the west coast has increased 16 per cent; this, however, is less than one-third the rate of the increase of our total exports.

Fortunately the steamer is rapidly taking the place of the sailing

vessel. In 1890 steam vessels carried, largely via Panama, 36 per cent

of our exports to the countries of western South America. In 1900

81 per cent of our exports to those countries went by steam, a gain of

225 per cent in the proportion carried by steam. The starting of the lines of steamers from New York has not, however, given our manufacturers an even chance with those of Europe.

American merchants and consuls on the west coast complain that the

steamers from New York charge higher rates than those from Europe,

and nearly as high as the Panama lines. Nevertheless, these steamers always leave New York full loaded with export freight and the

profitableness of the business is attested by the frequent addition of more vessels to the fleets. This suggests what may be expected to occur when the isthmian canal and more lines of steamers give us

shorter and better means of communication with Pacific countries.

We have a thriving trade with the American countries near to us. Fifty-nine per cent of Canada's imports come from the United States. The ocean route to Mexico is longer than to Canada, and the railroad

connections over the land frontier are much less satisfactory, }

? et we

furnish 49 per cent of the Mexican imports. The northern countries

of South America are about 2,000 miles from New York, but we have

fairly good steamship connection and a growing trade, Colombia and

Venezuela drawing about 30 per cent of their imports from this country. In contrast with this, however, the United States furnishes less than 10 per cent of the imports into the countries of the west coast of

South America; and our trade there has increased slowly at a time

when the growth of our exports as a whole has been rapid. Under

the present adverse conditions our share in the trade of the west coast

of South America is only one-third as great as it is in the South

American countries bordering on the Caribbean Sea, one-fifth as great as in Mexico, and only one-sixth of the percentage which we

control of the trade of Canada. An isthmian canal, and the lines of

communication that it will open up, may be expected to give this country a larger share in the trade of the Pacific. This conclusion is strengthened by some incidents in the history of

the foreign trade of Chile. In years past, the British share of that
390 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

trade was greater than it is at the present. Her commissioners sent

in 1898 to investigate the cause of this decline reported as the first cause that British merchants did not secure as good freight rates for

their commodities as were obtained by their continental rivals, the

difference in favor of Antwerp and German ports being sometimes

25 per cent. It was found that English merchants sometimes sent

British goods to those ports for reshipment to Chile. The lower rates from Germany were due to the nitrate trade. Germany being the

largest importer of Chilean nitrate of soda, the ships returning from

that country to Chile could offer the best rates on outgoing freight,

and this was one of the causes that had enabled the German merchant

to build up a large South American trade. A similar advantage will come to the traders of this country when

the canal has been opened. B}T that time the United States will have

a larger consumption of nitrate, our vessels will go directly down the

South American coast, and the favorable shipping facilities that are now giving Germany an advantage over the United Kingdom will be

possessed in a more marked degree by American merchants. Moreover, it is probable that the vessels en route from Europe to South

America will aid our exporters by calling at our ports for coal and

other cargo. The advantage of cheaper transportation is already shown in the

export cotton trade of the United States to Chile. At certain times

nitrate ships returning to South America offer A

r ery favorable rates from New York, and exporters then dispose of cotton cloth in large

lots at Chilean ports, thereby securing a trade which the regular conditions of freight would not permit.

The future trade between our east coast and the west coast of South

America will have the advantage of a heavy traffic both ways, a phe- nomenon rarely met with in international commercial movements.

Our east coast trade with Europe consists mainly in the exchange of

large quantities of agricultural and other heavy produce for a small

quantity of manufactured products, and this necessitates a large ballast movement westward across the North Atlantic. Our exports from

New York to Australia are but partly balanced by the small return

trade. Our exports to the Orient of iron, cotton, and foodstuffs are exchanged for light curios, tea, and mattings. Our trade to South

America is certain to give rise to an increasing exportation of articles similar to those we art 1 sending to China and Australia, with the probable addition of coal, and these commodities will be exchanged for

Peruvian sugar, Chilean nitrate, ores, and heavy produce, so that

vessels will readily secure cargoes both ways. This will be an advantage

both to the steamship companies and the shippers.

GEOGRAPHY, RESOURCES, AND INDUSTRIES OF CHILE.*

Having discussed the general industrial and commercial conditions

of Western South America as a whole, it will be profitable to examine

tin, temperate and tropical regions separately and with some detail. The temperate division of the continent, for the purposes of this dis- cussion, may be considered practically coextensive with Chile; for

although the northern boundary of Chile extends beyond the Tropic <>t'

"Consult Pis. 7f> and 77.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 391

Capricorn the aridity of that part of the country makes mining the

only industry. Mining industries being independent of climate, the

activities of Chile that are determined by climate are located within

the temperate zone. Chile is long and narrow, but her area is large

larger, in fact, than that of France, Germany, or the United Kingdom,

or the combined area of the New England and Middle Atlantic States with Maryland and the Virginias added. Her length of 2,600 miles

would reach from New York to Utah. The country extends from a

tropic district to Tierra del Fuego, where the latitude and climate are

like those of Scotland. Nitrate of soda is the chief product of the arid

northern part of Chile, which is the source of supply for the entire

world. The agricultural districts and the center of population are farther south, the products being similar to those of our Pacific Coast

States, with which Chile possesses many points of similarity.

The temperate shores of the Pacific show a succession of similar

geographic and climatic features in both North and South America.

These resemblances would appear plainly if Chile could be inverted

and placed beside the coast of North America. The lower end of

the inverted Chile would be opposite the city of Mexico, and Tierra del

Fuego would be about the latitude of Sitka, Alaska. The 800 miles

of Chilean desert with its nitrate beds would lie against the arid coast

of Mexico where its silver is mined. Patagonia would be opposite

British Columbia and Alaska, both regions being damp, fringed with

rugged islands, and cut into sharp fiords walled in by forest-clad

mountains having snowfields on their summits and glaciers on their

sides. The tropical and cold sections are unproductive agriculturally,

but in the temperate belt of each region civilization and diversified

industry are possible. The climate is that of western Europe and the

United States.

It is by comparing the productive region of the north temperate

Pacific with the south temperate Pacific that the greatest resemblances

and likewise the difference of the two coasts appear. Their difference

is due to the absence of a South American duplicate for the State of

Washington. California and Oregon are reproduced, but the Antarctic

current, sweeping up the coast of South America, shortens the temperate section of Chile so much that the region corresponding to the

State of Washington is replaced by a longer continuation of the rugged

and forest-clad coast similar to that of Alaska and British Columbia.

Near the Mexican boundary of the United States the resemblances

to the corresponding agricultural parts of Chile are obvious. In Chile

the arid country, by means of irrigation, produces grapes and raisins,

citrus and other fruits, and alfalfa, the alfalfa being used as a supplementary fodder for the cattle pasturing on the higher hills. The arid

belt extends several hundred miles, and is succeeded on the south b}r wheat fields and general agriculture. The Chilean forests corresponding to those of central and northern California, Oregon, Washington,

and British Columbia exist in the lower half of the Chilean agricultural region and along the extensive coast of Patagonia.

The best section of the western slope of both Chile and the United

States is found in a large interior valley. The valley of California,

bounded on the east by the Sierra Nevadas, on the west by the Coast

Range, and drained by the Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers, is of

high fertility. Chile also has a valley similar to this, but larger and

superior to it in several particulars. It is inclosed by the Andes on
392 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

the east and by a coast range near the shore of the Pacific; but this coast range is not so continuous as that of California, being broken at frequent intervals where rivers make their way to the ocean. Instead

of being drained by two rivers flowing lengthwise, and having outlet to the sea, the Chilean Valley has several small rivers flowing across

it and discharging into the ocean. The basins of these rivers are not separated b}T high divides, but are practically continuous, so that the

whole district is properly spoken of as one great valley. The Andes

are higher than the Sierra Nevadas, and westerly winds bring a larger

amount of moisture than California has. The streams have a larger

and more constant flow of water from the mountain snows and furnish an abundant supply for irrigation, and in some places provide good

power.

As in most arid countries where irrigation can be practiced, the soil

is fertile. The crops produced are identical with those of California.

All of the cereals, vegetables, and fruits thrive and provide a food

supply sufficient both for the present and prospective home demands

and for a large export trade. This valley is about 700 miles in length

a distance equal to that from New York to Charleston—and is divided

into thirteen prosperous provinces, which had a population in 1895 of

2,400,000 people—as many as there were in California, Oregon, and

Washington in the census year 1900. California has less than ten persons to the square mile, while the Chilean Valley has from three

to five times as many, and is about equal in density of population to Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, or to our Southern States,

exclusive of Florida.

The great trunk line of the Government railway goes through most

of this region from north to south. It is being extended in both directions, and will eventually connect Coquimbo, in latitude 29°, with

Porto Montt, in latitude 41°. The line to the last point is already sur- veyed. This road, most of which is now completed, will be about

1,300 miles long, and will connect with many branches and private

lines from the various mining and agricultural centers. The several

rivers breaking through the coastal mountain range make it easy for

the railroad to connect with seaports, and there are now railway lines to six harbors giving the producing centers of the country opportunity

to take advantage of the water transportation supplied by the lines of

coasting steamers that are doing a large business in both directions. In the valley of California the coast ranges make necessary a much

longer railway haul to reach the ports.

The northern part of the agricultural region, the district around

Valparaiso and Santiago, is older and more fully developed. Of this section the Aconcagua Valley, which may be taken as a type, is a plain

highly irrigated, famed for its agriculture. The grape crop of this valley alone, it is estimated, would make 1,000,00(1 gallons of claret wine were it so used instead of being manufactured into the local drink

called "chica." Potatoes are exported to the nitrate deserts of the

North and to Panama, alfalfa hay to Brazil, and honey and wax are sent

to Europe. Local canneries preserve the fruit crop, which is mainly

marketed in other sections of the country. There is pasturage on the

neighboring hills above the level of irrigation, where a peculiar kind

of wiry grass, well adapted to its dry surroundings, grows for months

after a soaking rain. The sides of the Andes throughout this whole belt are forest clad.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 393

In latitude 37 south the forest growth becomes general, and the country is similar to many parts of the eastern United States. This lati- tude is now the Chilean industrial frontier, the opening up of the

region having been recently begun as the result of the advent of

better means of transportation. New railroads are being built, forests are being cleared, and stock raising and cereal agriculture are

increasing. The forest regions have tanning industries, sole leather

being exported to Europe.

The agricultural and mining regions of Chile are north of 40

degrees. South of that there is as yet practically nothing of commercial importance except the sheep pastures of Terra del Fuego. The

1,000' miles of intervening coast is as little known as is the coast between

the port of Vancouver and the mainland of Alaska. Nearly all of the

present and prospective Chilean commerce and population are from

1,000 to 2,000 miles north of the Straits of Magellan, through which

their commerce must find its way to the Atlantic until the canal provides a shorter outlet. Chile exported something over 3,000,000 bushels of grain to Europe

in 1898-99, but the larger part of the exports of the country consists

of the minerals mined in the northern and arid part of the State. The

agricultural part of the country sends large quantities of food products

to the mining regions of the northern provinces. The greater part of

Chile's export wealth originates in regions that are almost a desert. Their dryness causes their richness; indeed, a moist climate, instead of

being a blessing, would cause the disappearance of the greater part of

the wealth of this section, which consists of such soluble minerals as

nitrate of soda, iodine, borax, and common salt. Nitrate of soda, the chief export of Chile, lies in a nearly continuous

deposit parallel to the seacoast, extending 150 miles from north to south, with scattering deposits reaching 250 miles farther, the total cov- ering 220,356 acres, and estimated to contain about 228,000,000 long

tons, a quantity sufficient to last the world for many decades to come. The nitrate is found under the surface layer of sand, and when shoveled out has the consistency of cheese. It is refined in numerous and

extensive plants requiring large capital. The crude product is dis- solved, chemically treated, and crystallized to get rid of the impurities.

Among these impurities are iodine and common salt, which are sepa- rated for export.

The city of Iquique, the most important nitrate port, may be taken

as a type of the towns that depend upon the nitrate industry for their

existence. Here 30,000 people, having the conveniences of a modern

city, live in the desert, where every supply for man and beast must be

imported from other ports of Chile or from foreign countries. Water

for the city is brought by pipe-line 200 miles from the Andes. A

railroad zigzags up to the plateau and winds around among numerous

nitrate works situated in the desert. The railroad company is English, and most though not all of the nitrate plants are owned by for- eigners. Borax is obtained in the dry districts, and in some places

common salt is taken from the surface of the earth by sawing it out

in cakes that are handled like ice. Besides these desert mineral products the same region contains a large amount of copper, silver, and

lead. Antofagasta is the port of this section and is also the outlet

for the mines of Bolivia, which ship their antimony, bismuth, tin,

mercury, and sulphur over the Antofagasta railroad." Most of these
3VI4 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

products are in the form of ores, some of which are refined at Antofagasta and the rest exported, mostly to Europe, for treatment. The rise in the price of copper has greatly increased the copper

mining industry of Chile, and the deposits of copper promise to contribute largely to the world's supply of this metal. Low-grade copper

ores have been found in abundance in the district near Santiago, near

to the ocean. Copper now ranks second among Chile's exports,

amounting in LS91* to 25,400 tons. In coal Chile has an asset that

will assist with the development of other resources, although she has

small prospects of ever becoming a coal exporter. In the south,

about latitude 37°, the ports of Coronel and Lota are the points of

shipment for mines located near by. The deposits are large, but the

quality is inferior to English and American coal, and the output is insufficient for home demands, although it is largely used by steamers

going up and down the coast and to Europe.

THE CANAL AND THE TRADE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH CHILE.

The interest of the American people in the commerce of Chile is greater than our present share of that trade would indicate. The

foreign commerce of Chile now amounts to about $100,000,000 and

is increasing. In 1899 the exports were $59,000,000 and the imports

$39,000,000; about nine-tenths of the imports came from Europe,

while nineteen-twentieths of the exports went to that continent. Our

trade is slight compared with that of the United Kingdom, Germany,

or France. An examination of the elements of the trade of Chile

shows why the canal will increase our share. Of the Chilean exports,

nitrate of soda comprises nearly 60 per cent, although the percentage

is slightby declining, owing to the increased export of copper and cop- per ores. Next in the order of importance come silver and silver ores, then wheat and barley, wool, hides, and other scattering and agricultural and mineral products, most of which are needed in the United

States. We need the nitrate for our fertilizers and chemical manufactures, we have the coal to smelt the copper and silver ores, we need

the wool for our carpet manufactures, and the hides to furnish raw

material for our leather manufactures. Of course, the grain products

are needed only in Europe.

Of the Chilean imports cotton manufactures comprise by far the

largest part. Then come machinery of all kinds, kerosene, woolens,

coal, bagging, and all kinds of miscellaneous manufactures and supplies. The cotton manufactures are made from the raw material

grown in the southern part of the United States and carried to Europe

for manufacture, whence the goods are shipped through the Straits of

Magellan. Much of that cotton cloth will in the future go direct

from American mills via New York, Charleston, Mobile, or New

Orleans, and save transshipments and 7,000 miles or more of trans- portation. We have the materials and manufacturing ability to fur- nish the Chileans their machinery. We are now furnishing them with

kerosene, and when the canal is opened we will probably be able to send them coal and many miscellaneous manufactures.

The reduction of freight rates that may be expected to follow the

opening of the canal will not only extend our present trade with

western South America, but will increase the number of the articles that enter into it. With a few exceptions tin1 goods Chile secures in this country are those which we produce under especially favorable
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 395

circumstances—lard, lumber, kerosene, breadstufl's, patented articles, like medicines, firearms, electrical appliances, farming machinery, and

improved hardware. These articles can be sold readily in Chile after

the canal has been opened. We have just begun to send Chile iron

and steel. The bulk of the pig, bar, and hoop iron, rails, and cast- ings now come from Europe, although we can make them more cheaply

than our European rivals can. The railroads of Chile have iron rails' that must soon be exchanged for steel. The towns and cities of Chile

will use an increasing amount of structural iron for building purposes.

The growing favor of electricity in a country having many mountain

streams for water power is opening up a demand for electrical machinery which American manufacturers are already able to supply. We are sending small quantities of many other articles in which transportation is a large factor, such as earthenware, glass and glassware, cordage, paper, and coal. Our cotton exports to Chile consist mainly of one or two plain staple grades made without reference to the Chilean

market and shipped in bulk, as chance opportunities occur. With

attention to the demands of the market and cheaper transportation

that business can be greatly extended.

It is probable that some of the trade of the western part of Argentina,

lying on the east slope of the Andes, will be handled through Chilean

ports and will use the canal. The foothill provinces of Argentina,

like those of Chile, produce fruit, wine, and grain, and are a prosper- ous region. This region being from 700 to 900 miles from the

Atlantic ports of Argentina and within 200 miles of the ports of the

Pacific, w

Thich, when the canal has been opened, will be much nearer North America than Buenos Ayres will be, the mails, passenger traffic,

express business, and some classes of freight may be taken across the

Andes and sent north from Valparaiso or some other Chilean port.

A boundary controversy has delayed the completion of the TransAndean Railroad, but contracts have been let for the completion of

the work.

TROPICAL SECTIOX OK WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA—GENERAL

DESCRIPTION/'

The tropical section of western South America is nearly double the area of the temperate Pacific region, and includes practically all of

Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and a part of Colombia. In this discussion of

the trade of the Pacific, however, the portion of each of these States

is omitted that lies in the almost unexplored forest plain extending

eastward from the Andes. The region here considered has an area of

nearly half a million square miles. It is more than twice as large as France, is greater than our Middle Atlantic States and Southern States

east of the Mississippi Kiver, and is equal to our three Pacific Coast

States with the addition of Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado.

The region consists of a coastal plain and a high plateau. The plain

is either matted with tropic vegetation and drenched with rain or is a sandy desert, and neither of these conditions favors the establishment

of communication with the plateau 30 to 100 miles inland, which must

be surmounted by ascending a steep and forbidding mountain wall. The mineral wealth of the plateau is abundant, but is at present avail- able only to a small extent.

"See PI. 78.
396 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

This South American region has a population of over 6,000,000, but

is made up chiefly of Indians and half-breeds, with a comparatively

small proportion of the dominant Spanish race. The latter race lives

in the towns, devoting itself to political and mercantile affairs, the pro- portion of Spanish blood decreasing as the distance from the towns

increases. All the labor of the country is done b}r the half-breed

Indians or b}' imported Chinese and Japanese labor. Industrially, the

South American Indian is said to be superior to the North American

Indian, and when properly supervised to be nearly equal to the negro

as a laborer. The social and economic conditions do not tend to make

the laborers ambitious. Some of the natives own the lands from which

they glean a living, but throughout Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia a system of industrial servitude exists that places the majority of the

laboring classes in a condition similar to that of the English serf in the

Middle Ages. The laborer is in debt to his employer, who manages to keep him so. Theoretically, every man can work for whom he wishes,

but the debtor is practically prevented from changing masters by legal

difficulties. The Andean region of South America now has but little international

trade, because the development of its natural resources has been pre- vented by untoward political conditions, by the mountainous character

of the country, and the absence of an isthmian canal. THE PERUVIAN COAST—ITS INDUSTRIES AND THE EFFECTS OF THE

CANAL UPON THEM.

Taking Guayaquil as a center, it will be found that the coast running

800 miles to the north of it includes a coastal plain sparsely populated

by a few Indians and negroes, who can inhabit its unwholesome forests. To the south extends some 1,200 miles of seacoast, known as "Zona Seca,

v or dry zone, which has considerable industry at present,

has had more in the past, and promises to be the scene of greater

activity in the future.

The Peruvian coast for 1,200 miles is too dry for ordinary agriculture. Regular crops can be raised only by irrigation, the supply of

water being the rainfall on the Andean slopes at an elevation of 7,000

feet and more. During the winter months the tiftv streams crossing

the plain are raging torrents, overflowing their banks, but during the

heat of the summer they dry away to mere rivulets, only two of the

northern ones having sufficient depth to be of any use for navigation.

If the Peruvian coast had abundant rains, it would be so malarious

and unwholesome as to be unsuitable for white men, whereas its cli- mate is said to be healthful and cooler than that of other regions in the same latitude, owing to the Antarctic current flowing up the west

coast and to (he sea breezes.

The Peruvian coast is desolate except where irrigation has pro- duced green fields in the dry plains. Its present population and the

amount of land cultivated are doubtless much smaller than they were

before massacres, slavery, and white men's diseases, particularly smallpox, had greatly reduced the native population.

The soil in this coast plain is fertile when irrigated, and w

r ell-suited to the production of sugar, cotton, and rice. Experts claim that sugar

can be produced here as cheaply as in any other place in the world.

The sugar industry, indeed, had made a good start before L886, when
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 397

the desolating war with Chile destroyed many of the plantations.

The business has now recovered, 110,000 tons having been produced

during the season of 1898 and 1899. This was nearly all taken by the

United States, and much of it crossed the Isthmus.

The cotton crop of this section is one in which the United States is particularly interested. Some of the valleys of the north, particularly those of the Piura and Chira rivers, grow a peculiar kind of

rough fiber cotton of a reddish color, that will not grow in any other

part of the world, and is valuable because it mixes well with wool.

The irregular supply of about 10,000 tons a year grows largely without cultivation along the rivers. At the present the United States imports much of this cotton by way of Liverpool. We can use many

times as much of this product as we now receive, and its cultivation can be largely extended by the introduction of proper irrigation works.

Some rice is exported from the port of Trujillo, and farther south,

at Pisco, there is some shipment of the wine and grape products which

grow in the irrigated orchards near the Andee. Aside from these

crops, however, the agricultural products of this plain will be used to supply food products for the Peruvian population.

As agriculture advances there must be a reorganization and extension of the railroads from the coast inland. Several lines now extend

a short distance from the Pacific, but as industry and traffic increase

these scattered pieces of roadway must be combined into one or two

systems centering at a harbor or harbors that can be improved b}r the

construction of piers suitable for the easy handling of the freight.

When these improvements are made, they will require materials with

which the United States is well supplied.

Petroleum fields are located near the Ecuadorean boundary at the

west point of South America, the deposits lying along the coast for a

distance of 200 miles, extending inland a considerable distance, and

reaching outward under the sea. The development of this resource has not met with much success up to the present time, although the

oil deposits are said to be rich. An English company is now operating

there with an American director, and is securing a constantly increasing output, which reached about 2,000 tons a month in May, 1900.

Thus far only 3 or 1 square miles situated on the seacoast have been

prospected, and that not thoroughly, in a field which is supposed to be extensive in area. The oil is not suitable for illumination, but

makes a valuable fuel. It is used on all the railroads of Peru, and

may give much assistance to the industrial development of the Pacific coast of South America.

THE ANDEAN PLATEAU.

The Andean Mountain system, with its plateaus, may be compared

with the Rocky Mountain region of the United States. Beginning in northern Colombia and reaching to the boundaries of Argentina and

Chile, it has greater length than our Rocky Mountain region, an equal

or greater width, and probabh7 more individual mountain ranges. In

point of population the Andean region exceeds its North American

counterpart, for our seven Rocky Mountain States and Territories

not including the Pacific Coast States—contained in 1900 only 1,500,000

people, while the Andean region contains at least 4,000,000. The

industrial capacities of the people of the United States, it need hardly

be mentioned, are far greater than those of the Andes.
398 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CAN A.L COMMISSION.

The great elevation of the plateau, situated in tropical latitudes,

gives it a variety of agricultural produce. On the intermediate heights

beans, potatoes, and wheat are grown, while in the hot valleys, which

here and there intersect the plateau, the people raise sugar cane, oranges, and bananas. There are single estates on which the owner

grows all of the crops of both tropical and temperate climates.

The plateau of Ecuador may be taken as a t3r pical section of this Andean region. The Ecuadorian plateau has an elevation of 8,000 to 10,000 feet and is really an inclosed valley some 400 miles long and

about 50 miles wide, hemmed in on both sides by the high chains of

the Andes. The rainfall is scanty on the whole plateau, and agricul- ture usually depends upon irrigation, for which the snows of the

mountains furnish abundant water. The soil is largely of volcanic

origin and is very fertile. The climate is mild and springlike. The

population is about 900,000.

This Ecuadorian population of nearly a million depends for its connection with the outside world upon a neglected and dangerous mule

trail to Guayaquil. During the rainy season this precarious route sometimes becomes impassable and the interior is left entirely without means of communicating with the outside world. A railroad 350

miles in length is being built from Guayaquil to Quito, and the American company constructing it confidently expects that it will be completed long before the opening of the isthmian canal. With the coming of the railroad the people of interior Ecuador will use much larger quantities of imported manufactures than the}7 have

been able to get in the past, and they will want various kinds ol machinery- They will secure the money to buy these things by working for the foreign capitalists engaged in developing the mines, by

supplying the coast regions with food products, and by exporting

hides and other agricultural commodities. The railroad will also enable them to secure the wood and lumber needed on the whole pla- teau region, which is in many places destitute of timber. The rail- road will help in the introduction of modern industrial methods.

The old wooden plow will gradually disappear; shovels and wheelbar- rows will come into use; the people will thrash and clean their grain

with machines instead of treading it out with animals and winnowing

it in the wind. Their huts, made of reeds or poles and put together

without a bolt or a nail, will gradually give way to houses, and in time

thf towns will be better built. This description of the plateau of Ecuador would apply to many

districts in Peru and Bolivia, tin 1 climate, people, and industrial conditions being very similar throughout the Andean plateau; the high

parts of one country resemble those of another just as the plateaus o: Colorado resemble those of Montana.

The plateau region reaches its greatest width near the boundaries

of Peru and Bolivia, where such a State as Pennsylvania might easily

be put down and be in every part at least L0,000 feet above the level of the sea. Lake Titicaca is as large as Connecticut, and drains into

Lake Poopo. which is as large as Rhode Island. These lakes are con- nected bv the Desoguadeio River, 180 miles long, and navigated a part of the way by steamers. These lakes are the center of a great

treeless plain, chiefly devoted to stock raising. The Bolivian part of

this plain supports about 7,000,000 sheep, a number one-sixth as great

as all of those in the United States, and there are in addition many
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 399

cattle, mules, and swine. Barley and potatoes are grown—the surplus

crops of the Indian agriculturist being marketed in the mining towns. The people of the Andean plateau are now very poor. They make

their own clothes, raise their own food, receive low wages, have a low standard of living, and buy but little from the outside world.

But their needs and standards can and will change. On this point the

experience of Mexico is interesting. Twenty years ago foreign merchants in the interior of Mexico despaired of the people ever becoming large consumers. Five-sixths of them were Indians, who received

for their wages 5 cents per day in cash and 5 cents in rations. Communication was by stagecoach. The people wore sandals, unbleached

cotton, and straw hats, and bought practically nothing. Since that

time railroads have been built through these districts and the laborer

is receiving from 50 cents to $1.50 a day as an agricultural or mining

laborer, and every Indian wants a watch. With their higher wages

they have become good buyers of manufactures from their own and

foreign countries. The Andean plateau offers conditions to-day similar to those of interior Mexico twenty years ago, and there is reason

to believe that what happened in Mexico will happen in Sonth

America.

Attention was called above to the general resemblance of the Andean

plateau to our own Rocky Mountain region. The tropic Andes are admitted to be richer in mineral resources than the Rocky Mountains,

but the present industrial development is very different. Our Rocky

Mountain States and Territories are served by a good network of

railroads, the State of Colorado alone having nearly 5,000 miles, while

the whole Andean plateau has less than 500 miles, and the lines have

not penetrated to the richest mineral deposits. In spite of their poor connection with the outside world, the Andes

have produced enormous wealth. The bullion from their mines fur- nished the civilized world with the greater part of its money during

the centuries of Spanish dominion. Between 1630 and 1803 Peru sent out $1,250,000,000 worth of silver. Bolivia has produced about

$4,000,000,000 worth. Of this enormous sum the famous mines of

Potosi, which to-day can be reached onlv bv a bridle path, vielded

$3,000,000,000.

Mining operations have changed but little during the past century.

The mining district of Hualgayoc, Peru, for instance, has 400 silver

mines in an area of 40 square leagues. Some of these mines are now

yielding ores having 300 ounces of silver per ton. The work is done

by the Indians, who burrow around through the veins as best they can, getting out the ore with a drill and hammer and carrying only the

richest of it to the surface in rawhide sacks. It is then picked over, crushed, reduced to a sulphate by crude methods, and taken on muleback to the coast and shipped to Europe for refinement. At Huallanca, Peru, 200 miles from the coast, ores worth $30 per ton are thrown

upon the waste heap because they are not worth transportation to the

seaports. Yet to-day, in our own Western States, companies with

large capital and expensive machinery are profitably reducing ores yielding from $4 to $7 per ton. In the copper mines at Corcoro,

Bolivia, to the south of Lake Titicaca, the ores are blasted out and

then hammered to pieces by women, who pick out the best portions.

Owing to the scarcity of fuel, little of the ore can be treated on the

spot, and that above 70 per cent pure is carried awa}- on pack animals.
400 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In many mines of the United States, ores with but 3 or 1 per cent copper are smelted.

The Bolivian mineral districts, in some places 200 miles wide, rich

in tin, copper, silver, and gold, extend north and .south for a distance

of 700 miles. The Antofagasta Railroad has but just touched a corner

of this field. The terminus of its line at Oruro is 195 miles south of

Lake Titicaca, and as the greater part of the Bolivian minerals are

in the eastern ranges of the Andes, the railroads have not reached

them. The city of La Paz, with a population of about 100,000,

is dependent upon a stage road 15 miles long, and Cochabamba, with

25,000 people, has no outlet except a bridle path of greater length.

The improvements resulting from better transportation facilities are

illustrated in the limited district that the Antofagasta Railroad has

reached, where changes have been made in the methods of operating

the mines, and large quantities of ore are sent to the coast. One

English company connected its mines with the railroad by building a branch line 15 miles long, including 2 miles of tunnel. The venture

is said to have paid well. The railroad connecting the Peruvian seaport of Mollendo with the

lake port of Puno carries out large quantities of mineral products, but,

like the Antofagasta Railroad, it has not tapped the main fields. The

railroad has connections with the lake steamers that carry the products of the interior across from Chililaya, the port of La Paz, and

many similar towns. Some of these places are hundreds of miles

away, and all freighting is done by pack animals.

A successful mining industry requires rail or water transportation.

Mining machinery is costly and heavy and can not be introduced

where pack-mule transportation is necessary. The securing of fuel and supplies and the marketing of the product are nearly as dependent on good transportation as is the introduction of machinery. Only the

choicest ores can be carried on mule back, while the metal in such

ores is almost infinitesimal in comparison with that contained in the

low-grade ores. When the railroads thoroughly open up the Andean Plateau to the

American capitalist and mining engineer there will be abundant

opportunities for their enterprise. There are numerous mines that

have been worked and abandoned at various times during the past

three centuries, and in many cases their refuse ores are rich enough

to yield good dividends. Not only can the old tailings be worked at a

profit, but many of the abandoned mines themselves can be reopened,

and the ores the early workers were forced to leave will make a good

return when scientifically treated. The mines are now rarely worked

beyond a few hundred feet, because they are not ventilated, and the ore is -taken out by man power. With modern hoisting machinery,

crushers, mills, furnaces, and railroads, the mineral output can be

very greatly increased.

The water power obtainable from mountains of the plateau makes

possible the use of electricity instead of coal, as has been done in California where coal is scarce. The great elevation of the mountains,

and the frequent falls in the constant streams that flow from their snow

fields and glaciers, combine to furnish the best conditions for the

installation of electric plants driven b}r water powT er. Some of the

most important mines of Mexico arc now being operated by electricity

supplied by the mountain streams, although the water power of Mexico is slight as compared with that of the Andes.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 401

A description of the conditions in the Gerro Pasco mining district

in Peru will show more definitely what is to be done in the new era of

railroads that the canal will help to introduce. The Cerro Pasco

deposits are supposed by some to be an old volcanic crater, covering- an

area 1£ miles long and three-fourths of a mile wide. Here are 2,000

veins of silver, making- a network through the hill in which there are no less than 360 mines. From 1630 to 1821 these mines yielded 27,200

tons of pure silver. These deposits have been worked only 250 feet and could be drained by a tunnel of smaller magnitude than a number

that have been made in various mines in the Rocky Mountain States. After the building of a railroad the introduction of the necessary

machinery to complete this tunnel will become easy, the silver deposits will again become workable, and a new lease of life will be given

to the Cerro Pasco mines, which have not yet been worked to a tenth

of the depth reached in many mines in this' country.

Underlying the silver of the Cerro Pasco district are valuable deposits

of low-grade copper. The ore containing more than 30 per cent of

copper is now carried 90 miles to Casapalca, on the Oroya Railroad,

where it is smelted by American smelters or sent by rail to Callao for

export to Europe by way of Magellan. At the present time more than

a thousand tons of ore per month are being shipped from Cerro Pasco

by this method, and some of the lower grade ores are being treated on

the spot by using coal brough from good deposits but a few miles

distant. The present difficulties encountered in working these rich

mineral deposits are shown by the fact that the railroad ties for tram

lines at the mines had to be brought by pack mules from the railroad,

90 miles away.

A railroad will ere long join the Cerro Pasco mines with the Oroya

line at the town of Oroya, the city which promises to become the rail- road center of that part of the plateau, and to be connected by a line eastward with the head of navigation on the Perene, one' of the

branches of the Amazon, where tropical products can lie secured for

the mining regions around Cerro Pasco. Another line of road may

possibly start from Oroya southward through some of the already

populous valleys of Peru possessing mineral resources. RELATION OF CANAL TO INDUSTRIES AND TRADE OF EASTERN SLOPE

OF ANDEAN PLATEAU.

The thorough development of the resources of the plateau by the

building of railroads and the investment of foreign capital will necessarily be accompanied by an enlarged commerce with the eastern slope

of the Andes. The people of the greater part of the plateau can produce only the food products of the temperate zone, and considerable

quantities of tropic products are now brought up from the east slope

at great expense. Any thorough industrial development of the pla- teau will make necessary the building of railroads to carry on this trade in food products needed on the plateau. There are many fertile valleys in the east slope having an elevation of over 5,000 feet, and

resources and climate suitable to a great variety of tropical and semitropical products. Some of these products now cross the Andes and

are exported. The eastern Andes are the source of the world's supply

of coca leaves for the manufacture of cocaine, and there are many

coca plantations scattered for hundreds of miles along the east slopes

S. Doc. 51, pt 2 26
402 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

of Peru and Bolivia. This is also the region that furnished the world's

supply of quinine before its systematic cultivation in the British East

Indies and the Dutch colony of Java reduced the price of the article to one-thirtieth the former figure and ruined the owners of the Peruvian and Bolivian plantations.

The province of Cuzco, in eastern Peru, is famous for its cacao, of

which some 600 tons per annum are already sent over the Andes for

export. These same valleys produce coffee, about 1,500 tons of which now cross the Peruvian Andes for shipment to the outside world. The

most favored part of the east slope is in Bolivia, near La Paz, where,

owing to a bend in the highlands, the slope is toward the north rather

than toward the east, causing the trade winds to bring less mist and

rain than they do to the eastern parts of Colombia and Ecuador.

The rainfall of -10 to 75 inches is the same as that of the most favored

parts of the United States, and the climate is said by American travelers to resemble that of California and to produce the same fruit

products. The Yungas Valley in this section is noted for its coffee. The eastern slopes of the Andes are so steep as to make an ordinary

steam railroad expensive to build and operate. , Coal would have to be brought from the Pacific coast, and the grades would make the

hauling of heavy freight expensive. An electric railroad can be built

here more cheaply, can ascend steeper grades, and can be operated by

the unlimited supply of water power obtainable from the La Paz River.

This stream, even in the dry season, is a rushing torrent 20 feet wide

and 3 feet deep, falling 10,000 feet between La Paz and the head of

navigation at Rej'es, 200 miles below. In some places rapids have a

fall of 200 feet in half a mile. The valley through which the electric

line would run contains several towns, one with 6,000 and another

with 10,000 people. Trade is carried on through this valley to La Paz

and the treeless plateau. In the vicinity of La Paz alone there are 100,000 people who secure a part of their food supply and all of their

wood from down the river by expensive pack-animal transportation.

This electric railroad, however, can not be economically built or profitably operated until the city of La Paz itself is connected by rail with

the Pacific. Such an extension (155 miles) is planned by the Antofagasta Company.

When a railroad has been built across the plateau and connected

with an electric line coming up from the plains of Bolivia, there will probably be a considerable export by the Pacific of products from this source. The alternative route is by the Madeira River and the Lower

Amazon, but the engineering difficulties at the Madeira Rapids are as great as those that lie in the way of the railroad to the Pacific. The heat

and dampness of the Amazon route are deleterious to many products,

such as hides, coffee, cocoa, and cacao. This region is now exporting

these products by way of the Pacific ports, and their movement in that

direction would be greatly increased % the opening of such a railroad.

On the edge of the Sandia and Carabaya region, on the east slope of

the Peruvian Andes, near Bolivia, an American company not long

since paid $285,000 cash for a mine, carried machinery to it at a cost of $250 per ton, and is now crushing quartz ores and paying dividends. In the past the Spaniards secured much gold from the eastern rivers of

Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

One of the easiest regions to reach east of the Andes is northern

Peru, where it is planned to cross the narrowest part of the plateau
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 403

and connect the Pacific ports with the headwaters of the Amazon.

This road is partly surveyed and has been begun by a company having

concessions to work a large coal field located near the summit of the

Andes. The quality of this coal is reported to be good, and the

deposits extensive and easily workable. The location of this field near the divide of the Andes will make it possible to send coal to the' Pacific and to the navigable parts of the Amazon, thereby facilitating

steam navigation in interior Brazil.

As the Upper Amazon is a swift river, and the head of navigation

ten times as far from the Atlantic as it is from the Pacific, some of

the trade of the Upper Amazon country will come and go by Pacific

ports after the opening of the isthmian canal. Industrial changes on the plateau and eastern slope can not be

expected to make much progress until better connections with the

Atlantic shall have been provided. After this event, the exploitation

of the mineral wealth of the plateau may be expected to follow, and

that will require the opening up of the eastern slope as a source of

food supply for the laborers who work the mines.

INDUSTRIES OF PACIFIC SLOPE OF ECUADOR AND COLOMBIA.

At the western point of South America the climate of the coast changes, and to the northward the desert gradually gives way to regions of increasing rains. The transition is made gradually. The

southern part of the Ecuadorian coast is a fertile region with a tropic

climate more healthful than many tropical localities. It has a population of about a quarter of a million, and is practically the only part of

Ecuador engaging in foreign trade, the interior being almost entirely cut off. The greater part of the population of the coast plain of Ecuador

lives in the valley of the Guayas River, on which is situated the city of

Guayaquil. The only districts at present productive are those of the

lowlands, served b}T water transportation on the rivers centering at Guayaquil. This river system is navigated by many native boats and

a number of small American-built paddle-wheel steamers of the Mississippi River type. In the rainy season they can go 200 miles inland

and bring to the coast the export produce. The soil of this valley

produces tropical products in abundance, and the countiw is in a pros- perous condition. The exports are cacao, ivory nuts, rubber, sugar,

coffee, tobacco, and hides.

The cacao is of excellent quality and is the chief crop. It is exported to the amount of 20,000 to 30,000 tons per year, and consti- tutes one-third of the world's supply. At present more than half of

the crop is produced in one small district, but it is estimated that

19,000 square miles in Ecuador are suitable for the production of

cacao, an article of which the world's consumption is increasing about

5 or 6 per cent annually.

The ivory nut is the seed of a variety of palm that grows wild.

Seventeen thousand tons were exported in 1898, chiefl}* to Europe,

where it is used in the manufacture of buttons. In the same year

about 2,500 tons of coffee were exported, $50,000 worth of tobacco,

and considerable quantities of other tropical produce. The only manufactured export is the so-called Panama hat, and there are practically no manufactures of home products, all kinds of manufactured articles
104 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

as well as Temperate Zone food products being imported from the

United States and Europe.

Ecuador seems to have mineral wealth, but there are as }

r et no wagon roads and no railways, nor have the mineral regions been much

explored. There are quartz goldmines in the south and placer mines

in the north, both being operated by foreign companies, one of which

is an American firm, said to be doing well. Petroleum, copper, silver,

and coal are reported, but at present the}' are not being developed.

The railroad now building between Guayaquil and the interior will bring about the exploration and possibly the working of the various

mineral resources. This railroad will bring from the hills to the lowlands Temperate Zone products which must now be imported, and will stimulate the trade of the country by giving nearly a million people

their first chance to trade with foreign countries. Any increase of

Ecuadorian commerce means an increase in the traffic through the

canal. The rainfall increases from northern Ecuador to the Isthmus of

Panama, the shore plain of Colombia being marshy and unhealthful.

Its forests are uninhabited save by a few Indians and half-breeds, and

the only export is a small amount of timber, although in some places

vanilla and cacao are indigenous. The forbidding character of the

coastal region has prevented the settlement of the higher lands on the

foothills of the Andes, where in Ecuador and northward there are val- leys above the malaria level with a salubrious climate and fertile soil. THE CAUCA VALLEY, IN THE COLOMBIAN ANDES.

The Andean Mountains divide, near the Ecuadorean boundary, into

three groat ranges, the easterly one bending around into Venezuela,

the western one trending toward the Isthmus of Panama, and the central one separating the valleys of the Magdalena and the Cauca rivers. The Magdalena Valley has its trade outlet by way of the Caribbean;

but the mountains of Antioquia, in Central Colombia, cut off the valley

of the Upper Cauca from the Atlantic and make it necessary for all commerce to come and go by way of the Pacific through the port of

Buenaventura.

This Cauca Valley is in the Andean region, but, unlike the other

parts of the Andes of which we have spoken, it is both tropical and

subtropical, having an elevation of from 8,300 to 6,000 feet. The

valley is larger than the State of New Jersey, and contains one of the

densest populations in South America. There are half a million people, comprising negroes, in the lower portion of the valley, and Indians

and a considerable white population in the adjacent highlands. This

section is truly Andean, however, inasmuch as it is cut off from the ocean by a range of mountains and has to depend upon pack-mule

transportation for all of its commerce. The people do a little gold

mining, but live chiefly by agriculture, importing nearly all of their

merchandise, except some domestic manufactures of straw hats, coarse

cloths, and utensils. All the internal traffic of the valley, as well as its foreign trade, is carried over trails, the exports of agricultural products being limited to the most valuable articles, such as coffee and cocoa of the best grades,

although corn, sugar, tobacco, and fruits are cultivated and cattle are

raised. Concessions have been given for a railroad to go through the

valley from the port of Buenaventura, and 20 miles of the line have
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 405

been built, but the enterprise has come to a standstill. The completion

of this line and the opening of an isthmian canal would bring- the producing- districts of the valley into close connection with the commercial

world.

At present Buenaventura is in the traffic territory of the Panama

railroad and steamship lines, whose freight charges are high. Duringthe year 1900 such typical articles as wire and nails were taken from

New York to China for $8 a ton, but it cost $15 to land them at Buenaventura, 7,000 miles nearer. From there the costs were $8 per ton to the

end of the railroad and $1< > per ton additional by pack mule over the pass

of the Andes, 6,000 feet in elevation, to Cali, 77 miles from the ocean. The mule transportation cost 70 cents per ton per mile. After reaching

Cali some of the goods had to double the freight charges of $63 per

ton by being carried many miles up and down the valley. At the same

time the steel manufacturers of Pittsburg were paying an unusually

high freight charge of $3.60 per ton to the seaboard.

The opening of the isthmian canal, the building of the railroad, and

the introduction of foreign capital would be revolutionary in their

effect upon the trade of the Cauca Valley. The first effect of the

building of the railroad would be to increase the importation of

machinery for agriculture and the smaller industries. The continuation of the railroad up and down the valley would make it the route of

transportation to the promising gold mines in the adjacent provinces

of Colimo and Antioquia. The valley would export coffee, cacao, animal products, and raw sugar. SUMMARY OF THE EFFECT WHICH THE CANAL WILL HAVE ON

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA.

Each of the five industrial divisions, discussed above, of the tropic

Pacific section of South America is rich in resources and backward in industrial development. Capital is only beginning to overcome the

difficulties that political and geographical conditions have placed in the

way of progress. Nearly all of this region is still in the pack-mule

stage of its industrial life. The present trade conditions there are more backward than were those prevailing in the trans-Missouri terri- tories of the United States fifty years ago. At that time Kansas City

and Fort Leavenworth were the entrepots of a brisk and thriving

trade with the far western frontier. Every spring trains of covered

wagons, "prairie schooners," went across the great plains to the

Spanish settlements of New Mexico, distributing supplies en route at the distant settlements and isolated ranches and trading posts of the

hardy pioneers and trappers who had pushed on toward the Rocky

Mountains. Freight rates, ranging from $10 to $200 per ton, excluded

from trade all articles except necessities and limited the return cargo

to such valuable commodities as furs, skins, and bullion. If we substitute the pack mule for the more efficient prairie schooner, the above

description applies to most of the tropic Pacific section of South

America. Limited areas are served by the few lines of railroad and

by some river steamboats.

The tropical Pacific section has twice the population and but little more than half the trade of the temperate Pacific section. The

3,000,000 people of the temperate region carry on a foreign com- merce amounting to $100,000,000, and the rest of the west coast commerce amounts to about $55,000,000. The exports exceed the
406 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

imports by about $4,000,000. As in the case of Chile, the trade is nearly all with European countries.

Like the temperate section, the tropic region produces the raw

materials we need and buys manufactures we might supply. The

British cottons, for instance, purchased b}T Ecuador in 1898 were more valuable than all her imports from this country. After the

isthmian canal is opened our cotton mills will secure that trade. The canal will facilitate the development of the resources of the tropic

Pacific section, and thus enlarge the sale of American railway supplies

and agricultural and mining machinery. The purchasing power of

the South American people will increase, and trade with the United

States will grow, not rapidly, but steadily, and to ultimately important dimensions.

EFFECT OF CANAL UPON ATLANTIC SOUTH AMERICA WILL NOT BE GREAT.

The isthmian canal will not greatty affect the Atlantic countries of

South America. There is at present no direct trade between the two

coasts of South America, except some little trade between Chile and

the eastern countries of South America by way of the Straits of

Magellan.

The exports of the South American and Central American countries

are nearly all raw products, and there is no raw material produced on

one coast that need be imported by the countries of the other coast. Rubber is the great staple of northern Brazil, but Ecuador and Central

America are exporting some rubber across the Isthmus to the Atlantic.

They also produce coffee, the great export of southern Brazil, and

cacao, the staple of Ecuador, is also grown on the Atlantic coast. The temperate zone products needed by the tropic Atlantic countries

of South America can be supplied by Argentina and the United States. The nitrate of Chile is not used on the east coast of South America

except in the form of manufactured articles made in the North

Atlantic countries. The canal may have some slight influence in

reducing the cost of these. Should Argentina and Uruguay need

nitrate or other Chilean products, the natural route of the trade will be through the Straits of Magellan. There is but little commerce,

present or prospective, that might advantageously go from the one

coast of South America to the other by way of an isthmian canal. The count lies on the Pacific between the United States and South

America have exports and imports that are almost identical with those

of western South America, and the statements that apply to the trade

between the two coasts of South America will apply to any commerce

between western Central America and Mexico and the Atlantic

countries of South America.

The Western United States and Canada export some products to Atlantic South America. There have been occasional shipments of wheat, but this trade has about disappeared because of the competition from Argentina. Our Pacific coast lumber is used in Atlantic

South America, and this is probably the only trade that will require

the passage of ships directly from the Pacific through tin 1 canal to these countries. The temperate part of the Atlantic coast of South

America, however, will get its lumber via the Straits of Magellan

or Cape Horn because the eastern projection of Brazil makes those routes shorter. There is some demand on the Atlantic coast of South
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 407

America for our canned goods and wine from the Pacific coast, but

such imports will not be sufficient to require a direct trade. They

will probably be distributed from New York, London, or some West

Indian port. There is also a prospect that before the canal is opened

this demand for wine and fruit products will be wholl\T or in part

supplied by Argentina, which is similar in climate and products.

Australia will have little, if any, trade with the Atlantic countries

of South America. In the oriental countries the conditions for trade are somewhat better, although they will not need to import from

Atlantic South America, because Eastern tropical countries are much

nearer. The people of Atlantic South America will import oriental

articles—tea, mattings, silks, and curios—but these articles will hardly

be desired in such quantities as to require the passage of vessels

directly from the Orient through the canal to these countries. The

countries of that part of South America below the mouth of the Amazon will draw their supplies from European ports or from New York.

The countries between the Amazon River and the American Isthmus

will also trade with the Orient more or less indirectly, although they will not be so dependent as countries farther south upon London and New

York for their supplies of Pacific products. Some West Indian city,

such as St. Thomas or Kingston, will doubtless become a distributing

point for goods that come through the canal and are destined for the

ports of the West Indies and northern South America. The ports are now visited by vessels touching at various places in northern South

America, Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico.

The isthmian canal will bestow but few benefits upon the Atlantic

countries of South America, because nearly all of their trade is with

the North Atlantic. The greater part of their small commerce with

the Pacific will probably come by the new route, and there will be some direct cargoes of Pacific coast lumber. The cost of securing

oriental products, Pacific coast canned goods, and wine will be some- what reduced. These commodities, however, will probably be dis- tributed in large part from such centers as New York, London, or Kingston, Jamaica.

Chapter XII.

Japan and the isthmian canal. THE SALIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF JAPAN'S RESOURCES.

The 4,000 mountainous islands of Japan a stretch northeastwardly

along the coast of Asia in the latitude comprised between South Carolina and Maine. The climate, like that of our own Atlantic coast, is changeable, because of the uncertain direction of the winds from the

great land mass to the westward, although extremes are less in Japan

than on the Asiatic mainland. The winter winds blow from Siberia

across the Japan Sea and produce heavy snowfalls on the west side of

the islands, but the high mountains shelter the more populous eastern

slopes, which are warmed by the Kuro Si wo, or the tropic Japan

current. In the summer both coasts receive winds from the ocean, which bring

abundant rain, amounting to 80 inches per annum in the south, nearly

double the amount that falls at Philadelphia or New York. The

"Consult PI. 7i» in connection with this chapter.
408 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

humidity of the climate of Japan is nearly equal to that of England.

The ocean currents along the Asiatic shore are similar to those of our

Atlantic const. The Japan current meets an arctic stream along the

northern islands of Japan and gives the shores and seas of that part

of the Empire a foggy climate. The fishing banks, as well as the

climate of that latitude, correspond with those of Newfoundland.

The agricultural resources of Japan are relatively meager because of

the infertility of the soil and the small amount of tillable ground.

The cultivable ground—12 per cent of the total area of the country

is fully and carefully tilled, mainly by hand labor. The cultivation of

tea occupies a prominent place in the agriculture of the country. The

chief food crop is rice, although wheat, barley, potatoes, and tobacco

are grown. Fertilizers have to be used abundantly, fish from the

northern islands of the Empire and bean cake from Manchuria having

long been employed. Latterly some South Carolina phosphates have

been purchased, a few shiploads of which are now annually imported.

The phosphate fertilizers seem well adapted to the Japanese needs, and

the construction of an isthmian canal would doubtless largely increase

their importation.

The moist climate gives Japan a varied flora, but good forage is everywhere scarce, owing to the preponderance of the bamboo type of

vegetation. There are only a million and a half horses in the Empire,

while the number of cattle is slightly less, and there are no sheep.

Japan is consequently obliged to import all the wool and woolens used

and most of the hides, leather, dairy and meat products required.

Japan is becoming a food-importing country. The domestic supply

of rice is now frequently insufficient. There is no sugar grown in the

Empire. There is now some flour imported from the United States,

and with the progress of the manufacturing industries of the Empire

increasing quantities of American and Australasian breadstuffs and provisions will be required. The American breadstuffs will come from

the Pacific slope; the provisions (meat and dairy products) will probably come, in part at least, from the central section of the United

States. Many of the raw materials required for the larger manufacturing

industries are deficient or entirely lacking in Japan. Nevertheless tin 1 country is certain to become an important manufacturing center. The

materials of industry of which Japan possesses the most abundant

supply are timber, raw silk, and the grasses used in making straw braidand mattings. Such forest products as camphor, vegetable wax,

lacquer, and bamboo are the basis of a considerable share of Japan's

industries and exports. The prevalence of the mulberry tree in many parts of the Empire makes possible the growth and favors the

manufacture of silk. The mineral resources of Japan are especially deficient. There is a small export of copper, but there is no prospect of its increasing. At

present very little gold or silver mining is carried on, but the introduction of western machinery may result in some development of the

mines. .Japan has petroleum fields, but the exports are small and the

imports are much larger and are increasing rapidly. New fields are being opened, but there is no indication that they will be able to sup- ply the requirements of the country. The coal exports of Japan, as

is shown in Chapter VI of this report, are increasing, but the fields are limited, and the demands of the manufacturer of the country are
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 409

rapidly growing. The price of coal in Japan is not cheap, it being

too expensive to permit much development of iron and steel industries,

although there are iron-ore deposits in the northern and southern

parts of the Empire. The recent industrial progress of Japan has

necessitated the importation of large quantities of iron and steel products, the home supply in 1898 being only one-ninth of the total consumption.

JAPAN AS A MANUFACTURING AND COMMERCIAL COUNTRY.

To become a manufacturing nation, in the modern sense of the term,

required the Japanese to make great changes, but they possess the faculty

of adaptation to such a marked degree that it required only thirty years

for them to adopt the ideals of western civilization and many modern

processes and to change from an isolated nation to one ambitious to participate largely in international trade. The limited area of Japan,

its insular position, and the density of its population make its future

progress conditional upon a large development of manufactures and commerce. The area of the Japanese Empire, exclusive of Formosa,

is 147,655 square miles, or about 27,000 more than that of the British

Isles; the population being'44,000,000, or 3,000,000 more than the inhabitants of the United Kingdom. The population averages 296 to the mile,

being as dense as that of France and eleven times as dense as our

population.

The people of the country constitute the nation's most valuable

economic resource. They are skillful, artistic, and industrious arti- sans, and their high birth rate assures the country an abundant supply

of labor. The chief obstacle to be overcome by Japan in the development of her industries is the insufficient supply of the raw materials

required in the textile and iron and steel manufactures. She will

need to import increasing quantities of materials, and for this reason,

if for no other, the construction of the isthmian canal is a matter of

much consequence to her. The chief industrial activity of Japan centers about the inland sea, or Japanese Mediterranean, about which live near!}' half of the people

of the Empire. Surrounded by the three southern islands, it is a quiet, safe body of water, upon which commerce is active. There are three entrances from the ocean, many indentations into the land, and

supplies of coal exist upon its southern shores. Where the most

northerly arm of the inland sea reaches toward the center of the mainland of Hondo stand the cities of Osaka and Hiogo, which were

fishing villages when Japan was opened to foreign trade. Now they

contain more than a million people and have secured the commercial

supremacy of the Empire. They arc growing in population at a rate equal to that of the manufacturing cities of the United States and

Germany. Osaka is the manufacturing center of the country, and

within a radius of 100 miles are to be found 16,000,000 people and

most of the cities of Japan. It manufactures large quantities of mattings and rugs and is the chief exporting point for tea. In 1895 it received more that half of the total imports of foreign commodities,

besides having a heavy local traffic in rice, hsh, timber, and edible

seaweed.

Thirty miles inland from Osaka is Kioto, the old capital city of Japan, now connected with the seaboard by railroad, telegraph, and canals.
410 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The city is located in the center of a fertile and densely populated

plain and is an important center of manufactures. There are three

other Japanese cities of importance not located on the inland sea

Tokyo, Nagasaki, and Hakodate. Hakodate is the fishing, lumber, and

mining port of the north and is located near the northern coal fields. Nagasaki is at the southwestern corner of the Empire, near the south- ern coal fields. It exports nearly 2,000,000 tons of coal per year, has

a good landlocked harbor, capacious docks, and, being located on the

commonly used trade route between Europe and Asia, is a port of call for nearly all merchant ships and transports connected with our commercial and military relations with the East. Midway along the eastern coast is Tokyo, the capital of the Empire, which had about

700,000 people in 1872 and now has about 1,200,000, its area and

population being nearly the same as Philadelphia. Besides being the

capital of the Empire, it is the main center of distribution for the

eastern part of the country and has many native manufactures. On

account of the shallow harbor of Tokyo, most of its foreign trade is handled at Yokohama, the chief exporting city of the Empire, with a population of 100,000. Its foreign trade consists of silks, tea, camphor, lacquer ware, and other Japanese goods.

The growing foreign trade of Japan will make her a competitor with

America and Europe in oriental markets, but in all probability the

seriousness of this competition has been greatly exaggerated. This,

however, need hardly be considered in this discussion of the relation

of the isthmian canal to our trade with Japan, because the expansion

of Japanese industry must inevitably be accompanied b}^ large purchases and sales in the Central, Southern, and Eastern sections of the

United States. The most serious rivalry between Japanese and American manufactures will probably be in cotton textiles, but that can hardly be felt for some time to come, because Japan is still a large

importer of cotton goods, and her numerous population is rapidly

enlarging its purchases.

The industrial progress of the Japanese is widening their range of

imports very greatly. Wages are rising and enabling the people to

satisfy new wants, and compelling capitalists to introduce labor-saving

machinery. Although much has been said of the economic changes

going on in Japan, her industrial revolution is only begun. The complete modernization of the industrial and social life of Japan will yet

require several decades, and its accomplishment will necessitate a large

trade with the United States and Europe.

ANALYSIS OF JAPANESE TRADE WITH REFERENCE TO EFFECTS OF THE

CANAL.

The combined imports and exports of Japan were 118,000,000 in 1868, $2N,<H io.ooo in 1878, 165,000,000 in L888, and more than $200,-

ooo,000 in 1898. She exports silk, straw braid, mattings, cotton yarns, cotton cloth, coal, tea, camphor, rice, mushrooms, and miscellaneous

manufactures, and imports raw cotton and cotton manufactures, woolens, sugar, rice, beans, peas, oil cake, steamships, locomotives, steel

rails, iron manufactures, and machinery. The chief countries with

which she trades are China, Cochin China, and India, thcUnited Kingdom, the United States, and Germany. From Asiatic countries she

obtains rice, cotton, beans, and peas. From Europe and the United
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 411

States come mainly metal manufactures, dry goods, raw cotton, and food

stuffs. The percentage of the total exports consisting of manufactures

is increasing, and the imports are made up of a decreasing percentage

of manufactures, as would naturally be expected from what has been

said concerning the diversification of industries in progress.

"While the development of Japan's foreign trade has been very rapid,

the growth of our share in that enlarging trade has been still more

rapid. In 1881 we sold Japan less than 6 per cent of her importations, but in 1898 our sales comprised 15 per cent, while during the same period the part furnished by England declined from 52 per cent

to 23 per cent of the total. In 1896 our exports to Japan increased

84 per cent; in 1897, 57 per cent; in 1898, 15 per cent, and during the

first six months of 1899, the latest period concerning which statistical data are obtainable, the United States occupied the first place among

the nations supplying Japan with imports. There has also been a steady growth in our importations from Japan, and while they have

not grown as rapidly as our sales to that country, they have a higher

total, and we are Japan's best customer. Her raw silk is the chief

supply for our mills, and her tea, mattings, and bric-a-brac are important items. The growth of Japan's trade with the United States during the six years 1892-1898, was remarkable. The exports to the

United States gained more than those to Europe; the imports increased over sixfold, although this was a period of a large increase in home

industries.

The growth that has taken place in Japan's imports has been most

rapid in the case of raw cotton, woolen goods, flour, railway materials,

fertilizers, tobacco, leather and leather manufactures, cotton-spinning

machinery, and paper, and it is especially interesting to note that many

of these commodities of increased import are furnished by the United

States and are the articles in which we have decided advantages of

production or manufacture, to wit: Leather goods, flour, railroad supplies and machinery among the manufactures, and meat, cotton, tobacco,

and phosphate rock among the raw materials. A brief reference to

iron goods, cotton, and phosphates will illustrate our interest in the

Japanese import trade. In 1896 we furnished one-sixth of the rails imported into Japan; in 1898 our share had grown to two-thirds. We already have a large

part of the trade in electrical supplies, and also furnish a growing proportion of nails and bridge materials. European countries lead in

other classes of iron manufactures. The growth of our iron trade

with Japan is mainly a question of cheaper transportation. As freight

costs are reduced the Japanese will draw upon us in larger measure

for railway materials, and for the steel needed in rebuilding their cities and in equipping their factories with machinery.

The importations of raw cotton into Japan have increased very

largely- The cotton ports of New Orleans and Galveston are the most

distant of our seaboard cities from the Pacific by existing water routes. At the present time our cotton sales in Japan consist almost entirely

of the raw staple, but this should not always continue. In 1898 Japan

imported 60,000,000 yards of unbleached muslin, worth $2,100,000, and

less than one-thousandth of it came from this country. Direct communication between our Southern mills and Japan would doubtless

enable us to furnish a large share of it. The soil of Japan is not rich, and the number of farinanimals is very
412 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

small. The increasing' population and rising standard of consumption

will necessitate the highest attainable degree of intensive cultivation,

and this will require larger supplies of fertilizers. We have begun

exporting to Japan oil cake and phosphate, of which articles we have

most of the world's supply, but they are commodities of such low value

that the trade can not increase greatly until the canal has lowered the

costs of transportation. Phosphate rock, worth one-fourth of a cent a pound at the seaboard is a good illustration of the class of cheap

goods necessary to industrial progress which can be carried long dis- tances only lyf wrter transportation of the most economical character.

With the exception of the Pacific coast flour and canned goods the

trade of this country with Japan originates in the manufacturing East

and in the Southern States. By present routes Europe has the

advantage. The canal will enable us to supply Japan with larger

amounts of bulky articles in whose cost to the consumer the charges

for freight are an important item. We are now supplying a limited

quantity of such articles, but under better freight conditions there is no reason why that trade may not greatly increase. Examples of this

class are cement, alcohol, condensed milk, glassware, small agricultural

implements, iron manufactures, mining machinery, locomotives and

other engines, wire, paint, and paper. Cheaper transportation would,

moreover, enable the United States to sell some of the lighter as well

as the heavier commodities to Japan, and increase both the variety

and quantity of our exports to that country.

Chapter XIII.

China and the isthmian canal. An analysis of the resources and industrial conditions of China presents many difficulties. The Chinese Empire is a large region, with a great diversity of resources, concerning which present information is partial and indefinite. During the last few years a large amount of

descriptive literature has been written regarding China, but definite

statistical information, whether of a private or an official nature, is very scanty. The assertions of all well-informed people agree in repre- senting China as a country with a great variety of valuable natural

resources. The population, moreover, is usually represented as being

industrially efficient. Speaking generally, China a is to be thought of as a densely popu

lated and industrially undeveloped country, possessing varied and

abundant resources, which, under the supervision of capable captains

of industry, can be made the basis of a wide range of economic activities. The questions uppermost in this discussion are whether these resources and activities are such as will he affected by the American

isthmian canal, and whether the economic progress of China will be

accompanied by a larger trade between that country and the Atlantic

section of the United States that section whose trade with transPacific countries will come most directly under the influences of the

canal. GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF CHINA.

China proper, or, as it is sometimes called, the Kingdom of China,

and the dependency of Manchuria consist of a coastal plain and a

'Consult PI. 80 in connection with this chapter.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 413

plateau of mountainous upland region, which increases in elevation

Eowardthe west and finally merges into the lofty arid plateaus of central Asia. The coastal plain is mainly of alluvial origin and is 200

miles in length and about 400 miles in breadth near the xangtse, below

which region it rapidly narrows until in southern China it extends

inland but a short distance. This coastal plain is extremely fertile, is well watered and highly cultivated. Probably half the people of the

entire Chinese Empire dwell in this section, the density of whose population may be illustrated by reference to the province of Kiangsu,

which is reputed to have 40,000,000 inhabitants within an area of

40,000 square miles.

The broad mountainous upland region lying between the coastal

plain and the arid plateaus of Tibet and Mongolia are supposed to be

relatively fertile and are known to possess abundant stores of coal,

iron, copper, and other valuable mineral resources. This part of

China has as yet been brought but little under the influences of inter- national trade and western civilization. China a occupies the eastern part of Asia between the parallels of 20°

and 50° north latitude. It is the geographical counterpart of that

portion of the eastern part of North America lying between Cuba and

Labrador. Manchuria is in the latitude of northern Quebec, and Canton, situated just within the Tropics, has the latitude of Habana.

Northern China has the severe winter climate of Canada, while Hongkong and Canton have the climate of southern Florida and Culm.

China, consequently, like the United States, has a great variety of

agricultural products and can, within its own borders, produce nearly

all the articles required by its people. This fact explains why it has

been possible for China to remain for four thousand years practically

without intercourse with outside nations.

For the purposes of this discussion of the industries and trade of

China, and the effect which a canal will have upon them, it will be

helpful to divide China into three geographic zones. The basis of

division is a dual one, resting partly upon differences in climate and

partly upon the physiography of the country. These three divisions are (1) northern China, including Manchuria, 11 the Peiho and Hoangho

valleys, and the peninsula of Shantung; (2) central China, comprising

the valley of the Yangtse River, and (3) southern China, comprised

mainly within the valley of the Siho, or West River. The northern

district has its commercial outlets on the Gulf of Pechili and corre- sponds in latitude and industrial products to our North Atlantic States and Canada. Pckin is on the fortieth parallel, the one that passes

through Philadelphia. Central China corresponds more nearly to the

South Atlantic and Gulf States of our country. Shanghai, its metropolis, is in the latitude of Savannah, Ga. Southern China corre- sponds in latitude and production with the extreme southern portions

of the United States and with the West Indies.

The boundaries of these divisions are not everywhere clearly defined

physiographically, because they merge into each other in the coastal

plain. They are, however, sufficiently distinct for the purposes in hand.

a In this discussion China will be considered to include Manchuria, although,

strictly speaking, that is a dependency of the Kingdom of China.
414 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

RESOURCES AND TRADE OF NORTH CHINA—MANCHURIA, HOANGHO VALLEY, AND SHANTUNG.

Manchuria lies to the north and east of the Great Wall, mainly

between the fortieth and fiftieth parallels of north latitude. It extends

from the Gulf of Pechili to the Amur River. The population of this

district is said to be 22,000,000.

It is in the wheat belt of China, adapted by climate and fertility of

soil to general agriculture, and is reputed to be a region of a fair degree of fertility. It possesses extensive forests, some of which contain valuable hard woods.

Eighty miles north of Niuchwang, in Manchuria, are coal deposits,

presumably rich and extensive. These coal fields are crossed, by the

railroad now being built from Siberia to Port Arthur. Mining operations will doubtless follow the completion of this railroad, and will include not only the development of the coal mines, but also the mining

of gold, lead, and copper. Gold is now exported from Manchuria.

The agricultural, and particularly the mineral, resources of Manchuria, like those of China generally, have received but little development,

because of the lack of means of communication and transportation and

because modern methods of production have not yet been introduced.

The people of Manchuria seem less adverse to change than do those of

other parts of China, and it is probable that the present activity of

Russia in that section will result not only in the establishment of rail- way transportation, but also in the introduction, to some extent at least,

of modern methods of production.

The present commercial importance of Manchuria can best be illus- trated by reference to the trade of its principal port, Niuchwang. The

commerce of this city averages over 30,000,000 taels ($24,000,000) per

year and is rapidly increasing. It is the distributing point for Manchuria, the imports consisting chiefly of cotton and woolen goods,

kerosene, iron and steel, and general manufactures. Its exports comprise agricultural and mineral products. Niuchwang is in the part of

China nearest to the United States, and our export trade to China is mainly with Manchuria, about half of the imports of that district being

from our country. The things we sell in Manchuria consist chiefly of cotton goods, petroleum, and iron and steel products, commodities

produced in the eastern part of the United States. With the completion of the trans-Siberian railway Niuchwang will become an exporting point and distributing center for an extensive

district reaching as far inland as Lake Baikal in Southern Siberia. The

trade of eastern Siberia and of Manchuria will always be handled

through the Pacific rather than Baltic ports. Lake Baikal is farther

from St. Petersburg than San Francisco is from New York, and the

railway from St. Petersburg has the Ural Mountains and heavy grades

to overcome. This fact makes it certain that the heavy commodities

imported into the region east and southeast of Lake Baikal will be

handled through Niuchwang, Vladivostok, and other Pacilic Asiatic

ports. The imports of this region will continue to come largely from

the United States. In discussing the iron and steel industries of the

United States attention was called to the fact that four full ship loads

of locomotives had been shipped from Philadelphia to Vladivostok

during the two years 1808-1900. The eastern third of the Siberian

railway is being built with rails rolled in Pittsburg and ties exported

from Oregon.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 415

The Peiho unci Hoangho Valleys, the second subdivision of the north- ern section of China, are supposed to contain between 80,000,000 and

100,000,000 people. The region consists of a coastal plain, most of

which is included in the province of Pechili, the mountainous district comprised within the province of Shansi, and the pastoral and agricultural upland provinces of Shansi and Kansu lying to the west of

the mountains of Shansi.

The coastal province of Pechili is drained by the river Peiho, upon

which the cities of Tientsin and Pekin are situated. This region and

the lower course of the Hoangho is made up largely of fertile alluvial

soil, from the products of which a dense population supports itself. In the mountainous province of Shansi are located the richest coal

fields of China, concerning which much has been said by Richtofen and

all travelers who have explored this region. It is probable that one of

the earliest resources of China to be developed in the future will be

the coal fields of Shansi. In order to accomplish this it will be neces- sary to extend the railroad which now runs from Tientsin to Pekin

into the mountains lying west of those cities. In the westerly part of the Hoangho Valley is the province of Kansu,

which extends far into the arid Mongolian plateau. The province is well adapted to grazing, and large sections of it can be cultivated.

There are, moreover, numerous deposits of coal, and better means of

communication and production would enable the province to develop

a domestic and foreign trade of considerable proportions. This province is the present gateway to Mongolia and is crossed by the caravan

route from Pekin to Turkestan. The exports and imports of the region

west of the Shansi Mountains are handled over this caravan route. The city of Tientsin is in the commercial center for the Peiho and

Hoangho valleys. The railroad connecting Tientsin with Pekin, and

by means of a line extending northeast with the coal fields of the

Gulf of Pechili, was causing the population and commerce of Tientsin to increase rapidly before the outbreak of the Boxer rebellion.

The city of Tientsin has a population said to number 1,000,000. Its commerce doubled between 1887* and 1897, when it amounted to 55,059,017 taels, or $14,000,000. In 1899 the value was 77,604,562

taels, or $61,000,000. With the restoration of stable political conditions in this part of China and the continuation of the industrial development that the present rebellion has interrupted, the commercial

importance of Tientsin must inevitably increase. Probably the most

important imports of this city will always be cotton goods and iron

and steel manufactures. Our ability to supply those goods and the

effect which the canal will have upon that trade have been sufficiently

emphasized in another place in this report.

The province of. Shantung comprises that part of the coastal plain

crossed by the lower course of the Hoangho and the mountainous peninsula having the same name as the province. One-half of this district

is tillable and the other half contains a variety of minerals, the most

valuable of which is coal. There are four coal fields now being worked

in a feeble way by the natives, but which the Germans, who now control the larger part of Shantung, expect to make highly productive.

The Germans have taken hold of the development of the peninsula

of Shantung in a vigorous way, extensive improvements having been

made at the harbor of Kiaochau, and a railroad 280 miles in length

having been planned and partly constructed. The supplies for the
410* REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

entire railway line were delivered in December, 1899, but the completion of the road has been delayed by the recent insurrection. It is expected that German capitalists will develop the mineral and other

resources of Shantung at an early date. Shantung has two ports, Chifu and Kiaochau, the latter of which

will in all probability become the more important one. The exports

will consist mainly of minerals, silk, and tobacco, and the imports will comprise flour and provisions, cotton goods, iron and steel, and other

manufactures. The Germans will doubtless endeavor to control the

major share of the trade, and during the early years of their occu- pation they will in all probability supply most of the iron and steel and other commodities imported. It seems probable, however, that

the cotton goods will, after a few years, at least, be supplied largely by

the United States, and also that the iron and steel manufactures will come in part from this country. If the Germans succeed in organizing efficiently the 30,000,000 people said to dwell in Shantung, they

will give rise to a large foreign trade in which the United States will unquestionably have a share.

RESOURCES AND TRADE OF CENTRAL CHINA—THE YANGTSE VALLEY.

The great central portion of China is included within the Yangtse

Valley, which in general occupies a strip of country extending 250

miles on each side of the thirtieth parallel of latitude. It is the

largest of the three sections in which China has been divided in this chapter, and possesses the greatest variety and abundance of natural

resources. The Yangtse Valley is divided into two rathei distinct

parts by the gorges in the river just above the city of Ichang, about

1,100 miles from the ocean. Probably one-half of the valley below the gorges consists of the

coastal plain, the other half being upland country. The great silk and tea districts of China are crossed by the lower course of the

Yangtse River. Rice and cotton constitute other productions of great

value. The population of certain sections of the lower course of the

Yangtse is probably more dense than that of any other section of the

Kingdom.

Although the most valuable resources of the lower valley are

agricultural, there are large stores of minerals, particularly coal,

which is known to exist in large quantities in the province of Hunan

south of the river. In the mountainous regions, where the tributaries

of the Yangtse originate, are reported to exist deposits of copper, gold,

silver, and lend. The Yangtse Valley above the gorges is an extensive rolling country,

most of which is included within the province of Szechuan, north of the river, and Kweichau, on the south side of the stream. Both

provinces have abundant stores of coal, copper, iron, tin, lead, and

the precious metals. Kwcichau is a more distinctively mineral region

than Szechuan is. In the latter province the rice crop is the most

important one, but wheat, sugar, opium, and fruits can he, and are, produced to some extent. The climate is very much like4 that of

France. Cotton, the chief material from which clothing is made, can not be produced in the province. The exports from the Upper

Yangtse Valley consist of hemp, opium, hides, bristles, wool, wax, and some silk. At the present time the chief imports into the region

consist of cotton goods.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 417

Very little credence is to be given to the .statistics of Chinese population, which must always be regarded as estimates. There are, however, said to be 70,000,000 people in the Yangtse Valley above the

gorges, and whether this figure be right or not, it can not be doubted

that this interior portion of China must in time become the center of a large domestic and foreign trade. At the present time the only commercial highway is the Yangtse River, which is obstructed not only by

the gorges above Ichang, but also, and more seriously, by the tax

officials of the various local governments along the river. The city of Shanghai, at the mouth of the Yangtse, is the port of

entry for the whole valley and the most important commercial center

of all China. Fifty-five per cent of all the Chinese imports and 48 per

cent of the exports are handled in this city. There is, moreover, some

prospect that manufacturing industries will be successfully developed

at this point; some beginnings have already been made. It is an inter- esting fact that most of the trade of the United States with China,

although our chief markets are in Manchuria and the northern part of

the Kingdom, is handled through Shanghai, that city being the dis- tributing point not only for the Yangtse Valley, but for North China

as well. About seven hundred miles up the Yangtse River is the city of

Hankau, the most important interior distributing point in the Kingdom. By means of the Yangtse and its branches from the north and

south it has water connection extending in all directions, and from it nine provinces of China can be reached. The city is accessible to .sea- going vessels and, consequently, has a large trade directly with foreign

countries. The city is the market place for traders from various parts

of China, and its central location in the fertile section of the Kingdom

makes it the point of shipment for a large part of the export trade of

central China.

The evidence is conclusive that the great Yangtse Valley of central

China, comparable as regards area and wealth of agricultural and

mineral resources with our Mississippi Valley, is destined to become

industrially and commercially important when its resources and great

supply of labor can be organized. The time can not be far distant

when capital will provide means of transportation and develop the

natural resources of the country. When this is done the region will surely have a large import trade in the class of manufactures produced

in the Eastern and Southern sections of the United States. Those parts

of the United States, moreover, will require the silk, wool, and other raw materials of industry from the Yangtse Valley, the present exportation of which are but a fraction of what they might be made.

RESOURCES AND TRADE OF SOUTHERN CHINA.

The southern district of China is situated on both sides of the Tropic

of Cancer, and includes the coastal region of the province of Fukien

and the territory drained b}T the Siho or "West River and its tributaries.

The products are almost entirely agricultural, and are those of the

tropical and subtropical regions. Silk, tea, rice, sugar, opium, camphor, and various medicinal plants are grown and exported in greater

or less quantit}T

. The manufactures of the region are all handmade,

and consist of mattings, silks, lacquer ware, embroideries, and the sails required for the domestic shipping.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 27
418 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The upper valleys of the West River and its tributaries contain mineral resources, and these might, without great expense, be made accssi- ble by improvements in the river navigation. Southern China, like the rest of the country, however, is still industrially undeveloped, and

must remain so until a government can have been established that will be strong enough to protect personal and property rights.

The city of Hongkong, on an island at the mouth of the West River,

is the main port of southern China, and next to Shanghai the most

important one on the Pacific coast of Asia. Besides Hongkong, the

cities of Amoy and Fuchau, on the coast to the east and north of

Hongkong, are growing centers of commerce.

It is said that Hongkong is the distributing point for 80,000,000

people, and its position is such that its trade must grow pari passu

with the development of southern China. The city is about equally

distant from New York b}T the Suez and American isthmian routes. At the present time its trade with the Atlantic part of the United States

as well as with Europe is handled by way of the Suez. After the

American canal has been opened the trade of Hongkong and all south- ern China generally will probably be divided between the easterly and

westerly canal routes. One reason why the westerly route will obtain

a share of the trade is that Hongkong is the terminal port for vessels outbound across the Pacific from the United States. At present nearly

all the lines from British Columbia and our west coast ports call at Japanese ports. Shanghai, and Hongkong. After the canal has been

opened vessels crossing the North Pacific from America to Asia will naturally call at Japanese and central Chinese ports and proceed to Hongkong or Manila. Southern China and the Philippines are in the

region whose commerce will be competed for by both routes. When

the American canal has been opened the traffic will be divided between

the two canals and the exporters of that region will profit by the competition of the two routes. THE FOREIGN TRADE OF CHINA.

The aggregate foreign trade of China in 1899 was valued at 475,-

000,000 taels ($380,000,000), of which 280,000,000 taels were imports

and 195,000,000 were exports. In 1897 the total foreign trade

amounted to 367,000,000 taels (1294,000,000). While this total seems

fairly large, the amount of trade per capita is extremely small, barely one dollar per person. There are some countries with natural resources

inferior to those of China whose foreign trade is from twenty-five to one hundred times as much per person. The foregoing analysis is sufficient to show that the resources and labor supply of China arc ample to support extensive industries capable of giving rise to a large

foreign trade, were the political and social conditions favorable to economic progress. Whether and to what extent the present untoward political and

social conditions of China can be improved constitutes the Chinese

question. To the solution of that question the powers of Europe and

the United States are devoting their best endeavor. It can hardly be

said, however, that the ultimate outcome of their efforts can be clearly

foreseen. If the powers succeed in securing for China a stable and

fairly progressive government under which the individual and society

may develop industrially, there can be no question but that the

foreign commerce of China will reach large proportions.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 419

The truth of this statement is clearly shown by what occurred

during the five years preceding the outbreak of the Boxer revolution.

During those years comparatively rapid progress was being made in

the work preparatory to rendering the natural resources of the country

available. Mining concessions were obtained by various capitalists,

railroads were under construction, and there was every indication that

the natural wealth of China was to be made to contribute largely to international trade. In 1899 the total trade was 24 per cent more than

that of the preceding year and double that of the year 1890.

The most important imports into China are cotton goods, which comprise over a third of the total inbound trade. The commodity next in rank is opium, which is followed by kerosene, metals, coal, woolen

goods, and a variety of other commodities. Silk, raw and manufactured, ranks first among the exports, tea being next in importance.

Among the other exports of consequence are straw braid, sugar, hides,

clothing, paper, and pottery. At the present time Great Britain controls more of this trade than any other country, but her share of the

total is decreasing. An analysis of our trade with China will show

that the opposite is the case with our commercial relations.

TRADE OF UNITED STATES WITH CHINA AND EFFECTS OF CANAL.

The trade of the United States with China included $27,000,000

worth of imports into this country and $15,000,000 worth of exports

to China during the year ending June 30, 1900. This total of $42,000,000

indicates an increase of 50 per cent within a decade. The most rapid

growth has taken place in our exports of cotton goods. The value

of cotton sheetings sent to China in 1899 exceeded the value of our

total annual exports to that country for the years preceding 1896.

Next to cotton goods, our leading article of exportation is kerosene

oil, but in addition we are selling increasing quantities of iron and

steel, breadstuff's, lumber, and general manufactures. Among the

articles which we import from China, silk, raw and manufactured,

holds first place, and tea occupies the second position. These two arti- cles comprise over half the total value of the imports. Raw wool,

hides, skins and furs, straw braid, and a variety of curios make up

the larger share of the other articles imported.

The rapidity with which our trade in China is growing may be shown

by a few comparisons. During the three years ending in 1899 the total imports of Shanghai increased 50 per cent and those from the United

States were doubled. In 1895 Great Britain exported to China five times

as much as we did, but in 1899 her trade was less than twice ours. Our imports of Chinese goods direct from China (i. e., exclusive of

the Hongkong trade) are now nearly double what those of the United

Kingdom are. Moreover, the Chinese statistics do not give us credit

for all the trade we have with the country. Some of our trade is handled by way of Europe and credited to European countries, while

another large share goes from New York by way of the Suez Canal to Hongkong, whence it is distributed in China. It appears as imports

into Hongkong and as exports from that city to China. All nations,

both oriental and western, handle more or" less of their trade with

China through Hongkong. Apparently the trade of the United States with Hongkong direct is two-thirds as large as Great Britain's is. A

French commission sent out to China in 1895 to study the trade situa- tion added 63 per cent to the figures of American trade to cover the
420 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

amount that entered China b}T indirect routes, and there is no indication that any important change has taken place since then in the rout- ing of trade such as would have changed the percentage of our indirect

as compared with our direct shipments.

The general relation of an isthmian canal to our trade with China

may be easily and briefly stated. The breadstuff* and lumber which

we export across the Pacific will unquestionably be sent from the

Pacific coast. The same will be true of the lighter manufactures of

high value per bulk. Should we develop any considerable trade in provisions, the main source will be east of the Rocky Mountains. The

iron and steel, general manufactures, kerosene, and cotton goods will be exported from the eastern and southern sections of our country.

They will unquestionably constitute canal traffic, and their sale will be

largely facilitated by that waterway.

Our kerosene trade in China is already feeling very keenly the competition of Java and Russia, and our exporters are able to hold their

trade only because the}^ have developed unusually economical means of

transportation.

Probably our exportation of cotton goods will be affected more favorably by the canal than will any other class of goods sent to China, with

the possible exception of heavy manufactures of iron and steel. It is estimated that TO per cent of the cottons exported from this country

to China are manufactured in the Southern States, the section nearest

to the canal. At the present time four-fifths of these exports go by

way of the Suez Canal, the other fifth being sent across the continent,

largely by way of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Moreover, the for- eign destination of these goods is nearly all in northern China, that

part of the country nearest to the United States by way of the isth- mian canal and most remote from us by way of the Suez. Even under

the present unfavorable conditions of competition we are securing control of the larger part of the cotton-goods trade of northern China.

During the past decade the imports of cotton goods into that section

from England and Dutch countries declined over 50 per cent, whereas

ours increased 400 per cent during the same period. With the canal

to assist us in the development of this trade, it seems certain that we

can not only control the business, but can do it with a large margin of

profit.

Should the anticipated industrial development of China occur, will the country become independent of foreign trade? Will it supply

its own needs? Not a little has been heard regarding the danger

of Chinese development to American labor and American industries.

The fear has no basis in experience. In general it may be said that our trade is greatest with those countries whose industrial development has reached the highest stage of evolution, and that our com- merce increases in proportion to the economic progress of the country

traded with. Japan is a case in point. The large development now

in progress in that Empire is being accompanied by a very rapid

growth in her trade with the United States. The same is true in a

less degree of Chile, and would be true in a much greater degree if we were able to trade with Chile under favorable conditions of trans- portation.

Industrial development and economic progress are always accompanied by an increase in wages and a rise in the standard of life. If foreign nations succeed in organizing the industrial forces of China,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 4^1

they will also .succeed in greatly multiplying- the wants of the people

and laving the foundation for a much larger trade between that country

and all parts of the world.

Chapter XIV.

The omul <n,<l the industries and trade ofAustralasia.

There is possibly no part of the world outside of Europe and the

United States that has a more promising commercial future than Australia. The area of the island continent of Australia is about equal

to that of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and the colonies

each having somewhat less than 3,000,000 square miles of territory. The density of the population of the two countries is, however, very

different, for at the beginning of 1899 there were but 3,556,000 people

in all Australia, a smaller number than there are in Illinois or Ohio,

not to mention the still more populous States of Pennsylvania and New

York. In spite of its small population, Australia is'a region havino- an enormous commerce, the average trade per capita being one hundred times that of the Chinese people. This enormous trade results partly from the nature of the industries of the country, and partly from the character of the population, which is nearly all British.

The people have a very large average per capita wealth, and their

standard of living is high. They consume large quantities of manufactures, which they are able to purchase because of the vigor and

energy employed in the development of the abundant natural resourcs

of the virgin continent.

AUSTRALIAN INDUSTRIES REQUIRE A LARGE FOREIGN TRADE.

The rapid development of the natural resources of Australia could

not take place without an immense foreign trade, The chief industries'1 are

_ pastoral, agricultural, and mineral, all of which can be car- ried on with a comparatively limited supply of labor. The vast area

of the country, and the fact that but a small portion of the territory has yet been occupied make certain the continuance, without very

great change, of the present industrial conditions of the country for

several decades. Although the country possesses liberal stores of minerals other than the precious metals, there is little prospect of

the early development of industries upon which highly developed manufactures must rest. The three most essential requisites to

diversified manufactures are cheap labor, cheap and abundant coal and

iron, and surplus capital seeking investment. Although Australia has

coal and iron, labor and capital are so scarce that fuel and steel must

necessarily be more expensive than thev are in Europe and the United

States, where most of the world's manufacturing is done at the present

time. P or sometime to come the profits in the pastoral and agri- cultural industries and in the mining of precious metals will continue to oner greater inducement than can the manufacturing industries

1 his is equivalent to saying that Australia will, for several decades at

least, continue to export great quantities of food supplies and raw

materials in exchange for manufactures.

In Australians total foreign commerce of $350,000,000 worth of o- ods

annually the I nited States has a large and rapidly increasing share.

a See PL 81.
422 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The development of our manufactures will require constantly larger

quantities of the exports of Australia, and our export trade to "that country is certain to be of constantly increasing' importance to us. THE CANAL AND DISTANCES TO AUSTRALIA.

The distances from New York and our North Atlantic ports to Australia by way of the Suez Canal and by way of the Cape of Good Hope

are practically the same, consequently all our direct commerce with

Australia moves around the Cape. In the tables included in Chapter

XVII, the distances from our Atlantic and Gulf ports to Australian

cities by way of the Cape of Good Hope route and the proposed

Nicaragua Canal are compared. By referring to the table it will be

seen that New York is 3,982, or in round numbers 4,000, miles nearer Sydney by way of the Nicaragua (-anal than by way of the route fol- lowed by vessels going to Sydney by way of the Cape of Good Hope.

Adelaide, the most westerly port of the industrially important part of

Australia, will be 1,810 miles nearer New York and 3,587 miles nearer New Orleans by way of the Nicaragua Canal than by Good Hope.

A map a accompanying Chapter XVII shows the line connecting the

points equidistant from New York by way of the Nicaragua and Suez

routes, and it will be seen that the line crosses the western part of

Australia and touches the continent of Asia west of Hongkong. These

references to distances are sufficient to show that the industrially and

commercially important half of Australia will be brought from eight

to fifteen days nearer our eastern seaboard by the construction of an

isthmian canal. The tables of Chapter XVII show that the entire continent of

Australia is nearer Liverpool by way of the Suez Canal than it will be by way of the American isthmian route. Attention may be called to the fact, however, that Sydney will be only 172 miles farther from

Liverpool by the Nicaragua route than by the Suez. The line con- necting points equidistant from Liverpool by way of the two routes passes between New Zealand and Australia and cast of the main island

of Japan.

The Suez route to Australia is shorter for European commerce than

is the Good Hope route, but the difference is not enough to induce

slow freight steamers to use the canal, the tolls of which amount to about $2 per net ton, British measurement. Letters received from

European steamship companies show that about the only steamers

between Europe and Australia using the canal are those which carry

passengers and mails. The slow-going freighters practically all go

around the Cape. As compared with the Good Hope route between

Europe and Australia, the American canal line would be shorter. The

east coast of Australia will be almost equidistant from Liverpool by

the easterly and westerly canal routes. The significance of this is enhanced by the fact that over half the commerce of Australia is handled at Sydney, which port is made by all vessels, whether from

Europe or from the United States. The references to distances are not intended to imply that distance is the only fact determining the routes taken by vessels.

See PL 86.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 423

GENERAL GEOGRAFEft OF AUSTRALIA.

The continent of Australia is situated between 10° and 40° south lati- tude, somewhat over half of the continent being .south of the Tropic

of Capricorn. The island is regular in shape, has a coast line but little broken, and consists of a comparatively narrow rim of well-watered

and fertile country, within which is a vast stretch of semiarid and arid

country, much of which has an annual rainfall of 10 inches or less. Almost all the mountains are situated near the coast, the highest ones being the Australian Alps, which run parallel to the eastern and south- eastern shore about 50 to 75 miles from the ocean. The average height

of this range is 1.500 feet, the peaks rising to 5,000 and 6,500 feet. The eastern slopes are eveiywhere well watered, and this portion of

Australia is the most fertile and thickly settled part of the continent.

The western slopes of these mountains are very gradual, and are drained by the Murray and Darling rivers and their tributaries, which

together have a basin as large as that of the St. Lawrence or the Danube. This is the great grazing section of Australia. The eastern and

southern sections of the basin, however, have a rainfall of 25 to 40

inches, and are adapted to cereal agriculture.

The eastern third of Australia is divided into three political divi- sions, Queensland occupying the northern half of this eastern section.

South of Queensland is New South Wales, below which is Victoria.

The most populous and productive parts of Australia are New South

Wales and Victoria. These colonies occupy a region corresponding

in latitude to that of the United States between New York City and

Jacksonville. South Australia consists of the central third of Australia, west of which is the great tract of western Australia. Both of

these divisions are arid except within the narrow rim near the ocean, and in the tropical northern sections where the trade winds, unobstructed by any coastal mountains, give the country abundant rainfall. But little of the tropical section of Australia has as yet been occupied

because the British colonists have not found the region healthful. PASTORAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. a From the first years of its settlement Australia has been celebrated

as a grazing region. Everywhere, with the exception of the tropical

lowlands and the interior desert sections, the climate is favorable to sheep and cattle, and the forage is abundant.

The most important grazing district of Australia is the large interior

basin of the Murray River and its tributaries, where a large part of

the country in taken up with the cattle and sheep ranches. The more

populous sections of the country between the Australian Alps and

eastern and southern coasts are changing from grazing to dairying,

Australia having become an exporter of large quantities of dairy

products.

A few statistics regarding the number and value of the cattle and

sheep of Australia will serve to illustrate the importance of the grazing and dairying industries of the country. After three years of most

destructive drought, there were 112,000,000 sheep and 14,000,000

cattle in Australia in 1899. The figures for the United States are in

* See PI. 81.
424 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

round numbers 40,000,000 sheep and 27,000,000 cattle. New South

Wales alone has as many sheep as the whole of the United States. The Australian wool furnishes one-fourth of the world's supply, and

is of the tinest quality. During the past decade it has been worth at

least $120,000,000 per annum, and in addition to this, $80,000,000 have

been annually derived from the meat and other animal products.

This total of $200,000,000 per }

T ear amounts to over $50 for each per- son in Australia.

The agricultural industries of Australia include the raising of grain,

the growing of fruits, and the production of sugar. The grain-producing districts lie on both sides of the Cordilleran Alps in New South

Wales and in Victoria and on the shores of Spencer Gulf, in South

Australia.

The colony of Victoria, whose area and population are about the same

as those of Nebraska, had a wheat crop of 20,000,000 bushels in 1898.

Half as many bushels were raised in the neighborhood of Spencer

Gulf. Australia can not, however, be regarded as a very favorable

wheat-growing country because of the uncertainty of the rainfall in many parts of the wheat-growing sections. Irrigation is being extensively resorted to, and it will doubtless enable the country to support a great many more cattle and sheep, to increase the annual grain production, and to enlarge the acreage of its fruit orchards.

Horticulture is rapidly developing in Australia. The lower regions

of the subtropical and tropical districts produce the fruits usually grown

in the climate of those regions, and the upland districts of the more

southerly and temperate colonies are adapted to the production of

grapes, apples, pears, plums, and similar fruits. In the Victorian part

of the Murray River Valley there are said to be forty corporations

holding concessions aggregating 2,000,000 acres, under which they are developing irrigation projects, mainly for the purpose of growing fruits. In the neighborhood of Wallaroo, north of Adelaide, there is an irri- gation system using 670 miles of iron and steel pipe, by which water

is distributed to places 25 to 75 miles distant. This region produced

1,080,000 gallons of wine in 1898. The exports of fruit from the

region are growing and promise to constitute an important industry.

The tropical portion of Queensland has the beginnings of what will doubtless become a large sugar industry. In 1899 the crop amounted

to 164,000 tons, a total of more than half the average annual product

of Louisiana.

The agricultural resources of Australia are such that the country

must continue to be an important exporter of food products for many

decades. There is, and will long continue to be, a surplus of breadstuffs. Wool, meat, hides, and dairy products will long be produced

in such abundance as to necessitate a large sale of them abroad. Other

promising future agricultural exports are wine, tobacco, and sugar. One-fourth of the world's wool is now grown in Australia. In the

future we shall want increasing quantities of this article and of hides

and skins.

MINERAL RESOURCES.

The mineral industries* of Australia rank high in the statistics, both

of production and of foreign commerce. Gold, silver, copper, and

coal are the most extensively mined, although b}^ no means the only

minerals existing in the country.

'See l'!. si.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 425

The annual export of gold from Australia is, in round numbers,

$60,000,000. The industry has passed the uncertain stage of placer

mining and now consists mainly of the reduction of quartz ore. Most

of the gold fields are in the mountains of eastern Australia, but quartz

reefs situated in the arid plains of the western part of the continent

are now yielding a large percentage of the total output. These mines

in western Australia have added much to the annual production of the

country.

Australia ranks third among the silver-producing countries of the

world, being outclassed only by the United States and Mexico. Her

product is about one-tenth that of the entire world. The mines are

located mainly in the eastern part of the country.

The copper mines of Australia yielded 18,000 tons of the metal in 1898, the product having doubled in four years. Lead and tin are both exported, and various other metals are produced in small

quantities. In Chapter VI, dealing with the coal supply for the commerce of the

Pacific, the coal trade of Australia was discussed at some length. The

field from which the present supplies are mainly drawn is a comparatively small one of 3,000 square miles in area, situated close by the city

of Newcastle, 62 miles north of Sydney, the most important port of

Australia. There are other larger fields in the mountainous sections of

the country, of which use will be made as the demand for fuel increases

The present exportation of coal from Australia, as has already been

explained, is facilitated by the large tonnage of vessels leaving the

country in ballast. This explains why the western part of the United

States, South America, Hawaii, and the Philippines, as well as the

East Indies, use more or less Australian coal. The value of the minerals exported from Australia equals $100,000,000

per }'ear, more than $25 for each person.. This is a veiy large amount

of trade for any one class of industries to give rise to, and it shows the

great productive capabilities of the Australians. The chief signifi- cance to the United States of this great Australian mineral industry is that it necessitates a large foreign trade in mining machinery and general manufactures. As was stated at the beginning of this chapter,

the industrial conditions of Australia are not such as to make profita- ble the development of the iron industries and of the manufactures

based upon crude iron and steel. Consequently, the expensive machinery for the development of the mines, the railway material, and the

manufactures required by the mining population must be imported.

American manufacturers have been especially successful in making

mining machinery, and their products have gone all over the world.

In Chapter IV, on the Central West, the experience of a Chicago manufacturer was cited. This, and numerous other firms in different

parts of the United States, now have a large foreign trade in mining

machinery in many sections of the world.

THE CANAL AND THE COMMERCE OF AUSTRALIA WITH THE UNITED

STATES. In considering the foreign trade of Australia, the fact must be kept

in mind that the statistics of the commerce of the various Australian

states include not only the trade which they have with countries outside of Australia, but with the various Australian commonwealths.

The statement made at the beginning of this chapter that the foreign
426 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

trade of Australia amounted to $350,000,000 per annum—a sum equal

to $100 per capita—referred only to the trade of the various Australian states with countries outside of Australia. This total of the for- eign commerce of Australia equals half that of all South America, and

is as large as our foreign trade was fifty years ago. The per capita

average is nearly four times that of the United States at the present

time. There is, moreover, no doubt of the continuance of this large

foreign commerce. The nature of the industries being such that a heavy foreign trade is requisite to their development, the fact that the

various Australian commonwealths have constructed efficient railway

systems, which are being extended as necessity requires, the industrial

aptitude of the people—all these factors combine to assure the future

commercial importance of Australia.

Although the Australian imports are increasing rapidly, our share

in those imports is growing more rapidly than their total. In fact, our export trade into Australia is increasing faster than that to any

other country except those of eastern Asia. Between 1890 and 1900 our exports to Europe increased 52 per cent, those to South America

one-half of 1 per cent, while our exports to Oceania increased 157 per

cent. The greater part of this commerce with Oceania was with the

continent of Australia, in every State of which the use of our manufactures is increasing. New South Wales, for instance, during the

last decade increased its total trade 40 per cent, but the imports from

the United States rose 181 per cent during the ten years. In 1900 our

total exports to Australia were valued at $26,725,702; in 1889 their

value was $12,252,117. Our direct imports from that country have

not increased during the decade. It is probable, nevertheless, that we

are using a larger quantity of Australian wool than we did ten years

ago. Most of this wool, however, comes to us b}r way of London, and

appears in the statistics of our trade with the United Kingdom. We

are now sending to Australia a large variety of commodities, the nature and value of which are indicated by the following list:" Mineral oils, $1,720,000; lumber, furniture, and wood manufactures,

$1.12.3,000; paper, $1,100,000; cotton manufactures, $413,000; boots

and shoes, 1409,000; agricultural machinery, $780,000; naval stores,

$200,000, and millions of dollars worth of iron and steel manufactures,

of which the following are instructive examples: Steel rails, $661,000;

locks and builders' hardware, $630,000; miscellaneous machinery,

$863,000; scientific instruments, $177,000; typewriters, $77,000;

sewing machines, $321,000.

The preeminent rank of the city of Sydney in the foreign trade of

Australia is a fact of much significance in this discussion. Ninety- seven per cent of the trade of New South Wales is handled through

that port, and nearly one-half of the total commerce of the Australian states with nations outside of the continent of Australia is car- ried on at the port of Sydney. This city is the commercial metropolis

of Australia, and is the point from which a large share of the imports

from Atlantic countries is distributed throughout Australia and the

adjacent islands. The city of Melbourne is another distributing point,

but its importance has declined as compared with Sydney, because of the greater facilities possessed by the latter port for the transshipment

of commodities.

"The figures are for 1899 and include Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The

New Zealand figures are not kept separate in our statistics.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 427

The fact that the coasting trade of Australia centers so largely in Sydney and Melbourne is interesting in this connection, because those

ports are so situated that they will be brought many days nearer to the eastern half of the United States b}r the construction of the

isthmian canal. The influences of the isthmian canal upon our Australian commercewill affect our trade in a large variety of commodities. Our growing

exports of ir^on and steel manufactures and other heavy articles are being supplemented by an increasing exportation of lighter commodities, and when the canal has removed our present handicap arising

from the disadvantages regarding distances which we at present have

in competing with Europe our commerce with Australia will be car- ried on under much more favorable conditions. The traffic between

Australia and the eastern and southern sections of the United States by way of the canal will be large, unless the tolls of that waterwaj^

should be placed so high as to be prohibitory. In Chapter XXII the

question of tolls is considered at length, and it is there shown that a

toll of $1 per vessel ton net register would not much restrict the use

of the canal by our Australian commerce. The maintenance of the

present Suez Canal tolls, which are equivalent to $2 per net register ton,

British measurement, and the imposition of the toll of $1 per ton or less for the use of the American canal would be of much assistance to the

American waterway. In the chapter on tolls emphasis is laid upon

the necessity of adopting a schedule of tolls for the American canal

that will not prevent its being used by the traffic of Australia and

western South America.

NEW ZEALAND AND THE CANAL.

New Zealand is almost exactly antipodal to the United Kingdom.

The construction of an isthmian canal will bring Wellington 1,503

miles nearer Europe by that route than by the Suez. That city will be 2,698 miles nearer New York b}T a Nicaragua ( "anal than by way

of the Straits of Magellan.

The islands of New Zealand 11 bear some resemblance to the United

Kingdom in shape, area, and climate. Within their area of 104,500

square miles there are at present less than 800,000 people. The

climate is admirably adapted to raising grain, cattle, and sheep.

The chief industry of the islands is the raising of sheep and the

exportation of mutton and wool. The islands now have 20,000,000

sheep, half as many as there are in this country, and the annual

exports of mutton to the United Kingdom reach nearly 2,000,000.

The mountains of New Zealand, like those of Australia, are well

stocked with minerals. The output of the gold mines amounted to $5,500,000 in 1898. Most of this, however, was secured from placer

mines, although the working of the quartz deposits has been begun.

The mountain streams of the country furnish an abundant supply of

water power for mining and other industrial purposes.

Somewhat less than a million tons of coal are annually mined, the

output of which can and will be increased in proportion to the

demand for fuel. It hardly need be said that the iron deposits of New

Zealand have not yet been worked. A country that is still mainly in the grazing stage of industry is several decades ahead of the exploitation of its iron mines.

'Pee PI. 82.
428 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The mineral resource of New Zealand which is of interest to the

people of the United States is the kauri gum, from which varnish is made. This gum is a fossil resin dug up from the sites of old forests,

and the supply, it is said, is sufficient to last for several decades. In

1899 9,900 tons of this gum, valued at $3,000,000, were exported,

and a large part of .it came to the United States. The commerce of New Zealand is larger per capita than that of Australia, being over $120 per person. The total commerce, with a value

of over $100,000,000 per year, is mainly controlled by Great Britain,

but the United States has a respectable and increasing share of the

trade. During the nine years ending in 1898 our trade with New

Zealand increased 108 per cent, our total trade in 1898 amounting to about $7,000,000.

New Zealand has good shipping facilities for foreign trade, the Government is developing the railway system rapidly, and the natural resources of the country may be expected to contribute increasing

quantities to international trade. There is no more probability of the

development of manufactures in New Zealand than in Australia. The

islands will continue to export food products and raw materials in

exchange for manufactures.

The opening of the isthmian canal will bring the city of New York

5,617 miles nearer to New Zealand than it is by the Good Hope and

Australia route, and the distances between the Eastern cities of the

United States and that country will be 2,068 miles shorter than by wa\>-

of Magellan. In 1899 more than seven-eighths of our exports to New

Zealand were sent from the Atlantic coast. These exports included

mineral oils, tobacco, machinery, hardware, wire and wire nails, carriages, carriage materials, patent medicines, and boots and shoes. The

volume and variety of our present commerce carried on by the cir- cuitous route around Africa is evidence that the opening of the American canal will have important effects upon our New Zealand trade. Chapter XV.

The canal and the Philippines and Hawaii.

I. THE PHILIPPINES."

Our present commerce with the Philippines is carried on mainly by

the Sue/ Canal route and frequently by way of some European port.

A minor but increasing share of the trade is shipped through our westcoast ports and across the Pacific Ocean to Hongkong. A glance at

pi. 86, accompanying Chapter XVII, will show that the line connecting

points equally distant from New York City by way of the Suez Canal

and the proposed Nicaragua route runs somewhat to tin1 west of the

Philippine Islands, indicating that they are slightly nearer New York

by way of the Nicaragua Canal than the Suez route. The difference

in distance by the easterly and westerly canal lines will, however, be

slight, and the Philippine Islands, as well as Malaysia generally, will constitute a section whose commerce with North Atlantic countries

will be divided between the American and Suez canals. THE GEOGRAPHY ami IN1HSTU1KS OF THE PHILIPPINES. The information concerning the geography of the Philippines is scanty and must necessarily be very incomplete until the islands can

"Consult PI. 83 in connection with this chapter.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 429

be surveyed. The location of the Philippines is between 5° and 20°

north latitude, their latitude being that of the Guianas and Haiti.

Their climate is tropical and humid, and, being situated with a general

north-and-south trend in the latitude of the trade winds and monsoons,

both the eastern and western slopes of the islands have alternate rainy

and dry seasons. The area of the islands is estimated to be about 115,000 square miles

and the population to be 8,000,000. Over one-half of the people live on the island of Luzon.

The resources of the Philippines are agricultural, forest, and mineral. Concerning the agricultural conditions of the islands, information is fairly satisfactory. The forest resources are known to be varied

and abundant, and it is supposed that the mineral deposits are important. There is, however, very little authentic information at hand

regarding the mineral wealth of the country. The industrial conditions of the Philippines are in an extremely backward and undeveloped

condition, the islands being at the time of the American occupation

practically without highways. Only one short railroad has }^et been

built, and the industries are still in an unorganized state. At the present time the agricultural product of most commercial

importance is hemp, the exports of which in 1900 were valued at $11,399,000. The production and exportation of this article are

steadily increasing with the growth in the demand for it in the United

States and other agricultural countries. More than half of the hemp

comes to the United States. Some of it is used for cordage, but much

more is used as binder twine. The principal competitor of Manila

hemp is that from Yucatan, sisal hemp, the quality of which is much

inferior. The plant from which the fiber is taken is grown in the

shade of half-cleared woods, and its cultivation requires very little intelligence and only a moderate amount of diligence and thrift on the

part of the producer.

Before the insurrection the most valuable export from the Philippines was sugar, of which $10,368,000 worth was exported in 1893.

The exports in 1900 amounted to about $3,022,000. Sugar can be produced in very great quantity in the Philippine Islands, and with the

establishment of civil order and the investment of foreign capital in the exploitation of the resources of the islands will probably regain

first rank in the list of Philippine industries.

Like the islands of the West Indies, the Philippines produce tobacco

abundantly, the soil and climate of the northern provinces of Luzon

being adapted to its culture. The quality is said to be fairly good.

The home consumption of tobacco is large, and considerable quantities

both of manufactured and leaf tobacco are exported. Most of the

unmanufactured article is sent to Spain. The other important article of export from the Philippines at the present time is copra, the dried

meat of the cocoanut. The cocoanut palm grows in many parts of the

island and might be made to contribute much more largely to the wealth

of the islands than it does at the present time.

Next to the cotton manufactures the most important article of

importation into the Philippine Islands is rice. This important article of food might all be grown in the islands, and a surplus might be

exported if the industry were properly organized. The indifferent

agriculture of the Philippines was largely devoted to the growing of
430 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

rice, until the production and exportation of sugar became more profit- able. Whether it is possible to apply capitalistic organization to the

production of rice is not altogether certain. In all probability the

organizers of the industry would be obliged to use coolies for a part

of their labor force. One of the first natural resources of the islands to be drawn upon

will be the forests. Nearly all of the forest lands belong to the Government, and concessions for the cutting of timber are now being

granted. The variety of hard woods is large; seventeen valuable

dyewoods are known to exist, and gutta-percha, camphor, and other

gum trees may be included among the important timbers.

While but little can be confidently asserted regarding the mineral

resources of the Philippines, it is supposed that there are large

deposits of gold, copper, and iron. The mining of gold is now being

carried on to a slight extent. The development of both gold and copper resources, however, must be delayed until machinery can be introduced and the enterprise organized in an efficient manner. The working

of iron mines must necessarily be deferred until there is a good supply

of cheap fuel. Lignite has been found upon several of the islands, and

the quality is such that it can be used for locomotives and on steamers. Some of these lignite deposits are near the seashore and can be readily

worked. At the present time, however, the entire coal supply is imported.

In considering the industrial resources of the Philippines and their

probable future development, one of the most important considerations is the labor supply. Whether the present inhabitants of the

Philippine Islands can be successfully organized in industrial undertakings is uncertain. It is probable, however, that education and

training in industry may make of them a valuable and reliable labor

supply. It is possible that more or less use must be made of coolie

labor. The near-by continent of Asia can furnish an unlimited supply

of efficient labor, but whether the Asiatic labor supply should be drawn

upon or not raises a social as well as an industrial question.

THE COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPPINES.

Having acquired political control of the Philippine Islands, their

foreign trade becomes of additional importance to the United States. In order to present the information regarding the Philippine trade

completely and definitely, the following tables have been prepared.

The imports and exports of the islands are shown by countries and by

articles for the years 1893 and 1900. The imports and exports for

the year ending June 30, 1900, are shown in a separate table. The

figures for 1900 are taken from the Monthly Summary of Commerce

of Philippine Islands, United States War Department, Division of

Insular Affairs. The figures for previous years are from Bulletin No.

14, United States Department of Agriculture, Section of Foreign

Markets.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 431

Table X<>. I.Imports of Philippine Islands by articles, calendar year 1898 and fiscal year 1900.

Articles.

Cotton manufactures

Rice

Iron and steel manufactures

Malt liquors and cidCT Chemicals

Glass and glassware Opium

coal

Paper, and manufactures.

silk manufacturo

Flour Wines

Distilled liquors • Vegetables Wood, and manufactures

Flax. hemp, and jute manufactures.

Pork, bacon, lard Mineral oils Boots and shoes Woolens. Earthenware and china

Olive oil All other articles Total..

Calendar Fiscal year

year 1H93. 1900.

85, 806,000

628, 000

672,000

105,000

171,000

376,000

;>(>7, ooo

526, 000

,060,000 176,000

189,000 194,000

175,000

,081,000

120, 000

215, 000

212, 000

114,000 ,338,000

86, 019, 000 . 3,113,000

715,000 638,000

605, 000

525, 000

476,000

468,000

462, 000 462,000

399,000

320,000 303,000

243,000 225,000

209,000

195, 000

161,000 149,000

139,000

132,000 47,000

4,840,000

15,891,000 , 20.597,000

Table No. II.Import* of Philippine Islands by leading countries, 1893 and 1900.

Countries. Calendar

year 1893.

China, including Hongkong and Indo-China $2, 754, 000 United Kingdom ' 4, 247, 000 Spain 5, 101, 000 United States . J 956, 000 Germany 1, 246, 000 France 477, 000 Japan ! 183,000 All other countries 923, 000 Total 15, 890, 000

Fiscal vear

1900.

88, 210, 000

3,941,000

2,093,000

1,656,000 1,210,000 485,000

259,000

2, 743, 000

20, 597, 000

Table No. III.Exports of Philippine Islands by leading articles, calendar year 1893 and fiscal year '900.

Articles. Quantity.

Hemp

Sugar

Copra and cocoanuts

Cigars and cigarettes Leaf tobacco

Pounds.

'92,262

576, 557, 000 26,223,000

23,687,000

Dollars. Quantity.

7,697,000

10,368,000 414,000

969,000

- 463,000

Pounds.

» 75, 476

173,630,000

81, 799, 655 14,010,356

Dollars.

11,399,000 3,022,000

1,693,000

1,362,000 818,000

'Tons
432 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table No. IV.—Exports of Philippine Islands by leading countries.

Countries.

United Kingdom

China, including French Indo-China and Hongkong

United Sta tes France

Spain Japan Germany

Other countries Total

Average for 1892-1896 (calendar

years)

844, 000 31.000

053, 000 986,000

855, 000

616, 000 201,000

896, 000

22, 482, 000

Fiscal vear

1900.

16,227,000 4,415,000

3,522,000

1,392,000

1,226,000 1,032,000

97, 000

2, 110, 000

19,751,000

Table No. V. -Imports and exports of merchandise, Philippine Islands, near ended .June 30, 1900.

Countries.

United States United Kingdom..

Spain France Germany

Japan China Hongkong

British East Indies Other countries . .

Total

Imports.

11,656,469 83, 522, 160 3,941,422 6,227,259

2, 092, 530 1,226,475

485, 299 1,392,439

1,209,953 1, 397, 548

259, 161 1,032,462

5, 570, 683 1,458,729

2, 639, 620 2, 686, 168

2, 216, 914 938, 470 1,524,816 1,169,558

20, 597, 167

Exports.

One-half of the imports into the Philippine Islands, as is shown

by Table No. I, consists of cotton manufactures and rice. Among'

other important articles are iron and steel manufactures, liquors,

and chemicals. By comparing the trade of the year 1893 with

that of 1900 several important changes will be seen to have taken

place in the Philippine trade. During both years cotton manufactures

held first place, but the importation of rice is shown to have increased

nearly fivefold. The importation of mineral oils has fallen off very

greatly, and the same is true of wines. The decreased purchases of

wines, however, are largely offset by the increased importation of

distilled and malt liquors. On the whole, the trade shows a rather

large growth in view of the insurrection. There is a general tendency

toward a larger purchase of manufactured commodities, and the

establishment of civil order throughout the islands will unquestionably

result in a much larger purchase of such articles. An examination of Table No. II shows that important changes are taking place in the distribution of the Philippine purchases among

foreign countries. As might be expected, the transfer of the islands

from Spain to the United States and the abolition of the preferential

tariffs maintained by Spain have resulted in a great decrease in her

trade with the Philippines. Our exports to those islands are shown

to be increasing. The exports from the United Kingdom to the Philippines appear to be declining, while those from China and Hongkong

appear to be increasing. The trade of Hongkong, however, is only

that of a distributing center, and the increase in its exports to the

Philippines means only that the United Kingdom, the United States,
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 433

and other countries are sending greater quantities of commodities to Hongkong for distribution in the Philippines and elsewhere.

In the exports of the Philippine Islands the hemp now has first place,

although in 1893 the value of the sugar exports was 50 per cent more

than that of hemp. The war with Spain and the subsequent insurrection have greatly interfered with the sugar production. The exportation of hemp, cocoanut products, and tobacco seems to have been less interfered with. The consumption of hemp is increasing so fast that

the exportation of this commodity from the Philippines must unquestionably increase rapidly in the future. It is probable also that

improved machinery will be introduced for the manufacture of sugar

and that some of the plantations, at least, will be organized in accord- ance with efficient modern methods. At the present time the sugar

exports consist of a very crude unrefined product, most of which is sold in Asiatic countries. Table No. IV, giving the destination of the

foreign exports, shows that Great Britain and the continent of Asia

received over half of the total in 1900. Here again the trade of Great

Britain and the United States seems to have fallen off, and that of Hongkong- and China to have greatly increased. This is obviously due to the fact that Hongkong is credited with trade that is merely trans- shipped at that port. The exports from Spain to the Philippines have

fallen off, as might have been expected. Those to the United States are also less than they were, but how much less it is impossible to say, because a part of the trade is handled through Hongkong. The influ- ence of the Philippine insurrection upon the total exports of the islands,

and upon their export trade to the United States is clearlv indicated

by Table No. IV.

The imports into the Philippine Islands from the United States constitute but a small portion of the purchases by the people of those

islands. The total value of our exports to those islands is, however,

increasing, the goods exported directly from the United States amounting to $1,655,469 during the year ended June 30, 1900. During the

five years 1892-1896, when our trade relations were normal, our exports

to the islands averaged only $135,228 per annum. As has already been

stated, a very large part of the imports into the Philippines are reported

as coming from Hongkong, which is merely a center of distribution.

The value of American flour included in the imports from Hongkongduring the fiscal year 1900 was $318,193, and, in addition to flour, mineral oils, meat products, general manufactures, and other commodities

are known to have been imported indirectly by way of Hongkong. It may be well, moreover, to state that the total of $1,656,469 does not

include the goods imported by the commissary or quartermaster for

the use of the American army.

The imports directly from the United States consisted chiefly of the

following articles. The value of the articles is also included. Malt

liquors, $477,000; glass and glassware, $232,000; spirits, distilled,

$177,000; books and printed matter, $175,000; paper, $54,000; wines,

$51,000; cotton, $34,000; cheese, $30,000.

What are the chances for increasing our export trade to the Philippine Islands? Is it probable that the Filipinos will increase their

total imports, and if they do, will a larger share of the total be supplied by the United States? This will depend more upon the

facilities for shipment than the cost of production in this country as

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 28
434 "REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

compared with cost of production in Europe. At the present time

Great Britain and Germany control the larger share of this trade,

but it would seem that in the future the heavier iron and steel manufactures, as well as the electrical machinery, tools, bicycles, sewing

machines, and similar articles, will be purchased in considerable and in increasing quantities from this country. Our ability to sell cotton goods extensively in Manchuria would indicate that we can compete

with Europe in supplying the Filipinos with those goods. The growing demand for flour, provisions, and dairy products will be supplied

by the United States if shipping facilities are favorable. At the pres- ent time the petroleum used by the Filipinos is supplied mainly by

Russia, but the opening of the canal and the establishment of better

shipping facilities between the eastern part of the United States and

the Orient will enable the American exporters of oil to control at least a part of this trade.

The opening of the canal will not greatly reduce the distances from

our Atlantic seaboard to the Philippine Islands, but it will give us another route to the East and one that will probably be more economical. One of the consequences of the canal will be a larger commercial

intercourse between the United States and oriental countries generally,

and this will be accompanied by better facilities for trading with all oriental countries, the Philippines included. At the present time the

European exporters have more favorable facilities for shipping to the

Philippines and other points in the East than Americans have.

LOCATION OF THE PHILIPPINES WITH REFERENCE TO TRADE ROUTES FROM THE UNITED

STATES. Present conditions make Hongkong the point from which the imports

into the Philippine Islands are distributed, and is the point from which

a large part of the exports is dispatched to North Atlantic countries.

At the present time the trade of the Philippines is not large enough to cause many vessels outbound from Europe for Hongkong, Shanghai,

and Japanese ports to make the detour required in order to call at Manila. Moreover, the wharves will not now accommodate large

ships, and nearly all the traffic has to be handled by lighters. The

improvements in progress in the harbor will remove this obstacle, and

it is probable that as the total trade of Manila increases the inducements for making the city a port of call will become sufficient to cause

a large share of the Manila trade to be handled at that port instead of

being transshipped at Hongkong.

The location of Manila and the Philippines with reference to trade

routes from New York b}r way of the Nicaragua Canal is shown by the

following table. In Chapter XVII the length of routes from Europe

and the United States to the Philippines is discussed more in detail.

Miles.

1. New York to Manila via Brito, San Francisco, Great Circle, and Yokohama 11,207

2. New York to Manila via Brito, Honolulu, and Guam _ 11, 274

3. New York to Manila via Brito, San Francisco, Yokohama, Shanghai, and

Hongkong 11,994

4. New York to Manila via Brito, Honolulu, Yokohama, Shanghai, and

Hongkong 12, 368

5". New York to Hongkong via Brito, Honolulu, Guam, and Manila 11,902

6. New York to Hongkong via Brito, San Francisco, Yokohama, and Shanghai . 11, 366

7. New York to Shanghai via Brito, San Francisco, and Yokohama 10,505

8. New York to Shanghai via Brito, Honolulu, Guam, and Manila 12, 509
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 435

The distance from New York to Hongkong and Shanghai (compare

routes 5, 6, 7, and S) are respectively 536 and 2,002 miles shorter by

way of the northerly route and Japan than b}^ the southerly route and

the Philippines. The distance from New York to Manila is shorter

by way of San Francisco and Japan (routes 1 and 2) than by Honolulu

and Guam. In Honolulu, moreover, the price of coal is higher than

in San Francisco. Coal is also dearer in Guam than in Yokohama.

San Francisco and Yokohama also have more freight to offer than

Honolulu and Guam have. The price of coal will alwaj^s be high at Guam, because the island will not be an exporting point. Vessels

engaged in the commerce between America, Asia, and the Philippines

will tend to take the northern route to get Japanese coal and freight.

II. THE HAWIIAN ISLANDS.

SOIL AND CLIMATE OP THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The Hawaiian Islands have a fertile soil in the limited areas where

cultivation is possible. The islands being situated in midocean between

19° and 23° north latitude, the northeast trade winds blow over them

during the greater part of the year, and the eastern side of the islands

is copiousty watered, but on the opposite slopes the rainfall is much

less and irrigation is necessary to agriculture. The leeward side of

the islands, moreover, is calmer and warmer than the windward side. The islands are volcanic, hilly, and well drained, and hence not malarial.

In most parts of the islands the climate is not especially enervating, and

Europeans, as well as Japanese and Chinese, find sustained effort to be possible. The islands are of small area and very mountainous, and

the foreign immigrant has a large range of choice as regards climate.

The Hawaiian group consists principally of seven islands, having a

total area of 6,449 square miles. The largest island of the group is Hawaii, although Oahu, upon which the city of Honolulu is located,

is the most populous one. Although the Hawaiian Islands have nearly

twice the area of Porto Rico, their population is only one-sixth as great. According to the census taken by the United States Government in 1900 the inhabitants of the islands number 154,000, the increase

from 1896 having been 44,981, which was equivalent to over 41 per

cent. This very rapid growth in population was due to the sudden

expansion of business resulting from the annexation of the islands to the United States. Until the statistics of the census of the Hawaiian Islands taken in 1900 have been analyzed and published it will not be possible to speak

definitely in regard to the various elements of the present population.

By the census of 1896 the population numbered 109,020, and of this total 31,019 were natives, 8,485 half-castes, 21,616 Chinese, 24,407 Japanese, 15,191 Portuguese, 3,086 Americans, 2,250 British, the rest of

the population being made up of Germans, Norwegians, French, and

Polynesians. The immigrants into the islands from the United States comprise a comparatively small share of the total population. They

have, however, the industrial and political control of the islands. The

laboring classes consist largely of Japanese and Chinese. It is esti- mated that there were 27,000 Chinese in the islands in 1899, and 6,000

of them were employed on the sugar plantations. The Japanese were

estimated to have numbered 58,000 at the close of 1899, and it is said
436 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

that about 26,100 of them were emplo}7 ed on the sugar plantations.

Nearly five-sevenths of the plantation laborers consisted of Japanese

in the year 1899. THE RESOURCES OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The resources of Hawaii are almost exclusively agricultural. There

are no minerals of consequence and manufactures are and will always

be insignificant.

The sugar industry is of overshadowing importance. The decomposed

lava soils of the islands, when properly irrigated and treated with a small quantity of fertilizers, are exceedingly productive, the yield of

sugar per acre being especially high, ranging from 3 to 5 tons per

acre on the average. The total crop of 1891 is reported to have

amounted to 146,000 tons, while that of 1899 was about 300,000 tons,

and numerous additions have been made to the acreage of the plantations since that date. The capital invested in sugar is said to amount

to $40,000,000. There are about 60 plantations on the islands. The

plantations are organized on a large scale and in accordance with most

economical methods. The rainfall on the leeward side of the island

being light, irrigation is necessary, and extensive irrigation works have

been constructed.

While the large development of the sugar industry in Hawaii has

added to the wealth of the islands, it has not been altogether fortunate

for their economic progress. The climate and soil of the islands are such that the industries might be diversified, and it is probable that a population consisting to a large extent of small independent farmers

might be developed if the sugar plantations did not include Such a

large share of the islands. In the early eighties the best sugar lands were leased for thirty and forty year periods to a small number of

planters, and the American capital invested in Hawaii has gone almost

entirely into the sugar industry. The population connected with the

sugar plantations consists of Japanese, Chinese, and Portuguese laborers, who probably will always constitute a dependent population.

Rice is the second crop in value, and in former }

T ears it has boon an important article of export. The rapid growth in the population,

particularly in the number of Japanese, has so increased the home

demand as nearly to put an end to the exportation of rice. The industry is carried on by the Chinese according to very primitive methods.

Large quantities of tropical fruits, oranges, pineapples, bananas,

etc., could be successfully grown in Hawaii. The exportation of

bananas has begun, over $80,000 worth of them having been sent to California in 1899.

At one time it seemed probable that the production of coffee would

constitute the most important industry of the Hawaiian Islands, but

the reciprocity treaty between Hawaii and the United States made the

cultivation of sugar so profitable that capital has gone more and more

into sugar plantations. Some of the coffee estates have been con- verted into sugar plantations, and at the present time it is estimated

that there are less than 20,000 acres of coffee under cultivation. The

annual production is larger than the home demand and a limited

quantity is exported. The exports in 1897 amounted to 337 pounds,

and those of 1899 were 779,796 pounds. a It seems probable that the

a Later figures are not available because our commerce with Hawaii is now coasting

trade, concerning which statistics are not kept.
KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 437

annual production will grow less rather than increase, unless the coffee and sugar industries .should be developed together on the same plantations. Those who have studied the question have suggested that the

two crops might advantageously be produced on the same plantation,

because coffee grows at a greater elevation than the sugar does, and

the season when coffee requires the largest labor force comes at a time

when the sugar plantation has a surplus of workmen. An}T thing that can bring about the diversification of industries in Hawaii will be of

advantage to the islands. Whether the industries of Hawaii can be diversified and the social

conditions accompanying large plantation life can be changed is a matter of great importance to the economic future of Hawaii. There

seems to be a tendency in all tropical countries toward the organization of industries upon a large scale. The corporation with abundant

capital at its command seems in a measure to be taking the place formerly occupied by the slave owner. In the time of slavery the planters

organized and directed the labor force of the natives, and under the

present capitalistic regime the corporations, in a different manner,

are performing a similar task. Whether or not the capitalistic organization of labor will result in a social betterment of the laboring classes and in the development of intelligent, self-supporting artisans remains

to be seen. If it is possible to develop desirable social conditions anywhere in the Tropics, Hawaii would seem to offer more opportunities

than most of the island countries. The United States Government

has established an agricultural experiment station in Hawaii that will

doubtless be of assistance in varying the productions of the islands.

General education will in time assist in the same work.

THE CAXAL AND THE TRADE OF HAWAII. The Hawaiian Islands have a large and rapidly increasing foreign

trade. The annexation of the islands to the United States was fol- lowed by a great expansion in business. The imports of 1897 were

valued at $8,838,000, while those of 1899 amounted to $19,058,000.

The exports of the islands increased from $16,029,000 in 1897 to $22,628,000 in 1899. The trade of the first half of 1900 was fully up

to that of 1899. It is impossible to speak of the trade of the islands

since that time, because the trade is nearly all with the United States,

and our commercial statistics, as was stated above, do not include

domestic trade. The share of the Hawaiian trade controlled by the United States is especially large. In 1898, 99.62 per cent of the exports of the islands came to the United States, and we furnished them 76.91 per cent of

their imports. In 1899 the United States purchased 99.52 per cent of

the Hawaiian exports, and supplied the islands 78.81 per cent of their

imports. Our most important rival in the import trade of Hawaii is Great Britain, which supplies the islands with between 9 and 10 per

cent of their purchases. Our exports to the Hawaiian Islands in 1899

consisted mainly of the following articles and values:

Machinery $2, 089, 000

Eailroad materials 282, 000 Iron and steel 289, 000 Hardware, agricultural machinery, and tools 940, 000 Building materials 547, 000

Fertilizers 957, 000

Provisions •_ 1, 284, 000
438 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Practically all of the iron and steel products imported by Hawaii come from the Eastern States. The owner of one of the largest

Hawaiian sugar plantations states that its water supply is handled

through pumps and pipes purchased in Birmingham, Ala. , and that its sugar machinery was manufactured in St. Louis. A single firm near New York already sends $500,000 worth of machinery annually to Hawaii. Of the fertilizers, a part comes from Germany, but the larger

share is from the phosphate beds of our Southern States, and the canal

will aid Hawaiian agriculture by cheapening the cost of these commodities as well as by furnishing a shorter route bj^ which to market

the exported produce. At present our Atlantic States import 40,000

to 80,000 tons of Hawaiian sugar per year by way of Magellan and

Cape Horn. This will be cheapened by the shorter route, and as the

price of sugar on the Pacific coast is determined by its price in New

York and London, the canal will enable the sugar grower to obtain a higher price for the bulk of the crop marketed in our Pacific States. In their trade relations the Hawaiian Islands may be considered as a part of our Pacific coast. They belong to the United States, the

dominant race is American, English is the common language, our cap

ital controls the industry of the islands, and their commerce is almost

all with this country. An isthmian canal must have a great effect on

Hawaii. The one-sidedness of her resources makes Hawaii especially

dependent upon commerce. Sugar is the only product extensively

exported; agriculture the only industry, and that is in an undiversified

state. All manufactures and many of the food products needed by

her increasing population must be imported. The complex demands

of the islands can be supplied only in part by the industries of our

Pacific coast States, and everything not originating there must be

brought from our Eastern States or Europe. Some of the Hawaiian

imports from the eastern part of the United States now move by the

transcontinental railroads and thence by water, but the heavier articles

usually go by Cape Horn or the Straits of Magellan. Some goods are

sent by the Panama lines and transshipped at San Francisco. After

the canal has been constructed, the traffic, both import and export,

will be divided between the transcontinental railroads and the all- water canal route. Chapter XVI.

The canal and Central America and western M, arit o.

I. CENTRAL AMERICA.

POPULATION AND GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. The population of Central American countries has not been accurately determined by careful censuses, but the following table, compiled from the Statesmen's Yearbook, doubtless gives approximately

accurate figures regarding both the area and population of each of the

Central American countries:
REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 439

Area and population of Central American countries.

Costa Rica. Guatemala Honduras . Nicaragua

Salvador... Total

Sq. miles.

23, 000

63, 400

46, 250

49, 200 7,225

189, 075

Population.

300, 000

1,532,000

407, 000

420, 000

» 915, 000

3, 574, 000

Capital city.

San Jose Guatemala City, Tegucigalpa ... Managua

San Salvador...

Population of Capital

city.

25, 006 75,000

12, 000

20, 000

50, 006

"Bulletin Bureau of American Republics, March, 1901. The population of the Central American countries a is nearly all upon the plateaus adjacent to the Pacific. The climate of the Caribbean coastal regions of Central America is humid, and the tropical

vegetation grows so rank as to add much to the difficulty of occupying and cultivating the country.

The plateau on which the Central American population and industries are centered extends with varying width and elevation from Mexico

to southern Costa Rica. West of the continental divide and parallel to it is a succession of volcanoes extending through all the region to the north of Costa Rica. In Guatemala they raise a barrier that walls

in a series of upland lakes, in Salvador they inclose a high valley where

most of the people of the country reside, and in Honduras and Nicaragua they are near the Pacific between the lakes and the ocean. This double mountain range widens the plateau and increases the habitable area. The plateau from Costa Rica northward is made up in large

part of decomposed lava, which has formed a fertile soil. Like the

lava soils of Hawaii, those of Central America are well adapted to sugar, coffee, and other crops of tropic agriculture.

The Central American plateau is most closely connected commercially with the Pacific Ocean. The Caribbean outlets are the Costa

Rica Railroad, from San Jose to Port Limon, and the San Juan River.

To the Pacific, however, four railroads have been constructed, not

including the short line terminating at Punta Arenas, Costa Rica. Two

of these four railroads are in Guatemala, one in Salvador, and one in Nicaragua. Numerous wagon roads have been constructed, and an English company is constructing a railroad in Costa Rica between San

San Jose and Tivives.THE CENTRAL AMERICAN INDUSTRIES. The industries a of Central America are mainly agricultural. Forest

products are exported to some extent. The mineral resources of the

country are beginning to be developed, but as yet on a comparatively

small scale. Throughout Central America coffee is the staple product, the lead- ing State in its production being Guatemala. In that State the coffee belt is in the plateau, the western edge of the belt being some 10 or 15 miles from the Pacific Ocean. It is 50 to 80 miles wide. This is the part of the country where most of the population is to be found.

a See PI. 84.
440 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The coffee in this region is carefulty cultivated and extensively exported,

two railroads to the Pacific having already been built, and a third line near the Mexican boundary will probably be constructed in the near

future. The western plateau of Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and

Costa Rica has numerous valleys where coffee culture is extensively

carried on. The main coffee belt of Nicaragua is situated in the neighborhood of Jinotepe, northwest of Lake Nicaragua. In Costa Rica

the valley in which the city of San Jose is located constitutes the

most important coffee-growing region.

The lowlands of the eastern coast, particularly of Nicaragua and

Costa Rica, are well adapted to banana culture, and the United Fruit

Company has extensive banana plantations in the neighborhood of

Port Limon, Costa Rica, and Bluefields, Nicaragua. The San Juan

River Valley is another region in which banana culture could be extensively carried on, and should the Nicaragua Canal be constructed a large amount of fruit will doubtless be grown in this valley. In the western part of Central America, where the soil is largely of

volcanic origin, sugar can be very successfully grown. Several sugar

plantations are now in successful operation, but their output is practically all consumed within the country. In the future development

of Central America the production of sugar will in all probability

have a prominent place.

There is at the present time a limited amount of cocoa produced in various sections, and this is a product which could readily be increased.

It is also probable that rubber trees can be and will be profitably cul- tivated in the future. At the present time the world's rubber supply

is mainly secured from the natural forest trees, but the growing

demand for rubber and the increasing difficulty of securing adequate

.supplies from the present uncertain sources make it probable that

rubber will in the future be a cultivated product. When that time comes the lowlands will offer a favorable region.

Throughout the uplands of Central America cattle are raised in large numbers, and one of the important exports at the present time

is hides. Indeed, coffee, bananas, and hides are the leading articles of

export. At the present time, with the exception of bananas and timber, the leading exported commodities leave the country mainl}T by

the Pacific ports.

The lumbering industries are mainly located on the eastern shore,

and the opening of a canal across the country will but indirectly assist them. The same is true of the exportation of dyewoods and other

forest products.

The mining of gold, silver, and copper has made some headway in Central America, and with the establishment of stronger governments

and the development of additional facilities for transportation these

mineral industries will doubtless develop. When it is possible to reach the mines in the western part of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Salvador,

and Guatemala by improved means of transportation, and when it is possible to secure supplies and dispose of the product with moderate

tnmsporstation costs, there is reason to believe that the Central American countries will regain some of the prominence which they once

held as a source of precious metals. Possibly the most valuable

mineral resource of the region will prove to be copper, the world's

demand for which seems to increase more rapidly than does the supply of the metal.
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 441

As to the productive capabilities of Central America, there is no doubt that when foreign capital can be invested freely and safely in industrial enterprises the progress of that region will be steady and

eventually reach large proportions. The construction of the canal

will increase the shipping facilities of the eastern part of the country

and will bring the western half of the region into close commercialrelations with its chief markets, the countries of the North Atlantic. THE CANAL AND THE FOREIGN TRADE OF CENTRAL AMERICA. The opening of a canal across the American Isthmus, either at Panama or at Nicaragua, would enlarge the foreign commerce of Central America and increase the share of the trade controlled by the

United States. A waterway across Nicaragua would, however, have

a greater effect upon the industries and commerce of Central America

than would one at Panama, because of the great assistance the Nicaragua Canal would give to economic and political progress in the

States adjacent. Nicaragua and Costa Rica would contribute tropical

products to the traffic of a canal passing through their territory and

to the commerce of Europe and the United States. Fruits and forest

products would be shipped from the San Juan Valley and the northern

part of Costa Rica. In the uplands of Costa Rica and on the plateau

of Nicaragua the exportation of cattle, coffee, fruits and vegetables,

sugar, and probably tobacco would be stimulated by the canal and the

facilities for shipping at all times to all important commercial countries. Nicaragua would be especially favored by the canal because of

the facilities which Lake Nicaragua would afford for collecting and

distributing commodities. The interoceanic waterway would bring

the interior basin of the country, where most of the industrial activity

is centered, into close connection with the world's commerce. The commerce of the eastern ports of Central America is largely

controlled by the United States while most of that of the western

slope is with Europe. We supply 55 to 60 per cent of the imports of

British Honduras or Belize on the Atlantic coast. To Guatemala as a whole we furnish only 39 per cent, including our direct shipments to the east coast, and the flour, lumber, and provisions from San Francisco to the west coast. Great Britain supplies most of the $558,000

worth of cottons purchased by Guatemala, and nearly all of the manufactures imported by that country come from Europe by the Straits

of Magellan. The same conditions prevail in western Honduras, al- though we have most of the trade of the eastern ports where there are good steamer connections with New Orleans. Salvador has a foreign

trade of $20 per capita, divided between San Francisco and Europe.

The last importation of steel rails came from England. In 1895 the

United States supplied Nicaragua with but 23 per cent of the imports

of the Pacific side, and the goods sold by us consisted largely of California lumber, wines, and flour. In 1897 we furnished the following

percentage of the imports of eastern ports of Nicaragua: Cape Gracias a Dios, 85 per cent; Bluefields, 83.6 per cent; Greytown, 53 per cent. Fifty-eight per cent of the goods forwarded from Greytown to the

interior were from the United States. We are now furnishing 45 to 50 per cent of the imports of Costa Rica, and the share has increased

considerably since the railroad to Port Limon changed the commercial

outlet from Punta Arenas on the Pacific to Port Limon on the Atlantic.
442 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The total imports of Central America and the shares of the United

States, the United Kingdom, and Germany are shown by the following- table taken from the publications of the United States Bureau of

Statistics

Imports of Central America.

FroniTotal United States United Kingdom

Germany

$15, 800, 285

2, 935, 447 4,941,4fU

a 1,739, 304

$23, 999, 561

7, 739, 907

5, 266, 4,4 1,781,666

The Central American trade has not reached large proportions, but

it is growing. Our share has more than doubled in a decade while

that of the United Kingdom and Germany has remained nearly sta- tionary. Under present conditions, the Pacific coast of the United

States trades with the Pacific coast of Central America and our Atlantic coast ports with the Caribbean section. The canal will enable

each of our coasts to find a market on the opposite seaboard of Central America. This and the industrial development of the American

Isthmus resulting from the canal will largely promote the commerce

of the United States with Central America.

II. WESTERN MEXICO. a The area of that part of Mexico draining di recti}'' into the Pacific

Ocean comprises over 300,000 square miles, and is equal in size to

California, Oregon, and Washington. The northern half of this Pacific

slope of Mexico resembles the southern part of California and Arizona

in climate and general physical conditions. The southern half of the

region is tropical in character, the section beyond Tehuantepec being

physiographically a continuation of Guatemala.

According to the census of 1895 the section under consideration

contained approximately 4,000,000 people, and until the construction

of the railways about the City of Mexico and on the Mexican Plateau

stimulated the growth of population in that part of the Republic the

rate of increase was greater on the Pacific slope than in the country as

a whole.

The Pacific slope of Mexico is more geographically isolated than are the west coast States of our own country. Seven transcontinental

railway lines connect our Western States with the Mississippi Valley

and the eastern section of our country, but as yet there is only one

railway, a spur of the Southern Pacific, joining the western part of

Mexico with the region east of the Cordilleras. While the railway

system of Mexico has been rapidly extended, the construction of lines

connecting the plateau with the Pacific coast has made slow progress,

because the western slope of the great Mexican Plateau is so steep as

to make railroad building extremely difficult. The result of this lack

of railway lines connecting western Mexico with the United States and

with Mexico east of the mountains has been that the region is in the

main commercially tributary to Europe.

"See PI. 85.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 443

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OP WESTERN MEXICO. The western slope of Mexico, being situated in temperate and

tropical latitudes and having a variation of several thousand feet in altitude, is capable of producing a great variety of agricultural products. The Tropic of Cancer divides the region under discussion into

two nearly equal sections, the most important port of the region in the

temperate latitude being Mazatlan, situated just north of the tropic. In the irrigated portion of the temperate section wheat can be grown

to advantage and also subtropical fruits. In the tropical latitudes sugar, coffee, and other tropical products are grown.

North of the twentieth parallel irrigation is everywhere necessary

for agriculture, but south of that line the natural rainfall is usually

sufficient. In this temperate region the amount of cultivable land is limited to the portions for which water can be secured, but those sec- tions, as is usual in irrigated regions, are highly productive, Several

valleys of western Mexico have already been irrigated, and a reference

to two of them will illustrate the results that are being accomplished.

In the valley of the Yaqui River, which flows into the Gulf of California a few miles south of Guaymas, an American corporation has

constructed an irrigation ditch 40 miles in length, by which 400,000

acres of land can be watered. In this irrigated valley corn, cotton,

tobacco, wheat, and subtropical fruits can be and are raised. The

wheat produced is usually sold in Mexico, although in 1892 some of

it was exported by way of New Orleans to Europe. Oranges are exported from the Yaqui Valley and other sections of the State of

Sonora to the United States. Somewhat farther south, in the State of Sinaloa, a short railway has

been built from the port of Altata to Culiacan, and along the line of

this railroad irrigation works have been constructed, and a sugar estate established upon which 900 people are employed. A few years ago

this region w

T as an uninhabited waste. The valley in which this sugar

estate is located is said to be capable of producing 40,000 to 50,000

tons of sugar annually.

A reference to Lower California will afford another illustration of

the agricultural resources of the temperate latitude of western Mexico.

This peninsula has an extremely arid climate and is everywhere infertile except in the limited sections where irrigation is possible. The

food supply for the inhabitants has to be imported to a large extent,

although some sugar is exported to the mainland from the irrigated

district in the southern part of the peninsula. The most important

vegetable product of Lower California is the agave, a plant that grows

in many parts of Mexico. There are several species of the plant, one

producing the soft pita fiber and another the hemp of commerce.

Henequin, or sisal, the species of agave that grows in Yucatan, and

from which the so-called hemp is obtained, also grows in Lower California, although it has not yet been cultivated for exportation. It seems, however, that the production of hemp in Yucatan is nearing its possible maximum, and that the hemp of Lower California will soon become comniercialty ' important. An American corporation is now

arranging to develop the enterprise. In view of the fact that the largest market for sisal is in that part of the United States east of the

Rocky Mountains, and that the article is a bulky one, whose costs for

transportation are comparatively large, it would seem that the opening of the isthmian canal would have a very favorable effect upon the

development of the hemp industry of Lower California.
444 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In the tropical part of western Mexico the most important agricultural product is coffee. In the neighborhood of Mazatlan and Manzanillo there are some estates from which coffee is now exported. The

industry seems, however, to be in a backward state of development.

The resources of tropical Mexico from Manzanillo east are now of

but small importance to international trade. The economic and social

conditions of Chiapas, the State next to Guatemala, will illustrate this

fact. This State of Chiapas is the continuation of the coffee belt that

crosses Guatemala, but of the 20,000,000 acres of land comprised

within the State only 6,000,000 acres have as j

ret become private prop

erty, and it is said that only 70,000 acres are under cultivation. The

population of the State, including foreigners, comprises only 320,000

people. A beginning has been made in the cultivation of rubber trees,

but there is neither railroad, bank, nor electric light in the State, nor

are there any modern agricultural implements used. The construction

of an isthmian canal would bring this part of Mexico into close commercial connection with the countries of the North Atlantic. MINERAL RESOURCES. The Republic of Mexico is a very mountaiuous country, possessing

extensive deposits of gold, silver, copper, lead, and other metals. Up

to the present time foreign capital has gone more largely into mining

than into any other enterprises. As the transportation s}r stem of the

country is developed and the population becomes denser a larger

diversification of industries may be expected, but for some time to come the mineral industries will be of chief consequence. They will

always rank high.

The western Cordilleras of Mexico contain the richest mineral deposits of the country, and it is the northern half of these western Cordilleras that possesses the greatest mineral wealth. Thus far the miningoperations of this section have been confined mainly to the eastern

slope. Some mining operations are being carried on near the Pacific

coast, but the larger part of the mountainous region has }

T et to be

developed b}r mining operations.

The location of these western Cordilleras is such that they are naturally tributary to the Pacific rather than to the Gulf of Mexico. Some

of the mountains are within 50 miles of the Pacific, and practically

all of these western ranges are within 300 miles of that ocean. They

average from two to three times the latter distance from the Gulf.

At the present time four railroads are being constructed from the

plateau westward across these ranges to the Pacific, but it will probably be several years before any of them can be completed. One of

the great drawbacks to the mineral development of western Mexico at the present time is the high cost of fuel on the Pacific. Coke is now

brought from Europe by way of Cape Horn to western Mexico. It is possible that by the time the canal has been opened good coal will be

found in sufficient quantity in the mountains of western Mexico.

Should this not happen, it will be possible to export coal from our Southern cities by way of the canal to western Mexico for sale at about half the price at present prevailing in that locality.

Without attempting to speak in detail of the mining operations now

being conducted in the western part of Mexico, reference may be

made to the fact that there is a large number of gold and silver mines
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 445

in operation in the neighborhood of Mazatlan. The output from this region, both of gold and silver, is rapidly increasing. Old mines are being reopened, the cyanide process is being introduced, and the construction of the railroad from Durango through to the coast is being

pushed. Ninety miles cast of Culiacan an American company has

erected a water-power plant that furnishes 500 horsepower throughout

the year. The power is converted into electricity for use in the mines. In the northwestern part of the State of Durango, in the Topia district, there is a region possessing silver ores, lead, iron, and limestone

in abundance. In southwestern Chihuahua are valuable deposits of

gold and silver. This district is at present 300 miles from a railroad,

and the Topia district, just mentioned, is now 106 miles distant from the

railway. The consequence is that in both sections mining operations can now be carried on only on a small scale. Mention is made of these

districts to call attention to the fact that the construction of railways

and better facilities for shipment from Pacific ports can add very

much to the already important mining industries of western Mexico.

Mention might be made of numerous other mining industries; those

spoken of are merely illustrative. The peninsula of Lower California has valuable resources of gold,

silver, copper, and salt. Some American companies are now mining

gold and silver, and a French corporation, the Baleo Copper Company,

at Santa Rosalia, is now annually shipping 18,000 tons of copper and

copper matte to Europe. Some of this product goes across the Gulf

of California to Guaymas and is sent in bond to New Orleans and

thence to Europe. More of it, however, is sent around the Horn.

The company imports about 60,000 tons of coke by way of the cape, and its mining supplies come from the same source by the same route. THE CANAL AND THE COMMERCE Ot WESTERN MEXICO. The character of the trade of western Mexico and the effects which

the canal will have upon that trade can best be illustrated by reference

to the trade of Mazatlan, the most important port of the region. The

information herein given in regard to the industries and trade of

Mazatlan is taken from an excellent special report prepared for the

Isthmian Canal Commission by the United States consul located in that

city.

The commercial connections of Mazatlan with the United States are by steamers running to San Francisco and to Panama. A minor share

of this trade is handled by the Southern Pacific Railway. The facili- ties for shipping between Mazatlan and Europe are much better. The

Chilean line carries some of Mazatlan's exports to Valparaiso where

they are transferred to vessels bound for Europe. A French line and

a German line of steamers make regular calls at Mazatlan. There are

also two sailing vessels carrying coal from England to Mazatlan, and

from time to time other sailing vessels, as occasion requires, are operated under charters from England, France, and Germany. Having

better and cheaper connections with Europe, the trade of Mazatlan is mainly with that Continent.

A New York exporter of machinery says: At present a planter in the Pacific countries of Central America and Mexico can

ship coffee and rice machinery from any European port and secure freight rates which would involve a saving of from 5 to 10 per cent on the value of his purchase,

provided the cost price 'was equal to that quoted here.
446 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION

The total foreign trade of Mazatlan in 1899 amounted to $42,000,000

Mexican silver, and at the present time this trade is mainly controlled

by the merchants of Hamburg, Liverpool, and Bordeaux. The vessels

that take out coal and other commodities from Europe load back with

ore, tropical woods, and the other exports of Mazatlan. In 1899

Mazatlan sent to Europe $500,000 worth of logwood and mahogany,

whereas our imports of those woods amount to $16,000. An interesting contrast to this is offered by the trade of Tampico, on the opposite

side of Mexico. The commerce of that city is larger with the Linked

States than with any other country, three-eighths of the city's imports

being from our country.

Although the present trade of Mazatlan is comparatively large, it is much less than it will be when the means of communication with the

tributary country have been improved. At the present time there

are no railway connections with the interior, all the trade being

handled by coasting vessels or by wagons and pack mules. The completion of a railroad now being built westward from Durango will greatly enhance the commercial importance of Mazatlan.

Our manufacturing cities in the eastern part of the United States

will be between 1,000 and 2,000 miles nearer to western Mexico by

way of the canal than to San Francisco and Seattle. This region,

moreover, is so situated that the vessels engaged in our interoceanic

coasting trade can conveniently engage in its commerce. The isthmian

canal will cheapen the cost of constructing railroads in western Mexico and will lower the cost of machinery needed in the development of

the mines and plantations. It is quite probable also that the coal from

the southern part of the United States will be taken to western Mexico

through the canal, and it is possible that the canal will make profitable

the development of the great iron deposits of Durango. This vast deposit of iron ore in Durango is situated within 125 miles of the

Pacific, with which it might readily be connected by rail. At the present time the commerce of western Mexico is mainly with

Europe and the most important commercial route is that around South

America. The opening of the isthmian canal will give it closer con- nections with the United States than with Europe, and it seems probable that its trade will eventually be handled largely by our merchants.

Chapter XVII. —Comparison of distances by the isthmian canal and

other routes. In determining what commerce would use an isthmian canal, the fact of most fundamental importance is the effect which the new waterway

will have on the ocean distances between the trade centers adjacent to the Atlantic and those in and about the Pacific. The length of the route determines the time of the voyage, and in general the commerce

of the world is so conducted as to minimize distances as much as the conditions of ocean navigation and international exchanges permit. It

is accordingly desirable to preface the discussion of the traffic of an isthmian canal with a comparison of the distances between the Atlantic

and Pacific by way of the American isthmus with those by way of the

various routes now followed. This comparison can best be made by

means of a series of tables giving the distances by alternative routes'1 between the most important commercial centers. In most respects

a Consult pi. 74 for a chart of ocean routes by way of existing trade lines and by

way of the Nicaragua and Panama canals.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 447

the tables are self-interpretative. The distances are expressed in nautical miles, and the figures used in compiling the tables were furnished

by the United States Hydro-graphic Office. The length of each canal

is reckoned in nautical miles, the Nicaragua Canal being 101 nautical

miles long, the Panama 41, and the Suez 88. In the first table a comparison is made between the distances by the

Nicaragua Canal with those by the Straits of Magellan and the west

coast of North, Central, and South America.

Table I.

Distances i

xia the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of

the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and South America.

Via

To

Sitka. To Port Townsend. To Port- land. To San

Francisco. To San

Diego. To Acapulco.

To San

Jose de

Guate- mala.

Portland, Me.

Boston New York.

Philadelphia. Baltimore

Norfolk . Charleston

Savannah..

Jacksonville

Port Tampa

Pensacola

Mobile New Orleans

Galveston

(Nicaragua.

1 Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua .

/Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua.. (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua .

\Magellan»..

I Nicaragua . (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua.. \Magellan 1 ..

I Nicaraguab . (Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua c . (Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua1'

(Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua.,

i Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua .

(Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua .

(Magellan 1

.. /Nicaragua .

(Magellan 1 .. /Nicaragua .

(Magellan 1 ..

6,418

15, 021 6,373

14, 986

6, 223

15, 016 6,171

15, 066 6,143 15,078 6,013

14,942

5, 803

14, 951 5,809

14, 980 5,767

14,955

5, 280

15,116

5, 386

15, 320

5,413

15, 362 5,420

15,416

5, 603

15, 598

5, 891

14, 494 5,856 14,459 5,696

14,489

5,636

14, 539 5,616

14, 551 5,486 14,415

5, 276

14, 424

5, 282

14, 453

5,240

14,428 4,753

14, 589 4,859

14, 793 4,886

14, 835

4,893

14, 889 5,076

15, 071

5,766

14, 369

5,731 14,334

5,571

14, 364 5,511

14,414 5,491 14,426

5,361

14, 290

5,151

14, 299

5, 157 14,328 5,115

14, 303

4, 628

14, 464

4,734

14, 668 4,761

14, 710 4,768

14,764

4,951

14, 946

5,116

13,719 5,081 13,684

4,921 13,714 4,861

13, 764 4,841

13, 776 4,711

13, 640 4,501

13, 649

5, 704

13, 678 4,465

13, 653

3,978

13, 814 4,084

14,018

4,111

14, 060 4,118

14,114

4,301

14, 296

4,668

13, 342 4,633

13. 307 4,473

13, 337 4,413

13, 387 4,393

13,399

4,263

13, 263

4,053

13, 272 4,059

13, 301 4,017

13, 276 3,530

13,437

3,636

13,641

3, 663

13, 683 3,670

13, 737

3, 853

13,919

2,736

11, 466

2,701

11,431 2,541

11,461

2, 481 11,511 2,461 11,523

2,331 11,387

2, 121

11, 396 2,127

11, 425 2,085

11, 400

1, 598

11, 561 1,704

11, 765

1,731 11,807 1,738

11,861

1,921 11,043

From

Via— To Honolulu. To Guayaquil. To Callao. To Iquique. To Valparaiso. To Coronel.

Portland, Me /Nicaragua .

6,626 3,441 3,946 4,588 5,173 5,356

1 Magellan »_. 14,854 10, 428 9,707 9, 226 s,si;i; 8, 135 (Nicaragua.. 6, 591 3,403 3,911 4, 553 5,138 5, 321 /Magellan 1 .. 14,819 10, 393 9, 672 9,199 8,431 8,100 (Nicaragua .

6,431 3,246 3,751 4,393 4,978 5,171 (Magellan 1 .. 11,489 10, 423 9, 702 9, 221 « 8, 461 8, 130 Philadelphia (Nicaragua .

6,371 3,186 3,691 4,333 4, 918 5,101 (Magellan 1 .. 14,899 10, 473 9,752 9,271 8,511 8,180 /Nicaragua.. (Magellan 1 .. 6,351 14,911 3,166

10, 485

3,671 9,764

4,313

,9,2S3

4, 898 8,523

4, 581 8,192 (Nicaragua..

1 Magellan 1 .. (Nicaragua 11 .

6, 221

14, 775 3,036

10, 349

3,641 9,628 4,191

9,147 4,768

8,387

4,951

8, 056

6,011 2, 826 3. 331 3,973 4, 558 4,741 (Magellan 1 .. 14, 784 10, 358 9,637 9, 156 8,396 8 065

I Nicaragua c

. 6,017 2,832 3, 337 3,979 4,564 4,747

1 Magellan 1 .. 14,813 10, 387 9, 666 9,185 8, 425 8,094 (Nicaragua*. 5,975 2,790 3, 295 3,937 4,522 4. 7115 (Magellan 1 .. 14, 788 10, 362 9,641 9,160 8,400 8, 069 [Nicaragua .. 5, 188 2, 303 2, 808 3,450 4,035 4,218

1 Magellan 1 .. 14,949 10,523 9, 802 9, 321 8,561 8, 230 (Nicaragua .

/Magellan 1 .. 5,594

15, 153

2, 409

10,727 2,914

10, 006

3, 556 9,5254,144 8,765

4, 324

8, 134 (Nicarague..

1 Magellan 1 .. 5, 621 15,195

2, 436

10, 769

2,941

10, 048 3,583

9, 567

4, 168. 8,807

4,351

8, 476 (Nicaragua .

5, 628 2, 443 2,948 3, 590 4,175 4, 358

1 Magellan 1 .. 15, 249 10, 823 10, 102 9, 621 8,861 8, 530

1 Nicaragua..

(Magellan 1 .. 5,811

15, 431

2, 626

11,005

3,131

10, 284 3,773

9,803 4,358 , 9,043

4.541

8, 712

1 Via Pernambuco, Callao, and San Francisco for points bevond these ports.

h Vessel going by west end of Cuba will shorten voyage 69 miles for Charleston.

c 104 for Savannah.

d 136 for Jacksonville.
448 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The above table compares the distances by way of the Nicaragua

Canal with those through the Straits of Magellan from the chief ports

of our Atlantic and Gulf seaboard extending, from Portland to Galveston, to thirteen representative ports on the west coast of the American

continents. Coronel, the most southerly of the west coast ports mentioned in the table, is situated within two or three hundred miles of

the southern limits of the industrial section of Chile. It is also an

important coaling port at the present time. It will be observed that

the distance from New York to Coronel by way of the Nicaragua

Canal is 2,959 miles less than the present route through the Straits of

Magellan.

The effect of an isthmian canal upon the length of ocean routes con- necting our eastern seaboard with the west coast of the three Americas

is well shown by comparing the distances by wa}r of the Nicaragua

Canal and the Straits of Magellan from New York, the largest Atlantic port, and from New Orleans, the largest Gulf port, to San Francisco, the representative west coast city of the United States, to Iquique,

the center of the nitrate of soda section, and to Coronel, in southern

Chile. This comparison is shown in the following table:

From New York via

Nicaragua. Magellan

From New Orleans via

Nicaragua. Magellan

San Francisco Iquique

Coronel

4,921 4,393

5,171

13,714

9, 221 8,130

4,118

3,590 4,358

14,114

9, 621 8,530

In the following table (II) the distances from representative European ports to the west coast of the American continents by the

Nicaragua and Magellan routes are given

Table II.

Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the

Straits of Magellan.

To—

Sitka Port Townsend ... Portland San Francisco San Diego

Acapulco

San .lose do Guate- mala

Honolulu

Guayaquil

Callao Iquique

Valparaiso Coronel

From Liverpool via—

Nlcara- Magelgua. Ian

8, 953 8,426

8,801

7,651 7,211 5,840

r>. 2sr,

9, 175 5,975

6, 181 7,12:t 7,708

7, Mil

15,386

14,859

14, 734

ll.osl 13,707

12,261

11,831

15,219 10.722

10,(172 9,591

8,831

- ,00

From Hamburg

via

Nicara- Magelgua. Ian.

9,470 8,943

S.SI.S

s.lt.s 7,718

6,343 5,788

9,678

6,493

6, 998 7.610 8,225

8, 108

15, 836

15, 309

15. IS I 14,534 M, 157 12,711

12, 2M

15,66'.! 11,172

L0.522

10,011 9,281 8,950

From Antwerp

via—

Nicara- gua.

9,191

8, 664 8,539

7, 889

7,489

6,064 5,509 9,399

6,214 6,719

7,361 7,946

s, L29

Magellan."

15, 557

15,1130 14,905

1 1,255 13,878

12, 132

12, 002

15, 390

10,898 10,243

9, 762

9, 002

s, 101

From Bordeaux

via

Nicara- Magelgua. Ian.'

8, 941

8, 111 8,289

7. 6: v.i 7, 189

5, 814

5, 259

9,149

5, 964

6, 169 7,111 7,606

7, 879

15, 073

14,546

11, 121 13,771 13,894 11,948

11,518

14,906

10, 409

0,250

o, 278 \51,S

8,1S7

From Gibraltar

via

Nicara- Magelgua. Ian.

8, 675 8,148

8, 023

7,37;; 6,923 5,548

4,998 8,883

5,698

6, 203

6,845

7. 130 7,613

11. 155 13,928

18,803

is, i a

12.770 11,330

10,000

14,288

9, 701

9, 1 1

8,660

7.000

7,500

»Via Pernambuco, Callao, and Ban Francisco for ports north of those cities. The European ports included in the above table are so situated that

the distances from them to Pacific ports typify the distances from the

leading industrial and commercial centers of Europe, it will be

observed that the distance from Liverpool to Coronel by way of the

Nicaragua Canal will be 609 miles iess than by the route through the
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 449

Straits of Magellan. The route to the nitrate port of Iquique will be

shortened 2,468 miles. San Francisco will be brought 5,433 miles nearer to Liverpool and 5,780 miles nearer to Gibraltar. In Tables III, IV, and V the distances from the Atlantic American

ports to Pacific countries by way of the Nicaragua Canal and by way

of existing routes are compared.

Table III.Distances, in nautical miles, from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama,

Shanghai, and Hongkong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes.

To Yokohama via— To Shanghai via

To Hongkong via—

From—

San

Francisco and

Great

Circle.

Honolulu.

Suez," Co- lombo,

Singapore, Hongkong, and

Shanghai.

San

Francisco, Great

Circle, and

Yoko- hama.

Honolulu and

Yoko- hama.

Suez.'j Co- lombo,

Singapore, and

Hongkong.

San

Francisco, Great

Circle, Yokohama, and

Shanghai.

Honolulu, Yoko- hama, and

Shanghai.

Honolulu, Guam,

and

Manila.

Suez, Co- lombo, and

Singapore.

Portland Boston New York

Philadelphia.. Baltimore

Norfolk

Charleston Savannah

Jacksonville .. Port Tampa...

Pensacola Mobile New Orleans.. Galveston

9,652

9,617

9,457 9,397

9,377

9, 247

« 9, 037

<J 9, 043 •9,001

8,514

8,620

8,647 8,654

8,837

4>

10, 026

9,991

9,831 9,771

9,751

9, 621

= 9,411 19,417

• 9, 376 8,888

8,994

9, 021 9,028

9,211

13, 330

13, 370

13, 564

13, 707

13, 852

13, 727

13, 982 14,057

14, 137 14,629

14,S33

14, 875

14, 929

15,111

10, 702

10, 667

10, 507

10, 447

10, 427

10, 297

° 10, 087

* 10, 093 •10,051

9, 564 9,670 9,697

9,704

9,887

11,076

11,041

10, 881

10, 821

10, 801

10, 671

• 10, 461

a 10, 467

• 10, 425

9,938

10, 044

10,071

10, 078

10,261

12, 280

12, 320

12, 514

12, 657

12, 802

12, 677

12, 932

13, 007

13, 087

13,579

13, 783

13, 825

13, 879

14, 061

11,561 11,526

11,366

11,306 11,286

11,156

« 10, 946

a 10, 952

• 10, 910

10, 423

10, 529

10, 556

10, 563

10, 746

11,935

11, 900 11,740

11,680

11,660 11,530

• 11, 320

4 11,326

o 11,284

10, 797

10, 903

10, 930

10, 937 11,120

12, 097

12, 062 11,902

11,842

11, 822

11,692 •11,482

* 11, 488 •11,446

10, 959 11,065

11,092

11,099

11,282

11, 421

11,461 11,655

11, 798 11,943 11,818

12, 073

12, 148

12,228

12, 720

12, 924

12, 966

13, 020

13, 202

1 Direct voyage from Singapore to Yokohama reduces this distance by 393 miles.

b Direct voyage from Singapore to Shanghai reduces this distance by 66 miles.

c Vessels going by west end of Cuba will shorten voyage 69 miles for Charleston.

d 104 miles for Savannah.

e 136 miles for Jacksonville.

In Table III the distances from representative ports of the Atlantic

and Gulf to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong by way of the various

alternative routes are given. The distances given in the table are those which a vessel would take in going by actual commercial routes.

It has been deemed more important to deal with distances by commercial routes rather than b}^ the shortest possible course. The shortest route from the American Isthmus to Japan or China is by way of the

Great Circle. The distance from Brito to Yokohama direct is 7,122;

via Magdalena Bay, Lower California, 7,144; via San Francisco, 7,236,

and via Honolulu, 7,610 miles. By the Great Circle route a vessel can

call atSan Francisco by adding only lllmiles to its voyage; and with this

call at San Francisco included, the distance from New York to Shanghai

by the Great Circle and Yokohama is 374 miles less than via Honolulu

and Yokohama. The Nicaragua route is shorter than the Suez route

for all Asiatic points mentioned in the table, the advantages of the

Nicaragua route being greater for our Gulf ports than for those on the

Atlantic. Especial note may be made of the fact that the distance to Hongkong by way of Honolulu, Guam, and Manila is considerably

greater than by a route which enables a vessel to call en route at San

Francisco, Yokohama, and Shanghai. The latter route is 536 miles

less for a vessel starting from New York.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2- -29'
450 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In order to compare the distances by various routes connecting our

eastern seaboard with Manila, Table IV has been prepared.

Table IV.Distances, in nautical miles, from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Nicaragua and Suez routes.

From—

Via San

Francisco, Great

Circle, and Yokohama.

Via Honolulu and Yokohama.

Via

Honolulu, Yokohama,

Shanghai, and

Hongkong.

Via Honololu and Guam.

Via Suez, Colombo,

Singapore.

Portland Boston New York . .

Philadelphia Baltimore ... Norfolk Charleston a . Savannah b .. Jacksonville

Port Tampa . Pensacola . .

Mobile New Orleans Galveston ...

11,402

11,367

11,207 11,147

11.127

10, 997

10, 787

10, 793

10, 751

10, 264

10, 370

10, 397

10, 404 10,507

11,776

11,741

11,581 11,521 11,501

11,371

11,161 11,167 11,125

10, 638

10, 744 10,771

10.77S 10,881

12, 563

12, 528

12, 368 12,308

12,288

12. 158 11,948

11,954 11,912

11,425

11,581 11,558

11,565

11,668

11,469

11,434

11,274

11,214

11,194 11,064

10,854

10, 860

10, 818

10, 331

10, 437

10, 464

10, 471

10, 574

11,367

11,407

11,601 11,744

11,889

11,764 12,019

12, 094

12, 174

12, 266

I2,s70

12, 912

12, 966

13, 148

» The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 69 miles less.

b The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 104 miles less.

c The route to Greytown via west end of Cuba is 136 miles less.

It will be seen in the table that the distance from New York to Manila by way of San Francisco, the Great Circle, and Yokohama, is 11,207

miles, and that the distance b}r way of Honolulu and Guam is 11,274

miles. The Suez route is longer* than either of these routes, being 11,601

miles. A vessel bound from New York or New Orleans, or an}r other

eastern seaport to Manila can call at San Francisco, Yokohama, and

Hongkong en route by adding 720 miles to the length of a voyage by

way of Honolulu and Guam. Manila, it will also be noticed, is some- what nearer the eastern part of the United States by way of the Nicaragua Canal than by way of Suez.

The manner in which the Nicaragua Canal will affect the distances

between our eastern seaboard and Australia is shown b}^ Table V:

Table V.Distances, in nautical miles, between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes.

To Adelaide via—

From—

Sydney

and Mel

bourne,

Portland

H< .stun New York ..

Philadelphia Baltimore ... Norfolk

< lharleston .

Savannah . . Jacksonville.

Port Tampa . Pensacola ... Mobile New < Orleans Galveston . ..

Brito, St.YinTahiti, cent and

I 'ape 111"

(i 1 Hope.

954 919

759 099

679

549

:;:;<.» 345 303

Si 6 922

9 (9 956

139

12,446

12, 159 12,67 i L2.641 12,736

12,61 I 12,761

12,821 12,846

12.213

13, 117

13, 189 13,513

13, 72;.

To Melbourne via—

Brito, Tahiti, and

Sydney.

10,446

10, ill 10,251

10, 191 10,171

10,041 9,231 9,837

9, 795 9,808

9, 1 1

9, in

9, lis 9,631

St. Vincent, Cape of Good

Hope, and

Adelaide.

12,951 12,967

13,083 13,149

13,211 13,122

L8.269 13,329

13,354

13, 751 13,955

13,997

L4.051

I 1,233

To Sydney viaBrito and

Tahiti.'

St Vincent,

(i 1 Hope, Adelaide, and Mel- bourne.

9,871 9,836 9,676

9,616

9,596

9, 166 9,256

9,262

9, 220

8,733

8,839

8, 866 8,873

9,056

13, 529

18,642

13,668

13,, 721 13,819

18,697

18,844

13,904 13,929

14,326

i 1,630

I 1,572 11.626

14,808

To Wellington viaBrito and

Tahiti. 1

8,911 8,876

s, 716

S,ti5li 8,632

S.510

8, 296 8,302

8, 260

7,773 7,879

7,906 7,913

8,096

St. Vincent, Good

Hope, and Mel

bourne.

14,204 11.217

14,899

II, 191

1 1.372

i 1,519 14,579

14,604 15,001

16,205

15,217

15, 301

15, 188

Straits

of Magellan.

11,419

LI, 384

11, 11 I 11. 164

11, 176 11,140

11,349 11,378 11,353

11,514

11,718 11,760

11,814

11,996

« The course from Brito to Sydney direct, omitting call at Tahiti, would be 52 miles less,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 451

The distance from New York to Australia by the Cape of Good

Hope is practically the same as by the Suez Canal, and the Cape route

has the advantage of more favorable winds and currents and of a cooler

temperature. Vessels going from our eastern coast to Australia

always round the Cape; accordingly, the comparisons of Table V are between the Nicaragua and Good Hope routes. Steamers bound for

Australia via the Cape usually call at St. Vincent for coal; hence the

distances given in the table include a call at that island. The route between the American isthmus and Australia and New Zealand is by

way of the centrally located island of Tahiti, which will doubtless

become an important coaling station upon the opening of the isthmian

canal. New York is 3,982 miles nearer Sydney by way of Brito and Tahiti

than via St. Vincent, Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne. Adelaide

is 1,816 a miles nearer New York and 3,587 miles nearer New Orleans

by Brito and Tahiti than by Good Hope. Wellington will be brought

5,617 b miles nearer New York by the Nicaragua Canal.

The places in Australia, the East Indies, and southern China equally

distant from New York by the Nicaragua and Suez routes are shown

on pi. 86. It will be observed that the line passing through points

equidistant from New York via the two canals crosses the western part

of Australia, runs west of the Philippines, and touches the continent

of Asia in the neighborhood of the island of Hainan considerably to the west of Hongkong.

In Table VI the distances from Liverpool to Australasia and the

Orient by way of the Nicaragua and Suez routes are contrasted.

Table VI.Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes.

Suez route. Nicaragua route. Differ- ence

To—

Porta of call. Nautical miles. Ports of call. Nautical miles.

Suez —

Nicara- gua +.

Adelaide Melbourne .. S5'dneyAden," Colombo, King George

Sound.

Aden," Colombo. King George

Sound, Adelaide. Aden," Colombo, King George

Sound, Adelaide, Melbourne. Aden, "Colombo, KingGeorge

Sound, Melbourne.

Aden," Colombo, Singapore. .

do

11,151

11,659 12,234

12,919 9,677

9,731

11,362

11,640

Brito, Tahiti, Sydney, Mel- bourne.b Brito, Tahiti, Sydney b

Brito, Tahiti*

13,489

12, 981

12, 406

11,446

13,937

13, 777

13, 554

12, 187

-2,338

-1,322

172

Wellington.. .....doc +1,503 Manila Hongkong...

Brito, San Francisco, Yoko- hama.11 do<=

-4,260

-4,046

-2, 192 547

Tientsin Yokohama .Aden, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong, Shanghai. do

Brito, San Francisco, Yoko- hama.

"Direct voyage from Aden to King George Sound would shorten these routes 540 miles.

b Direct voyage from Brito to Sydney would shorten these routes 52 miles,

c Direct voyage from Brito to Wellington would shorten this distance by 185 miles and make the

difference 1,688 miles.

d A stop at Shanghai would add to this route 535 miles.

e A stop at Shanghai would add to this route 319 miles. With the exception of Wellington, the Pacific ports named in Table

VI are nearer Liverpool via the Suez Canal than by way of Nicaragua.

From Liverpool to Sydney, however, the distance via Brito and Tahiti

a Omitting stop at Tahiti would add 52 miles to this figure, and if Melbourne were

reached by Wellington rather than by Sydney, it should be increased by 232 miles.

b Omitting stop at Tahiti would add 185 miles to this figure.
452 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

is only 172 miles more than via Suez, Colombo, Adelaide, and Melbourne. Yokohama is but 547 miles farther from Liverpool via Brito

and San Francisco than via the easterly route. The route from Liverpool to Japan and China by way of the American Isthmus passes close to both the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards of

the United States. A vessel would add but 323 miles to the length of

the voyage from Liverpool to Greytown by calling at New York City,

the port having the largest foreign commerce of any city in the world

and an export traffic going in all directions. By calling at the south

Atlantic or Gulf ports of the United States, the raw and manufactured

cotton, which is exported in large quantities from the United States across the Pacific, could be added to the vessel's cargo. A call at San

Francisco, or some other west coast port of the United States, would

enable the vessel to participate in the grain and lumber trade from the

United States to Oriental countries. If the vessel making the trip

from Liverpool to Asia is sailed under the American flag, it can participate in the coasting trade between the two seaboards of the United

States. By consulting pi. 86, on which the points in Australasia and the East

Indies equally distant from Liverpool are located, it will be seen that

the line connecting the places equidistant from Liverpool by way of

the Nicaragua and Suez routes passes between New Zealand and Australia, runs east of the main island of Japan, and touches the continent

of Asia on the Manchurian coast some distance north of Vladivostok.

As far as distance alone is determinative, the commerce of Liverpool

with Australia and the Far East is tributary to the Suez route; but the

commercial factors other than distance will, in all probability, so affect the routes of trade as to cause some of the outbound and inbound

trade of Liverpool with the East to make use of the westerly route. For the purpose of showing the relative advantages, as far as dis- tance is concerned, which New York and Liverpool will possess for the

Eastern trade after the isthmian canal has been completed, Table VII

has been prepared:

Table VII.Comparisons of distances, in nautical miles, from, New York and Liverpool to Australasian and Asiatic ports -via the Nicaragua and Suez routes.

From New York (via Nicaragua). From Liverpool (via Suez). Differ- To—

Route. Miles. Route. Miles.

(Sucz, -;

Nicara- gua, +).

Brito, Tahiti 8,716

9,676

10, 759

11,207

11,047

10, 507

10, 824 9,457

Aden,'Colombo, King George

Sound, Melbourne. Aden,"Colombo, KingGeorgc

Sound, Adelaide, Melbourne. Aden ," Colombo, King George

Sound. Aden, Colombo, Singapore...

.do

12, 949

12,234

11,151 9,677

9,731

10, 590

11, 362

11,640

+4,233 do +2,658 b

Adelaide Manila

Brito, Tahiti,1- Sydney, Melbourne.

Brito, San Francisco, Great

Circle, Yokohama.

do

+ 392 -1,530

-1,316 do Aden, Colombo, Singapore, + 83 Hongkong.

Aden, Colombo, Singapore, Hongkong, Shanghai. do

do + 538 Yokohama .. Brito, San Francisco, Great

Circle. +2, 183

"Omitting stop at Colombo will shorten voyage 510 mill's.

>' Omitting stop at Tahiti will shorten voyage 52 miles.

If vessel goes by Wellington and Melbourne voyage will be shortened 232 miles.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CATSTAL COMMISSION. 453

New York will be nearer than Liverpool to New Zealand and the

commercially important half of Australia. Liverpool by way of the

Suez route will be nearer than New York by way of the Nicaragua

route to the Philippines, Hongkong, and southern Asia. Shanghai

will be almost the same distance from New York as from Liverpool,

the advantage in favor of New York by way of Brito, San Francisco,'

the Great Circle, and Yokohama being 83 miles—the route from

Liverpool by way of the Suez including a call at Colombo, Singapore

and Hongkong. Northern China, Manchuria, and Japan will be con- siderably nearer New York than to Liverpool.

PI. 86 shows that the line connecting the points equally distant from

Liverpool and New York by the Suez and Nicaragua routes, respectively, runs through the central part of Australia, through the western

part of New Guinea, east of the Philippine Islands, and touches the

mainland of Asia a little north of Shanghai.

The foregoing seven tables have shown the effect which a Nicaragua

Canal would have upon the ocean distances from our eastern seaboard

to the Pacific countries of America, Australia, and Asia. These tables have also shown the manner in which the comparative distances from

our eastern seaboard and from Europe would be modified by the Nicaragua Canal. In Table VIII the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes

are contrasted and the distances from typical Atlantic and Gulf ports

of the United States and from representative European cities to the

western coast of the American continents and to trans-Pacific countries

by way of each canal route are given:

Table VIII.

Comparison of distances, in nautical miles, from American and European

Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals.

FromVia—

To Port Townsend via San Francisco.

To San

Francisco. To Guayaquil. To Callao. To Iqui- que. To Valparaiso. To Coronel.

New York /Nicaragua .

1 Panama

/Nicaragua .

\Panama

/Nicaragua . \ Panama

(Nicaragua .

1 Panama

[Nicaragua .

[Panama

/Nicaragua . \ Panama

fNicaragua .

[Panama

("Nicaragua . (Panama

/Nicaragua . \Panama

(Nicaragua .

1 Panama

[Nicaragua .

[Panama

5,696

6,074

5,485 5,872

5,276 5,673

4,753 5,328

4,893

5,473

5,076

5,574 8,426

8,813

8,943

9,242

8,664

8,963

8,414 8,713

8,148

8,447

4,921

5,299

4,710

5,097

4,501 4,898

3,978

4,533 4,118

4,698

4,301 4,799

7,651 8,038

8,168

8,467 7,889

8,188 7,639

7,938

7,373

7,672

3,246

2,864

3, 035 2,662

2, 826 2,463

2,303

2,098

2,443

2,263

2, 626 2,364

5,975

5,603

6,493

6, 032

6,214

5,753

5,964

5,503

5,698

5,237

3,751 3,359 3,540

3,157

3,331 2,958 2,808

2,593

2, 948 2,758

3,131 2,858

6,481 6,098

6,998

6,527 6,719

6,248

6,469

5,998

6,203 5,732

4,393

4,021 4,182

3,819

3,973

3,638 3,450

3,255

3,590

3,420 3,773

3,520

7,123

6,760

7,640 7,189

7,361 6,910

7,111 6,660

6,845

6,394

4,928

4,630

4,767 4,428

4,558 4,229

4,035

3,864

4,175

4,029 4,358

4,129

7,708

7,369

8,225

7,798

7,946 7,519

7,696

7,269

7, 430 7,003

5,161 4,838 4,950

Charleston

Port Tampa New Orleans Galveston

Liverpool Hamburg

Antwerp

Bordeaux

Gibraltar

4,636

4,741 4.437

4,218

4,072

4,358

4,237

4,541 4,338

7,891

7,577

8,408

8,006 8,129

7,727 7,879

7,477 7,613

7,211
454 REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Table VIII.Comparison of distances, in nautical miles, from American and European

Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals.

From— Via

To Yoko- hama via San Francisco. 11

To Shanghai via San

Francisco" and Yoko- hama.

To Manila

via San

Francisco * and Yoko- hama.

To Sydney

via Tahiti. b To Mel- bourne1' via Tahiti and

Sydney.

To Wellington

via

Tahiti. <»

New York (Nicaragua .

1 Panama

/Nicaragua..

(Panama

(Nicaragua .

1 Panama

(Nicaragua .

(Panama

(Nicaragua . (Panama

(Nicaragua .

(Panama

(Nicaragua..

1 Panama

(Nicaragua .

(Panama

JNicaragua..

1 Panama .

/Nicaragua..

(Panama

(Nicaragua.. (Panama

9,457 9,835

9,2-46

9, 623 9,037

9,344 8,514

9,069

8,654 9,234

8,837

9, 335

12, 187

12, 574

12, 704 13,003

12, 425

12, 724 12,175

12, 474 11,909

12, 208

10, 507

10, 885

10, 297

10, 684 9,957

10, 367 9,564

10, 119 9,704

10, 284 9,887

10, 385

13, 237

13, 624 13,754

14, 053

13, 475

13, 774

13, 225

13, 524 12,959

13,258

11,207 11,585

10, 997 11,384

10, 505

10, 809

10, 264

10, 819 10,404

10,984

10, 587 11,085

13, 937

14, 324 14,454

14, 753 14,175

14, 474

13, 925 14,224

13, 659

13, 958

9,676

9,852

9,466 9,650

9,250

9, 451 8,733

9,086

8,873

9,251 9,056

9,352 12,406

12, 591

12, 923

13, 020

12, 644

12, 741

12, 394

12. 491

12, 128

12, 225

10,251 10,427

10, 041 9,858

9,831

10,006 9,308

9,661 9,448

9,826

9,631 9,927

12, 981

13, 166

13, 498

13, 595

13, 219 13,316

12, 969

13, 066

12, 703

12, 800

8,716

8, 892 8,505

Charleston

Port Tampa New Orleans Galveston

Liverpool Hamburg

8,2%

8,491 7,773 8,126

7,913

8,291 8,016

8, 392 11,446

11,631 11,963

12, 060

11,684 Bordeaux

Gibraltar

11,781

11,434

11, 471 11,168 11,265

» Via Honolulu add 374 miles for Nicaragua and 252 for Panama.

b Omitting Tahiti reduces voyage from Brito by 52 miles. "Voyage from Brito to Sydney by way of Wellington is 232 miles less than by way of Tahiti; from Panama it is 405 miles less. d Voyage from Brito to Wellington direet is 185 miles shorter than via Tahiti, and from Panama it is 358 miles shorter. Table VIII shows very clearly that the Panama route is the more advantageous for the west South American trade, both with Europe and the

United States. For the commerce of Europe and the United States with every other Pacific country with the exception of New Zealand,

to which the distances are practically equal, the Nicaragua is shorter

than the Panama route. If the call be made at Tahiti on the voyage

between Wellington and the American Isthmus, the Nicaragua route

is somewhat shorter than the one across Panama for the trade of North

Atlantic countries with New Zealand. If this voyage be made without

the call at Tahiti, distance byway of the two canal routes is practically

the same. For convenience of comparison, the following brief table is serviceable. The distances from New York, New Orleans, and Liverpool by

way of the Nicaragua and Panama Canal routes to San Francisco,

Yokohama, Hongkong, Sydney, Wellington, and Iquique are shown:

New York.

Nicaragua. Panama.

4,921

9, 167 11,366 9,676 8,716

4,393

6,299

9,835

11,744 9,852

8,892

4,021

New Orleans. Nicaragua. Panama

Liverpool. Nicaragua. Panama

San Francisco Yokohama

Hongkong

Sydney via Tahiti ... Wellington via Tahiti Iquique

4,118

8, 654

10, 563 8,873

7,913 3,590

4,698

9,234 11,143

9,261

8,291 3,420

7, 661

12, 187 14,096

12, 406

11,4 46

7, 123

8,038

rj,.r>7i

1 1. (83 12,591 11,631 6,760
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 455

Chapter XVIII.—Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce

that might use an isthmian canal, 1898-99.

The attempt is made in the following chapters to measure with all possible accuracy the amount of the ocean shipping and commerce

which would use the isthmian waterway at the present time if the route' were in existence. The latest statistics of ocean shipping and of the

commodity traffic of which maritime commerce is composed have been

carefully examined and are analytically set forth in these chapters for

the purpose of determining the volume of the traffic reservoir from

which the commerce of the canal would be drawn.

The results of three distinct statistical investigations are here presented, two of which were made by the Isthmian Canal Commission

and one by the new Panama Canal Company. The investigations having been made without reference to each other, afford an exceptional

opportunity for a comparison of results obtained by different methods

and for testing the accuracy of the conclusions reached by the several

inquiries.

One of the two studies made by the Isthmian Canal Commission

examined the statistics of the imports and exports of our own country,

and those of several European countries, for the purpose of determining how many tons of cargo or how much freight the trade of those

countries might have contributed to the traffic through an American

interoceanic canal in 1899. The investigation, the results of which are presented in this chapter, has gone fully into every essential detail

concerning which information was obtainable; and in the comparatively limited field where estimates were unavoidable because of

insufficient official data, the figures have been subjected to such criti- cal tests as were applicable.

The other statistical investigation conducted by the Isthmian Canal

Commission was made for the purpose of finding out the tonnage of

the vessels which would pass through the canal : i it were now in exist- ence. This inquiry involved a study of the statistics kept by the lead- ing commercial nations of the entrances and clearances of the vessels now engaged in the commerce between the ports so situated that their

maritime trade might have made use of an interoceanic canal. The

third investigation described in the following chapters is the one made

by the new Panama canal company to ascertain the tonnage of the

vessels that during recent years have been engaged in commerce that

might have passed through a canal across the Isthmus of Panama,

the new Panama canal company having courteously permitted the

Isthmian Canal Commission to present in this report the results of an

elaborate study.

NATURE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM

OFFICIAL STATISTICS. The statistics of the internal commerce of the United States and of

other countries give the volume of business in tons. The traffic of

the railways, rivers, and canals, and the productions of our mines and

furnaces are measured by the ton unit, and the same is true of the

products of our farms and forests when in the possession of the trans- portation agent. The statistical units of weight most familiar to the
456 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

people of the United States are the short ton of 2,000 pounds and the

"long" ton of 2,240. The long ton is not employed so much in this country as it formerly was, but in the United Kingdom the ton of

2,240 pounds is still more generall}7 used than the short ton. In countries that have adopted the metric system of weights and measures

the ton weighs 2,204 pounds.

In the Government statistics of ocean commerce no record is made

of the cargo or weight tonnage of the commodities carried, and the

volume of business done is expressed in terms of vessel tonnage. The

" gross register tonnage" of a ship is its capacity in cubic feet divided

by 100, and its "net register tonnage" is determined by dividing by

100 the cubic feet of space available in the vessel for cargo. Maritime

commercial statistics are usually given in net register tonnage. To

those who are directly concerned with maritime commerce the statis- tics of vessel tonnage are a readily understood index of the volume of

commodity traffic; but to many if not most men engaged in industrial

pursuits the cargo ton of 2,000 or 2,240 pounds is the customary unit

employed in measuring the volume of trade, and figures of net tonnage

have little significance until they have been converted into tons of

weight.

It was believed that a statement of the cargo tonnage or the amount

of freight that would make use of an isthmian canal if it were now in

existence would be of value for several reasons. The business world

being accustomed to consider the amount of traffic in terms of the

cargo ton, a statement in that unit of the volume of available canal

traffic would, it was thought, convey definite information that would

be readily comprehended without being translated. The statistics of

the cargo tonnage of ocean commerce permit comparisons to be made

with the statistics of internal traffic, while statements of vessel ton- nage do not. The saving in freight rates, furthermore, that the opening of an isthmian canal would make possible can be more intelligently

considered by knowing the volume of cargo freight that would now

use the waterway. Ocean rates, like railway freight charges, are

levied on the cargo ton of weight or measurement, but unlike the

statistics of railway traffic, those of maritime commerce give no data

regarding freight tonnage.

The United States Bureau of Statistics in the Department of the

Treasury collects the statistics of our foreign trade, and in its monthly

and annual publications gives the value of imports and exports by

classes of commodities and by ports. Tables are also published giving

the values and, in many cases, the quantities of the commodities

exported from each port to foreign countries as a whole; similarly,

the values and usually the quantities of the imports entering our

several ports from foreign countries, taken collectively, are given.

Though these tables are elaborate and of great value, they do not give

the amount of trade by articles and quantities carried on between our

several ports and the countries with which we exchange commodities.

It is not possible to obtain the actual cargo tonnage of the total foreign

trade of the United States directly from our official statistics, because

the published tables seldom give the weights of the commodities, fre- quently do not state the quantities, and in no instance is the ocean

freight tonnage stated. This is equally true of the commercial statis- tics compiled by foreign countries.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 457

It is likewise impossible to ascertain from the published tables the

kinds and quantities of commodities that constitute the trade carried on through and by our several ports with different countries. Our

published statistics indicate the foreign trade carried on at each port

of the United States; and the distribution of our entire trade among

the several countries is shown, but it is in the form of total values. - The Bureau of Statistics possesses the data necessary for this analytical

presentation, by articles, of the trade of our respective ports with each

foreign country, but the tables which such a presentation would require

would be so voluminous as to make their publication for all ports

impracticable. A table would need to be constructed for each port or customs district, showing its trade with each foreign country in each

article or class of articles imported and exported. There are at the

present time more than 50 maritime custom districts, trading more or

less with 92 foreign countries, by exchanging some or all of the 661

articles in the classified list of the commodities.

Not being able to obtain from the published tables the data neces- sary for the calculation of the cargo tonnage of our ocean commerce

that would now make use of an isthmian waterway, the resort was had

to the unpublished folios, access to which was courteously given by

the United States Bureau of Statistics. The facts concerning the trade

of each port were copied from these folios, and two sets of tables were

constructed, one for the Pacific ports of the United States and one for

the Atlantic. The tables constructed for the Pacific ports showed for

each port the values and, when obtainable, the quantities of each class of articles imported and exported in the trade carried on with each

foreign country on the Atlantic. Similar tables were made, giving

the trade of each Atlantic port with each Pacific country.

Having secured the mass of data contained in these compilations,

the work of converting quantities and values of commodities into their

cargo tonnage equivalents was begun, and the results of the calcula- tions were four comparatively small tables giving the values and the

cargo tonnage of the imports and exports composing the trade which

our Pacific ports had with the Atlantic countries in 1898-99, and which

our Atlantic ports had with Pacific countries the same year. These

four tables give the value and the cargo tonnage of the maritime for- eign commerce of the United States which might have used the isth- mian canal had it been in existence during the year ending June 30,

1899.

The discussion of methods as well as results can be given more advantageously with the tables in hand. The four tables present (1) the

value and cargo tonnage of the imports into each of our Atlantic ports

from the Pacific foreign countries traded with; (2) the exports from

each Atlantic port to those countries; (3) the value and cargo tonnage

of the imports into each Pacific port from each Atlantic foreign country dealt with, and (4) the value and cargo tonnage of the exports from

each of our Pacific ports to each Atlantic country to which commodities were sent. Table V is inserted in a later connection, where the

totals of the first four tables are discussed.
458 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

I.Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899.

Customs districts. Chile. Ecuador and

Peru. Salvador and British Columbia.

Hawaii.

c^u.; lvalue.. $76, 393

4, 204.

Baltimore Itons

[value .

Itons ... lvalue.. $61,640

14,520 $61,310

3,921.9

$93, 308 3,413.9 $101,701

8, 479.

»$70, 307 »3,140

$5

. l Breton fej»-

Charleston, S.C ggTM;;

Delaware fif;;

New York

value .. $25,000

564.3

lvalue .

tons ... value .

$2, 245, 533

103, 490.

$11,723

879.4

$2,301,984

29, 140.

*> $296, 693

2, 107.

87,954,770

95, 866.

value .. value .

8109,542

15,517.6

$463, 672 Philadelphia -j to] 5, 4cS0.

Portsmouth and Falmouth $3005

(value..

$35, 295

1,364.7 Savannah

1tol

$43, 240

488.

(value ..

^tal {£«» $2, 796, 475

155,821.1 82,372,291

32, 280.

$296, 693

2, 107.

$8, 486. 987

102, 410.

Customs districts. British Australia and

Aukland.

China. Japan. Hongkong.

$7, 999 89.8

$125, 680 2,501.8$190,215

13, 602.

value .. tons ... $464,011 1,607.2$145, 232 784.5

$94, 265

2, 567.

8242,292

7, 118.

lulls ... value .. $13, 628 tuns . . 350.9

n r\ n value .

tons ... $20

.6 84,305

44.3

$162 8.6

$5,921 77.8

$328 2.5 •Peru. >> British Columbia, $14,168.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 459

I.

Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, etc. —Continued.

Customs districts. British Australia and

Aukland.

China. Japan. Hongkong.

$133, 828

116.5 $3,072,191

29,469.1

$234 4.7

$7, 079, 664 109,557.4

$1,424 Newark Uons 20.2. New York \j^e " $8,510,473

95, 802.

$1, 437, 966

Perth Ambov /value..

Philadelphia {tons

6 " $163,011

676.8

$68, 212 1,935$110, 189 2,306$9, 279 524.4

$270

3 $313 3.4 Richmond -w^6 '* $582 7.6 Savannah {tons...

$200

3 Galveston -f7aiue "" $472 6.2 Key West

|tons ;; MoMe jtons." New Orleans (Value.. $76

1 $44, 982 2,717.2

$49, 186 1,510.6

£5, 292

Pearl River jvalue..

30.3

Pensaeola {tons.:." TamPa

{tons.:: saiuna {tons.::

Total gS»:: $3,833,719

21, 778.

$8,781,665

101, 381.

$7,480,024 118,892.3$1,886,796

36, 369

Customs districts. Philippine

Islands.

Total Hong- kong and

Philippines.

Total all others. Grand total.

Baltimore

Beaufort, S.C

Boston and Charlestown... Bridgeton

Charleston, S.C Delaware

Georgetown, D. C

Hartford Newark New York

Norfolk and Portsmouth...

Perth Amboy

Philadelphia Portsmouth and Falmouth

Providence Richmond

Savannah

Wilmington, N. C

(value.. Itons ... /value .

Itons . .. /value .

(tons ...

!

value .. tons ... value .

tons ... /value .. \tons ... /value .

\tons ... /value . \tons ... /value..

\tons ...

f value.,

^tons ... /value .

Itons ...

i

value.,

tons ... value .

tons ... /value . (tons ... /value..

\tons ... /value.,

(tons ... /value..

\tons ... {value .

tons ...

$190, 215

13, 602.

$210, 072

6,795.7 $400,287

20,398.6

$850, 578 18,216.7 $1,092,870

25, 335

3, 100, 485

41,468.5

$328 2.5

$1,424

20.2 $4,538,451 56,538.9

$835, 460

22, 619.

$61,340

3,921.9

$106, 936

3, 764.

$101,701 8,479.2

$29, 325

609.

$6, 383 86.3

$134, 062 121.2 $31,461,308 455,437.9

$11,723

879.4

$1,928,330

47, 954.

$61,340

3,921.9

$106, 936 3,764.8

$101,701 8,479.2

$29, 325

609.1

$6, 711 88.8

$135, 486

141.4

$35, 999, 789 511,971.8 $11,723 879.4

$221,819

3, 142.

$231,098

3,670.6

$914, 626

25, 852 $300

5 $2703

$895

11 $35,295

1,864.7 $2003

$1,145,724

29, 522.

$300

5 $2703

$895

11 $35,295

1,364.7 $200

3
460 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

I.Atlantic coast imports from foreign Pacific countries, etc. —Continued.

Customs districts. Philippine

Islands.

Total Hong- kong and

Philippines. Total all others. Grand total.

Itons ... 8472

6.2 8472

6 2 \tons ... 85,292

30.3

8137, 484 4,716.9

8142, 776

\tons ... \tons ... Tampa lvalue.. \tons ... \tons ... 844

.5 844.5 844

.6 ^1 {gS« :: 84,172,926

62, 831.

86, 059, 722 99,200.9 834,047,852

634, 371.

840, 107, 604 633,672.5

II.

Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899.

Customs districts. Chile. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Salvador and British Columbia.

Hawaii.

British Australia and

Auckland.

„„-,.,. „ fvalue.. 86,000

3,000

833,248

12,335

8524, 099 tons . . 20, 691

Beaufort, S.C

\ itons ... Boston and Charlestown ... lvalue .

889, 408

835.

value..

value..

tons . .

tons ... tons . .

Norfolk and Portsmouth ...•

value.,

tons . .

value.,

tons . .

value..

81,984,661

44, 480.

86, 638

3, 250

81,936,464

» 27, 802.

« 87, 700

• 4, 400

»> 8282, 072 "6,339.3

8659, 387 12,359.5

816,813

8,407 824,420

2,267.6

85,400

462.7

815,865,902

337, 017.

tons . .

value.,

tons ... 83, 888 2,350 Portland and Falmouth « tons ...

value.. tons ... value.. (68,242 tons ... 11 214 value..

tons . .

value..

tons ... V XIT value..

value..

•Bolivia and Ecuador, value, 8806,592; tons, 12,051.8.

b New York to British Columbia, value, 84,144; tons, 65.8. •Norfolk and Portsmouth to Peru, value, 87,700; tons, 4,400.

997.5. Pensacola to Peru, value, 85,626; tons,
BEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION. 461

II.

Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, etc. —Continued.

Customs districts. Chile. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Salvador, and British Columbia.

Hawaii.

British Australia and

Auckland.

•822, 631 »3,485.4 "85,525

>> 997.

$ll,15d

1,122.4

823, 304 3,884 /value .

(tons ... Total 82,001,187

53, 080.

81,972,260

36, 685.

8282,072

6, 339.

$739,268

35,821.7

816, 582, 105

374, 763.

Customs districts. China and

Hongkong. Japan.

Asiatic Russia and

Korea.

French and German

Oceania.

(value .

(tons ... /value.. 830, 416

11, 739 /value .

Boston and Charlestown . /value..

Itons ... /value..

Itons ... /value .

(tons . .

/value .. (tons . .

/value..

(tons . .

(value.. 8185

2 84,841,684

170, 856.

810, 000

1,000 8348

8

8970, 369

80, 650.

(tons ...

Norfolk and Portsmouth..

/value.,

(tons ... /value..

812, 073, 176 "301,835.5

8807, 935

8, 954.

817, 763 993.3 (tons . .

/value..

(tons ...

i value.. 8628, 048

1 tons . . 4,220.8

/value..

1 tons . .

/value..

1 tons . .

/value..

(tons . . /value.. 810, 000

(tons ... 1,000 /value..

\tons . .

/value.. $440, 971 11,902

873, 860 7,386

814, 289 433.1

$444, 696 12,097.2

/value..

(tons . .

(value.. 813,898 421.2

' 'Itons ... (tons . .

/value.. 88, 400 2,100

823, 574 3,929

(tons . .

/value..

(tons . . /value.,

(tons . .

Total 812, 715, 122

306, 477.

86, 868, 792

303, 103.

8807, 935 8,954.3$17, 763

993.

» Pearl River to Bolivia and Ecuador, value, 822,631; tons, 3,485.4.

* Norfolk and Portsmouth to Peru, value, 87,700; tons, 4,400. Pensacola to Peru, value, 85,525; tons,

997.5.

• Of this total, Hongkong's share was 81,775,634 and 105,704.7 tons of cargo. New York was the only customs district of the Eastern seaboard that exported to Hongkong in 1899.
462 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

II.

Atlantic coast exports to foreign Pacific countries, etc. —Continued.

Customs districts. Philippine

Islands.

Total Hongkong and

Philippines. Total all other. Grand total.

$29, 690

13, 151.

$29, 690 13,151.6 $563,347

36,026

$30, 416 11,739

889, 408 8&5.2

$593. 037 49,177.6

8-0,416

11.739

$89, 108 Boston and Charlestown {tons

' 835.

Bndgeton

| tong

Delaware {tons.!: Georgetown, D.C {tons Hartford {tons "

8185

2.5

836, 693, 340

804, 934.

$41, 151

17, 057

$24, 768

2, 275.

81, 607, 705

87, 673.

$185 Newark {tons..'.' 2.5 ^w York &;;

Norfolk and Portsmouth {tons'6 '

$84, 315 1,988.9

$70, 336

30, 695

$1,859,949

107, 693.

$70, 336

30, 695

$38,553,289

912, 627.

$111,487

47, 752 824,768 Perth Amboy {tons.:! 2, 275.

$1,607,705 Philadelphia {tons 87,673.8 lvalue Portland and Falmouth {tons

'

Providence {tons.::

Richmond {tons.::

878, 242

12, 214 $78,242 Savannah {tons "

12, 214 Wilmington {tons.:." 8110,971

11,902

$73, 860 7,386

$28,187 854.3

$444,696

12, 097.

$22, 631

3, 485.

$25, 075

4, 219.

$46, 878 7,813

84 10, 971 Galveston

{

t

vons 11,902

873, 860

$28, 187 Mobile {tons.:: 851.3 $444,696

$22, 631 Pearl River {tons.:: 3, 485.

826, 075 Pensacola {tons..".' 4,219.9

846, 878 TamPa

{tons.:: 7,813

Total {J5£: $1X4,341

45, 835.

$1,959,975 161,540.2$40, 210, 860 1,020,514.9 $42,170,835

1,172,055.1

Total, plus 873 tons of miscellaneous foreign exports not included in the table, 1,172,928.1 tons.

III.

Pacific coast imports from foreign Atlantic countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June SO, 1899.

Customs districts. Austria- Hungary. Belgium. Den- mark. France. Germany. Italy. Netherln in is.

Los Angeles {tSs!!!

$1 , 742 65.8

$28, 559

2, 908.

812, 352

1,678.1 811,917

5,642.4

$10,580

112.4

$76, 3 18

3, 910.

$574

1

82, 193 21.8 Oregon, Oreg --.{ toIls

" Puget Sound fens'

6 "' $2

0.1 $81 1.6 $1,444

7.3 $69

3

J678, 731 7,815

82,555

19.5

$10, 331 148.2

$12, 929 2,852.3

$880, 382 41,988.9

$17,601

5, 085.

$19

0.8,, $92

1 SanDiego

{ t()tls

' 02

16,946.9 $124,960

1 1 , 583.

8188,650

8,646.4

$39, 503

2, 107. 2

San Francisco -.-{ tY, ns "

Willamette %££?.". ^1 Ce

.:: $1,714 65.9 81,093,290

67 659.3 $81

1.6

8693, 379 7,957.2 $1,057,594

53, 985.

8228,746

5, 755. 4

$2, 3X5

22.
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 463

III.

Pacific coast imports from foreign Atlantic countries, etc. —Continued.

Customs districts. Sweden

and Norway.

Switzer- land. United Kingdom.

East Canada. West

Indies. Brazil. Total.

$1,377 7.5

81,0803

$74, 322

6, 838.

$716

79.3

$26, SCO 1,891.1

$89, 588

$1, 806, 509 137,236.3

$131 , 697

6, 482.

$100

3 $30 $197, 015 Los Angeles Inns . . . 1)3,870.8

$13, 068 Oregon, Oreg •! »•

1,757.4 $462

$68

2.6

880, 860 Puget Sound —-. 7, 597.

$132,586

$213, 604 310.5$3, 650

12.1

15, 148.

$4,657,028 San Francisco ...- 236, 456.

value.. $6, 994

179.

1176

7 $95734.9 $354,446 Willamette i 25, 499.

*

Total j value .

tons ...

$8, 371 187

81, 302

12

$2, 129, 702 164,820.9

$1, 125 40.5

$213, 634 310.5$3, 650

12.1 $5,435,003

300,829.2

IV.

Pacific coast exports to foreign Atlantic countries, values and cargo tons, year ending June 30, 1899.

Customs districts. United Kingdom. Germany. Belgium. Italy, Switzerland.

Oregon, Oreg &"

Puget Sound jTM1^;;

San Francisco {tons

6 ""

Willamette jgjTM"

^tai jjsTM::

$92, 324 1,612

$2, 815, 647

124. 183.

$6, 918, 817

173, 084.

66,249,843

274. 689.

> $10, 200 95.6

828, 000 8311,500 "15,483.6

11

817, 931

( b

) 860, 000

b 5, 572.

= $37,340

= 5,184.8

a $176"6

$16, 076, 631

573, 569.

856, 781 106.6

8371,500

21,056.3

837,516

5, 190.

Customs districts. South Africa. East Canada. Argentina. Total.

Oregon, Oreg. Puget Sound

fvalue. Itons .. /value.

Itons.. San Francisco {tons

6 ' rvalue. Itons.. Willamette.

8648, 723

56, 519.

8346, 839 13,032.3

$776, 767

32, 048.

$3, 252

594.8

$37, 693

12, 497.

$102, 524

1, 707.

83, 539, 679 191,312.3

$7, 605, 530

209, 279 $7,104,717

312, 317

•Total /value. 10tal itons..

$11,772,329

101,599.9

83,252 594.8837, 693

12, 497.

$18, 352, 450

714, 615.

» Including Denmark.

11 Including Germany.

All trade with Italy.

d All trade with Switzerland. Estimates of total scattering foreign exports, value, $1,078; tonnage, 715,693. In constructing these tables the trans-Atlantic trade of our Gulf and

Atlantic ports was omitted because it would not be tributary to the

canal, and the figures include only the ocean foreign commerce now

carried on by our Atlantic and Gulf ports with Pacific countries, and

between our Pacific ports and countries on the Atlantic. In the case

of each port named only that part of its foreign trade is given that

might be directly affected by the opening of the canal. According to the classification of the United States Bureau of Statistics, the imports number 333 classes and the exports 328. For each

item in this list of 661 commodities the value was obtainable; for some

of the classes the number or quantities of articles were reported, and,

for many commodities, weights were given in the official statistics.
464 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In all cases, however, the weights given were net, covering only the

commodity and not the packing or "tare" which constitutes a part of

the freight cargoes whose weights were to be ascertained. In order to determine the weight of the tare corresponding to the weight or value of the ordinary unit of each of the many commodities considered, a large amount of detailed information had to be

secured from business men concerning the manner of shipping the

various articles. The difficulties of this and other parts of the investigations were somewhat complicated by the fact that many commodities of bulky character are handled b}r ocean vessels as measurement

cargo, 40 cubic feet being reckoned as a ton instead of 2,240 pounds,

the weight ton commonly employed in maritime traffic. In determining the true cargo tonnage of goods shipped by the measurement ton

it was necessary to ascertain the cubic contents, boxing included, of some unit of quantity.

To reduce commodity values to weights, to find the average tare for net weights, to learn whether shipments were made by weight or measure, and, if by measure, to find the weight or value of a meas- urement ton, an extensive correspondence was carried on with men

engaged in foreign trade. Representative business men of the lead- ing commercial cities were requested to give the assistance needed, and

by means of personal interviews and a large correspondence a mass of

information was secured covering the great bulk of both our import

and export trade. In order to insure the greatest possible accuracy

for the tables of cargo tonnage, inquiries regarding each line of for- eign trade have been made of representative firms of several of

the large seaports, and in some instances several firms were corre- sponded with concerning each commodity about which information was required.

This correspondence extended over several months and required the

sending out of several thousand individual letters; but b}^ means of

the knowledge obtained from the business men, who generously gave

the time required to reply to the requests for information, it was possible to prepare the above tables by converting, item b}^ item, into

equivalent cargo tons, the values of nearly all of the articles that our

various ports would have imported and exported by way of an isthmian

canal during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899. Although it was

not possible to get the requisite data for converting every item, there

are but 5.7 per cent of the imports, and 2.4 per cent of exports included

in the above tables that were not converted according to the method

just described. The small quantity of imports and exports for which

it was not possible to secure satisfactory factors to use in changing

values to cargo tons were converted by using for the multiplier the

average ratio of values to tons. These residuary values and quantities consisted largely of these

unclassified articles of import and export. In classifying the multitude

of commodities handled in international trade, it is often necessary to include in the larger divisions of the classification a group entitled "All

other." For instance, in the general classification of the exports of the

United States the division "Iron and steel and manufactures of" eontains 42 specific classes and also such general groupings as "All other

manufactures of iron and steel," "All other machinery," and "Tools

not otherwise specified." For converting the indefinite or unspecitied

classes it was necessary to assume that the relation of the values to the
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN OANAL COMMISSION. 465

cargo tonnage was the .same as it was for the specified classes of their

general division of the classification. The value of "All other machinery," for example, was converted by assuming that the ratio of value

to weight and bulk was equal to the average for the 11 specified classes of machinery; and it is probable that the results obtained in this manner were nearly correct. This same method of conversion was appliedto the unspecified classes of imports.

It was not practicable in the case of every general grouping entitled

"All other, etc.," to secure an average ratio to use as a factor for con- verting values to tons; consequently, a part of the values comprised

within these general groups was included with the residuary quantities

that were dealt with according to the method described in the following paragraphs:

After having converted the specified classes of imports and exports

and as many as possible of the classes or grouping entitled "All other"

or "Not otherwise specified," it was found that 96 per cent of the

total value of the maritime foreign trade of the United States avail- able for canal traffic during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900—in

round numbers, $101,000,000 out of $105,000,000—had been accounted

for.The remaining 4 per cent unaccounted for consisted partly of the

unclassified imports and exports—the general residuum placed at the

end of the tables of imports and exports published by the Bureau of

Statistics, and designated " all other articles not elsewhere specified"

and were also made up partly of the commodities concerning which

the Commission secured no information in regard to the relation of

values to cargo tons. A classification of commodities could hardly be constructed that

would find an appropriate class for every article listed in the merchants' invoice or sales book, and a final grouping of "all other articles

not elsewhere specified " is practically necessary in making up tables

of imports and exports such as are published by the United States Bureau of Statistics. The total value of the unclassified commodities

that had to be dealt with in constructing the above tables of cargo tons

of the traffic available for an isthmian canal was small, and the change

from value to tons was made by assuming these articles to have the same average weight and capacity as had equal values of typical and

carefully selected classified articles. The average of these other commodities was taken as the standard.

The classified commodities concerning which no information was

secured to assist in the conversion of their values into equivalent cargo

tonnage consisted to a limited extent of shipments so small in quantity

as not to justify an investigation of them, but most of these commodities were made up of articles which varied so much in value, bulk, and

packing that no reliable estimates regarding them could be secured

from shippers.

Imported commodities constituted the greater part—65 per cent

of the values that had to be converted by means of general averages.

This was to be expected in view of the fact that our exports consist so

largely of such articles as raw materials and heavy manufactures whose

weight and measurement are readily ascertainable, while our imports

contain a large variety of manufactures and other articles whose weight

and bulk are difficult to determine.

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 30*
466 KEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

This fact is well illustrated by comparing the import and export

trade of our Pacific ports. The exports from the Pacific ports were made up so largely of raw materials or food products that over 99.9

per cent could be converted from values and quantities to tons. On

the contrary, in the case of the imports from Europe to the Pacific coast—a rich agricultural section with but little manufacturing activity—data could be secured to convert only 88 per cent of the total. The amount of these imports, however, is small, and the necessity of

converting 12 per cent of their total value by indirect methods was

consequently not a serious matter. Ninety-five per cent of the Atlantic

imports from the Pacific was directly converted, and for the Atlantic

exports to the Pacific the percentage was 96.5 per cent. The commodities for which no specified data could be secured

$4,000,000 worth—were converted by means of general averages, obtained in the manner described below. The imports and exports of

the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards were converted by using different

factors because of the diverse characteristics of the trade of the two

coasts. For all the exports of the Pacific coast, except a few from San Francisco, factors were obtained for the direct conversion of each commodity from values to tons, and the San Francisco exports not otherwise

accounted for were assumed to average the same as the other exports

from that city to Europe.

Twelve per cent of the imports to the Pacific coast from Atlantic

countries had to be converted by securing an acceptable average ratio

of values to tons. More than 25 per cent of the imports came from

England to San Francisco and comprised a wide range of articles. These San Francisco imports from England included coal and precious

stones as two important items, and after deducting the values of these

two commodities the remaining San Francisco imports were used to obtain the factor by which the values of the unconverted 12 per cent residuum of Pacific coast imports from Atlantic countries was changed

from values to cargo tons. Of the Atlantic coast exports to Pacific countries those sent to British Australasia are the most typical and the most important,

amounting to over one-third of the whole. Inasmuch as these exports

to Australasia consisted of substantial amounts of nearly all classes of

commodities shipped from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific, it was

thought that their average was the best one to take for converting from

values to tons the small share of the export trade to the Pacific that

had not been directly accounted for. The unconverted Atlantic imports from the Pacific were reduced to tons by making the Chinese and Japanese imports the standard. This was done because from those countries the widest range of the most

typical articles was received.

The methods and standards followed in changing the values of the

imports and exports here under consideration into cargo tons of

weight or measurement have been full}r explained because it is upon

those methods and standards that the accuracy of the results primarily

depends. While the results obtained are necessarily approximately

rather than absolutely exact, it is believed that the figures contained

in the foregoing tables are as close to the truth as they can be brought

by careful statistical work. Having described the manner in which

the tables were constructed and how the results presented in them
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 467

were obtained, attention may now be directed to an analysis of the

tonnage totals. To facilitate comparison the totals of Tables I to IV

are summarized in the following Table V:

V.

Vahie and cargo tonnage of the trade ivhich the United States woidd have had through Cm isthmian canal during the fiscal year ending June SO, 1899.

Pacific coast.

Atlantic coast other than with Hong- kong and Philippines.

Atlantic coast with Hongkong and

Philippines. Total Atlantic.

Values. Cargo

tons. Values. Cargotons. Values. Cargo

tons. Values. Cargo

tons.

Imports 85, 435, 003

18, 352, 450 300,829.8;f33,751,161

715.682.91 40.210.860 534,371.6 56,059,678

1,020,514.91 1,959,975

y9, 200.

151, 540.

839, 810, 839 42,170,835633, 572.

1,172,055.1 Total.. , 23, 787, 453 1 , 016, 512. 7| 73, 962, 021 1, 555, 886.

8, 019, 653 250,741.1 81,981,674 1,805,627.6

Grand total: Values, 8105,769,127; tons, 2,823,013.3 (including 873 tons miscellaneous exports of for- eign exports). The total value of the maritime commerce of the United States that

might have used an isthmian canal to advantage during the fiscal year

ending June 30, 1899, was $105,769,127. Of this total trade the

Pacific ports had $23,787,453 worth, and the Atlantic, including their

trade with the Philippines and Hongkong, $81,981,674 worth.

Whether all the trade carried on between our eastern ports and the

Philippines and Hongkong may properly be included in this total value of the commerce of the United States available for canal traffic

is an important question that is considered at length in the discussion

which follows regarding the entrances and clearances of the vessels

that would have used a canal during the past year. In this connection

it is sufficient to note that the value of the trade of the Atlantic coast ports of the United States with Hongkong and the Philippines has

been stated separately.

The value of the exports from our west coast to Europe in 1899,

$18,352,450, and the corresponding cargo tonnage, 715,682.9 tons, were abnormally small because of the severe drought of the year

1897-98. The larger part of tonnage export of that section consists

of grain, and during the year 1898-99 the grain exports were less than 50 per cent of their average for the five years preceding. If the

value of the grain exports of the Pacific coast for the fiscal year 1898

be substituted for those of 1899 in the above table, the total value of

the west coast exports would have equaled $40,299,881.

The exports other than grain had practically the same value in 1898

and in 1899. Had the grain exports of 1899 been equal to those of

1898, or, in other words, had their amount been normal, the cargo ton- nage of the west coast exports would have been 1,328,757 tons instead

of 715,682.9 tons, the figures in the above table; and the total cargo

tonnage, instead of having been 2,823,013.3 tons, as stated in the table,

would have been 612,874.1 tons more, or 3,435,887.4. This larger

total is a much more accurate expression than is the smaller total of

the cargo tonnage of maritime foreign commerce available for canal

traffic during the last two 3

T ears. This larger sum will be used in the

comparison that will subsequently be made with the tonnage estimates

derived by other methods of investigations that will be described later.
468 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

THE AVERAGE VALUES OF THE CARGO TON.

Besides revealing the total value and total cargo tonnage of the

import and export trade which our country might have had by way

of the proposed isthmian waterway in the fiscal year ending June 30,

1899, the tables indicate some interesting differences in the characteristics of the trade of our Atlantic seaboard as compared with the com- merce of the Pacific coast. The value of the Atlantic coast exports listed in the tables was

$42,170,835, and the cargo tonnage of these exports amounted to 1,172,055 tons. This makes the average value of the cargo ton to have been $35.98. In the case of the Atlantic coast imports considered in the tables the total value was $39,810,839, the total cargo

tonnage 633,572.5 tons, and the average value of the ton £62. 84. The average values of the cargo ton will doubtless seem low to many

persons. It must not, however, be forgotten that the tonnage here

given is made up of the commodities packed for shipment. A large

amount of weight and space are taken up by the packing. Moreover,

in the case of many commodities, 2,240 pounds of the articles would be

much more valuable than 40 cubic feet of it would be, even when no

allowance is made for the space occupied by the packages containing

the goods. The average values just cited are those of the ton of freight

as found in the holds of the ocean vessel. The cargo ton in these tables and throughout this discussion, it may

be well to note, is in some cases 2,240 pounds; but in other instances,

and more f requentlv, it is the measurement ton of 40 cubic feet. It was impossible to make a distinction between the weight ton and the

measurement ton in compiling the above tables, because both are used

by shippers and ocean carriers without distinction.

The difference between the average values of the cargo ton of

imports and that of the exports is explained by the fact that the

exports to the Pacific markets consist largely of bulky manufactures

of iron and wood, of coal and petroleum oil, whereas the average

value of the imports from Pacific countries is kept high by the Manila

hemp, the products of Japan and China, Australian wool, and the hides,

skins, and furs from Australia and South America.

The cargo ton values of both the import and export trade of the

Pacific coast with Atlantic countries are low. The total value of the

imports considered was $5,435,003, and, their cargo tonnage being

300.829.8 tons, the average ton value was $18.07. The $18,352,450

worth of exports included in the tables comprised a cargo tonnage of

715.682.9 tons, the average ton value being £25.64.

The principal Pacific coast exports were wheat, flour, barley, and

lumber, and those commodities tended to lower the average ton value. Their effect, however, was to some extent offset by the exportation of canned salmon and vegetables and canned and dried fruits. The small ton value of the Pacific coast imports from Atlantic countries is accounted for by the fact that the greater part of the tonnage is made

up of coal, salt, cement, and glass. The textiles, gloves, and other

high priced European articles have but a small influence on the ton

value.

The amount of cargo tonnage which vessels can carry per gross or net

register tonnage varies with different ships, but the ordinary ratio
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 469

between cargo and register is well known. In the following chapter

tables are given which show the net register tonnage of the vessels

engaged in the commerce that would have used an isthmian canal in 1899. A comparison of the figures of cargo tonnage of the part of our

foreign trade that has been studied with the net register tonnage of the

ships that carried that trade will roughly check the accuracy of boththe cargo and the vessel tonnage statistics presented as the result of

this investigation. Before making this comparison, however, it will be

best to wait until the tables of vessel tonnage contained in the discussion

that follows later have been presented and analyzed.

TONNAGE OF THE COMMERCE BETWEEN EUROPE AND THE WEST COAST OF

SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA AND BRITISH COLUMBIA AND HAWAII.

Up to this point the cargo tonnage discussed has been that of the

United States only. Our own present trade that would pass through

the canal merited a detailed study because of the importance of secur- ing as much information as possible regarding the industrial and commercial value of the canal to the people of the United States; but it was not thought that the cargo tonnage of the trade which Europe now

has with the west coast of South and Central America, and with British Columbia and Hawaii, need be changed from values and quantities

into cargo tons in the same detailed way that the values of our own

available canal commerce were converted into their tonnage equivalents.

The large mass of information which the investigation of American

trade had furnished regarding the relation of values and quantities to cargo tonnage was equally applicable to the commerce of foreign

countries; and this information enabled the conversion of the greater

part of the trade of other countries to be made easily and quickly.

The commodities not changed from values to tons by the direct method

were converted by means of averages chosen in a manner similar to those methods used in the conversion of American imports and exports.

It was not considered necessary to determine the cargo tonnage

which every foreign country now has available for canal traffic. By

taking the nine European countries—the United Kingdom, France,

Germany, Belgium, Holland, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain, and

. Sweden—nearly all the commerce which foreign nations would have

with the west coast of America and Hawaii was reached. Norway has no commerce with this section, and that of Greece and Russia is slight.

The trade of Europe with our west coast was included in the study of our canal commerce. The first of the following tables gives the cargo tonnage of the trade

which the nine European countries just named had with the west coast

of South and Central America in the calendar year 1898—the figures

from Belgium being for 1899—and shows how the countries shared in

this commerce. It also indicates how the trade was divided among

the several west coast American nations. The table is divided into

two sections for the purpose of showing both the import and export

cargo tonnage for South America and Central America separately. In another table the trade of Europe with Hawaii and British Columbia

is shown.
470 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Cargo tonnage of the trade between Europe and the Pacific coast of South and Central America, 1898. EUROPEAN IMPORTS.

American countries.

United King- dom.

France. Germany. Bel- gium.*

Holland.

Austria- Hungary.

Italy. Spain. Sweden. Total.

SOUTH AMERICAN.

9,522

954, 792 15,292 54,083

9,622 Chile 294,037 1,694,435

4, 832

126, 507

293, 668 6,397

30, 342

124, 519

4

16, 876

12, 461 39 6,063 5,715

1,888

547

4,141

28, 413

68, 547 1 11, 814 308, 777 Total 425, 430 330, 407 1, 033, 689 141,399 81,008 40 16, 877 8,150 4,141 2,041,147 CENTRAL AMERICA. 3,770

390 3,107

2, 395

M.330 48,895

• 10, 130 215 1, 752 58, 962

10, 520 Nicaragua 130 89

117

3, 326 2,512 1" Total 9, 662 4,330 59, 025 345 1,958 75, 320

EUROPEAN EXPORTS.

SOUTH AMERICAN.

10, 870

119, 348

17, 443 43,320

45

3, 812 778

1,314

10, 915 Chile 460, 255

11,303 97,440

64, 473 6,140

13,158

118, 862

1,798 4.900

2 14, 745 781,497

37, 462

1 9,798 169, 931 Total 568, 998 83,771 190, 981 125, 560 3 24, 543 5,949 999, 805 CENTRAL AMERICAN.

11,221 2,081

7, 583 7,970

a 2, 105 10,224

• 7, 783 596

44

3,421 500

939 22, 980

12,013 Nicaragua 188

11,005 8,558 Total 28, 855 2,105 18,007 4,501 1,028 54,556

» Belgian figures are for 1899. ° Nicaragua and Salvador.

•> Including Costa Rica and Honduras. d Including Nicaragua and Salvador.

« Including Nicaragua and Salvador.

It will be seen that nearly two-thirds of the entire cargo tonnage of

the trade between the nine European countries and the west coast of

Spanish America consisted of imports from South America, and that

four-fifths of these imports were from Chile. This indicates the pres- ent prominence of the nitrate of soda trade. In cargo tonnage Germany ranks first among the nine nations in the

trade with the west coast of Spanish America, but in value of com- merce the United Kingdom is much ahead of Germany because of the

high value of the British exports. Germany's large import tonnage

is made up mostly of nitrate of soda for use in her chemical industries,

and her exports contain some coal, but consist largely of manufactures.

The coal exports of the United Kingdom are heavy, but the exports,

as a whole, derive their value mainly from the manufactures.

DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895--1899 SAILING VES3ELS

CO LO ID N 00 ff) co Yfc-AR <n en en er> o> TONS co co co CO CO oo

54

52

5,600.0 484644

42

4poo,ooo

33

3634

323000,000

28

2624

222000,000

18

1614

12ipO0,O0O

864

2O

T DTAL

GR OO^JGfi CH{£L.? ^

GR OUP 4 ,_-—•" -\

GR OUP 3
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 471

The cargo tonnage of the total exports of the nine European countries to the section of the American continents under discussion was

1,054,361 tons, and the imports 2,116,467 tons. The following table

'hows how the trade was divided between the South American and

Central American countries:

Summary of cargo tonnage of European imports and exports—Trade with South and

Central America, 1898.

South

America.

Central America. Total.

Tons. 2,041,147

999, 805

Terns. 75, 320

54, 556

Tons. 2,116,467

1,054,361 Total 3, 040, 952 129, 876 3, 170, 828

3, 170, 828

Whether the entire commerce of Europe with the west coast of

South America would make use of the isthmian canal will be considered in the chapter devoted to the discussion of the vessel tonnage that

would now pass through the canal, and to the consideration of the

question of tolls. In general, the canal will secure nearly all of this trade unless the tolls should be so high as to make the longer and less desirable route around the Horn or through the Straits of Magellan more profitable. The only trade that would not pay a moderate toll for the privilege of using the canal is that of Chile south of the for- tieth parallel of latitude, and the commerce of that section is not, and

can hardly become, of much consequence.

The cargo of freight tonnage of Europe's trade with Hawaii and

British Columbia in the fiscal year 1899 is shown in the followingtable:

Cargo tonnage. —European trade with Hawaii and British Columbia.

Hawaii. British Columbia. Total.

Tons. 33,793

Tons.

37, 334

24, 699

Tons.

71, 127

24, 699 Total 33,793 62, 033 95, 826

In this table the figures are based on statistics kept by Hawaii and

British Columbia. The vessels entering Hawaii take cargoes mainly

of sugar to the United States, hence there are no exports from Hawaii

given in the table. The British Columbia trade during the year ending June 30, 1899, was but little more than two-fifths that of the pre- vious year, and for that reason the totals of the above table are unduly

small, but for the sake of presenting the latest data it has been thought

best to retain the figures for the year 1899.

The cargo tonnage of the European trade with the west coast of

Mexico is not obtainable because the European statistics do not separate the commerce with the east coast of Mexico from that with the

west coast.
472 EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The total freight tonnage of the trade between European countries

and western South and Central America, British Columbia and Hawaii,

during the latest statistical year for which information was obtainable, was 3,266,651 tons. This total does not comprise the commerce with

the west coast of Mexico. Moreover, it does not include any of the commerce between Europe and Eastern countries—a part of which, for reasons stated later, would pass through the American canal. In studying the tonnage of cargo that the commerce of the United States might

have furnished the canal in 1898 and 1899, the total was found to be

3,435,887 tons. The sum of these two totals is 6,702,541.

This represents the tons of cargo which the commerce of the United

States and the commerce between nine European countries and the

west coast of America might have passed through an American isth- mian canal during Europe's fiscal year 1898 corresponding with the

calendar year, and our fiscal year ending with June, 1899. These are

figures applying to the commerce of the past, carried under the conditions then prevailing. They do not refer to the future.

(Note. —The totals in this and the subsequent statistical chapter differ somewhat from those published in the preliminary report of the Isth- mian Canal Commission, November 30, 1900. In several instances the

statistics of the final report of the Commission are for a different year

than were the figures comprised in the totals given in the preliminary

report.)

DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895--1899 STEAMSH I PS

co 10 <£> t~« co <j)

. cO YEAR W W ffl 5 oi "TO N S gj T _ MH 00 CO CO «0 CO 54

52

5,000,000

48

46

44

42

4,000,000 3836

34

32

3,OO0;OOO

zs> 26

24

22

2,000,000

1 816

14- 12l.ooo.ooo

8

-"» y

p

/

f

! ^

gp2 JpJ--

1

—1

——k^

2o

GROU p 1 _^ X

C

- -ig^-Ot) P-4 SROU ^

P3

' " "
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 473

Chapter XIX.

Tonnage of the vessels employed in the commerce that

would have used an isthmian canal in 1899. In ascertaining the tonnage of the vessels now engaged in the world's commerce that would make use of an isthmian canal two methods may

be employed. One source of information is the records of entrances and clearances of vessels kept by the leading commercial nations, and

this information is fairly satisfactory, although, as will be shown presently, careful analysis is necessary to avoid erroneous conclusions.

The other method of getting at the vessel tonnage now available for

the use of a canal is to make a record of the movements or the voyages of all ships whose routes are such that the vessels would naturally pass through the canal. This latter method of recording vessel movements and computing

the tonnage from the records thus made was adopted by the New Pan- ama Canal Company six years ago, and the conclusions reached by

their elaborate investigation are set forth in the chapter which follows

the present one. In this chapter is presented a discussion of the statistics of entrances and clearances of the vessels whose commerce would

have taken them through the canal had such a waterway been in exist- ence during the calendar year 1899. In a few instances it was neces- sary to take the figures for the year 1898.

Inasmuch as all important commercial nations record the entrances and clearances of the vessels trafficking at their ports and state with

which countries the vessels trade, it is theoretically a simple matter to determine the tonnage of the vessels at present following routes for

which the canal route would be substituted. As a matter of fact, however, the statistics of entrances and clearances have certain important

limitations, due to the fact that different countries follow dissimilar

rules in making their statistical records. In some cases also the rec- ords are incomplete—as, for instance, the figures recording the tonnage

of vessels trading between Europe, Mexico, and Central America do

riot indicate whether the European entrances from those countries are from the Atlantic or from the Pacific coast. The same limitation

exists as to European clearances to that section of the world.

The lack of uniformity of methods of collecting statistics of entrances and clearances nuty either result in a duplication of tonnage records or

in an understatement of the tonnage engaged in the commerce of

certain countries, and it is unfortunate that the statistics of international trade are not compiled in accordance with uniform rules. A

vessel entering a German port is recorded as coming from the country

that supplied the vessel with the largest share of its cargo. If this vessel were to enter a British port, she would be recorded as having

sailed from the most distant countiy from which cargo was brought.

The French practice is the same as *the English. In compiling the

statistics of clearances it is the practice of Great Britain to record a

vessel as clearing for the most distant country for which she has cargo. The German figures credit the clearances to the country to which the

most cargo is bound. The French practice is like the English.

Correspondence with the collectors at a number of the ports of the

United States reveals the surprising fact that our statistics of entrances and clearances are compiled by various methods at different ports.

The New York statistics record a vessel as clearing for the first or

nearest country to which cargo is taken. The vessel is entered from

the most distant country. At other ports, however, different practices
474 REPOJST OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

prevail, four variations in methods having been reported by our

collectors of customs. A German vessel en route from Chile may call at a Belgian or Dutch port and appear both in their statistics of entrances and in the

German records. Likewise a vessel outbound from Germany might

be duplicated in European statistics. A vessel from a European port

may, and usually does, call at a number of PaciSc American countries.

However, the avoidance of duplication because of the numerous stops

made in American ports is a comparatively easy matter, because only

the records of the entrance and clearance at the European end need

to be considered. In the following tables and discussion no figures

have been used except those taken from the statistics kept in Europe

and in the United States. There is, furthermore, some danger of confusion because of the

difficulty of keeping Europe's trade with the east coast of South

America separate from that with the west coast. This danger, however, is only slight, because most of the lines, both European and

American, carry nothing for east coast ports. It is over 2,000 miles

between Chilean and Argentina ports, consequently vessels find it unprofitable to run part loaded between the ports of those two countries. Vessels load full cargoes from the North Atlantic to the west

coast, and also full cargoes from the west coast to the North Atlantic.

The trade of the east coast is mainly handled by vessels that do not go

around to the west side. Although the American statistics of entrances and clearances are not compiled in accordance with uniform rules, there are probably no duplications in the figures. In fact, the practice of New York, from which

the major share of our commerce moves, of recording a vessel as clear- ing for the first port of call for the discharge of cargo, is apt to lead

to understatement rather than an exaggeration of the volume of out- bound traffic destined for countries that will be reached by way of an

isthmian canal. In the case of European statistics the following duplications are possible:

1. German vessels outbound, as suggested above, may call at Holland or Belgium and be recorded there. These German vessels out- bound might possibly, though, as a matter of fact, they seldom if ever

do, call en route at British ports. One German line calls at a French

port.

2. German vessels inbound may call at a French, Belgian, or Dutch

port, but, as a matter of fact, they do not call at Belgian or Dutch

ports. Most of the trade from the west coast of South America to Europe is carried in full cargoes, and German vessels are pot apt to make calls en route at European ports. This is indicated by the fact that the Belgian clearances in the South American trade consists

almost entirely of steam tonnage, while the entrances are made up

mostly of sailing vessels. The same is true of the Netherlands. In regard to the French statistics there is some uncertainty.

3. Two British lines to and from the west coast of South America

call at French ports. Tims the French statistics are liable to include some tonnage entered in the British and some contained in the German

figures. The probable amount of such duplication will be considered

below in the discussion of the tables which follow.

4. In the case of Spanish statistics of entrances and clearances, it is possible that some British, souk- French, and some Italian tonnage

may he included.

Such are the possible kinds of duplication. It is, however, only in

DIAGRAM OF TONNAGE 1888 AND 1895-1899

STEAMSHIPS AND SAI LING VESSELS COMBINED

«o 10 <o r^ oo <y) g YEAR g g g g g TONS

y 88

86

84

82

8,0 0,000

78

7674

72

7,0 00,000

68

66

64

62

6,0 00,0 00

58

56

54

52

5,0 0,0 48

46

4-4- 42

4,000,000

38

36

34. 32

3,000,000

28

26

24

2 2 2,0 00,0

1 8

1 6

1 4-

1 2 1,000,000

86

4-2O

yr

TOT_f^—

1

!

|

1 ^4~—~~_

, A R 01 1 p a 00+—

" ' "

sRO jp_!_-}^ — ~

GR OU P 4 "

UHOU P 3
REPOET OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 475

the statistics of the west coast of South American trade that duplications are possible, and to assist in determining the extent to which

duplications probably occur it will be best to study a table showing

the figures of entrances and clearances in the trade of European

countries with the west coast of South America. The following table

summarizes the apparent vessel tonnage of the trade of European,

countries with western South America. It is compiled from the latest available figures, which in the case of the United Kingdom, France,

Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy were for the year 1899, and for

the other countries were for 1898. The totals of the table are subject

to such modification as may be found necessary in order to eliminate

the results of duplication.

European entrances and clearances, vessels trading with west coast of South America.

Entrances. Clearances. Total en- trances and clear- ances. Chile. Peru. Ecuador. Total. Chile. Peru. Ecuador. Total.

United Kingdom 227,260

94, 570

45, 312

252, 792 12,416

77, 156

276, 306 2,272

68, 343

16, 180

a 14, 635

" 4, 078

802

2, 149 297, 752

110, 750

59, 947

256, 870 13,218

77, 156

325, 358 2,272

372, 053

102, 789 3,348

128, 125 4,924

139, 599

122, 667 472

70, 513 78810, 066 452,632

103, 577 3,348

141,577

10, 180

139, 599

153, 251 472

750, 384

214, 327

63, 295 German Empire.

Italy

13, 452

5, 256

398,447

23, 398

216, 755

28, 896 20, 156 8,496 22, 088 478,609

2,744 Total 988,084 132, 934 22, 305 1, 143, 323 873, 977 98,505 32, 154 1,004,636 2, 147, 959

» Entered as Peru and Bolivia. b Pacific South America other than Chile. The table shows that the European statistics of entrances and clear- ances of the vessels engaged in the trade with western South America

apparently comprise a total of 2,147,959 tons. In order to determine more nearly what the actual vessel movement was, it is necessary to eliminate duplications as far as it is possible to do so. Efforts have

been made to secure information from the statistical departments of

European Governments, not only regarding the regulations which they

follow in the compilation of their statistics, but also concerning the

movements of vessels. The information obtained, however, was not

sufficient to make possible the avoidance of a resort to estimates in

making reductions from the statistical tables above given.

Great Britain and Germany are so situated that they are the European termini of vessel movements between Europe and South America.

Accordingly, the German and British figures for entrances and clear- ances may well be taken without alteration. Such, however, is not

the case with Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and Spain, at whose

ports both German and British vessels call en route. At Spanish ports

French and Italian vessels, as well as British, make more or less fre- quent calls. An examination of the Dutch and Belgian entrances and

clearances shows that the vessels arriving consist of sailing vessels, and

that those departing are nearly all steamers. This would indicate that

the incoming traffic is carried by chartered sailing vessels with full cargoes. These sailing vessels, after discharging their cargo, doubtless depart for a British port in search of outbound coal cargoes. The

steamers clearing from the Belgian and Dutch ports are in all probability mostly German vessels, although some British tonnage may be

represented. In view of these facts, it seems that the Belgian and

Dutch figures for entrances should be retained in the total without
476 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

alteration, but that some reduction should be made in the clearances to avoid recording a vessel a second time whose tonnage has already been

included in German clearances. The total clearances from Belgium

and the Netherlands are 106,995 tons, but these clearances can not all have been entered in the German figures, because the German clear- ances are much less than the entrances. It seems probable that the

larger part of the tonnage of German vessels recorded as clearing for

South America goes in ballast to Antwerp and is not recorded in the

German clearances. Just how much reduction should be made in the

clearances of Belgium and the Netherlands must be entirely a matter

of judgment, but it has been thought proper to take 30,000 tons from

the total. The largest amount of duplication in the tonnage figures doubtless occurs in the French statistics. There is one French line of steamers

plying between France and the western coast of South America; English vessels call at French ports, and one German line makes calls en route at two French ports. The I'rench entrances are 172,107 tons greater than the clearances, and i f is probable that this excess of entrances over clearances is to be accounted for b}r the tonnage of

chartered sailing vessels which bring full cargoes, mainly nitrate

of soda, to France. This difference, then, ought to be included in the French figures. Furthermore, the figures which cover the entrances and clearances of the French line ought to be included. Probably

50,000 tons of entrances and a like amount of clearances will cover the

vessel movements of that line of steamers. It is probable that the

remainder of the total entrances and clearances as shown in the French

figures is also comprised in the British and German statistics. It has

therefore been thought proper to deduct from the French figures as shown in the table 206,502 tons—that is, the difference between 272,107

(the sum included) and 478,609, the total shown in the table. Both British and French vessels call at Spanish ports, and probably

Italian vessels occasionally do. The amount of commerce which Spain

has with the west coast of South America is not much, and probably

the figures for the entrances, 77,156 tons, cover all the commerce

which that country has with the American section under consideration.

The clearances are very much larger than the entrances, but the amount

of outbound commerce is slight. It seems certain that the Spanish

figures for clearances represent English and French vessels that have

already been recorded in clearance statistics before reaching Spanish

ports. Accordingly, it is believed that accuracy demands the subtraction of the Spanish clearances from the totals of the above table. The

entrances and clearances of Italy are small, and doubtless represent

the actual vessel movement between Italy and western South America. The same may be said of Sweden. Russia does not appear in the table because there were no vessel movements between her ports

and western South America during the year under consideration.

The reductions which the foregoing analysis suggests ought to be

made amount to 376,101 tons, which, taken from 2,147,959 tons, the

total of the table, makes the revised total 1,771,858 tons. The absolute accuracy of this corrected total can not be asserted. At best it is only approximately accurate, and must be so considered. It may

possibly be as much as 100,000 tons in error, although that is hardly

probable. There are various ways of checking these figures so as to determine whether they are approximately correct or whether they

are largely in error. One method of checking them will be discussed
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 477

in a later chapter where the totals reached by the three separate and

distinct statistical investigations presented in this report are compared. A study has been made of the importation of nitrate of soda

into European countries, the most important export from western

South America; and the tonnage of British coal exports havealsobeen

considered. The figures of nitrate and coal movements arc in general

accord with the distribution of vessel tonnage suggested in the above

revision of the totals of the table of entrances and clearances. Furthermore, the information that has been obtained regarding the routes of

steamers owned by European companies operating vessels in the South

American trade has supplemented the data supplied by foreign governments in such a way as to make it probable that the revised total of 1,771,858 tons fairly approximates the facts. IMPORTANCE OF THE CHILEAN COMMERCE.

Every student of the industries and commerce of western South

America must be impressed with the great importance of that region

to the industries of Europe and the eastern part of the United States,

and also to the prospective traffic that will make use of an isthmian

canal. In 1899, according to the above figures, this section had a com- merce with Europe of 1,770,000 tons, an amount equal to nearly onefifth of the heavy tonnage then passing the Suez Canal.

The greater part of this west coast South American trade consists of

Chile's foreign commerce, and Chile's prominent place is due to the

nitrate of soda beds in the northern part of that country. Over threefourths of the Chilean exports consist of nitrate of soda, and more

than a million tons of shipping were employed in carrying that commodity. The export of that article, moreover, is rapidly increasing,

and there is every reason to believe that it will continue to grow for

several decades to come. The average annual exports of nitrate of soda from Chile for the

three calendar years 1897, 1898, and 1899 were 1,226,000 metric tons

of 2,201 pounds, the exports for the year 1899 having been 1,360,000

metric tons. The increase during the previous fifteen years amounted

to 910,000 tons. If the growth in the export of this commodity during

the succeeding fifteen years should prove to be no greater than it was

during the previous period of equal length, the nitrate tonnage in 1911

will amount to 2.300,000 Aveight tons. This estimate of the increase in the use of nitrate is a conservative

one, because it assumes that only an equal quantity increase will take

place during the coming period, and not a proportional percentage

increase. If it were assumed that the same percentage of growth

would continue until 1911, the figures for nitrate shipments of that vear would amount to 4,250,000 tons, and the Chilean export trade as a whole would exceed 5,000,000 cargo tons. Estimates based upon

the assumption of a geometric ratio of increase might properly be

considered excessive, but those which result from the application of

the arithmetical rate of increase will doubtless be accepted as moderate,

in view of the constantly enlarging demand for nitrate in the manufacture of fertilizers. Besides being an exporter of nitrate of soda, Chile is the outlet for

the mines of Bolivia, and also has copper and other mineral deposits

of its own, as well as a variety of industrial resources which, together

with the characteristics of the people, combine to make the country
478 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

industrially and commercially progressive. During the past decade

the nitrate of soda has comprised approximately three-fourths of the

cargo tonnage of the exports of Chile.

VESSEL TONNAGE OF EUROPEAN TRADE WITH WESTERN CENTRAL

AMERICA AND MEXICO.

It is impossible to determine the amount of the trade and shipping

passing around the Horn or through the Straits of Magellan between

Europe and the west coast of Central America and Mexico, because

Mexico and all the Central American countries except Salvador have

ports on both oceans, and Germany and Italy are the only European

countries whose statistics designate to which coast of these countries

the published figures apply. The figures for Salvador and the Ger- man and Italian entrances and clearances for the trade with the other

ports on the west coast of Central America and Mexico are shown in

the following table. German figures are for 1898; others for 1899.

Tonnage of European entrances and clearances of vessels engaged in European trade with

western Central America and Pacific coast of Mexico.

Country.

German Empire

Italy United Kingdom with Salvador. Portugal from Salvador

Total

Entrances,

Central America.

Tuns.

15, 512

363 2,504

Clearances.

Central America.

Tons. 13,118 5,873

1,595

Pacific Mexico.

Tons. 31,502

31, 502

Total entrances and clearances, 70,367 tons. The combined entrances and clearances recorded in this table amount

to but 70,367 tons. The figures refer only to vessel movements around

South America. The vessel tonnage engaged in the traffic across the

Isthmus of Panama is considered in a later connection. The statistics of other European countries indicate that commerce is carried on Avith Central American and Mexican ports, but an estimate only can be made

of the share of the tonnage that should be credited to the Pacific shore.

Considering the importance of the United Kingdom in the maritime

and commercial world and the independent ship-charter trade from

Central America and Mexico to the United Kingdom and the other

European countries not mentioned in the tables, it i^ safe to double

the total of the above figures, and probably 140,000 tons may be taken

as a fair estimate of the direct vessel movement between Europe and

Pacific Central America and Mexico. A large part of the trade

between Europe and western Central America and Mexico is handled

via Panama. The vessel tonnage of the Panama trade is -considered

in a later connection. Reference is here made only to the direct vessel movement between western Central America and Europe around

South America. In connection with this estimate of 140,000 tons,

attention may be called to the fact that the larger part of the population, industry, and trade of Central America is on the Pacific side,

where for climatic reasons the growth in population has thus far mainly occurred.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 479

TRADE OF THE WEST COAST OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH COLUMBIA,

AND HAWAII WITH EUROPE.

The reports of the United States Bureau of Statistics give in detail the entrances and clearances of vessels engaged in the foreign trade of

each of our customs districts. The statistics of the tonnage of vessels

engaged in the foreign trade of the United States that would avail itself of the isthmian canal are taken from our Government records. The

figures taken are for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1899. In the fol- lowing table is given the trade of the west coast of the United States,

of British Columbia, and of Hawaii with Europe in the year 1899.

The Canadian and United States figures are for the year ending June 30;

the Hawaiian are for the calendar year. The Hawaiian and British

Columbian statistics are taken from the official publications of those

countries.

Entrances and, clearances, trade of the Pacific coast of the United States, British Columbia,

and Hawaii with Europe, 1899.

European trade with

Entrances. Clearances.

Tons.

213, 798

26, 655

25, 032

Tons.

360, 258

15, 437

Totals 266,485 375,695

Combined total, 642,180 tons. The trade between the Pacific coast of the United States and Europe

comprised 213,798 tons net register of entrances and 360,254 tons of

clearances, a total of 571,052 tons. During the same year the com- merce between our Pacific coast and South Africa employed 55,071

net tons of shipping, but that is not included in the totals reached in this chapter. That trade would find the canal route about 1,500 miles

shorter, and if the tolls were low the canal would probably be used. a A large number of vessels cleared for Panama with traffic for Europe

by way of the Panama Railroad, but that traffic is not being considered

here. r The total entrances and clearances for the trade of British Columbia

with Europe in 1899 amounted to but 13,092 tons; the previous year

they were 106,185 tons. There are no clearances from Hawaii to Europe recorded. The ships take Hawaiian sugar to the United States and clear thence for Europe or elsewhere.

UNITED STATES ATLANTIC COAST TONNAGE WITH PACIFIC COUNTRIES.

Vessels trading between our Atlantic coast and the west coast of

South America, eastern Australia, Oceania, Japan, and China will use the isthmian canal, with the possible exception of a part of the

vessels passing to and from Hongkong and the Philippines. A portion,

and probably the larger share, of the Hongkong and Philippine trade

will use the canal.

a In the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission the vessel tonnage

tutals included this item of 55,074 tons.
480 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The records kept at the United States customs offices show the fol- lowing entrances and clearances in the trade between our Atlantic and

Gulf seaboard and the foreign Pacific countries. The first table refer

to the Pacific countries of South America; the second to the Orient,

i. e., to Japan, Siberia, China, Hongkong, the Philippines, Australia,

and New Zealand:

Entrances and clearances, United States Atlantic coast trade with Hawaii and foreign countries of Pacific America, year ending June 30, 1899.

Country. Entrances. Clearances.

Tons. 1,608

9,045 68,277

23, 919

Tons.2,057

4, 229 Chile 31, 274

25, 955 Total .

102,849 63, 515

Total entrances and clearances, 166,364 tons.

Entrances and clearances, United States Atlantic coast trade with oriental countries, fiscal year 1899.

Country. Entrances. Clearances.

Japan

Siberia China Hongkong . .

Philippines .

Australia New Zealand

Tons. 51,284

39, 536

32, 621 44,999

4,912

Tons.

174, 036 6,975

49, 347

42, 996

25, 696

115.561 39,456 Total. 173, 352 454, 070

Combined total, 627,422 tons. The total entrances and clearances between our eastern seaboard and

Hawaii and the countries of western South America for the year ending June 30, 1899, were 166,364 tons. There was no direct vessel movement during that year between our Atlantic coast and British

Columbia and Pacific Mexico or Central America.

The table of vessel movements between the eastern ports of the

United States and trans-Pacific countries shows a total of 454,070 tons

of clearances and 173,352 tons of entrances, a combined total of 627,422

tons. There were special difficulties encountered in securing the statistics of the vessel movements between our eastern seaboard and

Eastern countries, because the published figures of entries and clear- ances do not truly record the actual movements of vessels. This is due both to our practice of recording the statistics and to the fact that

vessels stop going and coming at European and other countries on their

voyages between the United States and the Orient.

The figures of the above table comprise only the tonnage of vessels which the records of our custom-houses show to have made a voyage

from our eastern ports to countries east of Singapore, or to have

entered direct from those countries. As a matter of fact many vessels take cargoes from the United Slates to Europe, then load for the

East, whence they may return to the United States cither by way of
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 481

Europe or by sailing- in the opposite direction. A large part of our

exports to the East are sent to Europe and there reshipped. Likewise

a good portion of our imports from trans-Pacific countries comes to us by way of Europe. The above table is defective for two reasons. It gives no information concerning the vessel tonnage employed in car- rying our exports that went to Eastern countries by way of Europe

and our imports that came from those countries by some European

city. Again, it understates the tonnage of the ships that come from

Eastern countries to the United States. Many of them come by way

of Java and are entered from the Dutch East Indies; others come by

way of Europe and are entered as from there. Some come from

Chile.

A more adequate measure of the tonnage of the shipping engaged in commerce with oriental countries would be secured by doubling the ton- nage of vessels making* the voyages directly to those countries. This

larger total, 908,140 tons, is probably too small, but it has been adopted

as the best figure obtainable by the study of the statistics of entrances and clearances and the known facts regarding commercial movements.

One reason foi thinking it unduly small is that the vessel tonnage of the commerce between our Pacific coast and the trans-Pacific countries

east of Singapore in 1899 amounted to 1,591,000 tons. While the vessel tonnage of this Pacific trade was doubtless greater than the vessel

tonnage of the American Atlantic trade with the countries east of

Singapore, it does not seem probable that the latter tonnage was less than three-fifths of the former. Another reason for thinking that the

vessel tonnage engaged in the commerce between our eastern seaboard

and Eastern countries was fully as much as, if not more than, 908,140

tons during the fiscal year 1899 is that the Panama Canal Company's

record of vessel movements between the American Atlantic seaboard

and the Pacific section east of 90 degrees east of Paris makes the total tonnage for the calendar year 1,271,357 tons. This total includes

Singapore and Sumatra and Java# and should be larger than the total of 908,110 tons, but probably less than 363,000 tons larger. By their

method of study, which is described in the following chapter, they

could follow the movements of each ship engaged in the trade, and

consequently a chartered vessel that engaged in the trade of a European or some other intermediate country in going from our eastern seaboard to the East or in returning would be included in their record,

whereas it probably would not in the American entrance or clearance

records. It is of course possible that the records of the New Panama

Canal Company may overstate the tonnage that would be required to handle the commerce between the Atlantic seaboard of the United

States and the countries east of Singapore, if all the vessels engaged

in this trade were to confine themselves to this traffic alone, but their

records presumably accurately state the tonnage of the vessels which

annually get from our eastern seabord to Australia, the Philippines,

Hongkong, China, Siberia, Japan, and come back again. The dis- cussion of the effect which canal tolls may have upon the commerce

between our Atlantic seaboard and Australia, southern China, and the

Philippines is deferred to a subsequent chapter, where it is considered

in detail. Our exports to Australia are growing rapidly, and the present clear- ances to that continent and New Zealand comprise a fair-sized total. The canal may be expected to facilitate our export trade to Australia,

S. Doc. 54, pt 2 31*
482 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

and will probably cause our imports from that region to come to us more directly. The vessel that takes American goods to Australia

usually loads there with Australian products for Europe, returns thence

to this country with pick-up cargo or ballast, and the American importer gets his Australian wool and other products at the London sales. The opening of a direct canal route between New York and Australia

may change this, at least to some extent, and lead to a more direct return trade from Australia. Direct importation would enable us to secure the goods from Australia more quickly and cheaply and be of

assistance to our manufacturers, who are requiring increasing quantities of the raw materials obtained in Australia, New Zealand, and

Oceania.

From New York and the North Atlantic ports of the United States the distance to the Philippines and Hongkong by the American canal

route will not be very much less than by Suez; consequently the trade

of our eastern seaboard with those and other places so nearly antipodal

will be divided between the easterly and westerly routes. The shipper

will have the advantage of the competition of the carriers using the

different canals. The coast between Shanghai and possibly Yokohama

on the east, and Singapore and possibly India on the west, will be

traversed in both directions by vessels bound for American ports.

The overlapping of trade routes in the East, and the tendency of

vessels to follow the routes where the greatest volume of traffic can be

secured, may possibly bring some of the East Indian trade across the

Pacific and through the American canal. One of the advantages of

the route by the American Isthmus will be the cheaper coal, and

another inducement to vessel owners will be the shorter trip in tropical latitudes, where many commodities are liable to be injured by heat

and humidity.

Although a part of the Hongkong and Philippine trade with our

Atlantic seaboard will unquestionably make use of the Suez route, the

figures in the above table have beet* allowed to stand without reduction, because the statistics of entrances and clearances collected at our

Atlantic and Gulf ports do not include all of the present commerce of

the eastern half of the United States with trans-Pacific countries that

might use the American canal were it available. In considering the vessel tonnage of the existing commerce that

might use an isthmian canal some account should be taken of the shipping that now plies between Asiatic countries and our Pacific coast. With China, Japan, and Siberia this amounts to 333,(589 tons. With

Hongkong and the Philippines the tonnage is 464,978, and for both

sections combined 798,667 tons. A large but indeterminable part <>i" this trade between the Pacific coast and trans-Pacific countries origi- nates and ends east of the Rocky Mountains. Doubtless the greater

share of this trade will always go overland to and from the Pacific coast; but some considerable portion will be diverted to the isthmian route after the canal has been opened. If this diverted trade and ton- nage should amount to but 20 per cent of the total, it would equal

about 160,000 tons, a tonnage nearly equal to that which the table

above shows our Atlantic coast vessel movement to and from Hongkong and the Philippines to have been in 1899.

While the Suez Canal will get some of the commerce of eastern Asia

and the Philippines with our Atlantic seaboard after the isthmian canal
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 483

has been opened, it is believed that this traffic through the Suez may

be offset by the amount of the vessel tonnage of our present Pacific coast import and export trade that would use an American canal. Furthermore, while the Suez route will draw from Manila and points

north and east, the isthmian route will also secure tonnage from the

territory lying south and west of Manila. It is thought that these

facts warrant the inclusion of all the Atlantic coast tonnage to and from

China, Japan, Hongkong, and the Philippines in the estimate of the

vessel tonnage that would find use of the canal advantageous. Such

an estimate as this can be only approximately correct, because it is impossible to predict closely the routes which the East Indian and

south Asiatic trade will actually follow after the American inter- oceanic canal shall have completed the water route round the world.

The foregoing discussion has made no reference to the effect which

the canal will have in diverting from its present rail and water routes

a portion of the commerce now carried on by way of our Pacific coast ports between the eastern half of the United States and Australia,

Hawaii, and the rest of Oceania. There are excellent steamship connections between the west coast of the United States and Canada,

Hawaii, and Australia, and the traffic and travel of the Eastern United

States to and from those countries is in part conducted through Pacific coast gateways. The isthmian canal and the steamship connections by

way of it will undoubtedly affect the present routes for some of the

traffic now carried on between our Eastern States and those countries.

The entrances and clearances of the vessels trafficking between our

Pacific coast and Australia, Hawaii, and other islands of Oceania are shown in the following table:

IX.Entrances and clearances, United States Pacific coast trade with Australasia and other Oceania, fiscal year 1899.

Entrances. Clearances.

Hawaii

Tons.

246, 432

148, 876

8,351

Tons.

205, 987

94, 037 7,960 Australasia Other Oceania

Total 403, 659 307, 984

Combined total, 711,643 tons. Although there is no doubt but that a portion of the traffic covered

hy the above table would have gone through the canal had it been in existence in 1899, there is no way of deciding what percentage would

have taken the isthmian route. None of this tonnage has been

included in making up the totals reached in this chapter. a

a The statistical total of vessel tonnage published in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission included 79,218 as the tonnage of our Pacific coast trade with Australasia and other Oceania which it was estimated would be at once diverted

to the canal. Communications received from several officials of the transcontinental railways express the opinion that a considerable share of the foreign traffic now carried^ over the mountains by rail will be diverted to the canal line, that is to say, is traffic at present available for the canal. However, in order to be conservative and

to avoid assumptions whenever possible, there is none of this Pacific coast Oceania

tonnage included in the totals of this report.
484 REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

VESSEL TONNAGE ENGAGED IN THE PRESENT TRAFFIC ACROSS THE

ISTHMUS OF PANAMA.

In none of the preceding tables is there a statement of the tonnage

engaged in the traffic now carried across the Isthmus of Panama by

rail. This transisthmian traffic is a part of the Atlantic-Pacific trade

of both Europe and America. Four lines of steamers now run north

from Panama on the west coast, two lines run south, and the business

of those steamers would become canal traffic. More than a million tons of shipping enter the port of Colon each

year, but that tonnage would not be a fair index of the amount that

would go through the canal. Colon is a port of call for nearly all the

lines of steamships connecting the Gulf, West Indian, and Caribbean

waters with the United States and with all the leading European countries. A call at Colon is but an incident in the vo}r ageof the steamers

trafficking in the Gulf and Caribbean, but the situation at Panama is different. The geographical location of that city is such that a large

part of the steamers from the North or South make Panama the beginning or end of their voyages. Before the 3'ear 1899 the lines from the

South did not go north of Panama and none from the North went

south of Panama. Since then the lines from the South have extended

their route beyond Panama, and that city has now become a port of

call as well as a terminal point. If, however, the year 1898 be taken,

the tonnage of Panama may be considered as indicative of the tonnage

which the present transisthmian trade would cause to use the canal. During the year 1898 119 steamers, with an aggregate tonnage of

336,998 tons, entered this port. Panama has some sail tonnage, which

is omitted from the calculations here made because most of the sailing

vessels are either local or are empkryed in bringing coal from Australia

for the steamship lines. This business would disappear with the opening of the canal and the establishment at the Caribbean entrance of

coaling stations supplied with coal from the United States. Whether both the entrances and clearances at Panama should be

included in computing the canal tonnage which the commerce at Panama

would have contributed to the traffic of an isthmian waterway in L898, or whether only the entrances should be counted, constitutes an inter- esting question in statistics. The clearances were practically identical

with the entrances, and if they were included, the above total would be

doubled. Reasons for doubling the entrances may be found in the fact that there were presumably no vessels engaged in the traffic entering

at Panama that did not find the business profitable, and that these vessels in taking cargo from the west coast of North or South America

for the American or European Atlantic stopped their eastbound voyage

at Panama instead of at some Atlantic port simply because there was

no waterway across the Isthmus. They would have made a round trip

through the canal and back to the west coast had they been able to do so. The reasons why only the entrances have been counted in the statis- tical calculations of this chapter are:

1. That the existence of a canal and the avoidance of transshipment

of cargo at Panama would have enabled the same tonnage of vessels to have carried a larger amount of traffic.

2. The vessels entering and clearing Panama are also engaged en

route in a coasting trade of some importance. The through business

done at Panama included only a part of the transportation business of
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 485

the vessels which entered that port, even in 181*8, when it was a ter- minal instead of a point of call en route.

3. This last fact is shown by the total tonnage of freight, northbound

and southbound, handled by the Panama Railroad in 1898—268,156 tons

of freight. In most cases the net register vessel tonnage is considerably less than the cargo tonnage; and for this reason, principally, it' has been thought best to count only the entrances at Panama, 336,998

tons, in arriving at the total available canal traffic.

11

COASTING TRADE OP THE UNITED STATES AVAILABLE FOR THE CANAL. The coasting trade between the two seaboards of the United States carried on by way of Cape Horn or the Straits of Magellan is the only

additional tonnage item requiring examination. The Horn route has

been followed since the days of '49, and while it will probably be

deserted after the completion of the canal, it or the Straits of Magellan

will be increasingly used until that time. Until recently this traffic has been handled by sailing vessels, but the line of seven new steamers

recently installed in this trade will largely displace the sailing vessels that have had a practical monopoly of the traffic for a half century.

Owing to the large annual fluctuations to which this trade has been

subject, an average of Pacific entrances from Atlantic ports and

Atlantic entrances from Pacific ports during the last ten years has been

taken. These averages combined give a total of 109,312 tons per year. The Atlantic entrances averaged 26,323, and those of the Pacific 82,989,

showing that Europe is the selling market of the Pacific States and

our Atlantic States are the buying market. Two-thirds of the vessels

sailing to our west coast from our Atlantic seaboard clear from our

west coast to Europe, cross thence to our Atlantic ports to load for

the Pacific slope.

The entrance and clearance totals for the various categories of commerce studied in the preceding pages are summarized in the followingtable. It will be remembered that the figures are for the latest avail- able statistical year, which in most instances was 1899.

Summary of entrances and clearances, commerce of Europe with Pacific America, and

commerce of eastern seaboard of the United States with Pacific countries. Europe with

Tons. Western South America 1, 771, 858 Western Central America and Mexico 140, 000

Pacific coast of United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii 642, 180 Eastern seaboard of United States with

Western South America and Hawaii 166, 364

Pacific coast of the United States 109,312

Trans-Pacific countries 908, 140 Panama traffic ( 1898) 336, 998

Total 4, 074, 852 The total of the above summary, 4,074,852 tons net register, comprises the vessel tonnage of the trade of Europe with Pacific America,

and of our Atlantic seaboard with Pacific countries. Every possible

effort has been made to analyze, verify, and correct the statistical data

consulted. It was thought better to err, if at all, on the side of understatement.

a The tonnage totals published in the preliminary report of the Isthmian Canal Commission included both the entrances and clearances at Panama.
486 REPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The above total differs somewhat from the total published in the

preliminary report of the Canal Commission, mainly because three

items have been omitted that were included in the former statement. The sums omitted amount to 471,290 tons net register. Had they

been included the vessel-tonnage total of this report would have dif- fered from that of the preliminary report by only 35,986 tons, the

total here given being that much less. Since publishing the preliminary report it has been possible to substitute 1899 figures for those

of 1898 for a few foreign countries. For some of the countries the

figures for 1899 were larger than those for 1898, but in the case of

British Columbia the tonnage for 1899 was 63,393 tons less than 1898.

Attention was called in the previous chapter to the abnormall}'

small export of grain from our Pacific coast during the year 1899. If the grain exports of the normal }

T ear 1898 were substituted for those

of 1899, the above vessel-tonnage total would need to be increased over

400,000 tons. The grain exports of 1898 exceeded those of 1899 by

612,874 cargo tons, and this, according to the ratio of cargo tonnage

to net register tonnage for the Pacific coast exports as a whole, would

be equivalent to 408,723 vessel tons. In closing this discussion of vessel tonnage reference should be

made to the fact that this chapter has not considered the commerce of

Europe with the western half of the Pacific Ocean, a part of which, it is believed, for reasons elaborated in the succeeding chapter, will make

use of the American canal instead of the Suez or Cape of Good Hope

route. In stating the entire amount of vessel tonnage that was avail- able for the use of the canal in 1899 some share of the European com- merce now using the Suez or rounding the Cape of Good Hope should

be included. What that share should be is considered at length in the

next chapter.

Chapter XX.

Traffic investigation by the New Panama Canal Company—Comparison of the results of the three investigations.

PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION.

The New Panama Canal Company divided that part of the world's commerce capable of being affected by the proposed canal into the four

groups that had been adopted in 1890 by the Commission (T Etudes

appointed by the receiver of the Compagnie Universelle du Canal

Interoceanique. These four groups were: (1) The commerce between

Europe and the Pacific coast of the American continent; (2) the com- merce between Europe and the Far East, i. e., China, Japan, Australasia, and Oceania, and the French and Dutch East Indies; (3) the com- merce between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America, and (4) the commerce between the Atlantic coast of America and the Eastern

countries included in group 2. Briefly stated, the plan adopted by the New Panama Canal Company

to determine what part of the world's present ocean tonnage would

make use of an American interoceanic canal was to record and follow

the movements of all vessels engaged in the commerce being carried on between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This recoi'd of vessel movements was taken from Lloyd's two publications, the Daily Shipping

and Mercantile Gazette and the Weekly Shipping Index, where the

canal company was able to secure information concerning the arrivals,
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 487

departures, and whereabouts of all ocean vessels, about 12,500 in number, as their records subsequently showed.

During the years 1895 and 1896 the plan followed in making up the

record was to go through each issue of Lloyd's daily and weekly publications and place against each vessel whose route was such as to bring

it within one of the four groups of commerce just mentioned a check

indicating to which group the ship was to be accredited.

Lists of the vessels thus checked were arranged alphabetical^, showing for each of the four classes, and for sailing vessels and steamers

separately, the facts regarding each ship that were given in Lloyd's

Gazette and Index. These eight alphabetical lists—four for steamers

and four for sailing vessels—were then turned over to draftsmen, who

charted the movements of the vessels named in the eight lists by using

sheets of paper which had the names of the ships in a column at the

left, and which were divided into perpendicular columns headed with

the names of the twelve months and with the weeks of the year by

number from one to fifty-two.

The movements of a vessel were shown on the sheet by entering in the column of the proper week the name of the port and the day of

the month of the arrival of the vessel if it was entering the port, or

of the departure of the ship if it was clearing. Horizontal lines were drawn connecting the entries of clearances with those of arrivals. During 1895 eight sets of charts were prepared, sailing vessels and

steamers being separately classified according to the four groups into

which the commerce being studied had been divided; but after that

year the groups of commerce were shown on the charts b}^ using four

different colors of crayon, and only two sets of charts were made, one

each for sailing vessels and steamers. From these sets of charts and

the vessel lists from which the charts were prepared it was an easy

matter to make an annual computation showing the steam and sail tonnage of the traffic of each of the four groups of commerce.

Experience showed that the plan of checking off and copying from

Lloyd's lists the vessels according to groups was somewhat defective,

because on the charts some vessels would disappear from one group

and appear in another in such a way as not to indicate what the intermediate movements of the vessel had been. It also happened that some vessels disappeared from the record after they had touched at a

Pacific port, and that other ships appeared on the record as clearing

from a Pacific port, without there being any record regarding their

previous voyages. To obviate this defect it was decided at the beginning of 1897 to discontinue checking the names of vessels in the

Gazette and Index and preparing lists of the ships thus checked, and

instead of doing this work to make a card catalogue (fiches) of every

ship named in the Lloyd publications. In this catalogue each ship had

its card, and on this card all desired information regarding the vessel was entered and a record kept of the movements of the ship. The

graphic charts of the voyages of the vessels were prepared from these

cards. During the year 1897 the canal company further improved its methods of conducting the traffic investigation. From Lloj'd's Shipping

and Mercantile Gazette tables were prepared showing for each Pacific

port, separately for steamers and sailing vessels, and classified according to the four groups of commerce, the name, flag, tonnage, etc., of
488 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

all the vessels entered and cleared. These tables gave full information regarding the steam and sail commerce of each Pacific port.

These tabular statements are said by the New Panama Canal Company to have "confirmed the correctness of the former work." The

preparation of these tables also " established the fact that the graphic

method, based upon the use of the Weekly Shipping Index, which has

the disadvantage of requiring much more time, is more exact, complete, and reliable." The company .further states: The justification of the method of statements by ports is that it has the advantage of dividing among the ports interested the world's tonnage stated for each of the

four groups, and thus facilitates the study of the results, especially the inquiry con- cerning that part of the traffic with ports at the limit of the canal's zone of attraction. This method of statements was employed to verify the statistics of the year 1898. At the close of the year 1898 the traffic of the year 1888 was studied

according to the methods that had been developed, and tables were made comparing the years 1888 and 1898 to show what development

had taken place during the decade in the commerce being investigated.

The tonnage movements of 1899 have also been charted, totalized, and

tabulated. The following- table, prepared by the New Panama Canal

Company and published here with but slight changes in form, presents the results of the elaborate investigations conducted by that

company. The table shows the steam and sail tonnage of each of

the four groups of commerce for the calendar years 1888, 1895, 1896,

1897, 1898, and 1899.

Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade betiueen the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, 1888 and 1895

to 1899.

Group 1. Europe with

Pacific America.

Group 2. Europe with

the Orient.

Group 3. Be- tween Atlantic and Pacific America.

Group 4. Atlantic America

with Orient. Total for the year.

1888:

346, 015

1, 744, 661

2, 396, 105 1,659,7694,716

217, 597

78, 994 681,877

2, 825, 830

Sail 4,303,894 Total 2, 090, 676 4, 055, 864 222, 313 760, 871 7, 129, 724

1895:

570, 637

2, 130, 876 3,081,4791,087,250

40, 551

243, 209

162, 599

721,526

3, 855, 266

Sail 4 182 861 2,701,513 4, 168, 729 283, 760 884, 125 8,038,127

1896: 601,157

1,944,207

3, 430, 386 891,40468, 420

1S8, 145 266, 354

792, 214 4,366,317

Sail 3,816,270 Total 2, 545, 364 4,321,790 256,865 1,058,568 8, 182, 587

1897: 601,784

1,677,461

3, 745, 397

976, 480

68,446

164,891 271,455

789, 694 4,677,082

Sail 3 608 626 Total 2, 279, 245 4,721,877 223, 337 1,061,149 8, 285, 608

1898:

648, 568

1, 680, 573

3, 669, 091

948, 222 91,082

14S, 20

441,246

835, 682

4,849,987

Sail 3 612 68] Total 2, 329, 141 4, 617, 313 239, 286 1,276,928 8 462,668

1899:

570, 997 1,804,074 4,059,392

1,053,862 94,319

107, 830

699,913

571 , 444 5 424,621

Sail 3, 537, 210 Total 2, 375, 071 5, 113, 254 202, 149 1,271,357 8,961,831
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 489

The total traffic in 1899 was larger than in 1898. This, however, was not true of all groups, there having been a slight decline in groups

3 and 4. The decline in the vessel movements of group 3 during 1 899

as compared with 1898 was due to scarcity of ships and to the sale of

a large line of sailing vessels that had been engaged in this traffic. During the year 1900 a line of steamers, comprising seven ships, capable of handling 126,000 tons of cargo each way annually, was inaugurated to take the place of the sailing vessels that were sold the year

before. The slight decrease in the tonnage of group 4 was likewise

due to the high ocean rates arising from the scarcity of ships. The

shipments from the eastern ports of the United States to the Orient were handled more largely by the transcontinental railroads and the

Pacific steamers. The commerce included in groups 1, 3, and 4 of the above table is considered as certainly tributary to the proposed American canal. The commerce of Europe with eastern countries, group 2, will, for the

greater part, make use of the Suez route, but a portion of the traffic will find the American waterway more advantageous. What share of

the total for group 2 may properly be credited to the westerly canal route must be a matter of estimate. A careful review of the existing

trade routes and a consideration of the forces that will affect the ocean

routes after the American canal has been opened leads to the conclusion that a portion of Europe's exports to the western half of the

Pacific Ocean—that is, to Japan, Australia, and Oceania—will be sent through the American canal. CONCERNING USE OF AMERICAN CANAL BY COMMERCE OF EUROPE

WITH ORIENT.

The volume of traffic to Europe from the East being larger than

that outbound from Europe, vessels are obliged to sail both for the

eastern part of the United States and for eastern countries lightly

loaded, and sometimes in ballast. Our exports from Atlantic ports to Australia, Oceania, and the Orient are in part carried by ships that

cross the Atlantic in ballast. When the American canal has become

available vessels will probably not infrequently take on a partial cargo

in Europe for countries in the western half of the Pacific, and also take freight for the United States, the West Indies, Central America,

or Mexico; that is, vessels finding difficulty in securing cargoes out- bound from Europe will sometimes find it advantageous to proceed to the East by way of America for the purpose of discharging such

European-American cargoes as may be secured, and loading at one or more American ports a full cargo for the Pacific port or ports of its destination. In addition to permitting vessels in Europe to unite the

light outbound cargoes for the East and for the United States, and

enabling them to secure full cargoes in America for the East, the

westerly route by way of the American canal will have the advantage

of cheaper coal, "and may possibly impose lower canal tolls upon the

shipping than will be exacted by the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal is, and doubtless will remain, a highway managed by a corporation,

whereas the American waterwa}r under consideration is to be owned

and operated by the Government.
490 BEPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The distance from Liverpool to Sydney, Australia, by way of the

Nicaragua Canal and Tahiti will be only 172 miles greater than via the

Suez, Colombo, Adelaide, and Melbourne, and this small disadvantage

of the westerly course will be partially if not quite offset by two

facts favoring the American canal route. From Liverpool via the

Cape of Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne and Sydney is 722

miles farther than by way of a Nicaragua canal and Tahiti. The use

of the westerly route will enable vessels engaged in the European-Australian trade to avoid the excessive heat of the Gulf of Aden and the

Red Sea, and the storms of the tempestuous Indian Ocean. The

American route, also, will be favored by the fact that a vessel on its way between Liverpool and the isthmian canal will have to go but 323

miles out of its course to call at New York—the greatest port of the

world—whence outbound cargoes are practically always obtainable.

With the advantages of cheaper coal, a cooler passage in the Tropics,

quieter seas, and the attractive force of America's heavy tonnage, the

American isthmus route will be used instead of the course through the

Suez ("anal by some of the vessels departing from Europe for Australia or other regions on that side of the Pacific Ocean.

Vessels proceeding from Europe by way of American ports and the

isthmian canal to Oceania and the East will have the choice of return- ing to Europe either by way of the Suez or by way of the American

route. By whatever route the European vessels reach the oriental

and other countries of the western Pacific, the route by which they

return to Europe will be determined by the relative opportunities for

obtaining cargo by way of the Suez and American routes, respectively.

The reasons for believing that a portion of Europe's imports from

the western half of the Pacific will come by way of the American

route are stronger than the reasons just cited regarding the use of the

American canal for the European export trade. A vessel finding itself in the East Indies, Japan, China, or Australia may either take on

cargo for Europe and for intermediate points along the Suez route, or

it ma}T load with such cargo as may be available for Europe and American countries and proceed—in most cases but partially loaded—across the Pacific to the western coast of the United States, where a great

abundance of cargoes destined for Europe may be obtained, or the ship

may go to Central America and West Indian ports, where a fair amount

of freight for Europe will usually be available, or the vessel may proceed to Chile or some other west South American country, where there

is always a heavy amount of outbound traffic. Besides being certain

of securing freight from South America or North America for Europe,

a vessel returning from the Orient by the American canal will also have

the advantage above referred to of being able to secure coal more

cheaply than it can be obtained along the Suez line.

It would seem probable, upon a priori ground, that vessels leaving

Europe, whether by way of the Suez or by way of the American canal,

will frequently find the return trip via America more profitable than

by the route in the opposite direction. This general proposition,

moreover, seems to accord with the evidence regarding the present

round-the-world movement of vessels. The entrance and clearance

statistics of the vessels engaged in the foreign trade of the west coast of North and South America indicate that a large number of vessels now going out from Europe toward the East return from the west.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 491

EVIDENCE OF INCREASING NUMBER OF ROUND-THE-WORLD VOYACxES. In the trade of the Pacific coast of the United States with Atlantic

foreign countries the tonnage of the entrances direct from the Atlantic was 63.8 per cent of the clearances to those ports in 1889; but in 1898

the entrances direct from the Atlantic were but 25.3 per cent of the

clearances to the foreign countries of that section. Stated otherwise,

in 1889 something over one-third, and in 1898 about three-fourths of

the vessel tonnage employed in carrying our west coast trade to Europe arrived at our western ports from other than European

countries.

Many vessels take cargo from Europe via the Good Hope route to Australia, or other eastern countries, whence they proceed across the

Pacific in ballast, or with coal to our western ports or to Chile. A to and fro movement of vessels between ports situated at great distances

from each other is frequently unprofitable unless there are about equal

quantities of merchandise to be carried both ways, and whenever possible, chartered vessels—and at the present time they carry most of

the world's ocean freight—seek to avoid voyages in ballast by moving

as much of the time as possible in the direction of the larger currents

of traffic. Our Pacific coast imports but little and exports great

quantities, consequently vessels endeavor to approach that section

and the same is true of Chile—from regions having a larger volume

of inbound traffic. In 1888 more ships entered Chile from North Atlantic countries,

Europe, and the United States than cleared from them, but in 1898

the reverse was the case. The figures of the entrances and clearances

of the Chilean trade with Europe and our Atlantic coast for the years

1888 and 1898, as recorded by European countries and the United

States, are shown by the following table:

Chilean entrances and clearances, direct trade with Europe and east coast of United States, 1888, 1898.

1888. 1898.

Entrances 767, 000

625, 000

891 000 Clearances 982 000

Per cent which entrances were of clearances: 1888, 122.7; 1898, 89.7. Per cent of decline in ratio of entrances to clearances, 1888 to 1898, 28.5. The ships for the exports of Chile to Europe and the United States were all drawn from Atlantic countries in 1888, and, in addition, vessels entered Chile from the Atlantic and cleared for Pacific countries,

but in 1898 the vessels for the exports from Chile to the North Atlantic must have been drawn partly from Pacific ports. According to the

table, the tonnage entering Chile from the North Atlantic was 122.7

per cent of the tonnage that cleared for that section in 1888, whereas

the per cent was only 89.7 in 1898, an apparent decline of 28.5 per cent

in the ratio. This change was mainly due to a movement of vessels from Europe and eastern United States to Australia and thence

to Chile. In compiling the above table the European statistics of entrances and clearances have been taken without making reductions to eliminate
492 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

duplications. Accordingly neither the figures nor the percentages are

strictly accurate. For the purpose of the present argument, however,

the value of the table is not lessened lty the duplications contained in the statistics, because a study of the European records of entrances and clearances shows very clearly that there is a greater duplication of

clearances than of entrances. If the duplications in the figures of the

above table were deducted, the tonnage entering Chile from the North

Atlantic would bear an even smaller ratio to the clearances to that sec- sion than is stated in the table. Further evidence regarding the increasing movement of vessels around the world is shown by the statistics of entrances and clear- ances of the Atlantic coast trade of the United States with South

America. In the table just given above the European trade with

Chile is analyzed. The following table contains the figures of the entrances and clearances of the trade of the Atlantic and Gulf sea- boards of the United States with the entire west coast of South

America:

Atlantic coast entrances and clearances, trade of United States with western South America.

Year. Entrances. Clearances.

1889 44,454

78, 930

27, 176

1899 37,560

77.5 38 2 Our east coast entrances from western South America increased

during the decade preceding 1899 more than the clearances did. The

clearances to South America were less than half the entrances from

that section in 1899.

Mention was made of the fact that vessels clearing from the North

Atlantic to Australia and other eastern countries frequently return by

crossing the Pacific. In 1899, 155,000 tons of vessels cleared from the eastern ports of the United States for Australia and New Zealand, and

the direct entrances, all from New Zealand, were only 1,912 tons. This

does not indicate that practically all the outbound vessels returned b}7 way of the Pacific, because many, although not all, of the steamers

returned by way of Java or Europe and were entered as from those

countries. Some of the steamers and nearly all of the sailing vessels

returned from Australia to the United States by way of the west coast

of North or South America. Under present conditions the tendency

is for an increasing number of vessels starting out from Europe and

the eastern part of the United States toward the East to return to their starting point by a continuous voyage around the world.

The effect of the isthmian canal upon ocean routes under consideration will be a double one. It will facilitate a round-the-world move- ment of commerce and also establish conditions that may cause vessels to pass from Europe as well as from the eastern part of the United

States through the American canal to oriental countries, to return, as

traffic inducements ma}^ determine, by way of the Suez Canal or across the Pacific to the west coast of North and South America and thence

to the point of departure. By exercising these influences upon the

world's commercial routes the canal will secure a part of the trade of

Europe with countries in the western half of the Pacific.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 493

TONNAGE OF AVAILABLE CANAL TRAFFIC.

The records kept by the Panama Company show that during the

calendar year 1899 the commerce of groups 1, 3, and 4 might have

contributed 3, 848,577 tons net register to the traffic of the isthmian

canal. This sum does not include any vessel tonnage for the commerce,

crossing the Isthmus of Panama. The addition of that tonnage,

336,998, raises the total to 4,185,575. The entrances and clearances

for the commerce of the eastern seaboard of the United States with

Pacific America and with Australia, Oceania, the Philippines, Japan,

China, and Siberia, and the vessel movements between the western

coasts of the American continents and the North Atlantic American

and European ports were found to amount to 4,074,852 vessel tons net

register, including the 336,998 tons for the commerce crossing the

Isthmus of Panama.

In addition to this tonnage, which comprises onty traffic originating or terminating in America, there should be included most of the commerce of Europe with New Zealand and the other islands of the Pacific east of Australia. New Zealand will be 1,503 miles nearer Liverpool

by the Nicaragua Canal than via the Suez route and 2,407 miles nearer than by way of Good Hope. The distances to Liverpool from the

most important groups of South Pacific islands north of New Zealand

will be from 500 to 5,500 miles less via the isthmian canal than b}T way of Suez. The entrances and clearances of New Zealand's trade

with northwestern Europe—France and countries farther north

amounted to 481,178 tons net register in 1899, and the commerce of

that part of Europe with the other islands of the South Pacific east of

Australia to 181,743 tons. Of this total traffic of 662,921 tons, probably not less than 500,000 might have advantageously used an isthmian

canal, and this amount should be added to the tonnage of the canal

traffic originating or terminating in America. This makes the total obtained by the Commission's investigation of the tonnage that might

have used an isthmian canal in 1899 4,574,852 tons net register and

the total obtained by adopting the New Panama Canal Company's

figures for the traffic originating or terminating in America 4,685,575

tons. The above totals for the tonnage that might have used an isthmian

canal in 1899 do not include any of Europe's trade with Australia and

Japan, a part of which, for reasons stated above, would have used an

isthmian waterway. The distances from Great Britain to Sydne}7 and

Yokohama by the Suez and isthmian canal routes are approximately

equal, and vessels going by America in either direction en route between Europe and Japan or Australia will pass regions from which

there is a heavy export tonnage. If it be assumed that only 10 per

cent of the vessel tonnage of the Australian trade with the ports of

northwestern Europe and only 5 per cent of the tonnage of the Japanese commerce with those ports would have taken an American canal

route, the totals for 1899 should be increased 316,223 tons, and be

raised from 4,574,852 to 4,891,075 tons, and from 4,685,575 to 5,001,798 tons, or to approximately 5,000,000 tons. GROWTH OF TRAFFIC, 1888-1898.

The total vessel tonnage of the four groups included in the tables

prepared by the New Panama Canal Company rose from 7,129,724
494 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

tons net register in 1888 to 8,462,668 tons in 1898, an increase of 18.7

per cent. There was a large increase in the commerce of groups 1 and 4. The rapid development of the trade of Europe with the west

coast of the Americas, particularly in Chilean nitrates, has been dwelt

upon elsewhere. The commerce of the Atlantic coast of America

with the Orient, group 4, expanded largely during the decade in spite

of the hindrance imposed by the length of the present transportation

routes. The ocean commerce, the tonnage of which is comprised in group 3, that is to say, the trade between the two American seaboards, increased

but slightly during the decade; but this total of less than a quarter of a million tons includes only the tonnage of vessels which actually make

the trip between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. It does not comprise the traffic which now moves across the Isthmus of Panama.

The traffic around South America was less in 1899 than it had been in previous years, the reason for this being that the sailing vessels that

had been engaged in the trade between our two coasts were sold for

the purpose of substituting steamers. Those steamships will all be in

service before the end of 1901, and the tonnage will then be greater

than it was previous to the year 1899. After the isthmian canal has

been in use for a few years the commerce of group 3 will probabty be

as large as that of any other one of the four groups, because it is this

group in which the coasting trade between the two seaboards of the

United States will fall. The present small proportions of this trade

between the two coasts of the Americas and the slow rate of its increase indicate an important, although not the only, commercial rea- son why the United States proposes to construct an isthmian canal. In the following table the tonnage of 1888 is compared with that of

1898, and the number of steamers and sailing vessels engaged in the commerce of each group is indicated:

Comparison of the tonnage of 1SS8 and 1S98.

Group 1. Europe

with Pacific America. Group 2. Europe

with the Orient.

Group 3. Be- tween Atlantic and Pacific America.

Group 4. Atlantic America

with Orient.

Total for the

year.

Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number. Tons. Number. Tons.

1888:Steam

Sail 2151,633 346,015

1,744,661 1,2751 , 595 2,396,105

1,659,759

7 182 4,716

217, 597 46

571

78, 994 681,877

1,543

3,981

2, 825, 830

4, 303, 894

Total... 1,848 2, 090, 676 2, 870 4, 055, 864 1S9 222,313 617 760, 871 5, 524 7, 129, 724

1898:Steam ... Sail 265

1,101

648, 568

1,680,573

1,448 3,669,091 743 \ 948,222

57

104 91,082148, 204 202527

141,246

835, 682

1,972

2, 475

1,849,987 3,612,681 Total . .

1,366 2,329,141 2,191 4,617,313 161 239, 286 729 1,276,928 4,447 8, 462, 668 Per cent of increase or decrease

1888-1898: Steam ... Sail + 87.4 3.6 + 53.1 »42.8 + 1831 »31.9 +

+

468 22.6 + 71.3 •16.0

Total... ! 11. 1 + 13.8 + 7.6 + 67.8 + 18.7

'Decrease. In showing the growth in the commerce of these four groups indi- vidually and collectively during the decade 1888 to 1898, the figures of
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 495

the above table afford the basis for reasoning regarding the probable

amount of tonnage that will lie ready to use the canal at the time of

its probable completion, but a consideration of this is reserved for a separate section, where all the data bearing upon the subject are analvtically presented.

There are two other facts shown by this table that are of indirect

importance in connection with the traffic of an isthmian canal. One

is that the increased traffic of 1898—18.7 per cent larger than the ton- nage of 1888—was carried in 1,077 fewer vessels than were used ten years before. The number of ships decreased 19.5 per cent during

the decade, thus affording a good illustration of the well-known fact

that the size of ocean vessels is growing rapidly larger. The average

net register of the vessels engaged in the four groups of commerce

was 1,291 tons in 1888. The steamers at that time averaged 1,831 tons net register. In 1898 the average for all vessels, both steam and sail, was 1,903 tons net register and for steamers 2,460 tons. THE SUBSTITUTION OF STEAMERS FOR SAILING VESSELS. % The figures contained in the table also indicate the rapidity and

extent to which the steamer is supplanting the sailing vessel. The

table shows that the sailing vessel lost ground most rapidly in the commerce of group 2, where the Suez route has come to be the main

traffic highway. These facts regarding the growth of steam tonnage

and the declining use of the sailing vessel are graphically shown in the

accompanying charts, which indicate for each of the four groups the

changes that have taken place in both steam and sail tonnage. _ The

first chart applies to sailing vessels, the second to steamers, while in

the third the changes in the total tonnage, steam and sail combined,

are represented.

COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS OF THE THREE TRAFFIC INVESTIGATIONS.

Having now set forth the results of three separate investigations

instituted to measure the volume of the existing commerce that would

make use of an isthmian canal were such a waterway in existence, it will be profitable to compare the results of the three inquiries to see whether they tend to strengthen each other, or whether they are so

different as to cast doubt upon the accuracy of any or all of the three

studies. The three investigations were made not only without refer- ence to each other, but also according to entirely different methods.

Two of the investigations were made by the Isthmian Canal Commission, and the other under the direction of the New Panama Canal

Company. It is not often in statistical and economic investigations

that such an opportunity for checking up results is afforded as is possible in the present instance. In the chapter on cargo tonnage it was found that the freight ton- nage of the trade between Europe and Western America and the ton- nage going by water between the eastern seaboard of the United

States and Pacific countries amounted to 6,703,608 tons in 1899. The

total entrances and clearances of the vessels engaged in this trade at that time equaled 3,965, 540 a tons net register. This would make the

This is 4,074,852 tons minus 109,312 tons, the coasting trade between our two

seaboards. The 6,703,608 tons of cargo do not include any of our coasting trade, hence the vessel tonnage total is reduced before comparison is made with the total cargo tonnage.
496 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

average ratio of cargo tonnage to net register tonnage 1.69. The

records of vessel movements kept by the New Panama Canal Company show a tonnage of 3,646,428 net register tons during the calendar year 1899 for the commerce of groups 1 and 4, which correspond

in general, although not exactly, with the trade included in the above

cargo tonnage total. The ratio of cargo tonnage to the vessel tonnage

of groups 1 and 4 is 1.83. This is a somewhat higher ratio than that

between the cargo tonnage and vessel tonnage of entrances and

clearances.

The tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company do not

include the vessel tonnage of the trade at Panama. Their method of

recording the movements of vessels passing from ocean to ocean and

totalizing those movements naturally would not take account of the

traffic at Panama. In the tonnage total of entrances and clearances

obtained by the Isthmian Canal Commission, the Panama traffic was

reckoned to be 336,998 tons net register. If this sum be added to the

vessel tonnage total of groups 1, 3, and 4 and the cargo tonnage be

divided by this larger figure, the ratio becomes 1.60. The '

' dead-weight " cargo carrying capacity of American schooners

of 500 to 2,000 tons net register averages about 66 per cent more than

the net register, but this ratio varies greatly with different vessels. The ordinary modern freight steamer when fully loaded will carry

about 2.25 tons of cargo for each ton net register.

Vessels are not fully loaded on all voyages. Some are obliged to make trips in ballast in search of cargo, and many more are but partially laden on the outbound or return voyage of a round trip. There

are very few ports of the world where the volumes of exports and

imports are equal. Great Britain buys a much larger bulk of commodities than she sends out. The opposite is true of the United States and western South America. Consequently the average cargoes of ocean vessels engaged in international trade are much less than their

maximum carrying capacity.

The ratio of cargo to net register tonnage, obtained above by dividing

the total available canal freight tonnage by the corresponding net vessel

tonnage, are about what might be expected on a priori grounds. The

fact that these ratios are apparently correct is not a definite proof of

the accuracy of the tonnage totals compared, but it is corroborative

evidence. If any one of these three totals compared were grossly in error, there could not be such close correspondence in the ratios. The total of entrances and clearances in the trade of the year 1899

between Europe and Western America and between the Eastern United

States and Pacific countries, 4,074,852 tons, is somewhat less than the new Panama ( 'anal Company's total of vessels engaged in this commerce, if the traffic at Panama be added to their figure for groups 1, 3, and 4. The tonnage of these three groups during the calendar year

1899 was 3,848,577, and this plus the entrances at Panama in 1898,

336,998 tons (the vessel tonnage adopted for the entire Panama traffic), amounts to 4,185,575 tons. A more detailed comparison of the tonnage figures of tables pre- pared by the Commission with those made by the New Panama Canal

Company would show that the totals for the two coasts of America

are not very different. It is uncertain whether the trade of Hawaii is included in group 3 of the Panama Company's tonnage table. If it is, the Commission's figures are larger; if Hawaii is not comprised in
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 497

group 3, its inclusion there would make the Panama Company's figures

greater. For the trade between Europe and the west coast of the

Americas the Commission's total is somewhat larger than the Panama

Company's—178,967 tons if the trade of Hawaii be included in the

Commission's figures, and 153,935 tons if omitted. If group 3 does

not include the Hawaiian commerce, the vessel tonnage of that com- merce should be subtracted from the figures of "entrances and

clearances" before the comparison is made. Concerning this differ- ence of 151,000 or 179,000 tons between totals approximating two and

a half millions it should be said that the periods covered by the two

totals are not identical, and that the two methods of determining vessel movements could hardly be expected to }ield exactly the same

results. Vessels do not always make the port they clear for. Accidents may prevent, or telegraphic orders from the owner or charterer

may change the course of the vessel. It is in the vessel tonnage of the commerce between the eastern American seaboard and the countries of the western part of the Pacific

(i. e., the Far East), that the largest difference exists between the

figures of the Panama Company and the Commission. The total of

group 1 in the calendar year 1899 was 1,271,357, while the total of entrances and clearances accepted for the fiscal }^ear ending' June 30,

1899, by the Commission for the trade between the eastern seaboard of

the United States and the western Pacific countries was 908,110 tons

net register. This amount, it will be recalled, is twice the tonnage of

vessels clearing direct from the Atlantic seaboard to Japan, Siberia,

China, the Philippines, and Australasia. Group 1 of the French tables

includes some commerce (that of Singapore and the Dutch East Indies) not comprised in the Commission's figures for the trade between

our eastern seaboard and trans-Pacific countries. Moreover, a complete statement of the vessel tonnage of this commerce can not be

made from our statistics of entrances and clearances, because a share, not only of the commodity traffic, but also of the vessel tonnage of

this commerce, is credited in our statistical records to our trade with

Europe. It is quite possible that the vessel tonnage engaged in the commerce between our eastern seaboard and the countries of the

western Pacific is somewhat greater than 908,110 tons net register.

Group 1 applies to the commerce between the entire east coast of the

American continent and the countries of the western Pacific; but there can be but very little vessel movement between the Far East and any

Atlantic American countries other than the United States. The onl}T other tonnage item requiring mention in this comparison

is that of the commerce at the city of Panama referred to above. The

total of entrances and clearances, as determined by the Commission,

credit that traffic with 336,998 vessel tons net register; whereas the

methods in accordance with which the calculations of the New Panama

Canal Company were made were such as not to include that tonnage.

The results of the three traffic investigations are such as to affirm

the essential accuracy of each. The ratio between cargo tonnage and

vessel tonnage apparently accords with the facts of ocean commerce.

In view of the complexity of the statistical problem, the difference in the methods of dealing with the problem, and the slight difference in periods covered, the vessel tonnage totals obtained by the commission's

investigation of entrances and clearances and the New Panama Company's record of vessel movements correspond as closely as could be

expected.

S. Doc. 51, pt 2 32
498 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Chapter XXI.— Growth of canal traffic, 1899 to 1911,. and 1911, to 1921,. The factors affecting the growth of commerce are so numerous and

so interrelated that it is difficult to estimate the growth in traffic that

will take place during the decade or more that must intervene before an isthmian canal can be ready for use. The only basis of calculation

is the increase of the past under the conditions of production and trans- portation and the requirements of international trade that then prevailed. All of these conditions are constantly changing and thereby

affecting the volume and nature of the commodities exchanged and the routes followed by the commerce of the world.

Of one thing, however, there can hardly be any uncertainty, commercial progress during the near future will be fully as rapid as it has

been the past ten or twenty years. The demands of consumers are everywhere expanding, and sections like Africa and Eastern Asia, that

have thus far had but slight contact with the rest of the world, are being rapidly brought within the sphere of international commerce. The costs of transportation, both inland and maritime, continue to decline with the improvement of mechanical appliances and the accumulation of capital seeking profitable investment. Nations and individuals are devoting themselves with energy to the extension of trade and commerce. This is particularly true of the people and Government of the

United States. Such being the case, the probable tonnage of the traffic that will be

available for an isthmian canal at the time of its completion will doubtless be conservatively estimated by predicating a continuation of the

rate of increase that has prevailed duringthe past decade. In all probability the growth will be more rapid in the future; it surely will not be slower.

RATE OF INCREASE SHOWN BY TABLES OF THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

The statisticians of the New Panama Canal Company found that the

tonnage of the vessels trafficking between the two coasts of America,

between the eastern United States and the Orient, between Europe and

Pacific America, i. e., the available canal tonnage originating or ter- minating in America, increased from 3,073,860 tons net register in 1888 to 3,845,355 tons in 1898. a gain of 25.1 per tent. In dete miming whether this rate of increase per decade is one whose use will result in a conservative estimate of the probable available canal traffic in 1911, references to the progress in the vessel tonnage and value of

the international trade of a few typical regions will be of assistance.

The growth that has taken place in the commerce between the

Atlantic coast of the United States and Pacific foreign countries is shown in the following table, which compares the year L899 with that

of 1889. The facts are shown separately for western South America

and all other Pacific countries:

Tin- trade of the United States Atlantic coast with foreign countries on the Pacifu

in value, 1SS9-1S99. —Growth

\\ nil South America. With all other Pacific. Combined

Imports. Exports. Total, i Imports, i Exports. Total. total.

1889

1899

g:i,:V2.\iir>

... 168,766 $8,854,341

3,942, 139 87,179,456 830,107,332 817,478,531 847 9,110,905 34,642,073 38,228,696 72,870,769

854,765,319

81,981,674 Absolute i n - 1,843,651

55. i

87, 798 1,931,449 1,534,741 26.8 | 15.1

20,750,165 25,284,906

118.7

J 53.1

27,216,355 Per cent in49.7
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 499

The value of the imports from South America rose 55.4 per cent. The total value of our import and export tiade with western South

America increased 26.8 per cent during- the decade 1889-1899.

The commerce between the Atlantic and Gulf seaboard of the United

States, and Australia, Japan, and the mainland of Pacific Asia has

grown more rapidly than our trade with western South America. The

growth in the value of the imports was 15.1 per cent, and of the exports

IIS. 7 per cent, the increase in the total trade having been 53.1 per cent Our ability to produce cheaply has enabled us to enter freely into the

expanding markets of the western half of the Pacific, although the

costs of transportation, except to Australia during the last three years

of the decade being studied, have necessarily been higher than our

rivals have had to bear. The competition of the three lines from New

York to Australia became severe in 1897 and greatly facilitated the

development of the large trade which we have latterly secured with

Australia.

The total trade of the United States with Australasia more than

doubled during the decade 1890 to 1900, having been $32,194,000 in the

year ending June 30, 1900, as against $15,544,000 in 1890. Our exports

to that continent increased from $11,266,000 to $26,725,000 during the

decade.

INCREASE IN TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE AND WESTERN COAST OF

AMERICA.

The European entrances from Chile increased from 575,890 tons in 1888 to 914,091 tons in 1898, a gain of 58.7 per cent. These figures

contain a certain amount of duplication, but the elimination of those

duplications would not much affect the percentage. The duplications

in clearances from Europe are greater than in the records of entrances,

and for that reason the statistics of clearances are not cited in this connection. On their face the figures of entrances and clearances indi- cate that the total trade between Chile and Europe was 33.3 per cent greater in 1898 than ten years before, and while neither the statistics nor the per cent of increase are to be taken as absolutely correct, they

possess illustrative value. The European entrances from all the west

coast of South America increased from 789,278 tons in 1888 to 1,077,346

tons in 1898, a gain of 36.5 per cent. In the chapter dealing with the vessel tonnage available for the use

of a canal, the cargo tonnage of the nitrate of soda exported from Chile was shown to have grown from 420,000 to 1,360,000 long tons during

the fifteen-year period ending with the calendar year 1899. This

increase of over 200 per cent in the nitrate trade is, of course, due to causes peculiar to it, and not generally operative upon international

trade as a whole. Nevertheless, the growth of the foreign trade in

such articles as nitrate of soda, phosphate rock, lumber, coal, iron

and steel products, and others that might be cited, and the practical

certainty that the increase will continue for some decades to come,

must have much significance in any reasoning regarding the probable

rate of increase that will take place during the coming decade and a

half, in the commerce available for an isthmian canal. The trade of Europe with the Pacific coast of the United States is subject to great fluctuations, because it consists largely, although to a continually less degree, of the exports of grain, the annual volume of
500 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

which depends upon whether the crop yield is abundant or light, and

whether European prices are high or low. The entrances recorded

at our Western ports comprise a decreasing number of vessels from

Europe, because the majority of the ships reach those ports from transpacific points. The export trade is particularly subject to fluctuation,

but the last decade of the last century witnessed a moderate growth in the tonnage in vessels cleared. There was, likewise, an increase in

the value of the exports, which amounted to about 25 per cent. The

exports of wheat are not so heavy as they formerly were, but other

commodities, particularly horticultural products, are acquiring a large

place in the foreign trade. GROWTH IN TRANS-PACIFIC TRADE OF THE WEST COAST OF THE UNITED

STATES. The trade between the Pacific coast of the United States and Hawaii,

Japan, China, and Hongkong will not make use of the canal, but for

the purpose of discussing the rate at which the Pacific commerce is growing, this trade may be most advantageously considered. In the

following table the entrances and clearances of the vessels engaged in that trade are indicated, the absolute increase in the total tonnage

during the decade is shown for the live countries separately and col- lectively. According to the table the total entrances and clearances

increased 191 per cent during the decade.

Vessel tonnage trade between west coast of United States and trans-Pacific countries.

Country and year. Entrances. Clearances. Total.

Hawaii:

1889 43, 254

246, 432

96, 200

206,887

139, 454 1899 153,319

313, 865

Siberia: 1889 1,029

7,633 1,98019,639 3,0091899 27, 270

24, 261 Japan:

1 889 29, 480

165, 701 2,095

44,731 31,575

1899 210,432

178, 857 China:

1889 3,785

72, 145

3, 982 28,790

7, 767 1899 95, 935

88, 168 Hongkong:

1889 107, 794

183, 679 111,507

207, 130 222, 301 1899 891, 109

168,808

Total entrances and clciirniii-o: lssg, 404,106; 1899, L, 178,065; per cenl of gain, 191. In reading this table it is necessary to bear in mind that a considerable tonnage of vessels enter our Western ports not to secure cargo

for the Orient, but to load with grain, lumber, or other freight for the

North Atlantic, and if allowances could be made for this the average
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 501

percentage of gain would be somewhat reduced. However, it will be

observed that the clearances from our ports for the five Pacific countries—and the clearances represent the movements of vessels actually

engaged in carrying our goods abroad—show a large increase in each

instance.

The foregoing paragraphs have referred to the rate of growth pre- vailing in the commerce of the Atlantic coast of the United States with

(1) western South America, (2) with all Pacific countries other than

South America, and (3) with Australia; reference has also been made to rate of increase in Europe's commerce (1) with the west coast of South

America, (5) with Chile, and (6) with the Pacific States of the United

States; and finally attention was called to the progress being made in

(7) the commerce of our west coast with Hawaii, Australia, Hongkong,

China, Japan, and Siberia. In only one of these seven references to international trade—the commerce between our west coast and Europe

was the rate of increase per decade found to be less than the 25.1 per

cent obtained by comparing records of the New Panama Canal Company for 1888 with those for 1898. In most of the seven special divisions of commerce above noted the rate of growth was found to be

much more than 25.1 per cent. PROBABLE AVAILABLE CANAL TRAFFIC IN 1911. In view of these facts it would seem that an increase of 25.1 per

cent per decade up to the time of the opening of the canal may be very

safely and conservatively predicated concerning the traffic that might

have advantageously used the waterway in 1899. Predictions con- cerning the future ten or fifteen years must necessarily be based upon

the experiences of the past, and unless the decade upon which the

calculations here presented as to the future are made to rest was one

of abnormally rapid or slow commercial progress it may properly be

made the basis. Taken as a whole the decade preceding 1899 was probably one during

which the world made normal industrial and commercial progress. In the United States the earlier years and the last year of the period were characterized b}T great business activity, but during fully a third

of the decade a business depression of unusual severity prevailed.

The years from 1893 to 1897 were more trying ones in this country

than they were in Europe, but business was dull rather than active in Europe during that time. Consequent!}' it is probable that estimates

based upon this decade will not lead to an exaggeration of the facts. The Panama Canal Compan}r 's figures for the vessel movements of

the commerce originating or terminating in America, increased by the

present transisthmian traffic and 816,223 tons of Europe's trade with

Oceania, Australia, and Japan, show that the available canal traffic for

the calendar year 1899 was 5,001,798 tons net register. An increase

of 25.1 per cent during the decade ending in 1909 would raise the

amount to 6,257,219 tons; and the same rate of growth would bring

the total to 6,998,733—or, in round numbers, 7,000,000—tons in 1911.

If the tonnage of available canal traffic in 1899, as determined by

the Isthmian Canal Commission's study of entrances and clearances,

be made the basis of estimate, and the increase of 25.1 percent per

decade be assumed, the figures for 1909 will be 6,118,735 net register

tons, and for 1914 6,813,805 tons.
502 KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In the foregoing estimates of tonnage the figures refer to the available' canal traffic. It is not probable that all of the commerce included

in the above totals will at once abandon the routes at present followed

and immediately make use of the isthmian waterway. It will take some time to readjust trade with reference to the new conditions which

the canal will establish, and possibly two years may be required for

merchants and carriers to adapt themselves to all the changes in the

routes and methods of international trade that the use of the canal

will necessitate. The totals to which the three investigations of avail- able canal tonnage have led may be designated as the measure of all the commerce that would have used the canal in 1899 had the com- merce of our own and foreign countries been adjusted to the condition

of trade which the canal would have established. There is no tonnage

included in the totals which might not advantageously use the canal,

except during the temporary period of transition from the existing

conditions governing international trade and controlling the commerce

between our eastern and western seaboards, to those conditions which

will exist after the isthmian route has been opened.

ESTIMATE OF GROWTH OF TRAFFIC DURING FIRST DECADE OF THE USE

OF THE CANAL.

The new interoceanic communication will so greatly modify the routes of commerce and the conditions controlling the progress of the

industries and commerce of many sections of the world that the problem of estimating the increase that may be expected to take place in the tonnage using the canal during the first decade following the opening of the waterway is a different one from that of predicting the

growth of available traffic up to the time of the completion of the

canal. The rate of increase will be much more rapid after the canal

has been put into service and its economic effects have begun to be

realized.

The present small amount of ocean tonnage plying between the two

seaboards of the United States affords a most striking instance of the

restrictions which the absence of an isthmian canal imposes upon the

growth of a traffic that will become large when the isthmian waterway

has been opened. During the past decade the vessel movements

between our two seaboards have averaged less than 250,000 tons annually, and until the current year have tended to decline, at a time when

our domestic and foreign trade has been making rapid progress. Our

small trade with western South America, a region with which we

should, and some day will, have a large commerce, is another example

of the restraints of existing transportation facilities. The effect of the

isthmian canal upon the interoceanic coastwise commerce of the United

States and upon our trade with western South America will be revolutionary, and the influence upon our commerce with foreign countries

of the North Pacific will be, to say the least, highly stimulative.

During the decade following the opening of the canal numerous

forces will operate to accelerate the growth of American commerce.

Besides being influenced by the new isthmian waterway, commerce

will doubtless be served by a Pacific cable, and our trade will have the

advantage of closer and more direct international banking facilities
EEPOKT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 503

than now exist. Likewise, there is every reason to expect a large

development in our merchant marine during the coming ten or fifteen years. The combined effect of these four commercial agencies will be to supplement our ability to produce cheaply, with facilities as favorable as our rivals possess for communication and transportation and

for the settlement of international obligations, and the result will be

the sure progress of our coastwise and foreign maritime commerce. While it is not to be expected that the traffic of the isthmian water- way during the early years of its operation will increase so rapidly

as did the tonnage passing the Suez Canal, the best basis for estimating

the probable increase that will occur in the tonnage of the American

isthmian waterway is the rate of growth that the traffic of the Suez

Canal has had. The number of vessels that have passed through the

Suez Canal each year since it was opened and the gross and net ton- nage are shown by the following table:

Suez Canal traffic.

L87

1878.

1879. 1880. 1881.

1882.

1883.

1884. 1885.

lsst"..

1888.

1889. 1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894.

1895.

1896. 1897.

1898.

1899.

1900.

Year. Number

of vessels.

Gross ton- nage.

486 654, 915 765 1,142,200

082 1, 744, 481

173 2, 085, 073 264 2, 423, 672

494 2, 940, 708

457 3, 072, 107 663 3,418,950

593 3, 291, 535

,477 3,236,942

,026 4, 344, 520

7?.7 5, 794, 491 ,198 7, 122, 126

,307 8,051,307

,284 8, 319, 967

,624 8, 985, 412

,100 8, 183, 313

,137 8,430,043

,440 9,437,957

,425 9, 605, 745

,389 9, 749, 129

,207 12,217,986

, 559 10, 866, 401

,341 10, 756, 798

, 352 11,2S3,855

,434 11,833,637

,409 12, 039, 859

,986 11, 123, 403

i,503 12, 962, 632 ,607 13, 815, 992

!,441 13, 699, 238

Net tonage.

436, 609 761,467

1, 160, 743 1,367,768 1,631,650

2, 009, 984

2, 096, 772

2, 355, 448

2, 269, 678

2, 263, 332

3, 057, 422

4, 136, 780

5, 074, 809

5, 775, 862

5, 871, 501

6, 335, 753

5, 767, 656

5, 903, 024

6, 610, 834

6, 783, 187

6, 890, 094

8, 698, 777 7,712,029

7, 659, 068

8, 039, 175

8, 448, 383

8, 560, 284

7, 899, 374

9, 238, 603

9, 895, 630

9, 738, 152
504 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The growth in the tonnage using the Suez Canal is graphically shown

by the following diagram:

.

4\f J

c

.0

>

"v A

J

V _

v * ?

V *'

_J

000.000 500,000

000,000

500,000

000,000 500,000

000,000

500,000

000,000 500,000

000,000

500,000

000,000 500,000

000.00 500,000

000,000 500,000

000,000 500,000

CD cd co o a) co o to ta ti c co o cd a? <x) (O co o co go co <n cococd cd coco o The increase in the traffic of the Suez Canal is well shown by grouping the figures of the foregoing table into live-year periods and comparing the totals of these periods. This is done in the following table:

Increase in /In- number of vessels and tonnage of the Suez (.'mini by quinquennial periods.

Year-;. Number

of

vessels. Net tonnage. Increase.

Percentage which the tonnage of each live year period is of the tonnage

of 187 i

1870 1874 1.770 7,684 14,542

16,726

17,848

16,989

5,358,287

10,995,21

23,916,874

81, 130 154 39,899, 1 13 14,042,274

Per cent.

1875-187'i 105

117

81

'-'7 10

1880-1SS4 217

L885 L889 286 1890 189 1 863

L895 L899 401

If the first five-year period were made the basis of comparison, the

rate of increase would l>c so great as to exaggerate the progress which

the traffic made during the subsequent quinquennial periods. The

Suez Canal could )>e used advantageously only by steamers, and in 1870 the number of steamers available for the commerce between
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 505

Europe and the East Indies was limited. For some years the greater

part of the commerce continued to go in sailing vessels around the

Cape of Good Hope. After the canal had been in use a few years, however, steamers were to a large extent substituted for the sailing

vessels, and the Suez route for the Cape route for the greater part of

the business. It will be seen that the traffic of the five years lSso1884 was 217 per cent that of the previous quinquennial period. The

tonnage of 1885-1881* was 286 per cent of the period from 1875 to 1879; the tonnage of 1890 to 1891 was 863 per cent, and that of 1895 to 1899, 101 per cent of the traffic of the five years 1875 to 1879. During

the last quinquennial period of the twenty-five years from 1875 to 1899 the traffic of the Suez Canal was four times what it was during

the first five years. Had the traffic of the years 1870-1871 been made

the basis of comparison the above percentages would have been very

much larger.

Omitting the first two years, when the traffic was comparatively

light because but few steamships were available for the trade between

Europe and the East, and making 1872 the basis of comparison, it will be seen that the traffic grew from 1,160,713 net tons in 1872 to 5,074,-

809 net tons in 1882, a gain of 337 per cent. The tonnage of 1875 had

increased 215 per cent by 1885. The traffic of 1890 was 125 per cent greater than that of 1880. Since 1890 the absolute gain in the tonnage

figures has been large, although the percentage of increase is less than

it formerly was. The gain of 16 per cent from 1889 to 1899 represents an increase of 1,210,217 tons gross register and 3,112,-143 tons

net.Should the rate of increase in the tonnage of the isthmian canal

during the first ten years be half that of the Suez during the second

decade of its use, the rate would be 62% per cent. In view of the much

larger rate shown by the Suez Canal, and in view of the conditions

that will favor commercial progress at the time of and subsequent to the opening of the American canal, 62i per cent is believed to be a

conservative estimate.

THE ESTIMATE FOR 1924.

A decennial increase of 6'2% per cent in the estimated traffic available

for the canal in 1911, as determined by the figures obtained by using

the tables prepared by the New Panama Canal Company, would give a tonnage of 11,372,911 net vessel tons in 1921. A 62-fr per cent increase

in the estimated vessel-tonnage total of 1911, reached by the Commission's study of entrances and clearances—6,813,805—would amount

to 11,121,183. These two estimates for 1924 averrge about 11,250,0* K > tons. For reasons stated above the entire amount of the available canal

tonnage can hardly be expected to use the new route during the first year or two of the operation of the waterway, the period required for

the readjustment of commercial arrangements. This adjustment will,

however, not be delayed by a scarcity of steamers, and will be quickly

made. After two years the full amount of the available canal tonnage—

the available tonnage of 1916, not of 1914—will be passing the canal

in all probability, and the 62|- per cent increase in the available ton- nage of 1911 may fairly be expected to represent the actual tonnage at the close of the decade ending in 1921. In this calculation it is assumed

that the canal will have been put in operation by the beginning of 1914.
506 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Chapter XXII.

The question of tolls. In levying tolls, three different purposes ma}T control action. Such

charges may be imposed as will cause the receipts to cover expenses

only, or to cover the expenses and a fair rate of interest on the capital

invested, or charges may be fixed for the purpose of securing the

greatest possible income from the canal. Should the principle of maximum revenue be adopted, the effect of

tolls upon the volume of traffic will need to be carefully studied,

because the receipts derived from the operation of the canal will be

the product of two factors—the rate of toll and the volume of traffic. The tonnage of traffic being dependent upon the tolls charged, it would

be necessary, in order to secure the maximum revenue, to ascertain

what rate of toll could be paid by that volume of traffic which when

multiplied by the rate would yield the maximum product. It is hardly

necessary to say that there is no fixed rule by which the rate can be

determined that would yield the greatest revenue. If there were such

a rule, it ought not to be the one adopted in fixing the tolls of the

Isthmian Canal.

The policy in regard to tolls should be adopted with reference to all the purposes which the canal is constructed to accomplish, and no argument need be advanced to enforce the truth that the revenue- producing function of the canal will be a minor one as compared with

its function of promoting the industrial, commercial, and social progress

of the United States and all countries whose trade will be affected by

it. The exaction of charges that would largely restrict the volume of

business done through the canal would permit the waterway to perform

only in part the chief services it is designed to accomplish.

The canal is to be constructed and operated hy the Government

primarily for the promotion of the economic and political welfare of

the people of the United States, and the tolls charged will doubtless be

fixed so as not unnecessarily to interfere with the realization of this purpose. The principle of maximum charges would be inconsistent

with the public welfare, and if tolls are levied the choice will lie between a rate that will cover only the expense of operation or a rate that will, in addition, yield an income on the capital invested.

Before beginning the discussion of tolls with reference to the

American canal, it will be profitable to study the experience of the Suez

Canal. That interoceanic waterway has now been in use over thirty years, and the main features and results of the financial policy maintained in its management may well be considered.

SUEZ CANAL TOLLS.

The charges for passing the Suez Canal are 9 francs per net vessel

ton, the tonnage being determined by the so-called Danube measurement, a system adopted by the International Tonnage Commission of

Constantinople. Vessels in ballast obtain a reduction of 2£ francs per

ton from the regular toll charges. Each vessel carrying passengers is obliged to pay 10 francs for each passenger above \"2 years of age and

5 francs for each passenger between the ages of •"> and L2 years. There

are. it; addition to these tolls, certain port and transit dues. A towage

service is maintained for the use of such ships as may require towing,

and for this service there is a fixed schedule of charges.

In applying the Danube rules to the measurement of a vessel the

net tonnage resulting is considerably larger than the net tonnage of a
KEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 507

vessel registered under the British or American flags. The following

table shows the relation of gross to net tonnage as determined by the

Danube and other measurements for three typical vessels. The toll paid by these three ships is given and the amount which this charge

would have been per ton net register, British measurement, is stated

for two of the vessels, and per net ton Norwegian measurement for

the third ship:

Tolls charged for passing Suez Caned.

Name of ship. Nationality. Gross

register. Net register.

Net

register tonnage, Danube

measure- ment.

Percentage which Danube is of other measurements.

Tolls paid.

Charge

per ton

net. British and Nor- wegian

measurements.

Sunderland Queen Christiana. Bergenhus

do Norwegian . .

Tons. 3,414.07 3,596.00

3, 628. 00

Tons.

2, 198. 282 2,291

2,361

2, 571. 45

2, 747. 66

2, 986. 72

117 119.9

126

$4, 466. 61

4, 775. 84

5, 376. 09

82.03

2.08 2.19

The table shows that, according to the Danube rules, the net ton- nage of a vessel will average fully one-fifth more than when measured

according to British or Norwegian measurements. The toll charges

paid were considerably over $2 per ton on the net register of the vessels,

British or Norwegian measurement. The American measurements are made by practically the same rules as the British.

The total transit dues of the steamer Bergenhus were 27,887.95

francs, of which 26,880.45 francs were paid for tolls—the charges

other than tolls amounting to 1,007.50 francs, or $194.45.

The traffic receipts of the Suez Canal from the first year of its operation to the close of 1900, the last year for which figures are

obtainable, is shown by the following table. The receipts are given

in francs and in dollars, a franc having been considered equal to $0,193. The number of vessels and their mean net tonnage is also

given in the table: SUEZ CANAL TRAFFIC.

Number and size of vessels, receipts from tolls.

Year.

1870

1871 1872

1873

1874 1875

1876

1877 18"8

1879 1880

1881

1SN2

1 B83 lss4

1 KK5 lss6

1887 1888

1889

1890

1891

Mean net Number tonnage

of vessels. per

vessel.

486 898

765 995 1,082 1,071 1,173 1,166

1,264 1,290 1,494 1,345

1,457 1,439

1,663 1,416

1,593 1,425

1,477 1,532 2,026 1,509

2,727 1,517 3,198 1,586

3,307 1,746 3,284 1,787 2,624 1,748 3,100 1,860

3,137 1, 881 3,440 1,930

3,425 1,951 3,389 2,033

4,207 2,067

Transit

receipts.

Francs.

5, 159, 327 8,993,733

16,407,591 22,897,319

24, 859, 383

28, 886, 302

29, 974. 999

32, 774; 344 31,098,229

29, 686, 061

39, 840, 488 51,274,353

60, 545, 882

65, 847, 812

62, 378, 116

62, 207, 439

56, 527, 391

57, 862, 371

64, 832, 273 66,167,579

66, 98 .,000

83, 422, 101

Receipts.

$995, 750

735, 790

166. 665

419, 182

797, 861

575, 056

785, 174

325, 448 001,958

629. 410

689, 214

895. 950

685,355

708.627

038, 976

006. 035

909, 786 167,437

512, 628

770, 343 927,912

100, 465
508 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Number and size of vessels, receipts from tolls—Continued.

Mean net Number tonnage

of vessels. per

vessel.

3,559 2,167

3,341 2,292

3, 352 2, 398 3,434 2,460

3,409 2, 511 2,986 2, 645

3, 503 2, 637 3,607 2, 743 3,441

Transit

receipts. Receipts.

1892

1893

1894 1895 1896

1897

1898

1899

1900

Francs.

74, 452, 436

70, 667, 361

73, 776, 828

78, 103, 718

79, 569, 994

72, 830, 545

85, 294, 770 91,318,772

90, 623, 609

514,369,320

13, 638, 800 14,238,928

15. 074. 008

15. 357. 009 14,056.295

16,461,891

17, 624, 553

17, 490, 356

It is shown that there has been a fairl}T stead}T and a comparatively

rapid growth in the traffic receipts of the canal almost from the time

when it was opened for commerce. The traffic and the revenues were

comparatively small the first two years, because there were not many

steamers available for the commerce between Europe and the East. The transit receipts for the year 1S99 amounted to $17,624,553. By

grouping- the canal receipts into five-}T ear periods and comparing those

periods with each other the rate of growth can be shown more accurately than by comparing one year with another. The annual variations are frequently large, but when quinquennial periods are compared the effects of these annual variations are minimized. In the

following table the figures of the preceding table are grouped according to quinquennial periods. In comparing the periods the first live years are omitted, because if the figures of that period were made the

basis of comparison the rate of increase would be so great as to give an exaggerated statement of the growth that has taken place since

1875:

Increase in number and size of vessels, and receipts of Suez Canal, by quinquennial prrimh,

1875-1899.

Year. Number

of Mean net tonnage

vessels. per

Vessel

4,770 1, 123 7,684 1, 130 11,542 1,644

16, 726 1,879

17, 848 2, Ids

16, 939 2,659

Receipts.

Percentage which re- ceipts of 5- year periods areof receipts

of 1876-1879.

1870-1874

is;:. 1879 1880-1884

1S85 ISS'.l L890 1894 1895-1899

815,116,248

29,317,016

54,018,122 59,366,229

71,275,425

7s, 213, 756

181 202

243 26b

The receipts of the period 1880 to 1884, inclusive, wore 184 per cent

of those of the previous five years. The revenues from traffic during

the five years 1885 L889 were 202 per cent of those obtained during

the period 1875-1879, whereas the revenues for the five-year periods

L890-1894 and 1895-1899 were respectively 243 and 266 per cent of the

receipts obtained in the years 1875 to 1879. The transit revenues of

the last five years of the quarter century was two and two-thirds those of

the first five years. The traffic of this hitter period was fourfold that

of the five years which are made the basis of comparison.

The Suez (anal has been a very profitable investment of capital.

There are 400,000 .shares of capital stock, with a par value of 500 francs
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 509

each, and bonds which amounted to 177,340,000 francs in 1898. The

dividends paid on the stock reached 5 per cent in 1871, were 5T"V per

cent in 18(6, and 6 per cent in 1879. They have been as high as 17

per cent. In 1898 the net balance for distribution, after paying costs of operation, interest on the bonds, and other expenses, amounted to 46,618,000 francs. In the distribution of this sum the shareholders

received 71 per cent of the total, 33,098,780 francs, i. e., 16£ per cent- of the face value of their stock Of the remaining 29 per cent of the

net earnings, 15 per cent went to the Egj^ptian Government, 10 per

cent to the founders, 2 per cent to the directors, and 2 per cent to the

employees.

An additional fact of much interest is shown by the preceding tables.

It will be noted that the number of vessels passing the canal was no

greater in 1899 than in 1885. During those fifteen years the tonnage

has increased 56 per cent. The larger volume of traffic has been

accommodated by increasing the size instead of the number of the

ships. The mean net register of the vessels using the Suez Canal will very soon reach 3,000 tons. Should the present rate of increase con- tinue until 1911, the vessels will then average 3,600 tons net, and it is probable that the larger dimensions about to be given the Suez Canal

will result in more rapid increase in the size of vessels than is now

taking place.

The growth in the size of ships using the Suez Canal is graphically

shown by the following diagram:

-— ——

—

•

<*. ^

<«

* ^

eJ

-4i ?

s 4F

-m&

_ -J*. =1 -^ '^

-H- ^

-i-"^ i? T - ^-*^- —

^25- -d

?* -H

2800

2700

2600

2500

2400

2300

2200

2IOO

2000

! 900

ISOO

I 700

I600

ISOO

1400

1300 1200

I IOO IOOO 800

Q ID 03 O £> CD Q CD QfDCOIOI&IDQQOIOOOlSaitDCOOQOQ
510 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

The tendency to increase the size of ocean vessels is important in connection with the study of the traffic of the isthmian canal, be- cause the cost of operating the canal will depend to some extent upon

the number of lockages. The maximum traffic capacity of the canal

will also be greater if vessels of large instead of small dimensions are

used, A traffic of 10,000,000 tons net per year would require the

passage of 5,000 vessels, with an average net register of 2,000 tons, or about 7 ships each way per day on an average. The same number

of ships double the size would make the annual tonnage 20,000,000 tons without any increase in the number of lockages required. In this connection attention ma}' properly be called to the possible

traffic capacity of a twin-lock canal such as the isthmian waterway

will be. Not many years after the canal has been put into operation

the vessels using it will in all probability average as much as 4,000

tons net register. If 50 such vessels were to pass through the canal

daily. 25 each way on an average, the total annual net tonnage would

be 73,000,000 tons. Inasmuch as the time ordinarily required for a ship to pass a lock will not exceed three-fourths of an hour, a canal

with twin locks could readily handle an average of 25 vessels per day

each way, and do so without delay to commerce, except, perhaps, at certain times when the rush of traffic might largely increase the average

daily number of vessels making the passage. EFFECT OF TOLLS UPOX VOLUME OF TRAFFIC OF SUEZ CANAL.

In the case of the Suez Canal there is but a comparatively small

percentage of the total available tonnage situated on the margin of

advantage, and for that reason the Suez Canal Company has been able

to derive large revenues from the maintenance of high tariffs. The

trade of Europe with Australia is more liable than an}- other important

category of available commerce to be kept away from the canal and

sent around the Cape of Good Hope, but a part even of that trade is done b}T way of Suez. The passenger and mail steamers all use the

canal, while most of the slow freight steamers take the Cape route

A reduction in the Suez Canal charges would draw to that waterway

some, but not a very large amount, of the European trade with the East. The change from steam to sail power is helping the Suez Company to §ct the business without reducing its charges. The high tolls of the

uez have a greater deflecting effect on the commerce of the eastern seaboard of the United States with the East than on the trade of Europe

with the countries of that region, because the saving in distance accomplished by the canal is much less for the American than for the European commerce. From New York to Australia the Cape route is no

longer than the canal route for full-powered steamers, and of course

vessels go by the Cape. In going from New York to Singapore and

points in China and Japan the course by way of Suez saves less than

2,000 miles, and the canal route is from seventh-eights to live-sixths as long as that around Good Hope.

Sailing vessels leaving New York for the Far East take the Cape

route, but steamers always go through the canal. A large reduction in the Suez Canal tolls would doubtless hasten the substitution of steamers

for sailers and secure for the canal a larger share of the total traffic, at least until the American isthmian waterway had become available.
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 511

The traffic of the Suez Canal could be increased by a reduction of 50

per cent in the transit charges, but the effect of tolls upon the tonnage

of the Suez waterway is not so great as the influence of the isthmian

canal charges will be on the volume of traffic using that waterway.

The marginal traffic is much greater in the case of the American water- way, and high tolls will cause much trade to adhere to existing ocean

routes. Moreover, the traffic between our two seaboards, which will constitute a large share of the total canal tonnage, will be competed

for by rail as well as water routes, and the higher the canal tariffs are

the larger will be the share of the total commerce between the eastern and western sections of our country that will move try rail. The commerce whose routes will be most affected by the tolls of the

isthmian canal will be that between Europe and Chile, that of the

Tinted States and Europe with Australia, and that of the United States with the Philippines, southern China, and a part of that with the

Dutch East Indies.

ISTHMIAN CANAL TOLLS AND THE CHILEAN TRAFFIC.

Three-fourths of the Chilean tonnage consists of nitrate of soda, the

deposits of which are located in the northern part of the country in the middle part of the west coast of South America. The route north

from the nitrate beds of northern Chile b}T way of an isthmian canal

will require the vessel to make a detour of some length to the west,

and the average distances from Europe to the nitrate deposits will be

shortened about 2,800 nautical miles by the canal. About 30 per cent of the present distances through the Straits of Magellan will be saved.

A saving of 2,800 miles would shorten the time of the voyage for a 10- knot steamer eleven days and sixteen hours. In using the canal route

for the purpose of saving this distance of 2,800 miles, something over

a day would be required for passing the Nicaragua Canal, and some- what more than a half day for the transit across Panama. In general, a 10-knot steamer could shorten the time of its voyage between Europe

and the central part of western South America ten da}T s by using a Nicaragua canal and eleven days bypassing through a Panama water- way instead of going around by the Straits of Magellan. A vessel

operated at a speed of 9 knots per hour, which is the present speed of

the larger share of tramp steamers—the vessels in which the major

portion of the world's ocean commerce is carried on—would shorten

the time of its voyage thirteen days by avoiding 2,800 miles of sailing.

Such a vessel could get from Europe to the middle part of the west

coast of South America eleven and one-half days sooner by way of a Nicaragua canal and twelve and one-half days earlier via a Panama

route. Would the possibility of saving from ten to eleven and a half da}T s cause a vessel running between Europe and Chile to pay tolls for the

privilege of passing an isthmian canal, and what charges could the

vessel afford to pay \ This depends mainly upon the costs of operating

the ship when at sea. The information received from a firm operating several ships is: The cost of operating a modern freight steamer of, say, 2,500 tons net register ( dead

weight cargo capacity, say 6,000 tons), averages not exceeding, say $175 per day. This includes wages, provisions, coal, interest on capital invested, insurance, wear and tear
512 REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

Another authority states: We find that the average cost of operating a steamer of, say, 8,000 gross tons dead

weight capacity (about 3,500 tons net) , which includes bunker coal as well as cargo, making an average speed of 9 knots per hour between New York and San Francisco,

to be about $300 per day. This covers cost of bunker coal, victualing and manning,

and insurance only. The cost of bunker coal is based upon the average cost of same

to-day.

This latter statement of costs of operating ships does not include the

expenses of interest on capital, nor is anything allowed for depreciation in the value of the ship. The addition of these items would

somewhat increase the average daily expenses. It ought to be noted,

however, that the present costs of coal are unusually high.

These two calculations as to the costs of operating vessels give

results differing largely, doubtless for the reason that the first calculation is based on experience in the operation of ships under a foreign

flag across the Atlantic, where coal is cheap, and. for the reason that

the costs are for normal times instead of the present, when prices are unusually high, while in the second estimate the experience drawn

upon consisted in the management of vessels under the American Hag

at the present time of high prices and upon a route where the costs of coal are very much higher than in North Atlantic ports.

The present costs of chartering British steamers and operating them

at a speed of 9 knots in the trade between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America are given by a firm having a large business.

The actual monthly and daily expenses incurred for two of these

British ships by the American firm chartering them is as follows:

1. Gross register tons.

3, 048 Net register j do.. 1, 954 Dead-weight capacity, including coal and stores do.. 5,000

Freight, at 4s. 6d. per dead-weight ton per month (30 days), say, 1,125,

at $4.86 - $5,467.50

Coal, 20 tons per day, 30 days =600 tons, at $3 1,800.00

Total 7,267.50

$7,267.50-^30 days=$242.25 per day.

2.

< rross register tons.. 3, 244 Net register do.. 2, L04 Dead-weight capacity, including coal and stores do.

5, 100

Freight at 5s. 6d. per dead-weight ton per month (30 days), say, 1,402-10,

at $4.86 1

* $6, Sl(). 15 Coal, 20 tuns per day, 30 days=600 tons, at $3 1,800.00

Total 8, 616. 15

$8, 616.15-^30 days =$287. 20 per day. In the case of both of these ships the charterer pays port charges,

agency fees, stevedoring, and pilotage. The vessel owner pays for engine stores, wages of crew, insurance on vessel, and victualing, and

in fixing his charges includes payment for wear and tear, and presumably a profit to ownei 8. The rates paid to the owner by the charterer—a certain amount per

month per ton, dead-weight capacity- vary according to the supply of

and demand for ships, and at the present time vessel rates are not

especially high. It is probable, however, that the supply of vessels
REPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 513

will so increase within a few years as to reduce existing charter rates very considerably.

A saving of $175 a day for ten days would amount to $1,750, and

for eleven and one-half days to $2,022.50. A toll of $1 per net ton

register on a ship of 2,500 tons would equal $2,500, or considerably more than such a vessel operated at a speed of 9 or 10 knots could save by shortening the voyage between Europe and Chile 2,800 miles. How: ever, something should be added to these amounts saved by shortening

the voyage, because the insurance would be less on the vessels that used

the canal instead of passing through the Straits of Magellan, which are

especially dangerous to navigate. Moreover, freight rates could be

made somewhat higher by the vessel that could deliver its cargo in a shorter time. Time is money in most lines of trade. Furthermore,

men operating vessels would for a like reason prefer to have the ships use the route that would enable them to do the greatest possible amount

of business each year. It would be difficult to put these advantages of

the isthmian over the Straits route into their exact money equivalent,

but the}7 would constitute a strong reason for using a canal and for

paying something for the privilege. It is probable that a freight

steamer of 2,500 tons net, even if operated at a total daily cost of no more than $175 while running between Chile and Europe, would prefer to pay $1 a ton net register for using an isthmian canal to taking

the route through the Straits of Magellan.

If the daily expenses of the steamer of 3,500 tons net are $300 when

run at 9 knots, it could save $3,750 by using a Nicaragua canal, and

$4,050 by a Panama waterway, instead of going around through the

Straits of Magellan. If the expenses were $300 when operated at a speed of 10 knots, it could save $3,050 by way of Nicaragua and $3,350

by way of Panama. A toll of $1 per net ton on the ship would amount

to $3,500, and for the reasons just stated a charge of that sum for the use of the canal could profitably be paid.

The chartered steamers above referred to had a net registered ton- nage of 1,951 and 2,101 tons, respectively. At the rate of $1 a ton

their toll charges would amount to $1,951 and $2,101. A saving of

ten days in making a voj^age would reduce the expenses of the ship

whose net register is 2,101 tons $2,872. It is evident that these vessels would pay $1 a ton for the use of an isthmian canal if they were

being operated over a route that the canal could shorten ten days.

They would, moreover, use the canal were the costs of chartering and

operating them considerably lower than at present.

The commerce between the eastern coast of the United States and

western South America would be so facilitated by an isthmian canal

that a toll of more than $1 a ton could be paid for practically all this trade. The distance from New York to a point as far south as Valparaiso will be about 3,100 miles, or 40 per cent, less by way of

Nicaragua—the longer canal route for this trade—than via the Straits

of Magellan; and between ports on our coast south of New York and

cities on the west coast of South America north of Valparaiso the

absolute and percentage reduction in distance will be much greater.

ISTHMIAN-CANAL TOLLS AND THE AUSTRALIAN TRADE.

For the trade from New York to Australia the best route is that

by way of the Cape of Good Hope, the distances by the Suez and Cape

routes being practically the same; consequents, when the American

S. Doc. 51, pt 2 33
514 REPORT OP THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

canal has been opened the competition for the New York-Australian

trade will be between the isthmian canal and the Good Hope routes. The distance from New York to Sydney via the Nicaragua Canal and

Tahiti will be 9,676 nautical miles, and by way of St. Vincent, the

Cape of Good Hope, Adelaide, and Melbourne 13,658, the difference in favor of the isthmian route being 3,982 miles. Adelaide is 1,816

miles nearer New York by the Nicaragua Canal, and Melbourne is 2,832 miles nearer. A 10-knot vessel going out from New York to Sydney, Australia,

would save between fourteen and fifteen days by taking the American

canal route, and would certainly take that course if the toll were not over $1 a ton net register. Practically all vessels going to Australia,

whether from the United States or Europe, call at Sydne}7

, because it is the most important port and is a good place to obtain coal. A

steamer from New York to Melbourne would save 2,832 miles and ten and one-half days by going by way of Brito, Tahiti, and Sydney instead

of by the way of the Cape of Good Hope and Adelaide. A toll of $1

per ton could profitably be paid to accomplish this. There is, then, no probability that steamers outbound from the east- ern seaboard of the United States to Australia will take the Good

Hope route in order to avoid American canal tolls of $1 a net ton. The route taken by the vessel on its return will be determined by the

destination of the Australian exports. If the vessel should secure a

full cargo in Australia for America, it would return by the Nicaragua

Canal. The ability to secure a partial cargo for the United States and

a partial cargo for Europe would probably cause the American canal

to be used. Upon reaching the United States, the freight destined for

the United States might be exchanged for European cargo with which

the ship would proceed to Europe; or the steamer might discharge its entire cargo, that for Europe being transshipped to another vessel. The line steamer making the round trip from New York to Australia

and return might come back by the Suez route at times; but the return voyage would usually be by way of the American isthmus. If the

American tolls were much lower than those of the Suez, the route across the Pacific would certainly be taken.

Steamers securing a full cargo for Europe in Adelaide, Melbourne,

or Sydney would probably return by the Cape of Good Hope, although

cheaper coal in American stations might turn the scale in favor of the

isthmian canal. The distance from Sydney to Liverpool via Melbourne, Adelaide, King Georges Sound, Colombo, and Aden is 12,234

miles, and via Tahiti and Brito the distance is 12,406, only 172 miles more by the American canal. A vessel starting from Melbourne for

Liverpool would find the route via Sydney, Tahiti, and Brito 1,322

miles more than the one via Suez.

A ship obliged to leave Australia in ballast or with but little freight

would seek cargo either in the East Indies, New Zealand, Chile, or

elsewhere as the needs of commerce might determine. Those ships

seeking freights west and north of Australia would naturally return

by the Suez Canal.

TnE PHILIPPINE TRADE.

The effect of the isthmian canal upon the routes followed by the

trade between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines will be to divert a considerable share of the traffic from the Suez to the Amer-
EEPORT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION. 515

ican canal. Steamers now use the Suez, and after the American canal

has been opened the choice will lie between the two canal routes. The

distance by the Cape of Good Hope is too great to permit that route

to compete with the canals for the traffic handled by steamers. The

distances from New York to Manila by the two canals are nearly

equal—11,601 miles via Suez, 11,207 by way of Nicaragua, San Francisco, and Yokohama, and 11,274 via Honolulu and Guam. From our

South Atlantic and Gulf ports the distances to Manila will be much

less by the American canal than by way of Suez. As explained above

in the chapter on the vessel tonnage of available canal traffic, chartered

vessels outbound from New York will doubtless go sometimes by one

route and sometimes by the other. The chief attractions of the American canal route will be the coasting trade of both seaboards of the

United States—the shortest route from Central America to Manila

being by the great circle which passes close to San Francisco—the

large volume of exports from the United States to Asia, the Asiatic

coasting trade of Japan, Shanghai, and Hongkong, and the cheap coal obtainable in the Caribbean and Japanese coaling stations. The

inducements of the Suez route will be the large volume of exports

from the United States to Europe, and the possibility of trading at numerous intermediate ports in the British, Dutch, and French East

Indies. Likewise chartered vessels returning to the United States from Manila will sometimes come by way of Hongkong, Shanghai,

Yokohama (or other Japanese ports), Puget Sound, San Francisco,

Central America, etc., and sometimes by the East Indian ports, the

Suez Canal, and Europe. Line steamers plying under the American

flag between our eastern seaboard and the Philippines would probably be operated through the isthmian canal and would participate in the trade between the eastern and western coasts of the United States. The Philippine Islands are so nearly antipodal to the eastern sea- board of the United States that the commerce between the two sec- tions will be divided between the two opposite routes unless the tolls charged at one of the canals should be much higher than those levied

at the other. A toll of $2 at Suez and $1 at the American canal

would doubtless cause the latter route to secure much more than half

of the total traffic. The certainty of competition between the Suez

and American canal routes for the trade between our eastern seaboard

and the Philippines and southern China suggests the desirability of

making the isthmian canal tolls lower than those charged by the Suez

Canal Company in order that as much as possible of the commerce of our Antipodes may be made tributary to the isthmian canal. In view

of the fact that the larger part of the Suez traffic can afford to pay a high toll in preference to changing from the Suez to some other route,

it is not probable that the Suez Canal Company will find it profitable

to make radical reductions in its charges—a reduction of 50 per cent,

for instance—in order to hold the commerce of the regions situated on

the margin of advantage as regards the use of the easterly or westerly

canal routes; consequently, it would seem that the adoption of moderate tolls not to exceed $1 per ton net register, American measurement, for the use of the American canal would enable that waterway

to secure a large share of the commerce carried on between sections so

situated that their trade with each other can and will choose between

the Suez and American routes.
516 REPOBT OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION.

In general it may be said that there is but little of the available

canal traffic that will be kept from using the waterway by a toll of $1

a ton, net register. The European trade with western South America

and the commerce of our eastern seaboard with Australia will not be

driven from the isthmian canal by a toll of that amount; but it seems

probable that a higher charge than $1 a net ton would largely restrict

the tonnage using the canal. The tendency of traffic to follow round-the-world lines will be

emphasized by moderate charges for the use of the American canal. The distance between Europe and the eastern shore of Asia is some- what farther by way of Central America than by way of Suez, but

there are commercial reasons why a portion of the trade between these

two sections should pass by the eastern and western seaboards of the

United States and through the American canal. A toll of $1 a net ton would probably not much restrict the operation of those commercial

forces. In the foregoing discussion a toll of $1 a net" ton has been made the

basis of reasoning because that represents a maximum beyond which

the charge ought not to go. A tariff much higher than that would in

all probability so restrict the tonnage passing the canal as to reduce

the revenue derived from the tolls. Such a restriction would unfortunately limit the industrial and commercial value of the canal. The

lower the tolls the greater the traffic of the canal and the larger the

industrial and commercial benefits. It is believed that a toll of $1 a

vessel ton net register would yield an income sufficient to pay the

expenses of operation and maintenance and a moderate return on the

capital invested. Should the United States prefer to levy tolls suffi- cient only to cover the cost of operation and maintenance, a tariff of

40 to 50 cents a ton would probably suffice.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part I.

Page. Letter of transmittal 3

List of appendices 5

List of plates 6 Sections of act approved March 3, 1899, authorizing appointment of Commission 9 Letter of appointment and instructions to Commission 11 Organization of Commission by committees 12 Chapter I.

INTRODUCTION.

Organization of Commission; Law; Instructions; Committees 13 Subjects of investigation; Appointment of chief engineers; Employment of assistants and laborers; Directions for the work 14

Visit to Paris; Other visits while in Europe; Visit to Central and South America; Nicaragua 15 Managua; Panama 16

Visit of Mr. Morison to Darien; The "Scorpion;" Costa Rica and San Jose; Dimensions and unit prices 17 Other questions considered; Visit of Mr. Noble to Nicaragua; Results; Appendices; Special report on industrial and commercial value of canal 18 Maps, etc.; History 19 Chapter II. HISTORY OF INTEROCEANIC PROJECTS AND COMMUNICATIONS. Early voyages 20

Portuguese explorations along the African coast; Cape of Good Hope discovered; First voyage around Africa to India; Results of maritime communication with Orient 21 Columbus 22 Other expeditions westward for discovery; Balboa discovers the Pacific; Balboa

hears from Indians of gold southward; Plans for expedition southward for gold 23

Transports material for ships across Isthmus; Toil and sufferings of Indians; Transit of Isthmus; Execution of Balboa 24 Voyage of Magellan; Discovers strait; World circumnavigated 25 Charles V is interested in discovery of interoceanic communication; Gil Gonzales sent to Pacific; Transports his vessels in pieces across Isthmus; Dis- covers Lake Nicaragua 26
518 CONTENTS OF PAET I.

Page. Granada founded on Lake Nicaragua; Machuca's expedition from Lake Nica- ragua down San Juan to sea; Rapids in the San Juan; Line of posts across Isthmus; Panama founded ; Construction of road across Isthmus 27 Commerce across Isthmus; Fairs at Cartagena, Nombre de Dios, and Porto

Bello; Prosperity of Panama 28 Tehuantepec; Cortes sent expeditions in search of strait; Transit route; Ship

canal 29 Survey of Isthmus of Panama; Policy of Philip II; Atrato 30

Paterson's colony at New Caledonia; Paterson's plans for interoceanic communication; Settlement abandoned 31 Transit routes; Indians hostile to Spaniards; Ariza's road in Darien 32 Spaniard's abandon their military posts; Examination of Tehuantepec route; Report of Cramer; Examination of Nicaragua route by Galisteo 33 Invasion of Nicaragua by British forces; Plan of campaign; Capture of Castillo Viejo 34 Treaty of 1783 between England and Spain ; Treaty of 1 786 35 Treaty between Great Britain and Guatemala of 1859 as to Belize ; Treaty between

Great Britain and Nicaragua of 1860 as to Mosquito Indians; Mosquito

Indians organized into Republic of Nicaragua in 1894; Situation at the close

of the eighteenth century ; Von Humboldt's statement 36 Republic of Colombia formed; Formation of Federal Republic of the United

Provinces of Central America; Republic of Central America makes propositions to United States , 37 Response of Secretary Clay; Instruction to minister; Congress of Panama;

Central America makes contract for construction of canal 38 Central American and United States Atlantic and Pacific Canal Company; Contract with a Netherlands company; Further negotiation of Central American

Republics with United States 39 Mr. Biddle sent to Central America and Colombia; Memorial of Aaron Clark

to Congress, 'urging action with reference to canal ; Report of Committee on Roads and Canals, 1839; Mr. Stephens sent as agent to isthmian countries.. 40 Examination of routes; Tehuantepec by Orbegoso and Ortiz; Nicaragua, by

John Baily 41 Panama, by J. A. Lloyd; Republic of New Granada established in 1831 42 Makes grant to a French company; Results of explorations of Panama route; Examined by Garella 43

Increase importance of maritime communication; Treaty negotiated with New

Granada in 1846 44

Resolutions relating to interoceanic communications come before Congress;

Report of Rockwell committee; Memorial of projectors of Panama Railroad; Negotiations for treaty with Nicaragua 45 Advantages of Nicaragua route; Hise treaty; Hise succeeded by Squier; Contract of American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Company with Nicaragua;

Clayton-Bulwer treaty 46 Terms of contract with canal company; Canal company incorporated in Nicaragua; Organization of Accessory Transit Company; Transit route established by accessory company 47

Central American Transit Company; Colonel Childs appointed to survey canal

route; Report submitted to Colonel Abert and Lieutenant-Colonel Turnbull; Submitted to British engineers by request of American minister; Pronounced

practicable 48 Value of Childs' s report; Contracts of companies annulled for nonperformance 49
CONTENTS OF PART I. 519

Page. New Granada makes contract with French company for railroad at Panama; New contract with American company; Panama Railroad completed in 1855; New examinations of different canal routes; Darien 50 United States Government aids in the examinations; General results; Senate

requests report of results of examination in Darien 51 Report of Admiral Davis; President Grant calls attention to subject of inter- • oceanic canal in his first message 52 Congress authorizes further explorations; Appointment of Interoceanic Canal Commission ; Tehuantepec 53 Nicaragua; Lull survey; McFarland report; Panama; Survey made by Lull and Menocal 54

Darien; Lull and McFarland; Selfridge; Report of Interoceanic Canal Commission 55 Colombia grants concession to L. N. B. Wyse; International Scientific Congress at Paris in 1879; Transfer of concession to Panama Canal Company... 56 Eads selects Tehuantepec route for ship railway; Nicaragua Menocal survey; Treaty negotiated with Nicaragua in 1884; Not ratified; Nicaragua grants concessions to Menocal and associates; Like concessions from Costa Rica ... 57 Maritime Canal Company ; Nicaragua Canal Board 58 Nicaragua Canal Commission 59 Chapter III.

DIMENSIONS AND UNIT PRICES.

Dimensions of ships now in use; Recent increase in ship dimensions 62 Depth of canal; Beam of commercial ships; Beam of warships; Width of locks; Length of lock chambers; Dimensions of prism of canal 63 Prism dimensions of foreign canals; Bottom width of prism adopted; Prism

dimensions of Kiel Canal; Prism in soft earth and sand; Prism in firm earth; Prism in rock 64 Channels in open water; Widening on curves; Description of locks; Twin locks provided 65 Guard gates; Foundations of locks on rock; Walls to be of concrete 66

Culvert linings ; Lock gates ; Approach walls ; Unit prices 67

Contingencies, etc 68 Chapter IV. OTHER POSSIBLE ROUTES. General description of American Isthmus; Tehuantepec route 69 Bay of Honduras; Narrow eastern portion of Isthmus; Atrato River; Routes

terminating on Gulf of Panama . 70 Atrato routes; Limits of field work 71 San Bias route; Caledonia route 72 Divide traced 73 Observations from the sea; Examination from Pacific side; No canal without

a tunnel 74 Design of tunnel; Tunnel tide level, San Bias Canal; Caledonia tunnel tide-level canals '° Estimates for Sassardi, Aglaseniqua, and Caledonia locations 76, 77 Harbors the only advantage over Panama; Darien routes within limits of Pan- ama concessions; Maps and other drawings; U. S. S. Scorpion 78
520 CONTENTS OF PART I. Chapter V. THE PANAMA ROUTE. General description; Lull survey, 1875 .„ 80 The Wyse concession; The old company 81 Liquidation 82 Expenditure and results; The new company 84 New company's plan .". 85 Physical data available 86 Plan for the United States differs from that for a commercial corporation;

Chagres River, a natural obstacle 87

Sea-level plan rejected ; Water supply for canal with locks 88 Flood discharge of the Chagres 89 Lake Bohio 90 Future increase of water supply; Disposal of overflow; Detailed description.. 91 Entrance and harbor at Colon; Colon to Bohio; Bohio locks; Lake Bohio;

Obispo guard gates 92 Culebra cut 93 Pedro Miguel locks; Pedro Miguel level; Miraflores lock ; Pacific maritime sec- tion; Bohio dam _ 94 Gigante spillway 96 Pena Blanca swamp; Pena Blanca outlet; Chagres diversion 97 Levees; Gatun diversion : Panama Railroad diversion 98

Total estimated cost for completing 99 Length and curvature; Alternative location 1 99 Time of transit ; Advantages of the Commission's plan 100 Value of excavation already done; Plant on hand 101 Value of plant; Value of buildings; Value of concession of lands; Value of Panama Railroad 102 Value of maps and records; Total value of the Panama Canal 103 Chapter VI. THE NICARAGUA ROUTE.

Attractive features; Lake Nicaragua; Lake Managua; Fluctuations of Lake

Nicaragua 104

Characteristics of drainage basin; The San Juan River; Tributaries of San Juan on left bank 105

Tributaries of San Juan on right bank ; San Carlos River 106

Serapiqui River; Negro River; Fall in San Juan River 107 Slopes in various reaches of San Juan; Bed of upper San Juan; San Juan in

freshets; San Juanillo River; Coastal plain 108 Subsidence; Rainfall 109 Winds; Transit route; Region of practicable canal routes; Topography;

Boundary 110

Childs's project, 1852; Routes examined by Childs Ill Dimensions and side slopes; Length and cost of the canal 112 Depth of canal not as great as contract required; Report referred to Colonel Abert and Major Turnbull 113

Lull's project, 1873; Expedition under Commander Crossman, U. S. N. ; Parties under Commander Hatfield; Lull succeeds Hatfield; West division 114

Brito; Eastern division; Lake Nicaragua 115 Canal from near San Carlos River to Greytown; Dimensions; Menocal survey; Menocal project, 1885 116
CONTENTS OF PART I. 521

Page. Changes in Lull project on west side suggested by Menocal; Ochoa dam 117 Embankments south of the San Juan; Line from Ochoa dam eastward; Divide

cut; Locks 118

Railroad; Maritime Canal Company's project, 1889; Organization of company;

Project essentially the same as Menocal's; San Francisco embankment line. 119 San Carlos embankments; Other embankments; Maximum discharge of San Juan at Ochoa; La Flor dam 120 Locks; Cost; Report of board of consulting engineers; Nicaragua Canal board,

1895 121 Report of Nicaragua Canal board and estimate of cost; Project of Nicaragua

Canal Commission, 1899; Act March 2, 1895; Project of Nicaragua Canal Commission ; Safety of prime importance 122 Discharge of San Juan greatly underestimated ; Dam at Boca San Carlos 123 With La Flor dam, duplicate lock expensive; Project of Isthmian Canal Commission, 1901; Greytown Harbor and entrance; Section from harbor to Lock

No. 1 ; Swamj) section 124

Material in other places; Embankments; Diversion of San Juanillo 125

Section from Lock No. 1 to Lock No. 2; Embankments; Waste way and lock . 126 Length and cost 127

Section from Lock No. 2 to Lock No. 3; Protection against floods in San Juan; Tamborcito cut; Curves 127 Recent examinations; Drainage; Waste ways; Length and cost 128

Section from Lock No. 3 to Lock No. 4; Curves and drainage; Embankments;

Length and cost 129

Section from Lock No. 4 to San Juan River; Special slopes; Summit level 129 Length and cost 130 San Juan River section; Curvature and cost; Curves; Principal cut-offs 130 Lake Nicaragua section; Length and cost 132 Dredged channel in lake; Channel on west side of lake 132 Lake Nicaragua to Lock No. 5 132 West divide cut; Streams taken into canal; Length and cost 133 Lock No. 5 to lock No. 6 133 Lock; Length and cost 134 Lock No. 6 to lock No. 7; New channel for Rio Grande needed; Lock; Length

and cost 134 Lock No. 7 to lock No. 8; Material, wasteway, and lock 134 Length and cost 135 Lock No. 8 to the Pacific; Harbors 135 Greytown Harbor; Sand brought down by San Juan 136 Map of 1832 137 Hydrographic charts of Great Britain; Trend of coast; Outlets of San Juan; Sedimentary deposits 138

Effect of wave action on coast; Movement of sand spit 139 Eroison or accretion dependent on direction of waves and sand supply; Reentrant angle; Apparent recession of 8 and 6 fathom curves 140 How to stop westerly drift of sand; Construction of harbor feasible; Jetties .. 141 Dredging; Maintenance of harbor; Time required to secure 18 feet of water; Cost of construction an maintenance 142

Brito Harbor: Depth of water at mouth of Rio Grande; How harbor can be

constructed; Cost of construction and maintenance; Regulation of level of Lake Nicaragua . 143 Conditions of the problem ; Maximum and minimum elevations not precisely

determinable ; Discharging capacity of San Juan 144
522 CONTENTS OF PART I.

Page. Discharge of lake at any given stage; Slopes of canalized river corresponding

to various discharges 145 Regulation of gates; Precipitation in wet season; Effect of rainfall not felt immediately 146 October rainfalls; Satisfactory control 147 Maximum rainfall anticipated; Rise due to maximum rainfall 149

Results based on assumption that rainfall in basin is proportioned to that at Granada; Salient features 152 Method of discussion not free from error 153

Storage; Not possible to predict elevation of lake 154

Principles of control; October, month of heavy rainfall 155

Instructions for regulation; Velocities; Effect of tributaries of San Juan 156 Conchuda dam and wasteway ; Stoney gates; Capacity, etc 157 Plan ; Conchuda dam 158

Cost; Wasteways, weirs, and free board 159 Wasteways on Pacific side; Retaining walls; Alternative surveys; Examinations and borings 160 Route from Upper San Juan to headwaters of the Indio; Explorations 161 Sand deposits on canal route; Silico route; Indio route 162 Sea levels 163 Railroad 164 Work done by the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua 165 Chapter VII. EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES, CLIMATE, HEALTH.

Earthquakes; Obscurity of subject; Volcanic regions most subject to earth- quakes; Volcanoes safety valves; Entire isthmus in volcanic region 167 Records available 168 Earthquakes on Nicaragua line; Earthquakes on Panama line; No difference between the two lines 168 Mechanical action of earthquakes; Power of canal works to resist; Tidal wave. 169 Injury to be expected; Danger from a fissure; Climate; Health; Experience at Panama and Nicaragua 170 Lessons from Panama; Precautions for preservation of health 171 Chapter VIII.

RIGHTS, PRIVILEGES, AND FRANCHISES. Requirements of law as to investigation 172 Sovereignty of United States over canal route not requisite; Strip of territory

required; Breadth of strip; If rights, privileges, and franchises exist, they< should be removed 173

Treaties to be examined; Treaties relating to the Nicaragua route; Costa Rica

also interested in this route; Treaty between United States and Nicaragua,

1867 174 Frelin<dmysen-Zavala treaty 176 Treaty between Nicaragua and Great Britain, February, 1860 177 Same, January, 1860; Treaty between Nicaragua and France, 1859; Other

treaties made by Nicaragua 178 Clayton-Bulwer treaty 179 Treaty between United States and Great Britain February 5, 1900; Policy with

reference to interoceanic canal 180 Concession to Nicaragua Canal Association 181 Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua incorporated; Concession of Maritime

Canal Company declared forfeited 182
CONTENTS OF PART I. 523

Page. Concession to Interoceanic Canal Company 183 Concession declared forfeited; Previous concessions 184 Contract with F. A. Pelas; Contract with Nicaragua Mail Steam Navigation

and Trading Company; Transfer of contract to Maritime Canal Company;

Purchase by Atlas Steamship Company; Caribbean and Pacific Transit Company 185 Contract of Atlas Company; Boundary between Nicaragua and Costa Rica 186 Treaty between United States and Costa Rica, 1852; Treaty between Costa

Rica and Spain, 1850; Treaty between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, 1869 187 Other treaties; Policy with reference to interoceanic canal; Concession to Nic- aragua Canal Association 188 No obligations now in force to prevent an agreement with the United States

relative to a canal 189

Protocols with Nicaragua and Costa Rica 190

Treaties with Colombia or New Granada; Treaty negotiated in 1846 securing

transit rights 191

Ratified in 1848; Treaty with France, 1856; Treaty with Spain, 1881; Other

treaties; Contract with Panama Company for railroad 192 Transferred to Panama Railroad Company of New York; Panama Railroad completed in 1850; Present form of contract 193 Contract with Wyse for canal; Modification of Wyse contract in 1878 194

International Scientific Congress at Paris in 1879 195 Panama Canal Company organized; Company goes into liquidation; New

agreement with Colombia, 1890 ; Contract extended to 1904 196 Extension to 1910 197 No treaties exist giving United States the right to occupy Nicaragua, Costa

Rica, or Colombia for canal purposes; Terms must be arranged by diplomatic

negotiations; Concessions from Nicaragua and Costa Rica declared forfeited; Cost of acquiring privileges to be considered; Nature of title required; Plans formerly before Congress 198 Unlimited control now required; Compensation for privileges should be definite in amount; Amount of compensation; Hise treaty with Nicaragua 199 Contract between Nicaragua and American Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal

Company ; Frelinghuysen-Zavala treaty 200 Contract between Nicaragua and Maritime Canal Company; Contract between

Nicaragua and Interoceanic Canal Company 201 Contract between Costa Rica and Maritime Canal Company 202

Privileges of Panama Railroad Company to continue to 1966; Privileges of canal company continue to 2009; Both companies prohibited from ceding

privileges to foreign government; Nature of right under concessions 203

Privileges subject to annual charges; New arrangement necessary if United

States undertakes work 204 Synopsis of correspondence with M. Hutin 205 Correspondence with M. Hutin, in extenso 212 Same > 235 Estimate by M. Hutin of value of Panama company's interests 227 Chapter IX.

INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL.

Industrial and commercial value of canal; The canal and American industries. 243 The canal and the trade of the Pacific coast States; The coal trade; Effect of canal upon railway traffic 244 The use of the canal by sailing vessels; The canal and the industries of Pacific countries 245
524 CONTENTS OF PART I.

Page. Tonnage of available canal traffic, 1899 246 Growth of traffic; Probable tonnage, 1914 247 Estimated traffic, 1924 , 248

Tolls and traffic 249 The relative commercial advantages of the Nicaragua and Panama routes 250

Benefits to Europe and United States compared 251 Chapter X.

MILITARY VALUE.

252

Military value in time of peace; In time of war; Canal one link in chain of communications; Canal operated by American citizens not available for the enemy

Canal useless to the United States unless it controls the sea; Useless to enemy

unless he occupy it; Defense by fortifications; Defense by Navy; Defense by

neutrality 253 Vulnerability of canal; Canal managed by foreigners; Canal free to enemy's

vessels; Canal managed by American citizens a source of strength if neutral, a source of weakness if not neutral 254 Chapter XL

COST OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION.

Data; Cost of maintenance and operation of Suez Canal; Of Kiel and Manchester canals; Of St. Marys Falls Canal 255

Basis of estimate of cost of maintenance and operation for Isthmian Canal; Estimates of cost of maintenance and operation 256 Chapter XII.

Conclusions 257
TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Part II.

Page. Order to print 2 Appendix B. HISTORICAL NOTES RELATIVE TO THE UNIVERSAL CANAL COMPANY (1880-

1894) UNTIL THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW COMPANY.

Preliminary remarks 3 Chapter I.

The Universal Interoceanic Canal Company.

Brief sketch of discoveries, explorations, and plans for canal until 1879 4

International congress of surveys for canal 6 The first issue of shares 9 The international survey commission 9 The Couvreux and Hersent contract—second issue of shares 10 Superior advisory commission for the work 13 Purchase of shares of Panama Railroad Company 13 The small contracts 14 The large contracts 16 The temporary canal with locks 18 Chapter II.

Receipts and expenditures of the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company.

Receipts:

Capital of the company and loans - 21 Expenditures:

Expenditures on the Isthmus -- 22 Expenditures at Paris 22 General summing up of expenditures 23 Chapter III.

The liquidation. Mr. Brunet appointed receiver 24

Organization of the survey commission 25 Mr. Monchicourt appointed receiver 26 Report of the survey commission 26

Organization of the New Panama Canal Company 27 Appendix C.

List of documents received by the Isthmian Canal Commission from the New

Panama Canal Company 29 525
526 CONTENTS OF PART II.

Appendix D. REPORT ON HYDROGRAPHY OP PANAMA CANAL ROUTE.

Page. Letter of transmittal 33 Hydrography of Panama 34 The Chagres River 34 Alhajuela station on Chagres River 36 Gamboa station on Chagres River 37 Bohio station on Chagres River 40 Minor streams on the Isthmus 43 The floods of the Chagres River 43 Low water of the Chagres River 45

Rainfall of the Isthmus of Panama 48 Report of W. W. Schlecht, hydrographer for Panama 52 Alhajuela 53 Rating table for station on Chagres River at Alhajuela 55

Tributaries between Alhajuela and Gamboa 56 Chagres River at Santa Barbara 57 Gamboa 58 Buena Vista and Bohio 59

Tributaries between Bohio and Gamboa 61 Trinidad and Gatun rivers 62 Drainage area of Chagres River 62 Sediment observations 62 Hydraulics of Chagres River at Alhajuela and Bohio 63 Rio Grande 74 Precaution for accuracy 65

Rainfall Santa Barbara, Rio Fea, and Rio Puente 66 Salamanca and Las Minas 66 Gorgona 67 Santa Barbara, on Chagres River 67 Rio Puente 68 Calamanca, on Pequeni River 68 Pedro Miguel * 69 Isthmus of Panama 69 Appendix E. Waste weir and discharge for Lake Bohio 71 Appendix F.

Description of alternate location for canal between Gatun and Bohio 79 Appendix G. TIMB REQUIRED FOR TRANSIT THROUGH AN ISTHMIAN CANAL.

Attainable and permissible speed 81 Experiments in France and Germany 81 Observations at St. Clair Flats Canal 83 Observations on Lake Huron 90

Observations at Suez Canal 92

Observations at Kiel Canal 93 Schedule of speeds proposed as a basis for calculating time of transit, Panama

and Nicaragua canals 96
CONTENTS OF PABT II. 527

Page. Time of transit through Panama Canal without allowance for meetings or lockages 96 Time of transit through Nicaragua Canal without allowance for meetings or

lockages 97 Time consumed by lockage 97 Delays at meeting points 99 Meetings at locks 102 Average delay to each ship 102 Time of transit across the Isthmus 104 Appendix H.

Discharge of the canalized San Juan Eiver 105 Appendix I. REPORT OP HYDROGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS IN NICARAGUA. Stream measurements 119

Pacific slope 120 Grande River 120 Tola River 120 Lake Nicaragua 124

Viejo River 125 Nueva River 126 Quebrada Honda 126

Station at Tipitapa 127

Station at Fort San Carlos 133 Frio River 136 Dry season inflow 136 San Juan River 140

Station above Savalos 142

Station at Castillo 144

Tributaries of San Juan above Boca San Carlos 147 Ochoa Station on San Juan River 153 Machado River 163 San Francisco River 164

Sarapiqui River 164 San Juanillo River 166 Miscellaneous tributaries to San Juan River 168 Indio River 171 Negro branch 171

Rainfall 172 Daily rainfall on Lake Nicaragua 174 Daily rainfall at Ochoa 180 Daily rainfall at Greytown 181 Monthly rainfall at all stations 182 Evaporation 186 Observations on evaporation pans 186 Dry season evaporation from Lake Nicaragua 186 Control of Lake Nicaragua 187 Season of maximum supply 191 Season of minimum supply 192 Temperature and relative humidity 195 Sediment 197 Wind movement 200
528 CONTENTS OF PART II. Appendix J. SURVEYS OP UPPER SAN JUAN TO HEADQUARTERS OP THE INDIO.

Page. Rio Bartola survey 205 Machuca-Negro survey 206 La Cruz del Norte survey 207 Appendix U.

Translation of contract between Government of Nicaragua and the Atlas Steamship Company (September 30, 1897) 209 Appendix C C 1. Treaty between France and New Granada 213 Appendix C C 2. Convention between Republic of Colombia and French Republic 221 Appendix D D.

Treaty between Spain and Colombia 223 Appendix F F. Contract between Colombia and Panama Railroad Company 225 Amended August, 1891 235 Appendix GG.

Wyse concession op March 20, 1878. Contract for construction of interoceanic canal across Colombian territory 237 Appendix H H.

Additional contract modifying that op March 23, 1878. Extension of ten years for opening of canal across Colombian territory 247 Appendix 1 1. Contract of Extension.

Contract granting extension to Panama Canal Company 251 Appendix J J. Contract relative to extension of time to the New Panama Canal Company . . . 255 Appendix K K. MEMORANDUM OF LEGAL STATUS OP NEW PANAMA CANAL COMPANY.

Dissolution of old Panama company and appointment of receiver 257 Act of July 1, 1893, relative to liquidation of old Panama company 259 Bondholders' attorney 259 The receiver 261 Charter of New Panama Canal Company:

Formation and object of company; name; principal office; duration 262

Contributions; capital; shares; payments 263
CONTENTS OF PART II. 529

Charter of New Panama Canal Company—Continued. Page. Board of directors 266 Technical commission 268 Commissioners 269

Stockholders' meetings 269 Statements of condition; inventories 271 Annual accounts; sinking fund; interest; reserve fund; dividends 271 Modification of the statutes; dissolution 272

Conferring of jurisdiction; suits 273 Temporary provisions 274

Publicatu his 275 Charter approved and ratified 276 Law authorizing old Panama company to issue securities repayable with prizes. 282 Law authorizing sale of lottery bonds at reduced rates 283 Appendix M M.

CONTRACT BETWEEN NICARAGUA AND THE AMERICAN ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC SHIP CANAL COMPANY. Appendix N N.

'REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL VALUE OF CANAL. Chapter I.

Scope and method of the investigation. The purposes of the investigation 297 The industrial and commercial sides of the investigation 297 Scope of the investigation 297 Sources of information 297 Character of the conclusions 298

Authorities used in preparation of industrial and commercial maps 299 Chapter II.

The isthmian canal and the industries and trade of the Southern States. Geographical relation of the Southern States to the canal 300 The canal and the cotton industries 301 The iron and steel industries of the South 303 The exportation of Southern lumber and forest products 304 The fertilizer industries of the Southern States 306 The canal and the commerce of the Gulf ports 307 Chapter III.

The canal and the industries and trade of the northeastern

section of the United Slates. Geographical limits of the section 311

Industrial characteristics 312 The canal and the textile industries 313 The canal and the commerce of the North Atlantic ports of the United States. 315 Chapter IV.

The canal and the Central West. Industrial resources of the Central West 320

Present routes of shipment from Central West 321 The canal and the industries of Cleveland 321

Cincinnati and the canal 323 The canal and Indiana 324

S. Doc. 54, pt 2—34
530 CONTENTS OF PART II.

Page. The canal and Illinois and Wisconsin 324 The canal and St. Louis 325 The effect of the canal upon the transportation facilities of the Central West.. 325 Chapter V.

The canal and the Pacific coast States.

Pacific coast States separated from their best markets 327 The canal and California 328 The canal and the lumber and grain industries of Oregon and Washington... 331 The west-coast fisheries 332 The hops, wool, and mineral industries of the Pacific coast .• 333

Effect of the canal upon the trade of the west-coast ports 333 Chapter VI.

The coal supply for the commerce and countries of the Pacific—

The canal and the coal trade of the United States.

Industrial and commercial importance of coal 335 Sources from which the coal consumed on the Pacific is now obtained 337 Puget Sound coal 339 The fuel supply of California 341

Prices and costs of coal in different sections of the United States 343 River transportation of coal from Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama. 346 Coal prices along the Suez route 34S Concerning the marketing of Appalachian coal west of the canal 348 Chapter VII.

The isthmian canal and the iron and steel industries of the United States. The United States as an exporter of iron and steel products 351 Conditions of present competition of the United States with Europe 353 American iron and steel trade with Pacific countries 354 The manner in which the isthmian canal will affect the American iron and steel industries as a whole, and those of the Southern States in particular 354 Chapter VIII.

The canal and the shipbuilding and maritime interests of

the United States. Importance of the maritime industries 355 The canal and shipbuilding 350 The ownership of ocean vessels by exporters 358 The canal and the American merchant marine 359 Chapter IX.

Concerning the use of an isthmian canal by sailing ressels. The place of the sailing vessel in the commerce of the world and of the United States 360 The future use of sailing vessels by special classes of traffic 363 Tonnage of steam and sailing vessels clearing from United Kingdom and

Germany for Eastern countries 364 Merits of the steamer and sailing vessel compared 365 Would sailing vessels use a canal at Panama or across Nicaragua 367 Saving to sailing vessels by use of isthmian canal instead of Cape route 370 Chapter X.

The canal and the traffic of American railways.

General statement of the possible effects of the canal upon railway traffic 373 Concerning the statistics of transcontinental mil way traffic 374
CONTENTS OF PART II. 531

Page. The nature of the competition of the canal with the railways 375 The canal and the traffic of the Atlantic roads 376 The canal and the traffic of the Gulf roads 377 The canal and the traffic of the railways of the Central West 378

Effect of the canal upon the traffic of the Pacific railways 379 Conclusions ' 382

Chapter XI.

The trade and industries of western South America mid the

effect of the canal upon them.

Area and population compared with North America 383 The trade zones of South America 384 Inadequate transportation facilities of w

r estern South America 385 Dependence of western South America upon foreign capital and large organizations of capital 386

Disadvantages of the United States in trading with western South America;

effect of the isthmian canal 387 Geography, resources, and industries of Chile 390 The canal and the trade of the United States with Chile 394

Tropical section of western South America; general description 395 The Peruvian coast; its industries and the effects of the canal upon them 396 The Andean plateau 397

Relation of canal to industries and trade of eastern slope of Andean plateau.

401

Industries of Pacific slope of Ecuador and Colombia 403 The Cauca Valley in the Colombian Andes 404 Summary of the effect which the canal will have on western South America.

405

Effect of canal upon Atlantic South America will not be great 406

Chapter XII.

Japan and the isthmian canal. The salient characteristics of Japan's resources 407 Japan as a manufacturing and commercial country 409

Analysis of Japanese trade with reference to effects of the canal 410

Chapter XIII.

China and the isthmian canal.

Geographical divisions of China 412 Resources and trade of north China, Manchuria, Hoangho Valley, and Shantung - 414 Resources and trade of central China, Yangtse Valley 416

Resources and trade of southern China 417 The foreign trade of China 418 Trade of United States with China and effects of canal 419

Chapter XIV.

The canal and the industries and trade of Australasia.

Australian industries require large foreign trade 421 The canal and distances to Australia 422 General geography of Australia 423

Pastoral and agricultural resources 423 Mineral resources 424 The canal and the commerce of Australia with the United States 425 New Zealand and the canal 427
532 CONTENTS OF PATIT II. Chapter XV.

The canal and the Philippines and Hawaii.

I. THE PHILIPPINES. The geography and industries of the Philippines 428 The commerce of the Philippines 430 The location of the Philippines with reference to trade routes from the United

States 434

II. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

Soil and climate of the Hawaiian Islands 435 Resources of the Hawaiian Islands 436 The canal and the trade of Hawaii 437

Chapter XVI.The canal ami Central America and western Mexico.

I. CENTRAL AMERICA. The population and general geography of Central America 438 The Central American industries 439 The canal and the foreign trade of Central America 441

II. WESTERN MEXICO.

Agricultural resources of western Mexico 44o Mineral resources 444 The canal and the commerce of western Mexico 445

Chapter XVII.

Comparison of distances by the isthmian canal and other

routes. Distances via the Nicaragua and Magellan routes between the eastern ports of the United States and the ports of the west coast of North, Central, and

South America 447

Distances from Europe to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua Canal and the Straits

of Magellan 448 Distances from Atlantic American ports to Yokohama, Shanghai, and Hongkong via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 449

Distances from American Atlantic ports to Manila via Nicaragua and Suez

routes 450

Distances between the eastern seaboard of the United States and Australia via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 450

Distances from Liverpool to the East by the Suez and Nicaragua routes 451 Comparisons of distances from New York and Liverpool to Australasian and

Asiatic ports via the Nicaragua and Suez routes 452 Comparison of distances from American and European Atlantic ports to Pacific ports via the Nicaragua and Panama canals 453-154 Chapter XVIII.

Cargo tonnage of the existing maritime commerce that would use an isthmian canal in 1899.

General description of the three traffic investigations contained in the report.. 455 Nature and limitations of the information available from official statistics 455 Four tables giving the value and cargo tonnage of that part of the foreign trade

of our two seaboards that would have passed through an isthmian canal in 1899. 458 Methods employed in preparing the tables 4i>:> The average values of the carg< > ton 4GS
CONTENTS OF PART II. 533

< Page. Tonnage of the commerce between Europe and the west coast of South and

Central America and British Columbia and Hawaii 469 Summary of the cargo tonnage of the foreign commerce of the Atlantic American seaboard with Pacific countries and of Europe with Pacific America in 1899. 471 Chapter XIX.

Tonnage of the vessels employedin the commerce that ivould have used an isthmian canal in 1899. Concerning statistics of entrances and clearances 473 Importance of the Chilean commerce 477

Vessel tonnage of commerce between Europe and western South America 478 European trade with western Central America and Mexico 478 Trade of the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Hawaii

with Europe 479 United States Atlantic coast tonnage with foreign countries 480

Traffic across the Isthmus of Panama 484 Coasting trade of the United States available for the canal 485 Summary of commerce of Europe with Pacific America and of commerce of Atlantic United States with Pacific countries : 485 Chapter XX.

Traffic investigation by the new Panama Canal Com- pany—Comparison of results of the three investigations. Plan of the investigation 486 Tonnage of vessels engaged in trade between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.. 488 Concerning use of American canal by commerce of Europe with the Orient . .

489 Evidences of increasing number of round-the-world voyages 491 Tonnage of available canal traffic 493 Comparison of the tonnage of 1888 and 1898 494 The substitution of steamers for sailing vessels 495 Comparison of the results of the three traffic investigations 495 Chapter XXL—Growth of canal traffic 1899 to 1914 and 1914 to 1924- Rate of increase shown by table of Panama Canal Company 498 Growth in value, 1889-1899, trade of United States Atlantic coast with foreign countries on the Pacific 498

Increase in trade between Europe and western coast of America 499 Growth in trans-Pacific trade of the west coast of the United States 500 Probable available canal traffic in 1914 501 Estimate of growth of traffic during first decade of the use of the canal 502 Suez Canal traffic 503 The estimate for 1924 505 Chapter XXII.

The question of tolls.

Concerning the general policy of tolls 506 Suez Canal tolls 506 Suez Canal tonnage and traffic receipts 507

Effect of tolls upon volume of traffic of Suez Canal 510 Isthmian canal tolls and the Chilean traffic 511 Isthmian canal tolls and the Australian trade 513 The Philippine trade 514

INDEX TO SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF ISTHMIAN CANAL

COMMISSION.

[Senate Document No. 123, Fifty-seventh Congress, first session.]

Page. Advantages of Panama and Nicaragua routes, comparison of Cablegrams from president of board, Panama Canal Company

Detailed statement of property and rights to be sold: Lands not built on

Buildings Plant J

t Work done

Panama Railroad Maps, drawings, and records Total value of property - . Estimated cost of construction and maintenance of the two routes, compari- son of Letter of transmittal to Congress - Letter of Secretary of State, transmitting report to the President 1 Letter of Admiral Walker, transmitting report to State Department

Liabilities of Panama Company b Recommending Panama route Steamships owned by Panama Company

Title of Panama Company, statement as to conditions affecting transfer of 8 535




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