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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 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| **Published by the DOI Departmental Consulting Archeologist/NPS Archeology Program, National Park Service, Washington, DC, May,           1989.**

*There is a growing awareness that public outreach           programs are necessary for the continued preservation of archeological           resources. The Federal archeological community, through the Interagency           Working Group on Public Awareness of Federal Archeology, has identified           several goals for a comprehensive public outreach effort. This Technical           Brief, which situates archeology in the public schools, and Technical           Brief No. 2, which describes the "Take Pride in America" award winning           Arizona Archaeology Week, are two examples of how we can further these           goals.*

*The Archeological Assistance Division supports a           clearinghouse, Listing of Education in Archeology Projects (LEAP), which           serves as a guide for national, regional, and local public education           projects and programs. The exchange of information about the research           and developmental activities that lie behind these achievements cannot           be conducted through a clearinghouse, however. Rogge and Bell recount           the efforts of Arizona's Archaeological Council's schools committee           to place archeological concepts and values within the context of the           classroom. Their experiences, like those of countless others across           the country, exemplify "what it takes" to produce the products listed           in the LEAP clearinghouse.*

*Technical Brief No. 4 was originally one of a series           of papers presented in the symposium entitled, "Fighting Indiana Jones           in Arizona," appearing on the program of the 53rd Annual Meeting of           the Society for American Archaeology. The papers in this symposium,           all of which highlighted various approaches used to educate the public           about the science of archeology, are published in the* ASCA 1988           Proceedings. *The Archeological Assistance Division is publishing           an expanded version of the original paper by Rogge and Bell because           of the timeliness of their information. Recent amendments to the Archaeological           Resources Protection Act of 1979 call on Federal land managers to increase           "**public awareness**           of the significance of the archaeological resources located on public           lands and Indian lands and the need to protect such resources" (emphasis           added).*

The January/February 1989 issue of *Archaeology*           magazine is filled with predictions of what archeology will be like           in the middle of the next century. Although some of the contributors           are very optimistic about archeological perspectives becoming more valued           as we cope with global cultural and environmental issues, other authors           paint a very dismal picture for the future of archeological resources.           For the past couple of decades, American archeologists have recognized           the alarming rate of site destruction and responded to it by seeking           regulatory protection and imposition of legal penalties against vandals           and looters. 

Arizona archeologists have been in the forefront of           much of this "cops and robbers" approach to protecting archeological           resources, but they have also come to realize the benefits of a more           positive longer range tactic. Taking steps to educate the general public           about the values of archeological resources and to instill a sense of           why it is important to protect them may do more to conserve our cultural           resources than threats of fines or jail sentences. 

In 1985, the Arizona Archaeological Council (AAC) organized           an Archaeology for the Schools Committee with the goal of enhancing           appreciation of archeological resources among the state's younger citizens.           Our committee realizes that the precollege teaching of anthropology           and archeology is not a particularly new endeavor, and we have learned           of many efforts to spread the message about the values of archeology           into elementary and secondary schools. For example, we are aware of           programs in several states including Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine,           Missouri, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, and Virginia, as well as efforts           north of the border in Toronto, Canada, and in the provinces of Alberta           and Nova Scotia. We are also aware of growing interest in other western           states such as Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. Our goal in this technical           brief is not to review those programs but to focus on our experiences           over the last few years as a case study of the challenges we have faced,           the successes we have achieved, as well as the not so successful approaches           we have tried. 

In this brief, we
-  describe the goals and motivations of the AAC's             schools committee,
- summarize what we have learned about the "ethnography"             of the Arizona school system, and
- highlight a strategy to get teachers to not teach             archeology as much as to teach *with* archeology. 

**The Schools Committee**

AAC is a statewide organization of more than 150 people,           most of whom work in some aspect of public archeology. It is similar           to organizations formed in many other states in the 1970s in response           to issues of professionalism in the arena of regulatory archeology and           development of the subdiscipline that has come to be known as cultural           resource management. 

Since its formation in 1985, the AAC's Archaeology for           the Schools Committee has tended to number between 10 and 20 members;           activities typically involve 5 to 10 members at any given time. Committee           members include professional archeologists from the federal, state,           and private sectors, avocational archeologists, museum staff, and teachers.           Many of the committee members are not the types of people who would           typically join the AAC, but they were specifically recruited to broaden           the perspective and expertise of the committee. The committee's activities           reflect the strengths of enthusiastic volunteers, as well as the weaknesses           of part-time, unpaid service. 

The motivations of the committee members are diverse.           Some members are professional educators, some are interested in public           schools because they are parents, but all committee members share a           common concern with giving the public a more accurate image of what           archeology is all about. How many archeologists still have to explain           to the uninitiated that, as practicing archeologists, they do not have           houses full of really nice artifacts? And how many have to explain to           their neighbors that they do not study rocks or dinosaurs? Do even the           parents of most archeologists really understand the profession of their           children? We find that the general public, including most teachers,           knows a lot about the "Indiana Jones" approach to archeology, but very           little about what it means to say that archeology is an anthropological           study of past societies. 

Our members also believe that the message of archeology           is simply too good to reserve for college students. The perspectives           of prehistory ought to be taught to a much broader audience. 

The committee's other motivation is, of course, to fight           the increasing problem of vandalism and loss of sites due to development.           Legislation and regulations may deter some pot-hunters, but education           may be the only real hope as Arizona's population continues to explode.           The protection that has been afforded to the archeological resources           of the Southwest in the past has largely resulted from benign neglect.           As the Sunbelt population increases, the future survival of our archeological           sites will depend more and more on the public proactively valuing these           resources. To make the public aware of the values will take education.           

When the schools committee first organized, it enunciated           three specific goals:
-  to inventory and evaluate existing public school             programs and opportunities to learn about or experience archeology,             
-  to formulate recommendations for enhancing student             and public exposure to archeology, and
-  to offer advice or participate in developing programs             and materials for students and teachers.

We have come to realize these goals were ambitious,           but we are making progress in several directions. 

**Ethnography of the           School System**

We have learned several things in the past three years.           First, we have come to realize that there are really quite a few teaching           materials about archeology and anthropology. (See Holm and Higgins [1985]           and Selig and Higgins [1986] for recent overviews of efforts to expand           precollege teaching of anthropology and archeology.) We have created           a partially computerized inventory of more than 200 books and pamphlets,           plus almost as many audiovisual materials, but most of these materials           remain unevaluated. Although we have recognized some gems (for example,           *Dig 2* [ Lipetzky 1982], and *Motel of the Mysteries* [Macaulay           1979]), we have made little progress toward any systematic review because           of the effort this requires. (See Higgins [in Holm and Higgins 1985]           for an annotated bibliography of almost 50 articles.) It does seem that           the available materials are not widely used and the use they do receive           largely reflects individual interests and initiatives of a limited number           of teachers. 

The lack of materials does not seem to be a primary           reason for the limited teaching of anthropology and archeology at precollege           levels, nor do we believe the reason to be the complexity or excessive           erudition of the concepts involved. A more probable explanation is the           fact that concepts such as ethnocentrism and cultural relativism conflict           with typical nationalistic perspectives and other core societal values           that schools are charged with transmitting from one generation to another           (see Kehoe 1988). Earlier efforts to develop curriculum materials, such           as *Man: A Course of Study*, encountered severe resistance because           of such conflicts (Rice 1986). Archeology, in the eyes of most teachers,           is also tinged with a certain disquieting otherworldness, but it is           quite possible to convey a sense of the value of prehistoric perspectives           as an adjunct to the generally accepted values of history without focusing           on controversial red-flags such as creationism versus evolution. 

A second thing we have learned is that Arizona school           districts operate quite autonomously. They reflect the long-standing           tradition of the local American school board, which grew out of the           feisty early New England town governments. The state Superintendent           and board of education certify teachers, monitor pupil attendance, regulate           some financial support, develop in-service programs, and issue curriculum           guides. However, it is the local districts that guard local traditions           and monitor what values are conveyed to their students. It is the local           districts that make the basic day-to-day decisions about how schools           are run. And, we all know from our own experience, it is the individual           teacher in the classroom who is the crucial factor in determining exactly           what is taught and how. 

Arizona's 15 counties are divided into about 220 school           districts. There are about 910 schools in these districts--an average           of just over 4 per district. There are about 580,000 registered elementary           and secondary students, and we estimate that there are approximately           20,000 teachers in the state's school system. This then is the size           of the challenge we face in designing a system to introduce archeology           into Arizona's precollege school system. 

One of our committee's first major projects was to prepare           an eight-page, teachers' packet which we distributed in conjunction           with a statewide celebration of Archaeology Week in 1986. The packet           included several archeological activities that could be adapted for           various grade levels, a brief summary of Arizona prehistory, and a list           of recommended readings and places to visit. Although we managed to           scrape together several hundred dollars for reproduction and postage           to send a copy to virtually every school in the state, only about a           dozen teachers responded to the questionnaire we had attached. We learned           that media specialists and librarians in every school probably receive           several mass mailings a week, and we suspect most of our cherished packets           probably never emerged from the bottom of the stack to be hung on bulletin           boards or to be routed to the teachers themselves. Without some personal           contact, even our bright multihued packets were probably read by few           teachers. 

After           that disappointment, we made some overtures to the state Department           of Education and the state Social Studies Council to determine whether           some "top down" support might help our cause. We hoped that the mandated           Arizona history taught to all fourth graders might be strengthened in           the area of prehistory. Although we had some polite expressions of interest           and support and some acknowledgement of archeology in new social studies           curriculum guidelines, the reality is that archeology must compete among           a variety of social studies, none of which fare well in the move back           to basics. High priority supplemental programs, such as drug prevention           and sex education, stress the already full agenda, and peripheral subjects,           such as archeology, are assigned a very marginal priority (Figure 1).           Thus, we have come to the conclusion that the current issues and priorities           facing public education will not lead to archeology becoming mandated           curriculum any time soon. 

**Teaching Archeology           versus Teaching *with* Archeology**

Because we are convinced that archeology will not soon           be mandated in the curriculum, we are currently promoting archeology           as supplemental curriculum that can be implemented without overloading           teachers who feel stressed by the materials they are already expected           to cover. Supplemental activities can range from a 45-minute exercise           that presents a realistic perspective of prehistoric Indians (in conjunction           with Columbus Day or Thanksgiving) to a several week unit involving           a mock dig. Or it could simply include arithmetic story problems about           the average number of sherds per broken pot or an art project modeling           a prehistoric pit house or pueblo. 

In addition to promoting archeological awareness as           an adjunct to teaching the required curriculum, we are trying to convince           teachers of the values of archeology as integrative curriculum. One           of the chief strengths of archeology is that it is a motivating, fun,           hands-on, experiential way of integrating artificially compartmentalized           subjects, including life sciences, earth sciences, physical sciences,           math, computer science, social studies, language skills, art, music,           and drama. More and more teachers are recognizing that multisensual           experiences greatly improve on the 10 percent retention rate for facts           that have been doled out in textbook fashion (see Bruner 1963, Clark           1986, Wonder and Donovan 1984). 

In fact, one Tucson teacher is convinced that an archeology           unit, which included gridding and plotting artifacts, has improved her           students' scores on the standard Iowa test of basic skills in the area           of visual skills including reading charts, maps, and coordinates. Those           are the kinds of testimonials that will win us other converts. 

A California high school teacher (Onderdonk 1986) cogently           argues that the spin-off values of archeology include cognitive maturation           in the areas of personal involvement, reflective thinking, realistic           exposure to scientific methods, and social interaction. 

Many other teachers who have experimented with archeology           in their classrooms have been enthusiastic about the benefits (Carroll           1987, Catalina 1983, Cotter 1979, Dyer 1983, Passe and Passe 1985, Watts           1985). 

**The Workshop as a           Delivery Tool**
**Figure 2.** Teachers learn               concepts of provenience and stratigraphy by doing **Garbage Can               Archeology**. (Photo by A. E. Rogge) 
In April 1986, our committee developed a display and           prepared a workshop for the Rocky Mountain Regional Social Studies Conference.           Although the response was not overwhelming, the experience whetted our           appetites. The workshop promised to be an effective tool for spreading           our message, and we developed a weekend workshop. Drawing heavily on           personal contacts to generate our first roster of participating teachers,           we made a pilot presentation to about 35 teachers who were hosted by           the Mesa Southwest Museum during the spring 1987 celebration of Arizona           Archaeology Week. 

We presented the workshop again in November 1987 to           about 50 teachers at the Arizona State Museum in Tucson, in April 1988           to 18 teachers at the Prescott Junior High School, and in November 1988           to another dozen teachers in conjunction with a community resource fair           cosponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and the Tucson Association           of Museums. For each of these workshops, we arranged for in-service           credit with several school districts, which is a crucial factor in generating           interest among teachers because it influences their salary adjustments.           

Our workshops begin with checking in registrants and           encouraging them to look at a display where we offer books for sale           while they munch on the breakfast refreshments we provide. (Local book           wholesalers are willing to work with us, and teachers seem to appreciate           the opportunity to buy relevant materials on the spot.) The presentation           begins with a fast-paced, 50-minute slide lecture introducing archeology           as a subdiscipline of anthropology and presenting a brief overview of           the prehistory of the Southwest. (We are currently videotaping these           lectures to facilitate their use in other contexts.) For the next four           or five hours, teachers participate in half-hour to hour-long, hands-on           sessions where specific archeological concepts and activities are presented.           The following list of activities is a mixture of adaptations of previously           developed activities and ones our committee prepared:**1**
- **Dating Methods** --a             review of relative and chronometric dating of archeological remains,             
- **Simulating Prehistoric Pottery** --ceramic             manufacturing and variability, 
- **Garbage Can Archaeology** --stratigraphy             and artifact interpretation (Figure 2), 
- **Cultural History Mystery** --artifacts             reflect changing adaptations and lifestyles, 
- **Cultural Universals** --concept             of culture and commonalities among all cultures, and 
- **Trowel It** --a             dig-in-a-box activity (Figure 3). 

During the lunch break, we commonly try to arrange a           tour of the inner sanctums of our hosting museum or a nearby facility.           At the end of the afternoon, we have a wrap-up session that includes           a slide program about the laws that protect archeological resources           and sometimes a discussion of local archeological resources. We ask           the teachers to fill out evaluations to finish the day. To get the 15           to 16 hours of contact time that is usually required for one full in-service           credit, we arrange to have the teachers work on an archeology site,           in a lab, or on a survey during the following day or a subsequent weekend.           
**Figure 3.** The **Trowel               It** activity illustrates for teachers the concepts of archeological               context and techniques of excavation and teaches the participants               how to formulate interpretive hypotheses. (Photo by Patti Bell)               
The reactions to our presentations have been quite encouraging.           Participants have consistently given us predominantly good to excellent           ratings on almost all aspects of the workshop (Figure 4). We interpret           this response as an "A" grade and are quite proud of what we have been           able to accomplish with only a few volunteers. We hope these ratings           mean these teachers are using the materials in their classrooms. The           most popular modules are the ones that involve the most hands-on activity           such as **Trowel It**           and **Cultural History           Mystery**. Technical modules, such as the one on various dating           methods, have been less enthusiastically received but still get a grade           of good or better from three-fourths of the participants. 

 We believe that much of our success in developing the           workshop format and materials is due to the direct involvement of not           only archeologists who have substantial experience in working with students           but actual classroom teachers who understand our audience. We have cast           our materials into a lesson plan format familiar to teachers, with the           full realization that most of them will not have the time to seek out           additional information before using them. The content and organization           of the workshop are dynamic, and we are continually trying to respond           to comments and suggestions from the participants. 

We initially charged $5 to cover the cost of the packet           of materials we distribute at the workshop, but we have been able to           raise our tuition fees to $20 without any complaints of gouging. That           income and the money from book sales typically cover our costs, which           are averaging $300 to $400 per workshop. All labor is volunteered, and           we have managed to use rent-free facilities, overcome liability insurance           issues, and subsidize much of our cost for sending out announcements           and registration forms through our members' institutions. The enterprise           clearly has the potential of being virtually self-sustaining--as long           as the volunteer efforts and cooperation hold out. 

**Future Challenges**

During our first year of workshops, about 100 teachers           participated. At that rate, it will take us only 200 years to indoctrinate           every teacher in Arizona! Although that is a short time by archeological           chronologies, it is a daunting challenge in real time, even if many           teachers who attend our workshop in turn introduce several of their           colleagues to archeology. But we are not working alone in Arizona. Spin-off           workshops by other organizations are being developed, and numerous public           outreach programs are being pursued throughout the state (Rogge 1988).           

We know other groups in other states are out there working           towards goals similar to those we are pursuing. We suspect that some           national coordination of these grass-root efforts might be useful, and           there are several candidate organizations or institutions that might           provide national leadership. We call particular attention to the Smithsonian's           program of teacher support and its publication of *Anthro Notes*,           which seems to us to be a very viable mechanism for building a strong           national network. Whoever takes on the job will need funding as well           as continuing volunteer efforts. We would point to Project WILD as a           successful model to emulate (WREEC 1988). The result of a three-year           cooperative effort by state education and wildlife agencies and other           environmental organizations throughout the West, Project WILD distributes           an impressive set of supplemental curriculum materials that focus on           the importance of natural resources. We believe that our cultural resources           warrant as much effort. 

Despite all the challenges of educating the general           public about archeology, we remain optimistic that people's inherent           interest in archeology is on our side and that the heightening environmental           awareness of the general public will continue to spread to cultural           resources. From the perspective of archeologists in A.D. 2050, the educational           efforts we initiate in our public school systems today are likely to           be seen as a crucial factor in determining the condition of our cultural           resources in the next century. 

Note 

1. Committee           members who contributed substantially to the development of the workshop           materials include teachers Donna Benge, Jeanne Miller and Jean Cross           (retired); Arizona State Museum staff members Charles Adams, Rich Lange           and Shurban; teaching consultant Barbara Gronemann, and Federal archeologist           Penny Rucks. 

**References Cited**

Archaeological Institute of America          1989       *Archaeology*. January/February.

Bruner, Jerome          1963       *The Process of Education*.           Vintage Books, New York. 

Carroll, Rives Fowlkes          1987       Schoolyard Archaeology. *Social           Studies* 78: 69-75. 

Catalina, Lynn S.          1983       Digging into Hometown History.           *Cobblestone Magazine*. June 4:10-13. 

Cawelti, Gordon and Janice Adkisson          1985       ASCD Study Reveals Elementary           School Time Allocations for Subject Areas: Other Trends Noted. *ASCD           Curriculum Update* 85. April. Association for Supervision and Curriculum           Development, Alexandria, Virginia. 

Clark, Barbara          1986       *Optimizing Learning: The           Integrative Education Model in the Classroom*. Merrill, Columbus,           Ohio. 

Cotter, John L.          1979       Archaeologists of the Future:           High Schools Discover Archaeology. *Archaeology*. January/February:           29-35. 

Dyer, James          1983       *Teaching Archaeology in           Schools*. Shire, United Kingdom. 

Holm, Karen Ann and Patricia J. Higgins (editors)          1985       *Archeology and Education:           A Successful Combination for PreCollegiate Students*. Anthropology           Curriculum Project, University of Georgia, Athens. 

Kehoe, Alice B.          1988       In Fourteen Hundred and Ninety-Two,           Columbus Sailed ... : The Primacy of the National Myth in American Schools.           ln *The Excluded Past--Archaeology in Education*, edited by Peter           Stone. Unwin Hyman Ltd., London, in press. 

Lipetzky, Jerry.          1982       *Dig 2*. Interaction,           Lakeside, California. 

Macaulay, David.          1979       *Motel of the Mysteries*.           Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 

Onderdonk, Richard          1986       Piaget and Archaeology. *Archaeology*.           November/December: 80. 

Passe, J. and M. Passe          1985       Archaeology: A Unit to Promote           Thinking Skills. *Social Studies* 76:238-239. 

Rice, Marion J.          1986       Curriculum Artifacts: The Remains           of Three Anthropology Projects. *Practicing Anthropology* 8(3-4):           6, 19. 

Rogge, A.E. and Patti Bell          1988       Teaching Teachers to Teach           with Archaeology. In *Fighting Indiana Jones in Arizona*, edited           by A. E. Rogge, pp. 69-74. *American Society for Conservation Archaeology,           1988 Proceedings.* Agency for Conservation Archaeology, Eastern New           Mexico University, Portales. 

Rogge, A.E. (editor)          1988       Fighting Indiana Jones in Arizona.           *American Society for Conservation Archaeology, 1988 Proceedings*.           Agency for Conservation Archaeology, Eastern New Mexico University,           Portales. 

Selig, Ruth Osterweis and Patricia J. Higgins (guest           editors)          1986       Practicing Anthropology in           Precollege Education. *Practicing Anthropology* 8(3-4). 

Watts, Lou Ellen          1985       They Dig Archaeology. *Science           and Children*. September 23: 5-9. 

Western Regional Environmental Education Council          1988       *An Introduction to Project           WILD*. Project WILD, P.0. Box 18060, Boulder, Colorado. 

Wonder, J. and P. Donovan          1984       *Whole Brain Thinking*.           Morrow, New York.
**ARCHAEOLOGY**              Stratigraphy              Sciences/Social Studies**GARBAGE               CAN ARCHAEOLOGY****BACKGROUND:**Prehistoric peoples did               not have garbage cans in which to throw their garbage, nor did they               have garbage pick-up each week. They threw their garbage in heaps,               or into holes such as pits or houses, or just on the ground surface.               Historic people also left trash, just as we do in the modern world.               Some archaeologists study historic and modern trash to learn more               about how to interpret prehistoric trash and to compare what people               **say they use and               throw out** to what **they               actually use and discard** (sometimes called garbology,               in fun).The term **stratigraphy**               (struh-TEEG-ruh-fee) refers to the interpretation of the layers               of past cultural deposits. Those artifacts found on top are usually               the youngest (most recent), those on the bottom are the oldest.               The garbage dump is one of the areas in a site where the archaeologist               uses stratigraphy. If the layers are disturbed and mixed up as a               result of vandalism, the interpretation is not possible. The layers               used for interpretation are determined by the natural soil layers               or may be arbitrarily defined by the archaeologist. By examining               and analyzing the layers or dumping episodes and the artifacts in               them, archaeologists can learn how past peoples lived and what their               activities were.**OBJECTIVES:**-  The students will demonstrate that they know                   the principle of stratigraphy by relating that the material                   at the bottom of the basket was thrown in first.
-  The students will interpret materials found                   in several wastebaskets and categorize the materials according                   to room origin.
**TIME:**1 hour**MATERIALS:**Two or more wastebaskets               from the school (or optionally from home) filled with trash. The               teacher should select wastebaskets from that will show clearcut,               interpretable differences. Wastebaskets from a classroom or two               could be contrasted with ones from the cafeteria, gymnasium, library,               and offices.**VOCABULARY:****Stratigraphy**               -- The vertical relationships of deposits in an archaeological site.               These deposits may be natural or cultural. Cultural material found               in stratified deposits can be dated in relation to one another on               the basisof their location in a stratified column. **Provenience** -- Where an artifact or feature is found.**ACTIVITY:**Collect wastebaskets               from the several predetermined locations. Gather the students and               carefully go through the wastebasket from your classroom. Discuss               the meaning of the trash and ask the students questions such as:-  What items do you think were placed in the                   wastebasket first and which last?
-  By using only the trash, what can be learned                   about the activities that have taken place in this room?
Now divide the students into groups and have               each group sort through a different wastebasket using the stratigraphy               principles. (One idea to show that the top layer is the newest and               the bottom the oldest would be to take the groups outside and draw               the wastebasket on the sidewalk with chalk. Also draw with chalk               to divide the wastebasket into three layers. The children are to               put the top third of the garbage in the top layer, the second in               the middle, and the last third in the bottom layer.) Next, the artifacts               can be categorized. Then have the students decide the original location               (provenience) of each wastebasket. Remember, don't tell the students               where the wastebaskets originated!**WORKSHEET:**The worksheet should               contain the following questions:-  Define stratigraphy and tell how it is used                   by archaeologists.
-  Why does trash reflect what activities took                   place in the room where it was located?
-  What can't you interpret using just the trash                   from the wastebaskets?
**ANSWERS:**1. See the vocabulary               section of the lesson plan for this answer.2. Because the material in the wastebasket               comes only from activities that took place in the room in which               ft was located. These activities are unique and differ from those               in any other room. People discard material associated with activities               they perform in the room.3. You can't interpret anything in the culture               in a reliable way outside of the activities that took place in the               room from which the wastebasket originated. We can't know what took               place in other rooms in the school, or in buildings, offices, or               homes outside of the school. All of these wastebaskets would need               to be looked at to begin to understand the culture that produced               them.**Illustration in:***The Upper Pima of San Cayetano Del Tumacacori* by Charles                     C. Di Peso. Amerind Foundation No.7, 1956:270                    (Courtesy of Amerind Foundation, Inc., Dragoon, Arizona) Lesson plan prepared by: E. Charles Adams, Arizona               State Museum and Barbara Gronemann, Southwest Learning Sources.               Arizona Archaeological Council, Archaeology for the Schools Committee,               c/o Shurbon, Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tuscon,               Arizona 85721.
**ADDITIONAL                 READINGS AND CURRICULUM MATERIALS**

*This sampler contains a selection of readings,                 curriculum materials, and other educational programs that have                 been brought to our attention. Interested readers should contact                 their local cultural organizations such as museums, heritage centers,                 and archeological societies for further assistance.*

**ALBERTA,CANADA***First Albertans Project*, 1987. For grades K-1 2. Contact:                 **Archaeological                 Survey of Alberta, Historical Resources Division, Alberta Culture,                 Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P8.**

**ARIZONA***Archaeology Is More Than a Dig* by Jodi Simmons, Larry Tanner,                 Sharon Urban, and Lou Ellen Watts, 1985. Teachers' Manual and                 Workbook for grades 3-6 and adaptable for all grades, cost $25.00.                 Contact: **Carol                 Ellick, Camp Cooper, Tucson Unified School District, P.O. Box                 40400, Tucson, Arizona 85717-0400.**

*Teachers' Packet* of classroom activities                 and information about Arizona archaeology, cost $6.00. Contact:                 **Shurban, Arizona                 Archaeological Council, Archaeology for the Schools Committee,                 Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721.**

from teachers:*Exploring Archaeology-- 1 0 Week Science Unit,* grade 5,                 20 pp. and *Protection of Archaeological Sites*, activities                 for K-8, 40 pp. Contact: **Patti                 Bell, 8845 Pine Valley Drive, Tucson, Arizona 85710.**

*Introduction to Archaeology*, unit for gifted                 upper elementary students. Contact: **Jeanne                 Miller, 1334 W Temple, Chandler, Arizona 85224.**

**GEORGIA***Frontiers in the Soil. The Archaeology of Georgia* by Dickens,                 Roy S., Jr. and James L. McKinley, 1979. Cost $10.00 plus postage.                 Contact: **Frontiers                 Publishing Company, P.O. Box 3474, La Grange, Georgia 30241.**

**KENTUCKY***The Prehistory of Man in Kentucky* by Kathryn Fraser, 1986.                 *Studying the Prehistory of Man in Kentucky* (teachers resource                 volume and activities volume), 1983 and *Environmental Approaches                 to Prehistory/Archaeology*, by Jim Carpenter and Kathryn Fraser,                 1980. Cost $5.00 per volume. Contact: **Center                 for Environmental Education, Murray State University, Murray,                 Kentucky 42071.**

**LOUISIANA***Classroom Archaeology* by Nancy W. Hawkins, 1984. Educator's                 Manual for all grades K-12, free. Contact: **Division                 of Archaeology, Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism,                 State of Louisiana, P.O. Box 44247, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804.**

**MAINE***Discovering Maine's Prehistory Through Archaeology: An Interdisciplinary                 Curriculum Unit for Grades 5-8* by Diane R. Kopec, 1987. Contact:                 **Maine Historic                 Preservation Commission, 55 Capitol Street, State House Station                 65, Augusta, Maine 04333.**

**MISSOURI***Culture Vulture--An Exploration into Culture and North American                 Prehistoric Peoples* by Sheila Morrow and Eleanor Casebolt,                 1984. For grades 6-8. Contact: **Kansas                 City Parks & Recreation, Line Creek Museum, Kansas City, Missouri                 64151.**

**SOUTH                 DAKOTA***Young People's Guide to South Dakota Archaeology; Ancient Peoples                 and Places of South Dakota;* and *South Dakota Archaeology                 Educational Series,* 1982. For grades K- 12. Contact: **Department                 of Anthropology, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South                 Dakota 57069.**

**TEXAS***The Indian Years, Living with the Texas Past Series*, No.                 1, 1983. Contact: **Texas                 Historical Commission, Off Ice of the State Archaeologist, P.O.                 Box 12276, Austin, Texas 78711.**

**VERMONT***A Teacher's Guide to 12,000 Years of Vermont's Past* compiled                 by Lauren Kelley Parren, 1987, and *Teachers Resource List*                 by Giovanna Peebles, 1985. Contact: **State                 Archaeologist, Division for Historic Preservation, 58 E State                 Street, Montpelier, Vermont 05602.**

**VIRGINIA***Archaeology/Walney* by Michael Harrison, 1984. Historical                 archeology for grades 7-12, teacher's guide. Contact: **Fairfax                 County Park Authority, 3701 Pender Drive, Fairfax, Virginia 22030.**

**OTHERS***Anthro Notes*, a National Museum of                 Natural History Newsletter for Teachers, published three times                 a year, free-of-charge. Contact: **P.                 Ann Kaupp, Public Information Office, Department of Anthropology,                 Stop 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560.**

*Teaching Anthropology Newsletter* is published                 twice a year to promote precollege teaching of anthropology, free-of-charge.                 Contact: **Department                 of Anthropology, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, Nova Scotia,                 Canada B3H 3C3.**

*LEAP* (Listing of Education in Archeology                 Projects), a clearinghouse established by the Archeological Assistance                 Division to provide information about Federal and non-Federal                 public awareness products, i.e., posters, brochures, publications,                 news releases, videos, television segments, exhibits and displays,                 and volunteer programs. Information about Federal and non-Federal                 curriculum materials is welcomed. Contact: **George                 Smith, Archeological Assistance Division, National Park Service,                 P.O. Box 37127, Washington, DC 37127-7127.**

*Heritage Education Quarterly*, a national                 publication for teachers, planners, preservationists, educators,                 museums, and civic groups. Provides project information in heritage                 education programs for children and adults, case studies, and                 lesson plans. Contact: **The                 Preservation Library and Resource Center, 498 Smith Main Street,                 Madison, Georgia 30650.**

Crow Canyon Archaeological Center has teachers'                 workshops, a high school field school, elementary and junior high                 student programs, and adult seminars. Contact: **Crow                 Canyon Archaeological Center, 23390 County Road K, Cortez, Colorado                 81321.**

Toronto's Archaeological Resource Centre annually                 introduces some 12,000 precollege students to archeology. Contact:                 **Karolyn E. Smardz,                 Manager, c/o Danforth Technical School, Room A4, 840 Greenwood                 Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4J 4B7.**

Return to: Technical           Briefs            | **introduction**

**the                 schools committee**

**ethnography                 of the school system**

**teaching                 archeology versus teaching *with* archeology**

**the                 workshop as a delivery tool**

**future                 challenges**

**references                 cited**

**appendices**

**print                 version  **

**technical briefs                 index** |
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           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