Physical Behavior and 

Geologic Control of 

Radon in Mountain

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052-E

Prepared on behalf of the 

United States Atomic Energy 

Commission and published with 

the permission of the Commission

Physical Behavior and 

Geologic Control of 

Radon in Mountain 

Streams

By ALLEN S. ROGERS

EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052-E

Prepared on behalf of the 

United States Atomic Energy 

Commission and published with 

the permission of the Commission

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1958
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

The U. S. Geological Survey Library has cataloged this publication as follows:

Rogers, Alien Stuart, 1922-

Physical behavior and geologic control of radon in mountain streams. Prepared on behalf of the U. S. Atomic 

Energy Commission. Washington, U. S. Govt. Print. Off.r 

1958.

iii, 187-212 p. illus., plates (1 in pocket) maps. 23 cm. (U. S. 

Geological Survey. Bulletin 1052-E. Experimental and theoretical 

geophysics)

Bibliography: p. 20&-210.

1. Radon. 2. Water Analysis. 3. Rivers Utah. i. Title, n. 

Title: Geologic control of radon in mountain streams. (Series: 

U. S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 1052-E. Series: U. S. Geological 

Survey. Experimental and theoretical geophysics)

551.48

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 40 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

	Page

Abstract______________________________________ 187

Introduction. ___ _____________ __________________________ 187

Physical properties of radon_________________ ___________ 187

Radon in natural waters_____________________________________ 188-

Previous work_____ __ _________ _ ________ 188-

Purpose and scope of present investigation_________________ 190"

Acknowledgments.-. ________________ __ ____ 190

Methods of study _____________ ___________________ 19O

Instruments and methods of measurement._______________________ 190*

Sampling techniques. _ __ ________________ _________ 193

Field procedure._______________________________ 194

Radon distribution in surface waters draining parts of the Wasatch

Mountains.._____________________________________ 194

Geologic seiting____________________________________ 194

Drainage. ___________________________________________ 196

Observations in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest areas_________ 198

Observations in the Mill Creek area_______________________ 203

Observations in the City Creek area_________________________ 203

Radium in streams and springs________________________________ 203

Application to a surface-water problem in the Weber River drainage area. 205

Summary of conclusions____________________________________________ 209

Literature cited.__________________________________________ 209

Index_______________________________________ 211

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE 6. Radon-measurement apparatus__________________ facing 192

7. Sampling tube. __ ______________ facing 193

8. Geologic map and section of part of the lower Weber River

area, north-central Utah_-______________________---_ In pocket

FIGUKE 44. Radon distribution ratios in a gas-water system.____ _____ 189

45. Diagrammatic sketch of radon-measuring apparatus-_______ 193

46. Index map of area near Salt Lake City, showing location of

radon surveys______________________________________ 195

47. Geologic map of Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest areas showing radon distribution in streams and springs-___________ 197

48. Geologic map of part of Mill Creek area, showing radon distribution- ___________________________________________ 198

49. Geologic map of part of City Creek area, showing radon distribution. ___________________________________ 199

50. Radon loss from streams and springs in Red Butte and Pinecrest areas______________-_________________-__-------- 201

51. Radon loss from part of Mill Greek-.____________ 204

52. Cross section of Mill Creek, showing radon distribution.___. 205

53. Radon loss from part of Weber River.______-__-_-_ _____ 207

m

PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR AND GEOLOGIC CONTROL OF 

RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS

By ALLEN S. KOGEKS

ABSTRACT

Radon measurements were made in several small turbulent mountain streams 

in the Wasatch Mountains near Salt Lake City and Ogden, Utah, to determine 

the relation between the distribution of radon and its geologic environment.

In this area, the distribution of radon in streams can be used to locate points 

where relatively large amounts of radon-bearing ground water enter a stream, 

even though other evidence of springs may be lacking. These points of influent 

ground water are marked by abrupt increases (of as much as 2 orders of magnitude within a distance of 50 feet) in the radon content of the stream waters.

This excess radon is rapidly lost to the atmosphere through stream turbulence. 

The rate of radon dissipation with distance of streamflow, is an exponential 

function, of different slopes, depending on the rate and volume of streamflow, 

and the gradient and nature of the stream channel.

Higher radon concentrations generally can be related to specific stratigraphic 

horizons in the several drainage areas studied. Thus, lithologic units that 

act as the primary aquifers can be identified. In one area, thrust faults were 

found to control the influx of ground water into the stream.

Based on radon concentrations in streams and related spring waters, estimates of major increments of ground water to streamflow can be made, where 

conventional methods such as stream gaging are not practical.

The radon in the waters studied was found to be almost completely unsupported by radium in solution.

INTRODUCTION

PHYSICAL PKOPEKTIES OF RADON

Eadon (called "radium emanation" and "niton" by early investigators) belongs to the family of inert noble gases and is the only 

radioactive gas occurring naturally in appreciable amounts although traces of radioactive xenon and krypton occur naturally as 

products of spontaneous and neutron fission. As an element, radon 

is comprised of three isotopes, each of which disintegrates through 

alpha emission: En222 (radon), with a half life of 3.825 days; En220 

(thoron), with a half life of 54.5 seconds; and En219 (actinon), with 

a half life of 3.92 seconds. These isotopes are members of the U238,

187
188 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

Th232 and U235, families, respectively. Of the three isotopes, the 

half life of radon (En222 ) is the most convenient for measurement, 

and this is the only isotope investigated in this report.

The interrelations of half lives of the parent radium and the immediate daughters of radon add to the convenience of radon measurements. The half life of radium (Ea226 ) is 1,620 years, and can 

be considered infinite compared to the 3.825-day half life of radon. 

Approximately 99 percent equilibrium is established between radon 

and radium within 25 days.

Radon disintegrates through a series of 4 short-lived daughter 

products, with which equilibrium is established in about 4 hours 

(Jennings and Russ, 1948, p. 42, 210-211). The next (fifth) daughter product, Pb210 (RaD), has a half life of 22 years. Compared to 

4 hours, this is sufficiently long to make the effect of Pb210 in radon 

measurements negligible within the range of radon concentrations 

discussed in this report.

Being an inert gas, radon is quite susceptible to migration, accomplished either by gaseous diffusion or solution. The distance of migration depends on the 3.825-day half life, the rate and medium of migration, and possibly on such other factors as the adsorption of radon 

on carbonaceous material.

Radon is soluble in many liquids; the solubility depends upon the 

nature of the liquid and its temperature. The distribution ratio or 

solubility coefficient of radon (Rn water/Rn gas) in a gas-water 

system of equal volumes at various temperatures is shown and compared with selected published data in figure 44. Radon is less soluble 

in aqueous solutions of electrolytes than in pure water. The distribution ratio of radon in an aqueous solution of NaCl (sp gr 1.215) 

at 17° C. is 0.042 (Kofler, 1913). Radon is highly soluble in organic 

liquids. The distribution ratio may be as large as 23 in some liquids 

(Wahl and Bonner, 1951, p. 157).

This ability of radon to migrate allows it to be used as a tracer 

in uranium exploration. Perhaps more important are the potential 

applications to ground-water problems of studies of radon concentrations in natural waters.

RADON IN NATURAL WATERS 

PREVIOUS WORK

Very little is known concerning the relation of radon in natural 

waters to geologic conditions. Arndt and Kuroda (1953) made a 

reconnaissance survey of radon in streams and lakes in parts of 

Garland and Hot Springs Counties, Ark. Where the same rock type 

crops out over a wide area, a correlation was suggested between radon
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 189

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FIGURE 44. Radon distribution ratios in a gas-water system.

in streams and the rock types over which, the streams flow: the radon 

content of streams and springs proved higher near known uraniumbearing materials.

An abundance of literature on the radioactivity of spring waters 

is available. Perhaps the most intensive and complete studies in 

this country were those by Kuroda and his coworkers in Hot Springs 

National Park and vicinity in Arkansas. Here radon concentrations 

in both hot and cold springs and in streams are related to geologic 

features and to known uranium-radium minerals (Arndt and Kuroda, 

1953; Kuroda, Damon, and Hyde, 1954). At Yellowstone National 

Park, radon determinations of gases and waters, and radium determinations of spring deposits, were made by Schlundt and Moore (1909).

Miholic (1952) analyzed water from 26 springs in Yugoslavia and 

found that waters from Carboniferous and Cretaceous strata contain 

more radon than waters from sedimentary rock of other periods.

A detailed investigation of radon and helium in the West Panhandle gas field of Texas (Faul and others, 1954), the Hugoton 

gas field of Kansas, and other gas fields in the Mid-Continent region 

was made (Pierce, Mytton and Gott, 1956). It was found that 

natural hydrocarbon gases may contain as much as 104 micromicrocuries of radon per liter (at reservoir pressure).

Kovach (1944, 1945, 1946) has described a series of measurements 

of radon in soil gas at Fordham University. He noted variations in
190 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

r,adon content that are attributable to depth and such meteorological 

elements as rain, snow cover, barometric pressure, and wind velocity. 

A similar study by Norinder, Metnieks, and Siksna (1952) was made 

at Uppsala, Sweden. A relation between the radon content of soil 

gas and the heavy mineral content of the soil was observed by Clark 

and Botset( 1932).

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION

In the spring of 1953 a few preliminary radon determinations 

were made in several streams that drain the Wasatch Mountains near 

Salt Lake City, Utah. These samples showed sufficient range in 

radon content to warrant further investigation. This was postponed 

until summer, when the streams reached a stable condition and were 

not affected by melting snow. At that time another series of preliminary radon measurements were taken periodically over an interval 

of one week at several places. Since there was, in general, little variation in the radon content found at each place, it seemed reasonable to 

assume that significant interpretations concerning the distribution of 

radon in stream waters were possible.

The distribution of radon in stream waters and related springs, 

and the relation of this distribution to both geologic and nongeologic 

conditions, was then investigated in several drainage areas of the 

Wasatch Mountains adjacent to Salt Lake City, Utah. The results 

were then applied to a definite ground- and surface-water problem 

in a part of the lower Weber River drainage area near Ogden, Utah.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work described in this report was part of a program of investigations carried on by the U. S. Geological Survey on behalf of the 

Division of Research of the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Space 

and other facilities were made available by the University of Utah, 

where, during part of the time the writer was studying under a Shell 

Oil Company Research Fellowship in Geophysics. John H. Feth and 

Herbert A. Waite of the Geological Survey cooperated in the investigation in the lower Weber River area. Data on quality of water were 

supplied by J. A. Conner of the Geological Survey.

METHODS OF STUDY

INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Radon can be measured by the ionization produced by alpha emission in an ionization chamber. The degree of ionization is a measure 

of the radon present in the chamber and can be determined by the rate 

of fall of a charged gold leaf of an electroscope, or by a device capable
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 191

of counting individual pulses, or by measuring the total ionization 

current produced by the alpha emission. ; s 

The unit of measurement most commonly used in radon determinations is the curie, but because the curie is a very large unit, the millimicrocurie (Kh9 curie) or micromicrocurie (10~12 curie) is conventionally used. The curie is defined as the amount of radon in equilibrium with one gram of radium. It has been further defined as 

3.700 X1010 radioactive disintegrations per second. A curie, in terms 

of volume of radon at standard temperature and pressure, is 0.66 

mm3 ; 0.66X10"12 mm3 of radon gas, therefore, is equivalent to one 

micromicrocurie. Thus the quantities of radon that can be accurately 

measured are minute. Other units that have been used are the Mache 

unit, which is equal to 3.6X10"10 curie per liter, and the Eman unit, 

which is equal to 1X10'10 curie per liter. (Hevsey and Paneth, 1926,

p.m.)

For the radon measurements given in this paper, a slow ionization 

chamber collecting positive ions was used, with an attached vibratingreed electrometer to measure total ionization current. Kadon was 

boiled out of liquid samples into an evacuated ionization chamber, 

while argon was simultaneously bubbled through the boiling liquid 

sample in order to carry the radon from the sample into the chamber. 

The radon was isolated in the chamber for a 4-hour period. During 

this time equilibrium was established with its short-lived daughter 

products, and the total ionization current then measured by the vibrating reed electrometer. A continuous record of the amplified current 

was recorded on a one-milliampere graphic strip-chart recorder.

The currents produced by the unknown samples were compared directly with the current produced by a known amount of radon evolved 

from a standard radium solution. The radon content of the 

10.5X10~12g standard radium solution, obtained from the National 

Bureau of Standards, is measured periodically for calibration. The 

average of 20 such measurements is 25.7 millivolts (standard deviation, 

0.6) and gives a conversion factor, in terms of micromicrocuries per 

millivolt.

Background measurements using nonradioactive argon were made 

periodically, and substracted from all measurements. The smallest 

amount of radon that can be measured by this apparatus is about one 

micromicrocurie per liter.

Kadium contents of liquids are determined in a similar fashion, 

except that two boilings of the liquid sample are necessary. First, all 

radon is driven from the sample either by making a radon determination, or by boiling it to the atmosphere. The sample is sealed in its 

original boiler and several days later, the radon which evolved from

467830 59 2 -
192 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

the radium in the sample is driven into an ionization chamber and 

measured. The amount of radon evolved gives a measure of the 

amount of the .radium in the sample.

Time is an important factor in both radon and radium determinations. The amount of radon that decayed during the time between 

sampling and determination must be determined. Because of the 

3.825-day half life, radon determinations are generally made within 

a day or two after sampling. In radium measurements, the time of 

radon evolution or buildup must be accurately known.

The equipment (pi. 6 and fig. 45) consists of a bank of three 500- 

milliliter reflux boilers and two 4.2-liter stainless-steel ionization 

chambers with a connecting gas-transfer system. The system consists 

of two parts: the intake line from the boilers, with attached U-tube 

desiccator and vacuum gage, and the exhaust line with its vacuum 

pump and thermocouple vacuum gage. The ionization chambers 

are connected to both lines. The two lines are connected by a "bridge" 

stopcock. When the bridge is closed, it is possible to fill one chamber 

while evacuating the other.

The gas-transfer system is made entirely of tygon tubing (%6 inch 

inside diameter X y^ inch outside diameter) with glass joints and 

stopcocks. Tygon tubing has certain advantages over the conventional all-glass or copper tubing systems. It is cheap, and easy 

to construct and maintain. Changes in the system can be made 

easily. The cleaning of a contaminated glass or copper tubing system 

can be a tedious job; but if the tygon tubing becomes contaminated, 

it may be discarded and replaced by new tubing. Although the 

equipment was originally set up as a semipermanent installation in 

a laboratory, the tygon system was constructed with the idea that the 

equipment will eventually be installed as a mobile truck-mounted 

unit.

No leaks formed in the tygon tubing-glass connections during 1 

year of almost daily use. A low-vapor-pressure silicone grease is 

used as a seal and lubricant in the connections. No organic greases 

or black rubber should be used because they tend to adsorb radon.

A few limited experiments showed that no appreciable radon is 

lost in the tygon system by adsorption or diffusion. Radon was allowed to expand freely from a full ionization chamber through about 

20 feet of tygon tubing into an evacuated chamber. The radon was 

then measured in each chamber and generally there was less than 1 

percent difference. R. D. Evans (personal communication) has investigated radon losses in black rubber, gum rubber, and tygon tubing. 

His results indicate that the loss of radon to gum rubber or tygon 

tubing in a breath-collecting system is negligible if the volume of the
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052 PLATE 6

RADON-MEASUREMENT APPARATUS

Only one reflux boiler and ionization chamber are shown on this plate. See figure 45 

for layout of apparatus actually used.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1052 PLATE 7

Ofi

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H5

SAMPLING TUBE
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 193

TO

VACUUM 

PUMP Not fo scale 

Electrical connections solid black

A-ARGON AND SAMPLE INTAKE

8- 500-MILLILITER REFLUX BOILEJR

C - U-TUBE DESICCATOR

D-"BRIDGE" STOPCOCK

E - VACUUM GAGE

F - IONIZATION CHAMBERS

6 - THERMOCOUPLE VACUUM.-CASE,

H-THERMOCOUPLE GAGE CONTROL UNIT

I - INTAKE LINE

J- EXHAUST LINE

K- VIBRATING-REED ELECTROMETER

L- VIBRATING-REED ELECTROMETER AMPLIFIER

M -ONE-MILLIAMPERE STRIP-CHART RECORDER

N-TO TWO ADDITIONAL REFLUX BOILERS

FIGUKB 45. Diagrammatic sketch of radon-measuring apparatus.

radon-air (radon-argon in this report) enclosed by the tubing at any 

time is small compared to the total volume collected.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Samples of waters were collected in glass tubes of approximately 

300 ml volume, with pressure-adapted stopcocks at each end (pi. 7).
194 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

The tubes were first flushed with argon in the laboratory and then 

filled by gently applying suction with the mouth to one end of the tube, 

with the other end immersed in the stream or spring. The radon 

content of water from sample tubes thus filled by suction, and that 

of comparable water collected in tubes evacuated in the laboratory 

differed by only 1 or 2 percent, which was considered negligible in this 

work. The water samples, after collection, were never again exposed 

to the air, as radon is rapidly flushed from any water sample that is 

allowed to mix with the atmosphere. It has been found that about 

45 percent of the radon is dissipated to the atmosphere when a water 

sample is collected in a bottle, a volume measured out into a graduate, 

and the measured volume then poured into a reflux boiler. Kuroda, 

Damon, and Hyde (1954) report the same phenomenon.

FIELD PROCEDURES

At the start of the first radon survey, stream samples were taken at 

widely spaced intervals, chiefly near prominent outcrops and changes 

in lithology. When a large amount of radon was found in the stream, 

samples were taken both upstream and downstream from that point.

It soon became evident that the source of the radon could be established accurately if the sample intervals were short.

All samples were usually taken from the center of the stream at a 

depth of about 1 inch, and primarily in fast-flowing parts of the 

streams. All stagnant pools and beaver ponds were avoided. The 

samples were returned to the laboratory for radon determination, 

usually within 3 days.

RADON DISTRIBUTION IN SURFACE WATERS DRAINING 

PARTS OF THE WASATCH MOUNTAINS

GEOLOGIC SETTING

The Wasatch Mountains extend from Nephi, in central Utah, northward into Idaho. Their western face forms part of the eastern limit 

of the Basin and Range province. Salt Lake City is in the northeast 

part of Jordan Valley near the steep front of the central Wasatch 

Mountains.

The area adjacent to Salt Lake City (fig. 46), which includes Red 

Butte Canyon, City Creek, and Mill Creek, has a relief of 2,500 to 5,000 

feet above the floor of the valley.

Near Salt Lake City, the major structural element of the Wasatch 

Mountains is a broad eastward-trending syncline, which is modified 

by smaller folds along its trough. The syncline is flanked on the south 

by the Cottonwood uplift and on the north by the northern Utah
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 195

uplift. The sedimentary rocks range in age from Precambrian to 

early Tertiary.

FIGURE 46. Index map of area near Salt Lake City, showing location of radon surveys.
196 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

The sedimentary rocks in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest area 

range in age from Pennsylvanian to Tertiary (fig. 47). The oldest 

formation is the Weber quartzite of Pennsylvanian age with an estimated thickness of 1,200 feet. Apparently conformably overlying the 

"Weber quartzite is the Park City formation, of Permian age. Granger 

(1953) measured a thickness of 974 feet of Park City formation at 

the head of Red Butte Canyon. For the most part, the Park City 

formation is made up of limestone with a thick, somewhat phosphatic, 

shale member in the middle of the formation.

Approximately 3,600 feet of Triassic sedimentary rocks overlie the 

Park City formation, and include red shale of the Woodside shale, 

marine limestone and shale of the Thaynes formation, and red shale, 

siltstone, and sandstone of the Ankareh shale. The Thaynes formation, which is of particular interest in the present investigation, has a 

thickness of 1,931 feet (Granger, 1953) and consists primarily of 

shale, sandy and shaly limestone, and one or more beds of gray limestone, which form prominent ridges.

The Triassic sedimentary rocks are overlain by approximately 4,700 

feet of Jurassic sandstone, argillaceous limestone, and red siltstone 

beds.

The conglomerate and red siltstone of the Kelvin formation of Cretaceous age overlie the Jurassic strata with apparent conformity and 

total about 1,500 feet thick.

Unconf ormably overlapping the older rocks in the northern part of 

the area is the Almy( ?) conglomerate, of Tertiary age.

The lithology in the Mill Creek area (fig. 48) is similar to that of 

the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest area. The lower half of the 

Thaynes formation includes 3 rather thick limestone ridge-forming 

strata.

In the City Creek area there is sequence of vertically dipping Paleozoic sedimentary rocks (fig. 49) that is an entirely different section 

than that in the Red Butte Canyon and Mill Creek areas. Here the 

Paleozoic strata are unconf ormably overlain by Tertiary conglomerate 

and volcanic rocks.

DRAINAGE

The streams in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest area are small, 

with steep gradients. The flow at points A, <7, and E (fig. 47) is 

probably about 1 cubic foot per second. The average stream gradients, 

which were approximated from topographic maps, are: B to A, about 

300 feet per mile; D to <7, including headwaters, about 850 feet per 

mile; and from either F or G to Pinecrest, about 800 feet per mile.

The average stream gradient of Mill Creek (fig. 48) between A and 

O is about 300 feet per mile. About 3 miles downstream from point <7,
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 197
198 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

Ar 

Thay 

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EXPLANATION

Contact

Dashed where approxi- Radon content 

matety located Micromicrocuries

Fault

Dashed where approximofely located

Jtper liter

* 

Spring

m

Point location

Strike and dip of beds Described in text

FIGURE 48. Geologic map of part of Mill Creek area, showing radon distribution in

streams and springs.

the streamflow was approximately 12 cubic feet per second. Because 

of water diversion, the streamflow between A and #, perhaps 8 or 

10 cubic feet per second, is probably twice the flow between B and C. 

The average stream gradient of City Creek (fig. 49) between D 

and B is about 800 feet per mile. At point A the streamflow, based 

on 1950 measurements, is probably about 2 cubic feet per second in 

each fork.

OBSERVATIONS IN RED BUTTE CANYON AND PINECREST AREAS

The radon contents of stream waters and springs in these areas are 

shown in figure 47 in micromicrocuries per liter. All repeat samples 

at the same localities are shown in brackets.
RADON ESP MOUNTAIN STREAMS 199

EXPLANATION

Contoct

Dashed where approximately located

Fou It

Dashed where approximately located

/ Geology from A.E. Gronger / IPW 

/ ond B.J. Shorp, 1952 / /

FIGURE 49. Geologic map of part of City Creek area, showing radon distribution In

streams and springs.

The distribution of radon in the stream waters was found to follow 

a definite pattern. In each case relatively high radon contents are 

found in springs at the sources of the various streams. As the water 

moves downstream, the radon content decreases rapidly, in some 

places almost to zero within 500 feet. Further downstream other zones 

of high radon concentrations are* noted in the stream waters. These 

concentrations also decrease rapidly as the water moves downstream.

This pattern of radon distribution in stream waters apparently 

depends upon the influx of radon-bearing ground water into the 

stream, and, in turn, upon the loss of radon from the stream water 

to the atmosphere. As air usually contains less than one micromicrocurie per liter, any radon exceeding one micromicrocurie per
200 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

liter in the stream water is out of equilibrium with that in the atmosphere and will therefore decrease and approach equilibrium (fig. 

44). After a large amount of radon has been introduced into the 

stream by ground water, it is quickly released to the atmosphere at 

a rate governed by the volume and gradient of the stream, and the 

nature of the stream channel. Eadon content plotted against distance 

of streamflow shows the loss of radon to the atmosphere to be an 

exponential function with somewhat different slopes in different drainage areas (fig. 50).

The anomalously high radon concentrations indicate areas where 

ground water, in large amounts relative to the stream volume, is being 

added to the stream, even though, in most places, no evidence of 

springs is apparent.

This ground-water source for the anomalous radon concentrations 

in stream waters is postulated for the following reasons:

1. The springs in the area generally contain more radon than the 

stream waters and seem to be the logical source. A water-saturated 

sedimentary rock with a density of 2.5, a 10-percent porosity, uranium 

content of 1 ppm (3.3X 10~13 grams of radium per gram of rock), and 

an emanating power of 10 percent can theoretically contribute 825 

micromicrocuries of radon per liter to the enclosed ground water under 

static conditions. If ground water, under dynamic conditions, containing about 800 micromicrocuries of radon per liter enters and contributes 10 percent to the total volume of streamflow, the radon concentration in the stream water will increase by about 80 micromicrocuries per liter at the point of ground-water entrance.

2. The decay constant for radon is 0.007551 per hour or 0.000126 

per minute. This shows the fraction of radon per unit of time that 

will form from a radium source. Hence, it seems unlikely that 

the radium content of the rocks and detritus exposed in the stream 

channel itself will contribute much radon to the stream's waters, 

because the radon will be continuously and swiftly swept downstream 

and dissipated to the atmosphere.

3. Surveys with a scintillation counter showed no abnormally high 

radioactivity in the rocks along the stream channels. On the contrary, the limestone beds in the area, with which most radon anomalies 

in the stream waters are related, show a normal, lower background 

than that of the adjacent shale.

4. A definite relation has been found between some high radon 

content in stream waters and adjacent radon-bearing springs.

The areas of relatively large amounts of ground-water influx thus 

marked by radon anomalies can be related to rather definite stratigraphic horizons. The anomaly of 126 micromicrocuries per liter
RADON IN" MOUNTAIN STREAMS 201

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V \ \

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 B}<

\

\ \ \ \

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Let

fi

l/*A

V

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/

o

Values along stream (B to J) 

 

Values along stream (H to C)

X

Values along stream (F to E)

ers refer to point locations 

:ribed in text and shown 

jure 47

SFI

-H

\\4

\

\

X

 VrN

\

\

\

\

\

\

Ej

\ 

\

\

\

J

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X 

\ 

\

\

\

Jcl

de-

\

\

\ 

^

3 1000 w ~ 200O 3OOO

Horizontal distonce(in fee*)of stream flow 

FIGURE 50. Radon loss from streams and springs In Red Butte and Pinecrest areas.

about y2 mile north of Pinecrest at a point where repeat samples were 

taken over a period of 3 months, is related to a thin (10 or 20 feet) 

prominent limestone ridge in the Thaynes formation that causes an 

abrupt change in stream gradient. The anomaly in the Thaynes in 

drainage DO is similarly related to a thin limestone ridge. Although
202 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

no prominent limestone ridge was noted in the Thaynes formation 

in drainage BA, there is an anomaly of 89 micromicrocuries per liter 

at a point of abrupt change in stream gradient, which suggests that 

the limestone is also present at the point of the anomaly in drainage 

BA. Another limestone ridge occurs near the base of the Thaynes 

formation north of Pinecrest, where an anomaly of 100 micromicrocuries per liter is found.

The upper limestone member of the Park City formation also acts 

as an aquifer, particularly near its contact with the Woodside shale. 

Radon anomalies that are generally small are associated with the 

middle part of the Ankareh shale. This part of the Ankareh is the 

Suicide grit of local usage and may be equivalent to the Shinarump 

member of the Chinle formation.

A somewhat perplexing difference in radon distribution exists between drainage FE and GE, which are parallel and only about 1,500 

feet apart. Drainage FE contains a higher level of radon concentration than drainage GE, and there is a large radon anomaly near th& 

Park City-Woodside contact in drainage FE; yet no anomaly waa 

found in drainage GE. This marked difference may be due to th& 

differences in the two stream channels. The channel of drainage FE 

is partly bedrock, and partly soil derived from bedrock, and has 

considerable vegetation. Whether the vegetation is supported by 

water from the stream or by spring water is not known, although 

there is presumably some influx of ground water into the stream to 

maintain the relatively high radon content.

Channel GE is choked .with cobbles and boulders of Weber quartzite 

and Almy (?) conglomerate at least 15 feet thick near the Park CityWoodside contact. Increased turbulence probably contributes to the 

low radon concentrations. It is also possible that any ground water 

that enters the channel does so at depth, and then emerges to mix 

with the stream water in the area of the Woodside shale, where the 

layer of cobbles and boulders is thinner or absent.

In the summer of 1954 a more detailed study was made of the 

anomaly associated with a small limestone ridge in the ; Thaynes 

formation in drainage DG (see inset on fig. 47). By sampling at 

very close intervals, the radon anomaly was pinpointed to within 50 

feet of its source. The source was traced to a small spring containing 

1,300 micromicrocuries of radon per liter issuing from a small limestone cavern under a small waterfall. This spring had not been 

noticed during the 1953 survey. A spring flowing about 50 gallons 

per minute from the bottom of the stream channel and containing 

550 micromicrocuries of radon per liter was found about 50 feet 

upstream from the radon anomaly in the Thaynes formation y2 mile
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 203

north of Pinecrest. The entire streamflow had been diverted for 

domestic purposes and the stream channel upstream from the spring 

was completely dry.

OBSERVATIONS IN THE MILL CHEEK AREA

Large increases in radon content were found in the stream waters 

near limestone beds in the Park City and Thaynes formations. These 

limestone beds apparently act as aquifers in a manner similar to that 

found in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest area. The spring at 

point A (fig. 48) also acts as a source of radon in the stream water.

A plot of radon content versus distance of streamflow between A 

and C is shown in figure 51. This plot also shows that the rate of 

radon loss is an exponential function with respect to distance of 

stream-flow. The slope of the curve between A and B is much flatter 

than those for drainages in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest 

area (note the difference in the distance scale), probably owing to the 

greater stream volume and lower gradient in the Mill Creek area. 

The exponential function has a flatter slope between A and B than 

near point O. This is probably due to the smaller stream volume 

near point 0. The slope of the function near point O is almost 

identical to those in the Red Butte Canyon and Pinecrest area.

As Mill Creek is a fairly wide stream, a series of samples were 

taken near point A at various positions in the stream to determine 

whether sampling position is a critical factor. The stream at this 

point is about 7 feet wide. The radon content, on the basis of this 

one experiment, varies only about 5 percent with respect to stream 

position. The results shown in figure 52 indicate that the maximum 

radon content is in the center of the stream, and is apparently constant 

with depth.

OBSERVATIONS IN THE CITY CHEEK AREA

The results of the radon survey in the City Creek area (fig. 49) 

are similar to those in the other two areas, although City Creek flows 

over an entirely different sequence of rocks than those exposed in the 

Red Butte and Mill Creek areas. Many small springs maintain a 

higher level of radon concentration along the fork GB than in fork 

DB.

RADIUM IN STREAMS AND SPRINGS

Several radium determinations of stream- and spring-water samples 

show that the radon is almost completely unsupported by its parent 

radium in solution. The radium content in each sample is of the 

order of 1 micromicrocurie per liter. As this small amount ap-
204 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

90O 

800 

700 

600 

500

400 

30O

ZOO

too

9O 

80 

fc 70

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ers refer to point locotions 

ribed in text and shown 

ure48

r^

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4 /

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II

/ i

/ 1

/ 1

1

1

1

1

de00

t

m

500O W.OOO 

Horizontal distance(infeet)of stream flow

51. Radon loss from part of Mill Creek.

proaches the limit of the sensitivity of the instrument, the radium 

content may be less. No uranium analyses of the samples were made.
RADON EST MOUNTAIN STREAMS

0 2 Feet

I________i________i 46 Radon content in micromtcrocuries per liler 

Horizontal and vertical scale

FIGURE 52. Cross section of Mill Creek showing radon distribution.

APPLICATION TO A SURFACE-WATER PROBLEM IN 

THE WEBER RIVER DRAINAGE AREA

Eadon determinations in stream waters and related springs were 

applied to a ground-water problem in a part of the lower Weber Kiver 

drainage area, near Ogden, Utah (pi. 8).

The Weber Kiver in this area flows due west through a steepwalled canyon in the northern Farmington Mountains. The Farmington Mountains, a division of the Wasatch Eange, are characterized 

by a well-exposed Precambrian metamorphic terrain. Ten thrust 

plates, represented by diaphthorite zones of retrograde metamorphism, are exposed near the Weber Kiver canyon (Bell, 1952).

Measurements by John Feth of the Geological Survey show that 

the flow of the Weber Kiver increases from 2.82 cubic feet per second 

at point A to 7.50 cubic feet per second at point Z>, a distance of li/2 

miles (pi. 8). The only visible additions to the streamflow, from 

springs at points E, F, and G, amounted to about 20 gallons per 

minute (about ^0 cubic foot per second). The stream gradient i& 

about 100 feet per mile.

The problem was to determine whether the increase hi stream 

volume was due to a continual influx of ground water along the 

stream course between A and D or whether it was mostly confined tothe limited area of visible seeps, at points E, F, and 6r. An attempt 

was also made to determine if the increase in stream volume was due 

to the influx of bedrock or bank storage ground water. It was impractical to gage the stream flow between A and D because of the 

abundance of large boulders in the stream channel.

The radon contents of stream waters and springs were determined 

in the Weber canyon area (pi. 8). Radon contents of the major 

springs in the Gateway Tunnel, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation Project^ 

were also determined. The radon determinations in the tunnel,.
206 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

which are underlined on the map, were collected from galvanized 

troughs or drips from the back, and are considered to have been lowered at least 50 percent, and possibly more, by loss of radon to the air.

No abnormal radioactivity was detected by a scintillation counter 

traverse through the tunnel except in a small area 1,000 feet from the 

east portal. A sample was collected by John Powers, U. S. Geological 

Survey, Salt Lake City, Utah, who made the scintillation-counter 

traverse. The sample, which was taken from a podlike mass of 

pegmatitic material, contained 0.003 percent equivalent uranium.

Quality-of-water measurements were made on 3 spring and 4 stream 

samples, at points A through 6r, by J. G. Connor, U. S. Geological 

Survey, Salt Lake City, Utah. These measurements were made 

partly to aid in ground- and surface-water studies in the Ogden, Utah, 

area, and partly to determine if any relation can be established between quality-of-water and radon measurements. The results of 

the quality tests are listed in the following table. There is no apparent direct relation between quality of water and radon content.

Data on quality of water, Weber River, Feb. 15,1954 

[Datagram J. G. Connor, Quality of Water Branch, U. S. Geological Survey, Salt Lake City, Utah]

Sample

location

Temp.

(°F.)

pH HCOj

(PPm)

SO4

(ppm)

Cl

(ppm)

Hardness

(CaCOsppm)

Noncarbonate

hardness

(ppm)

Specific

conductance (micromhos)Radon

content/1

Stream samples

A.. ........

B.............

C. ... ... ...

D..... ........

39

35

42

42

8.1

S 4

ao

8.2

280

977

OKfl

O1 fi

32

QO

QO

28

26

26

22

20

257

256

234

200

27

90

24

21

554

549

512

AAP,

15

5

156

78

Spring samples

E .. .....

F_. ...........

G... .... ...

N

47

46

45

7.6

7.8

7.7

243

248

228

19

32

28

1Q

18

19

220

222

210

21

19

23

482

487

465

532

516

756

A clear relation was found between the distribution of high radon 

concentrations in the Weber Biver and the radon-bearing springs at 

E, F, and G, The distribution pattern is similar to that found in the 

streams in the Wasatch Mountains near Salt Lake City, Utah. When 

radon is ploted against distance of streamflow (fig. 53), the loss of 

radon again is an exponential function of distance.

Because other high radon concentrations in the stream waters are 

related to springs, it is believed that ground water contributes a small 

amount to the streamflow below the railroad bridge in the S-shaped 

part of the stream, and a larger amount in a zone between D and K. 

The large addition of ground water in the zone between D and K is
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 207

9OO 

800 

700 

600

500 

400

300 

200

100 

90 

80

t 70 

 = 60

*»

A 

£ 4°

£ 30 "c 

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IR1

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ers refer to point locotions 

ribed in text and shown 

ate 8

-bn

deon 

OO IQ OOO

Horizontal distance(in feet)of stream flow 

FIGURE 58. Radon loss from part of Weber River.

supported further by the quality-of-water analyses as shown in the 

above table. The measurements of total hardness and specific conductance show that the solids content of the stream at point D is less 

than the solids content upstream at points J., B, and <7, and also les& 

than the solids content of the springs at #, F, and G. If it is assumed
208 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

that the stream is not precipitating part of its solid content, then an 

addition of better quality water occurs between G and D.

The area of visible springs at E, F, and G, as well as at D and /T, 

which are the other areas of large gound-water influx, show a marked 

relation to the surface expression of thrust plates in the canyon. If 

hank storage is the controlling factor in the movement of ground water 

in this area, the entrance of ground water into the stream, and the 

resultant radon anomalies in the stream, would probably be in the 

areas where a large amount of alluvial material is present.

An attempt was made to use the radon measurements of stream and 

spring waters to calculate the increments of stream volume between 

points A and Z>, where intermediary stream gaging was impractical 

because of the many large boulders in the channel.

The following assumptions were made in the calculations:

1. The stream does not lose or gain in volume between the points 

of radon anomalies; that is, the streamflow at B is 2.82+0.04 cubic 

feet per second. Similarly, the streamflow at point K is assumed to 

be 2.82+0.4+1.2+0.75 cubic feet per second.

2. Eadon contents of the springs are representative of all ground 

water entering the stream at the particular point.

3. Complete mixing of radon occurs in the stream waters.

4. The rate of radon loss in the stream is constant. For instance, 

at a point just upstream from K^ the stream is assumed to contain 

about 20 micromicrocuries per liter, based on the exponential rate of 

radon dissipation between G and K (fig. 53).

5. In the area DK, the radon content of the ground water entering 

the stream is assumed to be 600 micromicrocuries per liter, based on 

the average radon content of known springs at E, F, and G.

The results of the calculations, which are believed to be reasonable 

estimates, are shown on plate 8 at points F, G, the zone between D and 

K, and the small radon anomaly in the S-shaped part of the stream. 

At point F, for instance, the amount of influx of ground water, containing approximately 500 micromicrocuries per liter, was determined 

to be 1.2 cubic feet per second, since it raised the radon concentration 

in the stream from 5 (at point B) to 156 (at point O) micromicrocuries 

per liter. The calculations thus account for about 65 percent of the 

streamflow increase between A and D.

In summary, the bulk of the ground water that enters and increases 

the flow of the Weber Eiver can be considered bedrock rather than 

bank storage ground water. The movement of ground water in the 

area is apparently controlled by the diaphthorite thrust plates. On 

the basis of radon concentrations in the stream waters and related 

springs, calculations were made which accounted for about 65 percent 

of the total increase in streamflow between points A and D.
RADON IN MOUNTAIN STREAMS 209 

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS

Radon concentrations in stream waters can be used to determine 

areas where relatively large amounts of radon-bearing water enter 

small turbulent streams. These areas of influent ground water are 

marked by abrupt increases in the radon content of the stream waters 

and can be determined acurately, provided short intervals of sample 

spacing are used. The high radon concentration in the stream water 

is then rapidly dissipated to the atmosphere as an expontential function, of various slopes, with respect to distance of streamflow. The 

rate of radon dissipation is dependent upon the radon distribution 

ratio, the rate and volume of streamflow, the gradient of the stream, 

and the nature of the stream channel.

In the Wasatch Mountains adjacent to Salt Lake City, Utah, the 

high radon concentration in stream waters can generally be related 

to definite stratigraphic horizons in several drainage areas. Thus, 

lithologic units which act as the primary aquifers can be determined.

The technique of locating areas of ground-water influx into streams 

by radon determinations was applied to a definite ground-and surfacewater problem in a part of the lower Weber River area. The problem was to determine the points of streamflow increase and whether 

this was due to the addition of bedrock or bank-storage ground 

water. Conventional methods, such as stream gaging, were not practical in this instance. The increase in stream flow was found primarily in three areas apparently associated with thrust faults. Calculations, based on radon concentrations in stream waters and adjoining springs, were made to determine the amount of ground water 

entering the Weber River at each zone of increase.

The radon content of both stream and spring waters was found to 

be almost completely out of equilibrium with its parent radium.

The results of the present investigation on the distribution of radon 

in streams and related springs should have applications to groundwater studies.

LITERATURE CITED

Arndt, R. H., and Kuroda, P. K., 1953, Radioactivity of rivers and lakes in

parts of Garland and Hot Spring Counties, Arkansas: Econ. Geology, v.

48 no. 7, p. 551-567. 

Bell, G. L/., 1952, Geology of the central Wasatch Mountains, Utah: Utah Geol.

Soc. Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field Conf., p. 38-51. 

Boyle, R. W., 1911, The solubility of radium emanation: Philos, Mag., v. 22,

p. 840-854. 

Clark, R. W., and Botset, H. G., 1932, Correlation between radon and heavy

mineral content of soils: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 16,

p. 1349-56.
210 EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL GEOPHYSICS

Faul, Henry, and others, 1954, Radon and helium in natural gas: Internal 

Geol. Gong., 19th, Algiers 1952, Comptes rendus, sec. 9, fasc. 9, p. 339-348.

Granger, A. B., 1953, Stratigraphy of the Wasatch range near Salt Lake City, 

Utah: U. S. Geol. Survey Circ. 296.

Granger, A. B., and Sharp, B. J., 1952, Geology of the central Wasatch Mountains, Utah: Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook, 8th Ann. Field Conf., p. 1-37.

Hevesy, G., and Paneth, F., 1926, A manual of radioactivity: London, Oxford 

Univ. Press, 252 p.

Jennings, W. A., and Russ, S., 1948, Radon: its technique and use: London, 

Middlesex Hosp. Press, 220 p.

Kofler, M., 1913, Loslichkeit der Ra-Emanation in WasserigensalzlQsungen: 

Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-naturwiss, KL, Sitzungsber, Abt. Ha, Band 122, 

p. 1473-1479.

Kovach, B. M., 1944, An experimental study of the radon-content of soil-gas: 

Am. Geophys. Union Trans. v. 25, p. 563-571.

 1945, Meteorological Influences upon the radon content of soil-gas: Am. 

Geophys. Union Trans., v. 26, no. 2, p. 241-248.

 1946, Diurnal variations of the radon-content of soil-gas: Terrestrial, 

Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, March 1946, p. 45-56.

Kuroda, P. K., Damon, P. B., and Hyde, H. I., 1954, Radioactivity of the spring 

water of Hot Springs National Park vicinity in Arkansas: Am. Jour, 

ScL, v. 252, no. 2, p. 76-86.

Miholic, S., 1952, Radioactivity of waters issuing from sedimentary rocks; 

Econ. Geology, v. 47, no. 5, p. 543-547.

Norinder, H., Metnieks, A., and Siksna, R., 1953, Radon content of the air in 

the soil at Uppsala: Arkiv Geofysik, Band II, Hafte 5-6, p. 571-579.

Pierce, A. P., Mytton, J. W., and Gott G. B., 1956, Radioactive elements and 

their daughter products in the Texas Panhandle and other oil and gas 

field in the United States, in Page, L. R., Stocking, H. E., and Smith, 

H. B., Contributions to the geology of uranium and thorium by the United 

States Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the United 

Nations International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, 

Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 527-532.

Schlundt, H., and Moore, R. B., 1909, Radioactivity of the thermal waters of 

Yellowstone National Park: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 395.

Wahl, A. C. and Bonner, A. N. (editors), 1951, Radioactivity applied to chemistry : p. 157, Wiley & Sons, Inc.
INDEX

Page

Abstract__________________ 187 

Acknowledgments _ _ __ 190 

Almy conglomerate__ ___ 196, 202 

Ankareh shale_____ __ _ 196, 202 

Anomalous radon concentrations_ 200-203

City Creek area, radon survey in___ 203

rocks _ _ _ __ 196

Conclusions 209

Connor, J. G., analyses by 206

Distribution of radon in stream waters, pattern__ 199-200 

Drainage 196-198

Farmington Mountains _______ 205 

Field procedures __ __ 194

Instruments for measurement of

radon __ ______ 190-193 

Introduction______ ______ 187-190

Kelvin formation. 196

Literature cited __ _____ 209-210

Losses of radon 192-193,

199-200, 207,208

Measurements of radon, instruments

for ___________ 190-193

loss of radon in_ __ 192-193

methods __ _ 190-193

time factor. 192

units _ 191

Methods of study 190-194

MiH Creek area, radon content in

waters- _ 203 

rocks __ __ __ 196

Page

Park City formation_____ 196, 202, 203 

Physical properties of radon____ 187-188 

Pinecrest area, radon content in

waters _______ 198-203

sedimentary rocks in 196

Previous investigations-__ _ 188-190

Purpose of the report- 190

Quality-of-water measurements___, 206

Radium in surface water- 203-204

Radon, losses 192-193, 199-200, 207, 208

measurements of _ _ 190-193

physical properties _ 187-188

solubility ______________ 188

solubility coefficient 188

Red Bntte Canyon, radon content

in water ___ 198-203 

sedimentary rocks in 196

Sampling techniques 193-194 

Scope of the investigation 190 

Sedimentary rocks, age__ 194-196 

Springs_____ 200, 208 

Suicide grit. See Ankareh shale. 

Surface waters, radon distribution

in____________ 194-205

Thanes formation ____ 196, 200-203

Wasatch Mountains, radon distribution in streams___ 194-205

Weber quartzite 196, 202

Weber River, quality of water 206 

radon content in waters 205-208 

streamflow 205-208

Woodside shale. 196,202

211

S. GOVERNMENT PRPNTIN6 OFFICE: 1958