HANDBOOK FOR

PUB

SAFETY

LIC PLAYGROUND

U.S. Consumer Product

Safety Commission

Washington, DC 20207 Pub. No. 325
CONTENTS

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Playground Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Layout and Design of Playgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Installation & Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Materials of Manufacture & Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

General Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Access and Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Major Types of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

9.1

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Climbing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Merry-Go-Rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Seesaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Spring Rocking Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Trampolines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Use Zones for Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

APPENDICES

Appendix A – Suggested General Maintenance Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Appendix B - Entrapment Requirements and Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Appendix C – Characteristics of Surfacing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendix D - Description of Loose-Fill Surfacing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

1. INTRODUCTION

his handbook presents playground equipment

safety information in the form of guidelines.

Because many factors may affect playground

safety, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

(CPSC) believes that guidelines, rather than a mandatory

rule, are appropriate. The safety guidelines for equipment

are based on recommendations provided to the CPSC by

COMSIS Corporation in a March 1990, report [1] .

The handbook is intended for use by parks and recreation

personnel, school officials, equipment purchasers and

installers, and any other members of the general public

concerned with public playground safety such as parents

and school groups. A voluntary standard for public playground equipment, ASTM F1487 was published in 1993

[2] . It contains more technical requirements than this handbook and is primarily intended as a guide to equipment

manufacturers.

“Public” playground equipment refers to equipment

intended for use in the play areas of parks, schools, child

care facilities, institutions, multiple family dwellings,

restaurants, resorts and recreational developments, and

other areas of public use. The guidelines are not intended

to apply to amusement park equipment, equipment

normally intended for sports use, or to home playground

equipment. Equipment components intended solely for

use by the handicapped and necessarily modified to

accommodate such users safely are also not covered by

these guidelines.

The safety of each individual piece of playground equipment as well as the layout of the entire play area should

be considered when evaluating a playground for safety.

The installation of protective surfacing under and around

all equipment is crucial.

Because all playgrounds present some challenge and

because children can be expected to use equipment in

unintended and unanticipated ways, adult supervision is

recommended. However, it is recognized that this may

not be possible for some playgrounds. Equipment design,

layout, and maintenance, as discussed in this handbook,

are essential for increasing public playground safety.

A playground should allow children to develop progressively and test their skills by providing a series of graduated challenges. The challenges presented should be

appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones

that children can perceive and choose to undertake.

* - Numbers in brackets indicate references that

are listed at the end of this handbook.

Preschool and school-age children differ dramatically not

only in physical size and ability, but also in their cognitive

and social skills. Therefore, age-appropriate playground

designs should accommodate these differences with

regard to the type, scale, and the layout of equipment.

Recommendations throughout this handbook address the

different needs of preschool and school-age children;

“preschool” refers to children 2 to 5 years old, and

“school-age” refers to children 5 to 12 years old.

These guidelines are not a CPSC standard and are not

mandatory requirements. Therefore, the Commission is

not endorsing them as the sole method to minimize

injuries associated with playground equipment. The

Commission believes, however, that the safety features in

many of the recommendations in this handbook will

contribute to greater equipment safety. Publication of the

handbook is expected to promote greater safety awareness among those who purchase, install, and maintain

public playground equipment.

2. PLAYGROUND INJURIES

 he Consumer Product Safety Commission has 

 long recognized the potential hazards that exist

 with the use of public playground equipment. A

Commission study [2] of playground equipment-related

injuries treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms indicated that the majority resulted from falls from equipment.

These were primarily falls to the ground surface below the

equipment rather than falls from one part of the equipment to another part.

Other hazard patterns involved impact by swings and

other moving equipment, colliding with stationary equipment, and contact with such hazards as protrusions, pinch

points, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and playground debris.

Fatal injuries reported to the Commission involved falls,

entanglement of clothing or other items on equipment

such as slides, entanglement in ropes tied to or caught on

equipment, head entrapment in openings, impact from

equipment tipover or structural failure, and impact by

moving swings.

The recommendations in this handbook have been

developed to address the hazards that resulted in these

playground-related injuries and deaths. The recommendations include those which address the potential for falls

from and impact with equipment, the need for protective

surfacing under and around equipment, openings with the

potential for head entrapment, the scale of equipment and

other design features related to user age, layout of equipment on a playground, installation and maintenance

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

procedures, and general hazards presented by protrusions, sharp edges, and pinch points.

3. DEFINITIONS

activity

ladder)

omposite Structure - Two or more play

structures, attached or directly adjacent, to create

one integral unit that provides more than one play

(e.g. combination climber, slide, and horizontal

Entrapment - Any condition that impedes withdrawal of

a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.

Fall Zone - The surface under and around a piece of

equipment onto which a child falling from or exiting from

the equipment would be expected to land.

Footing - A means for anchoring playground equipment

to the ground.

Guardrail - An enclosing device around an elevated

platform that is intended to prevent inadvertent falls from

the platform.

Infill - Material(s) used in a protective barrier to prevent a

user from passing through the barrier.

Non-Rigid Component - A component of playground

equipment that significantly deforms or deflects during the

normal use of the equipment.

Preschool Age Children - Children from 2 years of age

to not more than 5 years of age.

Protective Barrier - An enclosing device around an

elevated platform that is intended to prevent both inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through the

barrier.

Protective surfacing - Surfacing material in the fall

zone that conforms to the recommendations in Section

10.2 of this handbook.

Roller Slide - A slide that has a bed consisting of a series

of individual rollers over which the user travels.

School-Age Children - Children over 5 years of age but

not over 12 years of age.

Tube Slide - A slide in which the sliding section consists

of a totally enclosed tube or tunnel.

Upper Body Equipment - A device designed to support

a child by the hands only (e.g. horizontal ladder, overhead

swinging rings).

4. LAYOUT AND DESIGN OF

PLAYGROUNDS

4.1 Choosing a Site

 hen planning a new playground, it is important

 to consider hazards or obstacles to children

 traveling to or from the playground. A barrier,

surrounding the playground, is recommended to prevent

children from inadvertently running into a street. Such a

barrier should not preclude supervision.

4.2 Locating Equipment

The playground should be organized into different areas

to prevent injuries caused by conflicting activities and

children running between activities. Active, physical

activities should be separate from more passive or quiet

activities: areas for play equipment, open fields, and sand

boxes should be located in different sections of the

playground.

In addition, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or

activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any one

area. The layout of equipment and activity areas should

be without visual barriers so that there are clear sight lines

everywhere on the playground to facilitate supervision

Moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds

should be located toward a comer or edge of the play

area. Slide exits should also be located in an uncontested area of the playground.

Composite equipment has become increasingly popular

on public playgrounds. Care should be taken to ensure

that the play and traffic patterns of children using adjacent

components of composite equipment are complementary.

4.3 Age Separation of Equipment

It is recommended that playgrounds have separate areas

for younger children with appropriately sized equipment

and materials to seine their less advanced developmental

levels. It is also important to recognize that preschoolers

require more attentive supervision on playgrounds.

Throughout this handbook, consideration is given to

specific recommendations for equipment designed for

preschool-age children (2 to 5 years).

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

The design and scale of equipment should make the

intended user group obvious. Some playgrounds, often

referred to as “tot lots, ” are designed only for younger

children, so separation is not an issue.

In playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages the

layout of pathways and the landscaping of the playground

should show the two distinct areas for the two age groups.

The areas should be separated at least by a buffer zone of

ample physical space. Signs posted in the playground

area can be used to give some guidance to adults as to the

age appropriateness of the equipment.

5. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE

OF EQUIPMENT

5.1 Assembly and Installation

 roper assembly and installation of playground

 equipment are crucial for structural integrity,

stability, and overall safety. The people who

assemble and install playground equipment should not

deviate from the manufacturer’s instructions. After

assembly, equipment should be thoroughly inspected

before its first use.

As a precaution, the manufacturer’s assembly and installation instructions, and all other materials collected concerning the equipment should be kept in a permanent file.

5.1.1 Stability

When properly installed as directed by the manufacturer’s

instructions and specifications, equipment should withstand the maximum anticipated forces generated by active

use which might cause it to overturn, tip, slide, or move in

any way. Secure anchoring is a key factor to stable

installation, and because the required footing sizes and

depths may vary according to equipment type, the

anchoring process should be completed in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.

5.2 Maintenance

Inadequate maintenance of equipment can lead to injuries

on the playground. Because the safety of playground

equipment and its suitability for use depend on good

inspection and maintenance, the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions and recommended inspection schedules

should be strictly followed.

A comprehensive maintenance program should be

developed for each playground as a whole. Generally, all

equipment should be inspected frequently for any potential hazards, for corrosion or deterioration from rot,

insects, or weathering. The playground area should also

be checked frequently for broken glass or other dangerous

debris.

For each piece of equipment, the frequency of thorough

inspections will depend on the type of equipment, the

amount of use, and the local climate. Based on the

manufacturer’s recommendations regarding maintenance

schedules for each piece of equipment, a maintenance

schedule for the entire playground can be created. The

detailed inspections should give special attention to

moving parts and other components which can be

expected to wear. Inspections should be carried out in a

systematic manner by trained personnel.

One possible procedure is the use of checklists. Some

manufacturers supply checklists for general or detailed

inspections, with their maintenance instructions. These

can be used to ensure that inspections are in compliance

with the manufacturer’s specifications. Inspections alone

do not constitute a comprehensive maintenance program.

All hazards or defects identified during inspections should

be repaired promptly. All repairs and replacements of

equipment parts should be completed in accordance with

the manufacturer’s instructions. A general checklist that

may be used as a guide for frequent routine inspections of

public playgrounds is included at Appendix A.

In addition to this general maintenance inspection, more

detailed inspections should be conducted on a regular

basis. The procedures and schedules for these detailed

inspections will depend on the types and amount of

equipment on the playground, the level of use, and the

local climate, as well as the maintenance instructions

provided by equipment manufacturers. Therefore, this

checklist is only one of many elements which should be

considered in the development of a comprehensive

inspection schedule and system of maintenance. Any

damage or hazards detected during inspections should be

repaired immediately, in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions for repair and replacement of parts.

The checklist at Appendix A is intended to address only

general maintenance concerns. It does not provide a

complete safety evaluation of equipment design and

layout. For example, it does not address the risk of falls

from equipment, moving impact incidents, or head

entrapment. Therefore, it is essential to use this checklist

only for general maintenance purposes. The detailed

design recommendations contained in the Handbook

should be used to evaluate the safety of each piece of

equipment and the playground as a whole.

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Complete documentation of all maintenance inspections

and repairs should be retained, including the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions and any checklists used.

A record of any accidents and injuries reported to have

occurred on the playground should also be collected. This

will help identify potential hazards or dangerous design

features which warrant attention.

6. MATERIALS OF MANUFACTURE AND

CONSTRUCTION

6.1 Durability and finish

urchasers should be sure that the equipment is manufactured and constructed only of materials which have

a demonstrated record of durability in the playground

or similar outdoor setting. Any new materials shall be documented or tested accordingly for durability by the playground equipment manufacturer.

A major concern for playground equipment materials is

corrosion or deterioration. Ferrous metals should be

painted, galvanized, or otherwise treated to prevent rust.

All paints and other similar finishes must meet the current

CPSC regulation for lead in paint [3] (0.06% maximum

lead by dry weight). Regardless of the material or treatment process, the manufacturer should ensure that the

users of playground equipment cannot ingest, inhale, or

absorb potentially hazardous amounts of substances as a

result of contact with equipment. Purchasers and installers of playground equipment should obtain documentation

from the manufacturer that the preservatives or other

treatments applied to the equipment would not present a

hazard to the consumer.

Wood should either be naturally rot and insect-resistant or

treated to avoid such deterioration. The most common

wood treatments used in playground equipment are the

inorganic arsenical. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)

is acceptable for use as a treatment of playground equipment wood, if the dislodgeable arsenic on the surface of

the wood is minimized. Inorganic arsenical should be

applied by the manufacturer or wood preserver in accordance with the specifications of the American Wood

Preservers Association C17 standard. This standard

states that the treated wood should be visibly free of

residues which may contain high levels of arsenic (the

greenish coloration of CCA treated wood is acceptable).

Wood preservers and playground equipment manufacturers should practice technologies and procedures that

minimize the level of dislodgeable arsenic (arsenic that

might be removable from the wood surface by skin

contact or wiping with testing materials). CPSC staff has

found that technology exists to treat playground equipment wood with CCA so that dislodgeable arsenic is

below detectable levels using a protocol designed to detect

dislodgeable arsenic [4] .

Installers, builders, and consumers who perform woodworking operations, such as sanding, sawing, sawdust

disposal, on pressure treated wood should read the

consumer information sheet often available at the point of

sale [5] . The sheet contains important health precautions

and disposal information.

Creosote, pentachlorophenol, and tributyl tin oxide are

too toxic or irritating and should not be used as preservatives for playground equipment wood. Pesticide-containing finishes should also not be used. Other preservatives

that have low toxicity and may be suitable for playground

equipment wood are copper or zinc naphthenates, and

berates.

6.2 Hardware

When installed and tightened in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions, all fasteners, connecting, and

covering devices should not loosen or be removable

without the use of tools. Lock washers, self-locking nuts,

or other locking means should be provided for all nuts and

bolts to protect them from detachment. Hardware in

moving joints should also be secured against unintentional

or unauthorized loosening. In addition, all fasteners

should be corrosion resistant and be selected to minimize

the likelihood of corrosion to the materials they connect.

Bearings used in moving joints should be easy to lubricate

or be self-lubricating. All hooks, including S-hooks,

should be closed as tightly as possible (see also Section

9.2.1).

6.3 Metal Surfaces

To avoid the risk of contact burn injury in geographical

regions where intense sunlight can be expected, bare or

painted metal surfaces on platforms and slide beds should

be avoided unless they can be located out of the direct

rays of the sun. As an alternative to bare or painted

metal, platforms may be fabricated from wood or vinyl

coated metal and slide beds may be fabricated from plastic

(see also Slides, paragraph 9.1.4).

4
Handbook For Playground Safety

7. GENERAL HAZARDS

 here are a variety of general hazards common to

many types of playground equipment. The

 guidelines in this section apply to all elements of

the playground.

7.1 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

There should be no sharp points, corners, or edges on any

components of playground equipment which could cut or

puncture children’s skin. Frequent inspections are important

in order to prevent injuries caused by the exposure of sharp

points, corners, or edges due to wear and tear on the equipment. The exposed open ends of all tubing not resting on

the ground or otherwise covered shall be provided with caps

or plugs that cannot be removed without the use of tools.

Wood parts should be smooth and free from splinters. All

corners, metal and wood, should be rounded. All metal

edges should be rolled or have rounded capping. Special

attention to sharp edges on slides, especially metal edges,

is warranted. The exit end and the sides along a slide bed

can be particularly dangerous if protective measures are

not taken (see also Section 9.1.5).

7.2 Protrusions and Projections

Protrusions or projections on playground equipment

should not be capable of entangling children’s clothing,

because such entanglement can cause serious injuries or

death by strangulation. Particular attention should be

given to avoiding protrusions or projections at the top of

slides to minimize the risk of entanglement with clothing.

Jackets with hoods and/or drawstrings have been implicated in such entanglement/strangulation incidents.

When tested in accordance with the procedure in Paragraph 7.2.1, no protrusion should extend beyond the face

of any of the three gauges having dimensions shown in

Figure 1.

I I

1 I

I I

I I

I I

I I

I 1

I t

1 I

I !

I I

I I

1 1

1 1

I I

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

7.2.1 Protrusion Test Procedure

Successively place each gauge (see Figure 1) over any

protrusion or projection and determine if it projects

beyond the face of the gauge (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 Protrusion Test

7.3 Protrusions on Suspended Members of Swing

Assemblies

These form a special case because they can be extremely

hazardous, given the potential for impact incidents;

therefore, a special test gauge (see Figure 3) and procedure are recommended. No surface in the potential

impact region on suspended members should protrude

through the hole beyond the face of the specified gauge,

when tested in accordance with the following method.

Conduct the test with the suspended member in its rest

position. Place the gauge over any protrusion on the

front or rear surface of the suspended member such that

the axis of the hole in the gauge is parallel to both the

intended path of the suspended member and a horizontal

plane. Visually determine if the protrusion penetrates

through the hole and beyond the face of the gauge.

7.4 Pinch, Crush, and Shearing Points

There should be no accessible pinch, crush, or shearing

points on playground equipment that could injure children

or catch their clothing. Such points can be caused by

components moving relative to each other or to a fixed

component when the equipment moves through its

anticipated use cycle. To determine if there is a possible

pinch, crush or shear point, consider the likelihood of

entrapping a body part and the configuration and closing

force of the components. Additional information on

pinch, crush, and shear points is provided in the recommendations addressing specific pieces of equipment in

Section 9.

2 Inches

Maximum

Note: gauge made of any

rigid material

1/8 Inch

Maximum

Figure 3 Protrusion Test Gauge for Suspended

Swing Assemblies

7.5 Entrapment

7.5.1 Head entrapment

A component or a group of components should not form

openings that could trap a child’s head. A child’s head

may become entrapped if the child attempts to enter an

opening either feet first or head first. Head entrapment

by head-first entry generally occurs when children place

their heads through an opening in one orientation, then,

after turning their heads to a different orientation, they

are unable to withdraw from the opening. Head entrapment by feet-first entry involves children who are generally

sitting or lying down and slide their feet into an opening

that is large enough to permit passage of their bodies but

is not large enough to permit passage of their heads

which then become entrapped.

6
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

In general, an opening may present an entrapment hazard

if the distance between any interior opposing surfaces is

greater than 3.5 inches and less than 9 inches. When

one dimension of an opening is within this potentially

hazardous range, all dimensions of the opening must be

considered together to fully evaluate the possibility of

entrapment. This recommendation applies to all completely-bounded openings (see Figure B-1 in Appendix B)

except where the ground serves as an opening’s lower

boundary. Further, it applies to all openings regardless

of their height above the ground. Even those openings

that are low enough to permit children to touch the

ground with their feet can present a risk of strangulation

for an entrapped child, because younger children may not

have the necessary cognitive ability and motor skills to

extricate their heads, especially if scared

or panicked.

The most appropriate way to determine whether an

opening is hazardous is to use test fixtures. Recommended test fixtures, performance requirements, and test

methods, are described in Appendix B. These recommendations apply to all playground equipment, both for

preschool-age and school-age children. Fixed equipment

as well as moving equipment (in its stationary position)

should be tested for entrapment hazards. There are two

special cases for which separate procedures are given:

completely bounded openings where depth of penetration

is a critical issue, and openings formed by non-rigid

climbing components.

7.5.2 Angles

The angle of any vertex formed by adjacent components

should not be less than 55 degrees, unless the lower leg is

horizontal or projects downwards (see Figure 4). An

exception to this recommendation can be made if a rigid

shield is attached to the vertex between adjacent components and the shield is of sufficient size to prevent a 9

inch diameter circular template from simultaneously

touching components on either side of the vertex (see

Figure 5).

7.6 Tripping Hazards

All anchoring devices for playground equipment, such as

concrete footings or horizontal bars at the bottom of

flexible climbers, should be installed below the playing

surface to eliminate the hazard of tripping. This will also

prevent children who may fall from sustaining additional

injuries due to exposed footings. In addition, attention

should be given to environmental obstacles in the play

area, including rocks, roots, and other protrusions from

the ground that may cause children to trip.

Retaining walls are commonly used to help contain loose

surfacing materials. In order to minimize the trip hazard,

retaining walls should be highly visible and any change of

elevation should be obvious. The use of bright colors can

contribute to better visibility.

7.7 Suspended Hazards

Cables, wires, ropes, or similar flexible components

suspended between play units or from the ground to a

play unit within 45 degrees of horizontal should not be

located in areas of high traffic because they may cause

Less Than 55” (see Appendix B)

\

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

injuries to a running child. It is recommended that these

suspended members be either brightly colored or contrast

with surrounding equipment to add to their visibility. This

recommendation does not apply to suspended members

that are located 7 feet or more above the playground

surface.

8. ACCESS AND PLATFORMS

8.1 General

ccess to playground equipment can take many

 forms, such as conventional ramps, stairways

 with steps, and ladders with steps or rungs.

Access may also be by means of climbing components,

such as climbing nets, arch climbers, and tire climbers (see

Figure 6). Such climbing components are typically

designed to be more challenging than stairways and

stepladders, and so require better balance and coordination of the children. Rung ladders are generally considered to present a level of challenge intermediate between

stairways or stepladders and climbing components.

Rung ladders and climbing components such as climbing

nets, arch climbers, and tire climbers, should not be used

as the sole means of access to equipment intended for

preschoolers.

Platforms over 6 feet in height (with the exception of freestanding slides) should provide an intermediate standing

surface where a decision can be made to halt the ascent

and to pursue an alternative means of descent.

8.2 Stairways and Ladders

Stairways, stepladders, and rung ladders are distinguished

by the range of slopes permitted for each of these types

of access. However, in all cases the steps or rungs should

be evenly spaced, including the spacing between the top

step or rung and the surface of the platform. Table 1

contains recommended dimensions for: access slope,

tread or rung width, tread depth, rung diameter, and

vertical rise for rung ladders, stepladders, and stairways.

Table 1 also contains slope and width recommendations

for ramps. However, these recommendations are not

intended to address ramps designed for access by wheelchairs.

Openings between adjacent steps or rungs and between

the top step or rung and underside of a platform should

preclude the possibility of entrapment. Risers on stairways and stepladders should be closed if the distance

between opposing interior surfaces of consecutive steps is

between 3.5 and 9 inches (see Section 7.5). Since the

design of rung ladders does not permit risers to be closed,

the space between consecutive rungs should not be

between 3.5 and 9 inches.

Arch Climber

Figure 6 Examples of More Challenging Modes of Access

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

When risers are closed, treads of stairways and ladders

should prevent the accumulation of sand, water, or other

materials on or between steps.

8.2.1 Rungs and Other Handgripping

Components

Whereas the steps of stairways and stepladders are used

only for foot support, the rungs of rung ladders are used

for both foot support and for hand support by a climbing

child since rung ladders generally do not have handrails.

Rungs are generally round in cross section and should

have a diameter or maximum cross sectional dimension

between 1 and 1.67 inches. Other components intended

to be grasped by the hands such as the bars of climbers

should also have a diameter or maximum cross sectional

dimension between 1 and 1.67 inches.

Rungs or other handgripping components that are

intended to be grasped in a manner such that users will

support their entire body weight by their hands should be

generally round in cross section with a diameter between

1 and 1.55 inches. To benefit the weakest child in each

age group, a diameter of 1.25 inches is preferred.

8.3 Handrails

Handrails on stairways and stepladders are typically

intended to provide hand support and to steady the user.

Continuous handrails extending over the full length of the

access should be provided on both sides of all stairways

and stepladders, regardless of the height of the access.

Rung ladders do not require handrails since rungs or side

supports provide hand support on these more steeply

inclined accesses.

 *Not recommended for preschoolers

**Entrapment provisions apply

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8.3.1 Handrail Height

Handrails should be available for use at the appropriate

height, beginning with the first step. The vertical distance

between the top front edge of a step (tread nosing) and

the top surface of the handrail above it should be no less

than 22 and no more than 38 inches.

8.3.2 Handrail Diameter

The diameter or maximum cross-sectional dimension of

handrails should be between 1 and 1.67 inches.

8.4 Transition from Access to Platform

On any transition from an access mode to a platform,

handrails or handholds should be adequate to provide

support until the child has fully achieved the desired

posture on the platform. Any opening between a handrail

and an adjacent vertical structure (e.g., vertical support

post for a platform or vertical slat of a protective barrier)

should not pose an entrapment hazard (see Section 7.5).

On accesses that do not typically have side handrails, such

as rung ladders, flexible climbers, arch climbers, and tire

climbers, special attention should be given to providing

hand support to facilitate the transition between the top of

the access and the platform. Options include vertical

handrails and loop handgrips which may extend over the

top of the access.

8.5 Platforms

8.5.1 Design Considerations

Platforms should be within ±2° of a horizontal plane and

openings should be provided to allow for drainage.

8.5.2 Guardrails and Protective Barriers

Either guardrails or protective barriers may be used to

prevent inadvertent or unintentional falls off elevated

platforms. Protective barriers, however, provide a greater

degree of protection in that they should be designed to

prevent intentional attempts by children seeking to defeat

the barrier either by climbing over or through the barrier.

For example, guardrails may have horizontal rails with

openings that are greater than 9 inches. Such openings

would not present an entrapment hazard but would not

prevent a child from deliberately attempting to climb over

or through the openings. On the other hand, a protective

barrier should be designed to preclude passage of a child

during both inadvertent and intentional attempts to defeat

the barrier. Therefore, any openings between uprights or

between the platform surface and lower edge of a protective barrier should preclude passage of small torso template (see Appendix B).

8.5.3 Minimum Elevation Requiring Guardrails

and Protective Barriers

Guardrails or protective barriers should be provided on

platforms, walkways, landings, and transitional surfaces in

accordance with the following minimum elevation recommendations.

Pre-School Age Children: Since younger children

have poorer coordination and balance and are more

vulnerable to injury than school-age children, guardrails or

protective barriers are warranted at lower elevations. An

elevated surface that is more than 20 inches above the

underlying surface should have a guardrail or protective

barrier to prevent falls. Guardrails are acceptable for

platforms greater than 20 inches and less than or equal to

30 inches high, but a full protective barrier maybe

preferable for this age group since it affords a g-eater

degree of protection from falls. Protective barriers should

always be used for platforms that exceed 30 inches in

height.

School-Age Children: An elevated surface that is more

than 30 inches above the underlying surface should have

a guardrail or protective barrier to prevent falls. For

platforms greater than 30 inches and less than or equal to

48 inches high, guardrails are acceptable although a full

protective barrier always provides greater protection.

Platforms that exceed 48 inches in height should always

have a protective barrier.

An elevated surface is exempt from these recommendations if a guardrail or protective barrier would interfere

with the intended use of the equipment; this includes most

climbing equipment, and platforms that are layered so

that fall height does not exceed 20 inches on equipment

intended for preschool-age children or 30 inches on

equipment intended for school-age children.

8.5.4 Minimum Height of Guardrails

The minimum height should prevent the largest child from

inadvertently falling over the guardrail. In addition, the

guardrail should extend low enough to prevent the

smallest child from inadvertently stepping under it (see

Figure 7). Infill maybe used between the top and intermediate rails to minimize the likelihood of climbing.

When solid panels are used as infill, it is recommended

that there be some transparent areas to facilitate supervision and to permit viewing from the platform. To prevent

head entrapment, guardrails should conform to the

entrapment requirements in Section 7.5.

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Pre-School Age Children: the top surface of guardrails

should be at least 29 inches high and the lower edge

\ /

should be no more than 23 inches above the platform.

A = 38” minimum for older children

or

29” minimum for younger children

B = 26” maximum for older children

or

23” maximum for younger children

Note: Guardrails should be designed to

prevent inadvertent or unintentional

falls off the platform, to discourage

climbing on the barrier, to preclude

the possibility of entrapment, and to

facilitate supervision. Refer to text

for detailed recommendations

regarding infill.

Figure 7 Guardrails on Elevated Surfaces

School Age Children: the top surface of guardrails

should be at least 38 inches high and the lower edge

should be no more than 26 inches above the platform.

8.5.5 Minimum Height of Protective Barriers

The minimum height should prevent the largest child from

inadvertently falling over the protective barrier. In

addition, because the protective barrier should not permit

children to climb through or under it, openings in the

barrier should preclude passage of the small torso template (see Appendix B).

Pre-School Age Children: the top surface of protective barriers should be at least 29 inches high. Vertical

infill for protective barriers may be preferable for younger

children because the vertical components can be grasped

at whatever height a child chooses as a handhold.

School Age Children: the top surface of protective

barriers should be at least 38 inches high.

8.5.6 Other Design Considerations for Guardrails

and Protective Barriers

Both guardrails and protective barriers should be designed

to prevent inadvertent or unintentional falls off the

platform, preclude the possibility of entrapment, and

facilitate supervision. Horizontal cross-pieces should not

be used as infill for the space below the top rail because

they provide footholds for climbing.

8.6 Stepped Platforms

On some composite structures, platforms are layered or

tiered, so that falls from a higher platform can be terminated by a lower platform rather than by the ground

surface.

Unless there is an alternate means of access/egress, the

maximum difference in height between stepped platforms

should be:

Pre-School Age Children: 12 inches.

School-Age Children: 18 inches.

The space between the stepped platforms should follow

the recommendations for entrapment in enclosed openings in Section 7.5. If the space exceeds 9 inches and the

height of the lower platform exceeds 30 inches for preschool equipment or 48 inches for school-age equipment,

infill should be used to reduce the space to less than 3.5

inches.

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

9. MAJOR TYPES OF PLAYGROUND

EQUIPMENT

9.1 Slides

9.1.1 General

lthough children under 6 years of age maybe

more likely to play on slides, older children will

still use slides depending on their availability

relative to other types of equipment. Children can be

expected to descend slide chutes in many different

positions, rather than always sitting and facing forward as

they slide. They will slide down facing backward, on their

knees, lying on their backs, and will walk both up and

down the chute. Younger children in particular often slide

down on their stomachs, either head or feet first.

Slides may provide a straight, wavy, or spiral descent

either by means of a tube or an open slide bed. They

may be either free standing (see Figure 8), part of a

composite structure, or built on the grade of a natural or

man-made slope (embankment slide). The recommendations in this section do not apply to water slides or

swimming pool slides.

Access

ladder or

stairway

Figure 8 Typical Free-Standing Straight Slide

9.1.2 Slide Access

With the exception of embankment slides, access to a

slide may be by means of a ladder with rungs or steps, a

stairway with steps, or the slide may be a component of a

composite play structure to which access is provided by

other means. Whatever means of access is provided to a

slide, it should conform to the guidelines specified in the

general discussion of access to all playground equipment

(see Section 8).

9.1.3 Slide Platform

All slides should be provided with a platform with sufficient length to facilitate the transition from standing to

sitting at the top of the inclined sliding surface. The

length of the platform will usually not be an issue when

the slide is attached to the deck of a composite structure,

because decks are typically at least 3 feet square. However, in the case of a free-standing slide, it is recommended that the platform have a minimum length of at

least 22 inches.

The platform should be horizontal and have a width at

least equal to the width of the slide.

Guardrails or protective barriers should surround a slide

platform and should conform to the guidelines specified in

the general discussion of platforms (see Section 8.5).

Slides should not have any spaces or gaps between the

platform and the start of the sliding surface.

With the exception of tube slides, handholds should be

provided at the entrance to all slides to facilitate the

transition from standing to sitting and decrease the risk of

falls. These should extend high enough to provide hand

support for the largest child in a standing position, and

low enough to provide hand support for the smallest child

in a sitting position.

At the entrance to the chute there should be a means to

channel a user into a sitting position. This may be a

guardrail, a hood, or other device. Whatever means is

provided, it should be of a design that does not encourage

climbing.

9.1.4 Sliding Section of Straight Slides

It is recommended that the average incline of the sliding

surface should not exceed 30° and any change in the

slope of the slide chute (wave slide) should not allow a

child to lose contact with the sliding surface

Straight slides with flat open chutes should have sides with

a 4 inch minimum height extending along both sides of

the chute for the entire length of the inclined sliding

surface.

The sides should be an integral part of the chute, without

any gaps between the sides and the sliding surface.

Slides may have an open chute with a circular cross

section providing that the height of the sides, measured

from the lowest point on the chute is no less than half the

width of the slide.

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Handbook for Pubhc Playground Safety

Metal slides should either be in shaded areas or face north

to prevent burns and glare problems caused by direct sun

on the slide chute.

9.1.5 Exit Region

All slides should have an exit region to help children

maintain their balance and facilitate a smooth transition

from sitting to standing when exiting.

The exit region should be essentially horizontal and

parallel to the ground and have a minimum length of 11

inches.

For slides that are no more than 4 feet in height, the

height of the exit region should be no more than 11

inches from the protective surface.

For slides that are over four feet in height the exit region

should be at least 7 inches but not more than 15 inches

above the protective surface.

Slide exit edges should be rounded or curved, to prevent

lacerations or other injuries which could result from

impact with a sharp or straight edge.

All slide exits should be located in uncontested areas of

the playground.

9.1.6 Embankment Slides

The design of embankment slides basically eliminates the

hazard of falls from height. Embankment slides should

follow all of the recommendations given for straight slides

(where applicable). It is important that some means be

provided at the slide chute entrance to minimize the

likelihood that they will be used by children riding skateboards or bicycles.

9.1.7 Spiral Slides

It is recommended that spiral slides follow the recommendations for straight slides (where applicable), with special

attention given to design features which may present

problems unique to spiral slides, such as lateral discharge

of the user.

Preschool-Age Children: Because younger children

have less ability to maintain balance and postural control,

only short spiral slides are recommended for the age

group.

9.1.8 Tube Slides

Tube slides should meet all the applicable requirements

for other slides.

Barriers should be provided or surfaces treated to prevent

sliding on the top of the tube.

The minimum internal diameter of the tube should be no

less than 23 inches.

It should be noted that children using tube slides are not

visible to a supervisor. Consideration should be given to

extra supervision on playgrounds having tube slides.

9.1.9 Roller Slides

These are not recommended for public playgrounds

unless frequent maintenance can be guaranteed.

9.2 Swings

9.2.1 General

Children of all ages generally enjoy the sensations created

while swinging. Most often, they sit on the swings, and it

is common to see children jumping off swings. Younger

children tend to also swing on their stomachs, and older

children may stand on the seats.

Swings may be divided into two distinct types, single axis

of motion and multiple axes of motion. A single axis

swing is intended to swing back-and-forth in a single plane

and generally consists of a seat supported by at least two

suspending members each of which is connected to a

separate pivot on an overhead structure. A multiple-axis

swing consists of a seat (generally a tire) suspended from a

single pivot that permits it to swing in any direction.

Hardware used to secure the suspending elements to the

swing seat and to the supporting structure should not be

removable without the use of tools. S-hooks are often

part of a swing’s suspension system, either attaching the

suspending elements to the overhead support bar or to

the swing seat. Open S-hooks are hazardous because

they can catch a child’s clothing and result in strangulation. S-hooks should be pinched closed as tightly as

possible.

Swings should be suspended from support structures that

discourage climbing. A-frame support structures should

not have horizontal cross-bars.

9.2.2 Single Axis Swings

To help prevent young children from inadvertently

running into the path of moving swings, swing structures

should be located away from other equipment or activities. Additional protection can be provided by means of a

low barrier, such as a fence or hedge. Such barriers

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

should not be an obstacle within the use zone of a swing

structure or hamper supervision by blocking visibility.

To minimize the likelihood of children being struck by a

moving swing, it is recommended that no more than two

single axis swings be hung in each bay of the supporting

structure.

Tot swing seats should provide support on all sides of a

child (see Figure 10). It is important that such supports do

not present a strangulation hazard. Openings in tot swing

seats should conform to the entrapment criteria in Section

7.5.

Attaching single-axis swings to composite structures is not

recommended.

Swing seats should be designed to accommodate no more

than one user at any time. To help reduce the severity of

impact injuries, wood or metal swing seats are not

recommended. Edges of seats should have smoothly

finished or rounded edges and should conform to the

protrusion recommendations in Section 7.3.

To minimize collisions between swings or between a

swing and the supporting structure, the clearances shown

in Figure 9 are recommended. In addition, to reduce sideto-side motion, swing hangers should be spaced wider

than the width of the swing seat.

Figure 10 Examples of Tot Swings

Figure 9 Minimum Clearances for Swings

9.2.3 Tot Swings

These are single axis swings intended for very young

children to use with adult assistance. The seats and

suspension systems of these swings, including the related

hardware, should follow all of the other criteria for

conventional single axis swings.

It is recommended that tot swings be suspended from

structures which are separate from those for other swings,

or at least suspended from a separate bay of the same

structure.

9.2.4 Multi-Axis Tire Swings

Tire swings are typically suspended in a horizontal orientation using three suspension chains or cables connected

to a single swivel mechanism that permits both rotation

and a swinging motion in any axis.

A multi-axis tire swing should not be suspended from a structure having other swings in the same bay. Attaching multiaxis swings to composite structures is not recommended.

To minimize the hazard of impact, heavy truck tires

should be avoided. Further, if steel-belted radials are

used, they should be closely examined to ensure that there

are no exposed steel belts that could be a potential protrusion or laceration hazard. Plastic materials can be used as

an alternative to simulate actual automobile tires. Drainage holes should be provided in the underside of the tire.

The likelihood of hanger mechanism failure is increased

for tire swings, due to the added stress of rotational

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

movement and multiple occupancy. Special attention to

maintenance is warranted. The hanger mechanisms for

multi-axis tire swings should not have any accessible pinch

points.

The minimum clearance between the seating surface of a

tire swing and the uprights of the supporting structure

should be 30 inches when the tire is in a position closest

to the support structure (see Figure 11).

Figure 11 Multi-Axis Tire Swing Clearance

9.2.5 Swings Not Recommended for Public

Playgrounds

The following types of swings are not recommended for

use in public playgrounds:

Multiple Occupancy Swings - With the exception of

tire swings, swings that are intended for more than one

user are not recommended because their greater mass, as

compared to single occupancy swings, presents a risk of

impact injury.

Animal Figure Swings - These are not recommended

because their rigid metal framework results in a high mass

presenting a risk of impact injury.

Rope Swings - Free swinging ropes that may fray or

otherwise form a loop are not recommended because they

present a potential strangulation hazard.

Swinging Exercise Rings and Trapeze Bars - These

are generally considered to be items of athletic equipment

and are not recommended for public playgrounds. NOTE:

The recommendation against the use of exercise rings

does not apply to overhead hanging rings (see Figure 12).

9.3 Climbing Equipment

9.3.1 General

Climbers refer to a wide variety of equipment including

arch climbers, sliding poles, chain or net climbers, upper

body devices (overhead horizontal ladders, overhead

rings), dome climbers, parallel bars, balance beams, cable

walks, suspension bridges, and spiral climbers, as well as

composite structures with linked platforms (see Figure 12

for examples). Climbing equipment is generally designed

to present a greater degree of physical challenge than

other equipment on public playgrounds.

Older children tend to use climbing equipment more

frequently and proficiently than younger ones. Because

very young children have not yet developed some of the

physical skills necessary for certain climbing activities

(including balance, coordination, and upper body

strength), they may have difficulty using more challenging

climbing components such as rung ladders, non-rigid

climbers, arch climbers, and upper body devices.

9.3.2 Design Considerations

Since the more challenging modes of access discussed in

Section 8 are also intended to be used as climbing devices, the recommendations for the size of handgripping

components and stepped platforms covered in that

section are applicable to climbing equipment.

Climbers should not have climbing bars or other structural

components in the interior of the structure onto which a

child may fall from a height of greater than 18 inches.

Climbing equipment should allow children to descend as

easily as they ascend. One way of implementing this

recommendation is to provide an easier, alternate means

of descent, such as another mode of access, platform, or

piece of equipment. For example, a stairway can be

added to provide a less challenging mode of descent than

a vertical rung ladder or flexible climbing device. The

levels of challenge that characterize different types of

accesses are discussed in Section 8.

Preschool-Age Children Offering an easy way out is

particularly important on climbing devices intended for

preschoolers, since their ability to descend climbing

components emerges later than their ability to climb up

the same components.

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Simple Arch Climber

Geodesic Dome Climber

*Overhead Horizontal Ladder * Overhead Hanging Rings

*Note: This design shows how upper body equipment is

typically integrated with multi-use equipment.

Figure 12 Typical Climbing Equipment

9.3.3 Climbers With Non-Rigid Components

Net and chain climbers use a flexible grid of ropes or

chains for climbing. Tire climbers are also described as

flexible climbers. These may have the tires secured treadto-tread in the form of a sloping grid or the tires maybe

suspended individually by chains or other means to

provide access to an elevated platform. Since net, chain,

and tire climbers have flexible components that do not

provide a steady means of support, and therefore require

more advanced balance abilities than conventional ladders, they require special consideration.

Flexible grid climbing devices which provide access to

platforms should be securely anchored at both ends.

When one end is connected to the ground, the anchoring

devices shall be below the level of the playing surface.

Connections between ropes, cables, or chains within the

climbing grid or between tires should be securely fixed.

Spacing between the horizontal and vertical components

of a climbing grid should satisfy all entrapment criteria

(see Section 7.5).

Flexible grid climbing devices are not recommended as the

sole means of access to equipment intended for preschool-age children.

9.3.4 Arch Climbers

Arch climbers consist of metal or wood rungs attached to

convex side supports. They may be free standing (see

Figure 12) or be provided as a more challenging means of

access to other equipment (see Figure 6). Because of this

extra challenge, they should not be used as the sole

means of access to other equipment. A less challenging

option will ensure that children use the arch climber

because they are willing to assume the challenge and not

because they are forced to use it. Free standing arch

climbers are not recommended for preschool-age children .

The rung diameter and spacing of rungs on arch climbers

should follow the recommendations for rung ladders in

Table 1.

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Handbook for Public Playground Safely

9.3.5 Horizontal Ladders and Overhead Rings

Four year-olds are generally the youngest children capable

of using upper body devices such as these. The recommendations below are, therefore, designed to accommodate children 4 through 12 years of age.

The space between adjacent rungs of overhead ladders

should be greater than 9 inches to satisfy the entrapment

requirements (see Section 7.5). The center-to-center

spacing of horizontal ladder rungs should not exceed 15

inches. This does not apply to the spacing of overhead

rings because, during use, the gripped ring swings through

an arc and reduces the distance to the gripping surface of

the next ring.

The first handhold on either end of upper body equipment

should not be placed directly above the platform or

climbing rung used for mount or dismount. This minimizes the risk of children impacting rigid access structures

if they fall from the first handhold during mount or

dismount.

9.3.6 Sliding Poles

Vertical sliding poles are designed to be more challenging

than some other types of climbing equipment. They are

not recommended for preschool-age children who may

lack the requisite upper body strength and coordination to

successfully slide down the pole. Furthermore, once

younger children have grasped the pole, they would be

forced to slide down it since there is no alternative option.

Sliding poles should be continuous with no protruding

welds or seams along the sliding surface and the pole

should not change direction along the sliding portion.

The horizontal distance between a sliding pole and the

edge of the platform or other structure used for access to

the sliding pole should beat least 18 inches. This minimum distance applies to all points down the sliding pole.

All points on the sliding pole at or above the level of the

access structure, where a child is likely to reach for the

pole, should not be more than 20 inches away from the

edge of the access structure.

The pole should extend at least 38 inches above the level

of the platform or other structure used for access to the

sliding pole.

The diameter of sliding poles should be no greater than

1.9 inches.

The design of the access structure should minimize the

possibility of interference from surrounding traffic that

may be out of the line of sight of a user during descent.

9.3.7 Climbing Ropes

Individual vertically suspended climbing ropes are recommended only if they are securely anchored to a footing at

the lower end to prevent the rope from being looped back

on itself and forming a noose.

9.3.8 Balance Beams

To avoid groin injuries during falls, balance beams should

be no higher than 12 inches.

9.3.9 Layout of Climbing Components

When climbing components are part of a composite

structure, their level of challenge and mode of use should

be compatible with the traffic flow from adjacent components.

The swinging movements generated on upper body

devices warrant special precautions to reduce the risk of

impact with children on adjacent structures. Upper body

devices should be placed so that swinging children cannot

interfere with the movement of children on adjacent

structures, particularly with their descent on slides.

The design of adjacent play structures should not facilitate

climbing to the top support bars of upper body equipment.

9.4 Merry-Go-Rounds

Merry-go-rounds are the most common type of rotating

equipment found on public playgrounds. Children usually

sit or stand on the platform while other children or adults

push the merry-go-round to make it rotate. In addition,

children often get on and off the merry-go-round while it

is in motion.

Merry-go-rounds may present a physical hazard to

preschool-age children who have little or no control over

such products once they are in motion. Merry-go-rounds

are not recommended unless the following are observed:

The rotating platform should be continuous and approximately circular. The difference between the minimum

and maximum radii of a non-circular platform should not

exceed 2.0 inches (see Figure 13). No components of the

apparatus, including handgrips, should extend beyond the

perimeter of the platform.

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

c

A

A = Axis of Rotation

AB = Minimum Radius

AC = Maximum Radius

B

The difference between dimensions AC

and AB should not exceed 2.0 inches.

Figure 13 Minimum and Maximum Radii of NonCircular Merry-Go-Round Platform

Children should be provided with a secure means of

holding on. Where handgrips are provided, they should

conform to the general requirements for handgripping

components in Section 8.2.1.

There should not be any accessible shearing or crushing

mechanisms in the undercarriage of the equipment. The

rotating platform of a merry-go-round should not have

any sharp edges. The surface of the platform should be

continuous with no openings between the axis and the

periphery that pen-nit a rod having a diameter of 5/16

inch to penetrate completely through the surface.

A means should be provided to limit the peripheral speed

of rotation to a maximum of 13 ft/sec.

Merry-go-round platforms should not be provided with an

oscillatory (up and down) motion.

9.5 Seesaws

The typical seesaw (also known as a “teeter totter”)

consists of a board or pole supported at the center by a

fulcrum and having a seat at each end (see Figure 14).

Seesaw use is quite complex because it requires two

children to cooperate and combine their actions. Younger children do not generally have the skills required to

effectively use fulcrum seesaws. Therefore, they are not

recommended on public playgrounds for preschool-age

children unless they are equipped with a spring centering

device to prevent abrupt contact with the ground should

one child elect to dismount.

There is a trend to replace fulcrum seesaws on public

playgrounds with spring-loaded seesaws, which have the

advantage of not requiring two children to coordinate

their actions in order to play safely (see discussion of

Spring Rocking Equipment in Section 9.6).

Figure 14 Typical Fulcrum Seesaw

The fulcrum of fulcrum seesaws should not present a

pinch or crush hazard.

Partial car tires, or some other shock-absorbing material,

should be embedded in the ground underneath the seats

of fulcrum seesaws, or secured on the underside of the

seats. This will help prevent limbs from being crushed

between the seat and the ground, as well as cushion the

impact. Fulcrum see-saws may also be equipped with a

spring centering mechanism to minimize the risk of injury

due to impact with the ground.

Handholds should be provided at each seating position for

gripping with both hands and should not turn when

grasped. Handholds should not protrude beyond the sides

of the seat. Footrests should not be provided on fulcrum

see-saws unless they are equipped with a spring centering

mechanism to minimize the likelihood of impact with the

ground .

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

9.6 Spring Rocking Equipment

Younger children enjoy the bouncing and rocking activities presented by this equipment, but older children

typically do not find it challenging enough.

Examples of spring rockers are shown in Figure 15.

Preschoolers are the primary users of such rocking

equipment. Therefore, the recommendations in this

section address only preschool-age children.

Seat design should minimize the likelihood of the rocker

being used by more than the intended number of users.

Each seating position should be equipped with handgrips

and footrests. The diameter of handgrips should follow

the general recommendations for handgripping components in Section 8.5.2.

The springs of rocking equipment should minimize the possibility of children pinching either their hands or their feet

between coils or between the spring and a part of the rocker.

9.7 Trampolines

Trampolines are not recommended for use on public

playgrounds.

4-Way Spring-Loaded Seesaw

Figure 15 Typical Spring Rocking Equipment
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

10. SURFACING

he surface under and around playground equip

ment can be a major factor in determining the

injury-causing potential of a fall. It is self evident

that a fall onto a shock absorbing surface is less likely to

cause a serious injury than a fall onto a hard surface.

Because head impact injuries from a fall have the potential for being life threatening, the more shock absorbing a

surface can be made, the more is the likelihood that the

severity of the injury will be reduced. However, it should

be recognized that all injuries due to falls cannot be prevented no matter what playground surfacing material is used.

10.1 Determining Shock Absorbency of a

Surfacing Material

No data are available to predict precisely the threshold

tolerance of the human head to an impact injury. However, biomedical researchers have established two methods that may be used to determine when such an injury

may be life threatening.

One method holds that if the peak deceleration of the

head during impact does not exceed 200 times the

acceleration due to gravity (200 G’s), a life threatening

head injury is not likely to occur. The second method

holds that both the deceleration of the head during impact

and the time duration over which the head decelerates to

a halt are significant in assessing head impact injury. This

latter method uses a mathematical formula to derive a

value known as Head Injury Criteria (HIC) [6]. Head

impact injuries are not believed to be life threatening if the

HIC does not exceed a value of 1,000.

The most widely used test method for evaluating the

shock absorbing properties of a playground surfacing

material is to drop an instrumented metal headform onto

a sample of the material and record the acceleration/time

pulse during the impact. Such a method is described in

an ASTM Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation

of Surface Systems Under and Around Playground

Equipment, ASTM F1292 [7].

10.2 Critical Height

This is a term originating from Europe and is used to

describe the shock absorbing performance of a surfacing

material. As it is used in this publication, the Critical

Height for a surfacing material is defined as the maximum height from which the instrumented metal

headform, upon impact, yields both a peak deceleration of no more than 200 G’s and a HIC of no

more than 1,000 when tested in accordance with

the procedure described in ASTM F1292. Critical

Height, therefore, can be considered as an approximation

of the maximum fall height from which a life-threatening

head injury would not be expected to occur.

The surfacing material used under and around a particular

piece of playground equipment should have a Critical

Height value of at least the height of the highest accessible part of the equipment.

10.3 Highest Accessible Part of Equipment

Recommendations for the “highest accessible part” for

various pieces of playground equipment are as follows.

Swings - Since children may fall from a swing seat at its

maximum attainable angle (assumed to be 90° from the

“at rest” position), the highest accessible part of a swing

structure is the height of the pivot point where the swing’s

suspending elements connect to the supporting structure.

Elevated Platforms Including Slide Platforms -

Since children may climb onto or over guardrails, the

highest accessible part of a platform surrounded by

guardrails is the height above the playing surface of the

top of the guardrail . Since protective barriers are

designed to minimize the likelihood of climbing, the

highest accessible part of a platform surrounded by

protective barriers is the height of the platform surface

above the ground.

Climbers and Horizontal Ladders - For structures that

are intended to be climbed upon, the highest accessible

part is the maximum height of the structure.

Merry-Go-Rounds - The highest accessible part is the

height above the ground of any part at the perimeter on

which a child may sit or stand.

See-Saws - The highest accessible part is the maximum

height attainable by any part of the see-saw.

Spring Rockers - The highest accessible part is the

maximum height above the ground of the seat or designated play surface.

10.4 Acceptability of Various Surfacing Materials

Hard surfacing materials, such as asphalt or concrete, are

unsuitable for use under and around playground equipment of any height unless they are required as a base for

a shock absorbing unitary material such as a rubber mat.

Earth surfaces such as soils and hard packed dirt are also

not recommended because their shock absorbing properties can vary considerably depending on climatic conditions such as moisture and temperature. Similarly, grass

20 ,
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

and turf are not recommended because their effectiveness

in absorbing shock during a fall can be reduced considerably due to wear and environmental conditions.

Acceptable playground surfacing materials are available in

two basic types, unitary or loose-fill.

Unitary Materials - are generally rubber mats or a

combination of rubberlike materials held in place by a

binder that may be poured in place at the playground site

and cures to form a unitary shock absorbing surface,

Unitary materials are available from a number of different

manufacturers many of whom have a range of materials

with differing shock absorbing properties. Persons

Wishing to install a unitary material as a playground

surface should request test data from the manufacturer

that should identify the Critical Height of the desired

material. In addition, site requirements should be obtained

from the manufacturer because, as stated above, some

unitary materials require installation over a hard surface

while for others this is not required.

Loose-Fill Materials - can also have acceptable shock

absorbing properties when installed at a sufficient depth.

These materials include, but are not confined to, sand,

gravel, and shredded wood products. Loose-fill materials

should not be installed over hard surfaces such as asphalt

or concrete.

Because loose-fill materials are generally sold for purposes

other than playground surfacing, many vendors are

unlikely to be able to provide information on their shock

absorbing performance. For that reason, CPSC staff has

conducted tests to determine the relative shock absorbing

properties of some loose-fill materials commonly used as

surfaces under and around playground equipment.

Appendix D contains a description of the tested materials.

The tests were conducted in accordance with the procedure in the voluntary standard for playground surfacing

systems, ASTM F1292. Table 2, below, lists the critical

height (expressed in feet) for each of seven materials

when tested in an uncompressed state at depths of 6, 9,

and 12 inches. The table also reports the critical height

when a 9 inch depth of each material was tested in a

compressed state.

The table should be read as follows: If, for example, uncompressed wood mulch is used at a minimum depth of 6

inches, the Critical Height is 7 feet. If 9 inches of uncompressed wood mulch is used, the Critical height is 10 feet.

It should be noted that, for some materials, the Critical

Height decreases when the material is compressed.

TABLE 2

Critical Heights (in feet)

of Tested Materials

Uncompressed Compressed

depth depth

Material 6 inch 9 inch 12 inch 9 inch

Wood Mulch 7 10 11 10

Double Shredded 6 10 11 7

Bark Mulch

Uniform 6 7 >12 6

Wood chips

Fine Sand 5 5 9 5

Coarse Sand 5 5 6 4

Fine Gravel 6 7 10 6

Medium Gravel 5 5 6 5

The Critical Heights shown in the above table maybe

used as a guide in selecting the type and depth of loose-fill

materials that will provide the necessary safety for equipment of various heights. There may be other loose-fill

materials such as bark nuggets or shredded tires that have

shock absorbing properties equivalent to those in the

above table. However, no tests have been conducted on

these materials by CPSC staff.

The depth of any loose fill material could be reduced

during use resulting in different shock-absorbing properties. For this reason, a margin of safety should be considered in selecting a type and depth of material for a

specific use.

10.5 Accessibility to the Disabled

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA)

prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in

employment, public services, transportation, public

accommodations - including many services operated by

private entities, - and telecommunications. Title 111 of the

legislation includes within the definition of public accommodation: “a park, zoo, amusement park, or other place

of recreation”; a school, including nursery schools; a day

care center; and a gymnasium, health spa, or “other

places of exercise or recreation.”

21
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Specific Federal requirements for accessibility to playgrounds by the disabled are expected to be published.

The Department of Parks and Recreation in the State of

California has advised that after January 1, 1991, regulations requiring that all types of play activity in new and

redone play areas must be accessible to the disabled.

Other states may similarly issue accessibility requirements.

Playground designers, installers and operators are reminded that they should determine what Federal and State

requirements for accessibility are in effect. These requirements could necessitate changes to existing playgrounds

as well as when new playgrounds are planned or existing

playgrounds refurbished.

10.6 Other Characteristics of Surfacing Materials

Selection of a surfacing material for a specific location

may be governed by the environmental conditions at that

location. Appendix C lists some characteristics of surfacing materials that may influence the choice for a particular

playground.

USE ZONES FOR EQUIPMENT

 he use zone for each piece of equipment is made

up of two parts:

(1) the Fall Zone: an area under and around the

equipment where protective surfacing is required, and,

(2) the No-Encroachment Zone: an additional area

beyond the fall zone where children using the equipment

can be expected to move about and should have no

encroaching obstacles.

With the exception of spring rocking equipment, equipment under 24 inches in height, and the zone between

adjacent swings (see below), the fall zones of adjacent

pieces of equipment should not overlap. However,

adjacent pieces of equipment may share a single noencroachment zone.

Regardless of the type of equipment, the use zone should

be free of obstacles that children could run into or fall on

top of and thus be injured. For example, there should not

be any vertical posts or other objects protruding from the

ground onto which a child may fall.

11.1 Recommendations for Fall Zone

11.1.1 Stationary Equipment

The fall zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet in all

directions from the perimeter of the equipment.

11.1.2 Slides

The fall zone in front of the access and to the sides of a

slide shall extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter

of the equipment. Note: This does not apply to embankment slides.

The fall zone in front of the exit of a slide shall extend a

minimum distance of 6 feet from the end of the slide

chute or for a distance of H + 4 feet whichever is the

greater. H is the height of the slide platform and the H +

4 foot measurement is made from a point on the slide

chute where the gradient has been reduced to 5° from the

horizontal (see Figure 16).

 Denotes Fall Zone with Protective Surfacing

Figure 16 Fall Zone for Slides

11.1.3 Single Axis Swings

Because children may deliberately attempt to exit from a

single axis swing while it is in motion, the fall zone in

front of and behind the swing should be greater than to

the sides of such a swing. It is recommended that the fall

zone extend to the front and rear of a single axis swing a

minimum distance of 2 times the height of the pivot point

above the surfacing material measured from a point

directly beneath the pivot on the supporting structure (see

Figure 17). The fall zone to the sides of a single axis

swing should follow the general recommendation and

extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter of the

swing structure in accordance with the general recommendation for fall zones. This 6 foot zone may overlap that of

an adjacent swing structure.

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

6

Figure 17 Fall Zone for Single Axis Swings

11.1.4 Multi Axis Swings

The fall zone should extend in any direction from a point

directly beneath the pivot point for a minimum distance of

6 feet + the length of the suspending members (see Figure

18). In addition, the fall zone shall extend a minimum of

6 feet from the perimeter of the supporting structure.

This 6 foot zone may overlap that

structure.

11.1.5 Merry-Go-Rounds

The fall zone should extend 6 feet

of the platform.

of an adjacent swing

beyond the perimeter

11.1.6 Spring Rocking Equipment

The fall zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the

“at rest” perimeter of the equipment but adjacent spring

rockers with a maximum seat height of 24 inches may

share the same fall zone.

11.1.7 Composite Equipment

The above recommendations for individual pieces of

equipment should be used as a guide in establishing the

fall zones around pieces of composite playground equipFigure 18 Fall Zone for Multi Axis Tire Swings

ft

ment. Note that in Section 9.2.2 it was recommended

that single axis swings not be a part of a composite

structure.

11.2 Recommendations for No-Encroachment

Zone

No specific dimensions can be recommended for the noencroachment zone around individual pieces of playground equipment. These dimensions will vary according

to the types of adjacent pieces of equipment and their

orientation with respect to one another.

For example, the recommended fall zone at the side of

both a slide and a swing is 6 feet. Since fall zones should

not overlap (with the exception of certain adjacent spring

rockers), a slide could be placed with its side no closer

than 12 feet to the side of a swing. Therefore, there may

be no need to add an additional no-encroachment zone.

Conversely, it would not be desirable to have a slide exit

facing the front or rear of single axis swing.

No-encroachment zones extending beyond the fall zones

are recommended for moving equipment or equipment

from which the child is in motion as he or she exits. This

23
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

allows more space for children to regain their balance

upon exiting the equipment and also provides added

protection against other children running into a moving

part.

For a single axis swing, it is recommended that there be a

barrier beyond the fall zone in front of the swing if it is

located in a playground facing other pieces of equipment.

REFERENCES

l. Ratte, Donna J., Morrison, Melanie L., Lerner, Neil D.,

Development of Human Factors Criteria for Playground

Equipment Safety; COMSIS Corporation, March 1990.

2. Standard Consumer Performance Specification for

Playground Equipment for Public Use, ASTM F1487;

ASTM, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103.

3. Tinsworth, Deborah Kale, Kramer, John T., Playground

Equipment-Related Injuries and Deaths; U.S. Consumer

Product Safety Commission, Washington, D.C. 20207,

April 1990.

4. Title 16, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1303; Ban

of Lead-Containing Paint and Certain Consumer

Products Bearing Lead-Containing Paint; Superintendent

of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C. 20402.

5. Lee, Brian C., Estimate of Risk of Skin Cancer from

Dislodgeable Arsenic on Pressure Treated Wood

Playground Equipment; U.S. Consumer Product Safety

Commission, Washington, D.C. 20207, January 1990.

6. Consumer Information Sheet: Inorganic Arsenical

Pressure-Treated Wood; American Wood Preservers

Institute, 1945 Gallows Road, Suite 550, Vienna, Virginia

22182.

7. Collantes, Margarita, Evaluation of the Importance of

Using Head Injury Criterion (HIC) to Estimate the

Likelihood of Head ]mpact Injury as a Result of a Fall

Onto Playground Surface Materials; U.S. Consumer

Product Safety Commission, Washington, D.C. 20207,

October 1990.

8. Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of

Surface Systems Under and Around Playground

Equipment, ASTM F1292; ASTM, 1916 Race Street,

Philadelphia, PA 19103.

APPENDIX A

SUGGESTED GENERAL MAINTENANCE

CHECKLIST

General Upkeep of Playgrounds

Check the entire playground area for miscellaneous debris

or litter.

Check for missing trash receptacles and for those which

are full.

Check for any damage (i.e., any broken or missing

components) to equipment or other playground features

caused by vandalism or wear; for example, check for any

broken or missing handrails, guardrails, protective barriers, or steps or rungs on ladders, and for damage to any

fences, benches, or signs on the playground.

Surfacing

Check for equipment which does not have adequate

protective surfacing under and around it and for surfacing

materials that have deteriorated.

Check loose surfacing materials for foreign objects or

debris.

Check loose surfacing materials for compaction and

reduced depth, with special attention to heavy use areas

such as those under swings and slide exit regions.

General hazards

Check all equipment and other playground features for

any hazards which may have emerged.

Check for sharp points, corners, and edges; for example

check the sides and sliding surface of slide chutes for

sharp or rough edges caused by deterioration.

Check for protrusions and projections.

Check for missing or damaged protective caps or plugs.

Check for potential clothing entanglement hazards, such

as open S-hooks.

Check for pinch, crush, and shearing points or exposed

moving parts.

Check for trip hazards, such as exposed footings on

anchoring devices and rocks, roots, or any other environmental obstacles in the play area.

24
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Deterioration of Equipment

Check all equipment and other playground features for

rust, rot, cracks, and splinters, with special attention to

possible corrosion where structures come in contact with

the ground.

Check for unstable anchoring of equipment.

Security of hardware

Check for any loose or worn connecting, covering, or

fastening hardware devices: for example, check the Shooks at both ends of suspending elements of swings and

all connection points on flexible climbing devices for wear.

Check all moving parts, such as swing bearing hangers,

for wear.

Equipment use zones

Check for obstacles in equipment use zones.

Drainage systems

Check the entire play area for drainage problems, with

special attention to heavy use areas such as those under

swings and slide exit regions.

APPENDIX B

ENTRAPMENT REQUIREMENTS AND

TEST METHODS

B1. General

Any completely-bounded opening (see Figure B-1) may be

a potential head entrapment hazard and should conform

to the recommendations in this appendix. One exception

to these recommendations is an opening where the

ground serves as the lower boundary. Openings in both

horizontal and vertical planes present a risk of entrapment. Even those openings which are low enough to

permit a child’s feet to touch the ground present a risk of

strangulation to an entrapped child, because younger

children may not have the necessary cognitive ability and

motor skills to extricate their heads, especially if scared or

panicked.

An opening may present an entrapment hazard if the

distance between any interior opposing surfaces is greater

than 3.5 inches or less than 9 inches; when one dimension of an opening is within this potentially hazardous

range, all dimensions of the opening must be considered

together to fully evaluate the possibility of entrapment.

The most appropriate method to determine whether an

opening is hazardous is to test it using the following

fixtures, methods, and performance criteria.

These recommendations apply to all playground equipment, both for preschool-age and school-age children;

fixed equipment as well as moving equipment (in its

stationary position) should be tested for entrapment

hazards. There are two special cases for which separate

procedures are given: completely-bounded openings

where depth of penetration is a critical issue (see Figure

B-2); and openings formed by non-rigid climbing components.

Ground Bounded

(Not Subject to

Entrapment

Figure B-1 Examples of Completely Bounded

Openings

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Handbook for Public Playground Safety

B2. Test fixtures

Two templates are required to determine if completely

bounded openings in rigid structures present an entrapment hazard.

B2.1 Small Torso Template

The dimensions (see Figure B-3) of this template are

based on the size of the torso of the smallest user at risk.

If an opening is too small to admit the template, it is also

too small to permit feet first entry by a child. Because

children’s heads are larger than their torsos, an opening

that does not admit the small torso probe will also prevent

head first entry into an opening by a child.

6.2 in.

3.5 in.

Figure B-3 Small Torso Template

B2.2 Large Head Template

The dimensions (see Figure B-4) of this template are

based on the largest dimension on the head of the largest

child at risk. If an opening is large enough to permit free

passage of the template, it is large enough to permit free

passage of the head of the largest child at risk in any

orientation. In addition, openings large enough to permit

free passage of the Large Head Template also will not

entrap the chest of the largest child at risk.

B3. Requirement

When tested in accordance with the procedure in B4.

below, an opening conforms to the requirement if:

(1) the opening does not admit the Small Torso Template,

or

(2) the opening admits the Small Torso Template and also

admits the Large Head Template.

An opening fails to conform to the requirement if it

admits the Small Torso Template but does not admit the

Large Head Template.

Figure B-4 Large Head Template

B4. Test Procedure

Attempt to place the Small Torso Template in the opening with the plane of the template parallel to the plane of

the opening. While keeping it parallel to the plane of the

opening, the template should be rotated to its most

adverse orientation i.e. major axis of template oriented

parallel to the major axis of the opening. If the Small

Torso Template can be freely inserted through the

opening, place the Large Head Template in the opening,

again with the plane of the template parallel to the plane

of the opening, and attempt to freely insert it through the

opening. The test procedure is illustrated in Figure B-5.

B5. Completely-bounded openings where depth of

penetration is a critical issue

The configuration of some openings maybe such that the

depth of penetration is a critical issue for determining the

entrapment potential. This is a special case for which

separate test procedures are necessary.

For example, consider a vertical wall or some other

barrier behind a stepladder. The entrapment potential

depends not only on the dimensions of the opening

between adjacent steps but also on the horizontal space

between the lower boundary of the opening and the

barrier. A child may enter the opening between adjacent

steps feet first and may proceed to pass through the space

between the rear of the lower step and the barrier and

become entrapped when the child’s head is unable to pass

through either of these two openings. In effect, there are

openings in two different planes each of which has the

potential for head entrapment and must, therefore, be

tested.

26
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Test procedures and performance criteria for completely-bounded

openings.

Place the Small Torso Template in the opening with the plane of the

template parallel to the plane of the opening. Rotate the template

while keeping it parallel to the opening.

If the Small Torso Template can be inserted into the opening, place the

Large Head Template into the opening so its plane is parallel to the

plane of the opening.

An opening can pass this test when tested in accordance with the

above procedures in one of two ways. 1 ) the opening does not admit

the Small Torso Template when it is rotated to any orientation about its

own axis, or 2) the opening admits the Small Torso Template and also

admits the Large Head Template. An opening fails the test under the

following conditions: the opening admits the Small Torso Template but

does not admit the Large Head Template.

Figure B-5 Entrapment Test for CompletelyBounded Openings

Figure B-6 illustrates these two planes for a stepladder as

well as for a generic opening. Plane A is the plane of the

completely bounded opening in question and Plane B is

the plane of the opening encompassing the horizontal

space between the lower boundary of the opening in

Plane A and the barrier that must also be tested for

conformance to the entrapment requirements.

The procedures and performance criteria for testing

openings where the depth of penetration is a critical issue

depend on a series of questions, as described below.

Figure B-6 Examples of Completely-Bounded

Openings Where Depth of Penetration

is a Critical Issue

The first step is to determine whether or not the smallest

user at risk can enter the opening in Plane A. The Small

Torso Template is used to test this opening as follows:

Place the Small Torso Template in the opening in Plane

A with its plane parallel to Plane A; rotate the template to

its most adverse orientation with respect to the opening

while keeping it parallel to Plane A. Does the opening in

Plane A admit the Small Torso Template in any orientation when rotated about its own axis?

NO -If the opening in Plane A does not admit the Small

Torso Template in any orientation, then the opening is

small enough to prevent either head first or feet first entry

by the smallest user at risk and is not an entrapment

hazard. The opening conforms to the requirements.

YES - If the opening in Plane A admits the Small Torso

Template, then the smallest user at risk can enter the

opening in Plane A. The entrapment potential depends

on whether or not the smallest user at risk can also enter

the opening in Plane B. The Small Torso Template is

again used to test this opening as follows:

With the plane of the Small Torso Template parallel to

the opening in Plane B and with the template’s major axis

(i.e., the 6.2-inch dimension) parallel to Plane A, does the

opening in Plane B admit the the Small Torso Template?

27
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

NO - If the opening in Plane B does not admit the Small

Torso Template, then it is small enough to prevent head

or feet first entry by the smallest user at risk. Therefore

the depth of penetration into the opening in plane A is

insufficient to result in entrapment of the smallest user at

risk. The opening conforms to the requirements.

YES - If the opening in Plane B admits the Small Torso

Template, then the smallest user at risk can enter the

opening in Plane B feet first. The entrapment potential

depends on whether or not the Large Head Template can

exit the opening in Plane A when tested as follows:

Place the Large Head Template in the opening in Plane A

with its plane parallel to Plane A. Does the opening in

Plane A admit the Large Head Template?

NO - If the opening in Plane A does not admit the Large

Head Template, then a child whose torso can enter the

opening in Plane A as well as the opening in Plane B,

may become entrapped by the head in the opening in

Plane A. The opening fails to conform to the requirements.

YES - If the opening in Plane A admits the Large Head

Template, then the largest user at risk can exit the

opening in Plane A. The entrapment potential depends

on whether or not the largest user at risk can also exit the

opening in Plane B. The Large Head Template is used to

test this as follows:

With the plane of the Large Head Template parallel to the

opening in Plane B, does the opening in Plane B admit

the Large Head Template?

NO - If the opening in Plane B does not admit the Large

Head Template, then the largest user at risk cannot exit

the opening in Plane B. This presents an entrapment

hazard because a child’s torso may enter the openings in

Plane A and Plane B, and a child’s head may pass

through the opening in Plane A but become entrapped in

the opening in Plane B. The opening fails to conform to

the requirements.

YES - If the opening in Plane B admits the Large Head

Template, then the largest user at risk can exit the

opening in Plane B so there is no entrapment hazard.

The openings in Plane A and Plane B conform to the

requirements.

B6. Non-rigid openings

Climbing components such as flexible nets are also a

special case for the entrapment tests because the size and

shape of openings on this equipment can be altered when

force is applied, either intentionally or simply when a child

climbs on or falls through the openings. Children are

then potentially at risk of entrapment in these distorted

openings.

B6.1 Test Fixtures

The procedure for determining conformance to the

entrapment requirements for non-rigid openings requires

two three dimensional test probes which are illustrated in

Figures B-7 and B-8 and are applied to an opening in a

non-rigid component with a force of up to 50 pounds.

B6.2 Requirements

When tested in accordance with the procedure in B6.3

below, a non-rigid opening may conform to the requirements in one of two ways:

(1) The opening does not permit complete passage of the

Small Torso Probe when tested in accordance with the

procedure in B6.3 below.

(2) The opening allows complete passage of the Small

Torso Probe and the Large Head Probe when tested in

accordance with the procedure in B6.3 below.

A non-rigid opening does not conform to the entrapment

requirements if it allows complete passage of the Small

Torso Probe but does not allow complete passage of the

Large Head Probe.

B6.3 Test Procedure

Place the Small Torso Probe in the opening, tapered end

first, with the plane of its base parallel to the plane of the

opening. While keeping its base parallel to the plane of

the opening, rotate the probe to its most adverse orientation (major axis of probe parallel to major axis of opening). Determine whether the probe can be pushed or

pulled through the opening by a force no greater than 50

pounds. If the Small Torso Probe cannot pass completely

through the opening, it conforms to the requirements.

If the Small Torso Probe passes completely through the

opening, place the Large Head Probe in the opening with

the plane of its base parallel to the plane of the opening.

Again attempt to push or pull the probe through the

opening with a force no greater than 50 pounds. If the

Large Head Probe can pass completely through the

opening, it conforms to the requirements.

28
29

Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Figure B-7 Small Torso Probe

APPENDIX C

SUMMARY CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC AND

INORGANIC LOOSE-FILL MATERIALS, AND

UNITARY SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

ORGANIC LOOSE MATERIAL

wood chips, bark mulch, etc.

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

Cushioning effect depends on air trapped within and

between individual particles, and presupposes an adequate

depth of material. See Table 2 for performance data.

Installation/Maintenance

Should not be installed over existing hard surfaces (e.g.,

asphalt, concrete).

Requires a method of containment (e.g. ,retaining barrier,

excavated pit).

Requires good drainage underneath material.

Requires periodic renewal or replacement and continuous

maintenance (e.g., leveling, grading, sifting, raking) to

maintain appropriate depth and remove foreign matter.

Figure B-8 Large Head Probe

Advantages

Low initial cost.

Ease of installation.

Good drainage.

Less abrasive than sand.

Less attractive to cats and dogs (compared to sand).

Attractive appearance.

Readily available.

Disadvantages

The following conditions may reduce cushioning potential:

1.

2,

3.

4.

Environmental conditions: rainy weather, high

humidity, freezing temperatures.

With normal use over time, combines with dirt and

other foreign materials.

Over time, decomposes, is pulverized, and compacts.

Depth may be reduced by displacement due to children’s activities or by material being blown by wind.
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes.

Subject to microbial growth when wet.

Conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g., broken glass,

nails, pencils, and other sharp objects that can cause cut

and puncture wounds).

Spreads easily outside of containment area.

Can be flammable.

Subject to theft by neighborhood residents for use as

mulch.

INORGANIC LOOSE MATERIAL

sand and gravel

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

See Table 2 for performance data.

Installation/Maintenance

Should not be installed over existing hard surfaces (e.g.,

asphalt, rock).

Method of containment needed (e.g., retaining barrier,

excavated pit).

Good drainage required underneath material.

Requires periodic renewal or replacement and continuous

maintenance (e.g., leveling, grading, sifting, raking) to

maintain appropriate depth and remove foreign matter.

Compacted sand should periodically be turned over,

loosened, and cleaned.

Gravel may require periodic break up and removal of hard pan.

Advantages

Low initial cost.

Ease of installation.

Does not pulverize.

Not ideal for microbial growth.

Nonflammable.

Materials are readily available.

Not susceptible to vandalism except by contamination.

Gravel is less attractive to animals than sand.

Disadvantages

The following conditions reduce cushioning potential:

1. Environmental conditions: rainy weather, high

humidity, freezing temperatures.

2. With normal use, combines with dirt and other

foreign materials.

3. Depth maybe reduced due to displacement by children’s activities and sand may be blown by wind.

May be blown or thrown into children’s eyes.

May be swallowed.

Conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g., broken glass,

nails, pencils, and other sharp objects that can cause cut

and puncture wounds).

Sand:

Spreads easily outside of containment area.

Small particles bind together and become less cushioning

when wet; when thoroughly wet, sand reacts as a rigid

material.

May be tracked out of play area on shoes; abrasive to

floor surfaces when tracked indoors; abrasive to plastic

materials.

Adheres to clothing.

Susceptible to fouling by animals.

Gravel:

Difficult to walk on.

If displaced onto nearby hard surface pathways, could

present a fall hazard.

Hard pan may form under heavily traveled areas.

UNITARY SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

rubber or rubber over foam mats or tiles,

poured in place urethane and rubber compositions

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

Manufacturer should be contacted for information on

Critical Height of materials when tested according to

ASTM F1292.

Installation/Maintenance

Some unitary materials can be laid directly on hard

surfaces such as asphalt or concrete.

Others may require expert under-surface preparation and

installation by the manufacturer or a local contractor.

Materials generally require no additional means of containment.

Once installed, the materials require minimal maintenance.

Advantages

Low maintenance.

Easy to clean.

Consistent shock absorbency.

Material not displaced by children during play activities.

Generally low life cycle costs.

Good footing (depends on surface texture).

Harbor few foreign objects.

Generally no retaining edges needed.

Is accessible to the handicapped.

30
Handbook for Public Playground Safety

Disadvantages

Initial cost relatively high.

Undersurfacing maybe critical for thinner materials.

Often must be used on almost level uniform surfaces.

May be flammable.

Subject to vandalism (e.g., ignited, defaced, cut).

Full rubber tiles may curl up and cause tripping.

Some designs susceptible to frost damage.

APPENDIX D

DESCRIPTION OF LOOSE FILL SURFACING

MATERIALS IN TABLE 2

1. Wood Mulch - Random sized wood chips, twigs, and

leaves collected from a wood chipper being fed tree limbs,

branches, and brush.

2. Double Shredded Bark Mulch - Similar to shredded mulch commonly used by homeowners to mulch

shrubs and flower beds.

3. Uniform Wood Chips - Relatively uniform sized

shredded wood fibers from recognized hardwoods.

Sample contained no bark or leaves.

4. Fine Sand - Particles of white sand purchased in bags

marked “play sand. ” The material was passed through

wire-cloth screens of different sizes in accordance with

ASTM Standard Method C136-84a and yielded the

following results:

Screen Percent Passing

Size Through Screen

5. Coarse Sand - Sample was obtained from a supplier

to the landscaping and construction trades ASTM C136-

84a test results were:

Screen Percent Passing

Size Through Screen

#4 98

#8 73

#16 4

#30 1

#50 0-1

6. Fine Gravel - Sample was obtained from a supplier to

the residential landscaping market. Gravel particles were

rounded and were generally less than 3/8 inch in diameter. ASTM C136-84a test results were:

Screen Percent Passing

Size Through Screen

3/8 inch 100

#3 1/2 93

# 4 65

# 8 8

#16 5

#30 4

7. Medium Gravel - Particles were rounded as found in

river washed or tumbled stone. ASTM C136-84a test

results were:

Screen Percent Passing

Size Through Screen

1/2 inch 100

3/8 inch 80

5/16 inch 58

#3 1/2 20

#4 8

#8 7

#16 3

31
For further information, write:

U.S. Consumer Product Safety

Commission

Washington, D.C. 20207

To report a product hazard or a product-related injury,

write to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission,

Washington, D.C. 20207, or call the toll-free hotline:

1-800-638-2772. A teletypewriter for the hearing and

speaking impaired is available on: 1-800-638-8270.

This document is in the public domain. Therefore, it may

be reproduced, in part or in whole, without permission by

an individual or organization. However, if it is reproduced,

the Commission would appreciate knowing how it is used.

Write the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission,

Office of Information and Public Affairs, Washington, D.C.

20207.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1994 0 - 160-700

(009409)