The Honorable Richard H. Battey, United States District Judge for the District 1

of South Dakota.

United States Court of Appeals

FOR THE EIGHTH CIRCUIT

___________

No. 98-2000

___________

United States of America, *

*

Appellee, *

* Appeal from the United States

v. * District Court for the District

* of South Dakota.

Gary Scott Whiting, *

*

Appellant.

___________

Submitted: October 22, 1998

Filed: January 19, 1999

___________

Before FAGG, ROSS, and BEAM, Circuit Judges.

___________

BEAM, Circuit Judge.

Gary Scott Whiting appeals his conviction in district court for possession of

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child pornography in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B). He asserts that pictures

stored on computer disks were not proscribed by the law at the time he possessed them.

We affirm.
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I. BACKGROUND

The pertinent facts are not in dispute. Whiting worked as an assistant fire chief

and emergency medical technician for the Piedmont fire department from 1993 until

September 1996. Whiting used a computer at work and had access to the Internet from

that computer. After Whiting left the fire department, employees discovered some

computer disks next to the computer that Whiting had used. These disks contained

image files which, when viewed, depicted minors engaging in sexually explicit

conduct. These disks were turned over to the Sheriff's department, who then turned

them over to the FBI. The FBI also discovered a log kept by Whiting listing the

pictures he had, and those he wished to acquire. He was indicted in April 1997, for

possession of child pornography, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B). He

entered a guilty plea conditioned on the challenges discussed below. As a factual basis

for the guilty plea, Whiting admitted that in June 1996, he "knowingly possessed three

or more computer disks which contained visual depictions of minors engaging in

sexually explicit conduct," and that the images had been transported in interstate

commerce through the use of a computer. 

18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B) prohibits the knowing possession of "3 or more

books, magazines, periodicals, films, video tapes, or other matter which contain any

visual depiction" of a minor engaged in explicit sexual conduct that has moved in

interstate commerce. At the time of Whiting's admitted conduct, the definition of

"visual depiction" read in its entirety, "'visual depiction' includes undeveloped film and

video tape." Former 18 U.S.C. § 2256(5) (1996). That definition was amended in

September 1996 by the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996, to read as follows:

"'visual depiction' includes undeveloped film and video tape, and data stored on

computer disk or by electronic means which is capable of conversion into a visual

image." 18 U.S.C. § 2256(5). This amendment gives rise to Whiting's appeal.
18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(4)(B) reads: 2

Any person who: (B) knowingly possesses 3 or more books, magazines,

periodicals, films, video tapes, or other matter which contain any visual

depiction that has been mailed, or has been shipped or transported in

interstate or foreign commerce, or which was produced using materials

which have been mailed or so shipped or transported, by any means

including by computer, if–

(i) the producing of such visual depiction involves the use

of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct; and

(ii) such visual depiction is of such conduct;

 shall be punished as provided in subsection (b) of this section. 

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II. DISCUSSION

Whiting raises two basic challenges to his conviction. First, he claims that the

application of the amended definition to conduct that occurred before its enactment

violates the ex post facto clause of the Constitution. In the alternative, he argues that

the law prior to the amendment was vague and that a conviction under the old statutory

definition on these facts violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. The

district court addressed and dismissed both of these contentions in an Order Denying

Motion to Dismiss.

We review a district court's interpretation of federal statutes de novo. See Cedar

Rapids Comm. Sch. Dist. v. Garret F., 106 F.3d 822, 824 (8th Cir. 1997). The starting

point in interpreting a statute is always the language of the statute itself. See United 2

States v. Talley, 16 F.3d 972, 975 (8th Cir. 1994). If the intent of Congress can be

clearly discerned from the statute's language, the judicial inquiry must end. See

Citicasters v. McCaskill, 89 F.3d 1350, 1354-55 (8th Cir. 1996). 

Whiting's ex post facto argument hinges on his assertion that, prior to the

amendment, the term "visual depiction" did not encompass image data stored on
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computer disks, thus he could only be convicted by a retroactive application of the new

definition. We disagree. Evaluating the statute as a whole, it is clear that images

stored on computer disks were prohibited by section 2252(a)(4)(B) prior to the

amendment. The change in the definition of "visual depiction," for purposes of section

2252(a)(4)(B), was a mere clarification and did not change the substance of the law.

The statute stated that "visual depiction" includes undeveloped film and video tape.

There is no language of limitation in this definition, as there is in other definitions

included in the same section ("minor" means any person under the age of eighteen

years; "organization" means . . .; "producing" means. . . ). See former 18 U.S.C. §

2256. When a statute uses the word "includes" rather than "means" in defining a term,

it does not imply that items not listed fall outside the definition. See Highway & City

Freight Drivers Local No. 600 v. Gordon Transports, Inc., 576 F.2d 1285, 1289 (8th

Cir. 1978). "Visual depictions" are not limited solely to undeveloped film and video

tapes. To argue otherwise would be to argue that photographs are not considered

"visual depictions" because they are not expressly mentioned, which would be

nonsense. There is no indication that images electronically stored in binary form were

excluded from the definition. Indeed, there is ample evidence that they were included.

Section 2252 expressly prohibits the possession of visual depictions that have moved

in interstate commerce, or are made using materials that have moved through interstate

commerce, by any means including computer. It is clear that Congress considered

images stored as data to be "visual depictions" because Congress expressly included

a mode of interstate transportation unique to computer data. 

As shown by the inclusion of undeveloped film and video tape, the term "visual

depictions" includes potential images as well as actual images, that is to say, images

that have already been produced, yet require additional processing to render them

viewable. In this regard, an image stored as data which can be read by a computer is

directly analogous to an image on video tape. They are both images stored as magnetic

signals that require processing by the use of a machine in order to view them. The fact

that they cannot be viewed as pornographic images until processed through the
Even prior to the amendment, the definition of "visual depiction" in section

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2256 was broad enough to include images contained in any storage and retrieval or

storage and viewing medium, whether computer-oriented or not. If the manner in

which an image is stored allows it to be processed in such a way as to create a viewable

picture, then the stored image may be a "visual depiction" for purposes of section 2256.

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appropriate equipment does not place them outside the definition of "visual depiction"

for purposes of the statute. See United States v. Lamb, 945 F. Supp. 441, 452

(N.D.N.Y. 1996). Similarly, the Seventh Circuit has held that computer images are

equivalent to "visual depictions" for purposes of the Sentencing Guidelines. See

United States v. Hall, 142 F.3d 988, 998 (7th Cir. 1998).

To accept Whiting's position would lead to the absurd conclusion that possession

and viewing of computer image files depicting minors engaged in explicit sexual

activity is completely lawful, and that the statute is violated only when those images

are printed on paper or transferred to video tape. An equally absurd conclusion would

be that transportation of child pornography by computer is prohibited, but that transfer

of electronic image data by computer is not. The Ninth Circuit has recently addressed

this very issue and, not surprisingly, arrived at the same conclusion. See United States

v. Hockings, 129 F.3d 1069, 1071-72 (9th Cir. 1997) (absurd to find that transportation

by computer was outlawed, but that computer image files were not included within the

definition of "visual depiction"). We find no merit in Whiting's contention that images

stored in files on computer disks are not "visual depictions" for the purposes of the

statute prior to its amendment.3

The purpose of laws prohibiting child pornography is not to police the morals

of the public, but to protect children from the injuries that accompany and flow from,

sexual exploitation, particularly the production and distribution of child pornography.

See, e.g., New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747, 756-58 (1982). By defining "visual

depiction" to include undeveloped film and video tape, Congress expressed its intent

to proscribe the possession of child pornography in any form, thus deterring the harm
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accompanying its creation. See Hockings, 129 F.3d at 1071-72. "The visual image

transported [or stored] in binary form starts and ends pornographically and that is what

Congress seeks to prohibit." Id. at 1072. Whiting advances no reasons why images

stored on computer disks are less harmful, or how their creation has less impact on

children, than photographs stored in shoeboxes. Because we find that images stored

on computer disks were encompassed by the original definition of "visual depiction,"

we find there was no retroactive application of a new law, and that Whiting was not

disadvantaged by the amendment. See United States v. Larson, 110 F.3d 620, 627 n.8

(8th Cir. 1997); United States v. St. John, 92 F.3d 761, 763 (8th Cir. 1996).

In his due process challenge, Whiting asserts that, even if images stored as

computer data were covered by the original definition of "visual depiction," the statute

was so vague that it did not give him fair notice that his conduct was unlawful, since

computer disks were not expressly listed within the definition. A penal statute is

unconstitutionally vague if it does not define the offense well enough to let ordinary

people know what is prohibited. See Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 357 (1983).

A lack of precision alone does not violate due process, but the Constitution requires

that "the language conveys sufficiently definite warning as to the proscribed conduct

when measured by common understanding and practices." Roth v. United States, 354

U.S. 476, 491 (1957) (citation omitted). Vagueness challenges such as Whiting's, that

do not involve First Amendment freedoms, must be examined in light of the facts of

the case at hand. See United States v. Mazurie, 419 U.S. 544, 550 (1975). 

In this case, Whiting admits that he sought out images of child pornography. He

downloaded the images from the Internet through interstate commerce using a

computer. He viewed them, stored them on disks, cataloged them, and made a list of

others he wished to acquire. Whiting admits the content of the images was in fact the

very subject matter precisely prohibited by the statute–minors engaged in "sexually

explicit conduct" as defined in section 2256(2). And the statute expressly includes

visual depictions that have been transported in interstate commerce via computer. 
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Whiting merely argues that, after receiving these admittedly prohibited images through

interstate commerce via computer, the statute was vague as to whether possession of

those images on computer disks was prohibited. This argument is without merit. We

find the statute clearly provided notice that Whiting's conduct was prohibited. The

content of the images was plainly covered by the statute, as was the interstate

transportation of the images via computer. And though the definition in section

2256(5) did not expressly include computer image files, it referred, in expansive

language, to types of potential images which are the logical and functional equivalent

of computer image files. We find that the statute gave more than sufficient notice to

ordinary people that the images in question, stored on computer disks, were "visual

depictions" for purposes of section 2252(a)(4)(B).

III. CONCLUSION

The judgment of the district court is affirmed.

A true copy.

Attest:

CLERK, U.S. COURT OF APPEALS, EIGHTH CIRCUIT.