United States General Accounting Office

GAO Report to the Ranking Minority Member,

Committee on National Security, House

of Representatives

April 1995 EQUAL

OPPORTUNITY

DOD Studies on

Discrimination in the

Military

GAO/NSIAD-95-103

GAO United States

General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

National Security and

International Affairs Division

B-260466 

April 7, 1995

The Honorable Ronald V. Dellums

Ranking Minority Member

Committee on National Security

House of Representatives

Dear Mr. Dellums:

Department of Defense (DOD) policy holds that discrimination that

adversely affects persons based on race, gender, or other factors, is

counterproductive to combat readiness. You expressed concern that

inequality of treatment and opportunity is a problem in the military and

requested that we assist you in determining the scope and nature of the

problem.

In response to your request, we initiated three reviews of equal

opportunity issues. In this report, we identify studies done, sponsored, or

commissioned by DOD during the past 20 years on discrimination in the

military. We summarized but did not evaluate the studies and, if

applicable, determined the status of any recommendations. In the other

two reviews, we are examining the services’ (1) systems for handling

discrimination complaints from active-duty servicemembers and

(2) efforts to detect and resolve apparent racial and gender disparities in

certain personnel decisions. These issues will be reported on separately.

Results in Brief We identified 72 studies, dating from 1974 to 1994, related to the issue of

equal opportunity in the military. We categorized the studies, based on

their content, into the areas of equal opportunity climate, training, sexual

discrimination and harassment, promotions, discipline, and recruitment.

The following are some of the general observations made in the studies:

• Blacks and women tended to hold negative perceptions regarding equal

opportunity in the military. Poor training and lack of visible chain of

command participation led to decreased emphasis on the Army’s equal

opportunity program.

• Racial harmony training in the Army improved effectiveness in dealing

with racial problems. Human relations training in the Air Force seemed to

give sufficient attention to service-specific issues and applications.

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• Sexual harassment is a problem in all services, and efforts to prevent it

have not been totally effective. Most victims did not take formal action

because they anticipated a negative outcome.

• Performance ratings and fitness reports of women serving in the Navy

contained gender-type language that may have negatively affected their

career paths and opportunities for promotion.

• When compared to their white counterparts, black servicemembers were

overrepresented in courts-martial with respect to certain types of offenses.

• White males are likely to continue to make up the majority of

servicemembers. Hispanic males will probably not increase their

representation in the military despite the relatively rapid growth of the

Hispanic population because their service eligibility rates are lower than

those of white males.

The military services reported taking complete or partial action on 26 of

the 38 studies that contained recommendations. They could not provide

information on the status of the recommendations in the other 11 reports.

The recommendation in one report is obsolete due to a change in policy.

In addition, the cognizant organizations could not locate or provide copies

of three reports.

Many Studies

Addressed Equal

Opportunity Climate

Issues

The 72 studies that we reviewed were done by military and private sector

organizations. Thirty-two were done by the Navy (including 1 on the

Marine Corps), 21 by the Army, and 7 by the Air Force. The Defense Equal

Opportunity Management Institute, the DOD Inspector General, and other

DOD offices published 12 studies that addressed DOD-wide issues. As

illustrated in figure 1, over one-third of the studies addressed equal

opportunity climate issues, followed by training, sexual discrimination and

harassment, promotions, discipline, and recruitment.

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B-260466 

Figure 1: DOD Equal Opportunity

Studies by Category, 1974-94

35% • Equal Opportunity Climate

21% • Training

14%•

Sexual Discrimination and

Harassment

•13%

Promotions

•

10%

Discipline

•

8%

Recruitment

Note: Percentages do not add to 100 percent due to rounding.

Equal Opportunity

Climate

Twenty-five of the studies that we reviewed addressed equal opportunity

climate issues. These studies examined the perceptions that military

servicemembers have about the issues of racial and gender discrimination,

sexual harassment, and the military’s support of equal opportunity

programs. Most of the studies were completed by the Army and the Navy.

Many of the studies found that white males had the most positive

perception about the equal opportunity climate and blacks the least

positive perceptions. Minorities and females generally perceived less

opportunity for advancement, promotion, and fairness in discipline.

According to a 1994 DOD Inspector General report, evidence supported the

conclusions drawn in 86 percent of the discrimination cases reviewed. The

report found that there is no standard definition for any type of

discrimination, other than sexual harassment, within DOD. Other studies

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showed that problems existed in the management of equal opportunity

programs, but the services reported that some corrective actions had been

implemented.

Fourteen of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate

services. According to the services, recommendations in 11 of these

studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.

Training We identified 15 studies on training issues. This category includes studies

on discrimination in training for certain jobs and training to educate

military members about equal opportunity issues. The Army and the Navy

published most of these studies.

Most studies of training on equal opportunity issues were released by the

Army between 1977 and 1980. The Army’s equal opportunity training was

perceived as inadequate on bases in Korea and Europe. Racial harmony

training for commanders was shown to improve skills and effectiveness in

dealing with racial problems.

The Navy studies concerning training generally addressed discrimination

in training for certain jobs and were done from 1974 to 1977. These studies

indicated that minority personnel were underrepresented in several

occupations because they were unable to pass the entry tests. The Navy

conducted several research efforts to identify methods to increase the

number of minorities selected for technical training. The results showed a

disparity between blacks’ and whites’ test scores, and lower selection

composite scores were recommended. A 1990 study showed that the

process used to evaluate applicants for the U.S. Naval Academy and

predict aspects of their performance was not biased against blacks.

Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate

services. The recommendations in only one of these studies had been

completely implemented.

Sexual Discrimination

and Harassment

Sexual discrimination and harassment studies accounted for 10 of the 

72 studies we identified, but this issue was not specifically addressed until

1988. Some studies examined sexual discrimination and harassment

DOD-wide, but most were conducted by and focused on the Navy.

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Overall, the studies showed that sexual harassment was a problem in all

the services, and efforts to prevent it have not been totally effective. The

typical situation was a male offender harassing a female subordinate. Most

victims did not take formal action because they anticipated a negative

outcome. Since 1992, there has been an increase in the percentage of

female officers and female enlisted personnel in the Navy who have

reported being harassed.

Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate

services. According to the services, the recommendations in all of these

studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.

Promotions Studies addressing promotion accounted for nine of the studies we

reviewed. The Navy published most of the studies in this area. A study

showed that black males were the most underpromoted group compared

to other minority groups. Other studies showed gender bias in the

narratives of naval officer fitness reports and performance ratings. A 1994

study showed that males were more often recommended for promotion or

command, while females were more often recommended for a follow-on

assignment.

Seven of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate

services. According to the services, recommendations in five of these

studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.

Discipline Studies on discipline accounted for 7 of the 72 studies. Studies done in the

1970s and 1980s showed no disparities in discipline rates between blacks

and whites and found no evidence that minority groups received

courts-martial or nonjudicial punishments out of proportion to certain

types of violations.

However, studies published by the Navy and the Defense Equal

Opportunity Management Institute in the 1990s showed that blacks were

overrepresented in the populations of servicemembers receiving judicial

and nonjudicial punishments. Another study showed that, in comparison

to white inmates of the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks, incarcerated blacks

had lower academic ability test scores, different family profiles, more

interpersonal problems, more prior military discipline problems, less time

in the military at the time of incarceration, and a higher likelihood of being

incarcerated for committing a violent crime.

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Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate

services. According to the services, recommendations in two of these

studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.

Recruitment Studies on recruitment accounted for 6 of the 72 studies. A 1974 Navy

study showed no significant differences in the treatment of blacks or

whites during interviews for Navy assignments. A 1977 study found that

women who joined the Navy placed a higher value on service to others and

were more negative than men about jobs involving work with materials or

machines. It concluded that these values were not consistent with the jobs

to which they were likely to be assigned. In 1989, a study found that white

males would probably continue to make up the majority of

servicemembers, while Hispanic males would probably not increase their

proportions because their service eligibility rates are lower than those of

white males.

Two of the studies contained recommendations for the Navy and the

Marine Corps. The Navy reported implementing the recommendations in

one of these studies.

Agency Comments DOD agreed with the contents of this report and suggested that we make

some minor technical revisions. We made these revisions where

appropriate. DOD noted that it did not implement all the recommendations

in the studies we identified because changes in policies, service culture,

and the equal opportunity climate do not always make them relevant in

today’s military. In addition, DOD indicated that most studies reflect the

views of their authors and not necessarily those of the organizations

requesting the studies. A copy of DOD’s comments is reprinted in 

appendix III.

Scope and

Methodology

We asked officials at the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and the

services for studies on equal opportunity, discrimination, and sexual

harassment conducted by OSD, the military services, or other entities. We

conducted literature searches of various DOD databases. We contacted

experts in academia and interest groups to help identify additional studies.

We also asked DOD’s Director of Military Equal Opportunity to provide a

status of the recommendations in all applicable studies. We did not

evaluate the studies or the implementation of the recommendations. Our

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work was done from May 1994 to February 1995 in accordance with

generally accepted government auditing standards.

Appendix I contains our summaries of the studies, recommendations, and

actions taken on the recommendations. Appendix II contains a detailed

discussion of our scope and methodology.

We are sending copies of this letter to other appropriate congressional

committees and interested members; the Secretaries of Defense, the Air

Force, the Army, and the Navy; the Commandant of the Marine Corps; and

the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness. Copies will

also be made available to others on request.

If we can be of any further assistance to you or your staff, please contact

me on (202) 512-5140 or Albert H. Huntington, III, on (202) 512-4140. Major

contributors to this report were Colin L. Chambers and Maria J. Santos.

Sincerely yours,

Mark E. Gebicke

Director, Military Operations

 and Capabilities Issues

Page 7 GAO/NSIAD-95-103 DOD Equal Opportunity Studies
Contents

Letter 1

Appendix I 

DOD Reports on

Discrimination and

Equal Opportunity

10

Equal Opportunity Climate 10

Training 24

Sexual Discrimination and Harassment 30

Promotions 35

Discipline 41

Recruitment 45

Appendix II 

Scope and

Methodology

48

Appendix III 

Comments From the

Department of

Defense

50

Figure Figure 1: DOD Equal Opportunity Studies by Category, 1974-94 3

Abbreviations

ARI Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences

CMEO Command Managed Equal Opportunity

CNO Chief of Naval Operations

CONUS continental United States

DEOMI Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute

DOD Department of Defense

EO equal opportunity

IG Inspector General

NPRDC Navy Personnel Research and Development Center

OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense

ROTC Reserve Officers Training Corps

USAF U.S. Air Force

USAREUR U.S. Army, Europe

USD(P&R) Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness

USNA U.S. Naval Academy

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Appendix I 

DOD Reports on Discrimination and Equal

Opportunity

Equal Opportunity

Climate

Review of Military Department Investigations of Allegations of

Discrimination by Military Personnel, by the Department of Defense

(DOD) Inspector General (IG), March 1994.

This review showed that 86 percent of the services’ investigations of

military discrimination complaints reviewed found sufficient evidence to

support the conclusions drawn. The feedback to complainants regarding

the outcome of the investigations of their complaints was documented in

65 percent of the cases reviewed, and follow-up to measure the

effectiveness of corrective action was documented in 6 percent of the

cases. There are no standard definitions for any type of discrimination,

other than sexual harassment, within DOD. The rank and experience of

equal opportunity (EO) advisors may not be commensurate with the level

of assigned responsibility.

Recommendations: The Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and

Readiness (USD (P&R)) should require that complainants receive

documented feedback regarding the outcome of investigations of their

complaints. Documented follow-up should also be required to determine

the effectiveness of corrective action taken. Standard definitions for types

of discrimination should be established. Criteria and rank qualifications

for EO program positions throughout DOD should be established.

Status of Recommendations: In July 1994, USD (P&R) reported that the

military service secretaries had taken steps to improve the timeliness of

investigations and feedback to complainants about the resolution of

investigations and to ensure that complainants are protected from

reprisals for reporting discrimination or harassment. The Defense Equal

Opportunity Council Task Force on Discrimination and Sexual

Harassment is working to establish standard definitions for types of

discrimination and harassment. The grade structure, training, and number

of those working in military EO jobs is under review.

When We Listened, This is What We Heard

(An Analysis of the Written Comments From the 1991 Navy-wide

Personnel Survey), by Navy Personnel Research and Development

Center (NPRDC), November 1993.

The Chief of Naval Personnel commissioned the Navy-wide personnel

survey in 1990 to collect data on enlisted servicemembers’ and officers’

opinions and perceptions of life in the Navy. Integrating women into the

Navy was foremost in the minds of many personnel. Some said that

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Opportunity

women should not be assigned to ships and that women were sometimes

given preferential treatment. Sexual harassment issues were a concern to

many individuals. Some personnel saw education as a solution to gender

conflict issues.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Naval Inspector General Study of the Command Managed Equal

Opportunity (CMEO) Program, by Naval IG, May 1993.

None of the commands visited for this study had complied with the

minimum elements of the CMEO program, and disparity in support for the

program was noted. Many of the discrepancies found during the study had

been identified previously and reported in the 1988 CNO Study Group’s

Report on Equal Opportunity in the Navy (see summary of the 1988 report

on p. 16). The Bureau of Personnel’s lack of effective oversight hampered

implementation of the CMEO program. In addition, the commands did not

use EO program specialists effectively in that their functions were poorly

defined, their community poorly managed, and their effectiveness is

constrained by restrictions on their time, mobility, and authority.

Assessment team members were not prepared to do convincing or reliable

assessments of EO programs. Also, the Navy’s Equal Opportunity Manual

lacked direction, clarity, and simplicity.

Recommendations: Increase visibility of and accountability for the CMEO

program throughout the chain of command, including headquarters

support and oversight; design and revise Navy EO training curricula, as

necessary, to meet CMEO requirements; and ensure that effective CMEO

inspections are being done and EO program specialists are being used to

inspect and routinely monitor EO programs.

Status of Recommendations: A CMEO working group was established to

consider a draft revision of the EO manual, the EO manual was revised, and

a CMEO users’ guide was issued.

Secretary of the Army Human Resources Consultants Report: CONUS

1992, by various consultants for the Secretary of the Army,

July-September 1992.

Various consultants examined and reported on the viability and health of

EO policies and programs at Army installations in the continental United

States (CONUS). At Fort Jackson, South Carolina, trainees were concerned

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Opportunity

about the lack of minorities and females in leadership positions. At Fort

Hood, Texas, soldiers said that making EO and sexual harassment

complaints through the chain of command did not always work and cited

several reasons: lack of results from previous complaints, the presence of

a harasser in the chain of command, the time and burden of proof required

to file complaints, and the perception that a “good old boy” system

existed. Servicemembers were sexually harassed at several installations,

mainly through gestures, language, and innuendo against females as an

individual or a group. Some soldiers said that the Army did not yet have

the resolve or the knowledge to develop a clear, understandable, and

widely distributed policy on sexual harassment.

Recommendations: Many recommendations in these studies focused on

concerns of sexual harassment in the Army.

Status of Recommendations: The Army reports that it has addressed the

concerns raised by restructuring both the regulatory guidance for the

program and the complaint process, which included reprisal actions.

Assessment of Equal Opportunity Climate: Results of the 1989

Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, May 1992.

In 1989, NPRDC administered the Navy EO/sexual harassment survey to

provide Navy policymakers an accurate baseline measure of EO climate

and sexual harassment among active-duty Navy personnel. Navy personnel

as a whole had positive perceptions of the EO climate, with white male

officers consistently reporting the most positive perceptions. The

differences in EO perceptions between male and female officers were

typically larger than between male and female enlisted personnel.

Perceptions of fairness in discipline were lowest among blacks. The

perceptions of Hispanics consistently fell between those of whites and

blacks and were typically closer to those of whites.

Recommendations: Compare the results of the 1991 survey with the 1989

survey to determine whether changes have occurred in the perceptions of

EO climate among minorities and women. Use the 1989 survey and future

survey results to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions and

affirmative actions monitored under the Navy Affirmative Action Plan to

promote EO in the Navy. Using 1989 and 1991 survey results, attempt to

identify factors associated with the comparatively less positive

perceptions expressed by black females. Publicize the results of the 1989

and subsequent surveys among active-duty Navy personnel. Use the 1989

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Opportunity

and future survey results to establish Navy-wide norms for EO elements

used in the Command Assessment Team EO surveys. Integrate the survey

findings into the Command Training Team instructor training and training

provided by authorized independent EO program specialists. Establish an

EO database from the 1989 survey, and combine it with future results to

track changes in EO perceptions over time.

Status of Recommendations: All Navy EO/sexual harassment survey results

were compared to those in previous surveys. Policy and training were

modified as necessary. Research was funded for fiscal year 1995 to

examine the less positive perceptions expressed by black females. The

Black Women in the Navy Study Group was convened to address issues

and propose solutions. Black females’ perceptions of Navy EO were

studied, and results were distributed to Navy personnel throughout the

fleet. NPRDC established Navy-wide norms for EO elements and

incorporated them into Command Assessment Team software. Survey

findings were distributed throughout the fleet and were included in the

material used in Command Training Team indoctrination training. NPRDC

established and maintains an EO database.

The Chief of Personnel Asked, and Here Is What They Said! (An

Analysis of Written Comments From the Navy Personnel Survey

1990), by NPRDC, March 1992.

The Chief of Naval Personnel commissioned this survey on the opinions

and perceptions held by enlisted and officer personnel about Navy life.

Women commenting on the way they were viewed and treated in the Navy

tended to be critical. Some men called for a harassment-free environment,

while others attempted to explain away or rationalize sexual harassment.

Other men expressed resentment over double standards or favoritism,

women’s exploitation of the system resulting in a climate of fear, and

sexual harassment by women. The personnel who commented on race

relations disagreed on whether the Navy had problems in this area,

whether the races were treated equally, and whether the Navy needed an

EO program.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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Opportunity

United States Air Force Academy Cadets’ Attitude and Behaviors

Regarding Sexual Harassment, Racial and Religious Discrimination,

and Alcohol Use: An Interim Report on the Cadet Social Climate

Survey, by U.S. Air Force Academy Department of Behavioral Sciences

and Leadership, 1992.

This report describes the development of the cadet social climate survey,

its initial results, and the implications for cadet education and training.

Approximately half of white cadets believed that minorities have an unfair

advantage because of affirmative action programs, while 80 percent of

black cadets disagreed. The responses of Asian-American and Hispanic

cadets were closer to those of the black cadets. Eight percent of white

cadets believed that EO training programs were superficial, compared with

42 percent of black cadets. Thirty-five percent of male cadets reported

using racial slurs around trusted individuals, compared to 12 percent of

female cadets. Cadets who were more racially tolerant tended to have

similar attitudes toward gender issues. Overall, female and black cadets

expressed more tolerant and accepting attitudes regarding racial issues

than did white cadets.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Secretary of the Army Human Resources Consultants Report:

USAREUR 1991, by various consultants for the Secretary of the Army,

October 1991.

Various consultants examined and reported on the implementation of EO

policies and programs at U.S. Army, Europe (USAREUR). The Army’s

emphasis on individual preparedness with little unit training, coupled with

boredom, uncertainty about the drawdown of forces, and fear of the

unknown, tended to reinforce perceived EO shortcomings and give rise to

charges of sexual harassment. Many EO concerns could be traced to a lack

of communication regarding the downsizing of the military forces.

Recommendations: Reiterate EO responsibilities as a priority within all

commands. Restore chain of command leadership by holding commanders

accountable for the flow of information within their commands and

enforcement of standards. Do a better job of defining and educating the

force about sexual harassment. Make every effort to resolve factors

causing stress of servicemembers related to the drawdown. Change the

perception about distrust in the IG system.

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DOD Reports on Discrimination and Equal

Opportunity

Status of Recommendations: The Army reports that it has addressed the

concerns raised. One method used was through the development of a

sexual harassment action plan, which contained initiatives and specific

actions to reinstate EO officers at various commands, reinforce specific

training objectives for problem areas, and restructure the complaint

process.

Special Assessment of Equal Opportunity, by U.S. Army IG,

November 1990.

The study, which focused on racial discrimination, gender discrimination,

and sexual harassment, found that the Army does not have a major EO

problem, having made significant EO achievements since the 1970s. EO

program emphasis, however, was declining in the Army, as evidenced by

poor training, lack of visible chain of command participation in the

program and training, and the consolidation and elimination of EO advisor

positions. Minorities had a less positive view of the EO climate in the Army

than did white males. This minority viewpoint was attributed in part to the

lack of visible actions by commanders in support of the EO program. The

Army’s EO training was found to be sufficient to achieve and sustain EO

awareness.

Recommendations: The report includes 14 recommendations to enhance

EO training and visibility of EO programs, promote off-post EO efforts, and

improve sensitivity of EO matters.

Status of Recommendations: The Army implemented 11 recommendations

and did not concur with the other 3. Specifically, the Army declined to

(1) study centralized management of nominations for key officer

leadership positions at the installation or other appropriate level,

(2) revise chapter 6 of Army Regulation 600-20 to centralize the

management of nominations for key officer leadership positions at the

installation level, and (3) release the results of selection boards by racial

or ethnic category and gender.

Sex, Race, and Job Status Differences in Perceptions of Equal

Opportunity Climate, by Defense Equal Opportunity Management

Institute (DEOMI), summer 1990.

A summary of military EO climate surveys shows that whites, males, and

officers were found to have more positive feelings about the EO climate

than blacks, females, or enlisted personnel. The survey is a measure of

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DOD Reports on Discrimination and Equal

Opportunity

perceptions of the EO climate in the military, and results may not be an

accurate reflection of the equality of opportunity. A further study of the

congruence of perception scores and actual promotion and discipline rates

by race, gender, and job status would be useful in clarifying the

relationship between attitude toward EO and the actual implementation of

EO policies.

Recommendations: The report did not contain recommendations.

CNO Study Group’s Report on Equal Opportunity in the Navy, by the

Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), July 1988.

The study group reviewed accessions of officer and enlisted personnel,

attrition, and other management policies and practices to determine

revisions needed to support minorities in achieving equal opportunity. A

review of the EO climate at the command level indicated that the Navy’s

program was inconsistent in generating the proper EO behavior. Navy

rights and responsibilities workshops lacked sufficient EO content and

consistent presentation. The conduct of required EO training was

inconsistent, and officers did not receive the required EO training. The

excessive detail and size of the Navy Affirmative Action Plan made it

impractical for use as a management tool. Additionally, the plan lacked the

necessary visibility to be given sufficient priority, and its oversight and

management were ineffective. The Navy’s EO organization was not fully

effective at the headquarters and fleet levels.

Recommendations: Sixty-three recommendations were included to

improve the effectiveness of the Navy’s command climate, CMEO program,

EO training policy, the Navy Affirmative Action Plan, and the Navy’s EO

organization.

Status of Recommendations: According to the Navy, most

recommendations have been implemented although some lack

documentation. The implementation of several recommendations is in

progress.

Report Task Force on Women in the Military, by DOD Task Force on

Women in the Military, January 1988.

The task force addressed sexual harassment and quality of life for women.

It focused on the degree to which policy and its implementation in each of

the services conformed with DOD guidance. Regarding sexual harassment,

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DOD Reports on Discrimination and Equal

Opportunity

the task force found that it remained a significant problem in all services.

Institutional efforts to prevent sexual harassment had been vigorous and

sincere, but not totally effective. Incidents involving higher command

levels appeared to be unusual, but there was still a wide variety of less

severe abuses, including sexually offensive remarks and gestures. The lack

of a uniform, DOD-wide definition of sexual harassment and uniform

assessment procedures hampered more precise documentation of rates

and types of sexual harassment.

Recommendations: Recommendations addressing sexual harassment and

quality of life issues were made to the Secretary of Defense.

Status of Recommendations: DOD’s Director of Military Equal Opportunity

could not provide information on the status of these recommendations.

Navy Study Group’s Report on Progress of Women in the Navy, by

CNO Study Group, December 1987.

This study examined the assimilation of women into the naval force. The

study group found that many of the women in grades E-1 to E-3, who

constituted 23 percent of the Navy’s female enlisted force, were frustrated

in their efforts to advance to the E-4 level. Some enlisted women who had

tried unsuccessfully to obtain shipboard duty perceived that they would

not be competitive with their male peers for advancement to the E-7

through E-9 levels. Over half of the Navy women interviewed indicated

they had been victims of some form of sexual harassment in the Navy, and

nearly all those interviewed reported observing some form of sexual

harassment. The career pattern for women in the “general unrestricted

line,” the largest Navy officer community composed predominantly of

women, lacked structure and was not clearly defined.

Recommendations: Forty recommendations were made to clarify Navy

policy on women in the Navy, enhance opportunities for women at various

enlisted and officer levels, review policies affecting pregnant women and

single parents, address sexual harassment and fraternization, and enhance

the quality of life for women in the Navy.

Status of Recommendations: The CNO convened a follow-on Navy women’s

study group at the direction of the Secretary of the Navy in November 1990

to review this report, assess the current status, and evaluate the

implementation and efficacy of previous recommendations. He directed

that special emphasis be placed on the issue of sexual harassment.

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Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences in Responses to the Human

Resource Management Survey of Personnel Assigned to the

Atlantic and Pacific Fleets, by NPRDC, January 1983.

The objectives of this study were to analyze the Navy’s EO climate in the

fleet and establish baselines for future comparisons of the perceptions of

minority and majority groups. The study found that E-1 through E-5 blacks

and E-6 Filipinos were the only racial/ethnic groups that consistently

reported significantly lower perceptions of EO than did whites. Women

officers in the Pacific Fleet saw the treatment of personnel in their

commands in a more negative light and reported lower motivation and

satisfaction than did the men.

Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that human resource

management personnel be made aware of the stable patterns found in this

and earlier racial/ethnic and gender analyses of the human resource

management survey. Specific attention should be given to the negative

perceptions of non-rated blacks. Human resource management teams

should conduct focused interviews to gain greater insight into the causes

of lowered EO perceptions among specific groups.

Status of Recommendations: The Navy implemented workshops on

cultural expression and middle management actions to counter racism.

The Navy is uncertain whether focused interviews were conducted.

How Enlisted Women and Men View the Navy Organization, by

NPRDC, January 1982.

The results of this study replicated those of a 1976 study (see Differential

Perceptions of Organizational Climate Held by Navy Enlisted Women and

Men on p. 22). The study showed that although women were initially

optimistic, their perceptions of the Navy were more negative than men’s as

they advanced to petty officer levels. Women at the E-4 to E-6 levels were

less positive than men about peer relations, issues related to human

resources at the command level, and the integration of personal and

organizational goals. Women at the E-4 through E-9 levels were less

positive than men regarding perceptions of supervisory adequacy and EO

practices within the command. Women showed less positive perceptions

of Navy life than they had in 1975, and men showed more positive

perceptions. These gender differences may have been related to the fact

that less emphasis was placed on organizational development in the shore

establishments, where women were concentrated.

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Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that women be given accurate

information at recruitment to prevent unrealistic expectations and ensuing

disappointment. It also recommended that managers be educated in the

use of mixed-sex work groups and the supervision of women.

Status of recommendations: To address these recommendations, the Navy

initiated workshops on women in the Navy, middle management actions to

counter racism, military rights and responsibilities, and cultural

expression in the Navy.

Measuring Institutional Discrimination in the Army: 1974-80, by

Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI),

June 1981.

Based on computerized records of the entire Army population from 1974

through 1980, the study concludes that institutional discrimination

persisted through 1980. The study defines institutional discrimination

against minorities or women as differences that (1) are correlated with

demographic group membership, (2) result from the normal functioning of

the organization, and (3) operate to the consistent disadvantage of

minority group members or women. Blacks, Hispanics, females, and other

racial/ethnic groups were not uniformly distributed across pay grade and

occupational categories. Speed of promotion and separation rates varied

among the groups. In general, most disparities could be interpreted as

disadvantages to the demographic groups in question. All four groups were

underrepresented in the officer grades and were not uniformly

represented across occupational categories.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

A Systems Analysis of the Navy’s Equal Opportunity Program, by

Booz, Allen, and Hamilton for the Naval Military Personnel Command,

August 1980.

This report analyzes the organization and management of the Navy’s EO

program at the headquarters level. It describes and analyzes EO program

operations, including basic policies, organizational structure,

responsibilities, and relationships; policy development and planning;

program management and monitoring; and resources. The report

concludes that the Navy’s EO program was characterized by its complexity

and visibility, the roles and responsibilities of the program sponsor and

manager needed stronger definition, and the overall management of the

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headquarters program could be improved. In addition, an overall

management system or approach to the field program needed to be

developed. Existing resources were generally adequate at the time of the

study but might not be sufficient for the future.

Recommendations: The study recommended that the Navy develop a

working definition of what constitutes the EO program. The Navy

Affirmative Action Plan should be used to improve planning for and

management of the EO program, and the Navy should be able to measure

the program for achievement of the plan’s goals. The plan should be

updated annually and an analysis of the demographic data report provided.

The existing Navy instructions governing the field program should be

revised.

Status of Recommendations: The Navy did not provide information on the

status of these recommendations.

Equal Opportunity: Fourth Annual Assessment of Military

Programs, by Department of the Army, May 1980.

The report provides the status of affirmative actions as established in the

1978 Army Affirmative Action Plan. The assessment found that the number

of blacks and women in the Army had increased since 1976. Enrollment of

minorities and women at the U.S. Military Academy surpassed goal

objectives, with the exception of the enrollment of blacks. Results of

promotion boards during fiscal year 1979 were generally favorable for

minority and women officers, although selection rate percentages were

usually lower than the Army average for black officers. The percentage of

dishonorable discharges received by whites and non-black minorities

increased during fiscal year 1979, while the percentage for blacks

decreased. The number of discrimination complaints that the Army acted

on and the percentage of cases substantiated declined from those of fiscal

year 1978. Officers and enlisted soldiers ranked race problems among the

last in relation to other unit personnel problems.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Communication Problem Areas Between Black and White Soldiers:

1974-79, by ARI, April 1980.

ARI surveyed a random sample of 88 junior-enlisted Army soldiers, focusing

on both verbal and nonverbal communication problems between blacks

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and whites. Several areas of perceived differences existed between blacks

and whites. Blacks generally appeared more aware of areas whites viewed

as communication problems than whites were of the perceptions of

blacks. It appeared that blacks were less sensitive to certain

communication behaviors of whites, while whites indicated little change in

their sensitivity to similar behaviors of blacks.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Reliability of a Measure of Institutional Discrimination Against

Minorities, by ARI, December 1979.

The study analyzes the statistical properties and general operating

characteristics of the “Difference Indicator,” which was developed under

contract for the U.S. Army to measure institutional discrimination. The

indicator is a ratio of the proportion of individuals selected for the

category or dimension of interest that belongs to the minority group to the

proportion of minority group members in the eligible population for the

category. The study found that the indicator could be of value not only for

detecting and investigating disparities between minority and majority

personnel but also for demonstrating the absence of a difference. As is the

case with any statistical procedure, the user must not make blind

application of the tool.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Perceptions of Equal Opportunity and Race Relations Among

Military Personnel, by Air Force Human Resources Laboratory,

December 1976.

The study found that non-whites generally perceived less opportunity for

minority group members in most of the following areas: promotions, duty

assignments, military justice, training opportunities, social activities,

respect from superiors, housing, perceptions of racial unrest, and opinions

about race relations training. Non-whites were more likely to place a

favorable evaluation on race relations training. Enlisted personnel were

more likely than officers to perceive less opportunity for minority group

members, more racial unrest, less improvement in race relations, and less

value in race relations training.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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Changes in Black and White Perceptions of the Army’s Race

Relations/Equal Opportunity Programs—1972 to 1974, by ARI,

November 1976.

In 1972, ARI initiated an Army-wide survey to determine how black and

white Army personnel perceived the nature and severity of race problems,

and how they perceived EO and treatment programs then in existence. ARI

did another survey in 1974 to determine what changes, if any, had

occurred in attitudes and perceptions during the intervening period.

Overall, the perceptions of the black and white Army personnel sampled

substantially supported the proposition that the racial situation in the

Army had improved. The areas of promotions and military justice

remained the primary sources of dissatisfaction for blacks, although

significant improvement in both areas was perceived. There was far less

dissatisfaction in 1974 with military justice than there was in 1972.

Favorable perceptions of race relations training had decreased compared

with 1972. Although the sharp cleavage in black-white perceptions and

attitudes noted in 1972 was still there, a clear-cut convergence of black

and white perceptions on certain basic issues was apparent.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Differential Perceptions of Organizational Climate Held by Navy

Enlisted Women and Men, by NPRDC, August 1976.

This study analyzes data obtained from the Navy human resource

management survey and addresses the interaction of gender and pay grade

on organizational climate dimensions for a sample of shore personnel.

Results show that women had an initial tendency to respond optimistically

on the survey. However, as they advanced to petty officer levels, they

became disproportionately disillusioned on certain dimensions, especially

in the area of attitudes toward peers. With increases in pay grade, women

appeared to feel less a part of the work group team, whereas the opposite

trend was true for men. Results are discussed in terms of the solo woman

in work groups, expectations women may have built up during recruitment

and basic training, role conflict, and possible “fear of success” in

competitive situations as women advanced in their careers.

Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that recruiters realistically

portray Navy life to women applicants to lessen disillusionment as women

move up in pay grade. A longitudinal study is necessary to confirm

whether women actually do become disenchanted as they advance in the

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Navy and to determine the factors contributing to such a process and their

relationship to attrition.

Status of Recommendations: The Navy could not provide specific

information concerning action taken on these recommendations.

The Measurement of Institutional Discrimination, by ARI,

August 1975.

The report explains the representation index, a method for measuring

institutional discrimination, and presents examples using data on the

representation of blacks among officers and enlisted combat specialties.

The index measures institutional discrimination as a pattern of treatment

of a subgroup of the population that persists over time. Using this method,

blacks were found to be underrepresented among officers and

overrepresented in enlisted combat specialties. The representation index

can be used to measure the role of other minority groups in the Army and

can be used in other institutional settings as well.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Conference: After Action

Report, by Department of the Army, August 1974.

The report summarizes the major activities of the Third Worldwide

Department of the Army Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Conference

held in January 1974. The objectives of the conference were to evaluate

the effectiveness of existing EO/race relations programs and policies,

obtain feedback on problems encountered in the field, and elicit

suggestions and recommendations concerning the future direction of the

Army’s EO effort. The following topics were among those discussed:

women in the Army, officer efficiency reports, the military justice system,

assignments of officers to race relations/EO positions, the recruitment of

minority officers, race relations/EO training programs, the minority

composition of the Army, functions of the Army’s Office of Equal

Opportunity, and the extent to which the Army was willing to implement

and monitor race relations/EO programs. The consensus was that although

progress had been made in many areas, much remained to be done.

Recommendations: Conference attenders studied 15 major areas of

interest and submitted 138 recommendations for improvement.

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Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide documentation

for actions taken in 1974. However, the Army reports that policymakers

considered the feedback obtained in the conference in making revisions of

regulatory guidance. In some cases, the Army reports that other data

caused it to take a different course of action than was recommended in the

study to address the concerns raised.

Training Gender and Performance in Naval Aviation Training, by Naval

Aerospace Medical Institute, 1992.

The Defense Technical Information Center could not locate a copy of this

report.

Assessment of Differential Prediction by Race for the USNA Classes

of 1986-90, by NPRDC, December 1990.

The U.S. Naval Academy (USNA) uses the Candidate Multiple, a composite

of several measures, to evaluate applicants and to predict many aspects of

academic performance. The Candidate Multiple was evaluated using the

regression model of test fairness to determine if it is biased against blacks.

The regression model states that a test is biased for a subgroup if it

consistently over- or under-predicts the performance for members of that

group. The analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between

separate prediction systems. This difference increases prediction by only

about three-fourths of a percentage point. Thus, the use of separate

equations does not provide a meaningful improvement in the prediction of

academic performance. The evaluation found no bias against blacks.

Recommendation: USNA should continue using a single prediction system.

Status of Recommendation: The Navy could not provide information on

the status of this recommendation.

Review and Evaluation of Air Force Human Relations Curriculum,

by Colgate University for the Air Force, 1989.

Emphasis on issues involving racism, sexism, and sexual harassment

appeared to have declined at several key training levels. This decline

occurred during a period in which forms of bias were increasing. Several

positive aspects of present programs were noted: the courses were broad

in the issues they addressed; the treatment of prejudice was well-grounded

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in psychological and sociological theory concerning interpersonal and

intergroup behavior; current Air Force human relations education

provided solid coverage of the classic scholarly treatment of issues of

prejudice and discrimination, and sufficient attention seemed to be given

to service-specific issues and applications; and skill development was

effectively integrated with academic material.

Recommendations: Material and exercises on modern forms of racism and

sexism should be included to supplement treatment of the more

traditional forms. Modern racism and sexism should be addressed in

human relations education courses at all levels.

Status of Recommendations: The Air Force could not provide specific

information on the status of these recommendations.

Field Test of the Unit Equal Opportunity Training Diagnosis and

Assessment System, by ARI, February 1980.

ARI concluded that this system—designed to assist the company-level

commander diagnose unit-level EO problems, develop a unit EO training

program designed to reduce problems, and assess the effectiveness of the

training program—had several implementation problems. Although the

system was designed to be integrated into routine, ongoing activities in

appropriate areas inside and outside the EO operation, it was viewed and

administered as an EO function. With increased experience in using the

system, increased quality, and increased efficiency on the part of its

implementors, commanders became more willing and likely to ask for EO

staff assistance. Findings of the field test were used to make revisions to

the system.

Recommendations: The report made 12 recommendations for future

development of the system.

Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide specific

information on the status of these recommendations.

A Second Study of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in

USAREUR, by ARI, January 1979.

This study of EO training programs at USAREUR, is a follow-up to a study

conducted in 1976-77 (see An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal

Opportunity Training in USAREUR on p. 28). In general, the findings of the

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earlier study were confirmed and extended. The racial climate and

unit-level EO training continued to worsen. Much of the increasing racial

tension came from whites who perceived increased reverse

discrimination. While some improvements were noted in community-level

EO training, unit-level EO training continued to decline. Chain-of-command

personnel tended to see a far more positive race relations and EO situation

than did enlisted personnel. Although relatively infrequent, the incidence

of direct physical interracial confrontations appeared to be increasing.

Recommendations: Sixteen recommendations were made to improve the

EO program at USAREUR.

Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide specific

information on the status of the recommendations.

Racial Harmony Training for Company Commanders: A Preliminary

Evaluation, by ARI, September 1978.

This report evaluates the effectiveness of a 3-day training course on race

relations for company commanders. Commanders exposed to the course

demonstrated greater knowledge of the facts, methods, and skills needed

to deal with interracial issues in a military unit compared to commanders

not exposed to training. Enlisted soldiers serving under commanders from

the experimental training group reported that their commanders

implemented more policies to ensure racial harmony and that their

commanders were more effective in dealing with racial problems. It

appears that the course had a modest but positive effect on the enlisted

soldiers within the trained commanders’ units. The training program, or

elements from it, could improve in a small way commanders’ effectiveness

and unit harmony in race relations.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Analysis of Individual Race Relations and Equal Opportunity

Training in Army Schools, by ARI, October 1978.

The study describes and analyzes the individual race relations/EO training

given in Army Training Centers as well as in service and professional

schools. Race relations/EO training was being implemented reluctantly in

most of the schools visited. Those responsible for its implementation were

generally not convinced of its importance, its relevance to the school’s

mission, or its relevance to the jobs done by Army personnel. This lack of

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conviction tended to lead to nominal support for the training, which was

attested to by its generally low priority status.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

An Analysis of the Training of Army Personnel at the Defense Race

Relations Institute, by ARI, October 1978.

The report provides an analysis of training in terms of its impact on the

trainees and its relationship to their performance in the field. Feedback

from students on Phase I of the training emphasized the need for more

non-black minority group content and training in more practical,

job-relevant skills. While graduates’ assessments of Phase II training were

generally positive, they had been somewhat mixed and indicative of the

confusion and lack of coordination associated with prior training versions.

A small but substantial minority of graduates perceived that attending

training at the institute had a negative effect on their careers, perhaps

because the training program was unpopular with higher-ranking

command personnel.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Analysis and Assessment of the Army Race Relations/Equal

Opportunity Training Program: Summary Report, by ARI, July 1978.

The objectives of the study were to analyze and describe the Army’s race

relations/EO training and to assess its impact. The study found marked

reductions in measures of institutional racial discrimination in many

dimensions, such as the relative speed of promotion of white and

non-white enlisted personnel. Despite the low frequency of overt

interracial violence, race-related tensions persisted and appeared to be

increasing. A new source of tension was the anger of an increasing number

of whites who saw themselves as victimized by what they perceived as

reverse discrimination. Two major problems with race relations/EO unit

training were documented in the study: not more than half of the training

required by the regulations was actually given, and when the training was

given, it was frequently of low quality.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in

USAREUR, by ARI, July 1978.

The primary objectives of this report were to describe and analyze the race

relations/EO unit training program at USAREUR, and to assess the training’s

impact. Although USAREUR had more race relations/EO training than other

Army components, it was generally believed that the unit training program

was not meeting the need for race relations/EO training. Data showed a

slight improvement in the racial climate and attitudes toward the race

relations/EO program from October 1976 to May 1977.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

An Analysis of the Unit Race Relations Training Program in the

U.S. Army, by ARI, July 1978.

The study describes how the race relations/EO unit training program was

implemented in the field and assesses its effectiveness. Despite the

infrequency of overt interracial violence, race-related tensions persisted

and may have been increasing. The unit training program seemed to be a

low priority for most company commanders. Two seemingly contradictory

trends were evident for both whites and blacks—since 1972, an increasing

percentage of both saw race relations/EO training as effective in helping to

reduce racial tensions, while simultaneously an increasing number of both

saw the training as not effective at all. There were more positive

race-related attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and reported behaviors in

units with higher quality training programs than in units with lower quality

programs.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in

Korea, by ARI, November 1977.

The study found that the racial climate was more negative in Korea than in

the continental United States. Blacks perceived more discrimination in

Korea, and whites perceived more reverse discrimination. Required race

relations/EO seminars appeared to be held somewhat less frequently in

Korea, and the priority of the seminars appeared to be quite low. Overall,

the race relations/EO programs in Korea appeared to be less credible and

somewhat less effective in achieving their objectives. The study suggested

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that existing race relations/EO training was not adequately or effectively

helping to reduce racial tensions.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Racial Bias in Peer Ratings at ROTC Advanced Summer Camp, Fort

Bragg, 1975, by ARI, October 1976.

The study examines the effects of race on stated preferences for leaders.

Cadets in the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) selected other cadets

they wanted as leaders and cadets they did not want as leaders. The

results of the survey indicate that bias influenced cadets’ preferences for

leaders. Blacks who prepared ratings systematically over-selected black

cadets as most preferred leaders and over-selected whites as least

preferred leaders. White cadets tended to over-select whites as preferred

leaders but did not discriminate on the basis of race for least preferred

leader. Black cadets were more biased against whites than were white

cadets toward blacks.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Racial Differences in the Prediction of Class “A” School Grades, by

NPRDC, June 1975.

Since 1967, the Navy expended considerable research efforts attempting to

increase the number of educationally disadvantaged personnel selected

for technical training. Much of this effort focused on the development of

new test instruments that might be used in conjunction with, or in place

of, the Navy Basic Test Battery. The purposes of the study were to

determine whether (1) composites that were significantly valid for black

samples and did not appreciably lower the current validity for white

samples could be identified and (2) the regression lines obtained for black

and white students indicated that lower cutoff scores should be used in

selecting minority personnel for assignments. The relationship between

test scores and technical school grades was shown to be different for

black and white personnel.

Recommendations: The study recommended lowering the selection

composite scores for seven technical courses.

Status of Recommendations: The Basic Test Battery was replaced by the

Armed Services Vocational Battery Aptitude Test for all services.

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Effects of Sending Minority Personnel Classified as Non-school

Eligible to “A” School: Part I - “A” School Achievement, by NPRDC,

June 1974.

Minority personnel were disproportionately represented in several Navy

ratings. A partial explanation for this was that minority “A” school

candidates had been unable to pass entry-classification tests. For this

study, several minority students were assigned to Class “A” school on the

basis of being motivated and having test scores slightly below the

qualification standard. These students were less effective than eligible

students in meeting graduation requirements. However, a majority of

ineligible students could graduate from “A” school with additional time in

school and with special/remedial help. The majority of ineligible students

also had no disciplinary actions and received positive ratings on personal

appearance and classroom behavior from their instructors and counselors.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Sexual Discrimination

and Harassment

Sexual Harassment in the Active-Duty Navy: Findings From the

1991 Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, December 1993.

Forty-four percent of female enlisted and 33 percent of female officer

respondents indicated that they had been sexually harassed during the

1-year survey period. Eight percent of male enlisted and 2 percent of male

officer respondents reported sexual harassment. When compared to 1989

results, a statistically significant increase was found in the percentage of

female officers and male enlisted personnel who reported being harassed.

(See Assessment of Sexual Harassment in the Navy: Results of the 1989

Navy-wide Survey on p. 32 for a summary of the 1989 survey.) In general,

the patterns of the 1991 results replicated those found in the 1989 survey.

Victims of harassment tended to be overrepresented among the junior

women compared to their mid-career or senior counterparts.

African-American and Hispanic women did not report more harassment

than white women. The majority of perpetrators were men who were

either co-workers or supervisors.

Recommendations: The CNO should issue the 1991 survey findings to

commanding officers, and the findings should be integrated into command

training team instructor training, annual sexual harassment training, and

CMEO training and also be made widely available to Navy media.

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Status of Recommendations: The survey findings were distributed to

commanding officers and to EO program specialists throughout the fleet

and used in their command training team indoctrination. The results have

been made available to internal and external media. The 1991 survey

results continue to be used in comparison to 1993 data. These data will be

marketed as widely as possible.

The Inspector General of the Air Force Special Management

Review: Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Force and Air

Reserve Components, by Air Force IG, June 1993.

Interviews confirmed that sexual harassment within the Air Force

continued to exist. Females and males in the active Air Force and the

reserve components report incidence of some form of sexual harassment

in 1991 and 1992. Several factors hindered the effectiveness of the

base-level prevention and complaint program.

Recommendations: Implement procedures to provide training of the base

population. Develop a method to ensure complaint files are complete and

reports reflect incidents occurring outside formal channels. Institute

supervisor sexual harassment training. Document individual training to

allow assessment of sexual harassment prevention. Enhance the content

of sexual harassment awareness training for the general population.

Status of recommendations: Courses and seminars on human relations and

sexual harassment have been updated to include reprisal issues. The Air

Force IG now checks on key personnel briefings of complaint reporting

responsibilities as part of its inspections. The Air Force Instruction on

Social Actions now requires social actions personnel to brief all staff with

command authority on commanders’ responsibilities and reporting

requirements. The Air Force has developed a new course for social actions

personnel and implemented it in all human relations education. Efforts are

underway to develop the capability to document all EO training in the Air

Force base level management personnel system.

Tailhook 91: Part 2 - Events at the 35th Annual Tailhook

Symposium, by DOD IG, February 1993.

This is the second of two reports regarding Tailhook 91 (see p. 33 for 

part 1 of this report). Misconduct at the 1991 Tailhook Symposium was

more widespread than previously reported by the Navy. The report

identifies 90 victims of indecent assault. In addition, it documents a

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number of incidents of indecent exposure, other types of sexual

misconduct, and other improprieties by Navy and Marine Corps officers.

The DOD IG referred investigative files on at least 140 officers, 30 Navy flag

officers, 2 Marine Corps general officers, and 3 Navy Reserve flag officers

to the Acting Secretary of the Navy for consideration of appropriate

action. The study concludes that leaders in naval aviation, ranging from

squadron commanders to flag officers who tolerated a culture that

engendered the misconduct, bore a portion of the blame.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Assessment of Sexual Harassment in the Navy: Results of the 1989

Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, March 1992.

The survey found that 42 percent of female enlisted and 26 percent of

female officer respondents had been sexually harassed during the survey

period while on duty, or on base or ship while off duty. Very small

percentages of the male enlisted and male officers reported being sexually

harassed during the 1-year survey period. Generally, as the type of

harassment became more severe in nature, its reported occurrence and

frequency decreased. Victims rarely used formal channels to report sexual

harassment. Six percent of female enlisted respondents and 1 percent of

female officer respondents reported experiencing the most serious form of

sexual harassment—actual or attempted rape or assault.

Recommendations: The Bureau of Personnel should issue the survey

findings to make commanding officers aware that sexual harassment

continues to be a significant problem, integrate the survey findings into

command training team instructor training, continue biennial

administration of the survey, integrate trends in the occurrence of sexual

harassment into the Navy Affirmative Action Plan, and continue to include

sexual harassment as a CNO special interest item for inspections.

Status of Recommendations: The Navy reports that all recommendations

have been implemented.

Department of the Navy Sexual Harassment Survey—1991, by

NPRDC, 1992.

This report summarizes the findings from a survey on the attitudes of Navy

civilian employees toward sexual harassment. It also compares the results

to those of the Navy respondents to a 1987 survey done by the Merit

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Systems Protection Board. The percentages of respondents who defined

unwanted sexual behaviors as sexual harassment increased, but reports of

sexual harassment behaviors decreased slightly. More co-workers and

fewer supervisors were the source of sexual harassment. Respondents

continued to take informal actions in response to incidents of sexual

harassment; the most common reason for not taking formal action was

that there was no need to report it. Respondents continued to believe that

the Navy took actions to reduce sexual harassment when it occurred.

Seventy-one percent of respondents had received training on the

prevention of sexual harassment.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Task Force on Sexual Harassment Prevention Programs, for the Secretary

of the Air Force/Chief of Staff Air Force, 1992.

The Air Force could not locate a copy of this study.

Tailhook 91: Part 1 - Review of the Navy Investigations, by DOD IG,

September 1992.

The report addresses the actions of senior Navy officials, the Naval

Investigative Service, and the Navy’s IG in conducting earlier probes into

Tailhook 1991 (see p. 31 for part 2 of this report). According to the DOD IG,

the scope of the investigations should have been expanded beyond the

assaults to encompass other violations of law and regulation as they

became apparent and should have addressed accountability for individual

leaders who allowed the creation of the atmosphere in which the assaults

and other misconduct took place. The inadequacies in the investigations

were due to the collective management and personal failures on the part

of the Under Secretary of the Navy, the Navy IG, the Navy Judge Advocate

General, and the Commander of the Naval Investigative Service. The

deficiencies in the investigations were the result of an attempt to limit the

exposure of the Navy and senior Navy officials to criticism regarding

Tailhook 1991.

Recommendations: The report recommends changes in the Navy’s

investigative structure and disciplinary action for the Judge Advocate

General and the Commander of the Naval Investigative Service for failure

to fulfill their responsibilities.

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Status of Recommendations: The Secretary of the Navy acknowledged the

shortcomings of the investigations done by the Navy IG and the Navy

Criminal Investigative Service and the failure of Navy leadership regarding

the activities at the Tailhook Symposium and took appropriate action.

An Update Report on the Progress of the Women in the Navy, by

1990 Navy Women’s Study Group, 1990.

Although the introduction of women on ships had positive effects on their

careers, both law and policy restricted their assignments, reinforcing the

perception that they were not equal contributors and affecting their career

horizons negatively. Inadequacies existed in areas of the use and

assignment of pregnant women, training, family planning, and counseling

of women and men. While women of all pay grades were sexually

harassed, junior enlisted women were the most frequent victims, with the

most frequent forms of harassment being verbal remarks or gestures. Over

half of reported sexual assaults and rapes occurred on base, with only

1 percent occurring on board ships.

Recommendations: The study makes about 150 recommendations

designed to improve the assimilation of women into the Navy and expand

their opportunities.

Status of recommendations: The Navy reports that all of the sexual

harassment recommendations and most of the other recommendations

have been addressed.

Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988, Defense Manpower Data

Center, September 1990.

The report summarizes the results of the 1988 DOD survey of sex roles in

the active-duty military. The survey focused on the frequency of sexual

harassment among the active-duty military; the context, location, and

circumstances under which sexual harassment occurs; and the

effectiveness of programs designed to prevent, reduce, and eliminate

sexual harassment. The types of sexual harassment reported by the

majority of all victims included sexual teasing, jokes, remarks, or

questions. Victims tended to have fewer years of active service and be

enlisted personnel. Most perpetrators acted alone. Most victims did not

take formal action against the perpetrators (women were more likely to

mention anticipated negative outcomes of a formal complaint as an

important reason for not reporting their described experiences to

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officials). The majority of personnel believed that reporting sexual

harassment to the perpetrators’ chain of command or filing a formal

complaint were effective ways to stop sexual harassment.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

However, based on the findings in this report, the Secretary of Defense

issued a policy memorandum on sexual harassment in July 1991.

An Examination of Sexual Harassment Complaints in the Air Force

for Fiscal Year 1987, by DEOMI, September 1988.

A summary of Air Force social actions reports shows that the typical

situation was a male offender harassing a female subordinate of the same

race. Most victims were white enlisted women, and most offenders were

white enlisted males. The most common types of behavior, such as

offensive language, were not severe, but their prevalence may contribute

to the negative climate that characterizes a “hostile environment.” Most of

the cases involved multiple incidents, such as multiple comments or other

behaviors. The length of time taken to process sexual harassment

complaints ranged from 1 to 380 days. The complainant was usually

satisfied with the action taken in complaint outcomes.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Promotions Fitness Reports of Naval Warfare Officers: A Search for Gender

Differences, by NPRDC, May 1994.

Significantly more comments on personality traits appeared in women’s

fitness reports than in men’s. Female warfare officers were not described

with gender-type words but were said to be dynamic, assertive, and

energetic more frequently than were men. Women were rated significantly

lower in leadership than men. Women were more often recommended for

a follow-on assignment, and men were more often recommended for

promotion or command. Gender differences favoring women occurred

more frequently in the reports of surface warfare officers than in those of

the aviation officers.

Recommendations: The results of the study should be issued to correct the

perception that fitness reports are gender typed. The career histories of

women warfare officers should be reviewed to ensure that they are

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receiving developmental assignments and leadership training equivalent to

men.

Status of Recommendations: Findings of this study are being incorporated

into the curriculum on writing fitness reports in several officers’ schools.

The Assistant Chief of Naval Personnel for Distribution and staff were

briefed on study results. A briefing to the Women Officer’s Professional

Association is scheduled for April 1995.

Why Promotable Female Officers Leave the Army, by ARI, July 1993.

This paper presents the findings of a study designed to identify the reasons

female captains eligible for promotion to major decided to take a

monetary incentive and voluntarily leave the Army. Study results indicated

that individuals had multiple and often interrelated reasons for their

career decisions. In addition to career opportunities, family issues, and

monetary incentives, females named the following factors as affecting

their decision to leave the Army: treatment/EO issues, such as the

perception that valued assignments were not open to competition for

females; gender-based discrimination; and sexual harassment and the

Army’s handling of it. For those females leaving the Army, it appeared to

be either the cumulative weight of multiple factors or one issue, added to

the multiple issues they were already dealing with, that tipped the balance

toward leaving.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Disparities in Minority Promotion Rates: A Total Quality Approach,

by DEOMI, 1992.

The report analyzes the promotion data in the 1987 to 1991 Military Equal

Opportunity Assessments. It found that promotion board results varied

significantly with race and gender. In 1990 and 1991, every minority male

group evaluated by the Navy’s E-7 board was promoted at less than the

board average. Black males were the most underpromoted race/gender

group. The Army officer boards had repeatedly promoted white males at

slightly below the board’s overall average rate. The military EO

assessments were not effective at presenting promotion result differences.

Recommendations: Conduct further investigations into the source of

significant differences in promotion rates. Use total quality methods to

analyze all EO data. If differences in promotion rates from race to race

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were due to differing qualification levels of the individuals in each race,

use a total quality approach to identify specific weaknesses that are

barriers to promotion. Continue to analyze the E-7 promotion board

processes to identify barriers to promotion for minority males and develop

strategies to overcome these barriers.

Status of Recommendations: DOD’s Director of Military Equal Opportunity

is considering whether further action on these recommendations is

appropriate.

The Mentoring Process for Hispanics, by NPRDC, 1992.

The pairing of an Anglo mentor with a Hispanic individual seeking a

mentor is compared with the pairing of a Hispanic mentor with a Hispanic

individual seeking a mentor in terms of advantages and disadvantages. A

mentor can provide several unique functions for a Hispanic individual

seeking a mentor, including reflecting the power of the mentor on the

individual, building confidence, introducing the individual to social

networks, acting as a role model for appropriate organizational behaviors,

and helping in acculturation, or learning to fit into the larger culture.

Important variables in the mentoring process are identified, such as sex

differences, acculturation, and differences among Hispanics. The pairing

of an Anglo female mentor with a Hispanic female individual seeking a

mentor may be most effective in terms of identification and support. The

Hispanic mentor may be better suited for less accultured Hispanics. Initial

mentoring efforts might focus on U.S.-born Hispanics as a group with a

greater chance of success.

Recommendations: Provide special programs for Hispanic mentoring, train

mentors to coach Hispanics, provide opportunities to develop mentoring,

and offer alternatives to a mentor.

Status of Recommendations: A formal mentoring program is being created,

supervisors are trained to tend to special Hispanic problems, and

alternative sources of help are being developed.

The Effects of Performance Evaluation Narratives on the

Promotion of Male and Female Unrestricted Line Officers, by NPRDC,

May 1983.

This study sought to determine whether or not prior knowledge of an

individual’s gender influences an evaluator’s decision in choosing an

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officer for promotion based on the narrative portion of the officer fitness

report. Two forms—masculine and feminine—of fitness reports for a male

and a female officer were developed by inserting masculine or feminine

pronouns into the narrative. Most evaluators (arbitrarily selected

unrestricted line officers) selected the officer described by the

male-archetype narrative, regardless of whether feminine or masculine

pronouns were used. The findings suggest that competency factors written

in typical fitness reports of male officers had a positive effect on the

selection for promotion.

Recommendations: Officer training at all levels should include more

guidance on writing fitness reports. Research should continue to evaluate

several issues on the type of job held and its relationship to the fitness

report that is written.

Status of Recommendations: Fitness report writing is taught at various

levels of officer training. Curriculum revision, including fitness report

writing, is ongoing for Navy leader development training. In 1993, a project

was funded to study warfare officer fitness reports.

Gender Differences in the Evaluations of Narratives in Officer

Performance Ratings, by NPRDC, March 1983.

This study analyzes the narrative sections of the reports on the fitness of

officers for 239 unrestricted line officers and compares them for gender

differences. Men’s evaluations were significantly longer than the women’s,

contained more comments about their combat potential and impact on the

Navy, contained more recommendations for future assignments, and used

different words to describe their behavior. Using the significant gender

differences uncovered in the analyses, two pseudo-narratives were written

without gender-identifying pronouns—one describing a male lieutenant,

and the other a female lieutenant. Mid-level officers who were asked to

judge the promotability of the two pseudo-lieutenants overwhelmingly

chose the man.

Recommendations: Give briefings on the potential biases that can be

written into fitness reports for the officers in charge and teaching staff at

Navy schools where officers are trained in personnel management. Write

articles describing the study’s findings for publications read by officers to

reach and influence those who have already passed through the formal

Navy training system. Issue information about career paths for women

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officers in media that will attract the attention of all officers. Advise

selection boards regarding gender differences in fitness report narratives.

Status of Recommendations: Navy school staff are briefed on current

findings regarding potential biases in fitness reports. An article was

published in a 1984 issue of U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, and the

chapter “Women’s Career Development” was published in Gender and the

Naval Officer in 1987.

Performance Evaluation Narratives of Navy Women and Men: An

Examination for Bias in Promotion, by NPRDC, July 1981.

The narrative sections of performance ratings for 52 men and 52 women

eligible for promotion to chief petty officer were analyzed to determine

whether statements included in the narrative section or the manner in

which the statements were interpreted by the selection board were subject

to bias. Results showed that the number of positive statements about the

performance of men and women was not significantly different. However,

significant correlations between sex and selection status were found in

motivation and personality traits and dimensions of concern to the Navy.

Women who were not selected for promotion received more positive

statements related to motivation and personality than did either men or

women who were selected. Men who were not selected received more

positive statements on dimensions of concern to the Navy than men who

were selected.

Recommendations: Personnel responsible for promotion decisions should

be made aware of the impact of stereotyping in the promotion process.

Selection boards should be provided with highly structured information

about candidates. The proportion of female and male candidates being

reviewed by a single board member should be controlled to minimize the

possibility of stereotyping.

Status of Recommendations: Currently, all selection board members are

given guidance in board precepts on different career patterns for men and

women as a result of statutory assignment restrictions. Selection board

members receive the official record for each officer, which includes the

same information for each candidate. Records are randomly assigned for

the initial review and then given to a member of the same military

specialty for the second review.

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Comparative Racial Analysis of Enlisted Advancement Exams: Item

Differentiation, by NPRDC, February 1977.

The study tries to determine whether advancement examination items

were similarly differentiating between good and poor performers of racial

groups. Blacks were advanced to pay grades E-4 and above in smaller

proportions than whites were, and blacks scored lower on the

examination of technical knowledge than did whites. One aspect of the

problem was to find ways of constructing advancement tests that provided

similar competitive opportunity for all groups without loss of test quality.

The study concludes that developing tests by using items similar in

difficulty for blacks and whites was not feasible since it would reduce test

quality, but eliminating excessively difficult items would improve test

quality and benefit blacks.

Recommendations: The empirical validity of the present tests on

subsequent job performance should be compared between blacks and

whites, and a validation and comparison of internal and external criteria of

the procedures used to create alternative test items.

Status of Recommendations: The Navy no longer uses the advancement

examinations analyzed in this study, thus making this recommendation

obsolete.

Comparative Racial Analysis of Enlisted Advancement Exams:

Relative Item Difficulty Between Performance-Matched Groups, by

NPRDC, April 1976.

The Enlisted Advancement Exam, one of the Navy’s major personnel

selection systems, was being studied to identify and alleviate any

condition which might be detrimental to EO in career growth for all

individuals and groups. Since the military services were advancing a

greater proportion of white than non-white candidates, an item analysis of

enlisted advancement examinations was conducted to identify test

characteristics that might account for differences between black and

white racial groups. The findings in this report suggested a possibility of a

small amount of racial bias in some of the examinations. No changes in

test construction procedures were recommended until further study was

completed.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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Discipline Differences Between Black and White Military Offenders: A Study

of Socioeconomic, Familial, Personality, and Military

Characteristics of Inmates at the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort

Leavenworth, by DEOMI, Summer 1993.

This study examined variables that might be linked to offenses in the

military that result in incarceration. The author collected demographic,

familial, personality, and military data on a random sample of black and

white inmates of the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth,

Kansas. In comparison to white inmates, black inmates had lower scores

in tests of intelligence quotient, reading, mathematics, and English; were

more apt to come from larger families where the parents were divorced,

separated, or had been single parents; showed personality test profiles

displaying interpersonal problems; had a larger number of prior military

discipline problems; had less time in military service at the time of

incarceration; and were more apt to be incarcerated for violent crimes

against others. There were no significant differences between black and

white inmates on age, socioeconomic status, education level, birth order,

military grade, prior civilian problems, military occupational specialty, or

length of sentence.

Recommendations: The military should be aware of certain factors that

may predispose some individuals to trouble in their first tour of duty and

provide early help, such as counseling, to circumvent these potential

problems and be more selective based on the ability levels of recruits, and

provide (1) tools to introduce appropriate and inappropriate interpersonal

responses in military situations, (2) cultural sensitivity training, and

(3) mentors for newly trained enlistees.

Status of Recommendations: DOD’s Director of Military Equal Opportunity

could not provide information on the status of these recommendations.

Racial Disparities in Military Incarceration Rates - an Overview

and Research Strategy, by DEOMI, Summer 1992.

The study presents a conceptual summary and guide for research to help

determine causes for the overrepresentation of black males (compared to

white males) in the military justice system. It considers factors external to

the military (psychological, physiological, and sociological) and other

factors internal to the military system (selection bias, differential

treatment, and differential involvement). The author presents a research

proposal that focuses on overcoming the effects of exogenous sociological

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factors through training designed to facilitate black males’ socialization

into the military society.

Recommendations: Design a training package that focuses on presenting

behaviors that are appropriate in the military.

Status of Recommendations: A training program incorporating the

suggested concepts was designed.

An Investigation Into Equity in Navy Discipline, by NPRDC, July 1992.

Navy-wide disciplinary data indicate that minority personnel received

nonjudicial punishments and courts-martial at a higher rate than the

majority group. The study found that black personnel had a higher rate of

nonjudicial punishments than their white counterparts. Blacks were more

often charged with insubordination than were whites. No differences were

found across groups in the types and extent of punishments given.

Additional comparisons revealed that although first-termers,

nondesignated personnel, and personnel aboard ships had higher

disciplinary rates, any overrepresentation of blacks among the three

groups was not sufficient to account for their higher rate of involvement in

disciplinary actions. Multiple offenders accounted for almost 40 percent of

the total number of nonjudicial punishments. There was no difference in

the rates of multiple offenses across racial/ethnic groups. The report

concludes that treatment in the formal discipline system at the commands

examined did not differ across racial/ethnic groups.

Recommendations: The Equal Opportunity Division of the Bureau of Naval

Personnel should sponsor research to investigate whether discipline is

being equitably administered at the level where decisions are made on

filing reports and should begin to track discipline rates by offenders.

Commands should track occurrences of charges of insubordination by

racial/ethnic groups as part of their CMEO program. In commands where

racial disparities in discipline rates and/or perceptions of fairness of the

system are identified, the command assessment team should use the

methodology in this report to monitor the disciplinary process.

Status of Recommendations: NPRDC has done several studies that have

failed to surface any racial or ethnic bias in the administration of

discipline, though this perception is prevalent not only in the Navy but

throughout the services. The Navy’s Bureau of Personnel maintains

discipline data by race as part of the Navy Affirmative Action Plan and is

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staffing a proposal to capture this data Navy-wide. In addition, the Navy’s

EO manual mandates that all commands, when conducting their annual

assessments, collect and analyze discipline data by race, gender, and

ethnic group to determine disparate treatment in the administration of

discipline.

Phase 1 Report: An Investigation Into the Disparity of Judicial and

Nonjudicial Punishment Rates for Black Males in the Armed

Services, by DEOMI, April 1992.

The report concludes that there is a disparity in the judicial and

nonjudicial punishment rates for black males. The punishment rates for

both whites and blacks had been decreasing, but the black

overrepresentation rate had increased slightly because the white

punishment rate had been decreasing faster than the black punishment

rate. Black males were overrepresented in the commission of violent and

confrontational crimes, while whites committed the majority of crimes

against property and military-specific offenses. Blacks were

underrepresented in drug arrests and were overrepresented in

courts-martial for crimes against persons.

Recommendations: The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense

should decide whether the current military punishment rates are

sufficiently low and acceptable. If it decides that finding the causes of the

disparity in punishment rates between black and white servicemembers is

important, research should continue.

Status of Recommendations: DOD’s Director of Military Equal Opportunity

could not provide information on the status of these recommendations.

Racial- and Ethnic-Group Differences in Character-of-Separation

and Disciplinary Rates Among First-Term Enlistees Who Are

Ineligible to Reenlist, by NPRDC, December 1990 (revised August 1991).

NPRDC tried to determine why blacks and Hispanics earned proportionally

more other-than-honorable and judicial separations than whites. Blacks

had a significantly lower rate of enlistment waivers for moral reasons than

did either Hispanics or whites. In general, blacks tended to be discharged

at a relatively higher rate for reasons that routinely resulted in

other-than-honorable separations (such as drug abuse), whereas whites

tended to be discharged at a relatively higher rate for reasons that did not

routinely result in other-than-honorable separations (such as personality

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disorder). According to the report, “the relatively higher rate of

involvement in disciplinary proceedings by blacks is evidence of equity in

the Navy’s formal discipline system with regard to the character of

separation awarded.” More specifically, the relatively higher rate of

separation of blacks for misconduct seemed warranted given their more

frequent involvement in the disciplinary system.

Recommendations: The Judge Advocate General should examine the

procedures used to assign separation codes. The Recruiting Command

should review the benefits of reducing the proportion of recruits whose

preservice behaviors require moral waivers. The Judge Advocate General

should review the policies concerning administrative separations for a

pattern of misconduct. Either the Judge Advocate General or the CNO

should establish a database that contains information on the discipline of

individuals.

Status of Recommendations: This study was not widely distributed, and

status of the actions taken is not known.

Military Offense Rates: Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences, by

NPRDC, November 1985.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether Navy

personnel were disciplined without regard to racial-ethnic membership.

No evidence was found to suggest that any minority group was receiving

courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments out of proportion with respect

to certain types of violations. Blacks violated the Uniform Code of Military

Justice more frequently than whites and received more nonjudicial

punishments but not more courts-martial. Native Americans had the

highest offense rate of any racial-ethnic group and were given the most

courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments. Filipinos had the lowest

offense rates of any racial-ethnic group, particularly of uniquely military

offenses. Hispanics also had lower offense rates than whites, fewer

nonjudicial punishments, and fewer summary courts-martial. Asian/Pacific

Islanders had lower offense rates than whites and fewer nonjudicial

punishments and were less likely to be found guilty of unauthorized

absences.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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Perceptions of Discrimination in Non-Judicial Punishment, by

NPRDC, June 1974.

The purposes of this study were to determine whether nonjudicial

punishment was administered without regard to race and whether blacks

and whites perceived discrimination in discipline, job assignments, and

advancement opportunities. Blacks committed somewhat more

confrontational offenses, while whites committed more military/civilian

crimes such as larceny. The perceptions of blacks and whites differed

significantly on issues concerning equality of treatment in the Navy and on

more than half of the issues related to job satisfaction and support from

supervisors. Although the study did not reveal differences in disciplining

blacks and whites, equality of treatment in nonjudicial punishment was

not established. The majority of blacks believed military justice favors

whites, and many whites shared this belief.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Recruitment USAF Minority Recruiting Study: Enlistment Motivations of Young

Blacks to Join the Air Force, by Bozell, Inc., for the Air Force

Recruiting Service, February 1992.

The study examines the attitudes, opinions, and motivations of

African-Americans of recruitment age to help develop recruitment

advertising strategies. According to the respondents, job security and

employee benefits such as health care were hallmarks of the military.

Enjoying their work, getting the job they wanted, and earning a good

income were benefits closely associated with the Air Force but not with

the armed forces in general. The barriers to a military career that most

concerned these young people—going to war, regimentation, and lack of

personal freedom—were not strongly linked to their perceptions of the Air

Force in comparison to the Army or the Marines.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Defense Manpower for the Future: Demographic, Minority, and

Social Issues, by DEOMI, December 1989.

This study is based on a review of census data for non-Hispanic whites,

Hispanics, and blacks. Its purpose is to project the availabilities and

military service participation rates of whites, Hispanics, and blacks

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through 2019. White women are the largest untapped population segment.

White men are likely to continue to make up the majority of

servicemembers. The relatively rapid growth of the Hispanic population

does not significantly affect their availability for military service in the

1990s because the service eligibility rates of Hispanic males are lower than

those of white males.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

Minority Fill-Rate Component for Marine Corps Recruit

Classification: Development and Test, by NPRDC, July 1984.

Marine Corps recruiting service personnel are often faced with the

problem of allocating a small number of training assignments among

minority and nonminority recruit applicants in an equitable manner. A

decision aid in the form of a computer program was needed to assist

recruiting service personnel to achieve the allocation balance across

programs. The resulting component was tested by simulating recruit

assignments. In 82 percent of the cases, the minority proportion achieved

under assignment by model was closer to that desired by Marine Corps

managerial personnel than that achieved under actual assignment.

Recommendation: Marine Corps recruiting personnel should incorporate

the minority fill-rate component into the program management module of

the Automated Recruit Management System.

Status of Recommendation: The Marine Corps could not provide

information on the status of this recommendation.

Characteristics of Air Force Accessions: January 1975 to

June 1977, by Air Force Human Resources Lab, 1979.

DOD’s Defense Technical Information Center could not locate a copy of this

report.

Why Women Enlist: The Navy as an Occupational Choice, by NPRDC,

March 1977.

NPRDC found that women and men in a sample who enlisted in the military

came from different backgrounds but joined for similar reasons. Women

deliberated longer and made more inquiries than men before deciding to

join the Navy but had less information about the realities of service life.

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Women placed a higher value on a clean, cheerful environment and service

to others and were more negative than men toward jobs involving work

with materials or machines rather than people. The study concluded that

the values of many of the women were not consistent with the

nontraditional jobs to which they were apt to be assigned.

Recommendations: Revise recruiting materials to show women in

nontraditional billets. Modify the training of recruiters to include detailed

information on policies unique to women.

Status of Recommendations: Recruiting materials have been changed to

show women in nontraditional billets. Recruiters’ orientations cover the

assignment of women in the Navy and other areas where differences

remain.

The Unobtrusive Measurement of Racial Bias Among Recruit

Classification Specialists, by NPRDC, October 1974.

Navy classification specialists work with individual recruits to arrive at

recommended assignments. NPRDC found no significant differences in the

way black and white classification interviewers treated black and white

recruits in determining assignments.

Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.

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Appendix II 

Scope and Methodology

We asked officials at the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and each

of the military services for studies published between 1974 and 1994 on

discrimination, equal opportunity, and sexual harassment. We requested

reports and studies published by OSD, the services, or independent entities

under contract to OSD or the services. Specifically, we asked for studies

from the following offices at OSD and the services:

OSD: Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services; Defense

Equal Opportunity Management Institute; Defense Manpower Data Center;

Defense Nuclear Agency Inspector General; Office of the Defense

Inspector General; Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for

Equal Opportunity; and Office of the IG of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Department of the Air Force: Office of the Air Force IG; Office of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel; and Air Force Human Resources

Laboratory.

Department of the Army: Equal Opportunity Office, U.S. Army Garrison,

Fort Belvoir; Office of the Army IG; Army Research Institute for the Social

and Behavioral Sciences; and Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for

Personnel.

Marine Corps: Office of the Equal Opportunity Officer and Office of the

Marine Corps IG.

Department of the Navy: Equal Opportunity Division, Bureau of Personnel;

Office of the Naval IG; Naval Personnel Research and Development Center;

and Office of Manpower and Personnel, Military Personnel Branch.

We conducted searches of the Defense Technical Information Center and

the Defense Library on Disc databases. In addition, we contacted experts

in academia and interest groups to determine whether they had any

knowledge of the existence of OSD studies on discrimination, equal

opportunity, and sexual harassment. However, we did not include

unpublished studies that were produced to fulfill requirements for the war

colleges, command and staff colleges, or other services’ educational

institutions.

We also sent a letter to the Director of Military Equal Opportunity

requesting that his office and the services (1) identify any studies other

than those we had already found and (2) provide the status of

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Appendix II 

Scope and Methodology

recommendations in all applicable studies. We summarized but did not

evaluate the studies or the status of the recommendations.

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Appendix III 

Comments From the Department of Defense

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Appendix III 

Comments From the Department of Defense

(703072) Page 51 GAO/NSIAD-95-103 DOD Equal Opportunity Studies
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