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CURRENT POPULATION REPORTS 

Household Economic Studies 

P70-41 

Survey of Income and Program Participation 

by Martina Shea 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Economics and Statistics Administration 

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
Acknowledgments 

This report was prepared under the general direction of Kathleen S. Short, Chief, 

Poverty and Wealth Statistics Branch. The tables for this report were programmed and 

prepared by Caroline Carbaugh under the general direction of Angela M. FeldmanHarkins, Chief, Computer Programming and Applications Staff. Statistical assistance 

was provided by Astrid V. Clarke, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jean E. Tash. Overall 

direction was provided by Charles T. Nelson, Assistant Division Chief (Economic 

Characteristics), Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division. Peer reviews 

were provided by John Coder (Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division), 

William Prosser (Department of Health and Human Services), and Larry Radbill (Joint 

Economic Committee). 

Survey design and data operations were coordinated by Enrique J. Lamas, Chief, 

Income Surveys Branch, Demographic Surveys Division. Data processing activities 

were directed by Donna Riccini, Chief, Income Surveys Programming Branch, Demographic Surveys Division. 

Data collection was conducted by the Bureau of the Census interviewers under the 

overall direction of Stanley D. Matchett, formerly Chief, Field Division. 

Sampling, estimation, and statistical review were conducted by Vicki Huggins, Chief, 

Survey of Income and Program Participation Branch, and Tracy James, Demographic 

Statistical Methods Division. 

The staff of Administrative and Publications Services Division, Walter C. Odom, 

Chief, provided publication planning, design, composition, and printing planning and 

procurement. 
CURRENT POPULATION REPORTS 

Household Economic Studies 

P70-41 

Issued January 1995 

by Martina Shea 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary 

David J. Barram, Deputy Secretary 

Economics and Statistics Administration 

Everett M. Ehrlich, Under Secretary 

for Economic Affairs 

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 

Martha Farnsworth Riche, Director 
Economics and Statistics 

Administration 

Everett M. Ehrlich, Under Secretary 

for Economic Affairs 

SUGGESTED CITATION 

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 

Martha Farnsworth Riche, Director 

Harry A. Scarr, Deputy Director 

Paula J. Schneider, Principal Associate 

Director for Programs 

William P. Butz, Associate Director 

for Demographic Programs 

HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD 

ECONOMIC STATISTICS DIVISION 

Daniel H. Weinberg, Chief 

Shea, Martina, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1990 to 1992, 

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, P?0-41, 

U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1995. 

For sale by Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. 
Contents 

Page 

Introduction ............... ,......................................................................... 1 

Technical Note.................................................................................. 1 

Highlights.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 

Program Participation: 1990 to 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 

Family and Marital Status....................................................................... 6 

Race and Hispanic Origin....................................................................... 13 

Age............................................................................................... 15 

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 

Disability Status.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Residence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 

Region........................................................................................... 26 

Income Status................................................................................... 27 

Future Reports..................................................................................... 30 

TEXT TABLES 

A. Program Participation Status: 1990 and 1991, 1987 and 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

B. Program Participation Status, by Family Status: 1990 and 1987........................ 9 

B1. Long-Term Program Participation, by Family Status: 1990 to 1991, 1987 to 1988.... 10 

B2. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Family Status: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 

B3. Median Spell Durations, by Family Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

C. Average Monthly Participation, by Marital Status: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

C1. Program Participation Status, by Marital Status: 1990 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

C2. Long-Term Program Participation, by Marital Status: 1990 to 1991, 1987 to 1988.... 12 

C3. Median Spell Durations, by Marital Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

C4. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Marital Status: 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 

D. Program Participation Status, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . 13 

D1. Long-Term Program Participation, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 to 1991, 1987 

to 1988.................................................................................... 14 

D2. Median Spell Durations, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 and 1987 Panels........ 14 

D3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 

D4. Average Monthly Participation in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Family Income, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

D5. Average Monthly Participation of Blacks in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly 

Family Benefits as a Percent of Family Income: 1990 and 1987...................... 16 

E. Program Participation Status, by Age: 1990 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

E1. Long-Term Program Participation, by Age: 1990 to 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 

E2. Median Spell Durations, by Age: 1990 and 1987 Panels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

E3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Age: 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

E4. Average Monthly Participation in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Family Income and Age: 1990............................... 19 

iii 
iv 

F. Program Participation Status, by Educational Attainment: 1990 and 1987............. 20 

F1. Long-Term Participation, by Educational Attainment: 1990 to 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

F2. Median Spell Durations, by Educational Attainment: 1990 and 1987 Panels . . . . . . . . . . 20 

F3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Educational Attainment: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

G. Average Monthly Participation, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 21 

G1. Persons Ever Participating in Programs, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990. 22 

G2. Long-Term Participation, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 to 1991 . . . . . . . . 22 

G3. Program Participation Status, by Employment Status: 1990 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 

G4. Median Spell Durations, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 and 1987 

Panels..................................................................................... 23 

GS. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990......... 24 

H. Program Participation Status, by Residence: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

H1. Program Participation Status, by Residence: 1990 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 

H2. Median Spell Durations, by Residence and Region: 1990 and 1987 Panels. . . . . . . . . . . 26 

H3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Residence: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

H4. Program Participation Status, by Region: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 

H5. Program Participation Status, by Region: 1990 and 1987............................... 28 

H6. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Region: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

I. Participation in Major Means-Tested Programs, by Income Status: 1990.............. 29 

11. Program Participation Status, by Income Status: 1990 and 1987....................... 30 

12. Median Spell Durations, by Income Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 

13. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Income Status: 1990.............................. 31 

14. Average Monthly Participation in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Family Income and Poverty Status: 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 

FIGURES 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Rates of Participation in Major Means-Tested Programs: 1990 and 1991 ............ . 

Average Monthly Participation Rates for Different Programs: 1990 and 1991 ........ . 

Median Durations of Program Spells: 1990 Panel ...................................... . 

Distribution of Spells of Participation in Major Means-Tested Programs, by Spell 

Length: 1990 and 1987 Panels ......................................................... . 

Median Duration of Major Means-Tested Program Spells, by Various 

Characteristics: 1990 Panel ............................................................. . 

Median Benefits from Major Means-Tested Assistance Programs, by Various 

Characteristics: 1990 .................................................................... . 

DETAILED TABLES 

1. Average Monthly Participation in Assistance Programs, by Selected Characteristics: 

3 

3 

5 

6 

7 

8 

1990 and 1991 .... .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . ... . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 33 

2. Persons Participating 1 or More Months in Assistance Programs, by Selected 

Characteristics: 1990 and 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 

3. Persons Participating Each Month of 1990 and 1991 in Assistance Programs, by 

Selected Characteristics.................................................................. 69 

4. Average Monthly Program Participation, by Monthly Family Benefits as a Percent of 

Income, Poverty Status, Race, Age, and Recipiency Status: 1990 and 1991 . . . . . . . . 85 

5. Persons Participating 1 Month or More in Assistance Programs, by Annual Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Income, Poverty Status, Race, Age, and Recipiency 

Status: 1990 and 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 

6. Monthly Family Benefits from Assistance Programs for Participating Persons, by 

Selected Characteristics: 1990 and 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 

7. Spells of Program Participation for Persons Entering Programs During the 

32-Month Period of the 1990 SIPP Panel, by Selected Characteristics............... 126 
APPENDIXES 

A. Overview of the SIPP Program............................................................ A-1 

B. Definitions and Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1 

C. Source and Accuracy Statement.......................................................... C-1 

D. Description of SIPP 1990 Panel File and Data Quality . . .. .. . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . D-1 

E. Supplementary Tables: 1987 and 1988................................................... E-i 

F. Program Spells of Primary Recipients . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . F-i 

APPENDIX TABLES 

A-1. Topical Modules for the 1990 SIPP Panel................................................ A-3 

A-2. Design of the 1990 SIPP Panel .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . . .. .. .. A-3 

B-1. Income Sources Included in Monthly Cash Income...................................... B-3 

B-2. Weighted Average Poverty Thresholds in 1990 and 1991 .. . . .. . . . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . .. . . . . . B-4 

C-1. Person Statistics for Longitudinal Panels and Calendar Years.......................... C-2 

C-2. 1992 CPS Coverage Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-3 

C-3. SIPP Generalized Variance Parameters for Estimates from the 1987 Longitudinal 

Panel File.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6 

C-4. SIPP Generalized Variance Parameters for Estimates from the 1990 Longitudinal 

Panel File.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6 

C-5. SIPP Indirect Generalized Variance Parameters for Annual Estimates Based on 

Monthly Averages from the 1987 Cross-Sectional Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7 

C-6. SIPP Indirect Generalized Variance Parameters for Annual Estimates Based on 

Monthly Averages from the 1990 Cross-Sectional Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7 

C-7. Standard Errors of Estimated Numbers of Persons...................................... C-7 

C-8. Standard Errors of Estimated Percentages of Persons.................................. C-8 

C-9. Standard Errors of Monthly Family Benefits from Assistance Programs for 

Participating Persons, by Selected Characteristics: 1990 and 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-9 

C-10. Standard Errors of Monthly Family Benefits from Assistance Programs for 

Participating Persons, by Selected Characteristics: 1987 and 1988 .................. C-22 

C-11. Standard Errors of Survival Rates and Median Spell Durations, by Selected 

Characteristics of Persons Experiencing Spells: 1990 SIPP Panel .................... C-35 

C-12. Standard Errors of Survival Rates and Median Spell Durations, by Selected 

Characteristics of Persons Experiencing Spells: 1987 SIPP Panel .................... C-51 

C-13. Standard Errors of Survival Rates and Median Spell Durations, by Selected 

Characteristics of Primary Recipients Experiencing Spells: 1990 SIPP Panel ........ C-67 

D-1. Percent Distribution of Three Categories of Sample Persons: 1990 SIPP Panel .. .. .. D-1 

D-2. Average Monthly Nonfarm Poverty and Household Participation in Means-Tested 

and Nonmeans-Tested Government Programs-SIPP Panels: First Quarter 1984 

to Fourth Quarter 1993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3 

D-3. Comparison of CPS and SIPP Poverty Rates, by Selected Characteristics: 1990 and 

1991 ....................................................................................... D-5 

D-4. Comparison of 1990 to 1991 Year-to-Year Percentage Point Changes in Poverty 

Rates Between CPS and SIPP ........................................................... D-6 

E-1. Average Monthly Participation in Assistance Programs, by Selected Characteristics: 

1987 and 1988 ............................................................................ E-1 

E-2. Persons Participating 1 or More Months in Assistance Programs, by Selected 

Characteristics: 1987 and 1988 .......................................................... E-19 

E-3. Persons Participating Each Month of 1987 and 1988 in Assistance Programs, by 

Selected Characteristics .................................................................. E-35 

E-4. Average Monthly Program Participation, by Monthly Family Benefits as a Percent of 

Income, Poverty Status, Race, Age, and Recipiency Status: 1987 and 1988 ........ E-50 

E-5. Persons Participating 1 Month or More in Assistance Programs, by Annual Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Income, Poverty Status, Race, Age, and Recipiency 

Status: 1987 and 1988 ................................................................... E-62 

v 
vi 

E-6. Monthly Family Benefits from Assistance Programs for Participating Persons, by 

Selected Characteristics: 1987 and 1988 ............................................... E-77 

E-7. Spells of Program Participation for Persons Entering Programs During the 

28-Month Period of the 1987 SIPP Panel, by Selected Characteristics.............. E-90 

F-1. Spells of Program Participation for Primary Recipients Entering Programs During 

the 32-Month Period of the 1990 SIPP Panel, by Selected Characteristics.......... F-1 
Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 

1990 to 1992 

INTRODUCTION 

This report uses data from the Survey of Income and 

Program Participation (SIPP) to examine the participation in various government assistance programs at a 

point in time and over a 32-month period. It presents 

data from the complete panel file of the 1990 SIPP, 

which covers the time period from October 1989 through 

August of 1992. Descriptions of the SIPP program and 

the 1990 panel file are contained in appendixes A and 

D, respectively. 

SIPP enables comparisons of rates of program participation and the amounts of benefits received among 

persons of different demographic and socioeconomic 

characteristics. It also can be used to study the distribution of spell durations. The panel file contains monthly 

information on the program participation status of individuals as well as on many other characteristics that can 

vary over the panel, such as residence and labor force 

status. Efforts were made during the life of the panel to 

follow persons who moved to ensure that the sample 

remained representative of the noninstitutional population of the United States. Persons are characterized by 

the income and poverty status of their respective family 

unit based on living arrangements each month during 

the period of study. 

It should be noted that some longitudinal estimates 

presented here are based on responses of persons who 

were interviewed in all eight waves of the 1990 panel. 

Other longitudinal estimates are based on respondents 

interviewed in all waves of a particular calendar year. 

Insofar as persons who left the panel differed in their 

experience of program participation from those who did 

not, these longitudinal estimates may be biased. 

All demographic surveys, including SIPP, are affected 

by undercoverage of the population. This undercoverage results from missed housing units and missed 

persons within sample households. Compared to the 

level of the 1980 Decennial Census, overall undercoverage in SIPP is about 7 percent. Undercoverage varies 

with age, sex, and race. For some groups, such as 20 to 

24 year old Black males, the undercoverage is as high 

as 27 percent compared to the census. It is important to 

note that the survey undercoverage is an addition to the 

decennial census undercoverage, which in 1980 was 

estimated to be about 1 percent overall and about 8.5 

percent for Black males. The weighting procedures 

used by the Census Bureau partially correct for the bias 

resulting from undercoverage. However, its final impact 

on estimates is unknown. 

The detailed tables cover the years 1990 and 1991 

from the 1990 SIPP panel, as well as the years 1987 

and 1988 from the 1987 SIPP panel. The later panel 

coincided with the latest recessionary period from July 

1990 to March 1991; no recession took place during the 

1987 panel. This could explain some of the large 

increases in program participation and spell durations 

that occurred between 1987 and 1990, as illustrated 

below. Detailed tables covering the period 1987-1988 

are contained in appendix E. 

Technical note. Some of the estimates presented 

below are distributions of spell duration for individuals 

with different characteristics. We use a survival analysis 

technique to derive these distributions and the resulting 

estimates of median spell duration for persons observed 

entering a particular program during the 32 months of 

the panel. We consider only individuals who were 

present in the survey all 32 months. One alternative 

would have been to include all persons up until the time 

of attrition. It is, however, extremely difficult to come up 

with appropriate weights for such an analysis and it was 

therefore not attempted here. 

Spells of program participation must have an observed 

beginning, i.e., have to be preceded by 1 or more 

months of "non" spells during the panel. Furthermore, 

although a spell can be as short as 1 month, two spells 

must be more than 1 month apart in order to be counted 

as separate spells. If two potential spells are separated 

by only 1 month, they count as one spell. The connecting month is counted as part of the resulting spell. A 

spell is observed either until it ends or until it is 

right-censored. 1 2 

1 Since an individual must have completed interviews for all months 

of the panel in order to be included in the sample, right-censoring 

occurs only if an individual is still participating in the last month of the 

panel. 2The probability of exiting a spell in month t, given that the person 

was experiencing a spell in the beginning of that month, is defined as 

exits(t) 

h (t) 

prog (t)-( rcens(t) 12) 

where exits(t) denotes the number of spell exits in month t, prog(t) is 

the number of spells that were in progress in the beginning of month 

t, and rcens(t) is the number of spells that were right-censored in 

month t. 
2 

Since a spell must be preceded by a period of 

nonparticipation, left-censored spells of participation 

are not included in our analysis. Observations are 

left-censored when the beginning of a spell of interest is 

not observed, that is, a spell began at some time before 

the reference period. 

Although dynamic estimates may be unbiased for 

spells observed beginning in the reference period, there 

remains concern about the deletion of left-censored 

spells from such analyses. There may be particular 

characteristics of persons, associated with the experience of very long spells, that precludes their inclusion in 

our sample. For example, in our analysis, which is 

restricted to persons in sample the entire period, selecting spells with observed beginnings leads to a sample 

without those persons who participated in a meanstested program from the first month of life onward. Even 

if one defines the spells of those "born into participation" as spells with observed beginnings, the problem of 

unavailable appropriate weights makes their inclusion 

all but impossible. Studies of spells with observed 

beginnings might result in reasonable estimates of spell 

distribution and median duration for such spells with 

observed beginnings, but it might result in downward 

biased estimates of the median duration of all spells. 

HIGHLIGHTS 

(The numbers in parentheses denote the 90-percent 

confidence intervals.) 

• The average monthly number of persons who participated in one or more major means-tested assistance 

programs was 28.5 (± 1.0) million in 1990, constituting roughly 11.5 (±0.4) percent of the population. 

About 35.7 (± 1.3) million persons, or 14.8 (±0.5) 

percent of the population, participated at least 1 

month in 1990; 18.1 (± 1.0) million participated during 

all months of 1990 and 1991, constituting 7.6 (±0.4) 

percent of the population. 

• In 1991, the average monthly number of persons who 

participated in one or more major means-tested assistance programs was 30.9 ( ± 1.1) million, constituting 

The survival rate in month t, which is the probability that a spell lasts 

longer than t months, can then be written as 

t 

8(t)= 1T (1-h(k)) k~1 

The survival function evaluated at t gives the probability that an 

entrant into a program is still participating in the program t time periods 

rarer.-The median survival time or spell duration M can be estimated by 

linear interpolation. Let [t, t+1) be the interval such that 8(t)> =.5 and 

8(t+1) <.5. Then 

- 8(1)-1 /2 

M =t+---- 8(t)-8(t+1) 

roughly 12.4 (±0.4) percent of the population and an 

increase of 2.4 (± 1.5) million over 1990. About 38.0 

(± 1.3) million persons, or 15.5 (±0.6) percent of the 

population, participated at least 1 month in 1991. 

• Of the assistance programs considered, the Medicaid 

and Food Stamp programs had the highest average 

monthly participation in 1990, 19.1 (±0.9) and 17.1 

(±0.8) million, respectively. About 10.7 (±0.7) million 

received housing assistance, not significantly different from the 10.6 (±0.6) million persons who participated in AFDC or General Assistance. About 4.0 

(±0.4) million participated in the Supplemental Security Income Program in an average month in 1990. 

• Median monthly family benefits from AFDC/General 

Assistance, SSI, and food stamps were about $420 

(±4.9) in 1990 and in 1991. 

• When income is defined to include all money income 

plus the value of food stamps, 49 (±2.1) percent of 

participants in means-tested programs received at 

least half of their income from benefits in an average 

month during 1990, and 30 (±2.0) percent received 

all of their income from programs. The respective 

percentages for 1991 were not significantly different, 

48 (±2.2) and 29 (±2.0) percent. 

• Persons in female-householder families were six times 

as likely as persons in married-couple families to have 

participated in a major assistance program in an 

average month of 1990. 

• In an average month of 1990, 7 (±0.4) percent of 

persons who were White, not of Hispanic origin 

participated in major assistance programs, compared 

with 8 (±0.4) percent of all White persons, 25 (±1.0) 

percent of persons of Hispanic origin (who may be of 

any race), and 32 (±0.9) percent of Black persons. 

Most participants in means-tested assistance programs were White. During an average month of 1990, 

61 (±2.0) percent of all participants were White, 34 

(±0.9) percent were Black, and 18 (±0.8) percent 

were Hispanic. 

• Children were more likely to have participated in 

major assistance programs during an average month 

in 1990 than elderly persons and nonelderly adults, 

19 (± 1.0) percent compared with 12 (± 1.1) and 8 

(±0.4) percent. They were also more likely to have 

participated at least 1 month in major assistance 

programs. 

• In an average month of 1990, 21 (± 1.2) percent of 

persons 18 years of age and older without a high 

school degree participated in major assistance programs, compared with 8 (±0.6) percent of those with 

a high school diploma, and 3 (±0.4) percent of 

persons with some years of college. 
• Unemployed workers had substantially higher average monthly participation rates in major assistance 

programs than employed persons and those out of 

the labor force. 

• The presence of a work disability increased the 

likelihood of participating in major assistance programs from 6 (±0.4) to 20 (±1.5) percent in an 

average month in 1990. 

• Fifty-three (± 1.8) percent of poor persons participated in an average month of 1990 in a major 

assistance program, compared with only 5 (±0.3) 

percent of the nonpoor. 

• The median length of time receiving housing assistance was 16 (±3.1) months for those beginning 

spells during the 1990 panel, significantly longer than 

spells on Medicaid, 11 (±3.1) months, AFDC/General 

Assistance, 1 O (±3.5) months, and food stamps, 9 

( ± 1.3) months, all of which were not significantly 

different from one another. 

Figure 1. 

Rates of Participation in Major Means-Tested 

Programs: 1990 and 1991 

(In percent) 

15.5 

Participated Participated Participated Participated 

1 or more 1 or more in an aver- in an avermonths in months in age month age month 

1990 1991 of 1990 of 1991 

Participated 

all months 

of 1990 

and 1991 

3 

Figure 2. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates for 

Different Programs: 1990 and 1991 I iJ 1990 

(In percent) - 1991 

12.4 

All major 

meanstested 

programs 

AFDC or 

General 

Assistance 

SSI Food 

stamps 

Medicaid Housing 

assistance 

PROGRAM PARTICIPATION: 1990 TO 1992 

The program participation data in this report refer to 

the following programs: (1) Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC); (2) General Assistance; (3) Supplemental Security Income (SSI); (4) food stamps; (5) 

public or subsidized rental housing; (6) Medicaid; (7) 

Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, 

and Children (WIC); (8) Social Security or Railroad 

Retirement Income; (9) Veterans' compensation or pensions; and (10) unemployment compensation. 

The descriptive analysis does not cover the key 

social insurance programs of Social Security or Railroad 

retirement income, nonmeans-tested Veterans' compensation or pensions, and unemployment compensation. 

However, data on these programs are included in the 

detailed tables, and future reports will be expanded to 

include such a discussion. The tables in this report show 

data for persons rather than for families or households. 

Persons are considered participants in AFDC, General 

Assistance, and Veterans' compensation or pensions, 

and in the Food Stamp Program if they are the primary 

recipient or if they are covered under another person's 

allotment. Persons receiving SSI payments or unemployment compensation are considered to be participants in 

an assistance program as are persons covered by 
4 

Medicaid3 or WIG or living in public or subsidized rental 

housing. Persons are counted as participants in the 

Social Security or Railroad Retirement program if they 

received payments on their own, jointly with a spouse, 

or through a parent. 

Persons are counted as participants in a major 

means-tested assistance program if they live in public 

housing or are beneficiaries of one of the following 

programs: AFDC, General Assistance, SSI, Medicaid, 

food stamps, and Federal or State rent assistance. They 

are considered participants in any means-tested program if they partake in one of the above programs or in 

WIG or means-tested Veterans' benefits. Benefit amounts 

from major means-tested assistance programs include 

AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamp 

benefits. Benefit amounts from any means-tested programs additionally include benefits received from WIG 

and means-tested Veterans' compensation. 4 For meaningful comparison of benefits, they are valued in constant 1990 dollars. 

We consider four types of program participation: 

a. The number and percent of persons who participated in various programs in an average month of 

1990 (1991 ). 

b. The number and percent of persons who participated 1 month or more during 1990 (1991 ). 

c. The number and percent of persons who participated each month of 1990 and 1991. 

d. The length of participation in various programs. 

Time spent in programs is an important dimension of program participation. Some individuals have 

longer spells than others, and policy approaches to 

provide short-term relief are likely to differ from 

those intended to remedy long-term dependency. 

SIPP allows longitudinal analysis of program participation. It allows one to calculate median spell 

durations as well as distributions of spells by spell 

length, using survival analysis. 

Approximately 28.5 million persons participated 

in a major means-tested assistance program in an 

average month during 1990, and 30.9 million did so 

in 1991, representing 11.5 and 12.4 percent of the 

population, respectively. The numbers of persons 

who ever participated during the year were significantly higher, 35.7 million (14.8 percent of the 

population) in 1990 and 38.0 million (15.5 percent of 

the population) in 1991, demonstrating substantial 

3Medicaid coverage is determined in a two-step procedure: The 

initial procedure counts as covered all persons and their dependents 

who report coverage. The second procedure counts additional persons to be covered by Medicaid, if they did not report coverage but 

were categorically eligible because they reported receiving AFDC and 

Federal SSI payments. 4The Census Bureau is working on methods to value the noncash 

benefits received from the housing and medical programs. 

mobility (see table A). Although more persons received 

means-tested assistance in 1991 than in 1990, the 

proportion did not change significantly between the 

two years. A substantial number of persons, 18.1 

million, participated all 24 months of 1990 and 1991 

in major means-tested programs. These long-term 

participants represented 7.6 percent of the population. Figure 1 shows participation in major meanstested programs by type of participation for the two 

years 1 990 and 1991 . 

The average monthly number of persons who 

participated in major means-tested programs, AFDC/ 

General Assistance, 5 food stamps, and Medicaid 

increased from 1990 to 1991. The proportions of 

the population who participated in means-tested 

programs, food stamps, and Medicaid during an 

average month increased as well, from 11.5, 6.9, 

and 7.7 percent in 1990 to 12.4, 7.6, and 8.6 

percent, respectively, in 1991. Over the same time 

period, there was an increase in the proportion of 

persons who participated in the AFDC/General 

Assistance, Food Stamp, and Medicaid programs 

for at least 1 month. 

As in 1987, participation in 1990 and 1991 was 

highest for Medicaid and food stamps (figure 2). In 

1990, average monthly Medicaid coverage was 

19.1 million, representing 7. 7 percent of the population. In the same year, 23.4 million persons were 

covered for at least 1 month by Medicaid (table A). 

The proportion of the population who lived in 

public or subsidized housing was significantly higher 

in 1990 than in 1987. In an average month of 1987, 

3.8 percent of the population lived in public or 

subsidized housing, and 4.9 percent did so for at 

least 1 month. The comparable rates for 1990 were 

4.3 and 5.7 percent, respectively. Surprising in light 

of the increase in Medicaid and housing assistance, 

there was a significant decrease in the proportion of 

persons who received food stamps for one or more 

months: from 10.3 percent in 1987 to 9.1 percent in 

1990. 

As can be seen in figure 3, the median length of 

time receiving housing assistance was 15.6 months 

during the 1990 panel, significantly longer than 

spells on Medicaid (10.6 months), AFDC/General 

Assistance (10.4 months), and food stamps (8.8 

months). The latter three programs had similar spell 

lengths. Figure 4 shows the distribution of spells in 

major means-tested programs by spell length. The 

median duration of major means-tested assistance 

5A study by Kent Marquis and Jeffrey Moore of the Bureau of the 

Census supported earlier findings that persons often misreport AFDC 

as General Assistance. Thus, to minimize potential errors from such 

misreporting, we do not look at these programs separately. For 

information on this issue see K.H. Marquis and J.C. Moore, "Measurement Errors in SIPP Program Reports," pages 721-745, Proceedings 

of the 1990 Annual Research Conference. 
Table A. Program Participation Status: 1990 and 1991, 1987 and 1988 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major 

means-tested AFDC or General SSI Food stamps assistance Assistance Year and participation programs1 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

1990 

Average monthly 

participation ............. 28,461 11.5 10,573 4.3 3,961 1.6 17,136 6.9 

Persons ever participating .. 35,663 14.8 12,847 5.3 4,527 1.9 21,941 9.1 

1991 

Average monthly 

participation ............. 30,859 12.4 11,556 4.6 4,101 1.6 18,870 7.6 

Persons ever participating .. 37,996 15.5 14,271 5.8 4,605 1.9 24,217 9.9 

1987 

Average monthly 

participation ............. 27,412 11.4 10,385 4.3 3,831 1.6 17,365 7.2 

Persons ever participating .. 34,856 14.8 13,432 5.7 4,195 1.8 24,221 10.3 

1988 

Average monthly 

participation ............. 27,027 11.2 9,919 4.1 3,817 1.6 16,934 7.0 

Persons ever participating .. 33,763 14.2 12,347 5.2 4,129 1.7 21,918 9.2 

5 

Medicaid Housing 

assistance 

Number Percent Number Percent 

19, 110 7.7 10,694 4.3 

23,355 9.7 13,745 5.7 

21,379 8.6 10,951 4.4 

26,359 10.8 13,212 5.4 

17,474 7.3 9,222 3.8 

21,767 9.3 11,424 4.9 

17,502 7.2 9,313 3.8 

21,615 9.1 11,555 4.9 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Major assistance 

programs 

AFDC or General 

Assistance 

Food stamps 

Medicaid 

Housing 

assistance 

Figure 3. 

Median Durations of Program Spells: 1990 Panel 

(Months) 

15.6 
6 

Figure 4. 

Distribution of Spells of Participation 

in Major Means-Tested Programs, 

by Spell Length: 

1990 and 1987 Panels 

(In percent) 

42 

RSi I 1990 panel 

• 1987 panel 

1 to4 5to8 9to 12 13to 16 171020 21 to24 More 

than 24 

Months 

programs was 7.9 months during the 1990 panel, 

i.e. half of all spells lasted less than 7.9 months and 

half lasted longer, not significantly different from the 

median food stamp spell length. While 37.0 percent 

of spells lasted between 1 and 4 months, smaller 

proportions of spells fell in subsequent length categories: 14.0 percent lasted between 5 and 8 

months, 9.0 percent between 9 and 12 months, and 

5 percent between 13 and 16 months. However, 

fully 31.0 percent of all spells lasted longer than 2 

years. 

There is evidence that survey respondents sometimes incorrectly reported that "all" persons in the 

household were covered by someone else's allotment. This is particularly a problem in the AFDC 

program, since coverage of only some of the family 

members is more likely than in other programs such 

as food stamps. In light of the current welfare 

debate, and the consideration given to limiting 

AFDC recipiency to 24 months, we show in 

appendix F survival rates and median spell durations for AFDC/General Assistance for primary recipients only. A primary recipient is the person whose 

name is on the check, or more generally, the person 

in whose name the benefit is issued. 

Appendix F shows AFDC/General Assistance 

survival rates and median spell durations of primary 

recipients only. The median spell duration for all 

persons is not significantly shorter than for primary 

recipients only, 10.4 compared with 11.6 months. 

As can be seen in table 83, the median duration 

of a Medicaid spell increased from 7.4 months 

during the 1987 panel to 10.6 months during the 

1990 panel. 6 Likewise, there was an increase in the 

median spell duration of major programs combined, 

from 6.4 months in the earlier panel to 7.9 months in 

the later panel, attesting perhaps to the latest 

recessionary period that began in July of 1990 and 

ended in March of 1991. 

As can be seen in figure 6, the median benefit 

amount received from one or more major meanstested assistance programs was $418 in 1990, not 

statistically different from the $41 O received in 1987 

(in 1990 dollars). While median food stamp benefits 

increased from $170 in 1987 to $183 in 1990 and to 

$191 in 1991, the median AFDC/General Assistance benefit declined from $428 in 1987 to $363 in 

1990 and to $344 in 1991. 

When income is defined to include money income 

plus the value of food stamps and WIC benefits, 

48.9 percent of participants received more than 50 

percent of monthly income from means-tested programs in 1990. Furthermore, means-tested benefits 

constituted the only income for 29.6 percent of 

participants. The corresponding proportions for 1991 

were not significantly different. 

Family and marital status. Participation in meanstested assistance programs is higher for persons in 

female-householder families than for persons in marriedcouple families and unrelated individuals. In an average 

month during 1990, persons in female-householder 

families had a 37.2 percent participation rate, compared 

with 6.1 percent for persons in married-couple families 

and 12.6 percent for unrelated individuals (table 8). This 

pattern was repeated for those who participated at least 

1 month in 1990 (table 8) and those who participated all 

of 1990 and 1991 (table 81 ). Furthermore, persons in 

female-householder families were about 15 times as 

likely as persons in married-couple families to have 

received AFDC or General Assistance in an average 

month, and eight times as likely to have received food 

stamps. 

Persons in married-couple families were less likely to 

receive food stamps in an average month in 1990 than 

in 1987 (3.4 compared with 3.9 percent). Likewise, they 

became less likely to have received food stamps for at 

least 1 month. However, they became more likely to 

have received housing assistance for 1 month or more, 

6There were no significant differences in median durations of food 

stamp, AFDC, and housing assistance spells. 
All persons 

Persons in marriedcouple families 

Persons in femalehouseholder families 

Unrelated individuals 

White 

Black 

Hispanic origin 1 

Less than 4 years 

of high school 

High school 

graduate, no college 

1 or more years 

of college 

Employed 

full-time 

Employed 

part-time 

Unemployed 

Not in labor force 

With a 

work disability 

Without a 

work disability 

Metropolitan 

residents 

Central city 

residents 

Non-central city 

residents 

Non metropolitan 

residents 

Figure 5. 

Median Duration of Major Means-Tested Program 

Spells, by Various Characteristics: 1990 Panel 

(Months) 

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race 

7 

11.9 
8 

All persons 

Persons in marriedcouple families 

Persons in femalehouseholder families 

Unrelated individuals 

White 

Black 

Hispanic origin1 

Under 18 years 

18 to 64 years 

65 years and over 

Less than 4 years 

of high school 

High school 

graduate, no college 

1 or more years 

of college 

With a 

work disability 

Without a 

work disability 

Metropolitan 

residents 

Central city 

residents 

Non-central city 

residents 

Nonmetropolitan 

residents 

Northeast 

Midwest 

South 

West 

Figure 6. 

Median Benefits from Major Means-Tested Assistance 

Programs, by Various Characteristics: 1990 

(Dollars) 

1 Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race 

622 
9 

Table 8. Program Participation Status, by Family Status: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

1990 1987 

Major Major means- AFDC or Housing means- AFDC or Housing Participation and family tested General Food stamps tested General Food stamps 

status assistance Assistance assistance assistance Assistance assistance 

programs' programs' 

Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Perber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total ............ 28,461 11.5 10,573 4.3 17,136 6.9 10,694 4.3 27,412 11.4 10,385 4.3 17,365 7.2 9,222 3.8 

In families ............ 23,951 11.3 10,329 4.9 15,576 7.4 8,461 4.0 23,323 11.2 10,052 4.8 15,822 7.6 7,384 3.6 

In married-couple 

families ........... 10,405 6.1 2,495 1.5 5,817 3.4 2,876 1.7 10,350 6.2 2,544 1.5 6,528 3.9 2,426 1.4 

In families with a 

female householder, 

no spouse present .. 12,640 37.2 7,576 22.3 9,358 27.6 5,270 15.5 12,277 37.4 7,366 22.5 9,065 27.6 4,703 14.3 

Unrelated individuals ... 4,510 12.6 245 0.7 1,561 4.4 2,232 6.2 4,089 12.6 332 1.0 1,543 4.8 1,838 5.7 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total ............ 35,663 14.8 12,847 5.3 21,941 9.1 13,745 5.7 34,856 14.8 13,432 5.7 24,221 10.3 11,424 4.9 

In families ............ 30,405 14.6 12,469 6.0 19,923 9.6 11,052 5.3 30,190 14.7 12,890 6.3 22,242 10.8 9,260 4.5 

In married-couple 

families ........... 15,571 9.2 3,874 2.3 8,971 5.3 4,450 2.6 15,230 9.1 3,758 2.2 10,480 6.3 3,297 2.0 

In families with a 

female householder, 

no spouse present .. 13,799 42.4 8,233 25.3 10,461 32.1 6,289 19.3 14,102 43.7 8,889 27.5 11,341 35.1 5,698 17.6 

Unrelated individuals ... 5,258 15.9 378 1.1 2,018 6.1 2,693 8.2 4,666 15.8 542 1.8 1,979 6.7 2,164 7.3 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

from 2.0 percent in 1987 to 2.6 percent in 1990 (table 8). 

Persons in female householder families experienced an 

increase in the proportion covered by Medicaid on a 

long-term basis, from 18.3 percent in 1987 and 1988 to 

21.5 percent in 1990 and 1991 (table 81). 

Persons in female-householder families had longer 

median spells than persons in married-couple families 

for major programs taken together and for AFDC/ 

General Assistance, food stamps, or Medicaid separately. As can be seen in table 83, persons in marriedcouple families received AFDC/General Assistance for 

5.8 months, compared with 18.2 months for persons in 

female-householder families. The shorter AFDC stay of 

married-couple families is partly caused by the transitory 

nature of unemployment (needy married-couple families 

must have an unemployed parent in order to receive 

AFDC). Longer welfare spells generally reflect the inability of female-householder families to exit poverty. As 

shown in a companion report, persons in female householder families have significantly longer poverty spells 

than persons in married-couple households. 7 

7U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 

Unrelated individuals had significantly longer spells 

of receiving housing assistance and food stamps than 

persons in married-couple families. As can be seen in 

table 83, spells in both programs were about 50.0 

percent higher for unrelated individuals than for persons 

in married-couple households. 

Persons in married-couple families had longer food 

stamp and Medicaid spells during the 1990 panel than 

during the 1987 panel. It can be seen in table 83 that 

their median food stamp spells increased from 4.9 to 7 .0 

months, and their median Medicaid spells from 5.4 to 

7.9 months. (There was no significant difference between 

the median spell durations for food stamps and Medicaid in either year.) Persons in female householder 

families, on the other hand, experienced a large increase 

in the spell duration of the major programs combined, 

from 6.8 percent in the 1987 panel to 11.4 percent in the 

1990 panel. 

Persons in married-couple families had significantly 

higher AFDC/General Assistance benefits than persons 

in female-householder families; the opposite held true 

for benefits from major programs and from 551, as 

shown in table 82. Median combined family benefits for 

persons in female-householder families amounted to 

$529 in 1990, which is substantially higher than the 

$334 received by their counterparts in married-couple 
10 

Table 81. Long-Term Program Participation, by Family Status: 1990 to 1991, 1987 to 1988 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Persons participating all 24 months of Persons participating all 24 months of 

1990 and 1991 1987 and 1988 

Family status Major means-tested Medicaid Major means-tested Medicaid assistance programs 1 assistance programs 1 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total .......................... 18,093 7.6 11,752 4.9 17,137 7.4 10,490 4.5 

In families ......................... 15, 108 7.4 10,073 4.9 14,444 7.1 8,865 4.4 

In married-couple families ......... 5,533 3.3 3,028 1.8 5,625 3.4 2,974 1.8 

In families with a female householder, no spouse present ........ 9,154 29.0 6,787 21.5 8,578 27.5 5,725 18.3 

Unrelated individuals ................ 2,985 9.3 1,679 5.2 2,693 9.5 1,625 5.7 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include ADFC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table 82. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Family Status: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Family status Major means-tested AFDC or SSI assistance programs 1 General Assistance 

Total. ...................................................... 418 363 300 

In families ....................................................... 455 368 359 

In married-couple families ....................................... 334 404 330 

In families with a female householder, no spouse present .......... 529 354 370 

Unrelated individuals ............................................. 159 203 199 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

families. This suggests that female-householder families drew benefits from more programs or from a different mix of programs than married-couple families. Households composed entirely of recipients of AFDC or SSI 

are automatically eligible for food stamps as long as 

they meet food stamp employment-related requirements.8 

Multiple program participation through "categorical" 

eligibility explains in part the higher combined median 

benefits of female-householder families compared with 

married-couple families. In addition, not only was the 

poverty rate of persons in female-householder families 

significantly higher than that of persons in marriedcouple families (35.2 compared with 7.0 average monthly 

percent in 1990), 9 but persons in female-householder 

families were also significantly more likely than persons 

in married-couple families to have family incomes below 

one-half of their respective poverty thresholds (18.2 

8 U. S. Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service. Cash 

and Noncash Benefits for Persons With Limited Income: Eligibility 

Rules, Recipient and Expenditure Data, Fiscal Year 1986-88. Report 

for Congress No. 89-595 EPW, compiled by Vee Burke. Washington, 

DC, 1989. 86 p. 9U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990-1992, 

forthcoming. 

compared with 1.9 percent in 1990).10 Such low income 

levels make multiple program participation, and therefore higher combined benefits, more likely. 

There was also a strong correlation between marital 

status of persons 18 years and over and program 

participation. Married persons were less likely to participate in major means-tested programs in an average 

month of 1990 than never-married persons, and the 

latter were less likely to participate than separated, 

divorced, or widowed persons. This pattern held also for 

housing assistance, the Medicaid and Food Stamp 

programs, and SSI (see tables C and C1). About 4.4 

percent of married persons participated in a major 

means-tested program during an average month of 

1990, compared with 13.1 percent of never-married 

persons, and 18.3 percent of those who are separated, 

divorced, or widowed. The comparable long-term rates 

were 2.3, 10.0, and 13.6 percent, respectively (table 

C2). Similarly, while 6.8 percent of married persons 

participated at least 1 month during 1990, 16.6 percent 

of never-married persons and 21. 7 percent of separated, divorced, or widowed persons did so. 

10U. S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-60, No.175, Poverty in the United States: 1990, U.S. Government 

Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1991. 
11 

Table 83. Median Spell Durations, by Family Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major means-tested AFDC or assistance General Assistance Food stamps Medicaid Housing assistance 

programs1 

Family status 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total .................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 6.9 10.6 7.4 15.6 12.6 

In families .................... 7.8 6.0 10.9 7.5 8.6 6.6 9.9 7.2 16.2 12.5 

In married-couple families .... 7.3 5.4 5.8 5.4 7.0 4.9 7.9 5.4 7.8 7.9 

In families with a female 

householder, no spouse 

present ................... 11.4 6.8 18.2 11.7 11.5 13.7 15.5 10.5 (X) (X) 

Unrelated individuals .......... 8.6 8.1 5.7 9.6 10.5 9.6 17.5 15.1 11.9 12.7 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table C. Average Monthly Participation, by Marital Status: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands. Persons 18 years and over. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

AFDC or General SSI 

Marital status Assistance 

Number Percent Number 

Total .................... 10,573 4.3 3,961 

Married ...................... 898 0.8 769 

Separated, divorced, or 

widowed .................... 1,417 4.2 1,970 

Never married ................ 1,848 4.6 1,185 

Married persons were less likely to receive food 

stamps in 1990 than in 1987 (table C1 ). Average 

monthly participation fell from 3.0 to 2.4 percent. The 

proportion of married persons who participated for at 

least 1 month declined from 4.8 to 3.9 percent and 

long-term participation decreased from 1.4 to 1.0 percent. Never-married persons became more likely to 

receive housing assistance in one or more months as 

well as in an average month during the year, from 5.8 

and 4.5 percent in 1987 to 7.5 and 5.6 percent, respectively, in 1990. Table C1 shows that persons who were 

separated, divorced, or widowed became less likely to 

ever receive AFDC or General Assistance during 1990 

than 1987, 5.2 compared with 7 .1 percent. 

Marital status also influenced how long persons 

participated in means-tested programs. As can be seen 

in table C3, married persons had shorter median spells 

of participation than separated, divorced, and widowed 

Food stamps Medicaid Housing assistance 

Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

1.6 17, 136 6.9 19, 110 7.7 10,694 4.3 

0.7 2,555 2.4 2,419 2.2 1,558 1.4 

5.8 3,124 9.2 4,068 11.9 2,587 7.6 

2.9 2,729 6.8 3,592 8.9 2,255 5.6 

persons, regardless of program, with the possible but 

unlikely exception of SSI and Medicaid.11 In addition, 

married persons had significantly shorter Medicaid, AFDC/ 

General Assistance, and housing assistance spells than 

persons who were never married. For instance, while 

married persons spent a median 7. 7 months in public or 

subsidized housing, never-married persons lived there 

about twice as long. 

Median spell durations often changed significantly 

between panels. Married persons participated longer in 

the Food Stamp and Medicaid programs in the 1990 

panel than the 1987 panel. Separated, divorced, and 

widowed persons received assistance from major meanstested programs in general and from AFDC/General 

Assistance specifically for longer periods of time during 

the 1990-1992 period than during the 1987-1989 period. 

Those who were never married lived twice as long in 

public or subsidized housing during the later panel. 

11 A median Medicaid spell experienced by separated, divorced, or 

widowed persons exceeded 30 months, but precise length, and 

therefore the standard error, can not be established because of the 

32-month total panel length. 
12 

Table C1. Program Participation Status, by Marital Status: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Persons 18 years and over. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested AFDC or General Food stamps Housing assistance assistance programs 1 Assistance 

Participation and marital 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 status 

Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Number cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total .............. 28,461 11.5 27,412 11.4 10,573 4.3 10,385 4.3 17,136 6.9 17,365 7.2 10,694 

Married ................ 4,729 4.4 5,167 4.9 898 0.8 1,031 1.0 2,555 2.4 3,173 3.0 1,558 

Separated, divorced, or 

widowed .............. 6,223 18.3 6,087 18.8 1,417 4.2 1,562 4.8 3,124 9.2 3,099 9.6 2,587 

Never married. . . . . . . . . . . 5,297 13.1 4,550 12.0 1,848 4.6 1,488 3.9 2,729 6.8 2,185 5.8 2,255 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total .............. 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 12,847 5.3 13,432 5.7 21,941 9.1 24,221 10.3 13,745 

Married ................ 7,288 6.8 7,626 7.2 1,541 1.4 1,634 1.5 4,201 3.9 5,087 4.8 2,417 

Separated, divorced, or 

widowed .............. 6,926 21.7 7,232 23.8 1,650 5.2 2,166 7.1 3,654 11.5 4,247 14.0 2,998 

Never married ........... 6,303 16.6 5,317 15.0 2,147 5.6 1,830 5.2 3,334 8.8 2,884 8.2 2,858 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table C2. Long-Term Program Participation, by Marital Status: 1990 to 1991, 1987 to 1988 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Per- Num- Percent ber cent 

4.3 9,222 3.8 

1.4 1,447 1.4 

7.6 2,463 7.6 

5.6 1,718 4.5 

5.7 11,424 4.9 

2.2 1,963 1.9 

9.4 2,881 9.5 

7.5 2,049 5.8 

Persons participating all 24 months Persons participating all 24 months Persons participating all 24 months in major means-tested assistance 

programs' in AFDC or General Assistance in the Food Stamp Program 

Marital status 

1990to1991 1987 to 1988 1990 to 1991 1987 to 1988 1990 to 1991 1987 to 1988 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total. ................ 18,093 7.6 17,137 7.4 5,634 2.4 5,208 2.3 9,102 3.8 8,860 3.8 

Married .................. 2,439 2.3 2,939 2.8 320 0.3 373 0.4 1,067 1.0 1,434 1.4 

Separated, divorced, or 

widowed ................ 4,127 13.6 4,210 14.5 741 2.4 703 2.4 1,781 5.9 1,687 5.8 

Never married ............ 3,710 10.0 2,803 8.1 1,104 3.0 880 2.5 1,456 3.9 1,071 3.1 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table C3. Median Spell Durations, by Marital Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major means- AFDC or tested assistance General Assistance Food stamps 

Marital status programs' 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total. ....................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 6.9 

Married ......................... 7.8 6.1 4.8 5.3 7.2 4.6 

Separated, divorced, or widowed ... 11.5 7.6 12.0 7.4 10.8 9.4 

Never married ................... 10.5 7.3 15.9 10.1 9.2 7.4 

Medicaid Housing assistance 

1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel 

10.6 7.4 15.6 12.6 

9.7 7.3 7.7 8.2 

(X) 10.1 17.7 (X) 

15.1 15.1 15.3 7.8 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 
Marital status was also correlated with benefit amounts. 

Married persons had significantly higher median 

benefits from major programs combined, and from SSI 

and food stamps separately, than persons who were 

separated, divorced, or widowed. Never-married persons had the lowest family benefits from these programs. As can be seen in table C4, the median sum of 

family benefits from means-tested programs was $279 

for never-married persons, followed by $299 for separated, divorced, or widowed persons, and $528 for 

married persons. Only AFDC/General Assistance benefits were larger for separated, divorced, or widowed 

persons than for married persons, $411 compared with 

$385. 

The relative participation rates reflect in part the 

differential probabilities of being poor. About 5.8 percent 

of married persons were poor in an average month of 

13 

1990, compared with 15.1 percent of never-married 

persons, and 18.8 percent of divorced or separated 

persons. 12 

Race and Hispanic origin. There was a strong association between race and Hispanic origin13 and the 

likelihood of receiving means-tested assistance. Whites 

had significantly lower participation rates than Blacks, 

and persons of Hispanic origin had rates intermediate 

between Whites and Blacks. In 1990, 8.4 percent of 

White persons participated in a means-tested assistance program in an average month, compared with 

32.2 percent of Blacks and 24.9 percent of persons of 

Hispanic origin. As shown in tables D and 01, this 

12U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 13Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Table C4. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Marital Status: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Major 

Marital status means-tested AFDC or 

assistance General 

programs1 Assistance SSI Food stamps 

Total .............................................. 418 363 

Married ................................................ 528 385 

Separated, divorced, or widowed ......................... 299 411 

Never married .......................................... 279 323 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

Table D. Program Participation Status, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested Food stamps assistance programs 1 

Participation and race 

and Hispanic origin 1990 1987 1990 1987 

300 183 

368 218 

346 179 

239 98 

Housing assistance 

1990 1987 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total. ................ 28,461 11.5 27,412 11.4 17,136 6.9 17,365 7.2 10,694 4.3 9,222 

White .................... 17,401 8.4 16,258 8.0 9,638 4.6 9,852 4.9 5,888 2.8 4,600 

Black .................... 9,777 32.2 9,775 33.7 6,601 21.7 6,595 22.7 4,435 14.6 4,409 

Hispanic origin2 ........... 5,223 24.9 4,197 22.1 3,128 14.9 2,984 15.7 2,194 10.5 1,360 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total. ................ 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 21,941 9.1 24,221 10.3 13,745 5.7 11,424 

White .................... 23,009 11.3 21,556 10.8 13, 127 6.5 14, 108 7.1 8,128 4.0 5,962 

Black .................... 11,173 37.7 11,434 40.2 7,811 26.3 8,716 30.7 5,099 17.2 5,070 

Hispanic origin2 ..•....•... 6,505 33.3 5,097 28.5 3,896 19.9 3,770 21.1 2,712 13.9 1,361 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

3.8 

2.3 

15.2 

7.1 

4.9 

3.0 

17.8 

7.6 
14 

pattern of differences held also for persons who ever 

participated during 1990 and for those who participated 

during all of 1990 and 1991. One-fourth of all Blacks 

received assistance from a means-tested program during all 24 months of 1990 and 1991. The comparable 

figures for Whites and persons of Hispanic origin were 

5.0 percent and 17.7 percent, respectively. 

Both Whites and persons of Hispanic origin experienced an increase in housing assistance from 1987 to 

1990, as can be seen in table D. While the percentage 

of Whites who received housing assistance for 1 month 

or more increased from 3.0 in 1987 to 4.0 percent in 

1990, that of Hispanic-origin persons increased from 7.6 

to 13.9 percent. At the same time, the long-term participation rate for Blacks decreased. Although 11 .8 percent 

of Blacks had received housing assistance in each 

month of 1987 and 1988, only 9.5 percent did so in 1990 

and 1991. Blacks also experienced a decrease in the 

likelihood of ever receiving food stamps. This tendency 

was observed as well for all means-tested programs 

combined. On the other hand, the participation rates for 

all means-tested programs combined increased substantially for Hispanics. As can be seen in table D, 28.5 

percent participated for at least 1 month in 1987, 

compared with 33.3 percent in 1990. 

Lengths of participation in most programs differed 

significantly between Whites and persons of Hispanic 

origin (see table D2). Whites received AFDC/General 

Assistance, food stamps, housing assistance, and major 

combined benefits for shorter periods during the 1990 

panel than persons of Hispanic origin. For instance, a 

median AFDC/General Assistance spell lasted 8.3 months 

for Whites, compared with 15.3 months for persons of 

Hispanic origin. There were no significant differences in 

the median time of participation between Whites and 

Blacks on one hand, and between Blacks and persons 

of Hispanic origin on the other hand. 

Persons of Hispanic origin had generally longer spells 

during the 1990 panel than during the 1987 panel, 

Table D1. Long-Term Program Participation, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 to 1991, 

1987 to 1988 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Persons participating all 24 months of Persons participating all 24 months of 

1990 and 1991 1987 and 1988 

Race and Hispanic origin Major means-tested Housing assistance Major means-tested Housing assistance assistance programs 1 assistance programs 1 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total .......................... 18,093 7.6 6,475 2.7 17, 137 7.4 5,898 

White ............................. 9,894 5.0 3,468 1.7 8,921 4.6 2,525 

Black ............................. 7,172 24.6 2,780 9.5 7,227 25.9 3,277 

Hispanic origin2 .................... 3,323 17.7 1,493 7.9 2,539 14.6 918 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

Table D2. Median Spell Durations, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major 

2.5 

1.3 

11.8 

5.3 

means-tested AFDC or Food stamps Medicaid Housing assistance assistance General Assistance 

Race and Hispanic origin programs1 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 

panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total .................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 6.9 10.6 7.4 15.6 

White ........................ 7.8 6.4 8.3 7.1 7.8 5.4 10.1 7.4 11.1 

Black ........................ 8.7 6.7 14.0 11.3 13.9 15.2 11.1 7.4 (X) 

Hispanic origin2 ............... 10.2 7.2 15.3 7.9 10.5 7.5 10.3 7.2 23.3 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

1987 

panel 

12.6 

8.7 

(X) 

11.9 
regardless of program; 14 Whites experienced longer 

food stamp spells and Blacks longer Medicaid spells 

during the 1990 panel compared with the 1987 panel. 

The median of the sum of means-tested family 

benefits was higher for Black participants than for their 

White counterparts (see table D3). Whites received 

median benefits of $363 in 1990, compared with $455 

for Blacks. Persons of Hispanic origin had median 

benefits intermediate between Whites and Blacks. Whites 

also received significantly lower SSI and food stamp 

benefits than Blacks and persons of Hispanic origin. In 

contrast, the median benefits from AFDC and General 

Assistance received by Black participants were substantially lower than those received by their White and 

Hispanic-origin counterparts. 

White participants were less likely than their Black 

and Hispanic counterparts to have incomes that consisted mainly of benefits, as can be seen in table D4. 

When income is defined to include money income plus 

the value of food stamps and WIC benefits, 42. 7 percent 

of White participants received more than 50 percent of 

monthly income from means-tested programs in 1990, 

compared with 56.8 percent of Blacks and 48.9 percent 

of Hispanic persons. Furthermore, while means-tested 

benefits constituted the only income for 26.0 percent of 

White participants, they did so for 33.2 percent of Black 

participants and 33.5 percent of persons of Hispanic 

origin. The difference between Blacks and Whites was 

not significant. 

The proportion of Blacks whose income consisted 

only of means-tested benefits was significantly lower in 

1990 than in 1987, 33.2 compared with 38.0 percent, as 

can be seen in table D5. 

Differences in recipiency between Whites, Blacks, 

and persons of Hispanic origin result from differences in 

poverty status and its correlates, such as family type. 

About 30.1 percent of Blacks and 26.1 percent of 

persons of Hispanic origin lived in poverty in an average 

month of 1990, as compared with 10.2 percent of 

14Median SSI spell durations either exceeded 30 months or could 

not be reported because of the small sample size. 

15 

Whites. 15 In the same year, 10.0 percent of Whites lived 

in female-householder families without a spouse present, 

compared with 38.5 percent of Blacks and 18. 7 percent 

of persons of Hispanic origin. 16 

Despite significantly higher participation rates for 

Blacks and persons of Hispanic origin, most participants 

were White. During an average month of 1990, 61.1 

percent of all participants in major means-tested programs were White. The respective percentages for 

Blacks and persons of Hispanic origin were 34.4 and 

18.4 (table D). 

Age. Children had higher rates of participation in major 

means-tested assistance programs than persons in 

other age groups, reflecting their higher likelihood of 

living in poverty. As shown in table E, 18.8 percent of all 

children participated during an average month in 1990 in 

a means-tested assistance program, while 8.3 percent 

of nonelderly adults and 11.9 percent of the elderly did 

so. In the same year, the average monthly poverty rate 

of children was 20.1 percent, compared with 10.5 

percent for nonelderly adults and 9.4 percent for the 

elderly. 17 

The elderly were more likely than other age groups to 

participate in SSI because of its eligibility rules that 

require financially needy persons to be aged, blind, or 

disabled. Elderly participants also differed significantly 

from those in other age groups in their likelihood of 

participating in a major means-tested assistance program for the entire 1990 and 1991 period. As can be 

seen in tables E and E1, of 3.9 million elderly who ever 

participated in such programs during 1990, 2.5 million or 

64.7 percent participated during the entire 2-year period. 

The rates for nonelderly adults and children were 46. 7 

and 51.6 percent, respectively. 

15U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 16U. S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-60, No.175, Poverty in the United States: 1990, U.S. Government 

Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1991. 17U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 

Table D3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Major 

means-tested AFDC or Race and Hispanic origin assistance General 

programs1 Assistance 

Total .............................................. 418 363 

White ................................................. 363 390 

Black .................................................. 455 321 

Hispanic origin2 ........................................ 432 426 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

SSI Food stamps 

300 183 

277 168 

298 208 

374 192 
16 

Table 04. Average Monthly Participation in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family Benefits as a 

Percent of Family Income, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands] 

All Persons 

Race and Hispanic origin and monthly family benefits 

as a percent of family income 1 

Total ................................................................... . 

Under 50 percent ............................................................ . 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent. .............................................................. . 

White 

Total ................................................................... . 

Under 50 percent ............................................................ . 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent. .............................................................. . 

Black 

Total ................................................................... . 

Under 50 percent ............................................................ . 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent. .............................................................. . 

Hispanic orlgln2 

Total ................................................................... . 

Under 50 percent. ........................................................... . 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent. .............................................................. . 

Number Percent distribution 

22,474 100.0 

11,488 51.1 

10,987 48.9 

6,654 29.6 

13,390 100.0 

7,670 57.3 

5,721 42.7 

3,479 26.0 

7,968 100.0 

3,443 43.2 

4,524 56.8 

2,644 33.2 

3,902 100.0 

1,992 51.1 

1,910 48.9 

1,305 33.5 

1 Benefits from means-tested programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, 

compensation or pensions. Family income includes the value of food stamps and WIC. 2Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. 

food stamps, WIC, and means-tested veterans' 

Table 05. Average Monthly Participation of Blacks in Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family Benefits 

as a Percent of Family Income: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands] 

1990 1987 

Monthly family benefits as a percent of family income 1 

Percent Percent 

Number distribution Number distribution 

Total .............................................. 7,968 100.0 8,013 100.0 

Under 50 percent ....................................... 3,443 43.2 3,436 42.9 

50 percent and above ................................... 4,524 56.8 4,577 57.1 

100 percent .......................................... 2,644 33.2 3,042 38.0 

1Benefits from means-tested programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, WIC, and means-tested veterans' 

compensation or pensions. Family income includes the value of food stamps and WIC. 
17 

Table E. Program Participation Status, by Age: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

1990 1987 

Major means- Major meansParticipation tested SSI Food stamps Housing tested SSI Food stamps Housing 

and age assistance assistance assistance assistance 

programs' programs' 

Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Perber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total ........ 28,461 11.5 3,961 1.6 17,136 6.9 10,694 4.3 27,412 11.4 3,831 1.6 17,365 7.2 9,222 3.8 

Under 18 years2 ••• 12,213 18.8 36 0.1 8,729 13.5 4,295 6.6 11,608 18.3 3 0.0 8,909 14.0 3,594 5.7 

18 to 64 years .... 12,713 8.3 2,277 1.5 7,334 4.8 4,876 3.2 12,260 8.3 2,071 1.4 7,206 4.9 4,252 2.9 

65 years and over . 3,536 11.9 1,847 5.6 1,074 3.6 1,523 5.1 3,544 12.6 1,757 6.2 1,251 4.4 1,375 4.9 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total ........ 35,663 14.8 4,527 1.9 21,941 9.1 13,745 5.7 34,856 14.8 4,195 1.8 24,221 10.3 11,424 4.9 

Under 18 years2 ••. 15,146 23.7 80 0.1 10,752 16.8 5,472 8.6 14,680 23.3 0 0.0 12,004 19.0 4,531 7.2 

18 to 64 years .... 16,632 11.1 2,698 1.8 9,958 6.7 6,608 4.4 16,141 11.1 2,310 1.6 10,734 7.4 5,383 3.7 

65 years and over . 3,885 13.8 1,748 6.2 1,230 4.4 1,665 5.9 4,035 15.1 1,885 7.1 1,483 5.6 1,510 5.7 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 21n the case of SSI, data in the SIPP is only collected for persons who are at least 15 years of age. The "under 18 years" category therefore contains only 

15-to-17-year-old recipients of SSI. 

Table E1. Long-Term Program Participation, by Age: 1990 to 1991 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables. Persons participating all 24 months of 1990 and 1991 in 

major means-tested assistance programs 1] 

Age Number Percent 

Total ................................................................... . 18,093 7.6 

Under 18 years .............................................................. . 7,817 12.2 

18 to 64 years ............................................................... . 7,761 5.3 

65 years and older ........................................................... . 2,515 9.6 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, 551, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

The proportion of children who received food stamps 

for at least 1 month decreased from 19.0 percent in 

1987 to 16.8 percent in 1990. In contrast, the proportions of children and nonelderly adults who received 

housing assistance increased, as can be seen in table 

E. About 8.6 percent of children and 4.4 percent of 

nonelderly adults lived in public or subsidized housing in 

1990, compared with 7.2 and 3.7 percent, respectively, 

in 1987. 

In comparison to other age groups, the elderly experienced the longest spells of participation in the Food 

Stamp Program. Table E2 shows that the median spell 

duration of elderly entrants was 15.3 months compared 

with 9.5 months for children and 7.9 months for nonelderly adults. The difference between food stamp spell 

length of children and nonelderly adults was not significant. Nonelderly adults had longer Medicaid spells than 

children, 11.6 months compared with 7.7 months. 

Although the elderly experienced no significant changes 

in spell lengths from the 1987 to the 1990 panel, 

children had significantly longer spells of major programs combined and of AFDC/General Assistance in 

the later panel. As can be seen in table E2, their median 

AFDC/General Assistance spell lasted 12.5 months 

during the 1990 panel, but only 8.0 months during the 

1987 panel. Nonelderly adults experienced significant 

spell length increases for food stamps and Medicaid. 
18 

Table E3 shows median monthly family benefits from 

major assistance programs, both combined and separately. They were substantially higher for children than 

for nonelderly adults, and they were higher for nonelderly adults than for the elderly.18 While children received 

median benefits from means-tested programs 'in the 

amount of $528 in 1990, nonelderly adults and the 

elderly received $385 and $185, respectively. 

In 1990, benefits from AFDC or General Assistance, 

SSI, WIC, means-tested Veterans assistance, and food 

stamps accounted for over one-half of total family 

income for 55.4 percent of participating children (see 

table E4). The proportion of nonelderly adults for whom 

it did so was lower, 48.5 percent, and the proportion of 

elderly was smallest, 22.5 percent. Benefits constituted 

all income for 34.1 percent of all participating children, 

30.0 percent of nonelderly adults, and 8.9 percent of 

elderly participants. 

Education. Education of those 18 years and older is 

highly correlated with program participation. Table F 

shows that 20.9 percent of persons without a high 

school diploma participated in a major means-tested 

18The sample of child recipients of SSI is too small for a meaningful assessment. 

program during an average month in 1990, compared 

with 7 .9 percent of high school graduates without college and 3.3 percent of persons with at least 1 year of 

college. Moreover, 15.6 percent of all persons who had 

not completed high school participated in a major 

assistance program during all of 1990 and 1991, compared with 5.1 percent of high school graduates and 1.6 

percent of persons who attended college (table F1 ). 

The relative participation rates reflect in part the 

differential probabilities of being poor by educational 

background. While 20.8 percent of persons without a 

high school diploma were poor in an average month of 

1990, only 9.3 percent of high school graduates and 5.5 

percent of persons with 1 or more years of college were 

poor. 19 

Participation in housing assistance programs increased 

from 1987 to 1990 for persons without a high school 

diploma. About 7. 7 percent lived in public or subsidized 

housing for at least 1 month, not significantly different 

from the 6.5 percent who did so in an average month of 

1987. In 1990, 9.5 percent received housing assistance 

for at least 1 month and 7. 7 percent received such 

assistance in an average month. During the same time 

19U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty. 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 

Table E2. Median Spell Durations, by Age: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major 

means-tested AFDC or Food stamps assistance General Assistance Age programs1 

1990 panel 1987 panel 1990 panel 1987 panel 1990 panel 1987 panel 

Total .......................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 

Under 18 years ..................... 7.4 4.9 12.5 8.0 9.5 

18 to 64 years ..................... 8.1 6.4 9.1 7.3 7.9 

65 years and older ................. 13.5 (X) (B) (B) 15.3 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

Table E3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Age: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Major 

Age means-tested 

assistance 

programs1 

Total .............................................. 418 

Under 18 years ......................................... 528 

18 to 64 years ......................................... 385 

65 years and over ...................................... 185 

AFDC or 

General 

Assistance 

363 

385 

341 

163 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

6.9 

7.5 

5.8 

(X) 

Medicaid 

1990 panel 1987 panel 

10.6 7.4 

7.7 5.1 

11.6 8.1 

(X) (X) 

SSI Food stamps 

300 183 

368 218 

383 165 

194 32 
19 

Tabte E4. Average Monthly Participation In Means-Tested Programs, by Monthly Family Benefits as a 

Percent of Family Income and Age: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands] 

Age and monthly family benefits as a percent of family income 1 Number Percent distribution 

All Persons 

Total ......................................................... ··········· 22,474 100.0 

Under 50 percent ............................................................ . 11,488 

10,987 

6,654 

51.1 

48.9 

29.6 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent ............................................................... . 

Under 18 Years 

Total ................................................................... . 10,292 100.0 

44.6 

55.4 

34.1 

Under 50 percent. ........................................................... . 4,590 

5,702 

3,513 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent ............................................................... . 

18 to 64 Years 

Total ................................................................... . 9,767 

5,026 

4,741 

2,926 

100.0 

Under 50 percent ............................................................ . 51.5 

48.5 

30.0 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent. .............................................................. . 

65 Years and Older 

Total ......................................... ··························· 2,415 

1,872 

544 

215 

100.0 

Under 50 percent. ........................................................... . 77.5 

22.5 

8.9 

50 percent and above ........................................................ . 

100 percent ............................................................... . 

1Benefits from means-tested programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, WIC, and means-tested veterans' 

compensation or pensions. Family income includes the value of food stamps and WIC. 

period, there was also an increase in the proportion of 

high school graduates who were covered by Medicaid 

for at least 1 month, from 5.3 to 6.4 percent. 

There were some differences in median spell durations by education categories. Table F2 shows that 

persons without a high school diploma had significantly 

longer food stamp and Medicaid spells than persons in 

other education groups. They also received assistance 

from major means-tested programs in general and 

housing assistance in particular for longer periods than 

those with 1 or more years of college. High school 

graduates with no years of college generally did not 

differ significantly from others in the median length of 

recipiency, with the exception of housing assistance. 

They received housing assistance twice as long as 

those with 1 or more years of college, 15.2 compared 

with 7.5 months. 

High school graduates with no years of college 

experienced increased spell lengths for food stamps, 

Medicaid, and housing assistance between the 1987 

and 1990 panels of SIPP. For instance, their median 

housing spell lasted 7.6 months during the 1987 panel 

but 15.2 months during the 1990 panel. 

In 1990, median family benefits from all programs 

combined and separately were lowest for adults without 

a high school diploma. Table F3 shows that persons 

without a high school diploma received $328 in median 

family benefits from major programs, compared with 

$377 for those with a diploma. There was no significant 

difference between those with a diploma and those with 

1 or more years of college. Persons with some years of 

college had higher median AFDC/General Assistance 

benefits than persons with a high school diploma, while 

the opposite held true for food stamp benefits. 

Employment status. Table G shows data on the 

relationship between the employment status of persons 

18 years and older and their participation in meanstested programs. The average monthly rate of participation in AFDC or General Assistance and major meanstested programs was highest for unemployed persons. 
20 

Table F. Program Participation Status, by Educational Attainment: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Persons 18 years and older. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested assistance Medicaid 

programs1 

Participation and 

Housing assistance 

educational attainment 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total ................ 28,461 11.5 27,412 11.4 19,110 7.7 17,474 7.3 10,694 4.3 9,222 3.8 

Less than 4 years of high 

school .................. 8,435 20.9 8,936 20.8 5,546 13.7 5,654 13.2 3,113 7.7 2,773 6.5 

High school graduate, 

no college ............... 5,431 7.9 4,917 7.3 3,291 4.8 2,717 4.1 2,121 3.1 2,012 3.0 

1 or more years of college . 2,383 3.3 1,951 2.9 1,242 1.7 1,006 1.5 1,164 1.6 843 1.3 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total ................ 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 23,355 9.7 21,767 9.3 13,745 5.7 11,424 4.9 

Less than 4 years of high 

school .................. 9,886 25.7 10,588 25.9 6,390 16.6 6,672 16.3 3,643 9.5 3,172 7.7 

High school graduate, 

no college ............... 7,341 10.8 6,782 10.2 4,320 6.4 3,532 5.3 2,952 4.3 2,495 3.8 

1 or more years of college . 3,291 4.6 2,805 4.3 1,530 2.1 1,354 2.1 1,678 2.4 1,226 1.9 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table F1. Long-Term Participation, by Educational Attainment: 1990 to 1991 

[Numbers in thousands. Persons 18 years and older. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Educational attainment 

Persons participating all 24 months of 1990 and 

1991 in major means-tested assistance programs 1 

Number Percent 

Total ................................................................... . 18,093 7.6 

Less than 4 years of high school .............................................. . 5,750 15.6 

High school graduate, no college .............................................. . 3,402 5.1 

1 or more years of college .................................................... . 1,123 1.6 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table F2. Median Spell Durations, by Educational Attainment: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months. Persons 18 years and older] 

Major means-tested Food stamps Medicaid assistance programs 1 

Educational attainment 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total .......................... 7.9 6.4 8.8 6.9 10.6 7.4 

Less than 4 years of high school ..... 11.1 9.2 10.2 8.5 19.7 15.7 

High school graduate, no college ..... 9.1 6.0 8.2 4.6 11.5 8.3 

1 or more years of college ........... 5.9 5.4 6.2 4.0 9.3 6.9 

Housing assistance 

1990 1987 

panel panel 

15.6 12.6 

17.0 14.9 

15.2 7.6 

7.5 7.6 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 
About 23.9 percent of the unemployed participated in 

major assistance programs in an average month of 

1990, followed by 18.0 percent of persons out of the 

labor force, 6.6 percent of those employed part time, 

and 3.0 percent of full-time workers. 

Table G1 shows that unemployed workers also had 

the highest probability of participating in a means-tested 

program for at least 1 month in 1990, 31.4 percent. This 

was followed by 20.5 percent for persons who were out 

of the labor force, 9.8 percent for the part-time employed, 

and 5.6 percent for full-time workers. This pattern of 

differences held also for the separate means-tested 

programs, except SSL However, the percentages of 

full-time and part-time workers who received housing 

assistance were not significantly different. 

Long-term participation in AFDC and General Assistance and food stamps followed the same pattern as 

well. As can be seen in table G2, the unemployed had 

the highest food stamp participation rate of 9.4 percent, 

compared with 0.3 percent for the full-time employed. 

However, there was no significant difference between 

21 

the unemployed and persons out of the labor force in 

terms of their propensity to participate for a prolonged 

period of time in one or more means-tested programs, 

Medicaid, and housing assistance. The share of unemployed who participated the entire 1990-1991 period in 

a major means-tested program was 16. 7 percent, statistically indistinguishable from the 14.2 percent of persons out of the labor force who participated. The shares 

of full-time and part-time employees who participated in 

each month of the 2-year period were significantly 

lower, 1.3 and 3.3 percent, respectively. 

There was a significant increase in the average 

monthly proportion of persons out of the labor force who 

received housing assistance, from 5.4 percent in 1987 

to 6.4 percent in 1990. There was also an increase in 

the proportion of full-time workers who received meanstested benefits or housing aid at least once during the 

year (table G3). 

The differences between employment status groups 

in the receipt of assistance reflect differences in income. 

Table F3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Educational Attainment: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars. Persons 18 years and over] 

Major 

Educational attainment means-tested AFDC or 

assistance General 

programs Assistance 

Total .............................................. 418 363 

Less than 4 years of high school ......................... 328 322 

High school graduate, no college ......................... 377 346 

1 or more years of college ............................... 378 380 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

Table G. Average Monthly Participation, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested 

Employment and disability status assistance programs 1 

Number Percent 

Total .............................................. 28,461 11.5 

Employment Status (persons 18 years and over) 

Employed full-time ...................................... 2,943 3.0 

Employed part-time ..................................... 1,377 6.6 

Unemployed ........................................... 1,231 23.9 

Not in the Labor force ................................... 10,698 18.0 

Disability Status (persons 15 to 69 Years) 

With a work disability .................................... 5,966 20.0 

With no work disability .................................. 9,045 6.3 

Food 

SSI stamps 

300 183 

256 136 

368 167 

343 147 

AFDC or 

General Assistance 

Number Percent 

10,573 4.3 

242 0.2 

289 1.4 

548 10.7 

3,084 5.2 

1,321 4.4 --

3,438 2.4 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 
22 

Table G1. Persons Ever Participating in Programs, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in1the detailed tables] 

Major AFDC or means-tested General SSI Food stamps Medicaid Housing 

Employment and assistance assistance 

disability status programs1 Assistance 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total. ................ 35,663 14.8 12,847 5.3 4,527 1.9 21,941 9.1 23,355 9.7 13,745 5.7 

Employment Status 

(persons 18 years 

and over) 

Employed full-time ........ 5,281 5.6 706 0.7 229 0.2 2,293 2.4 1,488 1.6 2,702 2.8 

Employed part-time ........ 2,053 9.8 557 2.7 165 0.8 1,167 5.6 1,145 5.5 763 3.6 

Unemployed .............. 1,666 31.4 793 14.9 137 2.6 1,335 25.1 1, 101 20.7 579 10.9 

Not in the Labor force ..... 11,517 20.5 3,283 5.8 3,915 7.0 6,394 11.4 8,506 15.1 4,230 7.5 

Dlsablllty Status (persons 

15 to 69 years) 

With a work disability ...... 6,880 24.9 1,645 5.9 2,791 10.1 3,899 14.1 5,127 18.5 2,231 8.1 

With no work disability ..... 12,579 8.9 4,379 3.1 509 0.4 7,566 5.3 6,576 4.6 5,458 3.9 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table G2. Long-Term Participation, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 to 1991 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables. Persons participating all 24 months of 1990 and 1991] 

Major AFDC or means-tested General Food stamps Medicaid Housing 

Employment and assistance assistance 

disability status programs1 Assistance 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total .................... 18,093 7.6 5,634 2.4 9,102 3.8 11,752 4.9 6,475 2.7 

Employment Status 

(persons 18 years and over) 

Employed full-time ............ 1, 191 1.3 46 0.0 298 0.3 211 0.2 718 0.8 

Employed part-time ............ 677 3.3 103 0.5 234 1.1 333 1.6 305 1.5 

Unemployed .................. 821 16.7 286 5.8 465 9.4 559 11.4 268 5.4 

Not in the Labor force ......... 7,586 14.2 1,731 3.2 3,307 6.2 5,404 10.1 2,427 4.6 

Disability Status (persons 

15 to 69 years) 

With a work disability .......... 4,258 16.4 660 2.5 1,678 6.5 3,178 12.3 1,096 4.2 

With no work disability ......... 5,050 3.6 1,661 1.2 2,497 1.8 2,590 1.8 2,214 1.6 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

The unemployed had the highest average monthly 

poverty rate, 39.8 percent, followed by persons not in 

the labor force (18.2 percent), those employed part time 

(11.6 percent), and those employed full time (3.7 percent).20 

Persons who were not in the labor force had longer 

AFDC/General Assistance spells and food stamp spells 

than any of the groups in the labor force. For instance, 

20u.s. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990-1992, 

forthcoming. 

table G4 shows that the median duration of AFDC/General 

Assistance spells was 14. 7 months for persons out of 

the work force, 7.3 months for the unemployed, 6.1 

months for part-time workers, and 3.5 months for fulltime workers. 21 Persons out of the labor force had 

longer median spells of participation in major programs 

21There was no significant difference in median AFDC/General 

Assistance spell lengths between the unemployed and part-time 

workers, and between part-time and full-time workers. Also, there was 

no significant difference in the median food stamp spell lengths of the 

three labor force groups. 
23 

Table G3. Program Participation Status, by Employment Status: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Persons 18 years and over. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Persons ever participating 

Average monthly recipiency Major means-tested Housing assistance 

Employment status of housing assistance assistance programs 1 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total. ................ 10,694 4.3 9,222 3.8 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 13,745 5.7 11,424 4.9 

Employed full-time ........ 1,666 1.7 1,451 1.6 5,281 5.6 4,000 4.5 2,702 2.8 1,935 2.2 

Employed part-time ........ 539 2.6 571 2.8 2,053 9.8 2,087 10.2 763 3.6 687 3.4 

Unemployed .............. 415 8.1 463 8.1 1,666 31.4 2,656 37.4 579 10.9 726 10.2 

Not in the Labor force ..... 3,778 6.4 3,142 5.4 11,517 20.5 11,432 20.6 4,230 7.5 3,545 6.4 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table G4. Median Spell Durations, by Employment and Disability Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major AFDC or means-tested General Food stamps Medicaid Housing 

assistance assistance Employment and programs' Assistance 

disability status 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total .................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 6.9 10.6 7.4 15.6 12.6 

Employment Status (persons 

18 years and over) 

Employed full-time ............ 6.3 5.2 3.5 3.8 5.7 3.9 7.3 5.3 6.9 7.1 

Employed part-time ............ 8.2 6.7 6.1 3.9 6.5 4.5 10.8 7.4 13.6 (X) 

Unemployed .................. 7.6 4.9 7.3 5.8 7.2 4.2 10.3 9.5 17.4 7.6 

Not in the Labor force ......... 11.9 8.9 14.7 10.3 11.9 9.7 (X) 15.1 23.9 (X) 

Disability Status (persons 

15 to 69 years) 

With a work disability .......... 11.4 9.0 6.8 11.3 9.2 9.8 20.5 12.0 19.7 (X) 

With no work disability ......... 7.6 5.2 9.6 5.3 7.8 5.0 9.5 7.3 9.2 7.6 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

than the unemployed and full-time workers. 22 Full-time 

workers experienced much shorter spells of living in 

public or subsidized housing than both the unemployed 

and those out of the labor force, 6.9 months compared 

with 17.4 and 23.9 months, respectively. 23 

Between the 1987 and 1990 panels, the unemployed 

experienced significantly increased median spell durations for major programs combined, and for the Food 

Stamp and housing assistance programs separately. 

This is partly because of longer spells of unemployment 

22The difference between spell lengths of the unemployed and 

full-time workers is not significant. 23Median housing spell lengths did not differ significantly between 

the unemployed and those out of the labor force. 

in the later panel.24 Also, full-time workers were found to 

have longer food stamp spells during the 1990 panel 

than during the 1987 panel, 5.7 months compared with 

3.9 months. 

In 1990, the median sum of benefits from meanstested programs for unemployed workers and persons 

out of the labor force, while not statistically different 

from each other, were higher than for those holding 

full-time or part-time jobs. As table G5 shows, persons 

out of the labor force had higher AFDC/ General 

Assistance benefits than any of the three labor force 

24Paul Ryscavage found that the median unemployment spell 

lasted 2.4 months during the 1990 panel, but only 1 .8 months during 

the 1987 panel. 
24 

Table GS. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Elllployment and Disability Status: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Employment and disability status Major means-tested AFDC or 

assistance programs 1 General Assistance Food stamps 

Total ....................................................... 418 363 183 

Employment Status (persons 18 years and over) 

Employed full-time ............................................... 216 309 171 

Employed part-time .............................................. 264 277 163 

Unemployed .................................................... 387 317 183 

Not in Labor force ............................................... 385 353 135 

Disability Status {persons 15 to 69 years) 

With a work disability ............................................. 370 317 119 

With no work disability ............................................ 419 354 192 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

groups.25 Unemployed workers received more generous 

food stamp benefits than full- and part-time workers and 

persons out of the labor force.26 

Disability status. The presence of a work disability in 

persons 1 S to 69 years of age increased the participation rates in major means-tested programs, both separately and combined. Although 6.3 percent of persons 

without a disability received assistance from one or 

more programs in an average month in 1990, 20.0 

percent of those with a disability did so (table G). About 

24.9 percent of persons with a disability participated at 

least 1 month in 1990, and 16.4 percent participated in 

all months of 1990 and 1991. The respective proportions for persons without a disability were 8.9 and 3.6 

percent (tables G1 and G2). 

Again, the relative participation rates reflect differential propensities of being poor. Persons with a work 

disability were much more likely to be poor than persons 

with no disability, 17.8 compared with 9.0 percent in an 

average month of 1990.27 

Persons with a work disability had longer median 

spells for major programs combined and for Medicaid 

than persons without a disability (table G4). For instance, 

a disabled entrant in the Medicaid program had a 

median spell duration of 20.S months as compared with 

9.S months for a person without a disability. AFDC/General 

Assistance spell durations decreased considerably from 

11.3 months during the 1987 panel to 6.8 months during 

the 1990 panel for persons with a work disability. 

Median monthly family benefits from major assistance programs, as well as from the Food Stamp and 

25Median AFDC benefits of unemployed workers were not significantly different from those of full-time workers, and the latter group's 

benefits were not significantly different from those of part-time workers. 26There was no significant difference in food stamp benefits of fulland part-time workers. 27U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty. 1990-1992, 

forthcoming. 

AFDC/General Assistance programs were significantly 

higher for persons without a work disability than for 

persons with a work disability, as can be seen in table 

GS. In 1990, a work disability was associated with a 

median monthly family benefit of $370 for participants of 

major assistance programs. Participants without a work 

disability received a median benefit of $419 during the 

same year. 

Residence. Persons in central cities were much more 

likely than persons in suburban areas to participate in 

means-tested programs in an average month. Persons 

living outside of metropolitan areas were more likely to 

participate than suburban residents but were less likely 

than central city residents to do so (see table H). About 

17 .3 percent of central city residents participated in a 

major assistance program during an average month of 

1990, followed by 13.3 percent of persons who were 

living outside a metropolitan area, and 6.8 percent of 

suburban residents. This pattern also holds for AFDC 

and General Assistance, food stamps, and Medicaid. 

About 21.0 percent of central city residents participated in a means-tested program at some time during 

1990, and 12.8 percent participated during all of 1990 

and 1991. Suburban residents had the lowest rates of 

participation: 9.6 percent participated in major assistance programs for at least 1 month in 1990 and 4.2 

percent participated all months in 1990 and 1991. 

Suburban residents were more likely to receive major 

means-tested benefits in an average month of 1990 

than 1987, 6.8 compared with 6.0 percent as can be 

seen in table H1. Suburban residents were also more 

likely to receive housing assistance in 1990 than in 

1987. Their average monthly participation rate was 2.2 

percent in 1990, and 3.3 percent participated sometime 

during that year. The comparable rates in 1987 were 1.6 

and 2.3 percent. Metropolitan residents as well experienced an increase in the likelihood of receiving housing 

assistance sometime during the year, from 4.9 percent 

in 1987 to S. 7 percent in 1990. 
25 

Table H. Program Participation Status, by Residence: 1990 

\ 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Average monthly participation Persons 

Persons ever participating all 

participating 24 months 

Major in major of 1990 and 

Residence means-tested AFDC or means-tested 1991 in major 

assistance General Food stamps Medicaid assistance means-tested 

programs' Assistance programs' assistance 

programs' 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total. ................ 28,461 11.5 10,573 4.3 17, 136 6.9 19, 110 7.7 35,663 14.8 18,093 7.6 

Metropolitan .............. 20,888 11.0 8,459 4.4 12,371 6.5 14,266 7.5 25,790 14.0 13,447 7.5 

Central city ............. 13,070 17.3 5,922 7.8 8,099 10.7 9,225 12.2 14,938 21.0 8,797 12.8 

Non-central city ......... 7,819 6.8 2,537 2.2 4,272 3.7 5,041 4.4 10,852 9.6 4,650 4.2 

Nonmetropolitan .......... 7,573 13.3 2,115 3.7 4,765 8.4 4,844 8.5 9,873 17.3 4,645 8.2 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Table H1. Program Participation Status, by Residence: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested 

assistance programs' Food stamps Housing assistance 

Participation and 

residence 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total ................ 28,461 11.5 27,412 11.4 17, 136 6.9 17,365 7.2 10,694 4.3 9,222 3.8 

Metropolitan ............. 20,888 11.0 19,458 10.6 12,371 6.5 11,671 6.3 8,398 4.4 7,336 4.0 

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,070 17.3 12,925 17.0 8,099 10.7 8,148 10.7 5,899 7.8 5,573 7.3 

Non-central city ......... 7,819 6.8 6,532 6.0 4,272 3.7 3,523 3.3 2,499 2.2 1,763 1.6 

Nonmetropolitan .......... 7,573 13.3 7,955 14.3 4,765 8.4 5,694 10.2 2,296 4.0 1,886 3.4 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total ................ 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 21,941 9.1 24,221 10.3 13,745 5.7 11,424 4.9 

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,790 14.0 24,208 13.5 15,616 8.5 15,901 8.9 10,463 5.7 8,762 4.9 

Central city ............ 14,938 21.0 14,876 20.8 9,597 13.5 10,378 14.5 6,733 9.5 6,336 8.9 

Non-central city . . . . . . . . 10,852 9.6 9,333 8.7 6,019 5.3 5,523 5.1 3,730 3.3 2,426 2.3 

Nonmetropolitan .......... 9,873 17.3 10,647 19.1 6,324 11.1 8,320 14.9 3,282 5.8 2,662 4.8 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 

Nonmetropolitan residents were much less likely to 

receive food stamps in 1990 than in 1987. About 8.4 

percent received food stamps in an average month of 

1990, and 11.1 percent did so sometime during the year. 

The comparable rates for 1987 were 10.2 and 14.9 

percent. 

The relative participation rates reflect in part the 

differences in the likelihood of being poor between 

central city, suburban, and nonmetropolitan residents. 

In 1990, the average monthly poverty rates for central 

city and nonmetropolitan residents were similar, 17.6 

and 16.4 percent, followed by 8.0 percent for suburban 

residents. 28 

Median spell lengths of the major means-tested 

assistance programs combined and of housing assistance programs differed by residence. Specifically, central city residents had longer spells in major programs 

28U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990-1992, 

forthcoming. 
26 

than their suburban and nonmetropolitan counterparts, 

as can be seen in table H2. 29 Also, non metropolitan 

residents lived for shorter periods of time in public or 

subsidized housing than metropolitan residents as a 

whole, and central city and suburban residents taken 

separately. 3o 

Metropolitan residents in general and central city 

residents in specific experienced rises in median spell 

durations of Medicaid and of all major programs combined. Also, persons living in the suburbs had longer 

median food stamp and housing spells during the 1990 

panel than during the 1987 panel. 

Median combined family benefits as well as benefits 

from the individual programs were higher for participants living in central cities than for those living in the 

suburbs and in nonmetropolitan areas, as can be seen 

in table H3. Median benefits from major programs 

amounted to $495 for central city participants, $375 for 

those living in the suburbs, and $339 for nonmetropolitan residents. 

Region. Southern residents were significantly more 

likely than persons from other regions to have participated at least 1 month of 1990 in one or more major 

means-tested programs (table H4). About 17.2 percent 

of persons living in the South participated, compared 

with 14.2 percent of Westerners, 13.8 percent of persons from the Northeast, and 12.8 percent of persons in 

the Midwest. 31 Southern residents were also significantly more likely to receive food stamps than residents 

from other regions. About 11.4 percent received food 

29Nonmetropolitan and suburban residents did not differ significantly. 30However, there was no significant difference between all metropolitan residents and their separate parts, central city and suburban 

residents. 31Participation rates of persons from the West, Northeast, and 

Midwest were not significantly different from one another. 

stamps sometime during 1990, 8.5 percent did so in an 

average month, and 4.8 percent received food stamps 

for the entire 1990 and 1991 period. Persons from the 

South, however, were the least likely to have received 

AFDC or General Assistance. Only 4.6 percent participated sometime during 1990, compared with 5.6 to 5.8 

percent of persons in the other regions. 32 Southerners 

were also the least likely to participate in AFDC/General 

Assistance in an average month, as well as to participate the entire 24 months of 1990 and 1991. Residents 

from the Northeast were significantly more likely than 

persons from other regions to receive housing assistance in an average month and on a long-term basis. In 

an average month of 1990, 6.0 percent lived in public or 

subsidized housing, compared with 4.1 percent of Southerners, 3.9 percent of persons from the Midwest, and 

3.5 percent of persons in the West.33 

Compared with 1987, Southern residents experienced an increase in the likelihood of receiving Medicaid and housing assistance. As can be seen in table HS, 

about 7 .5 percent of Southerners received Medicaid in 

an average month of 1990, and 9.9 percent received it 

sometime during that year. The respective numbers for 

1987 were 6.2 and 8.2 percent. Average monthly housing assistance increased from 3.4 to 4.1 percent, and 

the proportion of Southerners who participated sometime during the year in a housing program increased 

from 4.4 to 5.8 percent. 

The higher likelihood of Southerners compared with 

residents of other regions to receive means-tested 

assistance reflects their higher poverty rate. The average monthly poverty rate was 15.9 percent in the South, 

32There was no significant difference between Western, Northeastern, and Midwestern residents. 33The differences in average monthly and long-term recipiency of 

housing assistance do not differ statistically between residents of the 

South, Midwest, and West. 

Table H2. Median Spell Durations, by Residence and Region: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months] 

Major means-tested Food stamps Medicaid Housing 

Residence and region assistance programs 1 assistance 

1990 panel 1987 panel 1990 panel 1987 panel 1990 panel 1987 panel 1990 panel 1987 panel 

Total .......................... 7.9 6.4 8.8 6.9 10.6 7.4 15.6 12.6 

Residence 

Metropolitan ....................... 7.9 6.2 8.4 6.3 11.1 7.4 16.5 14.5 

Central city ...................... 10.0 6.7 9.8 7.7 11.3 7.7 16.9 (X) 

Non-central city .................. 7.3 5.6 7.7 5.1 10.6 7.3 13.9 8.2 

Nonmetropolitan .................... 7.8 6.8 9.6 7.8 9.7 7.3 8.5 6.7 

Region 

Northeast. ......................... 7.7 6.8 11.8 6.1 10.4 8.8 13.0 (X) 

Midwest ........................... 9.6 3.9 8.9 6.1 12.1 7.9 16.8 7.2 

South ............................. 7.5 7.2 8.3 7.9 7.8 7.4 16.7 12.5 

West .............................. 8.3 5.7 8.2 4.0 11.2 6.2 8.8 13.8 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 
Table H3. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by 

Residence: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Residence 

Total .................................... . 

Metropolitan ................................. . 

Central city ................................ . 

Non-central city ............................ . 

Nonmetropolitan ............................. . 

Major 

means-tested 

assistance 

programs1 

418 

449 

495 

375 

339 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

followed by the Midwest (11.9 percent) and the West 

(11.6 percent). The latter two rates were not statistically 

different from each other. The South had a disproportionately large share of the Nation's poverty population: 

42.3 percent of the 1990 average monthly poverty 

population lived in the South, compared with 34.1 

percent of the total U.S. population.34 

Spell durations of the Food Stamps, Medicaid, and 

Housing Programs varied by region, as can be seen in 

table H2. Persons living in the Northeast had longer 

median food stamp spells than persons living in any of 

the three other regions. 35 Also, persons living in the 

West stayed shorter periods of time in public or subsidized housing (8.8 months) than persons in the Midwest 

(16.8 months) and South (16.7 months).36 However, 

Western residents were covered for longer time periods 

by Medicaid than their Southern counterparts. 

34U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series 

P-70, No. 42, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Poverty, 1990 to 

1992, forthcoming. 35The other three regions did not differ significantly from each 

other in food stamp spell length. 36The difference between persons in the Midwest and South was 

not statistically significant. 

27 

Western residents experienced longer food stamp 

and Medicaid spells, but shorter housing spells during 

the 1990 panel than during the 1987 panel. For instance, 

the median food stamp spell duration of Westerners 

doubled from 4.0 months to 8.2 months. Persons from 

the Midwest experienced sharp increases in spell durations of all major programs combined and of housing 

assistance. Their median length of participation in major 

programs was 2.5 times as long during the later panel, 

and they lived 2.3 times as long in public or subsidized 

housing. Southern residents also had longer spells of 

receiving housing assistance during the 1990 panel 

(16. 7 months) than during the 1987 panel (12.5 months). 

The Western region paid the highest median combined benefits from means-tested programs, $622 in 

1990, followed by the Northeast with $505, the Midwest 

with $456, and the South with $305. This pattern also 

held for AFDC/General Assistance, as can be seen in 

table H6. SSI benefits followed the same pattern as 

well, except that the difference between benefits paid to 

Western and Northeastern residents was not statistically significant. In contrast, Western residents received 

$139 in median food stamp benefits, far below the $185 

received by Northeastern residents, the $198 of Southern residents, and the $199 of Midwestern residents. 

Median food stamp benefits of persons living in the 

South were not statistically different from those in the 

Midwest. 

Income status.37 The data in table I show that poverty 

and participation in major means-tested assistance programs were indeed closely related. The poor, i.e., those 

371n calculating average monthly participation, income status was 

determined by forming the ratio of family income-to-poverty threshold 

that pertained during the month of participation. In calculating the 

number of persons who ever participated during a given year, income 

status was determined by the ratio of total family income during the 12 

months of the year to the sum of the 12 monthly poverty thresholds. 

Likewise, in determining the number of persons who participated all of 

1990 and 1991, income status was obtained by forming the ratio of 

total family income during the 24 months of 1990 and 1991 to the sum 

of the 24 monthly thresholds. 

Table H4. Program Participation Status, by Region: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Average monthly participation Persons ever participating Persons participating all 24 months of 

1990 and 1991 

AFDC 

Major AFDC AFDC 

Region Food stamps Housing means-tested or General Food stamps or General Food stamps Housing 

or General assistance assistance assistance 

Assistance programs1 Assistance Assistance 

Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per· Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Perber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 

Total ... 10,573 4.3 17,136 6.9 10,694 4.3 35,663 14.8 12,847 5.3 21,941 9.1 5,634 2.4 9,102 3.8 6,475 2.7 

Northeast .... 2,353 4.7 3,180 6.3 3,024 6.0 6,662 13.8 2,724 5.6 3,685 7.6 1,364 2.8 1,831 3.8 1,974 4.1 

Midwest ..... 2,866 4.6 3,935 6.4 2,387 3.9 7,939 12.8 3,591 5.8 5,281 8.5 1,567 2.5 2,161 3.5 1,378 2.2 

South ....... 2,970 3.5 7,189 8.5 3,488 4.1 14,168 17.2 3,822 4.6 9,389 11.4 1,401 1.8 3,858 4.8 2,057 2.6 

West ....... 2,384 4.7 2,833 5.6 1,795 3.5 6,894 14.2 2,711 5.6 3,585 7.4 1,302 2.8 1,252 2.7 1,065 2.3 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 
28 

Table H5. Program Participation Status, by Region: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables) 

Medicaid Housing assistance 

Participation and region 1990 1987 1990 1987 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Average Monthly Participation 

Total ......................... 19, 110 7.7 17,474 7.3 10,694 4.3 9,222 3.8 

Northeast. ......................... 3,900 7.8 3,866 8.0 3,024 6.0 2,625 5.4 

Midwest ........................... 4,511 7.3 4,457 7.4 2,387 3.9 2,345 3.9 

South ............................. 6,313 7.5 5,065 6.2 3,488 4.1 2,777 3.4 

West .............................. 4,387 8.6 4,086 8.1 1,795 3.5 1,475 2.9 

Persons Ever Participating 

Total ......................... 23,355 9.7 21,767 9.3 13,745 5.7 11,424 4.9 

Northeast. ......................... 4,441 9.2 4,557 9.7 3,540 7.3 2,932 6.3 

Midwest ........................... 5,590 9.0 5,560 9.2 3,049 4.9 3,011 5.0 

South ............................. 8,154 9.9 6,521 8.2 4,787 5.8 3,471 4.4 

West .............................. 5,171 10.6 5,129 10.6 2,369 4.9 2,010 4.1 

Table H6. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Region: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars) 

Major meansRegion tested assistance AFDC or General 

programs 1 Assistance SSI Food stamps 

Total.............................................. 418 363 300 183 

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 420 367 185 

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 366 265 199 

South .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. 305 228 238 198 

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 628 376 139 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, and food stamps. 

with a family income-to-poverty ratio of less than 1.0, 

were significantly more likely than the nonpoor to participate in each of the means-tested programs examined in this report. They had an average monthly 

participation rate in major assistance programs of 52.8 

percent in 1990, similar to their long-term participation 

rate of 52.4 percent. In contrast, the rate for the 

nonpoor was 5.4 percent. The percentages of persons 

who participated at least 1 month during a given year 

and of those who participated all months during 1990 

and 1991 vary similarly with poverty status. The nonpoor 

had an 8.3 percent probability to ever participate in 1990 

and a 2.8 percent probability to participate during all of 

1990 and 1991. The corresponding numbers for the 

poverty population were 70.5 and 52.4 percent. 

The nonpoor were significantly more likely to participate in one or more means-tested programs in 1990 

than in 1987 as can be seen in table 11. In 1987, 7.5 

percent of the nonpoor participated sometime during 

the year, and 4.8 percent participated in an average 

month. In 1990, the respective proportions were 8.3 and 

5.4 percent. The poor, however, became less likely to 

ever participate in a major means-tested program during 

the year, 74.4 percent in 1987 compared with 70.5 

percent in 1990. The poor also became less likely to 

ever receive food stamps. 

Medicaid participation of the nonpoor increased over 

the same time period. In 1987, 3.8 percent were covered by Medicaid sometime during the year, and 2.6 

percent were covered during an average month. In 

1990, coverage had increased to 4.6 and 3.1 percent, 

respectively. 

Both the poor and the nonpoor were more likely in 

1990 than in 1987 to live in public or subsidized housing 

for 1 or more months. While 2.6 percent of the nonpoor 

and 23.6 percent of the poor received such assistance 

during 1987, these percentages rose to 3.1 and 28.2 

percent, respectively. In addition, there was an increase 

in the likelihood of the poor to receive housing assistance in an average month, from 16.3 percent in 1987 to 

19.5 percent in 1990. 

Premeans-tested income consists of cash income 

prior to the inclusion of means-tested cash benefits. 

I 
29 

Table I. Participation in Major Means-Tested Programs, by Income Status: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands. Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and 

housing assistance. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Average monthly Persons ever Persons participating all 24 

Income status participation participating months of 1990 and 1991 

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 

Total. ................................. 28,461 11.5 35,663 14.8 18,093 7.6 

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio 

Under 1.00 ................................ 16,805 52.8 17,711 70.5 11,985 52.4 

1.00 and above ............................ 11,657 5.4 17,952 8.3 6,108 2.8 

Family Premeans-Tested Incometo-Poverty Ratio 1 

Under 1.00 ................................ 18,968 55.0 20,043 72.2 13,687 53.3 

Under .50 ............................... 12,726 67.0 11,739 86.6 9,452 76.8 

.50 to .74 ................................ 3,300 47.9 3,983 66.7 2,405 41.7 

.75 to .99 ................................ 2,941 34.2 4,321 52.4 1,830 24.1 

1.00 and above ............................ 9,494 4.5 15,620 7.3 4,406 2.1 

1.00 to 1.24 ............................. 2,214 20.7 3,393 35.4 1,303 13.4 

1.25 to 1.49 ............................. 1,562 13.3 2,826 24.7 846 7.7 

1.50 to 1.99 ............................. 2,061 8.3 3,050 12.4 868 3.6 

2.00 to 2.99 ............................. 2,051 4.0 3,645 7.0 891 1.7 

3.00 and over ............................ 1,605 1.4 2,707 2.3 498 0.4 

Family Pre-Transfer Incometo-Poverty Ratlo2 

Under 1.00 ................................ 21, 100 40.6 23,077 52.5 15, 117 36.2 

Under .50 ............................... 16,671 48.2 16,242 60.2 12,229 49.0 

50 to .74 ................................ 2,475 29.7 3,395 43.7 1,627 21.4 

.75 to .99 ................................ 1,954 21.6 3,440 37.2 1,261 13.8 

1.00 and above ............................ 7,361 3.8 12,586 6.4 2,976 1.5 

1.00 to 1.24 ............................. 1,623 15.1 2,589 24.8 844 8.4 

1.25 to 1.49 ............................. 1,071 9.7 2,129 19.7 527 4.8 

1.50 to 1.99 ............................. 1,680 7.2 2,607 11.2 493 2.2 

2.00 to 2.99 ............................. 1,607 3.5 2,900 6.2 732 1.6 

3.00 and over ............................ 1,381 1.3 2,361 2.2 380 0.4 

1 Based on money income excluding means-tested government cash transfers. 2Based on money income excluding government cash transfers. 

This concept allows us to look at poverty counts and 

rates that would exist in the absence of means-tested 

programs. As can be seen in table I, the ratios of 

premeans-tested income-to-poverty thresholds were negatively correlated with average monthly participation in 

means-tested programs over the whole range of observations, ranging from a 67.0 percent participation rate 

for those with family premeans-tested incomes of less 

than one-half of their respective thresholds to a participation rate of 1 .4 percent for those with premeanstested incomes of three times the poverty level or more. 

The same held true for persons who participated 1 

month or more during 1990: Those with premeanstested income of less than one-half of their thresholds 

had a participation rate of 86.6 percent, compared with 

2.3 percent for those with a income-to-poverty ratio of 3 

or more. This negative relationship did not exist over the 

whole range of values, if means-tested transfer income 

was taken into account, due to the redistributional 

effects of transfer payments. 

The neediest persons, those with a pre-transfer 

income-to-poverty ratio of less than 0.5, experienced a 

decreased probability of ever participating in one or 

more means-tested programs in 1990 when compared 

with 1987. Although 65.0 percent participated sometime 

in 1987, only 60.2 percent did so in 1990 (table 11). 

The median spell durations of persons who were 

poor at the onset of a spell exceeded those of nonpoor 

persons for all means-tested programs, with the possible exception of SSI (table 12).38 Most pronounced 

was the difference between the poor and the nonpoor in 

the median duration of a housing assistance spell, 23.1 

months compared with 8.6 months. 

The poor experienced increases in durations of the 

major programs combined and of the Food Stamps 

Program from the 1987 to the 1990 panel. As can be 

seen in table 12, a median food stamp spell of the poor 

lasted 7.8 months during the 1987 panel but 10.6 

months during the 1990 panel. 

As shown in table 13, median family benefits from one 

or more major assistance program were substantially 

38Both poor and nonpoor had median SSI spell durations exceeding 30 months. 
30 

Table 11. Program Participation Status, by Income Status: 1990 and 1987 

[Numbers in thousands. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major means-tested 

assistance programs 1 Food stamps Medicaid Housing assistance 

Participation and income 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 status 

Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Per- Num- Perber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber cent 

Average Monthly 

Participation 

Total ............ 28,461 11.5 27,412 11.4 17,136 6.9 17,365 7.2 19,110 7.7 17.474 7.3 10,694 4.3 9,222 3.8 

Family Income-toPoverty Ratio 

Under 1.00 .......... 16,805 52.8 17,354 54.3 13,235 41.6 14,143 44.2 12,364 38.9 12,071 37.7 6,202 19.5 5,219 16.3 

1.00 and above ....... 11,657 5.4 10,058 4.8 3,901 1.8 3,222 1.6 6,746 3.1 5,402 2.6 4,492 2.1 4,003 1.9 

Persons Ever 

Participating 

Total ............ 35,663 14.8 34,856 14.8 21,941 9.1 24,221 10.3 23,355 9.7 21,767 9.3 13,745 5.7 11,424 4.9 

Family Income-toPoverty Ratio 

Under 1.00 .......... 17,711 70.5 19,082 74.4 14,889 59.2 16,914 65.9 13,464 53.6 13,745 53.6 7,095 28.2 6,061 23.6 

1.00 and above ....... 17,952 8.3 15,773 7.5 7,051 3.3 7,307 3.5 9,891 4.6 8,022 3.8 6,650 3.1 5,363 2.6 

Family Pre-Transfer 

Income-toPoverty Ratio2 

Under 1.00 .......... 23,077 52.5 24,101 54.6 17,372 39.5 19,482 44.1 17,238 39.2 17,012 38.5 8,949 20.3 7,758 17.6 

Under .50 .......... 16,242 60.2 18,247 65.0 12,465 46.2 14,769 52.6 13,474 49.9 14,263 50.8 6,811 25.2 6,142 21.9 

.50 to .74 ........... 3,395 43.7 3,083 41.9 2,472 31.8 2,419 32.9 2,021 26.0 1,704 23.1 1,133 14.6 734 10.0 

.75 to .99 ........... 3,440 37.2 2,772 31.9 2,435 26.4 2,293 26.4 1,743 18.9 1,045 12.0 1,005 10.9 881 10.2 

1.00 and above ....... 12,586 6.4 10,754 5.6 4,569 2.3 4,740 2.5 6,117 3.1 4,755 2.5 4,796 2.4 3,666 1.9 

1.00 to 1.24 ......... 2,589 24.8 2,612 26.9 1,471 14.1 1,791 18.5 1,320 12.6 912 9.4 686 6.6 738 7.6 

1.25 to 1.49 ......... 2,129 19.7 1,753 17.0 977 9.0 1,328 12.9 968 8.9 724 7.0 825 7.6 363 3.5 

1.50 to 1.99 ......... 2,607 11.2 2,306 10.9 886 3.8 928 4.4 1,374 5.9 1,214 5.7 954 4.1 808 3.8 

2.00 to 2.99 ......... 2,900 6.2 2,264 5.0 831 1.8 503 1.1 1,507 3.2 999 2.2 1, 115 2.4 964 2.1 

3.00 and over ....... 2,361 2.2 1,820 1.7 404 0.4 189 0.2 947 0.9 905 0.9 1,216 1.1 794 0.8 

'Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, SSI, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2Based on money income excluding government cash transfers. 

higher for poor participants than for nonpoor participants, $451 compared with $342 in 1990. However, 

while poor participants received higher food stamp 

benefits than their nonpoor counterparts, they received 

lower AFDC/General Assistance benefits than the nonpoor. 39 Categorical food stamp eligibility of AFDC recipients results in a higher likelihood of multiple program 

participation of the poor than the nonpoor. 

Table 13 also depicts median family benefits of participants by detailed categories of family premeanstested cash income-to-poverty ratios. As expected, median 

benefits from means-tested programs were related to 

the "severity" of poverty prior to the receipt of meanstested assistance. In 1990, median benefits ranged 

from $188 for those with a premeans-tested income-topoverty ratio between .75 and .99 to $564 for those with 

a ratio below .50. This pattern also held for the Food 

Stamp program. 

39Since income includes any AFDC/General Assistance payments, higher benefits result in higher income and a lower probability 

of being poor, everything else constant. 

Looking at participants in means-tested programs, a 

significantly larger proportion of the poor than the 

nonpoor received over one-half of their monthly income 

from benefits (table 14). In 1990, 66.2 percent of the 

poor participants had incomes consisting mostly of 

benefits, but only 15.0 percent of the nonpoor participants had such incomes. Furthermore, 41.9 percent of 

all poor participants had incomes consisting solely of 

benefits in 1990, compared with 5.7 percent of all 

nonpoor participants. 

FUTURE REPORTS 

Nonmeans-Tested Benefits 

The descriptive analysis in this report does not cover 

the key social insurance programs of Social Security or 

Railroad retirement income, nonmeans-tested Veterans' 

compensation or pensions, and unemployment compensation. However, data on these programs are included 

in the detailed tables, and future reports will be expanded 

to include such a discussion. 
Table 12. Median Spell Durations, by Income Status: 1990 and 1987 Panels 

[Numbers in months. Bases for percentages can be found in the detailed tables] 

Major 

means-tested AFDC or Food stamps assistance General Assistance 

Income status programs1 

1990 1987 1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel panel panel 

Total ...................... 7.9 6.4 10.4 7.5 8.8 6.9 

Family Income-to-Poverty 

Ratio 

Under 1.00 ..................... 10.4 7.4 12.1 9.3 10.6 7.8 

1.00 and above ................. 7.1 4.1 6.7 4.8 6.0 3.9 

Family Premeans-Tested 2 

Income-to-Poverty Ratio 

Under 1.00 ..................... 10.6 7.3 11.6 7.9 10.4 8.0 

Under .50 .................... 11.9 7.2 15.4 9.6 12.7 8.3 

.50 to .74 .................... 9.1 7.3 4.3 7.7 8.7 7.2 

.75 to .99 .................... 8.7 8.0 3.8 4.1 8.2 9.7 

1.00 and above ................. 7.0 4.2 7.1 4.7 5.5 3.8 

1.00 to 1.24 .................. 7.5 4.9 4.4 6.5 5.7 3.8 

1.25 to 1.49 .................. 10.0 6.2 (X) (B) 5.1 3.8 

1.50 to 1.99 .................. 7.1 6.2 5.2 17.1 5.1 3.2 

2.00 to 2.99 .................. 4.0 3.9 6.0 5.1 7.2 3.8 

3.00 and over ................ 4.1 3.9 4.0 3.7 6.2 5.1 

31 

Medicaid Housing 

assistance 

1990 1987 1990 1987 

panel panel panel panel 

10.6 7.4 15.6 12.6 

12.2 10.7 23.1 (X) 

8.0 4.4 8.6 8.7 

13.0 9.8 (X) (X) 

17.3 11.3 (X) 14.9 

11.7 8.6 7.8 (X) 

9.8 7.8 23.1 (X) 

7.7 4.1 7.3 7.6 

7.7 4.8 (X) (X) 

11.9 6.1 11.4 7.9 

7.6 4.0 6.9 10.1 

6.0 4.0 4.1 6.0 

7.0 3.8 4.6 5.4 

1Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, 551, food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2Based on money income excluding means-tested government cash transfers. 

Table 13. Median Monthly Family Benefits, by Income Status: 1990 

[Numbers in dollars] 

Major meansIncome status tested assistance 

AFDC or 

General 

Assistance 

551 Food stamps 

programs1 

Total................................................ 418 363 300 183 

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio 

Under 1.00 ............................................. . 

1.00 and above ......................................... . 

Family Premeans-Tested Income-to-Poverty Ratlo2 

Under 1.00 ............................................. . 

Under .50 ............................................ . 

.50 to .74 ............................................. . 

.75 to .99 ............................................. . 

1.00 and above ......................................... . 

1.00 to 1.24 .......................................... . 

1.25 to 1.49 .......................................... . 

1.50 to 1.99 .......................................... . 

2.00 to 2.99 .......................................... . 

3.00 and over ......................................... . 

451 

342 

471 

564 

230 

188 

254 

188 

239 

262 

311 

293 

359 

386 

373 

382 

317 

290 

312 

312 

286 

312 

309 

341 

225 

341 

343 

385 

138 

219 

256 

199 

327 

256 

253 

256 

199 

146 

195 

209 

180 

145 

145 

148 

144 

148 

148 

110 

1 Major means-tested assistance programs include AFDC or General Assistance, 551 and food stamps. 3Based on money income excluding means-tested government cash transfers. 

Valuation of Noncash Benefits 

Over the last decade, the Census Bureau has developed experimental methods to value some types of 

noncash benefits (such as Medicaid, public or subsidized housing, free or reduced-price school lunches). 

Thus far, these valuation efforts have been restricted to 

the Current Population Survey. We are currently working 

toward transferring these valuation techniques to the 

SIPP. Thus, future SIPP analyses of the effect of 

means-tested transfer programs on economic wellbeing will be enhanced by the inclusion of more types of 

benefits. 
32 

Table 14. Average Monthly Participation in MeansTested Programs, by Monthly Family 

Benefits as a Percent of Family Income 

and Poverty Status: 1990 

[Numbers in thousands] 

Poverty status and monthly family 

benefits as a percent of family income 1 

All Persons 

Total. .......................... . 

Under 50 percent ................... . 

50 percent and above ............... . 

100 percent ...................... . 

Poor 

Total. .......................... . 

Under 50 percent ................... . 

50 percent and above ............... . 

100 percent ...................... . 

Non poor 

Total. .......................... . 

Under 50 percent ................... . 

50 percent and above ............... . 

100 percent ...................... . 

Percent 

Number distribution 

22,474 100.0 

11,488 51.1 

10,987 48.9 

6,654 29.6 

14,863 100.0 

5,022 33.8 

9,842 66.2 

6,221 41.9 

7,611 100.0 

6,466 85.0 

1,145 15.0 

433 5.7 

1 Benefits from means-tested programs included AFDC or General 

Assistance, SSI, food stamps, WIG, and means-tested veterans' 

compensation and pensions. Family income includes the value of food 

stamps and WIG. 

Program Participation and Eligibility 

It is important to track program eligibility and program 

participation rates by various characteristics of the 

eligible population in order to examine the reason for 

changes in participation rates. For example, the food 

stamp caseload increased rapidly in the early 1990's, 

and it is not known whether the increase was the result 

of an increase in the eligible population or an increase in 

participation rates of eligible units. 

Preliminary research exploring the relationship of 

eligibility compared with participation for AFDC, Food 

Stamps, and SSI has been initiated at the Census 

Bureau. This research consists of modeling eligibility by 

various characteristics and exploring the ways eligibility 

and participation vary among the three programs. Future 

work improving and expanding these eligibility models 

and testing the sensitivity of their results to both program changes and model changes is currently being 

planned. 

Quality of SIPP Data on Transfer Income 

The Census Bureau is currently developing a "Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing" (CAPI) instrument 

that will replace the current instrument starting with the 

1996 panel. Continuous efforts are made to decrease 

the under- and misreporting of transfer income. For 

example, although respondents prior to the 1996 panel 

could report that "all" persons were covered by another 

person's allotment, they are asked to list covered 

persons separately in the new instrument. This might 

decrease recipiency misreporting substantially. Also, 

greater insistence on persons using records to facilitate 

reporting of recipiency and corresponding amounts might 

decrease the degree of underreporting.