U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Dynamics of Economic Well-Being:

Program Participation, 1996 to 1999

Who Gets Assistance?

Household Economic Studies

Demographic Programs

Issued January 2004

Current

Population

Reports

By Gordon H. Lester

and

Jan Tin

P70-94

The August 1996 passage of the Personal • Aid to Families with Dependent Children

Responsibility and Work Opportunity (AFDC) and Temporary Assistance for

Reconciliation Act (PRWORA), also known Needy Families (TANF)

as welfare reform, gave states considerable • General Assistance (GA)

flexibility and greater responsibility in for- • Food stamps

mulating and implementing initiatives to • Supplemental Security Income (SSI)

reduce welfare dependency and to encour- • Medicaid

age employment for members of low- • Housing assistance.

income families with children. Under the The data cover calendar years 1996 PRWORA, most welfare recipients face a through 1999,2 a time just before and after 60-month time limit in federal funding and federal welfare reform was enacted. The must meet certain work requirements to data provide a set of baseline estimates receive assistance. Even prior to the enact- for the study of the effects of the reforms.3

ment of PRWORA, however, several states

modified their welfare programs under The data come from the 1996 panel of the

waivers granted by the federal govern- Survey of Income and Program

ment, which allowed them to implement

innovative demonstration projects to move 2 The longitudinal estimates presented here are

people from welfare to work. based on people who were interviewed in all waves of

the reference period, or for whom imputed information

exist. Efforts were made during the life of the panel to Changes in the welfare system, both under ensure that the sample remained representative of the

waivers and the PRWORA legislation, have noninstitutional population of the United States. People

who moved were followed to their new address. If the increased the interest in information about people included in the estimates have different experithe degree to which certain groups of peo- ences in program participation than the people who did

not respond initially, left the sample, or missed two or ple are involved in assistance programs; more consecutive waves, these longitudinal estimates

about the characteristics of program par- may be biased. The panel consists of four rotations interticipants; about the kinds of programs they viewed in consecutive months. For rotations with missing data at the beginning of 1996 or end of 1999, impuuse; and about the intensity and extent of tations were made on the basis of the closest month of

their participation. Of particular interest is data available. Rotation 3 had 1 month of data imputed

in 1996, rotation 4 had 2 months imputed in that year,

how people's participation extends over and rotation 1 had 1 month of imputed data in 1999.

time. 3 Part of the PRWORA law directed the Census Bureau

to field a new survey, whose purpose is to collect the

data necessary to evaluate the impact of the change. To This report focuses on participation and on carry out that directive, the Census Bureau began conthe characteristics of participants in the ducting the Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD). The SPD

simultaneously describes the full range of state welfare following major means-tested public-assis- programs along with social, economic, demographic, and

tance programs:1 family changes that will help or limit the effectiveness of

the reforms. The Census Bureau collected data for households previously interviewed in SIPP from 1992-1994 or

1993-1995 for each of the 6 years from 1996 through

2002. Cross-sectional data from SPD were released after

the 1997, 1998, and 1999 surveys. The first longitudinal

file from SPD was released in the summer of 2001 cover- 1 Means-tested programs are those that require ing 1992-1994 and 1996-1997 and the second longitudiincome and/or assets of the individual or family to be nal file was released in the fall of 2002 covering 1992-

below specified thresholds in order to qualify for benefits. 1994 and 1996-1999. Other releases are planned. For

These programs provide cash and noncash assistance to more information about SPD, see the SPD Web site, at

eligible individuals and families. www.sipp.census.gov/spd/.
Participation (SIPP).4 SIPP is a longitudinal survey, which means that,

unlike periodic point-in-time surveys, such as the Current

Population Survey, SIPP follows the

same people over time, or longitudinally.5

This longitudinality enables SIPP to

study a subject from two perspectives. First, it can look back at the

history of a group of people over a

span of time. Second, it can take

cross-sectional views of a population of interest at regular intervals,

such as monthly. SIPP is analogous

to a video cassette recorder with a

freeze-frame function. 

SIPP's historical perspective is useful

for examining a variety of concepts.

One is gross activity levels, such as

how many people ever used a particular assistance program in a

given year, even though not all of

them used it at any particular time.

Another is cumulative amounts,

such as the number of months

within a time period that an individual participated in one or more

assistance programs. Yet another

approach is to examine the number,

timing, and duration of flows of

people into and out of particular 

situations within a given time span,

such as the length of time an individual continuously participates in a

particular program or in assistance

in general. SIPP's cross-sectional

perspective captures changes over

time in the level of an activity, such

as in the proportion of the populations, or segments of populations,

existing at selected points in time.

The first section of the report examines the degree and scope of the

involvement of groups of people in

assistance programs. The second

section looks at the duration of

attachment to assistance and at the

monthly benefits of program participants. Appendix A displays some of

the detailed statistical tables analyzed in this report.

Highlights

• About 36 (±0.5) million people or

13 (±0.3) percent of the population participated in major meanstested assistance programs in

each month, on average, in

1999.6

• In 1999, individuals were more

likely to participate in Medicaid

than in any of the other programs examined. Ten percent

(±0.3) of individuals participated

in Medicaid in an average month

in 1999.

• The poor, in 1999, were much

more likely to receive at least

one type of major means-tested

benefit than individuals who

were not in poor families. Fifty

seven (±0.2) percent of the poor

received benefits in at least 1

month in 1999 compared with

only 10 (±0.5) percent of the

nonpoor.

• Differences in the participation

rates among various demographic groups are largely associated

with differences in their poverty

rates.

• Individuals in households maintained by women were approximately five times as likely to participate in means-tested

programs, in an average month

in 1999, as individuals in married-couple households 37 (±1.2)

percent versus 7 (±0.3) percent;

and more than twice as likely as

households maintained by men

16 (±1.6) percent.

• Adults (people age 18 and over)

without a high school diploma

were more than twice as likely as

high school graduates, and more

than five times as likely as those

with at least some college, to

participate in some type of

means-tested programs in an

average month in 1999 (participation rates were 26 (±1.2) percent, 11 (±0.5) percent, and 5

(±0.3) percent, respectively, for

these groups).

• Unemployed people were much

more likely to receive meanstested benefits in an average

month in 1999 than were people

with full-time jobs, 26 (±2.8) 

percent compared with 4 (±0.2)

percent.

• Children (people under 18 years

of age) and people 65 years and

older were more likely than people in the 18-64 year old age

group to be long-term recipients

of assistance programs ("longterm" being defined as participating in all 48 months of the 1996-

1999 period examined in this

report).7

• Recipients of means-tested programs participated in the

Supplemental Security Income

program for a longer period of

time (median duration of 11.2

(±0.7) months) than they did in

2 U.S. Census Bureau

4 The sample of households in SIPP is divided into four interview groups called rotation

groups. Each month, one of the four rotation

groups is interviewed about the previous 4

months (the reference period). The 1996 SIPP

panel covered the period from January 1996 to

December 1999. Data for all four rotation

groups (the full sample) are available only for

48 continuous reference months, the calendar

months of January 1996 through December

1999. The data in this report were collected

from April 1996 through March 2000. The population represented (the population universe) is

the civilian noninstitutionalized population of

the United States. 5 To ensure that the sample remains representative of the noninstitutionalized population

of the United States, the survey attempts to follow people in the panel who move.

6 The estimates in this report are based on

responses from a sample of the population. As

with all surveys, estimates may vary from the

actual values because of sampling variation or

other factors. All comparisons made in this

report have statistical testing and are significant

at the 90-percent level unless otherwise noted. 

7 There is no statistical difference in longterm program participation between persons

less than 18 years old and persons over 65

years old.
food stamps or Medicaid in the

1996-1999 period.

• Within selected demographic

groups (such as age groups and

family types), higher average

monthly program participation

rates tended to be associated

with the receipt of higher median

family benefits.

PROGRAM PARTICIPATION

The focus in this section is on

groups of people in the population

at large. The discussion investigates

their degree of involvement in

assistance programs using three

concepts, each of which explores a 

different aspect of program participation.8

• The "average monthly program participation rate":

These are annual-average rates

— one for each of the years

1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999.

The rate represents a weighted

average of the 12 monthly

(cross-sectional) measurements

taken in the specified year of the

proportion of people in the

group who participated in assistance programs. Each of the

component monthly rates in the

average corresponds to the population existing in the month the

measurement was taken. The

measure tells what share of the

group is on assistance, on average, in any given month during

the year in question.

• The percentage of a group who

"participated 1 or more

months in a (specified) year":

These percentages are presented

U.S. Census Bureau 3

Description of Concepts 

Average monthly participation rate for (a specified year): this is an annual-average measure of the

monthly percentage of people who participated in at least one major means-tested program; it represents a

weighted average of the 12 monthly participation rates for the year. People who participated in more than one

program in a month are only counted once in the total number of participants for that month.

Participated 1 or more months in (a specified year): the percentage of people who ever participated at any

time in at least one major means-tested program during a specified year.

Participated between 1 and 11 months: the percentage of people who participated in at least one program

or another for a total of between 1 and 11 months (not necessarily consecutive) during the January 1996-

December 1999 period. 

Participated 12 or more months: the percentage of people who participated in at least one program or

another for a total of 12 or more months (not necessarily consecutive) during the January 1996-December 1999

period, including people who participated in all 48 months of the period. 

Participated all 48 months: the percentage of people who participated in at least one program or another for

all 48 months of the January 1996-December 1999 period.

Spell of participation: an uninterrupted period of months in which an individual receives means-tested assistance, and which is preceded by 1 or more months of nonparticipation; a month is included in a spell if the individual receives assistance for all or any part of the month.

Median spell duration: that value for spell length that divides the distribution of spells by duration in half,

one half being shorter and one half longer than the median.

Median monthly family benefit: that value that divides in half the distribution of the recipients of assistance,

by their monthly family benefit amount in a specified year: one half of the people in the distribution have 

benefits below the median, the other half have benefits above it. The monthly family benefit amount for an individual in a given year represents the amount for the last month in that year for which the family's receipt of the

benefit was reported (not necessarily December); if the family participated in a program for only part of that

month, then the benefit amount could underestimate the usual monthly benefit received by the family from 

that program.

8 A person is considered to participate in a

program if the person receives benefits from

the program or is covered under the allotment

of another person. If, for example, in a given

month two people in a household received food

stamps and two additional people in the household were covered by the food stamp program,

then the number of people from that household

who participated in the food stamp program for

that month would be counted as "four."
for each year, 1996-1999. The

measure represents the proportion of people in a group who

ever took part in any program at

any time in a year. It is a measure of gross activity, and corresponds to the population existing at the end of the year in

question. The figure represents

the share of the group that participated in assistance at some

time during the specified

year.

• The percentage of the population

that "participated for a (specified) number of months in

the 48-month period between

January 1996 and December

1999"— This measure is based

on the number of accumulated

(not necessarily consecutive )

months spent in assistance programs throughout the entire 48-

month time span. It relates to the

population existing at the end of

the 48 months. 

Program Usage: 1996 to 1999

Of the estimated 272 million

noninstitutionalized civilians living

in the United States in 1999,

approximately 36 million, or 13.1 A small proportion of the populapercent, participated in one or more tion participated in means-tested

major means-tested assistance programs on a long-term basis,

programs, on average, during each with 6.5 percent having participated

of the months of 1999. As Figure 1 in each month of the period (Figure

shows, the average monthly 2). Only 0.4 percent of welfare

participation rate decreased from (AFDC/TANF or GA) participants

about 14.7 percent in 1996 to 13.1 received benefits in all 48 months;

percent in 1999. this was the lowest of the five 

4 U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 1. 

Average Monthly Participation Rate in 

Major Means-Tested Programs: 1996-1999

14.7

14.0 13.5 13.1

1996 1997 1998 1999

(In percent)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 2. 

Program Participation Rates for 

Means-Tested Programs: January 1996-December 1999

3.2 3.2 2.8

1.4

0.3 0.5

10.7

7.1

5.2

2.5

3.9

1.6

6.5

3.3

1.7

0.4

2.8

1.1

One or more 

major assistance 

programs

Medicaid Food stamps AFDC/ GA Housing 

assistance

SSI

(In percent)

Participated between 1 and 11 months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 5

programs studied. About 9.3 percent of people under 18 years old

participated each month of the

1996-1999 period, compared with

4.9 percent of people 18 to 64

years old, and 8.9 percent of people 65 years and older (Figure 3). 

Medicaid has the highest

participation rate.

As Figure 4 illustrates, individuals

were more likely to participate in

Medicaid than in any of the other

programs examined in this report.

In 1996, 14.3 percent of the population participated in Medicaid in at

least 1 month; higher than in

1997,1998, or 1999 (13.9, 13.4,

and 12.9 percent respectively,

Figure 4). The 1996 participation

rates were greater for Medicaid,

food stamps, AFDC/TANF or GA,

and housing assistance than in

1999; the rate for SSI did not

change. The average monthly participation rate in 1999 for Medicaid

(9.7 percent) was higher than that

Figure 3. 

Program Participation Rates for Major Means – 

Tested Programs by Age: 

January 1996-December 1999

5.2

2.5

1.8

17.0

7.9

10.7

9.3

4.9

8.9

Under 18 years 18 to 64 years 65 years and over

(In percent) Participated between 1 and 11 months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 4. 

Program Participation Rates for Means-Tested Programs: 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 

One or more 

major assistance 

programs

Medicaid Food stamps AFDC/ GA Housing 

assistance

SSI

(In percent)

Participated 1 or more months in 1996

Participated 1 or more months in 1997

Participated 1 or more months in 1998

Participated 1 or more months in 1999

18.7

14.3

11.5

5.7

4.9

2.8

18.1

13.9

10.7

5.0 4.9

2.9

17.1

13.4

9.3

3.9

4.6

2.8

16.6

12.9

8.5

2.8

4.5

2.8

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
6 U.S. Census Bureau

for AFDC/TANF or GA, food stamps

housing assistance, or SSI (Figure

5). More people (about 3.3 percent

of the population) participated in

Medicaid in all 48 months than in

any other program (Figure 2).

An estimated 27 million people

received Medicaid benefits in an

average month of 1999; about 12

million of these recipients were 

children. In fact, 16.9 percent of

children under age 18 received

Medicaid, compared with 6.5 percent of people 18 to 64 years, and

10.3 percent of people 65 years 

old and over (see Appendix A, 

Table A-5). 

Between half and threequarters of the poor receive

means-tested assistance.

Figure 6 shows that there was a

small decline, from 59.5 percent in

1996 to 57.4 percent in 1999, in

the proportion of the poor (those

with family incomes under the

,

Figure 5. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates for Means-Tested Programs: 

1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

(In percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

10.7

8.2

4.1

4.4

2.1

10.2

7.3

3.4

4.3

2.2

9.9

6.4

2.6

4.1

2.2

9.7

5.9

1.8

3.9

2.2

Medicaid Food stamps AFDC/ GA Housing assistance SSI

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 6. 

Program Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs by Poverty Status: 

1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 

59.5

10.7

59.8

10.9

57.4

10.9

57.4

10.5

Poor Nonpoor

(In percent) Participated 1 or more months in 1996

Participated 1 or more months in 1997

Participated 1 or more months in 1998

Participated 1 or more months in 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 7

poverty thresholds), who received

benefits during at least 1 month,

compared with 10.7 percent and

10.5 percent of the nonpoor.9

Additionally, 48.7 percent of the

poor received at least one type of

major means-tested benefit in an

average month of 1999, compared

with 7.8 percent of the nonpoor

(Figure 7). 

The poor also tended to be longterm participants in means-tested

programs: 43.0 percent of the poor,

compared with 4.6 percent of the

nonpoor, participated in 12 or more

months; and 27.2 percent of the

poor, compared with 2.6 percent of

the nonpoor, participated in all 48

months during the 1996-1999 

period (Figure 8).

Program participation varies

by race and ethnic origin.

The likelihood of receiving meanstested assistance and of being in

the programs for various times

differed among racial groups. In

1999, 36.4 percent of Blacks and

10.6 percent of non-Hispanic Whites

participated in a means-tested

program for at least 1 month

(Figure 9). In 1999, the average

monthly participation rate for

Blacks, 30.7 percent, was almost

four times that of non-Hispanic

Whites, 7.9 percent (Figure 10). 

The percentage of Blacks receiving

assistance in all 48 months of the

1996-1999 period was far greater

than the percentage of nonHispanic Whites, 18.4 percent compared with 3.5 percent (Figure 11).

The corresponding figures for 12 or

more months of participation were

9 The poverty threshold for a family of three

with one related child was $12,629 in 1996,

$12,919 in 1997, $13,120 in 1998, and

$13,410 in 1999. Data on poverty thresholds

by family size and number of related children

under 18 years for the reported years can be

found at: http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/threshld.html.

Figure 7. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs by Poverty Status: 

1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 

51.6

7.8

50.2

7.9

49.0

7.8

48.7

7.8

Poor Nonpoor

(In percent) Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 8. 

Program Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs: January 1996- 

December 1999

8.5

2.2

43.0

4.6

27.2

2.6

Poor Nonpoor

(In percent) Participated between 1 and 11 months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
27.7 percent for Blacks and 6.3 percent for non-Hispanic Whites.

The likelihood of receiving meanstested assistance also varied by

Hispanic-origin10 status. Individuals

of Hispanic origin were nearly three

times as likely as non-Hispanic

Whites to receive benefits for at

least 1 month in 1999, 29.2 percent

of Hispanics participated for at least

1 month in a program compared

with 10.6 percent of non-Hispanic

Whites (Figure 9). Similarly, the

average monthly participation rate

in 1999 for people of Hispanic origin, 23.0 percent, was about three

times that of non-Hispanic Whites,

7.9 (Figure 10). As shown in Figure

11, people of Hispanic origin were

much more likely than non-Hispanic

Whites to be long-term participants,

with 11.9 percent of Hispanics participating all 48 months compared

with only 3.5 percent of nonHispanic Whites.

Although Blacks and Hispanics have

significantly higher program participation rates than non-Hispanic

Whites, the actual number of nonHispanic Whites receiving meanstested assistance exceeded the separate numbers of Blacks and

Hispanics. In 1999, about 13 million Blacks and 9 million Hispanics

participated in a program for at

least 1 month, compared with 21

million non-Hispanic Whites.

Similarly, during the 1996-1999

period, approximately 9 million

Blacks and 5 million Hispanics

received means-tested assistance

for 12 or more months, compared

with 11 million non-Hispanic

Whites.11

Differences among the racial and

Hispanic-origin groups in program

participation can, in part, be

explained by differences in poverty

rates. Poverty and participation in

major means-tested assistance programs are closely related (Figures 

7 and 8). In 1999, the average

monthly poverty rates for Blacks,

24.8 percent, and for people of

Hispanic origin, 24.7 percent, 

were about three times the poverty

rate for non-Hispanic Whites, 8.7

percent (Figure 12). Moreover,

8 U.S. Census Bureau

10 Because Hispanics may be of any race,

data in this report for Hispanics overlap slightly

with data for the Black population. Based on

data in the 1996 SIPP panel and using the panel

weight, 3.5 percent of the Black population was

of Hispanic origin. Data for Asians and Pacific

Islanders and American Indians and Alaska

Natives are not shown in this report because of

their small sample sizes.

11 There is no statistical difference in the

number of Hispanics receiving means-tested

assistance in 1999 and the number of Blacks

receiving means-tested assistance for 12 or

more months during the 1996-1999 period. 

Figure 9. 

Program Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs by Race 

and Hispanic Origin: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

Non-Hispanic Whites Blacks Hispanics (of any race)

(In percent) Participated 1 or more months in 1996

Participated 1 or more months in 1997

Participated 1 or more months in 1998

Participated 1 or more months in 1999

12.3

40.8

34.5

11.7

40.0

32.9

10.9

37.7

30.4

10.6

36.4

29.2

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
Figure 13 illustrates that Blacks 

(5.1 percent) and people of Hispanic

origin (5.6 percent) were more likely than non-Hispanic Whites 

(1.0 percent) to be poor for all 

48 months of 1996-1999.12

Children under 18 years are

more likely to receive meanstested assistance than people

in other age groups.

Figure 14 illustrates that children

under 18 years of age were far

more likely to receive means-tested

benefits as people in the other age

groups. In an average month during 1999, 20.9 percent (15 million)

of children received some type of

means-tested benefit, compared

with 9.7 percent (16 million) of people aged 18 to 64 years old and

13.2 percent (4 million) of people

65 years and older. Children also

U.S. Census Bureau 9

12 There is no statistical difference between

Black and Hispanic poverty rates in 1999; or

between the percent of Blacks and Hispanics

who were poor for all 48 months of 1996-

1999.

Figure 10. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs 

by Race and Hispanic Origin: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

9.1

34.1

27.7

8.6

33.3

25.5

8.2

31.7

23.4

7.9

30.7

23.0

Non-Hispanic Whites Blacks Hispanics (of any race)

(In percent) Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 11. 

Program Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs: 

January 1996-December 1999

2.3

5.2

6.8 6.3

27.7

19.8

3.5

18.4

11.9

Non-Hispanic Whites Blacks Hispanics (of any race)

(In percent) Participated between 1 and 11 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
tended to be long-term participants,

with 17.0 percent (12 million) 

collecting benefits in 12 or more

months, and 9.3 percent (6 million)

collecting benefits in all 48 months

of the 1996-1999 period 

(Figure 3).13

Families maintained by

women have higher

participation rates.

Families maintained by women with

no spouse present have higher

poverty rates and lower incomes

than married-couple families.

During 1999, families maintained

by women had an average monthly

poverty rate of 30.4 percent, compared with an average monthly

poverty rate of 7.0 percent for 

10 U.S. Census Bureau

13 There is no statistical difference between

the percent of persons 18-64 years old receiving any means-tested benefits in an average

month in 1999 and the number of persons

under 18 years old who received benefits for all

48 months of 1996-1999.

Figure 13. 

Poverty Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin: 

1996-1999 

7.2

14.2

18.5

3.6

16.1

15.4

1.0

5.1 5.6

Non-Hispanic Whites Blacks Hispanics (of any race)

(In percent)

Poor between 1 and 11 months of 1996-1999

Poor 12 or more months of 1996-1999

Poor all 48 months of 1996-1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 12. 

Average Monthly Poverty Rates by Race and 

Hispanic Origin: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 

10.7

29.9 30.0

9.8

28.4

27.3

9.2

26.5 26.0

8.7

24.8 24.7

Non-Hispanic Whites Blacks Hispanics (of any race)

(In percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 11

Figure 14. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs by 

Age of Individual: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

23.6

10.9

13.8

22.3

10.5

13.9

21.3

10.0

13.6

20.9

9.7

13.2

Under 18 years 18 to 64 years 65 years and over

(In percent) Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 15. 

Average Monthly Poverty Rates by Family Type: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 

8.7

16.4

36.4

7.9

15.7

33.8

7.5

14.8

31.8

7.0

12.4

30.4

Married-couple families Families with male 

householder, no 

spouse present

Families with female 

householder, no 

spouse present

(In percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
people in married-couple families Those with less education and people with at least some col-

(Figure 15). Reflecting this finding, have higher participation lege to receive benefits during the

rates. individuals in female-maintained entire 48-month period of 1996-

families were much more likely to For people age 18 and over, lower 1999–16.9 percent compared with

participate in major means-tested educational attainment was associ- 5.2 percent and 1.9 percent 

programs, in an average month in ated with greater program participa- (Figure 21). 

1999, than were people in married- tion. The percentage of individuals

couple families–37.1 percent com- The unemployed and those with less than 4 years of high out of the labor force are pared with 7.4 percent (Figure 16). school receiving benefits in at least more likely than the employed Similarly, 43.8 percent of individu- 1 month of 1999 (32.3 percent) was to receive means-tested als in families maintained by more than double the correspon- benefits.

women participated in means-tested ding percentage of high school People without jobs— unemployed programs for at least 1 month of graduates (14.2 percent), and five or out of the labor force— were 1999, in contrast with 10.3 percent times as large as the percentage of much more likely to receive means- of individuals in married-couple college entrants, (6.4 percent), tested benefits in an average month families (Figure 17). Furthermore, (Figure 19). During an average of 1999 than were either full-time individuals in families maintained month of 1999, 26.4 percent of workers or part-time workers. For by women were about eight times people with less than 4 years of people 18 years and older, 26.0 as likely as individuals in married- high school received means-tested percent of the unemployed received couple families to receive benefits benefits, compared with 10.7 per- means-tested benefits in an average in all 48 months of the 1996-1999 cent of high school graduates and month of 1999, compared with period—21.7 percent compared 4.6 percent of individuals with at

with 2.8 percent (Figure 18). 20.1 percent of those out of the least 1 year of college (Figure 20). labor force, 3.8 percent of full-time Individuals who did not graduate workers, and 10.0 percent of part- from high school also were more time workers (Figure 22). likely than high school graduates

12 U.S. Census Bureau

8.5

41.2

8.0

17.3

39.7

7.6

16.6

37.9

7.4

16.0

37.1

18.3

Married-couple families Families with male householder,

no spouse present

Families with female householder,

no spouse present

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Figure 16. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs by Family Type: 

1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

(In percent)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
In addition to receiving means-tested benefits, the unemployed may

also receive unemployment compensation. In an average month of

1999, only 14.7 percent of the

unemployed received unemployment compensation, but 4.6 percent received AFDC/TANF or GA,

1.6 percent received SSI, 14.4 percent received food stamps, 

16.7 percent received Medicaid, and

9.6 percent received housing 

assistance.14

PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS

This section looks at the characteristics of the recipients of assistance.

Two concepts are examined: 

• Median duration of spells of

program participation for the

1996-1999 period — A spell is

U.S. Census Bureau 13

14 There is no statistical difference between

the percent of unemployed persons participating in Medicaid, food stamps, or who receive

unemployment compensation.

Figure 17. 

Program Participation for 1 or More Months in Major Means-Tested Programs 

by Family Type: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999 

12.0

23.2

47.9

11.3

23.6

46.6

10.8

22.4

44.5

10.3

21.3

43.8

Married-couple families Families with male householder,

no spouse present

Families with female householder,

no spouse present

(In percent) Participated 1 or more months in 1996

Participated 1 or more months in 1997

Participated 1 or more months in 1998

Participated 1 or more months in 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 18. 

Program Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs by Family Type: 

January 1996-December 1999

2.8

3.9

6.2 5.4

12.3

35.3

2.8

7.8

21.7

Married-couple families Families with male 

householder, 

no spouse present

Families with female 

householder, 

no spouse present

(In percent)

Participated between 1 and 11 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
14 U.S. Census Bureau

Figure 19. 

Program Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs for People 18 Years 

and Older by Educational Attainment: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

(In percent)

35.6

16.1

7.5

35.0

15.4

7.4

33.3

14.7

6.7

32.3

14.2

6.4

Less than 4 years of high school High school graduate, no college 1 or more years of college

Participated 1 or more months in 1996

Participated 1 or more months in 1997

Participated 1 or more months in 1998

Participated 1 or more months in 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 20. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs for People 

18 Years and Older by Educational Attainment: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

(In percent)

28.2

11.8

5.0

28.0

11.2

4.9

26.7

11.0

4.8

26.4

10.7

4.6

Less than 4 years of high school High school graduate, no college 1 or more years of college

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
an uninterrupted period of time

(measured in months) in which

an individual receives meanstested assistance, and which is

preceded by a month or more 

of nonparticipation. Each recipient has one or more such spells.

The measure examines all the

spells throughout the 48-month

period of the recipients in the

population existing at the end of

the period. The median is the

value for spell length that divides

the distribution of spells (not

recipients) into two equal parts.15

The data address the question:

"how long, on average, do recipients stay in programs continuously once they enter them?"

• Median monthly family benefits in specified year—The

monthly benefit amount for each

recipient represents the amount

of the benefit received by the

individual's family in the last

month for which they reported

that they received benefits.16

The median is the amount 

which divides recipients into two

equally sized groups, one consisting of those whose monthly

family benefit falls below the

median, the other of recipients

whose benefit rises above it. 

The data refer to the population

of recipients living in families

existing at the end of the year

specified.

Median duration of

participation differs by

program.

For people who received assistance

during the 1996-1999 period, Table

A-7 in Appendix A presents data on

the median duration of spells of

program participation over the

course of the 48 months, by type of

program and selected demographic

characteristics of participants.

As shown in Figure 23, among all

program participants, the median

spell length for participation in 

general was 7.0 months. The 

median spell length for SSI was

11.2 months, significantly longer

than that for food stamps,

AFDC/TANF or GA, or Medicaid (5.9,

5.6 and 7.5 months, respectively).17

Within specific groups of participants, SSI was the longest continuously used program for Hispanics

(11.9 months), persons without a

high school diploma (15.4

months), persons with a work disability (15.0 months), and people

not in the labor force (15.2

months).18

Spell duration also differs by

demographic group.

Table A-7 also reveals that the

median spell length for participation

in means-tested assistance programs varied by demographic

group. People under 18 years old

U.S. Census Bureau 15

15 The median for a group of recipients cannot be computed when more than half of the

spells for the group are continuing in the 48th

month.

16 It is not known how the data are affected

by families who do not participate in the program for the entire last month for which they

report that they received benefits from the program. If partial-month participation is associated with partial receipt of benefits, then the use

of such partial amounts to represent an "average" or "usual" monthly benefit would result in

an underestimate. 

17 There is no statistical difference between

the median spell duration for AFDC/TANF and

food stamps. 18 There is no statistical difference between

the median spell durations of SSI for persons

who did not complete high school and the

medians for persons with a work disability, or

persons not in the labor force. 

Figure 21. 

Program Participation Rates in Major 

Means-Tested Programs for People 18 Years 

and Older by Educational Attainment: 

January 1996-December 1999 

(In percent)

4.9

2.9

1.4

23.3

8.3

3.4

16.9

5.2

1.9

Less than 4 years 

of high school

High school graduate, 

no college

1 or more 

years of college

Participated between 1 and 11 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Participated 12 or more months 

of January 1996-December 1999

Participated all 48 months of 

January 1996-December 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
had the highest median duration,

7.6 months, compared with 5.9

months for people aged 18 to 64

years, and 3.9 months for people

65 years and older. People aged 65

years and older who received SSI

had a median spell duration of 19.7

months, the longest on any program. By education, individuals

who did not graduate from high

school remained on means-tested

programs longer (7.3 months) than

high school graduates (5.9 months)

and people with at least some college (3.9 months).19

People in families maintained by

females, with no spouse present,

had a median spell duration of 

7.6 months, which was greater than

the 5.720 months for people in married-couple families. Not surprisingly, the median for people who were

not in the labor force (7.3 months)

was greater than that for people

employed full-time (3.9 months).

Variations across demographic

groups in median spell durations

were evident as well for specific

programs. Persons 18 to 64 years

old remained on food stamps for

4.9 months, shorter than people

under 18 years old and people 

65 years and over (7.2 and 8.0

months, respectively). 

By race and Hispanic origin, 

non-Hispanic Whites had shorter

stays on SSI and food stamps 

(7.9 months and 4.8 months,

respectively) than did Blacks 

(11.3 months and 7.4 months) or

Hispanics (11.9 months and 

7.0 months).21

By educational attainment, people

with at least a year of college spent

less time than people with lower

educational levels in the Medicaid

program. The median spell duration

of SSI for those with at least a year

of college education was 

7.2 months, compared with 

15.4 months and 11.2 months for

those who did not graduate from

high school and those who graduated from high school but no college.

The median spell length of food

stamps for people with at least

16 U.S. Census Bureau

19 There is no statistical difference between

the median spell duration for persons under 1

years and persons who did not graduate from

high school. The medians for persons 18-64

years old and persons who graduated from

high school do not differ statistically. Medians

for persons 65 years and older and persons

with 1 or more years of college do not differ

statistically.

8

20 The medians for female headed families,

with no spouse present, did not differ significantly from persons who were not in the labor

force.

21 There is no statistical difference between

the median spell durations for SSI for white

non-Hispanics and Blacks receiving food

stamps. The medians for Blacks receiving SSI

and Hispanics receiving SSI did not differ 

statistically.

Figure 22. 

Average Monthly Participation Rates in Major Means-Tested Programs for People 

18 Years and Older by Employment Status: 1996, 1997, 1998, and 1999

(In percent)

4.1

11.0

27.6

22.1

4.0

10.8

28.2

21.4

3.9

10.4

26.4

20.7

3.8

10.0

26.0

20.1

Full-time work Part-time work Unemployed Out of labor force

Average monthly participation rate for 1996

Average monthly participation rate for 1997

Average monthly participation rate for 1998

Average monthly participation rate for 1999

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
some college was 3.9 months,

shorter than the medians for those

who did not graduate from high

school and high school graduates

(7.3 months and 4.9 months,

respectively).22

Individuals in families maintained

by female householders, no spouse

present, remained on food stamps

(7.3 months), longer than their

counterparts in married-couple 

families (4.8 months).

Higher monthly benefit

amounts are associated with

higher average monthly

participation.

Table A-8 shows the median monthly family benefit amounts received

in 1996-1999 by the groups of program participants listed in Table 

A-1.23 For many of the groups,

higher average monthly participation rates for assistance programs

in general were associated with

higher median monthly family benefits in 1999, a consequence, perhaps, of the likely relationship of

both of these measures to lower

family incomes and higher poverty

rates. For example, Figure 24

shows that in 1999, Blacks, whose

average monthly participation rate

was 30.7 percent had a median

monthly family benefit of $406, significantly greater than the $320 for

non-Hispanic Whites, whose average monthly participation rate was

7.9 percent. Likewise, children

under 18 years old, whose average

monthly participation rate was 20.9

percent, received a median monthly

family benefit of $429, significantly

greater than the $269 for the elderly whose average monthly participation rate was 13.2 percent. In

1999, people in families with a

female householder, no spouse

U.S. Census Bureau 17

22 The medians for Medicaid for persons

with some college and food stamps for persons

with some college do not differ significantly.

The medians for Medicaid do not differ significantly between people with no high school and

those with a high school diploma but no college. Also, the median for persons with no high

school diploma do not differ significantly

between Medicaid and food stamps. 

23 Median monthly benefit amounts include

AFDC/TANF or GA, SSI, and food stamps only.

The Consumer Price Index (CPI-U) compiled by

the Bureau of Labor Statistics is used to express

the 1996, 1997, and 1998 monthly benefit

amounts in terms of 1999 dollars.

Changes in Employment Status and Family Income of 1996 TANF/AFDC Recipients:

1997 to 1999

People who received AFDC/TANF or GA in December of 1996, but did not receive assistance in subsequent

Decembers, had markedly different income and employment outcomes compared to those remaining on the 

programs. By December 1999, 6.7 million people had exited the programs, while only 2.7 million still remained.

By employment status, 50.8 percent of people 18 years and over that had exited these programs worked full- or

part-time, compared to only 26.3 percent of people who still remained. In December 1999, the monthly median

family income of those who had exited was $1,515; 56.2 percent higher than those who still remained, $970.

Between December of 1997 and 1999, the median family income of people who had exited rose 13.6 percent

from $1,333 to $1,515, while the change in median family income of those still receiving AFDC/TANF or GA rose

8.3 percent from $896 to $970.1

Note: December 1997-1999 observations are only for persons who were still in the survey for those months.

Persons receiving AFDC/TANF or GA. 

(In thousands)

December 1996 December 1997 December 1998 December 1999

Continued receiving after 1996 10,568 5,726 3,446 2,702

Worked* 959 572 312 230

Median monthly family income** $860 $896 $894 $970

Stopped receiving after 1996 4,170 6,046 6,730

Worked* 986 1,612 1,887

Median monthly family income** $1,333 $1,472 $1,515

* People 18 years and over

**Adjusted to 1999 dollars using the Consumer Price Index (CPI-U)

1 The median family incomes of people still participating in AFDC/TANF in 1997 and 1999 are not significantly different.
present, had an average monthly

participation rate of 37.1 percent

and received a median monthly

family benefit of $429; in comparison, people in married-couple families had an average monthly participation rate of only 7.4 percent and

median monthly benefits of $385.24

SOURCE OF THE DATA

The population represented (the

population universe) in the 1996

Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP) is the civilian

noninstitutionalized population of

the United States. SIPP is a longitudinal survey conducted at 4-month

intervals by the Census Bureau.

The data in this report were collected from April 1996 through March

2000. The institutionalized population, which is excluded from the

population universe, is composed

primarily of the population in 

18 U.S. Census Bureau

24 The medians do not differ significantly 

for persons less than 18 years old and for persons in female-headed families, with no spouse

present.

Figure 23. 

Median Spell Length in Months by Program: January 1996 - December 1999

11.2

7.5

7.0

5.9

5.6

Supplemental Security Income

Medicaid

Any means-tested program

Food stamps

AFDC/TANF or 

general assistance

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.

Figure 24. 

Median Monthly Benefits in 1999 for People 

Receiving Benefits by Selected Charateristics

411

429

385

269

397

429

448

406

Non-Hispanic Whites 320

Blacks

Hispanics 

(of any race)

Under 18 years

18 to 64 years

65 years and over

In married-couple families 

In families with a female householder, no spouse present 

In families with a male householder, no spouse present

(In dollars) 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 panel.
correctional institutions and nursing The Survey of Income and Program COMMENTS FROM 

homes (91.0 percent of the 4.1 mil- Participation weighting procedure DATA USERS

lion institutionalized population in uses ratio estimation whereby sam- The Census Bureau welcomes the

the Census 2000). ple estimates are adjusted to inde- comments and advice of data users.

pendent estimates of the national If you have suggestions or com- ACCURACY OF THE population by age, race, sex, and ments, please write to: ESTIMATES Hispanic origin. This weighting partially corrects for bias due to under- Daniel Weinberg Statistics from surveys are subject

coverage, but biases may still be Chief, Housing and Household to sampling and nonsampling error.

present when people who are Economic Statistics Division All comparisons presented in this

missed by the survey differ from U. S. Census Bureau report have taken sampling error

those interviewed in ways other Washington, DC 20233-8500 into account and are significant at

than by age, race, sex, and Hispanic the 90-percent confidence level or contact origin. How this weighting proce- unless otherwise noted. This

means the 90-percent confidence dure affects other variables in the John J. Hisnanick

survey is not precisely known. All interval for the difference between Chief, Longitudinal Income 

of these considerations affect com- the estimates being compared does Statistics Branch

parisons across different surveys or not include zero. Nonsampling Housing and Household Economic

data sources. errors in surveys may be attributed Statistics Division

to a variety of sources, such as how U.S. Census Bureau For further information on the

the survey was designed, how 301-763-6685 sources of the data and accuracy 

respondents interpret questions, John.J.Hisnanick@census.gov of the estimates including standard

how able and willing respondents errors and confidence intervals, 

are to provide correct answers, and SUGGESTED CITATION

go to http://www.sipp.census.gov

how accurately the answers are /sipp/sourceac/S&A96_030228. Lester, Gordon H. and Jan Tin

coded and classified. The Census Long.pdf or contact David Hall of Dynamics of Economic Well-Being

Bureau employs quality control pro- the Census Bureau's Demographic Program Participation 1996-1999

cedures throughout the production Statistical Methods Division on the Who Gets Assistance?

process, including the overall internet at david.warren.hall@ Current Population Reports, 

design of surveys, the wording of census.gov. P70-94. 

questions, review of the work of U.S. Census Bureau,

interviewers and coders, and statis- Washington DC 2003

tical review of reports to minimize

these errors.

U.S. Census Bureau 19
20 U.S. Census Bureau

APPENDIX A.

Table A-1.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Any Means-Tested Programs by

Selected Characteristics: 1996-1999

Characteristic

Program participation rates (in percent)

1 Any means-tested programs

1996

Standard

error

Standard Standard

1997 error 1998 error 1999

Standard

error

Total number of recipients2......................

As percent of the population ..........................

Race and Hispanic Origin3

White .............................................

Not of Hispanic origin ..............................

Black..............................................

Hispanic origin......................................

Not of Hispanic origin ................................

Age

Under 18 years .....................................

18 to 64 years ......................................

65 years and over...................................

Sex

Men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Women............................................

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school ......................

High school graduate, no college ......................

1 or more years of college............................

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability ................................

With no work disability ...............................

Residence

Metropolitan ........................................

Central city.......................................

Noncentral city....................................

Nonmetropolitan ....................................

Region

Northeast ..........................................

Midwest ...........................................

South .............................................

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Family Status

In families..........................................

In married-couple families ..........................

In families with a female householder, no spouse

present .........................................

In families with a male householder, no spouse

present .........................................

Unrelated Individuals ................................

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

Employed full-time...................................

Employed part-time..................................

Unemployed........................................

Not in labor force ...................................

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

Married ............................................

Separated, divorced, or widowed ......................

Never married ......................................

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00.........................................

1.00 and over ......................................

38,900

14.7

11.2

9.1

34.1

27.7

13.1

23.6

10.9

13.8

12.8

16.4

28.2

11.8

5.0

35.0

8.3

14.0

20.9

9.7

17.6

14.4

12.0

15.3

16.9

14.7

8.5

41.2

18.3

14.4

4.1

11.0

27.6

22.1

6.6

19.8

16.6

51.6

7.8

249

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.6

0.7

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.6

0.3

0.2

0.8

0.2

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.6

0.9

0.4

0.1

0.4

1.3

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.6

0.1

37,539

14.0

10.6

8.6

33.3

25.5

12.6

22.3

10.5

13.9

12.3

15.7

28.0

11.2

4.9

35.3

8.2

13.3

20.0

9.2

17.0

14.4

11.2

14.5

16.2

14.0

8.0

39.7

17.3

14.0

4.0

10.8

28.2

21.4

6.2

19.0

16.2

50.2

7.9

273

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.7

0.7

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.2

0.3

0.6

0.3

0.2

0.9

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.6

1.0

0.4

0.1

0.4

1.5

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.7

0.1

36,285

13.5

10.1

8.2

31.7

23.4

12.2

21.3

10.0

13.6

11.8

15.0

26.7

11.0

4.8

35.1

7.9

12.7

19.1

8.8

16.4

13.8

10.6

14.0

15.3

13.4

7.6

37.9

16.6

14.0

3.9

10.4

26.4

20.7

5.9

18.3

15.6

49.0

7.8

282

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.7

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.2

0.3

0.6

0.3

0.2

0.9

0.2

0.2

0.5

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.6

1.0

0.5

0.1

0.4

1.7

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.5

0.7

0.1

35,646

13.1

9.8

7.9

30.7

23.0

11.8

20.9

9.7

13.2

11.5

14.6

26.4

10.7

4.6

34.9

7.8

12.3

18.5

8.5

16.2

13.4

10.2

13.7

14.9

13.0

7.4

37.1

16.0

13.6

3.8

10.0

26.0

20.1

5.7

17.6

15.3

48.7

7.8

296

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.8

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.2

0.3

0.7

0.3

0.2

1.0

0.2

0.2

0.5

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.7

1.0

0.5

0.1

0.4

1.7

0.4

0.2

0.5

0.5

0.8

0.2

1

Major means-tested programs include Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), General Assistance (GA), Supplemental Security Income (SSI),

food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2

In thousands.

3

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 21

Table A-2.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Aid to Families with Dependent

Children or General Assistance by Selected Characteristics: 1996-1999

Program participation rates (in percent)

Aid to Families with Dependent Children/General Assistance Characteristic

Standard Standard Standard

1996 error 1997 error 1998 error 1999

Total number of recipients1 .................... 10,838 142 9,171 146 7,021 134 4,936

Standard

error

119

As percent of the population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 0.1 3.4 0.1 2.6 0.1 1.8

Race and Hispanic Origin2

0.1

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 0.1 2.2 0.0 1.6 0.1 1.1 0.1

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.6 0.0

Black . . . .......................................... 12.3 0.4 10.7 0.4 8.1 0.4 5.6 0.4

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 0.4 7.3 0.4 5.9 0.4 4.5 0.4

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 0.1 2.9 0.1 2.2 0.1 1.5

Age

0.1

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.0 0.2 7.7 0.3 6.0 0.2 4.7 0.2

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 0.3 2.2 0.1 1.6 0.1 0.9 0.1

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1

Sex

0.0

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 0.1 2.6 0.1 2.0 0.1 1.5 0.1

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 0.1 4.2 0.1 3.2 0.1 2.1

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

0.1

Less than 4 years of high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 0.3 4.7 0.3 3.6 0.3 2.1 0.2

High school graduate, no college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.4 0.1 0.8 0.1

1 or more years of college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.3

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

0.0

With a work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 0.4 4.9 0.4 3.8 0.4 2.0 0.3

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 0.1 2.0 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.0

Residence

0.1

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.2 3.6 0.1 2.8 0.1 2.0 0.1

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.3 6.2 0.3 5.0 0.3 3.6 0.2

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 0.2 2.1 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.0 0.1

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 0.3 2.6 0.2 1.8 0.2 1.2

Region

0.2

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.2 3.9 0.2 3.2 0.2 2.4 0.2

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 0.2 3.0 0.2 2.0 0.1 1.4 0.1

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 0.1 2.6 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.1 0.1

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 0.2 4.8 0.2 3.9 0.2 2.9

Family Status

0.2

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 0.1 3.9 0.1 3.0 0.1 2.1 0.1

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 0.1 1.3 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.6

In families with a female householder, no spouse

0.1

present ........................................ 18.7 0.5 15.5 0.5 12.0 0.4 8.5

In families with a male householder, no spouse

0.4

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 0.4 3.0 0.4 2.8 0.4 1.7 0.4

Unrelated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.3

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

0.1

Employed full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0

Employed part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 0.2 1.9 0.2 1.6 0.2 0.9 0.1

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.0 0.9 10.2 1.0 8.2 1.0 4.6 0.8

Not in labor force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 0.2 3.8 0.2 2.7 0.2 1.6

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

0.1

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 0.1 0.9 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.3 0.0

Separated, divorced, or widowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 0.2 3.1 0.2 2.2 0.2 1.2 0.2

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 0.2 3.5 0.2 2.6 0.2 1.6

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

0.2

Under 1.00 . ....................................... 19.2 0.4 16.6 0.5 13.0 0.5 9.7 0.4

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 0.1 1.2 0.1 1.0 0.1 0.6 0.0

1

In thousands.

2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
22 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-3.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Supplemental Security Income by

Selected Characteristics: 1996-1999

Characteristic

Supplemental Security Income

1996

Standard

error

Standard Standard

1997 error 1998 error 1999

Standard

error

Total number of recipients1 ....................

As percent of the population .........................

Race and Hispanic Origin2

White .............................................

Not of Hispanic origin .............................

Black . . . ..........................................

Hispanic origin .....................................

Not of Hispanic origin ...............................

Age

Under 18 years ....................................

18 to 64 years .....................................

65 years and over ..................................

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Women ...........................................

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school .....................

High school graduate, no college.....................

1 or more years of college...........................

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability . . . ............................

With no work disability ..............................

Residence

Metropolitan . . . ....................................

Central city ......................................

Noncentral city ...................................

Nonmetropolitan....................................

Region

Northeast..........................................

Midwest ...........................................

South . . . ..........................................

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Family Status

In families .........................................

In married-couple families .........................

In families with a female householder, no spouse

present ........................................

In families with a male householder, no spouse

present ........................................

Unrelated individuals................................

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

Employed full-time..................................

Employed part-time.................................

Unemployed .......................................

Not in labor force...................................

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

Married ...........................................

Separated, divorced, or widowed.....................

Never married . ....................................

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . .......................................

1.00 and over......................................

5,546

2.1

1.6

1.5

4.8

2.6

2.0

0.4

2.2

5.5

1.8

2.3

9.0

2.3

0.8

16.7

0.4

1.9

2.8

1.4

2.8

2.1

1.7

2.4

2.1

1.6

1.1

3.6

3.0

4.9

0.2

1.1

1.4

7.8

1.1

5.9

4.1

6.3

1.3

103

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.6

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.1

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.1

5,945

2.2

1.7

1.5

5.0

3.0

2.1

0.3

2.3

5.9

1.9

2.5

9.9

2.5

0.7

17.8

0.6

2.0

3.0

1.4

3.1

2.3

1.7

2.5

2.2

1.7

1.1

3.9

3.0

5.1

0.2

1.1

1.7

8.2

1.3

6.2

4.2

7.0

1.4

118

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.7

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

1.3

0.3

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.1

5,968

2.2

1.7

1.5

4.9

3.0

2.1

0.3

2.3

5.9

1.9

2.5

9.9

2.5

0.7

17.9

0.7

2.0

2.9

1.4

3.1

2.3

1.7

2.5

2.2

1.7

1.1

3.9

3.1

5.1

0.2

1.0

1.5

8.3

1.3

6.0

4.2

7.4

1.4

124

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.7

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.0

0.1

0.5

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.1

6,000

2.2

1.6

1.5

5.0

2.9

2.1

0.3

2.3

5.7

1.9

2.5

9.8

2.6

0.8

18.1

0.8

2.0

2.9

1.4

3.0

2.3

1.6

2.5

2.2

1.7

1.1

3.9

3.0

5.2

0.2

1.2

1.6

8.1

1.3

5.9

4.2

7.7

1.4

131

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.8

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.0

0.2

0.5

0.3

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.1

1

In thousands.

2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 23

Table A-4.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Food Stamps by Selected

Characteristics: 1996-1999

Program participation rates (in percent)

Food stamps Characteristic

Standard Standard Standard Standard

1996 error 1997 error 1998 error 1999 error

Total number of recipients1 .................... 21,788 196 19,505 207 17,345 205 16,001 209

As percent of the population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 0.1 7.3 0.1 6.4 0.1 5.9 0.1

Race and Hispanic Origin2

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 0.1 5.1 0.1 4.5 0.1 4.0 0.1

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 0.1 3.9 0.1 3.5 0.1 3.0 0.1

Black . . . .......................................... 22.2 0.5 20.6 0.6 18.0 0.6 16.7 0.6

Hispanic origin ..................................... 16.5 0.6 13.9 0.6 11.6 0.6 11.1 0.6

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.1 6.5 0.1 5.8 0.1 5.2 0.1

Age

Under 18 years .................................... 14.5 0.3 12.7 0.3 11.3 0.3 10.2 0.3

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 0.1 5.5 0.1 4.8 0.1 4.4 0.1

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 0.3 4.2 0.3 4.1 0.3 3.9 0.3

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 0.2 6.1 0.2 5.4 0.2 4.9 0.2

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 0.2 8.4 0.2 7.4 0.2 6.8 0.2

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school ..................... 15.3 0.4 14.2 0.5 12.3 0.5 12.0 0.5

High school graduate, no college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 0.2 5.4 0.2 4.9 0.2 4.4 0.2

1 or more years of college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 0.1 2.1 0.1 1.9 0.1 1.7 0.1

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability . . . ............................ 17.1 0.6 16.3 0.7 14.8 0.7 14.5 0.7

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 0.1 4.4 0.1 3.9 0.1 3.5 0.1

Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 0.2 6.8 0.2 5.9 0.2 5.4 0.2

Central city ...................................... 12.3 0.4 11.0 0.4 9.8 0.3 8.9 0.3

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 0.2 4.2 0.2 3.6 0.2 3.2 0.2

Nonmetropolitan.................................... 10.5 0.5 9.3 0.4 8.4 0.4 7.8 0.4

Region

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 0.3 7.1 0.3 6.3 0.3 5.7 0.3

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 0.2 6.1 0.2 5.3 0.2 4.8 0.2

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 0.2 8.3 0.2 7.5 0.2 7.0 0.2

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 0.3 7.1 0.3 6.2 0.3 5.5 0.3

Family Status

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 0.1 7.6 0.1 6.6 0.1 6.1 0.1

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 0.1 3.5 0.1 2.9 0.1 2.6 0.1

In families with a female householder, no spouse

present ........................................ 28.5 0.5 25.4 0.6 22.7 0.6 21.0 0.6

In families with a male householder, no spouse

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 0.7 7.5 0.7 6.2 0.6 6.4 0.7

Unrelated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 0.3 5.8 0.3 5.5 0.3 4.8 0.3

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

Employed full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 0.1 1.7 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.5 0.1

Employed part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 0.3 5.5 0.3 5.0 0.3 4.2 0.3

Unemployed ....................................... 20.4 1.1 19.4 1.3 16.2 1.4 14.4 1.4

Not in labor force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 0.3 10.1 0.3 8.9 0.3 8.5 0.3

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 0.1 3.0 0.1 2.5 0.1 2.3 0.1

Separated, divorced, or widowed..................... 10.4 0.4 9.4 0.4 8.5 0.4 7.8 0.4

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 0.3 7.7 0.3 6.7 0.3 6.2 0.3

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . ....................................... 37.6 0.5 34.7 0.6 32.1 0.6 30.5 0.7

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 0.1 2.7 0.1 2.4 0.1 2.2 0.1

1

In thousands.

2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
24 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-5.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Medicaid by Selected Chara

1996-1999

Program participation rates (in percent)

Medicaid Characteristic

Standard Standard Standard

1996 error 1997 error 1998 error

Total number of recipients1 .................... 28,460 219 27,221 240 26,584 248

cteristi

1999

26,511

cs:

Standard

error

262

As percent of the population ......................... 10.7 0.1 10.2 0.1 9.9 0.2

Race and Hispanic Origin2

9.7 0.2

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 0.1 7.7 0.1 7.5 0.1 7.4 0.2

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 0.1 6.3 0.1 6.1 0.1 5.9 0.2

Black . . . .......................................... 24.4 0.6 23.2 0.6 22.0 0.6 21.5 0.7

Hispanic origin ..................................... 20.2 0.6 18.5 0.7 17.6 0.7 17.6 0.7

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 0.1 9.1 0.2 8.8 0.2

Age

8.7 0.2

Under 18 years .................................... 18.9 0.3 17.4 0.4 16.8 0.4 16.9 0.4

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.1 6.9 0.2 6.7 0.2 6.5 0.2

65 years and over .................................. 10.6 0.4 10.7 0.4 10.5 0.5

Sex

10.3 0.5

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 0.2 8.8 0.2 8.5 0.2 8.4 0.2

Women ........................................... 12.3 0.2 11.5 0.2 11.1 0.2

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

11.0 0.2

Less than 4 years of high school ..................... 20.6 0.5 20.9 0.6 20.3 0.6 20.0 0.6

High school graduate, no college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.2 7.2 0.3 7.2 0.3 7.2 0.3

1 or more years of college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 0.1 3.0 0.1 3.0 0.1

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

2.8 0.1

With a work disability . . . ............................ 28.6 0.7 29.1 0.8 29.1 0.9 29.1 0.9

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0 0.1 4.9 0.1 4.9 0.1

Residence

4.9 0.1

Metropolitan . . . .................................... 10.2 0.2 9.7 0.2 9.3 0.2 9.1 0.2

Central city ...................................... 15.3 0.5 14.6 0.4 13.9 0.4 13.7 0.4

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.3 6.7 0.2 6.5 0.2 6.3 0.2

Nonmetropolitan.................................... 12.7 0.5 12.3 0.5 12.0 0.5

Region

12.0 0.5

Northeast.......................................... 10.9 0.3 10.7 0.3 10.4 0.4 10.2 0.4

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 0.3 7.9 0.3 7.5 0.3 7.3 0.3

South . . . .......................................... 10.4 0.2 9.9 0.3 9.6 0.3 9.6 0.3

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 0.3 12.7 0.4 12.3 0.4

Family Status

12.1 0.4

In families ......................................... 10.9 0.2 10.2 0.2 9.8 0.2 9.7 0.2

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 0.1 5.7 0.1 5.5 0.1

In families with a female householder, no spouse

5.5 0.2

present ........................................ 31.9 0.5 29.6 0.6 28.1 0.6

In families with a male householder, no spouse

27.9 0.6

present ........................................ 13.7 0.8 12.7 0.8 12.3 11.3 0.9

Unrelated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 0.3 9.9 0.4 10.0 0.4

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

9.8 0.4

Employed full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.6 0.1

Employed part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 0.3 6.6 0.3 6.6 0.4 6.4 0.4

Unemployed ....................................... 17.5 1.1 18.4 1.3 17.7 1.4 16.7 1.5

Not in labor force................................... 17.4 0.3 16.9 0.3 16.5 0.4

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

16.0 0.4

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 0.1 3.8 0.1 3.8 0.2 3.7 0.2

Separated, divorced, or widowed..................... 14.2 0.4 13.7 0.4 13.1 0.5 12.7 0.5

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 0.4 11.6 0.4 11.2 0.4

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

11.0 0.4

Under 1.00 . ....................................... 40.0 0.6 38.1 0.6 37.7 0.7 38.0 0.7

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 0.1 5.5 0.1 5.4 0.1

1

In thousands.

2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.

5.5 0.1
U.S. Census Bureau 25

Table A-6.

Average Monthly Program Participation Rates for Housing Assistance by Selected

Characteristics: 1996-1999

Program participation rates (in percent)

Housing assistance Characteristic

Standard Standard Standard Standard

1996 error 1977 error 1998 error 1999 error

Total number of recipients1 .................... 11,784 148 11,408 162 10,997 166 10,657 173

As percent of the population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 0.1 4.3 0.1 4.1 0.1 3.9 0.1

Race and Hispanic Origin2

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 0.1 2.7 0.1 2.6 0.1 2.4 0.1

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 0.1 2.1 0.1 2.0 0.1 1.9 0.1

Black . . . .......................................... 13.8 0.4 13.4 0.5 12.8 0.5 12.4 0.5

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 0.4 7.2 0.4 7.0 0.5 6.4 0.4

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0 0.1 3.9 0.1 3.7 0.1 3.6 0.1

Age

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 0.2 6.8 0.2 6.4 0.2 6.1 0.3

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 0.1 3.2 0.1 3.1 0.1 3.0 0.1

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.3 4.2 0.3 4.0 0.3 3.9 0.3

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 0.1 3.5 0.1 3.4 0.1 3.2 0.1

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 0.1 5.0 0.2 4.8 0.2 4.6 0.2

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 0.3 7.7 0.4 7.4 0.4 7.3 0.4

High school graduate, no college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 0.2 3.5 0.2 3.4 0.2 3.2 0.2

1 or more years of college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.7 0.1 1.6 0.1

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 0.4 9.0 0.5 8.9 0.5 8.8 0.6

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 0.1 2.6 0.1 2.6 0.1 2.5 0.1

Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 0.2 4.3 0.1 4.2 0.1 4.0 0.1

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.3 7.4 0.3 7.0 0.3 6.9 0.3

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 0.2 2.5 0.1 2.5 0.1 2.2 0.1

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.3 4.0 0.3 3.7 0.3 3.6 0.3

Region

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 0.2 5.8 0.3 5.6 0.3 5.6 0.3

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 0.2 3.4 0.2 3.3 0.2 3.1 0.2

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.2 4.0 0.2 3.8 0.2 3.6 0.2

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 0.2 4.4 0.2 4.1 0.2 3.9 0.2

Family Status

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 0.1 4.1 0.1 3.9 0.1 3.7 0.1

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.4 0.1

In families with a female householder, no spouse

present ........................................ 15.5 0.4 14.8 0.5 14.2 0.5 13.7 0.5

In families with a male householder, no spouse

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 0.4 3.8 0.5 4.2 0.5 3.8 0.5

Unrelated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 0.3 5.5 0.3 5.3 0.3 5.3 0.3

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

Employed full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 0.1 1.5 0.1 1.6 0.1 1.6 0.1

Employed part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 0.2 3.4 0.2 3.3 0.3 3.3 0.3

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 0.8 9.6 1.0 9.6 1.1 9.6 1.2

Not in labor force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 0.2 5.9 0.2 5.5 0.2 5.3 0.2

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 0.1 1.4 0.1 1.4 0.1 1.3 0.1

Separated, divorced, or widowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 0.3 6.3 0.3 6.2 0.3 5.9 0.3

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 0.3 5.4 0.3 5.2 0.3 5.2 0.3

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . ....................................... 17.5 0.4 17.4 0.5 16.5 0.5 16.2 0.6

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 0.1 2.0 0.1 2.1 0.1 2.1 0.1

1

In thousands.

2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
26 U.S. Census Bureau

Table A-7.

Median Duration of Program Participation by Program: 1996-1999

(In months)

Any Supplemental

Means-tested Security Housing 1 programs AFDC/GA Income Food stamps Medicaid assistance2

Characteristic

Stan- Stan- Stan- Stan- Stan- Standard dard dard dard dard dard

Median error Median error Median error Median error Median error Median error

All recipients3 .................. 7.0 0.1 5.6 0.6 11.2 0.4 5.9 0.4 7.5 0.1 (X) (X)

Race and Hispanic Origin

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 0.6 5.4 0.7 8.0 0.2 5.2 0.4 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

Not of Hispanic origin4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 0.5 5.2 0.6 7.9 0.3 4.8 0.4 7.3 0.1 (X) (X)

Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.2 6.3 2.1 11.3 0.6 7.4 0.2 7.6 0.2 (X) (X)

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.2 7.1 0.4 11.9 1.1 7.0 0.2 7.7 0.2 (X) (X)

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 0.7 5.3 0.6 11.1 0.5 5.8 0.4 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

Age5

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.2 5.7 0.8 7.8 0.7 7.2 0.2 7.8 0.1 (X) (X)

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 0.4 5.4 0.8 7.9 0.2 4.9 0.3 7.5 0.1 (X) (X)

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 0.0 (B) (B) 19.7 0.9 8.0 0.3 3.9 0.0 (X) (X)

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 0.7 5.0 0.8 12.5 14.1 5.2 0.5 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.1 5.8 0.7 7.9 0.2 7.0 0.2 7.5 0.1 (X) (X)

Educational Attainment (people 18

years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school . . . . . . 7.3 0.2 7.1 0.2 15.4 0.6 7.3 0.2 7.6 0.1 (X) (X)

High school graduate, no college . . . . . . 5.9 0.6 5.6 1.1 11.2 0.8 4.9 0.6 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

1 or more years of college . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 0.0 3.8 0.2 7.2 0.3 3.9 0.1 4.5 0.9 (X) (X)

Disability Status (people 15 to 64

years old)

With a work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 1.8 7.3 0.3 15.0 0.7 7.9 0.3 11.1 0.4 (X) (X)

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 0.5 4.5 0.8 3.9 0.1 4.0 0.4 7.1 0.1 (X) (X)

Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.1 6.5 1.2 11.1 0.5 6.5 0.8 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.2 7.1 0.2 11.6 0.7 7.1 0.2 7.6 0.1 (X) (X)

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 0.8 5.3 1.1 7.8 0.3 5.6 0.6 7.3 0.1 (X) (X)

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.2 3.9 0.1 11.6 0.7 5.3 0.6 7.6 0.2 (X) (X)

Region

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 0.2 7.3 0.4 11.7 1.4 7.3 0.2 7.7 0.2 (X) (X)

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 0.8 4.7 1.0 7.6 0.4 4.4 0.5 7.2 0.2 (X) (X)

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.1 5.6 1.0 11.6 0.5 7.0 1.0 7.4 0.1 (X) (X)

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.2 5.2 1.9 12.7 11.1 5.3 1.0 7.7 0.2 (X) (X)

Family Status

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.1 5.5 0.6 7.9 0.2 5.9 0.4 7.5 0.1 (X) (X)

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 0.5 4.0 0.1 7.9 0.3 4.8 0.4 7.2 0.1 (X) (X)

In families with a female householder, no spouse present . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.2 7.1 0.2 7.8 0.3 7.3 0.2 8.0 0.1 (X) (X)

In families with a male householder,

no spouse present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.4 4.0 0.3 11.2 1.3 5.7 2.1 7.6 0.5 (X) (X)

Unrelated individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.2 6.6 2.4 35.1 1.0 6.8 1.7 7.4 0.2 (X) (X)

Employment and Labor Force

Status (people 18 years and over)

Employed full-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 0.0 3.6 0.1 7.0 0.3 3.7 0.1 4.3 1.2 (X) (X)

Employed part-time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 0.8 4.4 1.1 4.0 0.1 4.0 0.1 7.0 0.2 (X) (X)

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 1.1 4.2 2.5 (B) (B) 5.2 0.9 7.1 0.4 (X) (X)

Not in labor force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.1 7.2 0.2 15.2 0.4 7.7 0.2 7.5 0.1 (X) (X)

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.0 0.1 7.1 0.2 19.3 0.6 7.7 0.1 8.5 0.8 (X) (X)

1.00 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 0.6 3.9 0.1 7.7 0.2 4.0 0.1 7.1 0.1 (X) (X)

B The sample size is too small for analysis. X Not applicable.

1

Major means-tested programs include Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), General Assistance (GA), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), food

stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance. 2

Median duration cannot be computed when more than half of the spells are continuing in the last month of data collection. (This situation is especially likely

to occur for elderly recipients whose incomes from other sources are unlikely to rise over time.) 3

Median duration for each program is derived only for those who begin participating in each program at the start of the survey, while those who are already

in the program at the start of the survey (i.e., the left-censored cases) are excluded from the analysis. 4

Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

5

Age, educational attainment, and other variables are measured at the time the spells begin, except that, for those who are already on programs at the start

of the survey, these characteristics are measured at the first interview.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
U.S. Census Bureau 27

Table A-8.

Median Monthly Family Benefits of Program Participants by Selected Characteristics:

1996-1999

Monthly family benefits (in 1999 dollars)1

1996 1997 1998 1999

Characteristic

Stan- Stan- Stan- Standard dard dard dard

Median error Median error Median error Median error

All recipients.................................. 333 1.0 456 3.0 418 3.0 394 4.5

Race and Hispanic Origin2

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 2.0 409 4.5 392 5.0 355 5.0

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 1.5 358 4.5 331 3.5 320 2.5

Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 2.5 481 6.0 430 4.5 406 7.0

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 1.5 518 3.0 504 3.5 448 6.5

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 0.0 435 3.0 398 5.5 374 2.0

Age

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 2.0 522 4.0 469 7.0 429 4.5

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 2.5 433 4.5 417 4.0 397 4.5

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 6.5 255 7.5 277 6.0 269 8.5

Sex

Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 2.0 473 3.5 433 5.5 408 7.0

Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 1.0 445 4.5 408 0.0 380 5.0

Educational Attainment (people 18 years and over)

Less than 4 years of high school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 3.5 436 5.5 426 4.5 399 5.5

High school graduate, no college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 3.5 387 4.5 353 9.5 360 9.0

1 or more years of college. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 4.5 343 7.5 348 7.5 304 8.0

Disability Status (people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 5.0 501 1.0 493 3.0 483 5.5

With no work disability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 1.5 393 4.0 373 4.5 338 4.0

Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 1.5 497 2.5 465 3.5 435 4.5

Central city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 2.5 514 2.5 500 3.0 469 3.0

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 2.5 458 4.5 408 0.0 386 7.0

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 2.5 337 3.0 326 2.0 299 2.0

Region

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 2.5 527 2.5 508 3.0 467 2.0

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 2.5 454 7.0 374 8.5 363 8.0

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 2.0 348 5.0 327 1.5 314 4.0

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 0.5 591 4.5 575 5.0 559 7.5

Family Status

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 1.5 486 2.0 452 4.5 416 3.5

In married-couple families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 0.0 414 1.5 408 1.5 385 7.0

In families with a female householder, no spouse

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 1.0 522 2.0 487 4.5 429 4.5

In families with a male householder, no spouse

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 7.0 501 4.5 510 5.5 411 23.5

Unrelated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 1.5 242 4.5 218 6.0 240 8.0

Employment and Labor Force Status (people 18

years and over)

Employed full-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 4.5 248 3.5 248 5.0 224 5.0

Employed part-time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 5.0 310 2.5 306 4.0 287 7.0

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 7.5 458 14.0 500 12.5 418 24.5

Not in labor force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 4.0 471 4.5 454 5.5 432 6.5

Marital Status (people 18 years and over)

Married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 3.5 376 7.0 395 9.0 373 7.0

Separated, divorced, or widowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 4.0 335 5.5 317 4.5 300 3.5

Never married . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 3.0 469 6.0 458 8.5 411 8.0

Family Income-to-Poverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 1.0 483 4.0 432 3.0 411 5.5

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 4.0 408 5.5 401 8.0 359 7.5

1

Median monthly family benefits are calculated only for recipients who have reported or imputed amounts for AFDC,

General Assistance (GA), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and food stamps only and are expressed in 1999 dollars using the Consumer Price Index (CPI-U). 2

People of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Survey of Income and Program Participation, 1996 Panel.
U.S. Department of Commerce

FIRST-CLASS MAIL Economics and Statistics Administration POSTAGE & FEES PAID

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC 20233 Permit No. G-58

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Penalty for Private Use $300