NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Statistical Analysis Report March 1996

Trends in Participation in

Secondary Vocational 

Education: 1982–1992

John Tuma

MPR Associates, Inc.

Shelley K. Burns

Project Officer

National Center for Education Statistics

U.S. Department of Education

Office of Educational Research and Improvement NCES 96-004
iii

Highlights

General Course-Taking Patterns Among Public High School Graduates

C Public high school graduates in the class of 1992 earned on average more total credits,

more academic credits, and fewer vocational credits than did graduates in the class of

1982. The number of credits completed in the personal use curriculum was unchanged

over time. 

C Trends in academic and personal use course taking were much the same for all student

subgroups. Among subgroups defined by gender, race–ethnicity, parents’ educational

attainment, and disability status, there were increases in academic course taking, stable

levels of personal use course taking, and increases in the total number of credits earned. 

C Trends in vocational course taking varied among the different student subgroups. While

vocational course taking declined among groups defined by gender and parents'

educational attainment, as well as among whites, blacks, Hispanics, and students with no

disabilities, course taking in the vocational curriculum was unchanged between 1982 and

1992 among Asians, American Indians, and students with disabilities.

C Despite the similar trends in course taking, differences in patterns of participation

persisted between groups. For example, females consistently earned more academic

credits than did males, and graduates with disabilities consistently earned more credits in

the vocational curriculum than graduates with no disabilities.

Detailed Trends in Vocational Course Taking

C Declines in vocational course taking were evident throughout the vocational curriculum.

Credits earned in the general labor market preparation, consumer and homemaking

education, and occupationally specific education curricula all declined between 1982 and

1992.

C The composition of course taking within the occupationally specific vocational

curriculum shifted away from courses that were part of an organized sequence and

toward specialty courses within the various vocational fields.

C The downward trend in occupationally specific vocational course taking was shared by

most student groups, but in contrast to the general pattern, Asians, American Indians, and

students with disabilities completed about the same number of courses in the

occupationally specific vocational curriculum in 1992 as they had in earlier years. 

C The rate of vocational concentration (defined as completing three or more credits in a

single occupational field) also declined between 1992 than in 1982. However, declining

rates of vocational concentration were confined to the business and the trade and industry

fields; rates of concentration in the other vocational fields were unchanged over time. 
iv

C Patterns of concentration and trends over time varied by gender. In both 1982 and 1992,

males were more likely to concentrate in trade and industry and in agriculture than were

females, while females were more likely to concentrate in business than were males.

However, the disparities between males and females in rates of concentration in these

subject areas declined between 1982 and 1992, primarily because of large declines in the

rate of concentration by the predominant group. 

Relationship Between Vocational and Academic Course Taking

C The number of academic credits completed by graduates was inversely related to the

number of vocational credits they completed: as the number of vocational credits

completed increased, the number of academic credits completed declined. 

C Regardless of the number of vocational credits completed, academic course taking

increased between 1982 and 1992, including large increases in math and science.

C Differences in number of credits earned in math and science between those graduates

who completed fewer than 2.0 vocational credits and those who completed more than 8.0

vocational credits declined between 1982 and 1992. However, differences between these

groups remained large in advanced math and advanced science.

Conclusions

C The trends in course taking between 1982 and 1992 were consistent with the goals of

education reform outlined in A Nation at Risk. Students completed more academic

coursework, and more advanced academic coursework in 1992 than in 1982.

C Participation in high-technology programs did not significantly increase between 1982

and 1992. Likewise, participation by students in vocational programs that are

nontraditional for their gender did not increase, although gender disparities fell somewhat

due to large declines in the rates of program participation by the predominant gender

group in certain fields. 

C To the extent that one can measure access to vocational programs with course-taking

data, Congress’ goal of ensuring that vocational education programs are accessible to

students with disabilities appears to have been met. 

C Downward trends in patterns of vocational concentration, coupled with shifts in

occupationally specific course taking away from sequential courses and towards specialty

courses not clearly linked to a sequential program, suggest that participation in vocational

education at the secondary level may be increasingly diffuse. 
v

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank all those who contributed to the production of this report.

At MPR Associates, Andrea Livingston and Karen Singson edited the various drafts of the

report, and Martha Alt provided assistance in preparing the final report. Lynn Sally and Leslie

Retallick prepared the tables and graphics and provided essential production assistance, and

Ellen Liebman prepared the transcript analysis files and did the programming for the tables.

At the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Mary Frase and James Houser in

the Data Development Division offered guidance in specifying the scope of work, and they also

helped in editing the report. The author would especially like to thank the members of the

adjudication panel for their careful review and thoughtful comments on the final draft. Panel

members from NCES were Mike Cohen from the Statistical Standards and Methodology

Division, Andrew Kolstad from the Education Assessment Division, and Jeff Owings from the

Education Surveys Division. Other panel members were Rick Apling from the Congressional

Research Service, Augusta Souza Kappner from the Office of Vocational and Adult Education,

and Lisa Hudson in the Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
vi

Table of Contents

Section Page

Highlights ............................................................. iii

Acknowledgements ....................................................... v

List of Tables ........................................................... vii

List of Figures .......................................................... ix

Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................... 1

Chapter 2. General Trends in Participation in the Secondary Curriculum ........... 5

General Trends in Course Taking ......................................... 5

Course-Taking Trends by Student Characteristics ............................. 9

Chapter 3. Trends in Levels of Vocational Participation and the Relationship 

 Between Academic and Vocational Course Taking ............................ 17

Trends in the Intensity of Vocational Course Taking .......................... 17

Trends in Vocational Concentration ...................................... 23

Relationship Between Vocational and Academic Course Taking ................. 27

Chapter 4. Conclusions ................................................... 31

Appendices

A. Standard Error Tables ............................................... 33

B. Glossary ......................................................... 48

C. Technical Notes ................................................... 55
vii

List of Tables

Table Page

2.1 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the 

occupationally specific vocational education curriculum, by course level: 

1982–1992 ......................................................... 7

2.2 Percentage of public high school graduates with credits in the academic, 

vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula: ..........

1982–1992 .............................................................. 8

2.3 Percentage of public high school graduates with credits in the occupationally 

specific vocational education curriculum, by course level: 1982–1992 ............ 9

2.4 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the 

academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational 

subcurricula, by selected student characteristics: 1982 and 1992 ................ 10

2.5 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the 

academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational 

subcurricula, by disability status: 1987 and 1992 ............................ 14

2.6 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the

academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational

subcurricula, by LEP status: 1992 ....................................... 15

3.1 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the 

number of credits earned in vocational education, by gender, race–ethnicity, 

and parents' educational attainment: 1982 and 1992 ......................... 19

3.2 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the 

number of credits earned in vocational education, by disability status: 

1987 and 1992 ...................................................... 20

3.3 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the 

number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses, by gender, race–

ethnicity, and parents' educational attainment: 1982 and 1992 .................. 22

3.4 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the 

number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses, by disability 

status: 1987 and 1992 ................................................ 23
viii

3.5 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in

each occupationally specific field: 1982–1992 .............................. 24

3.6 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in

each occupationally specific field, by gender, race–ethnicity, and parents'

educational attainment: 1982 and 1992 ................................... 25
ix

3.7 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in

each occupationally specific field, by disability status: 1987 and 

1992 ............................................................. 27

3.8 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in selected academic

fields, by number of credits earned in vocational education: 

1982 and 1992 ...................................................... 28
x

List of Figures

Figure

Page

2.1 Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates, by 

curriculum area: 1982–1992 ............................................ 5

2.2 Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates in 

vocational curriculum areas: 1982–1992 ................................... 6

3.1 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number 

of vocational credits completed: 1982–1992 ............................... 18

3.2 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number 

of occupationally specific credits completed: 1982–1992 ..................... 21
The National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform 1

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, April 1983).

E. Gareth Hoachlander, Participation in Secondary Vocational Education, 1982–87 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. 2

Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, January 1992).

See appendix C for a more detailed definition of students who were included in this report. 3

1

Chapter 1

Introduction

Educational researchers and policymakers have become increasingly interested in trends

in vocational course taking in light of the education reforms that were implemented in response

to A Nation at Risk. In particular, they have become concerned about how vocational course- 1

taking patterns have changed during a period in which education policy has primarily

emphasized academic education. The report Participation in Secondary Vocational Education:

1982–87 described patterns of participation in secondary vocational education by public high

school graduates between 1982 and 1987. Since the publication of that report in January 1992, 2

two additional transcript data sets have become available: the 1990 National Assessment of

Educational Progress High School Transcript Study (NAEP:90), and the transcript component of

the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88), which contain complete

transcripts for a sample of students who completed high school in 1990 and 1992, respectively.3

With these additional data points, the analysis of vocational course taking among public high

school graduates that was presented in Participation in Secondary Vocational Education can be

updated to encompass trends through 1992, and it can also be expanded to include additional

demographic characteristics that were previously unavailable.

Many of the questions that were raised in the earlier study are just as timely now,

including the following:

C What percentage of public high school graduates participated in vocational education in

1990 and 1992?

C How much vocational education did secondary students take in 1990 and 1992? Did this

amount represent a change from levels of participation in 1982 and 1987?

C In what types of vocational programs did high school graduates enroll? Were the patterns

of enrollment in 1990 and 1992 different from those in the two earlier years?

C Although levels of participation in vocational education remained relatively steady

between 1982 and 1987, levels of participation in academic education increased. Did

these trends in academic and vocational course taking persist between 1987 and 1992?
Antoinette Gifford, John Tuma, and E. Gareth Hoachlander, The Secondary School Taxonomy Report (Washington, 4

D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Assessment of Vocational Education, 1989).

2

Furthermore, the new transcript data sets offer an opportunity to examine whether

changes in vocational course taking between 1982 and 1992 were consistent with the goals of

federal vocational education laws, embodied in the Perkins Act and other legislation. More

specifically: 

C Congress has promoted increased participation by students in vocational programs that

are “nontraditional” for their gender. Have nontraditional enrollments been increasing? 

C Congress has also sought to ensure that vocational education programs are accessible to

students with disabilities. To what extent is this student population participating in

vocational education? 

C When the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act was reauthorized in 1990 (and

renamed the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education and Applied Technology Act),

Congress focused new attention on high-technology programs. Have enrollments in these

programs (e.g., technical, communications, and to a lesser extent precision production)

increased, and if so, who is participating in them?

Finally, the new transcript data sets permit inquiries that were precluded by the limited

availability of student demographic data in the 1987 NAEP transcript study. The previous trend

study examined course taking in relation to two demographic variables—gender and

race–ethnicity; this study expands the list of demographic characteristics to include disability

status (1987 and 1992), parents’ education (1982 and 1992), and limited-English-proficiency

(LEP) status (1992 only).

Measures of Course Taking and the Organization of Coursework

Course taking is measured in this report using “Carnegie units.” One Carnegie unit

represents the time equivalent to a one-period course that meets daily for an entire academic

year. Hence, a course that met daily for one period over a semester was counted as one-half of a

Carnegie unit, while a course that met daily for two periods over an entire academic year was

counted as two Carnegie units. In instances where course credits were not awarded on a year or

semester basis, credits were standardized as fractions or multiples of Carnegie units (as

appropriate) to facilitate comparisons within and across samples. Throughout the rest of this

report the term “credits” will be used in place of “Carnegie units” to simplify the presentation.

Courses were organized within the framework of the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST)

to ensure the consistent placement of courses from the secondary curriculum. This taxonomy 4

contains three major curriculum categories: academic, vocational, and personal use. The

academic curriculum comprises the subject areas of mathematics, science, English, social

studies, foreign languages, and fine arts. Each of these subject areas was then categorized into

subfields, such as composition and writing in English, and applied math or geometry in

mathematics, as well as by level (remedial, regular, honors, or advanced placement) wherever

possible. Three advanced academic course-taking categories are presented in tables in chapter 3
3

of this report: advanced English, which includes honors and advanced placement courses;

advanced mathematics, which includes algebra 2, trigonometry, analytic geometry, precalculus,

probability and statistics, and calculus; and advanced science, which includes chemistry, physics,

and advanced biology (including advanced placement biology).

The vocational curriculum contains three major subdivisions: consumer and homemaking

education, general labor market preparation, and occupationally specific education. Consumer

and homemaking education courses provide training and teach skills in home economics, child

development, parent education, and other activities that lie primarily outside of the paid labor

force. Courses that are designed to impart widely applicable vocational skills, such as typing,

business math, or business English, or that provide a broad overview of vocational alternatives,

such as introduction to industrial arts or career exploration, are included in the general labor

market preparation curriculum. Courses that teach material relevant to particular jobs or

industries are included in the occupationally specific vocational education curriculum, which are

in turn organized by vocational field: agriculture, business, marketing, health, occupational

home economics, trade and industry, and technical and communications. Course taking in the

occupationally specific fields is then further divided by course level: first course in a sequence,

second or higher course in a sequence, and specialty courses not clearly linked to a sequence of

courses.

The personal use curriculum is a residual category that includes courses that could not be

fit into the academic or vocational curricula, or that were offered in relatively few schools.

These courses include general skills, health and physical education, religion and theology, driver

training, and military science.
Personal use

Credits

0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

1982 1987 1990 1992

14.2

4.6

2.6

15.6

4.4

2.7

16.7

4.1

2.7

17.3

3.8

2.7

Academic Vocational

The number of credits required for high school graduation vary from state to state, but these data show that on 5

average, high school graduates earned more credits than the average state required. According to data collected by the

Education Commission of the States, the median number of credits required for graduation by states was 20 in 1992.

However, these data ranged from no state mandated credit requirements to 24 credits. Cited in the Digest of

Education Statistics: 1993 (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics), table 153.

5

Chapter 2

General Trends in Participation in the

Secondary Curriculum

General Trends in Course Taking

Between 1982 and 1992, the average number of credits earned by public high school

graduates increased from 21.4 to 23.8. This rise in total credits was accounted for almost 5

entirely by increases in academic courses, which increased from an average of 14.2 to an average

of 17.3 credits (figure 2.1). Vocational credits completed by high school graduates declined from

4.6 to 3.8, and credits completed in the personal use curriculum remained essentially unchanged,

averaging 2.6 in 1982 and 2.7 in 1992. 

Figure 2.1—Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates, by curriculum area:

1982–1992 

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
2.9

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

1982 1987 1990 1992

0.7

1.1

0.6

0.9

2.9

0.6

0.8

2.7

0.5

0.7

2.5

Consumer and homemaking education

General labor market preparation

Occupationally specific education

Credits

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Assessment of Vocational 6

Education Final Report to Congress (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1994), v. II, 140.

6

Figure 2.2—Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates in vocational 

curriculum areas: 1982–1992

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

The decline in vocational course taking was evident throughout the vocational

curriculum (figure 2.2). However, it is the declining level of participation in the occupationally

specific curriculum, from 2.9 to 2.5 credits between 1982 and 1992, that is likely to have the

greatest impact on students’ labor market prospects after high school. In an exhaustive literature

review on the topic, the National Assessment of Vocational Education concluded that “the

research consistently finds that wage and employment outcomes are superior for those whose

field of study and occupation match . . . , [and that] . . . vocational education students who

complete at least two credits in [an occupationally specific field] and find jobs related to their

training have higher earnings and less unemployment over time than those with a more general

background. In addition, individuals with higher concentrations of coursework are more likely to

find a training-related job.”6
7

Trends in course taking within the occupationally specific curriculum were also a matter

of concern for the National Assessment of Vocational Education. Between 1982 and 1992,

credits completed in the occupationally specific curriculum declined in advanced vocational

courses and increased in specialty topics (those not clearly linked to a coherent program of

coursework) (table 2.1). For example, 1982 high school graduates completed an average of 1.8

credits in the first course of a sequence within the occupationally specific curriculum (compared

with 1.5 credits for 1992 graduates ), 0.9 credits in the second or higher course in a sequence

(compared with 0.7 credits), and 0.2 credits in specialty courses (compared with 0.4 credits). 

Table 2.1—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the occupationally specific

vocational education curriculum, by course level: 1982–1992

Year of graduation First course Second course or higher Specialty

1982 1.8 0.9 0.2

1987 1.8 0.9 0.2

1990 1.7 0.7 0.3

1992 1.5 0.7 0.4

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Table 2.2 shows the percentage of graduates who completed at least one course in each

curriculum. All graduates participated in the academic curriculum because each transcript had to

show a positive number of English credits to be included in the sample. Although participation

in the vocational curriculum was not a sample selection criterion, participation in this curriculum

was almost universal. The rate of participation did decline between 1982 and 1992, from 97.8

percent to 96.5 percent of all graduates, but the decline was small.
In all of the tables in this report, average credits are calculated across all graduates who share the characteristic 7

described by the row variable (in this case, all graduates). Hence, the average number of credits completed is jointly

determined by the percentage of graduates exhibiting the characteristic who participated in a particular curricular area

[the rate of participation] and the average number of credits completed by those participants [the intensity of

participation]. The average number of credits completed in a particular curricular area by those who participated in

that area can be calculated by dividing the average number of credits completed by the rate of participation. For

example, those who participated in the general labor market preparation curriculum earned an average of 1.1 credits

(0.7 ÷ 62.4% = 1.1), which is substantially more than the average number of credits completed when calculated across

all graduates. Note that the closer the rate of participation is to 100 percent, the smaller is the difference in the

estimates of average credits earned between participants and all graduates. 

8

Table 2.2—Percentage of public high school graduates with credits in the academic, vocational, and 

personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula: 1982–1992

Percentage of Percentage of graduates

graduates with credits in with vocational credits in

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally

Year of Personal market homemaking specific

graduation Academic Vocational use preparation education education

1982 100.0 97.8 98.5 78.6 49.9 86. 7

1987 100.0 97.8 98.5 78.5 47.1 88. 5

1990 100.0 97.4 99.5 71.6 48.1 86. 8

1992 100.0 96.5 99.4 62.4 45.4 87. 1

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Rates of participation did, however, vary across the subdivisions of the vocational

curriculum. Participation in the occupationally specific curriculum was consistently higher than

in the general labor market preparation and consumer and homemaking education curricula, and

the level of participation remained relatively stable over the 10-year period, at about 87–89

percent of all graduates. Rates of participation in the general labor market preparation and the

consumer and homemaking curricula, on the other hand, declined over this time. 

In the general labor market preparation and the consumer and homemaking education

curricula, both the rate of participation and the average number of credits completed diminished

over time. By contrast, the proportion of students taking occupationally specific courses was

unchanged over time, so the decline in the average number of credits completed by graduates is

explained solely by a decline in the average number of courses completed by those who

participated in this curriculum.7
9

Changes in composition of occupationally specific course taking, however, reflect shifts

in both the rates of participation and the average number of credits completed at the different

course levels. For example, average credits earned in occupationally specific courses that were

part of a sequence of courses declined between 1982 and 1992, and so did rates of participation

(table 2.3). The average number of credits completed in specialty courses increased over time, as

did the rate of participation (from 22.2 percent of graduates in 1982 to 38.2 percent of graduates

in 1992). Thus, high school graduates continued to participate in the occupationally specific

curriculum at the same rate in 1992 as they had in 1982 overall, but they completed fewer credits

on average and the composition of their course taking shifted away from sequential courses and

toward specialty courses.

Table 2.3—Percentage of public high school graduates with credits in the occupationally specific vocational education curriculum, by course level: 1982–1992

Year of graduation First course Second course or higher Specialty

1982 79.4 46.4 22.2

1987 81.9 46.5 20.5

1990 78.1 36.9 26.2

1992 75.3 35.1 38.2

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Course-Taking Trends by Student Characteristics 

Course-Taking Trends by Gender

The average number of credits completed in high school increased for both males and

females, although females completed slightly more credits than did males in both 1982 and 1992

(table 2.4). The average number of credits completed by females in the academic curriculum

increased from 14.4 in 1982 to 17.9 in 1992, while academic course taking among males rose

from 13.9 to 16.8. The number of courses completed in the vocational curriculum declined for

both groups, but the decline in vocational course taking was larger among females than among

males. In 1982, females completed an average of 4.7 vocational credits, and males completed an

average of 4.6 vocational credits (this difference is not statistically significant). In 1992, males

earned an average of 3.9 credits, while females earned 3.6. Males also consistently completed

more credits in the personal use curriculum than did females.
10

Table 2.4—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in 

the vocational subcurricula, by selected student characteristics: 1982 and 1992

Occupationally

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General OccupaYear of graduation labor Consumer and tionally Second

and student Personal market homemaking specific First course

characteristics Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1982

Total 21.4 14.2 4.6 2.6 1.1 0.7 2.9 1.8 0.9 0.2

Gender

Male 21.3 13.9 4.6 2.8 1.0 0.3 3.3 2.1 1.0 0.3

Female 21.6 14.4 4.7 2.5 1.1 1.0 2.5 1.5 0.8 0.2

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 21.3 13.3 5.1 2.9 1.3 0.5 3.3 2.2 0.9 0.3

Asian 22.2 16.0 3.1 3.1 1.0 0.3 1.9 1.2 0.5 0.2

Black, non-Hispanic 21.1 13.7 4.8 2.6 1.1 0.9 2.8 1.7 0.9 0.3

Hispanic 21.2 13.0 5.3 2.9 1.2 0.9 3.2 2.0 1.0 0.2

White, non-Hispanic 21.5 14.4 4.5 2.6 1.0 0.6 2.9 1.8 0.9 0.2

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 21.2 13.0 5.5 2.7 1.2 0.9 3.4 2.0 1.1 0.3

High school graduate 21.3 13.3 5.4 2.6 1.2 0.8 3.4 2.1 1.0 0.3

Some postsecondary 21.5 14.4 4.5 2.7 1.1 0.6 2.8 1.7 0.8 0.2

Bachelor's degree 21.7 15.8 3.3 2.6 0.9 0.4 2.0 1.2 0.6 0.2

Advanced degree 21.9 16.2 3.1 2.6 0.8 0.4 1.9 1.2 0.6 0.2
11

Table 2.4—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in 

the vocational subcurricula, by selected student characteristics: 1982 and 1992—Continued

Occupationally

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General OccupaYear of graduation labor Consumer and tionally Second

and student Personal market homemaking specific First course

characteristics Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1992

Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.7 0.4

Gender

Male 23.6 16.8 3.9 2.9 0.7 0.4 2.9 1.7 0.8 0.4

Female 23.9 17.9 3.6 2.5 0.7 0.7 2.2 1.3 0.5 0.4

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 23.4 15.9 4.5 3.0 0.7 0.5 3.4 2.0 1.0 0.4

Asian 24.5 18.4 3.2 2.9 0.6 0.4 2.3 1.4 0.5 0.4

Black, non-Hispanic 23.2 16.6 3.9 2.7 0.7 0.7 2.5 1.6 0.6 0.4

Hispanic 23.6 16.8 3.8 3.0 0.7 0.5 2.6 1.4 0.7 0.5

White, non-Hispanic 23.8 17.5 3.7 2.6 0.7 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.7 0.4

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 23.3 16.1 4.5 2.7 0.9 0.7 3.0 1.7 0.8 0.5

High school graduate 23.4 16.3 4.5 2.6 0.8 0.7 3.0 1.8 0.9 0.4

Some postsecondary 23.8 17.2 3.9 2.7 0.7 0.6 2.7 1.6 0.7 0.4

Bachelor's degree 24.1 18.7 2.8 2.6 0.5 0.4 1.9 1.1 0.4 0.3

Advanced degree 24.5 19.6 2.2 2.7 0.4 0.3 1.5 0.9 0.3 0.3

NOTE: Details may not sum to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
12

Course taking within the vocational curriculum also varied by gender. Occupationally

specific course taking declined over time for both males and females, but males consistently

earned more credits in this curriculum than did females. Furthermore, males completed more

occupationally specific course credits in sequential courses than did females in 1982 and 1992. 

 Trends in course taking in the consumer and homemaking curriculum differed between

males and females. The average number of credits completed by females in this curriculum

declined from 1.0 credits in 1982 to 0.7 credits in 1992, while credits earned by males did not

change between 1982 and 1992. Females continued to earn more credits in consumer and

homemaking education than did males in 1992, but the difference was smaller than in 1982.

Course-Taking Trends by Race–Ethnicity

Graduates in all racial and ethnic categories completed more credits overall and more

academic credits in 1992 than in 1982, but while the trends were relatively similar, patterns of

academic and overall course taking varied by race–ethnicity (table 2.4). For example, Asian

graduates typically earned more credits in the academic curriculum than did members of the

other racial and ethnic groups. 

Both enrollment trends and patterns of participation in the vocational curriculum differed

by race–ethnicity, although patterns of participation tended to converge over time. Vocational

course taking declined among Hispanics, blacks, and whites between 1982 and 1992, but was

unchanged among American Indians and Asians over the same period. Compared to the

members of the other groups, Asians earned relatively few vocational credits in 1982. However,

because of the different trends in course taking among the racial and ethnic groups, vocational

course taking among whites and Hispanics was not statistically different from vocational course

taking among Asians in 1992, nor were there any statistically significant differences between

whites, Hispanics, or blacks in the number of vocational credits completed in 1992.

Course-Taking Trends by Parents’ Education

Course-taking trends were the same for all groups of graduates, irrespective of their

parents’ level of educational attainment (table 2.4). All groups of graduates earned more credits

overall and more academic credits in 1992 than in 1982. At the same time, all groups of

graduates earned fewer vocational credits in 1992 than their peers in 1982. 

Despite the common trends, however, patterns of course taking among high school

graduates varied by and were related to their parents’ level of educational attainment. Higher

levels of parental education were consistently related to higher levels of course taking overall, as

well as to higher levels of academic course taking. Conversely, graduates whose parents had

lower levels of education tended to earn more vocational credits than graduates whose parents

had higher levels of education.

Course-Taking Trends by Disability Status
Disability status for 1992 is based on a different reporting source in this report than in some other NCES reports that 8

use the 1992 transcript data, such as Vocational Education in the United States: the Early 1990s. The variable used in

this report classifies students as disabled only if their transcripts indicate participation in a special education program. 

For this reason, the disability status data for 1992 reported here will not match the disability status data in those other

reports, although the enrollment patterns are much the same.

13

Because of significant differences in the way disability status is defined in High School

and Beyond data and the other data sources, the 1982 disability status data cannot be reported

with other data to mark trends. However, the definition of students with disabilities is relatively

comparable in the three later transcript files, so it is possible to trace course taking by disabled

and nondisabled students between 1987 and 1992.8

Between 1987 and 1992, course taking increased overall and in the academic curriculum

regardless of disability status (table 2.5). Despite the similar trends, students with disabilities

earned fewer total credits than nondisabled students in both 1987 and 1992. However, while the

overall differences were fairly small, course taking differences between graduates with and

without disabilities were much larger in the academic and vocational curricula. Graduates with

disabilities consistently earned more vocational credits and fewer academic credits than those

without disabilities, and the disparity in vocational course taking increased over time. Between

1987 and 1992, vocational credits earned by nondisabled graduates fell by 0.7, while the

apparent decline in vocational courses taken by graduates with disabilities, from 6.0 credits in

1987 to 5.6 credits in 1992, was not statistically significant.

Graduates with and without disabilities also exhibited different trends in their

occupationally specific course taking between 1987 and 1992. Among graduates with

disabilities, credits earned in the occupationally specific curriculum did not change over these

five years, nor did the number of credits earned in occupationally specific sequential courses.

Course taking in the occupationally specific specialty courses increased slightly, however. In

contrast, occupationally specific course taking declined from 2.9 to 2.5 credits overall among

graduates without disabilities, and declines were evident in both the first course and the second

or higher course in a sequence. But like graduates with disabilities, those without disabilities

completed more credits in the specialty courses in 1992 than in 1987. Thus, graduates with no

disabilities tended to take fewer courses within a structured sequence in 1992 than in 1982, while

graduates with disabilities did not.
14

Table 2.5—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in the

vocational subcurricula, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Occupationally 

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally Second

Year of graduation Personal market homemaking specific First course

and disability status Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1987 

Total 22.8 15.6 4.4 2.7 0.9 0.6 2.9 1.8 0.9 0.2

Has disability 21.9 12.6 6.0 3.3 1.5 0.8 3.8 2.1 1.4 0.3

No disability 22.8 15.8 4.4 2.7 0.9 0.6 2.9 1.8 0.9 0.2

1992 

Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.7 0.4

Has disability 23.2 14.2 5.6 3.4 1.0 0.8 3.8 2.2 1.1 0.4

No disability 23.8 17.4 3.7 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5 1.5 0.6 0.4

NOTE: Details may not sum to total due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
15

Course-Taking Trends by Limited-English-Proficiency (LEP) Status

Unlike the other variables included in this report, the LEP status variable is available only

for the 1992 graduates. Hence, this section describes the course-taking behavior of LEP versus

non-LEP graduates in 1992, but no comparisons are made over time.

Both LEP and non-LEP graduates completed about the same number of credits in high

school, but the distribution of those credits differed by LEP status (table 2.6). Non-LEP

graduates completed more credits in the academic curriculum than LEP graduates (17.5 versus

16.3 credits), while LEP graduates completed more credits than non-LEP students in the

personal use curriculum (3.2 versus 2.7 credits). However, there were no significant differences

between these two groups in vocational course taking overall or within the different vocational

curricula.

Table 2.6—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational,

and personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula, by LEP status: 1992

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally

LEP Personal market homemaking specific

status Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education

Total 23.8 17.3 3.8 2.7 0.7 0.5 2.5

LEP 23.7 16.3 4.2 3.2 0.7 0.6 2. 9

Non-LEP 23.8 17.5 3.7 2.7 0.7 0.5 2. 5

NOTE: Details may not sum to total due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Summary of General Trends

To briefly summarize, then, academic course taking increased among high school

graduates between 1982 and 1992, vocational course taking declined, and course taking in the

personal use curriculum was unchanged. However, the increases in academic course taking were

larger than the declines in vocational course taking, so the total number of credits completed by

graduates went up. These same trends were shared by most student groups, although the

downward trends in vocational course taking were not evident among American Indians, Asians,

and graduates with disabilities.
17

Chapter 3

Trends in Levels of Vocational Participation and the 

Relationship Between Academic and Vocational Course Taking

Chapter 2 showed that almost all students completed some vocational course work in

1992, despite declining average levels of participation over time. At the same time, almost all

students completed a majority of their credits in the academic curriculum regardless of the

number of vocational credits they completed. For example, even among those high school

graduates who were most committed to the vocational curriculum (those who completed 8.0 or

more credits), less than half of all their credits (about 39 percent) were completed in vocational

education in 1992 (down from about 43 percent of their credits in 1982). Since participation in

the vocational curriculum is almost universal and virtually all students take a majority of their

credits in the academic curriculum, it is useful to look not just at the average amount of

vocational education that students take, but also at the range of variation in vocational

participation as well as the level of their participation.

This chapter looks at two measures of vocational participation among public high school

graduates. The first is the intensity of vocational participation—measured by the percentage

distribution of high school graduates by the number of credits completed in vocational education

overall and in the occupationally specific education curriculum—and the second is the degree of

course concentration within specific vocational fields—measured by the percentage of graduates

who completed 3.0 or more credits in a single occupationally specific vocational field. Finally,

the chapter examines the relationship between academic and vocational course taking among

high school graduates, and how academic course taking varied in relation to the number of

vocational credits earned.

Trends in the Intensity of Vocational Course Taking

Overall Vocational Course Taking 

The proportion of high school graduates who participated in secondary vocational

education fell only slightly between 1982 and 1992; therefore, most of the decline in the average

number of vocational credits completed is explained by a widespread decline in the average

number of vocational credits earned. This downward shift is illustrated in figure 3.1, which

shows that the percentage of students who completed more than about 4 credits declined after

1982, while the percentage earning fewer than about 4 credits increased after 1982. Thus, high

school graduates tended toward less intensive participation in the vocational curriculum in 1992

than in 1982, yet the percentage of graduates who took no vocational credits increased only

slightly over time. 

Figure 3.1—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of vocational credits completed: 1982–1992 
0 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

1982

1987

1990

1992

8.0 or

more

Number of vocational credits completed 

Percent of

graduates

0.00–

0.99

1.00–

1.99

2.00–

2.99

3.00–

3.99

4.00–

4.99

5.00–

5.99

6.00–

6.99

7.00–

7.99

18

NOTE: Data for this figure are presented in appendix A, table A6.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Downward trends in the intensity of vocational course taking were shared by both males

and females between 1982 and 1992 (table 3.1), although the strength of these trends differed by

gender. While the distribution of males and females by the number of vocational credits

completed in 1982 did not differ, in 1992 a larger percentage of males than females earned 4 or

more vocational credits. 
19

Table 3.1—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of credits

earned in vocational education, by gender, race–ethnicity, and parents' educational 

attainment: 1982 and 1992

Year of graduation

and student 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

characteristics 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99 more

1982 

Total 6.0 11.4 12.5 12.5 12.6 12.0 9.8 8.5 14. 7

Gender

Male 6.1 11.4 12.9 12.3 13.4 11.8 8.7 9.0 14.5

Female 6.0 11.3 12.1 12.8 11.8 12.3 10.9 8.0 14. 9

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 3.3 7.2 10.9 9.0 10.1 21.0 17.8 8.9 11. 9

Asian 12.1 20.1 19.1 14.4 13.4 7.8 5.3 3.4 4. 4

Black, non-Hispanic 1.9 9.8 11.9 12.7 16.2 15.2 10.7 7.7 13. 9

Hispanic 2.5 7.8 11.3 11.1 14.3 11.6 12.6 9.6 19. 2

White, non-Hispanic 7.2 12.0 12.6 12.8 11.8 11.7 9.1 8.4 14. 4

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 1.7 6.9 7.7 10.9 13.4 13.5 13.8 12.2 20.1

High school graduate 3.4 7.1 9.7 11.7 12.7 12.3 10.8 11.4 20.9

Some postsecondary 5.8 11.6 13.6 13.6 13.8 13.3 8.7 6.9 12.8

Bachelor's degree 12.2 19.6 17.2 14.0 10.4 11.1 6.9 4.1 4.6

Advanced degree 13.8 20.9 19.6 13.7 10.0 7.9 5.8 3.1 5.1

1992 

Total 9.3 16.8 16.0 14.4 12.5 10.0 7.2 5.2 8.6

Gender

Male 8.2 14.9 15.9 15.5 12.6 10.7 7.2 6.0 9.1

Female 10.6 18.8 16.2 13.6 12.5 9.3 7.2 4.2 7.7

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 4.6 5.9 16.1 17.2 18.2 11.5 7.3 9.3 9.8

Asian 14.5 21.6 14.2 12.6 14.5 8.8 5.3 2.6 6.0

Black, non-Hispanic 5.5 11.2 17.9 15.8 16.8 12.6 8.3 5.8 6.1

Hispanic 6.5 17.5 16.1 14.5 13.5 11.0 8.4 6.6 5.9

White, non-Hispanic 10.2 17.5 15.9 14.4 11.5 9.5 7.0 4.9 9.2

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 4.8 8.7 13.9 13.1 17.8 13.7 9.9 6.5 11.7

High school graduate 3.4 11.4 15.7 14.4 12.9 12.3 9.3 7.6 13.0

Some postsecondary 8.1 14.8 16.1 15.2 13.6 10.1 7.7 5.2 9.2

Bachelor's degree 14.5 23.0 18.2 17.3 11.1 6.8 3.4 2.8 2.9

Advanced degree 22.8 29.2 18.1 12.9 7.4 4.7 1.9 1.7 1.3

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
20

Trends in the distribution of students by the number of vocational credits completed also

varied by race-ethnicity (table 3.1). Whites, blacks, and Hispanics all participated less

intensively in the vocational curriculum in 1992 than in 1982, while the level of intensity in

vocational participation among Asians and American Indians did not change significantly over

this period. 

The downward trends in vocational credits between 1982 and 1992 were shared by

graduates at all levels of parents’ educational attainment. Despite the similar downward trends,

the intensity of vocational participation varied by parents’ level of educational attainment in both

1982 and 1992. Graduates whose parents had lower levels of educational attainment consistently

participated in the vocational curriculum to a greater degree than did graduates whose parents

had higher levels of educational attainment. 

Table 3.2 shows the percentage distribution of graduates with and without disabilities in

1987 and 1992. The distribution of graduates with disabilities by the number of credits

completed in vocational education did not change between 1987 and 1992. By contrast, the

distribution of nondisabled graduates by the number of vocational credits shifted downward, as a

smaller percentage of students completed 5 or more vocational credits.

Table 3.2—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of credits earned 

in vocational education, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Year of graduation 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

and disability status 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99 more

1987 

Total 5.8 12.3 14.4 13.0 12.8 11.4 9.1 8.0 13.2

Has disability 1.6 5.0 6.6 9.4 11.8 14.0 12.5 13.0 26.3

No disability 6.0 12.6 14.7 13.1 12.9 11.4 8.9 7.9 12.7

1992 

Total 9.3 16.8 16.0 14.4 12.5 10.0 7.2 5.2 8.6

Has disability 3.0 5.5 11.8 11.0 10.7 11.0 10.3 13.3 23.5

No disability 9.5 17.1 16.1 14.6 12.6 10.0 7.1 4.9 8.1

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Course Taking in the Occupationally Specific Education Curriculum

Between 1982 and 1992, the distribution of graduates by the number of occupationally

specific vocational education credits they completed also shifted downward, although trends

were much less pronounced than for vocational course taking overall (figure 3.2). The intensity

of occupationally specific course taking also fell among both males and females, while changes

in levels of participation varied by some of the other student characteristics shown in table 3.3.
Percent of

graduates

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

1982

1987

1990

1992

0.00

Number of occupationally specific credits completed

0.01–0.991.00–1.992.00–2.993.00–3.994.00 or more

21

For example, levels of participation in the occupationally specific curriculum shifted downward

among whites and Hispanics, but not among Asians, blacks, or American Indians. The same was

true among graduates by their parents’ level of educational attainment. The intensity of

participation dropped among graduates whose parents had completed high school only, or who

had completed an advanced degree but not among the other groups.

Figure 3.2—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of 

occupationally specific credits completed: 1982–1992 

NOTE: Data for this figure are presented in appendix A, table A10.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990

High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
22

Table 3.3—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of credits earned 

in occupationally specific courses, by gender, race–ethnicity, and parents' educational attainment:

1982 and 1992

Year of graduation

and student 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

characteristics 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1982

Total 13.5 7.3 18.5 16.3 13.3 31.2

Gender

Male 10.6 6.6 16.5 15.6 14.0 36.8

Female 16.1 8.0 20.4 17.0 12.6 25.9

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 7.0 3.9 17.2 12.0 15.8 44.1

Asian 23.2 9.0 22.1 17.4 11.3 17.0

Black, non-Hispanic 12.6 7.0 18.9 17.9 14.2 29.4

Hispanic 10.4 6.5 17.0 15.8 16.2 34.2

White, non-Hispanic 14.0 7.4 18.7 16.3 12.7 30.9

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 8.1 3.7 15.5 16.7 16.6 39.5

High school graduate 9.1 6.5 15.8 16.0 13.5 39.1

Some postsecondary 14.1 7.2 19.7 16.3 13.7 29.0

Bachelor's degree 20.3 11.1 22.3 17.6 11.9 16.9

Advanced degree 24.5 10.0 24.4 16.1 9.9 15.1

1992 

Total 12.9 10.3 22.2 17.3 12.2 25.0

Gender

Male 10.9 7.4 20.4 18.4 12.9 30.1

Female 15.0 13.4 24.1 16.2 11.7 19.8

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 8.5 6.3 17.1 13.4 17.2 37.5

Asian 14.7 10.8 26.5 14.2 14.3 19.7

Black, non-Hispanic 11.5 8.0 21.1 21.5 12.1 25.9

Hispanic 10.4 10.4 22.7 16.2 11.1 29.2

White, non-Hispanic 13.5 10.8 22.2 17.0 12.3 24.2

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 9.1 5.1 19.2 16.9 17.7 32.2

High school graduate 8.3 5.8 23.3 17.1 13.8 31.8

Some postsecondary 11.4 9.6 21.0 18.5 12.3 27.1

Bachelor's degree 18.6 14.0 24.7 17.4 11.1 14.2

Advanced degree 24.1 15.0 27.2 17.0 8.2 8.4

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
These courses can be at the level of the first course in a sequence, the second or higher course in a sequence, or 9

specialty courses, although there is no way to determine from the transcripts whether the courses taken by a particular

student actually constitute a coherent program.

23

As one would expect given the other measures of vocational course taking, the intensity

of occupationally specific enrollments by graduates with disabilities was unchanged between

1987 and 1992 (table 3.4). However, nondisabled graduates participated less intensively in the

occupationally specific curriculum in 1992 than in 1987.

Table 3.4—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the number of credits 

earned in occupationally specific courses, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Year of graduation 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

and disability status 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1987 

Total 11.5 7.6 20.2 16.1 13.2 31.5

Has disability 9.7 4.6 14.6 12.7 10.7 47.7

No disability 11.6 7.7 20.4 16.2 13.2 30.9

1992 

Total 12.9 10.3 22.2 17.3 12.2 25.0

Has disability 6.6 6.3 15.1 14.9 11.3 45.8

No disability 13.1 10.5 22.4 17.4 12.3 24.4

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Trends in Vocational Concentration

Whereas the distribution of students by the number of vocational or occupationally

specific credits completed describes students' overall level of participation, “vocational

concentration” refers to the extent to which students took a series of linked courses that might

constitute a coherent program. Students who concentrated in a vocational program are identified

as those students who completed three or more courses in a single occupationally specific field.9

The previous section illustrated that the intensity of participation by high school graduates in the

occupationally specific vocational curriculum declined between 1982 and 1992; this section

takes the analysis one step further and examines whether the declining intensity of participation

was matched with declining levels of concentration within the various vocational fields.

Table 3.5 shows that the rate at which students concentrated in a vocational field declined

significantly over time. In 1982, 33.7 percent of all high school graduates had a concentration in

a vocational program area, but by 1992 the group of concentrators had declined to 24.4 percent

of all graduates. However, declines in the rate of concentration were confined to the two largest

vocational fields. The percentage of graduates concentrating in trade and industry fell from 15.3
24

percent in 1982 to 10.3 percent in 1992, and the percentage of graduates concentrating in

business fell from 11.9 percent in 1982 to 7.7 percent in 1992. The percentage of high school

graduates concentrating in the other five fields did not change between 1982 and 1992.

Table 3.5—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in each 

occupationally specific field: 1982–1992

Vocational concentration by field

Total Occupational Trade Technical/

Year of vocational home and communigraduation concentrators Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1982 33.7 3.0 11.9 2.0 0.6 1.9 15.3 0.4

1987 32.2 2.9 10.8 2.2 1.0 2.5 13.5 0.8

1990 27.5 2.9 8.9 2.4 0.6 2.2 11.7 0.4

1992 24.4 2.5 7.7 1.5 0.6 2.1 10.3 0.6

NOTE: A small percentage of students concentrate in more than one field, so the field columns do not sum to the total column.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Two areas of particular interest, given the emphasis in the Perkins Act on high

technology education, are trade and industry (which includes precision production) and technical

and communications. Trends in these vocational fields suggest that the Perkins Act goal of

increasing participation in applied technology programs has not been advanced over the 10-year

period between 1982 and 1992, although most of this period preceded the effective date of the

Act. As already noted, trade and industry experienced steep declines in the rate of vocational

concentration, while the rate of concentration in technical and communications, very low to

begin with, was unchanged over time.

Both males and females were less likely to complete three or more credits in a single

vocational field in 1992 than in 1982 (table 3.6), but while the overall trends were the same, the

patterns of vocational concentration in each year varied by gender. For example, the percentage

of 1992 male graduates who concentrated in agriculture was much higher than the percentage of

females who met this criterion. Similarly, the percentage of males who concentrated in trade and

industry was markedly higher than the percentage of females who concentrated in trade and

industry in both 1982 and 1992. The opposite pattern of concentration was evident in business.

In 1982, almost 21 percent of female graduates concentrated in business, which includes

secretarial and other business support fields, compared with 2.5 percent of males. In 1992,

females were still more likely to concentrate in business than were males, but the difference was

much smaller.
25

Table 3.6—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in each

occupationally specific field, by gender, race–ethnicity, and parents' educational attainment: 

1982 and 1992

Vocational concentration by field

Year of graduation Total Occupational Trade Technical/

and student vocational home and communicharacteristics concentrators Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1982 

Total 33.7 3.0 11.9 2.0 0.6 1.9 15.3 0.4

Gender

Male 38.8 5.5 2.5 1.7 0.2 0.6 30.0 0.6

Female 28.9 0.7 20.8 2.3 1.0 3.1 1.6 0.3

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 46.9 2.1 7.5 1.0 0.9 1.5 35.0 0.0

Asian 17.5 0.5 4.2 0.4 0.0 0.3 11.1 1.1

Black, non-Hispanic 32.9 0.9 11.6 3.4 1.5 1.9 14.3 0.4

Hispanic 38.2 3.2 11.1 2.1 1.0 2.0 20.3 0.2

White, non-Hispanic 33.1 3.4 12.3 1.8 0.4 1.9 14.4 0.5

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school

graduate 43.2 2.6 17.4 2.9 1.3 4.2 15.8 0.9

High school graduate 40.7 3.7 13.9 2.6 0.6 2.1 19.6 0.5

Some postsecondary 32.2 3.5 12.4 1.4 0.5 1.6 13.9 0.3

Bachelor's degree 19.5 2.2 5.8 1.2 0.4 0.8 9.6 0.1

Advanced degree 17.3 1.0 5.9 1.8 0.3 0.4 7.8 0.5

1992

Total 24.4 2.5 7.7 1.5 0.6 2.1 10.3 0.6

Gender

Male 28.1 4.1 3.6 1.4 0.1 0.8 18.6 0.9

Female 20.3 0.8 11.9 1.7 1.1 3.2 1.9 0.3

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 35.7 3.7 2.2 0.9 0.5 4.6 25.6 0.0

Asian 21.1 0.4 7.0 0.6 1.3 0.1 12.0 0.1

Black, non-Hispanic 24.2 1.0 8.3 2.0 0.6 5.3 7.0 0.5

Hispanic 24.1 1.0 9.2 1.1 0.6 2.8 9.3 1.0

White, non-Hispanic 24.1 3.0 7.7 1.6 0.6 1.5 10.3 0.6

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school

graduate 29.6 2.9 10.8 1.7 1.4 3.4 10.0 0.4

High school graduate 31.8 3.5 9.5 1.4 0.9 2.5 14.4 1.0

Some postsecondary 25.5 2.8 8.5 1.7 0.5 1.8 10.6 0.5

Bachelor's degree 14.4 1.5 4.5 1.0 0.3 0.6 6.3 0.5

Advanced degree 8.9 0.7 3.4 0.8 0.1 0.5 3.1 0.9

NOTE: A small percentage of students concentrate in more than one field, so the field columns do not sum to the total column. Zeros

in the table indicate that no students concentrated in the particular field designated.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
This is one instance where the within-group trends were sufficiently different to make the between-group differences 10

change over time. Asians were less likely than members of the other racial and ethnic groups to have completed 3.0 or

more credits in a single vocational field in 1982, but by 1992 there were no significant differences in rates of

concentration among the different groups.

26

Disparities in the rates of concentration between males and females declined substantially

between 1982 and 1992 in business and in trade and industry, which is in keeping with the

Perkins Act goal of improving gender balance in specific fields. However, the smaller disparity

in trade and industry largely was due to the rapid decline in the percentage of males who

concentrated in this field, while the smaller disparity in business was due mostly to the declining

rate of participation by females in this field. Hence, the Perkins Act goal of increasing the

percentage of students who were concentrating in programs that are nontraditional for their

gender was not advanced much at all over this period.

Although the overall trend in the rate of vocational concentration was downward between

1982 and 1992, the trends varied by race–ethnicity (table 3.6). Whites, Hispanics, and blacks

were less likely to concentrate in a vocational field in 1992 than in 1982, but the percentages of

Asians and American Indians concentrating in a vocational program area did not differ in 1992

from 1982. Because of these disparate trends among the different racial and ethnic groups, 1992

graduates in each racial–ethnic group were about equally likely to concentrate in a vocational

field.10

The strong inverse relationship between the parents’ educational attainment and the level

of graduates’ participation in vocational education was clearly evident in the rates of vocational

concentration (table 3.6). Graduates whose parents had lower levels of educational attainment

were more likely to concentrate in a vocational field than were those whose parents had higher

levels of attainment in both 1982 and 1992. For instance, 43.2 percent of those graduates whose

parents had not completed high school concentrated in a vocational field in 1982, compared with

17.3 percent of graduates whose parents had an advanced degree. Large differences between

groups were still apparent in 1992 as well, when 29.6 percent of graduates whose parents had not

graduated from high school and 8.9 percent of graduates whose parents had completed an

advanced degree concentrated in vocational education. 

Table 3.7 shows the percentage of graduates with and without disabilities who

concentrated in an occupationally specific field in 1987 and 1992. Rates of vocational

concentration declined among graduates with no disabilities over this period, but graduates with

disabilities were just as likely to be vocational concentrators in 1992 as they had been in 1987.

Furthermore, because of the different trends among groups by disability status, the difference in

the rate of concentration between them was larger in 1992 than in 1987.
27

Table 3.7—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in each

occupationally specific field, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Vocational concentration by field

Total Occupational Trade Technical/

Year of graduation vocational home and communiand disability status concentrators Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1987 

Total 32.2 2.9 10.8 2.2 1.0 2.5 13.5 0.8

Has disability 43.7 6.5 3.6 2.7 1.5 5.8 26.2 0.7

No disability 31.8 2.8 11.1 2.2 1.0 2.4 13.0 0.8

1992 

Total 24.4 2.5 7.7 1.5 0.6 2.1 10.3 0.6

Has disability 45.1 9.5 5.3 0.7 0.4 7.1 25.5 *

No disability 23.7 2.3 7.8 1.6 0.7 1.9 9.8 0.6

Less than .05 percent. *

NOTE: A small percentage of students concentrate in more than one field, so the field columns do not sum to the total column.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Relationship Between Vocational and Academic Course Taking

The main emphasis of this report has been vocational course taking, yet virtually all high

school graduates, regardless of the number of vocational credits earned, completed a majority of

their credits in the academic curriculum. At the same time, many students whose orientation was

clearly academic completed credits in the vocational curriculum, including credits in the

occupationally specific segments of that curriculum. For this reason, it is useful to look at the

interrelationships between academic and vocational course taking. 

Table 3.8 shows how academic course taking overall and in selected subject areas varied

with the number of vocational credits completed. Several features of the relationship between

academic and vocational course taking stand out. First, regardless of the number of vocational

credits completed, high school graduates earned more academic credits overall and in each

subject area in 1992 than in 1982.

Second, as the number of vocational credits completed by graduates increased, the

amount of academic course taking overall and in each subject area declined. This pattern was

pronounced in 1982, and was just as pronounced in 1992. However, it is not an unexpected

relationship. Students have only so much time to take courses in high school, and if participation

in one part of the high school curriculum increases, participation in other parts is likely to

decline.

Third, the size of the difference between groups in the number of academic credits

completed varied by academic subject area. For example, high school graduates who completed
The small amount of variation in English course taking, and the declining levels of variation in math and science 11

course taking, may be related to academic graduation requirements. As the number of credits required approaches the

number of years students are in high school, the amount of possible variation can be expected to fall.

28

fewer than 2 vocational credits earned about half a credit more in English than did graduates

who completed 8 or more vocational credits, and this difference was consistent over time. By

contrast, graduates who earned fewer than 2 vocational credits in 1982 completed almost twice

as many math and science credits on average as did those graduates who completed 8 or more

vocational credits in 1982. But unlike English, where the difference between groups did not

change, the differences in math and in science course taking between these groups declined from

1982 to 1992.11

A different pattern was evident in advanced course taking in English, math, and science,

however. While the differences between vocational credit groups was consistently small in

English and declining in math and science overall between 1982 and 1992, the differences

between these groups increased in advanced English over time, and remained very large in

advanced math and advanced science over the whole period.

Table 3.8—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in selected academic fields, 

by number of credits earned in vocational education: 1982 and 1992

Year of graduation 

and number of Total All Advanced All Advanced All Advanced

vocational credits academic English English math math science science

1982 

Total 14.2 3.9 0.2 2.6 0.6 2.2 0. 5

0.00–1.99 18.1 4.1 0.5 3.4 1.3 3.0 1. 2

2.00–3.99 15.7 4.0 0.3 2.9 0.8 2.5 0. 7

4.00–5.99 13.5 3.8 0.2 2.4 0.4 2.0 0. 3

6.00–7.99 12.0 3.8 0.1 2.1 0.2 1.7 0. 2

8.00 or more 10.6 3.6 0.1 1.8 0.1 1.5 0. 1

1992 

Total 17.3 4.2 0.5 3.4 1.0 2.9 0. 9
29

0.00–1.99 20.2 4.3 1.0 3.8 1.6 3.4 1. 4

2.00–3.99 18.2 4.3 0.5 3.6 1.2 3.0 1. 0

4.00–5.99 16.1 4.2 0.3 3.2 0.8 2.7 0. 6

6.00–7.99 14.3 4.0 0.1 2.9 0.5 2.3 0. 4

8.00 or more 12.9 3.9 0.1 2.6 0.3 2.1 0. 2

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
30

Summary

This section showed that levels of vocational participation, whether measured by the intensity

of vocational course taking or the rate of vocational concentration, declined between 1982 and

1992. The intensity of occupationally specific course taking did not decline to the same extent as

either of these other measures, although it too declined. Furthermore, levels of participation

declined for virtually all student groups on all three measures, although some groups, like

graduates with disabilities, continued to participate in the vocational curriculum at the same level

in 1992 as in 1982.

Course taking in the academic curriculum overall and in the various subject areas increased

between 1982 and 1992, regardless of the number of vocational credits completed. Still, the

overall relationship between academic and vocational course taking did not change much

between 1982 and 1992—course taking in these curricula was inversely related—even though

the relationships did change over time in the various subject areas. Disparities in math and

science course taking between graduates at either end of the vocational credit distribution

declined over time, and differences in English remained small. However, disparities between

these groups in advanced course taking in English, math, and science either increased or

remained large throughout the 1982–92 period.
32

Chapter 4

Conclusions

The trends in course taking between 1982 and 1992 were broadly consistent with the goals of

education reform outlined in A Nation at Risk. Students completed more academic course work,

and more advanced academic course work, in 1992 than in 1982. At the same time, course

taking in the vocational curriculum declined substantially between 1982 and 1992.

Many of the goals outlined in the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education and Applied

Technology Act do not appear to have been substantially advanced between 1982 and 1992,

although most of this period preceded the effective date of the Act. For example, Congress has

promoted increased participation by students in vocational programs that are nontraditional for

their gender; nontraditional enrollments did not increase between 1982 and 1992, although

gender disparities fell somewhat due to large declines in the rates of program participation by the

predominant gender group in certain fields. Likewise, participation in high technology programs

does not appear to have increased over the 10-year period.

To the extent that one can measure access to vocational programs with course taking data,

Congress’ goal of ensuring that vocational education programs are accessible to students with

disabilities appears to have been met. Disabled students consistently took more vocational course

work than nondisabled students, and the disparity between these groups actually increased over

time. However, nothing conclusive can be said about the quality of the programs to which

disabled students have access from the course taking data presented here.

Downward trends in patterns of vocational concentration, coupled with shifts in

occupationally specific course taking away from sequential courses and towards specialty

courses not clearly linked to a sequential program, suggest that participation in vocational

education at the secondary level is increasingly diffuse. Whether high school graduates are not

pursuing sequential courses for lack of time (due to increased academic requirements), changes

in course offerings, or changes in their perceptions of the educational requirements for various

occupations cannot be determined from these data, but the shift itself was consistent across all

student groups.
34

Appendix A

Standard Error Tables
3

6

Table A1—Standard errors for table 2.1 and figures 2.1 and 2.2: Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic,

vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula: 1982–1992

Occupationally

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally Second

Year of Personal market homemaking specific First course

graduation Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1982 0.064 0.069 0.056 0.036 0.020 0.016 0.048 0.034 0.024 0.011

1987 0.086 0.105 0.070 0.066 0.023 0.019 0.055 0.038 0.025 0.011

1990 0.121 0.122 0.077 0.078 0.028 0.029 0.066 0.055 0.034 0.019

1992 0.086 0.089 0.058 0.035 0.020 0.018 0.046 0.030 0.025 0.015

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School Transcript Study, and National

Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
3

7

Table A2—Standard errors for tables 2.2 and 2.3: Percentage of public high school graduates with credits in the academic, vocational, and personal 

use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula: 1982–1992

Percentage of graduates

Percentage of Percentage of graduates with vocational credits in

graduates with credits in with vocational credits in occupationally specific education

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally Second

Year of Personal market homemaking specific First course

graduation Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1982 0.000 0.205 0.310 0.698 0.917 0.526 0.612 0.852 0.830

1987 0.000 0.351 0.621 1.042 1.221 0.606 0.847 0.915 1.045

1990 0.000 0.295 0.248 1.811 1.955 0.928 1.096 1.360 1.650

1992 0.000 0.262 0.093 1.253 1.182 0.559 0.879 0.964 1.190

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School Transcript Study, and National Education

Longitudinal Study of 1988.
3

8

Table A3—Standard errors for table 2.4: Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational and 

personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula, by selected student characteristics: 1982 and 1992

Occupationally

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General OccupaYear of graduation labor Consumer and tionally Second

and student Personal market homemaking specific First course

characteristics Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1982 

Total 0.064 0.069 0.056 0.036 0.020 0.016 0.048 0.034 0.024 0.011

Gender

Male 0.072 0.079 0.068 0.043 0.026 0.014 0.067 0.046 0.036 0.015

Female 0.072 0.083 0.066 0.037 0.022 0.025 0.052 0.035 0.028 0.013

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 0.294 0.254 0.264 0.124 0.120 0.072 0.240 0.213 0.127 0.071

Asian 0.173 0.251 0.183 0.118 0.073 0.031 0.147 0.103 0.065 0.030

Black, non-Hispanic 0.154 0.188 0.142 0.084 0.049 0.048 0.142 0.089 0.070 0.031

Hispanic 0.112 0.106 0.103 0.068 0.044 0.043 0.097 0.074 0.057 0.018

White, non-Hispanic 0.071 0.080 0.063 0.040 0.021 0.019 0.054 0.037 0.027 0.013

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school 

 graduate 0.122 0.128 0.108 0.083 0.051 0.049 0.103 0.070 0.060 0.035

High school graduate 0.096 0.093 0.082 0.050 0.031 0.028 0.077 0.051 0.043 0.019

Some postsecondary 0.082 0.097 0.077 0.047 0.029 0.024 0.066 0.049 0.035 0.014

Bachelor's degree 0.104 0.141 0.093 0.066 0.031 0.027 0.078 0.050 0.042 0.018

Advanced degree 0.116 0.162 0.106 0.067 0.041 0.029 0.084 0.059 0.045 0.017
3

9

Table A3—Standard errors for table 2.4: Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational and 

personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula, by selected student characteristics: 1982 and 1992—Continued

Occupationally

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General OccupaYear of graduation labor Consumer and tionally Second

and student Personal market homemaking specific First course

characteristics Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1992

Total 0.086 0.089 0.058 0.035 0.020 0.018 0.046 0.030 0.025 0.015

Gender

Male 0.097 0.112 0.073 0.045 0.026 0.024 0.066 0.040 0.037 0.018

Female 0.096 0.099 0.073 0.038 0.020 0.023 0.057 0.038 0.030 0.019

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 0.333 0.333 0.348 0.219 0.089 0.077 0.351 0.229 0.219 0.064

Asian 0.209 0.280 0.218 0.078 0.048 0.036 0.205 0.133 0.084 0.044

Black, non-Hispanic 0.252 0.321 0.110 0.103 0.052 0.056 0.095 0.082 0.049 0.039

Hispanic 0.124 0.159 0.129 0.072 0.045 0.033 0.113 0.059 0.080 0.057

White, non-Hispanic 0.099 0.099 0.069 0.039 0.022 0.021 0.054 0.035 0.030 0.016

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school 

 graduate 0.161 0.174 0.125 0.071 0.049 0.047 0.107 0.069 0.065 0.070

High school graduate 0.155 0.195 0.119 0.049 0.031 0.041 0.099 0.060 0.061 0.030

Some postsecondary 0.107 0.117 0.080 0.054 0.025 0.025 0.064 0.046 0.032 0.020

Bachelor’s degree 0.137 0.133 0.078 0.056 0.025 0.052 0.078 0.048 0.046 0.025

Advanced degree 0.138 0.144 0.078 0.082 0.031 0.025 0.061 0.041 0.028 0.027

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
4

0

Table A4—Standard errors for table 2.5: Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in the academic, vocational, and 

personal use curricula and in the vocational subcurricula, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Occupationally 

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in specific credits by sequence

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally Second

Year of graduation Personal market homemaking specific First course

and disability status Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education course or higher Specialty

1987 

Total 0.064 0.069 0.056 0.036 0.020 0.016 0.048 0.034 0.024 0.011

Has disability 0.139 0.131 0.133 0.115 0.080 0.041 0.139 0.084 0.089 0.030

No disability 0.088 0.106 0.071 0.067 0.023 0.020 0.054 0.038 0.025 0.012

1992 

Total 0.086 0.089 0.058 0.035 0.020 0.018 0.046 0.030 0.025 0.015

Has disability 0.182 0.276 0.240 0.144 0.085 0.104 0.215 0.174 0.125 0.062

No disability 0.087 0.090 0.058 0.035 0.020 0.018 0.046 0.030 0.025 0.015

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
41

Table A5—Standard errors for table 2.6: Average number of credits earned by public high school 

graduates in the academic, vocational, and personal use curricula and in the vocational

subcurricula, by limited-English-proficiency (LEP) status: 1992

Average credits earned in Vocational credits earned in

General Occupalabor Consumer and tionally

LEP Personal market homemaking specific

status Total Academic Vocational use preparation education education

Total 0.086 0.089 0.058 0.035 0.020 0.018 0.046

LEP 0.234 0.268 0.283 0.123 0.097 0.074 0.235

Non-LEP 0.092 0.093 0.059 0.036 0.019 0.019 0.047

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Table A6—Data for figure 3.1: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the 

number of credits earned in vocational education: 1982–1992

Year of 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

graduation 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99 more

1982 6.0 11.4 12.5 12.5 12.6 12.0 9.8 8.5 14.7

1987 5.8 12.3 14.4 13.0 12.8 11.4 9.1 8.0 13.2

1990 7.5 15.5 15.6 13.6 11.7 9.4 8.4 6.7 11.5

1992 9.3 16.8 16.0 14.4 12.5 10.0 7.2 5.2 8.6

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Table A7—Standard errors for figure 3.1: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according

to the number of credits earned in vocational education: 1982–1992

Year of 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

graduation 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99

more 

1982 0.365 0.503 0.477 0.444 0.499 0.485 0.439 0.376 0.625

1987 0.572 0.487 0.459 0.422 0.424 0.404 0.324 0.398 0.599

1990 0.703 0.598 0.488 0.465 0.395 0.386 0.386 0.303 0.713

1992 0.639 0.762 0.764 0.623 0.577 0.495 0.358 0.344 0.479

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
42

Table A8—Standard errors for table 3.1: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates

according to the number of credits earned in vocational education, by gender, race–ethnicity,

and parents' educational attainment: 1982 and 1992

Year of graduation

and student 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

characteristics 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99 more

1982 

Total 0.365 0.503 0.477 0.444 0.499 0.485 0.439 0.376 0.625

Gender

Male 0.493 0.620 0.630 0.631 0.728 0.700 0.580 0.571 0.811

Female 0.453 0.671 0.667 0.671 0.648 0.658 0.572 0.463 0.778

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 1.310 2.152 3.226 2.684 2.970 6.569 9.701 3.155 3.063

Asian 2.022 2.776 3.174 2.062 2.263 3.223 1.706 1.209 1.689

Black, non-Hispanic 0.336 1.418 1.223 1.155 1.365 1.379 1.288 0.948 1.868

Hispanic 0.422 0.789 1.018 1.026 1.159 0.988 1.096 1.137 1.486

White, non-Hispanic 0.477 0.594 0.586 0.552 0.603 0.572 0.500 0.447 0.693

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 0.407 1.089 0.841 1.356 2.020 1.384 1.374 1.090 1.569

High school graduate 0.439 0.633 0.715 0.733 0.814 0.796 0.722 0.744 1.096

Some postsecondary 0.590 0.779 0.879 0.880 0.906 0.963 0.717 0.641 0.939

Bachelor's degree 1.292 1.738 1.458 1.299 1.365 1.161 0.908 0.706 0.758

Advanced degree 1.542 1.767 1.618 1.299 1.116 1.332 0.863 0.654 0.857

1992 

Total 0.639 0.762 0.764 0.623 0.577 0.495 0.358 0.344 0.479

Gender

Male 0.581 1.043 1.297 1.084 0.835 0.765 0.455 0.543 0.642

Female 1.080 1.028 0.850 0.643 0.738 0.572 0.534 0.365 0.627

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 2.148 1.980 3.772 4.541 3.812 2.985 2.386 3.437 4.250

Asian 1.567 2.369 1.746 1.607 2.266 1.731 1.469 0.824 3.221

Black, non-Hispanic 1.015 1.441 2.598 2.186 2.204 1.747 1.202 0.996 0.952

Hispanic 1.072 2.719 1.483 1.489 1.749 1.495 1.499 1.814 0.934

White, non-Hispanic 0.823 0.896 0.924 0.755 0.622 0.542 0.394 0.350 0.574

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school graduate 0.951 1.355 1.832 1.520 2.564 1.478 1.149 1.125 1.496

High school graduate 0.524 1.195 2.769 1.578 1.216 1.429 0.961 0.912 1.110

Some postsecondary 1.363 0.933 0.996 0.940 1.004 0.656 0.507 0.525 0.734

Bachelor's degree 1.280 1.609 1.810 2.542 1.294 0.745 0.570 0.469 0.508

Advanced degree 1.865 2.800 1.563 1.410 1.173 0.688 0.387 0.506 0.305

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
43

Table A9—Standard errors for table 3.2: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according

to the number of credits earned in vocational education, by disability status: 1987 and 1992

Year of graduation 0.00– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00– 5.00– 6.00– 7.00– 8.00 or

and disability status 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 4.99 5.99 6.99 7.99 more

1987 

Total 0.572 0.487 0.459 0.422 0.424 0.404 0.324 0.398 0.599

Has disability 0.263 1.160 0.530 0.668 0.816 0.891 1.239 0.971 1.725

No disability 0.595 0.498 0.467 0.429 0.433 0.413 0.337 0.405 0.598

1992 

Total 0.639 0.762 0.764 0.623 0.577 0.495 0.358 0.344 0.479

Has disability 1.117 1.618 2.570 2.171 2.107 1.856 2.334 2.698 3.266

No disability 0.658 0.785 0.785 0.643 0.589 0.505 0.364 0.336 0.476

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Table A10—Data for figure 3.2: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to the

number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses: 1982–1992

Year of 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

graduation 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1982 13.5 7.3 18.5 16.3 13.3 31.2

1987 11.5 7.6 20.2 16.1 13.2 31.5

1990 13.3 8.9 22.1 15.6 12.2 28.0

1992 12.9 10.3 22.2 17.3 12.2 25.0

NOTE: Percentages may not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.

Table A11—Standard errors for figure 3.2: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according

to the number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses: 1982–1992

Year of 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

graduation 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1982 0.526 0.407 0.534 0.540 0.479 0.800

1987 0.606 0.560 0.529 0.422 0.441 0.954

1990 0.928 0.540 0.558 0.441 0.472 1.015

1992 0.559 0.803 0.824 0.701 0.485 0.824

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
44

Table A12—Standard errors for table 3.3: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according

to the number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses, by gender, race–ethnicity, and 

parents' educational attainment: 1982 and 1992

Year of graduation

and student 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

characteristics 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1982 

Total 0.526 0.407 0.534 0.540 0.479 0.800

Gender 

Male 0.618 0.510 0.740 0.747 0.689 1.156

Female 0.749 0.592 0.757 0.765 0.656 0.912

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 2.225 1.497 3.771 2.701 3.692 8.050

Asian 3.360 1.929 2.393 2.527 3.312 3.106

Black, non-Hispanic 1.285 0.972 1.519 1.412 1.312 2.202

Hispanic 1.007 0.761 1.231 1.178 1.188 1.697

White, non-Hispanic 0.625 0.484 0.642 0.665 0.570 0.928

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school 

 graduate 0.907 0.668 1.462 1.781 1.503 2.004

High school graduate 0.683 0.609 0.896 0.875 0.798 1.301

Some postsecondary 0.891 0.647 0.987 0.994 0.904 1.238

Bachelor's degree 1.624 1.483 1.525 1.333 1.405 1.378

Advanced degree 1.848 1.097 1.783 1.500 1.183 1.425

1992 

Total 0.559 0.803 0.824 0.701 0.485 0.824

Gender

Male 0.661 0.974 1.326 1.157 0.748 1.242

Female 0.811 1.214 1.051 0.784 0.615 0.971

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 2.625 1.886 4.136 3.737 4.148 5.351

Asian 1.631 1.307 2.602 1.560 2.453 3.468

Black, non-Hispanic 1.367 1.815 2.002 2.907 1.220 2.141

Hispanic 1.271 2.343 2.042 1.571 1.367 2.952

White, non-Hispanic 0.684 0.978 1.037 0.785 0.585 0.910

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school 

 graduate 1.141 0.887 2.064 1.560 1.800 2.578

High school graduate 0.851 0.813 2.725 1.763 1.295 1.840

Some postsecondary 0.804 1.347 1.154 1.198 0.775 1.176

Bachelor's degree 1.538 2.549 1.520 1.945 1.235 1.280

Advanced degree 2.020 1.362 2.786 1.692 0.940 1.042

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
45

Table A13—Standard errors for table 3.4: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according

to the number of credits earned in occupationally specific courses, by disability status: 1987 and

1992

Year of graduation 0.01– 1.00– 2.00– 3.00– 4.00 or

and disability status 0.00 0.99 1.99 2.99 3.99 more

1987 

Total 0.526 0.407 0.534 0.540 0.479 0.800

Has disability 1.582 0.606 1.442 0.940 0.726 2.162

No disability 0.616 0.577 0.534 0.432 0.455 0.951

1992 

Total 0.559 0.803 0.824 0.701 0.485 0.824

Has disability 1.633 1.537 2.854 2.392 2.256 3.724

No disability 0.571 0.825 0.846 0.717 0.495 0.822

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Table A14—Standard errors for table 3.5: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating 

(earning 3.0 or more credits) in each occupationally specific field: 1982–1992

Vocational concentration by field

Total Occupational Trade Technical/

Year of vocational home and communigraduation concentrators Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1982 0.825 0.298 0.460 0.209 0.106 0.232 0.597 0.089

1987 0.932 0.279 0.543 0.268 0.124 0.233 0.560 0.123

1990 1.060 0.375 0.641 0.331 0.102 0.256 0.668 0.084

1992 0.778 0.280 0.431 0.205 0.097 0.276 0.487 0.108

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, 1987 High School Transcript Study, 1990 High School

Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
46

Table A15—Standard errors for table 3.6: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating 

(earning 3.0 or more credits) in each occupationally specific field, by gender, race–ethnicity, and

parents' educational attainment: 1982 and 1992

Vocational concentration by field

Year of graduation Total Occupational Trade Technical/

and student vocational home and communicharacteristics concentrators Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1982 

Total 0.825 0.298 0.460 0.209 0.106 0.232 0.597 0.089

Gender

Male 1.170 0.562 0.296 0.259 0.064 0.218 1.111 0.153

Female 0.992 0.165 0.812 0.311 0.197 0.399 0.237 0.082

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 7.637 1.061 2.268 0.739 0.602 0.939 9.292 0.000

Asian 2.758 0.368 1.421 0.411 0.000 0.252 2.127 1.139

Black, non-Hispanic 2.228 0.352 1.341 0.708 0.420 0.542 1.546 0.141

Hispanic 1.762 0.603 1.003 0.411 0.556 0.409 1.416 0.088

White, non-Hispanic 0.953 0.363 0.553 0.237 0.087 0.299 0.659 0.107

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school

graduate 2.068 0.593 1.385 0.615 0.583 1.137 1.494 0.358

High school graduate 1.263 0.467 0.808 0.393 0.165 0.353 1.065 0.152

Some postsecondary 1.239 0.518 0.850 0.268 0.147 0.462 0.912 0.136

Bachelor's degree 1.533 0.548 0.894 0.378 0.211 0.372 1.068 0.087

Advanced degree 1.518 0.363 0.870 0.679 0.171 0.223 0.997 0.266

1992 

Total 0.778 0.280 0.431 0.205 0.097 0.276 0.487 0.108

Gender

Male 1.164 0.508 0.438 0.261 0.040 0.244 0.909 0.180

Female 0.960 0.158 0.704 0.299 0.163 0.424 0.406 0.102

Race–ethnicity

American Indian 5.350 2.214 1.261 0.941 0.479 2.459 4.715 0.000

Asian 3.745 0.270 2.576 0.300 0.863 0.066 3.255 0.080

Black, non-Hispanic 2.088 0.382 1.043 0.544 0.219 1.319 0.956 0.268

Hispanic 2.050 0.252 1.445 0.267 0.258 0.983 1.415 0.361

White, non-Hispanic 0.917 0.343 0.508 0.263 0.087 0.276 0.566 0.133

Parents' educational attainment

Less than high school

graduate 2.314 0.688 1.489 0.543 0.613 0.727 1.360 0.235

High school graduate 1.880 0.576 1.004 0.609 0.200 0.505 1.290 0.364

Some postsecondary 1.101 0.392 0.660 0.265 0.104 0.367 0.718 0.133

Bachelor's degree 1.251 0.318 0.632 0.302 0.154 0.255 0.837 0.230

Advanced degree 0.981 0.206 0.639 0.252 0.094 0.235 0.507 0.266

NOTE: Zeros in the table indicate that no students concentrated in the particular field designated.

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
47

Table A16—Standard errors for table 3.7: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating 

(earning 3.0 or more credits) in each occupationally specific field, by disability status: 1987 

and 1992

Vocational concentration by field

Total Occupational Trade Technical/

Year of graduation vocational home and communiand disability status concentration Agriculture Business Marketing Health economics industry cations

1987

Total 0.932 0.279 0.543 0.268 0.124 0.233 0.560 0.123

Has disability 2.075 0.932 0.580 0.708 0.377 0.878 1.314 0.256

No disability 0.937 0.276 0.558 0.268 0.125 0.232 0.562 0.125

1992

Total 0.778 0.280 0.431 0.205 0.097 0.276 0.487 0.108

Has disability 3.740 2.476 1.678 0.351 0.272 2.344 3.435 *

No disability 0.775 0.257 0.443 0.212 0.100 0.274 0.477 0.112

Estimate less than .05 percent. *

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, 1987 High School Transcript Study, and National Education Longitudinal Study

of 1988.

Table A17—Standard errors for table 3.8: Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates

in selected academic fields, by number of credits earned in vocational education: 1982 and 1992

Year of graduation 

and number of Total All Advanced All Advanced All Advanced

vocational credits academic English English math math science science

1982 

Total 0.069 0.019 0.015 0.019 0.015 0.021 0.013

0.00–1.99 0.105 0.037 0.038 0.030 0.041 0.044 0.034

2.00–3.99 0.089 0.026 0.023 0.029 0.025 0.035 0.02 4

4.00–5.99 0.082 0.028 0.021 0.029 0.020 0.031 0.01 8

6.00–7.99 0.083 0.033 0.016 0.032 0.015 0.030 0.01 5

8.00 or more 0.102 0.041 0.015 0.040 0.016 0.032 0.01 6

1992 

Total 0.089 0.018 0.025 0.021 0.021 0.027 0.01 9

0.00–1.99 0.097 0.024 0.056 0.026 0.035 0.035 0.02 9
48

2.00–3.99 0.124 0.030 0.043 0.029 0.036 0.046 0.03 4

4.00–5.99 0.128 0.036 0.029 0.038 0.032 0.037 0.02 7

6.00–7.99 0.102 0.034 0.019 0.034 0.027 0.036 0.02 3

8.00 or more 0.138 0.041 0.022 0.043 0.033 0.046 0.03 1

SOURCE: National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond, and National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988.
50

Appendix B

Glossary
52

Appendix B

Glossary

Academic subjects: The high school academic curriculum is divided into the main subject areas

listed below. These courses are not exhaustive of the courses included in each subject area.

Mathematics: Includes courses in basic math, general math, applied math, algebra,

geometry, and advanced math. Advanced math includes algebra 2, trigonometry, analytic

geometry, precalculus, probability and statistics, and calculus.

Science: Includes courses in biology, chemistry, and physics, as well as survey courses and

those in other areas. Advanced science includes chemistry, physics, and advanced biology.

English: Includes survey and skills courses, as well as courses in literature, composition and

writing, and speech. Advanced English includes honors and advanced placement courses,

including honors courses taken prior to the senior year.

Social studies: Includes courses in American history, world history, American government

and politics, social sciences, such as economics and anthropology, and humanities, such as

philosophy.

Fine arts: Includes courses that fulfill a general art requirement, as well as performing arts

and advanced courses. Media courses include arts and crafts, music, drama, and dance.

Foreign languages: Includes all courses that teach second languages, including English as a

second language, as well as classes in languages other than English.

Carnegie unit: A standard of measurement used for secondary education that represents the

completion of a course that meets approximately 1 hour per day for 1 year. See credit. 

Courses completed: Students were said to have completed a course in a subject area if they

earned a Carnegie unit, or a fraction of a unit, in that subject area.

Credit: For simplicity's sake, the publication refers to a Carnegie unit as a credit. See Carnegie

unit. 

Curriculum types: At its most aggregated level, the Secondary School Taxonomy divides the

high school curriculum into three distinct curricula:

Academic: See academic subjects.

Vocational: See vocational education.

Personal use/other: Included in this curriculum are courses intended for personal

development, such as courses in general skills, health and physical education, religion and

theology, driver training, and military science.
53

Disability status: Students were classified as having a disability if their transcript indicated that

the student had an Individual Educational Program (IEP), or was enrolled in a special program

for students with disabilities.

Limited-English-proficiency status: A student was defined as limited English proficient if they

were so designated by a teacher or parent on the NELS survey.

Minority status: Persons were classified as belonging to a minority group, if they were black,

non-Hispanic; Hispanic; Asian; or Native American. See race–ethnicity.

Parents' educational attainment: The highest level of educational attainment by either parent.

Five levels of attainment are reported here:

Less than high school graduate: Neither parent completed high school.

High school graduate: One or both parents earned a high school diploma or General

Equivalency Diploma (GED), but neither parent attended a postsecondary institution.

Some postsecondary education: One or both parents attended a college or other

postsecondary institution without completing a bachelor's degree. One or both parents may

have completed an associate's degree or some type of vocational certificate or award.

Bachelor's degree: One or both parents earned a bachelor's degree, but neither parent completed any kind of advanced degree.

Advanced degree: One or both parents completed a master's degree, first professional

degree (such as a medical or law degree), or a doctorate.

Race–ethnicity: Classification indicating general racial or ethnic heritage based on

self-identification. These categories are in accordance with the classification scheme presented

below:

White, non-Hispanic: A person having origins in any of the peoples of Europe, North

Africa, or the Middle East, excluding persons of Hispanic origin.

Black, non-Hispanic: A person having origins in any of the black racial groups in Africa,

excluding persons of Hispanic origin.

Hispanic: A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other

Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race.

Asian: A person having origins in any of the peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, the

Indian subcontinent, or the Pacific Islands including, for example, China, India, Japan,

Korea, the Philippine Islands, and Samoa.

American Indian: A person having origins in any of the peoples of North America,

including Alaskan natives, and maintaining cultural identification through tribal affiliation or

community recognition.
54

Special populations: The federal regulations pertaining to the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and

Applied Technology Education Act of 1990 define special populations as individuals with

disabilities, educationally and economically disadvantaged individuals, individuals of limited

English proficiency, individuals who participate in programs designed to eliminate sex bias, and

individuals in correctional institutions.

Specialty courses: Nonsequential courses in a vocational program area. 

Vocational education: Organized educational programs, services, and activities that are directly

related to the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid employment or for additional

preparation for a career, requiring other than a bachelor's or an advanced degree. This

publication refers to the following types of vocational education at the high school level:

Consumer and homemaking education: Consists of courses intended to prepare students

for roles outside the paid labor market. Topics covered include child care, meal preparation,

nutrition, and household management.

General labor market preparation: Consists of courses that teach general employment

skills, but do not have as their primary objective preparing students for paid employment in a

specific field. These courses include introductory typewriting, industrial arts, career

education, agricultural math and business English, among others. 

Occupationally specific education: Consists of courses that teach skills and provide

information required in a particular vocation. Courses are organized into first level, second

or higher level, and specialty courses.

Vocational program areas: 

Agriculture: Includes courses that prepare students for employment in farming, horticulture,

fishing, or forestry. In addition, courses in natural resources teach skills in conservation,

wildlife, forestry, logging, and paper production.

Business: Offers training in business support and business management, including data

processing, accounting, shorthand, stenography, advanced typewriting, and recordkeeping,

as well as finance, investments, personnel, and other aspects of management. Also included

are courses in library science and security services.

Marketing: Includes courses related to the selling and distribution of goods and services,

teaching skills ranging from cash register operation to marketing and management research

(once called distributive education).

Health: Includes courses intended to prepare students for careers in the health professions,

such as those that train students to become nurses and dental assistants, lab technicians, and

ambulance operators.

Occupational home economics: Includes courses intended to prepare students for

employment in the service sector, such as child care, food preparation, cleaning services,
55

plant maintenance, and protection services. Unlike consumer and homemaking education,

occupational home economics emphasizes skills and training for the paid labor force.

Trade and industry: Includes coursework in construction, mechanics and repairs, precision

production, and transportation. Construction includes courses in carpentry, plumbing,

electrical wiring, and welding. Mechanics and repairs includes courses in repairing a variety

of consumer goods. Precision production includes courses that teach students how to design

and manufacture goods, such as woodworking, graphic design, printing, sheet metal, drafting

and computer aided design, and architecture.

Technical and communications: Includes courses related to skills used in television and

radio, as well as computer courses, such as programming.
57

Appendix C

Technical Notes
59

Appendix C

Technical Notes

Sources of Data

Four transcript data sets were used for this study: High School and Beyond (HS&B, 1982

graduates), the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1987 High School Transcript Study

(NAEP:87), the National Assessment of Educational Progress 1990 High School Transcript

Study (NAEP:90), and the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS, 1992

graduates). All of these data sets were sponsored and are maintained by the National Center for

Education Statistics in the U.S. Department of Education. These data sets are well suited for this

study, although the sample frames for these data sources were different enough that special steps

were required to ensure sample comparability.

Sample Comparability

The primary means for ensuring comparability of the student samples across data sets was

to restrict the sample to public high school graduates. While the content of the high school

diploma varies from state to state, or even from one district to another within states, the diploma

establishes a more or less common level of attainment among students and over time.

Additionally, the sample of graduates included from each data set was limited to students for

whom complete transcripts were available. A complete transcript was defined as one that

recorded between 16 and 32 Carnegie units, with a positive, non-zero number of credits

completed in English.

The High School and Beyond (HS&B) base-year survey was administered in the spring

of 1980 to approximately 30,000 high school sophomores and 28,000 high school seniors in

more than 1,000 high schools nationwide. Followup surveys were conducted in 1982, 1984,

1986, and 1992. The data presented in this report included items from the base year and first

three followup surveys, but the sample of students was defined by membership in the 1982

HS&B Sophomore Transcript file. The transcript file contains 15,940 cases, and the realized

sample for this study included 9,510 public high school graduates. Of those students who were

excluded from the sample, 961 had transcripts that were out of range, 2,484 were dropouts or

were still working for their diploma, and 2,985 were enrolled in private high schools. Public

high school students were defined by HSTYPE=1, and a “student type” variable was developed

to identify high school graduates in the HS&B transcript file. This variable is a composite of

graduation status variables obtained from the First Followup survey (FUSTTYPE), the

Transcript survey (RESNLEFT), and the Second Followup survey (SY12). Students were

classified as graduates sequentially based on their classifications by these three variables. In

cases where the three variables agreed with respect to the student’s graduation status, the student

was classified accordingly. Where there was disagreement among these variables, preference

was given to second followup data (SY12) because of its later date of collection and greater

specificity. If this variable was missing, preference was then given to transcript survey data

(RESNLEFT); only when the student’s graduation status was ambiguous or missing from both

of these surveys was the first followup variable (FUSTTYPE) used to classify the case.
60

The two NAEP transcript surveys are quite different from the HS&B. The HS&B data set

is longitudinal, while the NAEP:87 and NAEP:90 data sets are cross-sectional. The NAEP data

sets include nationally representative samples of high school seniors in 1987 and 1990, and like

the HS&B, the student samples included in this study were defined by the availability of high

school transcripts. In the 1987 file, high school transcripts were available for 34,140 students

who were enrolled in approximately 300 schools; of these students, 24,426 were public high

school graduates. Another 6,698 were identified as non-completers or special education diploma

recipients, 969 had transcripts that were out of range, and the remainder were enrolled at private

schools. Public high school students were defined by STYPE=1, and the variable “student exit

status” (EXSTAT) was used to distinguish between graduates and nongraduates. Students

classified as “regular” (code 1) or “honors” (code 2) graduates, and students whose exit status

was classified as “other” (code 7) were eligible for inclusion in the sample of graduates. Students

in the “other” category were included so that transfers and others (such as late graduates) not

explicitly identified as such would not be excluded from the sample. Students who were

explicitly described as recipients of special education diplomas were excluded from the sample

because they had no counterparts in the other data sets.

The 1990 NAEP transcript data file included high school transcripts from 21,531 students

from about 330 schools. Public high school students were identified by STYPE=1, and the

realized sample of public high school graduates included 16,456 students. Of the students who

were excluded from the analysis file, 4,732 were enrolled in private schools, and 343 had

transcripts that were out of range or who were identified as not having a regular or honors

diploma. As with the 1987 data file, the “student exit status” (EXSTAT) variable was used to

identify high school graduates. However, this version of the EXSTAT variable had a simpler

structure than the 1987 version. Students identified in 1990 as having earned a standard diploma

(code 1) or honors diploma (code 2) were included. All others were excluded from the sample.

Like HS&B, the NELS data set is longitudinal. The base-year survey was administered to

about 24,000 eighth graders in more than 1,000 schools with an eighth grade class. Students

were followed up two years later when most were in the tenth grade, and again two years after

that when most were high school seniors. With each new followup, and unlike HS&B, the

student sample was “freshened” (students not eligible in the base year were added to the sample)

so a representative sample of the grade cohort could be obtained. Although this sampling

strategy can pose significant problems if it is not carefully controlled in longitudinal analyses,

the sample used here was defined by the transcript sample, which is representative of all 12th

graders in 1992. Transcripts were available for about 17,285 students, but almost 2,000 of these

students were identified as dropouts at the time of the second followup survey in 1992, and

about 2,300 were enrolled in private schools. The sample of public high school graduates used in

this study included 11,707 students. After restricting the sample to those students in public

schools (G12CTRL2=1), the “reason left” (F2REASL) variable was used to identify graduates.

Students identified as having earned a standard or honors diploma (codes 1 or 2) were included

in the sample; all others were excluded.
The original SST was developed for the 1986 National Assessment of Vocational Education (NAVE) by Cynthia L. 12

Brown, E. Gareth Hoachlander, and Robert H. Meyer, with the assistance of National Assessment staff, staff of the

NAVE Support Center, and an external review panel. The original version of the SST included a fourth curriculum,

special education, but because of the relatively small number of students completing these credits and the uncertain

coverage of special education courses in several of the transcript data sets, subsequent versions of the SST did not

include a separate special education curriculum.

61

Transcript Weights

Because the transcript samples in each of these data sets comprise a unique group of

students, separate transcript-specific weights are required to produce accurate estimates of the

characteristics and course taking behavior of the population. The weights used for this study

were TRWT for HS&B, FINSTUWT for NAEP:87, FINSTUWT for NAEP:90, and

F2TRSCWT for NELS.

Student Characteristics

Not all of the student characteristics reported here are available in all of the data sets.

Gender and race–ethnicity are available in all four data sets, and the definitions of these

variables are comparable across data sets. Disability status is also available in all four data

sources, but because of significant differences in the definition of the disabled student samples

between HS&B and the other sources, the 1982 disability status data cannot be reported with

data for the other trend points. However, the definition of disabled students is relatively

comparable in the NAEP:87, NAEP:90, and NELS transcript files, so it is possible to trace

course taking among students with and without disabilities between 1987 and 1992. The parents’

education data are only available in HS&B and NELS, so trends over time can only be charted

by the end points of the time series. Finally, LEP status is only available in the NELS data set,

so no trend analysis is possible in relation to this characteristic. 

Course Classification

The courses contained in each transcript data set were categorized in the Secondary

School Taxonomy (SST) to ensure comparability over time (figure C.1). This taxonomy

organizes transcript data into three different curricula: academic, vocational, and personal

use/other. The academic curriculum is divided into six subject areas: mathematics, science, 12

English, social studies, fine arts, and foreign languages. Courses within each subject area are

then organized within topical concentrations, and where possible within the topical

concentrations by level or degree of difficulty (basic, regular, advanced placement/honors, or

specialized topics). 
Unidentified subject

SOURCE: A.G. Gifford, E.G. Hoachlander, J.E. Tuma, The Secondary School Taxonomy , a report prepared for the National Assessment o

Planning, Budget, and Evaluation, U.S. Department of Education (Berkeley: MPR Associates, Inc., Febr uary 1989).

6

2
63

The vocational curriculum includes three basic subdivisions: consumer and homemaking

education (C&HE), general labor market preparation (GLMP), and specific labor market

preparation (SLMP). (In this report, SLMP is referred to as Occupationally Specific Education). 

C&HE courses provide training and teach skills for activities outside of the paid labor force such

as homemaking, food preparation and nutrition, sewing, and parenting. Courses that are designed

to impart widely applicable vocational skills, such as typewriting, business math, or business

English, or that provide a broad overview of vocational alternatives, such as introduction to

industrial arts or career exploration, are included in the GLMP curriculum. Occupationally

specific courses are incorporated into the SLMP curriculum, which are in turn organized by

vocational field: agriculture, business, marketing, health, occupational home economics, trade

and industry, and technical and communications. Within the SLMP fields, courses are designated

as the first course in a sequence, second or higher course in a sequence, or as specialty courses.

Any courses that could be clearly differentiated by their level are included in the specific

sequence categories; the specialty courses category primarily includes courses that do not fit into

a sequence of courses.

Rates of participation and trends in the average number of credits completed by graduates

tend to move in concert, so this report focuses on the average credit estimates. Including data on

the rates of participation enriches the discussion, but the gain in accuracy is small and the cost in

terms of complexity is large. Therefore, only where the participation and credit data do not

match were both types of data presented. The presentation was further simplified by focusing on

only the end points of the time series (1982 and 1992). The trends in course taking throughout

the curriculum are virtually linear between these two points in time, and adding the middle data

points (1987 and 1990) adds to the complexity of the presentation without adding much new

information. However, where trends in course taking over time were not linear between the end

points, or in instances where the discussion is greatly enriched by doing so, the middle data

points have been added to the relevant tables.

Accuracy of Estimates

The estimates in this report are derived from samples and are subject to two broad classes

of error—sampling and nonsampling error. Sampling errors occur because the data are collected

from a sample of a population rather than from the entire population. Estimates based on a

sample will differ somewhat from the values that would have been obtained from a universe

survey using the same instruments, instructions, and procedures. Nonsampling errors come from

a variety of sources and affect universe surveys as well as sample surveys. Examples of sources

of nonsampling error include design, reporting, and processing errors and errors due to

nonresponse. The effects of nonsampling errors are more difficult to evaluate than those that

result from sampling variability. As much as possible, procedures are built into surveys in order

to minimize nonsampling errors.

The standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating a

parameter. It indicates how much variance there is in the population of possible estimates of a

parameter for a given sample size. Standard errors can be used as a measure of the precision

expected from a particular sample. The probability that a complete census would differ from the

sample by less than the standard error is about 68 out of 100. The chances that the difference
t '

P1&P2

se

2

1 % se

2

2

64

would be less than 1.65 times the standard error are about 90 out of 100; that the difference

would be less than 1.96 times the standard error, about 95 out of 100.

Methodology and Statistical Procedures

The comparisons in the text have all been tested for statistical significance to ensure that

the differences are larger than those that might be expected due to sampling variation. Three

types of comparisons have been made in the text.

Differences in two percentages. The Student’s t statistic was used to test the likelihood

that the differences between two independent percentages were larger than would be expected

due to sampling error. The Student’s t values can be computed for comparisons using the

estimates in these tables with the following formula:

where P1 and P2 are the percentages to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding

standard errors. This formula is only valid for independent estimates. When estimates are not

independent (for example, when comparing the percentages within a percent distribution—in

this report, within a row in a table), a covariance term was added to the denominator of the t-test

formula.

There are hazards in reporting statistical tests for each comparison. First, large t-values

may appear to merit special attention. However, the magnitude of the t-statistic is related not

only to the observed differences in means or percentages, but also to the number of students in

the categories that are being compared. A small difference compared across a large number of

students will produce a large t-statistic. 

Second, as the number of comparisons on the same set of data increases, the likelihood

that the t value for at least one of the comparisons will exceed 1.96 simply due to sampling error

increases. For a single comparison, there is a 5 percent chance that the t value will exceed 1.96

due to sampling error. For five tests, the risk of getting at least one t value that high increases to

23 percent, and for 20 comparisons, it increases to 64 percent.

One way to compensate for this danger when making multiple comparisons is to adjust the

critical value that the t-statistic must equal or exceed to take into account the number of

comparisons being made. This is done using a Bonferroni adjustment to control for the number

of possible comparisons—the family of comparisons—between the categories of the variable

being tested. Family size, k, is calculated as follows: k = [j * (j - 1)]/2, where j is equal to the

number of categories in the variable. In a 5-category variable such as parent’s education, k

would be equal to [(5)(5-1)]/2, or 10. The family size is then used to adjust the probability that

one would incorrectly conclude that two estimates were different because of sampling error.

Differences between two estimates were only reported when p # 0.05/k, or in the case of parents’

education, when p # 0.005 (that is, 0.05/10). In order to conclude that two estimates were
J.N.K. Rao and D.R. Thomas, “Chi-Squared Tests for Contingency Tables,” in Skinner, Holt, and Smith, Analysis of 13

Complex Surveys (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1989), chapter 4.

65

different in this case, the critical value that the t-statistic had to equal or exceed was 2.81, which

was obtained from a table of t statistics for a two-tailed test.

Trends. In several instances, pair-wise comparisons proved too cumbersome. For

example, one would like to say something about the general relationship between the number of

vocational credits completed by high school graduates and their parents’ level of educational

attainment. In many cases, not all of the ten possible comparisons are statistically significant,

even though the data appear to suggest clear trends. In such cases, a weighted least squares

regression formula was used to test whether the upward trend between parents’ educational

attainment and the number of vocational credits completed was significant, even if all of the

pair-wise comparisons were not. 

This regression test for linearity was done in this analysis using the data manipulation and

regression capabilities of the Microsoft EXCEL spreadsheet program. The input data for the

regressions were the estimates and standard errors in the standard output tables generated by the

STRATTAB program, a proprietary table program developed by MPR Associates, Inc. All of

the variables included in the regression equations were transformed by dividing them by the

standard error of the relevant proportion. An intercept variable was also created by dividing a

column of 1s by the standard error of the corresponding proportion. The new dependent variable

was then regressed on the new independent variable and the intercept variable. The statistical

significance of beta for the independent variable was then evaluated in relation to p # 0.05, or t

# 1.96. One important limitation of this test is that it can only be used to assess trends across

ordered variables or variable categories.

Differences in distributions. The third type of test used in this report is the chi-square test,

which was used to assess whether one distribution was different from another. For example, one

would like to evaluate the relationship between race–ethnicity and distribution of students by the

number of vocational credits completed. With five race–ethnicity categories and nine vocational

credit categories, there are 90 possible pair-wise comparisons when the comparisons are

restricted to differences between race–ethnicity groups within each credit category. In this

instance, the chi-square test enables one to evaluate whether the distribution of students by the

number of vocational credits completed varied by race–ethnicity using a single test. 

Once the chi-square value is calculated, it is adjusted by the cell-specific design effects

(DEFT)—rather than the average DEFT for the whole sample—to take into account the complex

sample design. These effects were estimated using a Microsoft EXCEL spreadsheet model,

which is based on work by Rao and Thomas. In general, this adjustment reduces the value of 13

the chi-square (because complex samples are not as efficient as simple random samples of

equivalent size). This value is then evaluated in relation to a critical value that is obtained from a

table for a test with n degrees of freedom and a specified significance level. In this case, the

significance level was set a p # 0.05. The degrees of freedom were calculated as number of row

categories minus 1 times number of column categories minus 1.