1

U.S. Census Bureau

U.S. Department of Commerce

Economics and Statistics Administration

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Issued August 1999

1993 to

1994

P70-69

Dynamics of Economic Well-Being:

Program Participation,

Who Gets Assistance?

Household Economic Studies

U S C E N S U S B U R E A U

Helping You Make Informed Decisions

Current

Population

Reports

Demographic Programs

Introduction

Prior to the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation

Act of 1996, also known as the welfare

reform bill, states modified their welfare

programs under waivers granted by the

Federal Government. These waivers allowed

states to experiment with different welfare

policies. For example, many states adopted

time limits and job training programs to

reduce welfare dependence and to encourage work. Changes in the welfare system,

both under waivers and the welfare reform

bill, have intensified the interest in information on the characteristics of people who

participate in welfare programs.

This report examines the participation in

major means-tested government programs

in the years just before federal welfare

reform.1 For the pre-reform era, the report

provides a set of baseline estimates of

participation for these programs:

• Aid to families with dependent

children (AFDC)

• General assistance (GA)

• Food stamps

• Supplemental security income (SSI)

• Medicaid

• Housing assistance

The data in this report come from the 1993

panel of the Survey of Income and Program

Participation (SIPP), which covers the period

from October 1992 to December 1995.2 SIPP

is a longitudinal survey that follows the same

individuals over time.3 The longitudinal

nature of SIPP enables a dynamic analysis of

the rates of program participation and of the

amounts of benefits received among people

of different demographic and socioeconomic

characteristics.

Specifically, this report examines the similarities and differences among various groups in:

• Average monthly program participation

in 1993 and 1994 (defined as the

average number of people who participated in at least one major meanstested program per month in 1993

and 1994);

• The percentage of people who

participated in at least one of these

programs during 1994;

• The percentage who participated in at

least one program in all 24 months of

1993 and 1994; and

• The length of time participants stayed

in the program (the duration of the

spell) during 1993 and 1994.

1 Means-tested programs are those that require income

and/or assets of the individual or family to be below

specified thresholds in order to qualify for benefits.

These programs provide cash and noncash assistance to

eligible individuals and families.

2 For each person on the 1993 nine-wave longitudinal file,

data are available for up to 36 continuous reference

months; the exact number of months depends upon

when the person entered or exited the sample. The time

period of calendar months covered by these reference

months depends on the person’s rotation group. Data for

all four rotation groups (the full sample) are available only

for the calendar months of January 1993 through September 1995. The Census Bureau will continue to follow the

families who participated in the 1992 and 1993 SIPP panels in the Survey of Program Dynamics to provide postreform longitudinal data.

3 Efforts were made during the life of the panel to follow

people who moved to ensure that the sample remained

representative of the noninstitutional population of the

United States.
2

U.S. Census Bureau

Highlights

• About 40 million people

participated in major means-tested

assistance programs in an average

month during both 1993 and 1994.4

• Individuals were more likely to

participate in medicaid than any of

the other programs examined.

Eleven percent of individuals participated in an average month in 1994.

• The poor were much more

likely to receive at least one type of

major means-tested benefit than

individuals who were not in poor

families. Three in four poor received

benefits in at least 1 month in 1994

versus only 1 in 10 of the nonpoor.

• Differences in the participation

rates among various demographic

groups can, in part, be explained by

differences in poverty rates.

• Children (those less than 18

years of age) were more likely than

people in other age groups to be

long-term recipients (defined here as

participating in all months of 1993

and 1994).

• Individuals in households

maintained by women were approximately five times as likely to participate in means-tested programs than

individuals in married-couple

households (45 percent versus 9

percent).

• Adults (those age 18 and over)

without a high school degree were

more than twice as likely as high

school graduates and five times as

likely as those with some college to

participate in means-tested programs. The participation rates were

26 percent, 11 percent, and 5

percent, respectively.

• Unemployed people were much

more likely to receive means-tested

benefits in an average month of

1994 than were people with full-time

jobs (27 percent as compared to 4

percent).

Program Participation:

1993 to 1994

Of the estimated 261 million civilians

living in the United States, approximately 40 million or 15.2 percent

participated in one or more major

means-tested assistance programs,

on average, during each month of

1994. As can be seen in Figure 1,

the average monthly participation

rate has increased noticeably from

about 11 percent in the 1987-1990

period to 15.2 percent in 1993 and

1994.5

Only a small proportion of the

population, however, participated on

a long-term basis, with about 10

percent of the population having

participated in each month of the

1993-1994 period. About 16.5

percent of those under 18 years old

participated each month of the

1993-1994 period, a figure that is

statistically higher than the comparable proportion of 18 to 64 year old

recipients, 6.9 percent, and higher

than that of elderly recipients, 10.3

percent.6

Medicaid Has the Highest

Participation Rate

As shown in Table A and Figure 2,

individuals were more likely to

participate in medicaid than in any of

the other programs examined here.

In 1994, the average monthly

participation rate for medicaid was

11.3 percent, higher than that for

AFDC, GA, food stamps, housing

assistance, or SSI. A larger proportion of the population, about 6.6

percent, participated in all 24

months in medicaid than in any

other program.7

An estimated 29 million people

received medicaid benefits in 1994;

almost 16 million of those recipients

4 The estimate for 1993 is 39 (+/-1.3) million

and for 1994 is 40 (+/-1.3) million. These

estimates are not statistically different.

5 SIPP average program participation rates

from 1987 to 1992 were obtained from previous Census Bureau reports, specifically, Current Population Reports, Household Economic

Studies, Series P70-31, P70-41, P70-46, and

P70-58. The program participation rate for

1989 is not available. There is no statistical

difference between the average monthly participation rates for 1987 and 1990.

6 There is no statistical difference between the

proportion of people 18 to 64 years old and

the proportion of the elderly participating.

7 There is no statistical difference between the

average monthly participation rate for AFDC

and housing assistance.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic

Studies, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994,

Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Figure 1.

Average Monthly Participation Rate in Means-Tested Programs:

Selected Years, 1987 to 1994

(Percent)
3

U.S. Census Bureau

were children.8 In fact, 22.1 percent

of children under age 18 received

medicaid, compared with 7.1

percent of people 18 to 64 years old,

and 8.0 percent of people over 65

years old.

Over Half of the Poor

Receive Means-Tested

Assistance

Figure 3 shows that 60.3 percent of

the poor, those with family incomes

under the poverty thresholds,

received at least one type of major

means-tested benefit in 1994,

compared with 7.0 percent of the

nonpoor.9 Additionally, 75.1 percent

of the poor received benefits during

at least 1 month of 1994, compared

with 10.5 percent of the nonpoor.

The poor also tended to be longterm participants in means-tested

programs: 57.9 percent of the poor,

but only 3.4 percent of the nonpoor,

participated in all 24 months of

1993-1994.

Program Participation Varies

by Demographic Group

The likelihood of receiving meanstested assistance varied among race

and ethnic groups. In 1994, the

average number of Whites receiving

assistance per month, 26 million,

was far greater than the number of

Blacks, 12 million. However, the

average monthly participation rate

was higher for Blacks (36.0 percent)

than for Whites (11.8 percent), as

shown in Figure 4. In addition,

Blacks were more likely than Whites

to participate in each month of the

period 1993-1994: 27.0 percent of

Blacks, compared with 6.9 percent

of Whites.

8 There is no statistical difference between the

percentage of people 18 to 64 years old who

received medicaid and the percentage of the

elderly who received medicaid.

9 The poverty threshold for a family of three

with one related child was $11,929 in 1994.

Data on poverty thresholds by family size and

number of related children under 18 years for

1994 can be obtained from the Current Population Reports, Consumer Income, P60-189.

1 Hispanics may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic

Studies, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994,

Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic

Studies, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994,

Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic

Studies, Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994,

Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Figure 2.

Program Participation Rates for

Means-Tested Programs

(Percent)

Figure 3.

Program Participation Rates by

Poverty Status

(Percent)

Figure 4.

Program Participation Rates by

Race and Hispanic Origin

(Percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994
4

U.S. Census Bureau

Table A.

Average Monthly Participation Rates and Median Family Benefits by Selected Characteristics: 1993and 1994

Characteristic

Program participation rates

(percent)

Monthly family benefits2

(dollars)

Any meanstested program1 AFDC/GA SSI Food stamps Medicaid Housing

assistance 1993 1994

1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error

Total number of

recipients3 . . . . . . . . . . . 39,162 39,514 14,675 14,438 4,841 5,106 25,713 25,383 27,984 29,332 13,044 12,206 (X) (X) (X) (X)

As percent of the

population. . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 15.2 5.7 5.5 1.9 2.0 10.0 9.7 10.9 11.3 5.1 4.7 485 4.0 476 3.0

Race and Hispanic

Origin4

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 11.8 3.8 3.7 1.4 1.5 7.4 7.2 8.1 8.5 3.5 3.3 444 4.5 435 3.5

Not of Hispanic

origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 9.4 2.8 2.6 1.3 1.3 5.7 5.4 6.4 6.8 2.8 2.6 400 6.0 399 5.0

Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36.6 36.0 16.4 16.4 4.5 4.7 26.0 25.6 26.8 27.5 14.9 13.2 560 4.0 542 9.0

Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . 32.3 31.7 13.7 12.9 3.0 2.9 22.9 21.9 23.4 23.0 10.9 10.0 557 18.0 556 12.5

Not of Hispanic origin. . . . 13.3 13.2 4.8 4.7 1.8 1.8 8.5 8.3 9.4 9.9 4.4 4.1 466 4.5 460 3.0

Age

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . 26.2 26.5 13.2 12.9 0.0 0.0 19.6 19.3 21.2 22.1 8.0 7.4 604 4.5 587 6.0

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . 11.0 10.8 3.4 3.3 2.0 2.1 6.9 6.6 6.8 7.1 3.8 3.4 444 2.0 443 3.0

65 years and over . . . . . . 12.0 11.7 0.2 0.2 5.5 5.4 4.2 4.1 8.1 8.0 5.2 5.2 204 3.5 200 5.0

Sex

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.0 13.0 4.5 4.3 1.4 1.4 8.4 8.2 8.8 9.2 4.4 3.9 490 7.5 479 5

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 17.3 6.8 6.7 2.4 2.5 11.5 11.2 12.8 13.2 5.7 5.4 483 5 473 5.5

Educational Attainment

(people 18 years old

and over)

Less than 4 years of

high school. . . . . . . . . . . 25.8 25.6 6.5 5.9 7.5 7.7 15.3 14.8 17.5 17.8 9.0 8.4 432 7 433 5.5

High school graduate,

no college. . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 10.5 2.9 3.0 1.9 2.0 6.2 6.1 6.4 6.7 3.6 3.5 396 10 386 10.5

1 or more years of

college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 4.5 1.2 1.2 0.8 0.9 2.4 2.3 2.7 2.8 1.9 1.7 420 13 433 11

Disability Status

(people 15 to 64 years

old)

With a work disability . . . . 25.0 25.5 6.4 6.3 9.3 10.0 15.1 14.6 18.9 20.0 6.6 6.5 459 5 454 7

With no work disability . . . 8.7 8.5 3.2 3.1 0.3 0.4 5.7 5.6 4.8 5.0 3.4 3.0 466 9.5 448 7

Residence

Metropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 14.7 5.9 5.9 1.7 1.9 9.5 9.4 10.6 11.1 5.3 4.9 517 5.5 521 6

Central city . . . . . . . . . . 23.0 22.4 10.4 9.9 2.7 2.7 15.8 15.2 17.0 17.0 9.1 8.3 574 7.5 564 5.5

Noncentral city . . . . . . . 9.3 9.5 3.1 3.2 1.1 1.3 5.5 5.5 6.5 7.0 2.9 2.6 444 5 447 8

Nonmetropolitan. . . . . . . . 17.0 16.6 4.8 4.4 2.4 2.3 11.5 10.7 11.6 11.9 4.2 3.9 401 9.5 354 7

Region

Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8 14.6 6.4 6.0 1.9 1.9 8.9 8.6 10.9 10.9 5.9 5.6 599 11 610 13

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 12.6 5.4 5.3 1.2 1.3 8.7 8.5 9.1 9.5 4.6 4.4 538 9.5 486 5

South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 16.4 4.5 4.3 2.4 2.5 11.5 11.4 10.5 11.1 5.0 4.2 377 2 368 5.5

West. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 16.8 7.3 7.4 2.0 2.0 10.0 9.6 13.4 13.9 4.9 4.9 630 7 624 7.5

Family Status

In families. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 15.6 6.5 6.4 1.4 1.5 10.8 10.6 11.4 11.8 4.8 4.4 531 6 512 6.5

In married-couple

families . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 8.9 2.2 2.2 0.9 0.9 5.5 5.2 5.8 6.1 2.5 2.0 377 2 380 4.5

In families with a

female householder,

no spouse present . . . 44.3 44.3 26.3 24.9 3.4 3.4 34.9 33.8 36.1 36.3 15.4 15.0 614 4 599 3

Unrelated individuals . . . . 12.8 12.4 0.7 0.6 4.5 4.7 5.2 4.9 7.7 7.9 6.3 6.1 169 13.5 188 12.5

Employment and Labor

Force Status

(people 18 years old

and over)

Employed full time . . . . . . 4.0 3.8 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 1.8 1.7 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.6 235 6.5 239 10

Employed part time . . . . . 8.6 9.2 1.8 2.0 0.9 1.1 4.9 5.4 4.6 5.4 3.1 3.0 297 6.5 299 6

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6 26.9 10.4 11.3 1.9 1.5 19.9 20.2 16.0 17.0 9.1 9.0 455 6.5 446 10.5

Not in labor force . . . . . . . 21.3 21.3 6.3 6.0 6.9 7.1 12.6 12.3 15.9 16.1 7.1 6.7 460 3.5 458 3.5
5

U.S. Census Bureau

There was also a strong association

between Hispanic origin10 and the

likelihood of receiving means-tested

assistance. In fact, nearly 9 million

people of Hispanic origin received

means-tested assistance in 1994,

compared with almost 31 million

people not of Hispanic origin.

However, during the same year, the

average monthly participation rate

for people of Hispanic origin was

31.7 percent, compared with 13.2

percent for those not of Hispanic

origin. Hispanics were also more

likely to receive means-tested

assistance in each month of the

1993-1994 period: 22.5 percent of

Hispanics, compared with 8.6

percent for those not of Hispanic

origin. Since poverty and participation in major means-tested assistance programs are closely related

(see Figure 3), the differences among

the racial and Hispanic-origin groups

in participation rates can, in part, be

explained by the differences in

poverty rates. In 1994, the average

monthly poverty rate was 12.7

10 Hispanics may be of any race. The information on the Hispanic population shown in this

report was collected in the 50 states and the

District of Columbia, and therefore, does not

include residents of Puerto Rico.

percent for Whites and 31.2 percent

for Blacks.11 Likewise, Hispanics had

an average monthly poverty rate of

31.4 percent, compared with 13.5

percent for non-Hispanics (see Figure

5).12

11 The information on poverty rates using SIPP

can be found in Current Population Reports,

Household Economics Studies, Series P70-63.

12 There is no statistical difference between the

average monthly participation rate and the average monthly poverty rate for Hispanics.

There is no statistical difference between the

average monthly participation rate and the average monthly poverty rate for non-Hispanics.

There is no statistical difference between the

average monthly poverty rate for Blacks and

Hispanics.

Children Under 18 Years Old

Are More Likely to Receive

Means-Tested Assistance

Than People in Other Age

Groups

Children under 18 years of age were

more than twice as likely as people 18

to 64 years old to receive meanstested benefits, according to Figure 6.

In an average month during 1994, 19

million (26.5 percent) children received some type of means-tested

benefit, compared with 17 million

(10.8 percent) people age 18 to 64

years old and 4 million (11.7 percent)

1 Hispanics may be of any race.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, Dynamics

of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994, Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Figure 5.

Poverty Rates by Race and

Hispanic Origin

(Percent)

Average monthly poverty rate for 1994

Poor 2 or more months in 1993 and 1994

Poor all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Table A.

Average Monthly Participation Rates and Median Family Benefits by Selected Characteristics: 1993and 1994—Con.

Characteristic

Program participation rates

(percent)

Monthly family benefits2

(dollars)

Any meanstested program1 AFDC/GA SSI Food stamps Medicaid Housing

assistance 1993 1994

1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 1993 1994 Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error

Marital Status

(people 18 years old

and over) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Married. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 6.2 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.1 3.9 3.7 3.5 3.5 2.1 1.7 604 7.5 587 9

Separated, divorced, or

widowed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 19.6 5.0 4.8 5.9 6.1 11.2 11.1 13.6 13.9 7.4 7.3 358 10.5 359 8.5

Never married . . . . . . . . . 15.6 15.6 5.1 4.9 3.6 3.8 8.9 8.6 10.5 11.0 6.0 5.6 363 11.5 371 9.5

Family Income-toPoverty Ratio

Under 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.5 60.3 29.7 28.3 6.2 6.7 49.6 48.3 47.0 47.7 20.8 20.0 558 6.5 541 6.5

1.00 and over. . . . . . . . . . 6.7 7.0 1.2 1.4 1.1 1.1 2.6 2.8 4.1 4.6 2.1 1.9 349 11.5 364 8

X Not applicable.

1

Means-tested programs include AFDC, general assistance, SSI, food stamps, medicaid, and housing assistance.

2

Median monthly family benefits include AFDC, general assistance, SSI, and food stamps only.

3

In thousands.

4

Hispanics may be of any race.
6

U.S. Census Bureau

people 65 years and older.13 Children also tended to be long-term

participants, with 11 million (16.5

percent) collecting benefits in all 24

months of the period 1993-1994,

compared with 11 million (6.9

percent) and 3 million (10.3 percent)

for people ages 18 to 64 years old

and 65 years and older, respectively.

Families Maintained by

Women Have Higher

Participation Rates

Reflecting their higher poverty rates

and lower incomes, individuals in

families maintained by women were

much more likely to participate in

major means-tested programs, in an

average month of 1994, than were

those in married-couple families—

44.3 percent compared with 8.9

percent.14 During 1994, households

maintained by women had an

average monthly poverty rate of

39.8 percent and an annual median

income of $19,872, compared with

an average monthly poverty rate of

8.4 percent and an annual median

income of $45,041 for marriedcouple families. Similarly, approximately half (50.1 percent) of individuals in families maintained by

women participated in means-tested

programs during at least 1 month of

1994, while 12.3 percent of individuals in married-couple families

participated in at least 1 month

during that period. Moreover,

individuals in families maintained by

women were more than five times as

likely as individuals in marriedcouple families to receive benefits in

all 24 months of the period 1993-

1994—32.2 percent compared with

5.2 percent.

13 There is no statistical difference between the

percentage of people age 18 to 64 and the percentage of people 65 years and older who received means-tested benefits.

14 There is no statistical difference between the

average monthly participation rate and poverty

rate for married-couple families.

15 There is no statistical difference between the

median spell duration of high school graduates

and the median spell duration of people with

some college.

Women were more likely than men

to receive means-tested benefits.

In 1994, 23 million (17.3 percent)

women participated in an average

month, compared with nearly 17

million (13.0 percent) men. Women

were also more likely than men to

receive means-tested benefits in

each month of the 1993-1994

period, 11.6 percent compared

with 8.2 percent. (See Figure 7.)

Recipients Have Lower

Educational Levels

For people age 18 and over, lower

educational attainment was associated with greater program participation (see Table A and Figure 8). In

1994, about 1 in 4 (25.6 percent) of

those with less than 4 years of high

school received means-tested

benefits, compared with 1 in 10

(10.5 percent) for high school

graduates and about 1 in 25 (4.5

percent) for those with at least 1

year of college. Individuals who did

not graduate from high school also

remained on means-tested programs

longer than high school graduates.

The median duration of receipt for

those without a high school diploma

was 11.0 months, compared with

7.2 months for high school graduates, and 7.1 months for those

with at least 1 year of college (see

Table B).15

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, Dynamics

of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994, Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, Dynamics

of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994, Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Figure 6.

Program Participation Rates by

Age of Individual

(Percent)

Figure 7.

Program Participation Rates

by Sex

(Percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994
7

U.S. Census Bureau

The Unemployed and Those

Out of the Labor Force Are

More Likely to Receive

Means-Tested Benefits Than

the Employed

Unemployed people were much

more likely to receive means-tested

benefits in an average month of

1994 than were people with full-time

jobs. For people 18 years and older,

nearly 27 percent of the unemployed

received means-tested benefits in an

average month of 1994, compared

with 21.3 percent of those out of the

labor force, 3.8 percent of those

employed with full-time jobs, and

9.2 percent of those employed with

part-time jobs (see Figure 9).

The unemployed may receive

unemployment compensation in

addition to major means-tested

benefits. In an average month of

1994, only 19.3 percent of the

unemployed received unemployment

compensation, while 11.3 percent

received AFDC or GA, 17.0 percent

received medicaid, 1.5 percent

received SSI, and 20.2 percent

received food stamps.16

Accuracy and Reliability

of the Data

Statistics from sample surveys are

subject to sampling and

nonsampling error. All comparisons

presented in this report have taken

sampling error into account and

meet the Census Bureau’s standards

for statistical significance.

Nonsampling errors in surveys may

be attributed to a variety of sources,

such as how the survey was designed, how respondents interpret

questions, how able and willing

respondents are to provide correct

answers, and how accurately

answers are coded and classified.

The Census Bureau employs quality

control procedures throughout the

production process—including the

overall design of surveys, testing the

wording of questions, reviewing the

work of interviewers and coders,

and conducting statistical review

of reports.

The SIPP employs ratio estimation,

whereby sample estimates are

adjusted to independent estimates

of the national population by age,

race, sex, and Hispanic origin. This

weighting partially corrects for bias

due to undercoverage, but how it

affects different variables in the

survey is not precisely known.

Moreover, biases may also be

present when people who are

missed in the survey differ from

those interviewed in ways other than

the categories used in weighting

(age, race, sex, and Hispanic origin).

All of these considerations affect

comparisons across different surveys

or data sources.

For further information on statistical

standards and the computation and

use of standard errors, contact Mark

Gorsak, Demographic Statistical

Methods Division, at 301-457-4228

or on the Internet at

Mark.Gorsak@ccmail.census.gov.

Comments From

Data Users

The Census Bureau welcomes the

comments and advice of data users.

If you have suggestions or comments, please write to:

Daniel Weinberg

Chief, Housing and Household

Economic Statistics Division

U.S. Census Bureau

Washington, DC 20233-8500

daniel.h.weinberg@ccmail.census.gov

or contact:

Program Participation Statistics

301-457-3230

16 There is no statistical difference between the

percentage of the unemployed who received

medicaid and the percentage of unemployed

who received food stamps.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, Dynamics

of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994, Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.

Figure 8.

Program Participation Rates by

Educational Attainment

(Percent)

Figure 9.

Program Participation Rates by

Employment Status

(Percent)

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Average monthly participation rate for 1994

Participated 1 or more months in 1994

Participated all 24 months of 1993 and 1994

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Household Economic Studies, Dynamics

of Economic Well-Being: Program Participation, 1993-1994, Who Gets Assistance?, P70-69.
8

U.S. Census Bureau

Table B.

Median Duration of Participation and Standard Errors by Program: 1993and 1994

(In months. Median duration cannot be computed when more than half of the spells are continuing in the last month of data collection.

This situation is especially likely to occur for elderly recipients whose incomes from other sources are unlikely to rise over time)

Characteristic

Any meanstested program1 AFDC/GA SSI Food stamps Medicaid Housing

assistance

Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error Median

Standard

error

All persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.22218 8.3 0.79405 (X) (X) 8.2 1.00416 8.0 0.18135 16.1 1.31521

Race and Hispanic Origin2

White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.24837 7.6 0.52661 (X) (X) 7.6 0.40906 7.9 0.21114 11.8 1.0888

Not of Hispanic origin. . . . . . . . 7.2 0.30979 7.2 0.66564 (X) (X) 7.6 0.5598 8.4 2.01193 11.0 1.06865

Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 0.30321 11.2 0.55659 (X) (X) 11.2 0.4974 9.0 1.02362 18.0 1.13099

Hispanic origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.39864 8.6 1.29495 (X) (X) 7.6 0.51089 7.5 0.33358 (X) (X)

Not of Hispanic origin . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.26354 8.1 0.97106 (X) (X) 8.6 0.1124 8.6 1.2717 14.0 1.84038

Age3

Under 18 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.29579 9.8 1.55256 (X) (X) 10.1 1.92349 7.4 0.22398 19.9 2.18595

18 to 64 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 0.30135 7.6 0.47854 (X) (X) 7.5 0.35678 11.1 0.42482 11.5 0.88704

65 years and over . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5 3.35537 (B) (B) (X) (X) 14.4 3.94844 (X) (X) (X) (X)

Sex

Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 0.27064 7.3 0.55756 (X) (X) 7.5 0.39061 7.7 0.24285 12.6 21.0952

Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 0.3638 9.8 1.73589 (X) (X) 9.9 1.24348 8.9 1.40133 18.2 1.47466

Educational Attainment

(people 18 years old and over)

Less than 4 years of high

school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.0 0.70525 7.4 0.62194 (X) (X) 8.7 2.20665 12.7 2.66229 21.5 4.58025

High school graduate, no

college . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 0.4382 8.5 2.1211 (X) (X) 7.4 0.54764 11.5 1.15493 11.0 2.10206

1 or more years of college. . . . . . 7.1 0.60594 6.8 6.2284 12.8 8.17021 7.1 0.77092 8.6 2.9504 9.0 6.27684

Disability Status

(people 15 to 64 years old)

With a work disability. . . . . . . . . . 11.1 1.31667 7.5 0.69958 (X) (X) 9.7 2.36988 17.8 7.42448 21.9 4.68369

With no work disability. . . . . . . . . 7.0 0.33104 7.5 0.5768 (X) (X) 7.3 0.39049 7.8 0.34871 8.0 0.79504

Residence

Metropolitan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 0.25709 8.9 1.00242 (X) (X) 10.0 1.70288 8.2 1.44454 18.6 1.38412

Central city. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 0.33959 9.2 1.47948 (X) (X) 11.2 0.6975 9.4 6.25239 19.9 1.79573

Noncentral city . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.38586 8.4 1.57093 (X) (X) 8.4 1.15938 8.0 0.29192 11.4 1.13945

Nonmetropolitan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 1.31011 7.0 4.55103 (X) (X) 6.8 1.07261 7.8 0.40092 7.8 0.99204

Region

Northeast. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.44999 8.0 0.54801 25.6 2.28723 10.6 3.71621 7.7 0.34646 (X) (X)

Midwest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.0 0.98197 8.1 1.64662 (X) (X) 7.7 0.86382 9.8 1.58659 13.1 3.66224

South. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 0.42478 7.8 0.8718 (X) (X) 8.6 1.13991 7.8 0.33785 7.0 1.10906

West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 0.3904 11.5 1.75971 (X) (X) 7.7 0.58606 8.8 3.4856 (X) (X)

Family Status

In families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 0.22602 8.6 0.81977 (X) (X) 8.0 1.03657 7.8 0.18941 16.3 1.23242

In married-couple families . . . . 6.0 0.2385 9.0 0.82206 (X) (X) 7.2 1.37234 7.5 0.23022 7.5 1.26258

In families with a female

householder, no spouse

present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 1.871 11.0 0.59151 (X) (X) 11.7 0.71355 10.5 1.70927 (X) (X)

Unrelated individuals . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 1.95171 4.0 0.95566 (X) (X) 9.9 3.12797 20.5 5.90563 14.3 2.38853

Employment and Labor Force

Status

(people 18 years old and over)

Employed full time . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 0.99373 3.9 0.18634 3.9 0.24163 4.8 0.92289 7.2 0.42438 5.2 2.03562

Employed part time . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 2.39752 7.1 4.37907 (X) (X) 6.2 2.27387 11.9 0.62936 11.5 1.34208

Unemployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 0.6129 8.1 1.11922 (X) (X) 7.5 0.66937 8.7 1.30151 13.9 2.53526

Not in labor force. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 0.74419 10.4 20.8445 (X) (X) 11.1 0.72093 15.2 1.06796 (X) (X)

Family Income-to-Poverty

Ratio

Under 1.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 1.08174 9.1 1.26663 (X) (X) 10.5 1.02283 11.4 0.3862 (X) (X)

1.00 and over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 0.90115 7.4 0.51679 (X) (X) 6.8 0.74421 7.2 0.2262 7.1 0.93348

B Base less than 200,000. X Not applicable.

1

Means-tested programs include AFDC, general assistance, SSI, food stamps, medicaid, and housing assistance.

2

Hispanics may be of any race.

3

Age, educational attainment, and other variables are measured at the time the spells begin, excluding people already on programs at the start of the survey.