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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| **Published by the DOI Departmental Consulting Archeologist/NPS Archeology Program, National Park Service, Washington, DC, September           1990 (Revised March 1992).**

**Introduction**

This Technical Brief is the third in a series that addresses           the issues of archeological site stabilization and protection. Each           Technical Brief in the series describes a potentially useful technique           for maintaining the integrity of an archeological deposit. This series,           and the complementary Technical Notes assembled by the U.S. Army Corps           of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station in its Archeological Sites           Protection and Preservation Notebook, are designed to provide baseline           data for the initiation of site stabilization projects. The use of vegetation           always should be considered a viable means of site protection when developing           a set of stabilization alternatives. 

**Revegetation History**
  **Figure 1.**               Pharr Mounds, Natchez Trace Parkway, MS, stabilized with native               grasses. (All photos courtesy of the University of Mississippi.)
Archeological sites throughout much of the United States           have been covered with some form of vegetation since they were abandoned           by their original inhabitants. Carefully planned revegetation of such           a site will not constitute a previously unknown intrusion into the cultural           deposit. Such major earthworks as those at Cahokia, Emerald, the Pharr           Mounds (Figure 1) on the Natchez Trace, and the Great Serpent Mound           have been maintained through the use of floral cover (Thorne, Fay, and           Hester 1987). More recently, the Albany Mound group in Illinois has           been stabilized through a program of vegetation removal and replacement           (Brown 1983), and the Petersburg National Battlefield is being protected           with a carefully devised landscape management plan (Andropogon Associates           1988, 1989). Part of the Newark Earthworks has been protected through           the upkeep of golf course grasses. At the Winterville Mound group in           Mississippi (Figure 2), dense           stands of tall grass have been used for several years to stabilize the           sides of the mounds as well as to direct the movement of visitors around           the park. 

Revegetation is currently being undertaken as a part           of the total site stabilization package at Lake Britton in northern           California. Willow (*Salix negra*) cuttings were put into place           on a sloping bank and beneath a midden deposit (Figure           3). Figure 4 indicates           the extent of cutting growth after 12 months. 

Willow was selected for use in this particular setting           because the rate of shoreline loss is very slow and immediate protection           was not deemed necessary. In this particular instance, as the willows           mature and begin to drape over the edge of the lake, mayflies will find           a suitable habitat. A secondary benefit of this site stabilization effort           will then be the improvement of the local fishery. 

**Revegetation Benefits**

The reintroduction of plants on or around an archeological           site can be one of the least visually intrusive stabilization techniques           available. Careful species selection produces a vegetative cover that           blends well with the surrounding environment, and places a site in a           more "natural" setting. Properly selected species can also enhance a           habitat for the faunal community that frequents the site. As a result,           habitat enhancement carries the additional advantage of letting the           archeological community develop a protectionist alliance with groups           whose primary interests lie outside the area of cultural resource management.           

The use of vegetation as a means of achieving site stability           can be viewed as a soft approach in comparison to the more traditional           engineering approaches such as riprap or revetments. Floral systems           have the advantage of being elastic, and species easily can be found           that are adapted to a broad range of microtopographic settings. Vegetation           can also effectively dissipate wind and water energy that can destroy           a cultural deposit. 
  **Figure 2.** Winteville Mounds in Mississippi with a dense growth               of Johnson grass *(Shorghum halepense)* used for stabilization               and traffic routing.
Depending on the setting of a specific site, both types           of force can come into play. The majority of soil movement that is stimulated           by wind action takes place in a zone that extends from the surface of           the ground to heights that are below 3 feet. Wind velocities necessary           to move soil particles are less than 13 miles per hour at a height of           1 foot above the ground. Once windgenerated soil movement starts, velocities           less than 13 miles per hour are likely to be sufficient to continue           soil loss. Since 62 percent to 97 percent of soil loss activity occurs           in the 3-foot vertical zone closest to the ground, vegetation that exceeds           3 feet in height will serve to filter soil agitated by a driving wind           and at the same time lessen the force of the wind (Gray and Leiser 1989:12-13).           

The types of water-generated erosion that are most frequently           mentioned as impacting archeological deposits are sheet erosion and           stream channel erosion. In many areas, lacustrine erosion of sites has           a greater impact on archeological materials than channel erosion, but           a one-to-one comparison is not possible since two very different kinds           of forces are operating to remove the cultural deposit. 

Cultural resources managers, including archeologists,           seldom recognize the impact that rainfall has on unvegetated and unprotected           surfaces. Raindrop impact can cause soil particles to move as much as           2 feet vertically and 5 feet laterally on level surfaces and, if a sufficiently           steep gradient is present, slope movement of soil can occur (Gray and           Leiser 1989:12-13). From the perspective of energy, raindrop impact           generates greater kinetic forces than water that causes sheet erosion.           Soil movement results from both rain and sheeting water with raindrops           serving to dislodge individual soil particles that are then moved farther           by the sheet erosion process. 

The volume of soil removed through sheet erosion is           increased also as a result of frost heave, since this heaving action           will uniformly loosen the soil. Some counter-erosion compaction occurs           as rain falls on unprotected soil, but the rate of compaction is not           sufficient to prevent sheet erosion from occurring. 

The destructive force of various forms of erosion can           be lessened, if not completely stopped, in many situations through the           use of carefully selected vegetation. As the lateral roots of vegetation           spread and intermingle, the soil becomes bound together and acts like           a composite material. Stresses in the soil are transferred to the root           fibers, which have relatively high tensile strength, and in this manner           the soil is reinforced and strengthened (Gray and Leiser 1989:39). 

In aquatic environments where moving water pressures           are fairly constant on the vegetation, a well established stand of grass           will react accordingly and can reduce stream velocity and wave forces           by as much as 90 percent (Keown, Oswalt, Perry, and Dardean 1977:59).           Mitigation of lateral shear force is accomplished by a variety of plants           through the development of special stabilizing tissue and root stiffening           and strengthening (Schiechtl 1980:208). Mechanical stabilization techniques           do not exhibit this self-regulating capability, nor are they pliable.           

Budgetary constraints make the use of vegetation an           especially attractive choice because of the low cost of initial installation           and post-placement maintenance. In addition, plantings can be used in           combination with a number of mechanical stabilization techniques and           further strengthen the mechanical installations. In most cases, no special           labor expertise is required to put plantings in place, and labor costs           can be held at a minimum. Plant installation is, however, a labor intensive           operation. 

When necessary, vegetation can be reestablished without           disrupting a cultural deposit by using seed-bearing spray mulches or           by seeding beneath biodegradable mats. The use of mulches and matting           can add appreciably to the cost of a revegetation effort. As a cost           cutting measure, used carpeting can sometimes be substituted for matting           at no cost. Frequently, planting materials such as willows can be obtained           locally, which can further reduce installation costs. 

Plant materials have the additional advantage of adapting           to a wide variety of environmental conditions and topographical features.           Maiden cane (*Panicum hemitomon* Schult.), which has been tested           for its capabilities as a mechanism for erosion control, will grow in           shallow water, across a shoreline, and up a bank for a short distance           (Young 1973). Similarly, species can be obtained that will grow on dry           soils (Haffenrichter, et al. 1968; U.S. Department of Agriculture 1976),           on sand dunes (Knutson 1977), and in rocky or badly disturbed terrains           (Vogel 1981). Some degree of control of ultimate plant height can be           exercised during the plant selection process, and important anti-looting           protection can also be obtained through careful plant selection. 

Once established, a protective live vegetative cover           requires little or no maintenance. Grasses can be managed through haycutting.           In addition to maintaining an attractive appearance, haying has the           potential of being a no-cost operation that could generate a portion           of the site's maintenance funds. 

**Revegetation Limitations           and Liabilities**

Revegetation, like other stabilization techniques, is           not without its own set of liabilities, and these must be carefully           considered and weighed against its advantages. An assumption that must           be accepted as a part of most stabilization projects is that, since           a significant resource is being lost, some negative effects resulting           from the stabilization effort are acceptable and preferable to the continuing           loss of the site. In a revegetation effort a small amount of additional           site loss can be predicted before the plantings reach their maximum           protection potential. 

**Root Disturbance**

The most frequently voiced objections to site revegetation           center around the intrusion of roots into the cultural deposit. Beyond           doubt, root growth can disrupt and contaminate what may appear to be           an otherwise undisturbed deposit. With the exception of historic and           late prehistoric sites, forests and grasslands have covered many of           the sites in North America, and such site contamination and disruption           has already taken place. 

The potentially negative impacts from a revegetation           program can be recognized, and ways to deal with those impacts can be           identified during the project design process. Perhaps the best approach           to problem solving in planning for revegetation stabilization is to           recognize two broadly defined kinds of disruptions. One may be of a           physical nature while the other may be biochemical. 

Within the context of an archeological deposit, physical           disruption includes the lateral and vertical displacement of artifacts           and biofacts and the interruption of the general continuity of the archeological           deposit. Biochemical disruption stems from changes in soil pH, changes           in the hydrological characteristics of the cultural deposit, and changes           in the microfaunal community, which could in turn alter the chemical           constituency of the deposit. 

The majority of the physical disruptions that a site           experiences from revegetation derives from the root systems of the cover           species. The depth and lateral spread of various plants is species-specific,           as some species are more deeply rooted than others, while some species           have a greater lateral distribution of the supporting roots (Meyer and           Anderson 1939:266-267). However, knowledge of the variability of root           system development for specific species is not sufficient to allow prediction           of root growth and the concomitant potential for site disturbance. Other           factors, many of which are specific to site location, must be taken           into account. Among these are depth of the water table, the presence           of a subsurface hardpan, buried sand strata, and gravel deposits. 

Primary root systems, such as taproots and the laterals           that radiate from them, are likely to cause the most site disruption           since these are the largest roots in a complex. The secondary root system           of most species is threadlike or fibrous and generally too small to           pose any displacement problems. These smaller roots do have the potential           of invading small spaces in artifacts, bone, and charcoal, and in sufficient           numbers or size can wedge these materials apart. This kind of potential           destruction is likely to be minimized since the nature of these roots           is such that impenetrable, non-nutrient bearing substances will cause           the roots to grow in another direction (Laycock 1967:C21-C22). By the           same token, if archeological material is not cracked or broken, the           potential wedging action of secondary roots is not likely to pose a           problem. Primary roots are generally of sufficient size that artifacts           will be displaced rather than broken or destroyed by them. 

Perhaps the most destructive physical impact that floral           cover can have on an archeological deposit comes from overturned trees.           Since the majority of the primary root system of most trees is within           the first few feet below the surface of the ground (Meyer and Anderson           1939:267), blowdowns are likely to pull large chunks of soil and artifacts           from a cultural deposit. Tree throws can produce large holes that are           subject to being refilled by accumulated leaves and the materials that           were pulled up by the falling tree. This material must be accounted           for in subsequent scientific excavations. 

This points out the care that should be exercised in           the selection of species to be used in revegetation projects. Species           of larger vegetation such as trees that have heavy crowns with broad           lateral root systems should generally be avoided. Similarly, species           that have massive and deep root systems should be avoided to insure           that deep disturbance is minimized. 

**Bio-Chemical Disruptions**

Biochemical destruction of archeological materials that           may result from revegetation seems to be much less of a problem than           site destruction from physical forces. The chemical composition of the           leaf fall of different plant communities varies according to the predominant           species of the community and will vary somewhat within a community depending           on the volume of litter produced and the age of the dominant species.           Soil pH is controlled by plant litter to a relatively shallow depth,           being principally confined to the humic zone, while the pH of soils           beneath the humic layer reflects the petrographic nature of the substrata           (Braun-Blanquet 1932:245). 

When a plant community changes as a result of increasing           numbers of an invasion species, soil pH may change to reflect the character           of the invaders. In so far as the archeological component is concerned,           these are minor changes since they are largely confined to the humic           zone and will have little impact on the soils that lie below. Principal           changes occur in soil pH and in the organic matter content. Plant health,           and ultimately the success of a revegetation effort, is dependent on           the presence of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium and appropriate           H-ion concentrations. 

The extent to which amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus,           and potassium adequate for successful plant growth can alter artifacts           seems to be largely unknown. One must suspect that the presence of these           chemicals has little effect, given the excellent state of preservation           of artifacts in heavily vegetated sites. It is worth noting, however,           that when levels of decaying organic matter become sufficiently high,           carbonic and nitric acids are produced in quantities that are sufficient           to release phosphorus that is present in parent soils (Longsdon 1975:58).           Carbonic and nitric acids are thus present in most decomposing leaf           and stem litter and may account for alterations in soil/site matrix           pH. 

Higher concentrations of the H-ion, which are dependent           on the decomposition of plant litter, occur in the very top layer of           the 0 horizon, from 1 centimeter to 2 centimeter. As the depth below           this zone increases, H-ion concentration decreases and the pH of the           soil remains stable (Braun-Blanquet 1932:173). At varying depths below           the A-I horizon, depending on the depth of soil development, pH is controlled           by moisture and the characteristics of the underlying bedrock, and not           on the decomposition of plant litter. 

While Mathewson (1989:230) addresses the issue of site           burial specifically, his archeological component/preservation matrix           provides some insight on the effects of acidic versus basic environments           with regard to artifact loss. If soil conditions are altered from basic           to acidic, an acceleration of the rate of loss of certain kinds of archeological           remains will occur. Since changes in soil pH occur in the humic zone           (0 horizon) and in the upper portions of the A horizon when cover species           are added or changed, leaching is likely to dissipate any significant           acid accumulation. Artifactual materials in and beneath the A horizon           are not likely to be altered at an increasing rate as a result of decomposing           organic debris on the surface. 

Climate and topographic characteristics affect the production           of organic matter in soils while various soil types also affect the           accumulation of organic matter. Generally, forest soils derive their           organic matter content from leaf fall, since tree roots usually live           for many years and decompose slowly. The upper 6 inches of a soil will           contain the highest concentrations of organic matter, largely as a result           of movement by insects, worms, and small animals that live in the A           horizon. Below the first foot of depth, soil organic matter content           is about 1 percent by volume, and organic matter is virtually absent           at a depth of 4 feet. 

The relationship between organic matter content and           soil depth for grassed areas is similar to that of forested areas. At           the 0 horizon level organic matter is about 5 percent by volume, at           a depth of 1 foot it is about 1 percent, and at a depth of 4 feet it           is only about 0.1 percent (Thompson and Troeh 1957:126-130). 

The introduction of vegetation or the revegetation of           an archeological site will have little effect on its organic matter           content, assuming that the site has had an existing floral cover. On           completely denuded surfaces, it will take several years for organic           matter to accumulate, and this will be related to the presence of quantities           of nitrogen sufficient to allow plant growth (Thompson and Troeh 1957:131).           The addition of chemical nitrogen may prove to be necessary to ensure           successful revegetation. 

Given the low levels of soil organic matter below the           A horizon, the loss of artifactual materials should not be accelerated.           

**Project Planning**
  **Figure 3.**               Willow cuttings immediately after sprigging, Lake Britton, Shasta               County, CA.
Even though revegetation projects can be put into place           in relatively short periods of time, project development and implementation           sometimes require a relatively long preparation time. Plant selection,           acquisition, and placement must occur during periods of plant dormancy           to insure maximum survival once the growing season begins. Freeze/thaw           cycles, periods of dry weather, and disease can lead to plant loss.           Notice should be taken of potential plant toxicity for the crews who           will make an installation. Commonly seen plants such as English ivy           cause allergic reactions in some people. 

While not directly a concern for stabilization projects,           care must be exercised to protect against the introduction of species           that might ultimately become weeds. The best approach to a revegetation           program is to try to select species that are native to the vicinity           of the stabilization project. If a non-native or commercially supplied           species is to be used, careful consideration should be given to the           background of the planting material selected. 

**Sources of Plant           Data and Planting Guidelines**
**Figure 4.** Willow               cuttings 12 months after sprigging, Lake Britton, Shasta County,               CA.  
While a wide variety of data that deal specifically           with revegetation is available, information is scattered and sometimes           difficult to acquire. Schiechtl's (1980) Bioengineering for Land Reclamation           and Conservation is an excellent source of information on planting techniques           and the range of microenvironments that can be stabilized by revegetation.           Much of the background data Schiechtl uses is from Europe, and many           of the species that he recommends are not indigenous to North America.           Similar species do occur in the United States, however, and substitutions           can be easily identified. 

The most readily available source of revegetation data           has been developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) of the U.S.           Department of Agriculture. Some information is available from the regional           SCS Plant Materials Centers. These organizations are responsible for           the testing and development of species that are suited for stabilization           in their respective regions. Prior to 1969, SCS prepared several handbooks           on stabilization issues that provide regionally specific data. 

Other sources of revegetation and stabilization data           are the U.S. Forest Service and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE)           laboratories, particularly the COE Waterways Experiment Station. The           COE reference works generally deal with streambank and lakeshore erosion,           in contrast to the work of the SCS, which deals with both wet and dry           environments. Maritime erosion problems are dealt with by the COE and           the Shore Protection Manual (1984), which is a highly technical source           of stabilization data. SCS publications are also available for coastal           areas. 

Local and regional SCS offices can provide support in           making planting selections as well as determining fertilizer and lime           requirements for revegetation projects. Soil pH requirements for maximum           growth will vary by species, and soil testing should be completed after           the plants have been selected. In this manner, a fertilization and liming           plan can be devised that will be suited to the selected cover plantings.           At the same time, a maintenance schedule for fertilization can be developed.           From that schedule future maintenance costs can be projected. 

**Installation Costs**

Stabilization projects that employ revegetation as the           primary technique can provide one of the most cost-effective means of           site protection available. This is true not only for initial installation           but for long-term maintenance as well. 

Cost projections for a program of revegetation should           include plant purchase costs if the species to be installed cannot be           collected. If collection is possible, projected labor costs must include           not only the time needed to install the materials but collection time           as well. Neither of these tasks requires skilled labor, so costs can           be minimized. If purchasing of materials is required and the materials           must come from some distance, shipping charges may add significant cost.           

**Request for Assistance**

Information exchange about site stabilization is available           from and should be reported to:          Dr. Robert M. Thorne          National Clearinghouse for Archaeological Site Stabilization          Center for Archaeological Research          University of Mississippi          University, MS 38677          phone: (662) 915-7316          fax: (662) 915-7129          email: [email protected]

**References Cited**

Andropogon Associates, Ltd.           1988       *Earthworks Landscape Management           Action Plan for the Petersburg National Battlefield.* Report prepared           for the Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, Philadelphia,           PA. 1989       *Earthworks           Landscape Management Manual; Section I.* Prepared for the Mid-Atlantic           Regional Office, National Park Service, Philadelphia, PA. 

Braun-Blanquet, J.           1932       *Plant Sociology: The Study           of Plant Communities.* First Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. 

Brown, Margaret K.           1983       Mothballing Albany Mounds.           *American Archaeology* (formerly *Contract Abstracts and CRM           Archaeology*) 3(3). 

Gray, Donald H. and Andrew T. Leiser           1989       *Biotechnical Slope Protection           and Erosion Control.* Robert E. Krieger, Malabar, FL. 

Haffenrichter, A.L., John L. Schwendiman, Harold R.           Harris, Robert S. McLauchlan, and Harold W. Miner           1968       *Grasses and Legumes for           Soil Conservation in the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin States.*           Agricultural Handbook 339, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department           of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 

Keown, M. P., N. R. Oswalt, B. B. Perry, and B. A. Dardean,           Jr.           1977       *Literature Survey and Preliminary           Evaluation of Streambank Protection Methods.* Technical Report H-77-9.           U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,           MS. 

Knutson, Paul L.           1977       *Planting Guidelines for           Dune Creation and Stabilization.* Coastal Engineering Technical Aid           77-4, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Ft. Belvoir, VA. 

Longsdon, Gene           1975       *The Gardener's Guide to           Better Soil.* Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA. 

Mathewson, Christopher C.           1989       *Interdisciplinary Workshop           on the Physical-Chemical-Biological Processes Affecting Archeological           Sites.* Contract Report EL-89-1, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways           Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. 

Meyer, Bernard S. and Donald B. Anderson           1939       *Plant Physiology.* D.           Van Nostrand, New York. 

Laycock, William A.           1967       *Distribution of Roots and           Rhizomes in Different Soil Types in the, Pine Barrens of New Jersey.*           Geological Survey Professional Paper 563-C, U.S. Geological Survey,           Washington, DC. 

Schiechtl, Hugo           1980       *Bioengineering for Land           Reclamation and Conservation.* University of Alberta Press, Edmonton,           AB. 

Thompson, Louis M. and Frederick R. Troeh           1957       *Soils and Soil Fertility.*           Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York. 

Thorne, Robert M., Patricia M. Fay, and James J. Hester                     1987       *Archaeological Site Preservation           Techniques: A Preliminary Review.* Technical Report EL-87-3, U.S.           Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.           

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station                     1984       *Shore Protection Manual           Volumes I and II.* Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army           Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture           1976       *Plant Materials Study: A           Search for Drought-Tolerant Plant Materials for Erosion Control, Revegetation,           and Landscaping along California Highways.* Soil Conservation Service           Research Project, USDA/SCS LPMC-1, Davis, CA. 

Vogel, Willis G.           1981       *A Guide for Revegetating           Coal Mine Soils.* General Technical Report NE-68. U.S. Forest Service,           Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Berea, KY. 

Young, W. C.           1973       Plants for Shoreline Erosion           Control in Southern Areas of the United States. In *Man-Made Lakes:           Their Problems and Environmental Effects.* Geophysical Monograph           Series No. 17, American Geophysical Union. 

**Annotated Bibliography**

Andropogon Associates, Ltd.           1989       *Earthworks Landscape Management           Manual Section I.* Prepared for the Mid-Atlantic Regional Office,           National Park Service, Philadelphia, PA.           This manual's primary focus is to develop management strategies and           interpretive guidelines that resolve current conflicts between the requirements           for preservation and the impacts of interpretation and visitor use at           earthwork sites. The manual is intended to serve as a guide for all           earthworks in the National Park Service (NPS) system and for application           to similar environments within the NPS system with limited study. A           major observation noted during the review of the sites evaluated for           the preparation of the manual was that earthwork sites stabilized by           healthy, native plant communities are in the best condition, while some           current management practices have contributed directly to the degradation           of the resources. The manual is divided into two major sections. The           first section is a review and evaluation of current management practices           and an assessment of present vegetative cover types. Recommendations           are made for an overall management program aimed at integrating preservation           and interpretation objectives. The second section begins with procedures           for evaluating and monitoring a site with respect to the proposed guidelines.           Since many of the management techniques focus on native plant communities,           the management of which is unfamiliar to many park employees, workshops           at various levels of NPS employees were held. Actual hands-on instruction           sessions were used as a means of both teaching park employees how to           use the sod bioengineering techniques and to begin restabilization and           revegetation on damaged ground surfaces that needed immediate attention.           Critical to the soil bioengineering techniques is the need to prioritize           problem areas to include both short term and long term management practices.           

Brown, Margaret K.           1983       Mothballing Albany Mounds.           *American Archeology* (formerly *Contract Abstracts and CRM Archeology*)           3(3).           The Albany Mound site consists of some 40 to 50 mounds and 3 village           areas and is owned by the Illinois Department of Conservation. Preservation           of the site, with a very limited budget, was a multidisciplinary effort.           Invasion species were removed from the site, and prairie grasses, brush,           and trees that would have been a part of the original prairie community           were left to grow to maturity. Management of the prairie environment           will be through controlled burns, and the expense of maintenance will           be minimized. 

Hafenrichter, A. L., John L. Schwendiman, Harold L.           Harris           1968       *Grasses and Legumes for           Soil Conservation in the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin States.*           Agricultural Handbook 339, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department           of Agriculture, Washington, DC.           This handbook was revised in 1979 and is no longer listed as a handbook.           It identifies grasses and legumes that are suitable for erosion control,           categorizing them according to the projected life of each. Each species           is discussed, and line drawings as well as Agricultural Zone maps are           included. Planting directions are a part of each species description,           and recommended planting rates are listed in an appendix. 

Knutson, Paul L.           1977       *Planting Guidelines for           Dune Creation and Stabilization.* Coastal Engineering Technical Aid           77-4, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Fort Belvoir, VA.           Beach grasses have been used to stabilize dune systems. Techniques are           available to propagate beach grasses. Guidelines for selecting plants           and planting methods, obtaining plants, storing, planting and maintaining           plants, and estimating labor requirements for dune vegetation projects           are included. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture           1976       *Plant Materials Study: A           Search for Drought-Tolerant Plant Materials for Erosion Control Revegetation,           and Landscaping Along California Highways.* Soil Conservation Service           Research Project, USDA/SCS LPMC-1, Davis, CA.           Plant materials were assembled, propagated, and established along California           State highways. Grasses, legumes, and the California poppy were evaluated           for erosion control, fire control, and aesthetic purposes. Shrubby species           were evaluated for revegetation and general landscaping. Emphasis was           placed upon drought-tolerant, low-growing plants that would require           a minimum of maintenance. A herbaceous seeding guide and a list of native           shrubs and trees were prepared for California, classified by major land           resource areas. Special and supplementary studies relevant to plant           propagation and establishment were conducted. Whenever possible, the           plants were evaluated on representative highway sites using common methods           applied by contractors. Most data were collected by visual observation;           no statistical analyses were made beyond simple arithmetic averages.           Some continued monitoring of plantings is recommended to assess anticipated           future changes. 

Vogel, Willis G.           1981       *A Guide for Revegetating           Coal Mine Soils.* General Technical Report NE-68. U.S. Forest Service,           Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Berea, KY.           This report provides information, recommendations, and guidelines for           revegetating land in the Eastern United States that has been disturbed           by coal mining. Included are brief descriptions of major coal mining           regions in the East, a discussion of mine soil properties, and procedures           for sampling, testing, and amending mine soils. Plant species that have           been used for revegetating surface-mined lands are identified and described.           Selection criteria for plant species and methods and requirements for           seeding and planting are explained. Some of the data on tree species           used in reforestation were obtained from recent surveys of 30-year-old           experimental plantings in several Eastern States. Included are maps           showing the Eastern coal regions or portions of them where a plant species           has been used successfully or its use is recommended. 

Young, W. C.           1973       Plants for Shoreline Erosion           Control in Southern Areas of the United States, modified by W. C. Ackerman,           G. F. White, E. B. Worthington. In, *Man-Made Lakes: Their Problems           and Environmental Effects.* Geophysical Monograph Series No. 17.           American Geophysical Union.           This paper discusses various species of plants that have been tested           for their adequacy in stabilizing eroding shorelines. Maiden cane is           specifically identified as a good choice for protection objectives that           extent across waterlines. 

Return to: Technical           Briefs            | **introduction**

**revegetation                 history**

**revegetation                 benefits**

**limitations                 and liabilities**

**project                 planning**

**installation                 costs**

**references                 cited**

**annotated                 bibliography**

**print                 version  **

**technical briefs                 index** |
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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