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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             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| **Published by the DOI Departmental Consulting Archeologist/NPS Archeology Program, National Park Service, Washington, DC, December,           1988.**

*The National Park Service's National Historic Landmarks           (NHL) Program plays a major role in preserving America's nationally           significant cultural resources. National Historic Landmark designation           increases public awareness of archeology by highlighting the importance           of our most significant prehistoric and historic archeological resources.           By disseminating information on threats to archeological NHLs, the Program           draws attention to the worse problems confronting our finest sites.           By sponsoring study of nationally significant archeological resources,           the NHL Program helps us to better understand our past. And by increasing           the number of archeological NHLs, the Program publicizes the benefits           and limitations of current laws and statutes meant to protect our archeological           heritage.*

Following the introduction, this publication explains           what the NHL Program is; describes the process by which NHLs are identified,           nominated, and designated; defines the major issues involving NHL prehistoric           and historic archeological resources, and shows how the NHL Program           can help to meet the challenge confronting our national archeological           heritage. 

*Support Office contact information was updated September           1999.*

**INTRODUCTION**

**What Are Archeological           Resources?**

Archeological resources are the material remains of           human life or activities that are capable of providing scientific or           humanistic understandings of past human behavior, cultural adaptation,           and related topics. Archeologists apply scientific or scholarly techniques           such as controlled observation, contextual measurement, controlled collection,           analysis, interpretation, and explanation to collect and analyze those           resources. Material remains of particular interest to archeologists           include physical evidence of human habitation, occupation, use, or activity           within sites, locations, or contexts. 

Because of their nature, archeological resources are           particularly vulnerable to three types of destruction. They are: (1)           severe physical deterioration in the form of erosion and other natural           processes, (2) inappropriate construction, alteration, or demolition           caused by project designs that do not fully consider impacts upon archeological           resources, and (3) looting and vandalism. 

**The Special Characteristics           of Archeological Resources**

Archeological monuments, ruins, and objects were among           the first cultural resources to be recognized and protected under Federal           law. Public concern about threats to prehistoric ruins on Federal land           in the Southwest rallied political support for the protective Antiquities           Act of 1906. Indeed, it has generally been relatively easy to identify,           evaluate, and designate such spectacular sites as the pueblo ruins in           New Mexico's Chaco Culture National Historical Park and the mound complexes           at Cahokia, Illinois, or Moundville, Alabama. 

Most archeological resources, however, are far less           conspicuous. Many deposits are deeply buried. Others are little more           than stained soil or a scattering of broken rock. Once found, it is           frequently difficult to determine the original form or function of an           archeological resource. 

Archeological resources are not only elusive, they are           also among our nation's most numerous class of cultural resources. Two           basic facts account for this situation. First, people have been living           in North America for at least 12,000 years. During that time they have           left numerous remains. Second, most things built by the earliest European           settlers (and many built by their descendants), have left little more           than archeological evidence of their existence. 

Tens of thousands of sites have been found since Europeans           first came to American shores. Many hundreds have been scientifically           studied since Thomas Jefferson conducted the first modern systematic           excavation of an Indian mound in Virginia in 1792. Untold thousands           of sites, known and unknown, have been destroyed. Most archeologists           agree, however, that other thousands await discovery and scientific           study. 
**Moccasin Bend Archeological               District NHL**, TN, (NHL criterion 5). Archeological resources               located within this district possess national significance under               the "Original Inhabitants" and "Major American Wars" themes. Moccasin               Bend contains the best preserved and most diverse assemblage of               prehistoric archeological resources in the Tennessee River Valley.               It also contains sites associated early Spanish exploration and               is the locale of several sites associated with Civil War military               operations in and around the strategic town of Chattanooga. 
Once found, archeological deposits must be carefully           examined and meticulously recorded. As already mentioned, their form,           content, and function may be difficult to interpret. Precise determinations           of site boundaries, artifact type and style, feature function, and site           condition almost always require extensive testing and verification.           Historic archeological resources, such as building foundations or associated           features of standing structures such as cisterns, mill races, or garden           paths, moreover, are not always recognized or adequately treated. Methods           used by archeologists to collect and analyze data further contribute           to the special status of archeological resources. In order to accurately           analyze archeological data, archeologists must carefully record the           positions of all artifacts and deposits encountered during excavations.           This physical relationship between excavated materials and their exact           location is called "archeological context." Artifacts and other deposits           located within their archeological context are said to have "integrity."           Integrity is lost when archeological resources are disturbed or removed           without careful context documentation. 

Excavation is the primary method archeologists use to           recover information. Although some excavations only uncover, sample,           and re-bury archeological deposits, all excavations permanently alter           the context of archeological resources to some degree. This places archeologists           in a unique position-the excavations necessary to recover archeological           resources always affect the data they collect. 

Archeologists have responded to this paradox by working           to preserve archeological resources in place whenever possible. When           excavation is necessary, extraordinarily rigorous methods are used to           recover, record, and analyze data within the context of their discovery.           In order to preserve as much of the context as possible, archeologists           generally strive to collect relatively small samples from sites that           can be preserved. Total recovery of archeological resources from a locale           usually occurs only when all other alternatives for preservation are           exhausted. 

Such practices preserve the all-important contextual           record and permit future study. This is important because archeological           resources are significant not just for what they have already revealed,           but for what they can tell us about past lifeways at some later date           when more sophisticated techniques and analytic methods are available.           By preserving archeological resources in place and keeping careful records           of what has been recovered, archeologists work to assure that our past           indeed has a future. 

This combination of factors presents a considerable           challenge to those identifying and designating nationally significant           archeological resources as NHLs. They also explain why archeological           resources are susceptible to many threats. Through its use as a planning           tool, through identification of potential NHLs, and by evaluating threats           to existing ones, the NHL Program can provide an extra degree of protection           to nationally significant archeological resources. NHL designation heightens           awareness of archeology nationwide through attracting publicity to sites.           In these ways, the NHL Program can help meet the challenge faced by           America's threatened archeological resources (36 CFR 65.2). 

**THE NATIONAL HISTORIC           LANDMARKS PROGRAM          What Are National Historic Landmarks?**

National Historic Landmarks are historic and archeological           properties found to be nationally significant and designated as Landmarks           by the Secretary of the Interior. They are acknowledged as our Nation's           most important historic and archeological resources. They consist of           buildings, structures, districts, objects, and sites commemorating historical           events and cultural patterns that changed the course of history. They           illustrate architectural, artistic, humanistic, social, political, educational,           and cultural achievements. They include primary sites associated with           Native American and ethnographic history. 

**Role and Function           of the NHL Program**

**What the Program           Is:**The National Park Service conducts the National Historic           Landmarks Program to identify, designate, and encourage protection of           buildings, structures, sites, and objects of national significance.           Its mission is to preserve "historic sites, buildings, and objects of           national significance for the inspiration and benefit of the people           of the United States" (Historic Sites Act of 1935). 

**What It Does:**NHL designation by the Secretary of the Interior aids           planning by government agencies. private organizations, and individuals           by identifying properties of national significance. Designation is also           one of the major tools for scrutinizing areas proposed for addition           to the National Park System and for nomination to the World Heritage           List. An example is Cahokia Mounds, which is an archeological NHL that           has been designated a World Heritage site. 

There are several other parts of the NHL Program managed           by the National Park Service besides designation of properties as NHLs.           For example, the condition of threatened and endangered NHLs is monitored           through periodic inspections, and an annual report to Congress is compiled           by the Preservation Assistance Division. The division encourages protection           of endangered NHLs through improving public awareness about the threats.           "Landmarks at Risk" bulletins detail the threats to specific NHLs as           well as precisely what can be done to remedy those conditions. 

**Enabling Legislation:**A substantial body of Federal legislation has been enacted           over the last eighty years to preserve and protect America's cultural           resources. Major milestones in this legislative history and the development           of the NHL Program within these laws are summarized below. 

**LEGISLATIVE                       HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK PROGRAM**

**Historic                       Sites Act of 1935 (Pub. L. 74-292; 49 Stat. 666; 16                       U.S.C. 461 et seq)**:The first                       Federal law to establish historic preservation as a policy                       of the Federal government. To implement this policy, the                       Act established a survey of historic and archeological sites,                       buildings, and objects. *Provisions in the Act authorized                       a register of nationally significant properties* and                       provided for use of this list to identify properties for                       entry into the National Park System. *It gave the Secretary                       of the Interior general authority to take steps to preserve                       NHLs, through National Park Service management, if necessary*.                       Regulations for the NHL Program are contained in **36                       CFR 65**.

**National                       Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended (Pub.                       L. 89-665, Pub. L 96-515; 80 Stat. 915; 16 U.S.C. 470 et                       seq)**: This Act expanded the register                       authorized in the Historic Sites Act of 1935 to include                       properties of State and local significance. Renamed the                       National Register of Historic Places, it includes NHLs.                       *The act provides specific protections for NHLs under                       Section 110(f)*. Regulations which implement this provision                       are contained in **36                       CFR Part 800.10**.

**General                       Authorities Act of 1970 (90 Stat. 40; 16 U.S.C. 1-5)**: This Act directs the Secretary of the Interior                       to prepare an *annual report to Congress (known as the                       Section 8 Report) identifying NHLs exhibiting known or potential                       damage or threats to the integrity of their resources*.                       The Act further authorizes National Park Service studies                       of NHLs for possible recommendation to Congress for inclusion                       in the National Park System.

**Mining                       In the National Parks Act of 1976 (90 Stat. 1342; 16                       U.S.C. 1908)**: Section 9 of this                       Act directs the Secretary of the Interior to request advice                       from the Advisory Council for Historic Preservation to protect                       NHLs threatened with destruction by surface mining activities.

**The National Historic           Landmarks Survey**

Identification and evaluation of potential NHL properties           are coordinated through the National Historic Landmarks Survey. The           History Division administers the NHL Survey. Several methods may be           used to determine NHL candidacy. History Division historians ordinarily           identify potential NHLs in theme studies based upon the NHL outline           of U.S. history and archeology. Individual site studies can be undertaken           by other bureau professionals, professionals in other Federal agencies,           State Historic Preservation Officers, and others. Whatever their source,           all studies must be reviewed in the History Division for technical accuracy.           Nominations successfully passing this review are then considered for           presentation to the National Park System Advisory Board. 

**Identifying Potential           NHLs:**Any public agency and all private groups and individuals           can recommend potential NHLs. These include, but are not limited to:           
- **Federal Agencies** :  Many Federal agencies actively work to             preserve and protect archeological resources. Among these are the             Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Management, the Department             of Agriculture's Forest Service, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.             Archeologists and others employed by these and other Federal agencies             play a major role in identifying archeological resources of potential             national significance. 
- **The States** :              State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs), play a major role in             identifying potential archeological NHLs. Several states have increased             the effectiveness of their participation in this process by incorporating             NHL identification into their statewide comprehensive plans by reviewing             potential NHLs within their borders, and by initiating State NHL nomination             programs. 
- **Professional Organizations** :  Professional archeological organizations             can play a major role in identifying potential archeological NHLs.             The NHL Committee of the Society for American Archaeology, the largest             organization representing American archeologists, has participated             in the NHL Program by reviewing some NHL nominations through a Memorandum             of Understanding with the National Park Service. 
-  **State Archeological             Societies** :  Organized in every State and             in most territories, State archeological societies draw their membership             from the professional and avocational archeological communities. 
- **Advocacy Groups** :              Regional, State and local historical societies, environmental             groups, and other organizations can play a major role in identifying             potential NHLs. 
- **Individuals** :               Individual professional and avocational archeologists,             as well as any other private party, can also participate in identifying             properties of potential national significance. 

**NHL Designation--the           Process**

**Preparing the Nomination:**Once identified, NHL candidates enter the nomination           phase. All nominations are prepared on standard National Register forms;           there is no special NHL nomination form. Although anyone can prepare           an archeological NHL nomination, it is recommended that individuals           preparing the forms meet the Secretary of the Interior's Professional           Qualification Standards for Archeology. Fully set forth in the *Secretary           of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and Historic           Preservation*, they include: (1) a graduate degree in a relevant           discipline, (2) one year of full-time professional experience or its           equivalent, (3) four months supervised field and analytic experience,           and (4) demonstrated ability to carry research to completion. At least           one year of experience at the supervisory level is also required in           the study of prehistoric or historic archeological resources. 

Prospective preparers should contact the nearest NPS           Regional Office at the earliest stage of work in order to receive guidance           and technical assistance in preparing the draft nomination. Requests           for technical assistance should be addressed to the NHL Coordinator,           National Park Service, in the appropriate region. These are: 
 Mailing Address*(updated 9/99)*Service Area  Philadelphia Support Office              200 Chestnut Street              Philadelphia, PA 19106              (215) 597-1578  DC, DE, MD, NJ, NY, PA, VA, WV  Boston Support Office              15 State Street, 6th floor              Boston, MA 02109              (617) 223-5224  CT, MA, ME, NH, RI, VT  Southeast Regional Office              Atlanta Federal Center              1924 Building              100 Alabama Street, S.W.              Atlanta, GA 30303              (404) 562-3171  AL, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN,               Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands  Midwest Support Office              1709 Jackson Street              Omaha, NE 68102              (402) 221-3426  AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, MI, MN, MO, NE,               ND, OH, SD, WI  Intermountain Support Office--Denver              P.O. Box 25287              Denver, CO 80225-0287              (303) 969-2842 CO, MT, UT, WY  Intermountain Support Office--Santa               Fe              P.O. Box 728              Santa Fe, NM 87504              (505) 988-6788 AZ, NM, TX, OK  Columbia Cascades Support Office              National Park Service              909 First Avenue              Seattle, WA 98104-1060              (206) 220-4138 ID, OR, WA  Pacific Great Basin Support Office              Suite 600              600 Harrison Street              San Francisco, CA 94107-1372              (415) 427-1398  CA, HI, NV, American Samoa, Guam,               Northern Marianas Islands, Republic of Palau, Federated States of               Micronesia, Marshall Islands  Alaska Support Office              2525 Gambell Street, Room 107              Anchorage, AK 99503              (907) 257-2668 AK 
Initial drafts of NHL nomination studies should be submitted           no later than 120 days prior to National Park System Advisory Board           meetings at which they are to be considered. Following consultation           with the appropriate NHL Coordinator in the NPS Regional Office, preparers           will be advised about additional consultation with NHL Survey staff           in the NPS Washington Office before beginning work on a nomination.           NHL Survey staff members will examine the survey record to determine           if the site in question has already been studied and reviewed by the           Advisory Board. Survey staff may also provide technical assistance to           those preparing nominations. 

**Criteria of Significance:**
**Franklin Court, Independence               National Historical Park, PA.** Many nationally significant archeological               sites and districts within the National Park Service system are               NHLs. One that is not is Franklin Court, the site of Benjamin Franklin's               residence in Philadelphia, though it may be eligible under criterion               2. The painted steel frame in the foreground is the site of his               "good house," demolished in 1812. Concrete-covered viewing ports               allow visitors to see surviving portions of the foundation.
Preparation of NHL nominations largely follows procedures           set forth in National Register Bulletin 16, *Guidelines for Completing           National Register of Historic Places Forms*. NHL nominations, however,           must address more rigorous criteria for the designation (36 CFR Part           65A). Unlike the National Register, which uses four criteria of significance,           potential NHL properties are evaluated according to six criteria of           national significance. Properties eligible for NHL status are those:           
-  that are associated with events that have made a             significant contribution to, and are identified with, or that outstandingly             represent, the broad national patterns of United States history and             from which an understanding and appreciation of those patterns may             be gained; or 
-  that are associated importantly with the lives of             persons nationally significant in the history of the United States;             or 
-  that represent some great idea or ideal of the American             people; or
-  that embody the distinguishing characteristics of             an architectural type specimen exceptionally valuable for a study             of a period, style or method of construction, or that represent a             significant, distinctive and exceptional entity whose components may             lack individual distinction; or 
-  that are composed of integral parts of the environment             not sufficiently significant by reason of historical association or             artistic merit to warrant individual recognition but collectively             compose an entity of exceptionally historical or artistic significance,             or outstandingly commemorate or illustrate a way of life or culture;             or 
-  that have yielded or may be likely to yield information             of *major scientific importance by revealing new cultures, or by             shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas* of             the United States. Such sites are those which have yielded, or which             may reasonably be expected to yield data *affecting theories, concepts             and ideas to a major degree*. (emphasis added) 

The specific criterion addressed should be cited in           the statement of significance
**Pecos Pueblo NHL**, NM               (NHL criterion 6). Pecos was an important Pueblo community strategically               located along trade routes connecting the Great Plains with the               Rio Grande Valley. A series of Spanish Missions occupied the site               between the early 1600s and the time of the site's final abandonment               in 1838. Today, Pecos Pueblo is part of the National Park System               and known as Pecos National Monument.
 on the nomination form. Unlike other NHL nominations,           archeological candidates must always address Criterion 6 in addition           to others cited.

 Application of Criterion 6 is at once the most critical           and the most challenging component of an archeological NHL nomination.           Nominations made under Criterion 6 must address two questions: 
-  What information is the site **likely** to yield?
-  Is the information **nationally important**?

Answers to both questions must be well documented and           logically organized. In order to establish the national significance           of an archeological resource, preparers must show how the data make           a major contribution to the existing corpus of information. This standard           requires that potentially recoverable data are likely to revolutionize           or substantially modify a major prehistoric or historic concept, resolve           a substantial historical or anthropological debate, or close a serious           gap in a major theme of United States prehistory or history. 

**Integrity:**
**Nauvoo Historic District               NHL**, IL, (NHL criterion 3). Established by Mormon leader Joseph               Smith in 1839, Nauvoo was occupied by Icarians, another religious               denomination, after the Mormons left. The site is significant as               a locale associated with major 19th century revitalization religious               movements.
Both the National Register and the NHL Survey require           site integrity. NHL candidates, however, must possess a substantially           higher degree of integrity than that required for National Register           designation. This higher measure of integrity may include, but is not           limited to, unusually intact or undisturbed deposits or features and           archeological resources exhibiting a demonstrably high degree of preservation.           

The extent of the differences in this standard of integrity           is illustrated in Exception (3) of the NHL criteria. A property may           be eligible for designation if, according to Exception (3), there are           archeological resources related to "a building or structure no longer           standing [and] the person or event associated with it is of transcendent           importance in the nation's history and the associations consequential"           (36 CFR Part 65.4[b][3]). 

**Themes, Subthemes,           and Facets:**

NHL nominations must cite relevant themes, subthemes,           and facets. The NHL Survey utilizes a thematic framework to classify           cultural resources. This framework classifies the nation's history and           prehistory into 34 themes. Each of these, in turn, is divided into subthemes           and facets expressing more precise topical and chronological Categories.           The "Cultural Developments: Indigenous American Populations" theme,           for example, consists of the following subthemes: 
-  The Earliest Inhabitants
-  Post-Archaic and Pre-Contact Developments
-  Prehistoric Archeology: Topical Facets
-  Ethnohistory of Indigenous American Populations
**Puukohola Heiau NHL**,               HI (NHL criterion 4). "Temple of the Hill of the Whale" is one of               Hawaii's most famous temple sites. The site was built or rebuilt               by Kamehameha the Great in 1791. From this site Kamehameha extended               his authority over the Hawaiian Islands and founded the Hawaiian               kingdom. 
Each subtheme is divided into a number of facets. Those           associated with "The Earliest Inhabitants" subtheme, for example, include           "Early Peopling of the New World," "Archaic Adaptations of the Caribbean,"           and "Domestication of the Dog." A listing of these may be found in the           publication, *History and Prehistory in the National Park System and           the National Historic Landmarks Program* (for sale by the Superintendent           of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402:           Order Number 024-0050121-1, $3.75).

**Nomination Review:**Archeological nomination forms are sent to the appropriate           NPS Regional Office for initial review and approval. Approved nominations           are then sent to the Chief Historian, History Division Washington Office           (WASO), NPS. Those passing review are then presented by the Chief Historian           to an *ad hoc* review panel of professionals from relevant disciplines.           Nominations may be referred back for revision at any stage of this process.           Nominations supported by the *ad hoc* panel are reviewed by the           Associate Director, Cultural Resources, WASO, for final approval. The           study becomes a formal NHL nomination of the NPS upon approval by the           Associate Director. 

The National Park System Advisory Board ordinarily reviews           NHL nominations and makes recommendations for designation to the Secretary           of the Interior. Nominations are presented by NPS twice a year to the           Advisory Board. In accordance with law and NHL regulations, public notice           of Advisory Board review of NHL nomination studies must be made at least           60 days prior to each Board meeting. National Park Service administrative           requirements make it necessary for nominations to be complete in all           respects no later than 90 days before the Advisory Board meets. 

At its meetings, the Advisory Board weighs the advice           of the NPS and considers the findings of the *ad hoc* panel. Following           this, the Advisory Board makes its recommendation to the Secretary of           the Interior. Properties are designated as NHLs when approved by the           Secretary. If not already listed, newly designated NHLs are also automatically           placed in the National Register. 

**MAJOR ISSUES INVOLVING           NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARK ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES**

**The Need to Reach           Representative Levels In the Overall Number of Archeological NHLs**

Only about 180, approximately ten percent of all NHLs           nationwide, have been recognized based upon their archeological significance.           Archeologists agree that there are large numbers of presently unrecognized           nationally significant archeological resources worthy of NHL designation.           If we are to bring the number of archeological NHLs up to representative           levels, we must intensively examine those kinds of properties as well           as identify new ones. The extent of this need can be seen in a recent           study conducted by the ten NPS regional offices of cultural resources           in the National Park System. Approximately 36,700 archeological sites           were identified in a 20 percent sample of NPS park lands. Of these,           38 percent, or 13,946 sites, have been identified as possessing potential           national significance or being likely to contribute to the national           significance of areas or districts in which they are located (NPS 1987b).           

**The Need to Recognize           the Full Range of Nationally Significant Archeological Resources Associated           With or Located Within the Boundaries of Existing NHL Properties**

Archeological resources are associated with virtually           every NHL. As noted above, the presence of many of these resources is           not easily recognized. Standing structures designated as NHLs frequently           have not had their archeological components identified or evaluated.           Many subthemes and facets in the NHL thematic framework (see above),           moreover, are entirely absent or seriously underrepresented. In order           to more fully understand and preserve our archeological heritage, these           gaps must be filled by identifying unrepresented and underrepresented           archeological themes and designating properties associated with them.           

Existing NHL procedures should more effectively be used           to identify and evaluate larger numbers of archeological resources of           all types associated with or located within the boundaries of existing           NHLs. 

Destroyed or irrevocably altered buildings considered           for NHL de-designation pose a special challenge. Special NHL criteria           considerations outlined above are used to assess archeological remains           of destroyed buildings or associated archeological features. This is           done because the definition of their integrity must differ from that           used for intact buildings. These criteria for archeological resources           should be evaluated when the NHL designation of standing structures           judged to have lost their integrity is considered for removal. Loss           of integrity of above-ground resources might not affect the integrity           of significant archeological resources. Although this varies from case           to case, loss of structural integrity of above-ground resources can           result in increased emphasis on the significance of remaining archeological           resources by providing new information in the form of undiscovered features           or deposits. 

**NHL PROGRAM AND ARCHEOLOGICAL           PRESERVATION: FACING THE CHALLENGE**

**Improving Representation**

It was noted above that only 10 percent of the more           than 1,840 NHLs are recognized for their archeological significance.           Many more must be identified, evaluated, and designated if we are to           preserve our nation's most significant prehistoric and historic archeological           resources. 

NHL surveys, studies, nominations, and boundary and           condition assessments are powerful preservation tools for archeological           resources. Planning is the necessary first step in this process. Comprehensive           planning in the NHL Program is centered around the thematic framework           organizing information about cultural resources by theme, subtheme,           and facet. Once established, thematic contexts provide the framework           of site significance which is the basis for the systematic identification,           evaluation, registration, and preservation of prehistoric and historic           archeological resources. Together, these planning processes help identify           preservation goals and objectives, set preservation priorities, and           guide all other decisions involving the effective management of our           nation's most significant archeological resources. 

The magnitude of the threat confronting our nation's           most significant archeological resources is reflected in the latest           report on threatened and damaged NHLs. Although archeological NHLs make           up only 10 percent of all NHL properties, nearly 33 percent of the 79           most endangered NHLs are primarily recognized for their archeological           resources. Thus, archeological resources are not only underrepresented           in NHL listings, they are also among the most threatened of NHL resources.           

NHL designation provides nationally significant archeological           resources with preservation protections in accordance with Section 106           and Section 110(f) of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966,           Section 8 of the National Park System General Authorities Act of 1970,           and Section 9 of the Mining in the National Parks Act of 1976. 

Archeological NHLs on Federal lands are further protected           by the Archaeological Resource Protection Act of 1979. 

Registration, legislative remedies, and legal protections           alone cannot preserve our nation's threatened archeological heritage.           Public awareness is an important part of protection. Public involvement           can be increased by education programs, publicity and promotion campaigns,           and other outreach activities. Public awareness can discourage the looting           and vandalism of archeological sites, increase support for stronger           protective legislation, and encourage provision of greater amounts of           public and private funding. Preserving archeological properties through           the NHL Program in these comprehensive ways insures they will continue           to exist for the "inspiration and benefit of the people of the United           States." 

**Suggested Reading**

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.          1984      *National Historic Preservation           Act of 1966, as Amended*. 2nd Edition. Washington, DC. 

History Division, National Park Service.          1987a        *History and Prehistory           in the National Park System and the National Historic Landmaks Program*.           Washington, DC. 

1987b        *Catalog           of National Historic Landmarks*. Washington, DC. 

Levy, Ben          1988        "Historians in the NHL           Program." *CRM Bulletin* 11(1):15-16. 

National Park Service          1983a        "National Historic Landmarks           Program." *Federal Register: Notices*, 48(23):4652-4661. 

1983b        "Archeology           and Historic Preservation: Secretary of the Interior's Standards and           Guidelines." *Federal Register: Notices*, 48(190):44716-44740.           

1986        "Guidelines           for Completing National Register of Historic Places Forms." *National           Register Bulletin 16*. Interagency Resources Division, Washington,           DC. 

1987a        *Section           8 Report on Threatened and Damaged National Historic Landmarks*.           Preservation Assistance Division, Washington, DC. 

1987b        *Systemwide           Cultural Resources Summary and Action Program (RSAP)*. Interagency           Resources Division, Washington, DC. 

1988        "Guidelines           for Federal Agency Responsibilities, Under Section 110 of the National           Historic Preservation Act." *Federal Register: Notices*, 53(31):4727-4746.           

Waldbauer, Richard C.          1987        "Archeological Resources           in the NHL Program." *CRM Bulletin*, 10(6): 6. 

Weber, Sandra S.          1988        "Systemwide Cultural           Resources Summary and Action program." *CRM Bulletin*, 11 (2):3-5.           

Return to: Technical           Briefs            | **Introduction**

**The                 National Historic Landmarks Program**

**Major                 Issues Involving NHL Archeological Resources**

**NHL                 Program and Archeological Preservation: Facing the Challenge**

**Suggested                 Reading**

**print                 version  **

**technical briefs                 index** |
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      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