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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    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| **Published by the DOI Departmental Consulting Archeologist/NPS Archeology Program, National Park Service, Washington, DC, November           1990 (Revised April 1992).**

*This Technical Brief describes how National Historic           Landmarks (NHL) Survey theme studies can be combined with basic elements           of historic preservation planning to create a comprehensive framework           for identification, evaluation, designation, and treatment of nationally           significant archeological properties. An example, the "Historic           Contact Period in the Northeast United States" NHL theme study,           currently being prepared by National Park Service (NPS) Mid-Atlantic           Region staff, will be used to demonstrate this process. In the short-term,           this NHL theme study serves as a historic context document to nominate           and designate as National Historic Landmarks 26 properties associated           with the Historic Contact period between 1497 and 1783. Its long-term           benefit, however, is that it can be used as a model for preservation           planning and as reference by Federal agencies, State and local historic           preservation offices, Indian communities, and others.*

*Historic contact between Indians, Europeans, and           Africans has played a major role in shaping the national experience           of the American people. The circumstances and consequences of historic           contact, moreover, differ in various parts of the country. While this           theme study examines historic contact in a specific region, its unique           value lies in its potential to be used nationwide as a preservation           planning model. Agencies and individuals nationwide who are interested           in the Historic Contact period can then use this theme study as a model,           with modifications, to prepare appropriate historic context documents           that will help increase public awareness of this critical period in           the country's history. Specifically, frameworks and information presented           in the following pages can be employed in the future to nominate other           properties of transcendent national significance as NHLs and propose           other properties on different levels of significance for listing in           the National Register of Historic Places and other registers.*

*This is the second Technical Brief prepared as part           of the Federal Archeological Assistance Program NHL initiative. Technical           Brief No. 3, "Archeology in the           NHL Program," explains the program and describes how archeological           properties are nominated and designated.*

**Introduction**

The upcoming Columbian Quincentenary reminds us that           few events have influenced the course of human history more than the           encounter between the peoples of the Old World and the New. Contact           between Indians, Europeans, and Africans released a stream of ideas,           products, and people that continues to flow undiminished across the           Atlantic Ocean. This "Columbian Exchange" brought people living           on both sides of the Atlantic into a wider world than any known by their           ancestors (Crosby 1972 and 1986). Scholars commonly refer to these first           centuries as the "Historic Contact Period" (Fitzhugh 1985;           Trigger 1978; Washburn 1988). Beginning during the early decades of           the 16th century, the Historic Contact period continued throughout the           colonial era. It was a time of unprecedented cultural change for both           Indians and the Europeans and Africans who moved into their territories.

The effects of this encounter forever changed the course           of world history. Demographic shifts of unprecedented size and scope           transformed the Atlantic community. Epidemic diseases and wars killed           tens of thousands of Indian people (Dobyns 1983; Ramenofsky 1987; Snow           and Lanphear 1988; Spiess and Spiess 1987). Far from this being a "Virgin           Land," historian Francis Jennings has shown that these demographic           catastrophes depopulated entire regions, transforming many heavily populated           areas of the Northeast into a desolated "Widowed Land" (Jennings           1975).

Migrants from the Old World rushed to repopulate this           widowed land. European population throughout the region rose from nearly           nothing to more than 1,800,000 between 1610 and 1780. Nearly 500,000           African people also were living in the region by 1780 (McCusker and           Menard 1985:218-221). The newcomers struggled with Indians and each           other for control of the land. Some Indian territory, such as the Pequot           country in Connecticut, the Esopus lands in southeastern New York, and           the Powhatan lands in Virginia, was seized in wars. Many colonial governments,           however, used deeds to legitimate acquisition of, and extend sovereignty           over, Indian lands (Jennings 1975:135-138; Springer 1986). Indians did           their best to slow the rate of loss and strike the best possible bargains.           In the end, however, they lost nearly everything. By 1783, virtually           all lands within what became the first 13 states had passed from Indian           hands. The original owners were forced to adapt or leave. 
**Figure 1.**               Sunwatch Site, Ohio. Aerial view of the site and museum. Sunwatch               is one of the newly designated NHLs from the national initiative               to improve representation of archeological properties in the NHL               Survey. (All photographs from the NHL Survey, NPS History Division.)               
 Once the land was obtained, speculators, powerful proprietary           lords, and government administrators competed for settlers, servants,           and slaves to make it productive. Black slaves, white indentured servants,           and free farmers of both groups cleared Indian fields and forests from           Maine to Virginia. 

 Many aspects of these relations have been extensively           examined (Land, Carr, and Papenfuse 1977; McCusker and Menard 1985;           Smith 1959). Not surprisingly, much of this attention has focused upon           colonists (cf. Cronon 1983:228-235 for a particularly useful bibliographic           survey of important North and Middle Atlantic sources). More studies,           however, are tracing Indian participation in the colonial economy. They           show that many Northeastern Indians worked as fur traders, guides, herbalists,           or food providers. Others joined the cash economy as laborers, millworkers,           whalers, or artisans producing wampum shell beads, splint baskets, or           straw brooms. Not all Indian labor was free. Indians falling into debt           often were forced into indentured servitude. Others apprenticed themselves           to colonial masters. Indian war prisoners or convicts also often were           enslaved (Kawashima 1986 and 1988; Lauber 1913). 

Comparatively little is known about relations between           Indians and African Americans in the Northeast. Gary B. Nash's *Red,           White, and Black* (1974) continues to be one of the best general           surveys of the subject. Several studies have examined relations between           the two peoples in colonial Virginia and the Chesapeake region (Craven           197 1). Aspects of intermarriage, legal status, and labor in New England           have been addressed (Kawashinia 1986; Woodson 1920). 

**The Project**

Historic Contact is a diverse and complex era of American           history. Much more remains to be done to fully document and interpret           this crucial time of intercultural relations. The "Historic Contact           Period of the Northeast" National Historic Landmark (NHL) theme           study synthesizes documentary, archeological, ethnographic, oral, environmental,           architectural, and other evidence of historic contact between natives           and newcomers in the colonial Northeast from the Atlantic Coast to Ohio           Valley between 1497 and 1783. Its objective is to establish a national-scale           historic context for resources associated with NHIL Subtheme D, "Ethnohistory           of Indigenous American Populations " within Theme I, "Cultural           Developments--Indigenous American Populations."
**Figure 2.**Sunwatch               Site, Ohio. View of excavations of the stockade and solstice features.               An objective of the NHL archeological initiative is to recognize               properties that represent important developments in understanding               the nation's cultural past. 
The study region comprises what is today the northeastern           quarter of the United States. It stretches in an east-west direction           from the Atlantic seaboard to the State of Indiana. The northernmost           reaches of the region extend from Maine to Michigan. Kentucky and Virginia           constitute the southernmost States considered in this theme study. 

The study focuses upon the first three centuries of           Historic Contact in the Northeast. It is recognized that contact has           never ended between Indians and other Americans of European or African           descent. Intercultural contacts postdating the American Revolution,           however, differ substantially from those of the Colonial era. More recent           developments should be considered within NHL themes associated with           later periods. 

This theme study is an interdisciplinary project and           requires the cooperation of a wide range of specialists. This includes           the assistance of skilled governmental personnel familiar with regulatory           and administrative procedures associated with cultural resources programs.           Input from the people who are the object of study also is essential.           Recognizing the complexity of such an undertaking, National Park Service           (NPS) Mid-Atlantic Regional Office (MARO) Preservation Planning Branch           staff have worked closely with other Federal agency and State Historic           Preservation Office (SHPO) personnel, Indian community representatives,           and members of the professional and avocational preservation community           in the Northeast throughout all phases of this project. 

Evaluation criteria developed in this theme study specifically           have been used to identify, evaluate, and recommend NHL designation           for or thematic listing of the following 26 properties:

Byrd-Leibhart Site, Pennsylvania;           Camden NHL, Virginia;          The Chicone Site, Maryland;           The Clover Site, West Virginia;           Colonial Pemaquid Archaeological Site, Maine;           Fort Ninigret, Rhode Island;           Fort Orange/Beverwyck Archaeological District, New York;           Fort Ouiatenon Archeological District, Indiana;           Fort Shantok, Connecticut;           Jireh Bull Blockhouse, Rhode Island;           Lower Shawneetown Archeological District, Kentucky;           Mashantucket Pequot Reservation Archaeological District, Connecticut;                     The Minisink Site, New Jersey;           The Mohawk Upper Castle Site, New York;           Nauset Archeological District, Massachusetts;           The Neale's Landing Site, West Virginia;           Norridgewock, Maine;           Old Fort Niagara NHL, New York;           Pamunkey Indian Reservation Archaeological District, Virginia;           Pentagoet, Maine;           The Posey Site, Maryland;           Saint Castin's Habitation, Maine;           St. Mary's City Historical District NHL, Maryland;           The Schuyler Flatts Site, New York;           The Snidow Site, West Virginia; and           The Ward's Point Site, New York.

**Building a Historic Context and Project Development**

Historic preservation planning consists of many components.           Its centerpiece, however, is the historic context. Historic contexts           provide a framework for the identification, evaluation, designation,           and treatment of cultural resources associated with particular themes,           areas, and time periods. The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and           Guidelines for Preservation Planning detail procedures for developing           historic contexts. These include collecting and synthesizing appropriate           information, defining property types, and identifying areas to be surveyed           for cultural resources (National Park Service 1983). 

Historic context-based planning permits recognition           of individual properties as parts of larger systems. Historic contexts           also help managers and others evaluate properties within proper levels           of significance. As such, they provide both a systematized basis for           comparison and a comprehensive frame of reference. In so doing, historic           contexts provide cultural resource managers and those whose activities           affect historic properties with a guide for rational decision making.           

All SHPOs and many Federal agencies, county governments,           local municipalities, and other organizations are currently developing           or implementing historic context-based preservation plans. Most focus           upon specific regions, resource types, or time periods. At the present           time, most preservation plans deal with cultural resources located within           State boundaries. Few extend their purview beyond State lines. Although           Federal agencies such as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S.           Forest Service produce regional plans spanning State boundaries, the           National Historic Landmarks theme study program presently is the only           process for organizing information wholly devoted to systematic identification,           evaluation, and designation of cultural resources on a national scale.           

The NHL thematic framework classifies American historic           and archeological places that meet the NHL criteria for national significance.           As such, it "is a comprehensive outline of United States prehistory,           history, and cultural endeavors" (National Park Service 1987:i).           The NHL Thematic framework "is used to show the extent to which           units and cultural resources of the National Park System, affiliated           areas, and National Historic Landmarks reflect the nation's past."           Thus, it may by used to capably and efficiently guide analysis, classification,           and assessment of historic properties of potential national significance.           The NHL thematic framework can be used to identify future directions           for planning and study through assessments of how representative a property           is in relation to the overall framework of American cultural history.           

The NHL thematic framework meets the planning objectives           for development of historic contexts, which are to: (1) develop thematic           study units delineating appropriate contextual relationships; (2) establish           operating plans managing resources identified and evaluated in study           units; and (3) link historic preservation with broad agency missions           and goals. Fully developed historic contexts include: 

(1) Determination of theme, time period, and geographic           area; 

(2) Identification of known and expected groups of related           resource groups known as "property types;" 

(3) Delineation of known and expected distributions           of these resources; 

(4) Description of criteria used in their evaluation;           

(5) Specification of research needs and questions; 

(6) Development of a research bibliography; 

(7) Presentation of goals and priorities; and 

(8) Integration of historic context information in broader           management processes. 

The MARO Preservation Planning Branch staff identified           the need to develop a planning document for the management of Historic           Contact period cultural resources in the Northeast in a series of meetings           and discussions with Federal, State, and academic archeologists and           planners in 1987 and 1988. Many of these discussions were motivated           by newly instituted programs supporting development and implementation           of statewide historic preservation plans mandated by NPS for recipients           of Historic Preservation Fund grants-in-aid. All discussants recognized           the desirability of systematizing information on a regional scale. Few           SHPOs, however, had developed a historic context for Historic Contact           period resources in the 17-State region served by MARO. 

These developments coincided with discussions formulating           the NPS Archeological Assistance Program's Archeological NHL initiative.           The primary goal of this initiative is to improve representation of           archeological resources in NHL listings. The MARO Preservation Planning           Branch staff linked regional interest in the Historic Contact period           with NPS preservation planning and archeological NHL initiatives during           the Fall of 1988. Preliminary project goals and objectives were drafted.           Recognizing the need for extensive cooperation between agencies and           the preservation public for implementation of these goals and objectives,           MARO staff quickly established two advisory groups to guide project           development and provide technical assistance.

The first of these consisted of NPS personnel representing           the NPS Archeological Assistance, History, Anthropology, and Interagency           Resources Divisions. The second advisory group comprised designated           SHPO coordinators from the 17 States within MARO and Kentucky. The SHPO           coordinators fulfilled a vital role as liaison between MARO and preservation           publics within individual States. Distributing theme study announcements           and other materials to Indian Tribal groups, specialists, archeological           societies, historical societies, and others, SHPO coordinators collected           theme study information, assessed data quality, and provided review           comments on project scope, content, and direction. 

The MARO staff developed initial project goals, methods,           scope, and schedule requirements during the last months of 1988. Two           years were allotted for project completion. An announcement describing           the project was mailed to program advisors. The SHPO coordinators distributed           this announcement to their States' preservation publics for comment.           Special emphasis was placed upon distributing project announcements           to all Indian communities within each State. Several States facilitated           this process by publishing the announcement in their SHPO or State Archaeological           Society newsletters. 

NPS personnel initially reviewed and revised project           goals and priorities. Informal discussions with SHPO coordinators conducted           by telephone and at professional meetings further defined and refined           project goals, form, and purpose. The First Joint Archaeological Congress,           held in Baltimore, MD, January 5-9, 1989, presented a particularly advantageous           opportunity for MARO staff to meet with many SHPO coordinators and other           scholars and preservationists. 

Discussions held at the Archaeological Congress focused           upon issues of resource identification and evaluation. How, many archeologists           asked, would potential NHLs be identified? Would standing structures           be included? Would all properties associated with the Historic Contact           period be surveyed, or would inventory be restricted to nationally significant           cultural resources? Would the project report be an exhaustive scholarly           treatise or a relatively brief and simply worded management document?           How would evaluation criteria be determined? Would evaluation guidelines           be developed only for nationally significant properties, or would they           be defined for all associated resources? 
**Figure 3.**               Menard-Hodges Site, Arkansas. View of Main Mound and one of the               adjoining mounds. Menard-Hodges is another of the newly designated               archeological NHLs. The NHL archeological initiative also is intended               to improve documentation on sites and recognize significant characteristics               such as monumental engineering in prehistory. 
 The main thrust of these and other questions centered           around the project's purpose and scope. Strong support was indicated           for development of a planning document that could easily be adapted           to statewide historic preservation planning requirements. Members of           the preservation community further expressed strong interest in development           of far-reaching significance statements under which large numbers of           properties could be identified, evaluated, and designated at all levels           of significance. 

 The MARO staff responded to these comments in a detailed           project outline distributed one month after the Archaeological Congress.           The SHPO coordinators distributed copies of this framework to all preservationists           and Indian communities in their States. 
**Figure 4.**               Sunken Village, Oregon. View along the length of the site. Sunken               Village Is a newly designated archeological NHL that recognizes               the importance of wet site archeology for understanding the full               richness of prehistoric material culture.
 This outline contained the first presentation of a           national level historic context. It began with a brief discussion of           the purpose and scope of the project. This was followed by a listing,           including telephone numbers, of all NPS and SHPO advisors. Next, project           theme, sub-themes, geographic area, sub-areas, and chronological organization           were presented. Listings and maps correlated late prehistoric and protohistoric           archeological complexes with historic Indian and European ethnic groups.           A framework for property type delineation was presented. 

This information was followed by lists tabulating findings           from surveys of designated nationally significant Historic Contact properties.           The first tabulation assessed existing NHL theme representation in the           project area. A second listing cross-indexed these data by State. This           was followed by a listing of Historic-Aboriginal National Register properties           recommended as nationally significant by their nominating authorities           compiled during a National Register Information System (NRIS) computer           search. The outline ended with a preliminary listing of potential NHL           designees identified by SHPO coordinators and individual preservationists.           

**Identification Issues**

Numerous helpful suggestions for revisions and refinements           were received in responses sent to SHPO coordinators throughout 1989           and 1990. Modifications in project categories and boundaries, changes           in regional Historic Contact period context development, and a survey           of existing State and Local inventories were suggested. Respondents           also identified 26 potential NHL properties located in 12 States. 

Many archeologists provided particularly valuable assistance           correlating late prehistoric or protohistoric archeological complexes           with ethnohistorically or ethnographically documented Tribal groups.           Specialists recommended several critically important area studies and           brought pertinent bibliographic citations to the attention of the MARO           project staff. 

Matters of nomenclature and topology presented particularly           challenging problems. Differences of opinion among archeologists, now           superseded research priorities, and gaps in the archeological record           have long affected attempts to reconcile State and regional variations           or inconsistencies. By influencing analyses of terminal Late Woodland           period diagnostic artifacts, these factors often make it difficult to           identify and understand cultural dynamics in the study area. 

**Survey Review and Previous Designations**

Information received from SHPO coordinators revealed           that fewer than half of the States within MARO had developed historic           contexts covering the period of Historic Contact. This survey also indicated           that less than half of the States had prepared listings or established           computerized access to information bearing upon Historic Contact period           properties. Review of available SHPO survey information, moreover, indicated           that only a limited percentage of the many hundreds of sites mentioned           in historic documents had thus far been inventoried. 

Discussions with SHPO coordinators revealed that variations           in survey scope and coverage were largely functions of funding limitations,           competing program priorities, shortages of computer equipment, unavailability           of automated data management personnel, or differences in State data           categories, topologies, or research orientations. Despite these variations,           SHPOs provided enough information to make preliminary delineation of           known property distributions, identify known and expected property types,           and formulate theme study goals and priorities. Unsurveyed areas and           unanalyzed bodies of data were identified for further study. 

Among project goals and priorities were recommendations           that all SHPOs develop historic context documents for the Historic Contact           period, inventory presently unsurveyed areas, and study unanalyzed collections.           SHPO recommendations further supported using computerized systems for           inventories. 

Previous NHL theme studies identified undesignated properties,           listed related sites classified as having exceptional value in other           themes, and recommended other sites for further study. The Northeast           Historic Contact NHL theme study expanded upon this tradition by listing           all pertinent properties thus far inventoried within the project area.           

Review of National Register nomination forms showed           that properties associated with the Historic Contact period in the Northeast           rarely were identified or evaluated as a group. Instead, virtually all           previously listed sites or districts were individually nominated. Examination           of property representation within NHL theme categories also revealed           that Historic Contact period cultural resources are not proportionally           represented. Research emphases of earlier NHL theme studies resulted           in few designations of Historic Contact period properties in the Northeast.           Particularly telling was the discovery that relatively few northeastern           historic contact properties were identified in theme studies dealing           with the colonial era (Sarles and Shedd 1959a, 1959b, and 1960; Shedd           1959 and 1961). 

Properties designated in these studies tended to represent           the European side of the encounter between the peoples of the Old World           and the New. When considered at all, Indians generally were described           as obstacles to frontier expansion. This identification is graphically           illustrated in the high percentage of forts designated. 

The single theme study devoted to the Indian side of           Historic Contact, entitled "Contact With the Indians," presented           a large body of information of potential significance to the study of           Indian-colonial relations in the Northeast (Holder 1963). Only two of           the 30 sites designated by this theme study, the Accokeek Creek site,           in Maryland, and the Boughton Hill site, in New York, were located within           the region. 

Two factors largely determined this particular pattern           of representation. First, most of the best known Indian historic contact           sites identified prior to 1963 were located west of the Mississippi           River. Second, the archeology of Indian historic sites in the Northeast           was not yet extensively developed at the time this theme study was published.           

**Potential NHL Identification**

The recent explosion of scholarly activity associated           with Historic Contact period studies in the Northeast contributed to           the identification of the hundreds of properties listed in the theme           study document. Interestingly, only one of the properties nominated           as NHLs in this study, the Minisink site in New Jersey, was identified           as a potential NHL site recommended for further study in earlier theme           studies. All but four of the present 26 NHL nominees, however, are listed           in the National Register of Historic Places. Less than half of these           listings were recommended as nationally significant by the nominating           authority. Most instead were assigned the level of State significance..           

Four properties, Old Fort Niagara and Ward's Point (the           Billopps or Conference House) in New York, St. Mary's City, Maryland,           and Camden, Virginia, are located within or nearby areas already listed           as NHLs. None of these designations currently recognize cultural resources           associated with Historic Contact. Project participants identifying these           properties propose to expand their level of documentation to include           consideration of this period. 

Several potential NHLs not associated with the theme           study also have been identified during the project. At least two of           these, Flint Ridge in Ohio and the Coxsackie Flint Quarry, in New York,           may be individually nominated as NHLs sometime in the future. 

 Individual archeologists presently are supporting the           initiative by voluntarily collating basic, available information associated           with identified properties. In keeping with project goals restricting           research to syntheses of existing data, archeologists have not been           called upon to collect new information, analyze unsynthesized data,           or prepare new text. Following acceptance of resource boundaries and           affirmation of owner consent by the NPS History Division, archeologists           will be asked to provide pertinent data or references to key citations.           Finally, they will review products prepared by project personnel and           comment upon all theme study drafts. 

**Evaluation Issues**
 Properties identified in this project have been evaluated           at all levels of significance. Evaluation criteria determine designation           priorities. NHL evaluation criteria largely center upon determinations           of national significance of properties that outstandingly represent           or embody one or more of the six NHL significance criteria. In accordance           with current policy, all properties considered for nomination also are           required to address Criterion 6: 
[Properties] that have yielded or may be likely           to yield information of *major scientific importance by revealing           new cultures, or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large           areas* of the United States. Such sites are those which have yielded,           or which may reasonably be expected to yield *data affecting theories,           concepts and ideas to a major degree* (emphasis added).**Figure 5.**               Sunken Village, Oregon. View of a storage feature. Many materials               and objects used by Chinook people at this site prior to the arrival               of Euroamericans are well preserved because they are submerged or               constantly wet.
High priority has been accorded to nationally significant           properties associated with subthemes, facets, and subthemes not represented           or underrepresented in the NHL Subtheme D, "Ethnothistory of Indigenous           American Populations." Designation of properties located in States           or regions not containing existing NHLs associated with Historic Contact           also was accorded high priority. High designation priorities further           were assigned to properties associated with Historic Contact period           Indian cultures identified in the theme study not presently represented           in the NHL framework.

 Site integrity plays a major role in determining designation           priorities for nationally significant resources. A relatively well-preserved           property possessing high potential to yield nationally significant information           was assigned a higher preservation priority than a poorly preserved,           fragmentary, or substantially disturbed site. The integrity of archeological           deposits may not always be a major consideration in properties in which           archeological values are not of primary importance. 
**Figure 6.**               Sunken Village, Oregon. Cedar bark weaving. The extraordinary preservation               at Sunken Village means that organic materials such as bark and               wood deteriorate slowly, providing archeological analyses with a               more complete sample of past lifeways.
 Previous NHL theme studies frequently assessed properties           not chosen for designation. Others listed properties recommended for           future study. Many such properties were classified as having exceptional           value in other themes. Others were recommended for further study within           the same theme. The present theme study has built upon this tradition           of considering a range of potential NHL nominees by using the National           Register of Historic Places criteria to preliminarily determine the           significance of all inventoried properties associated with the Historic           Contact period. These evaluation criteria have been applied to all theme           study categories and topologies. By combining NHL and National Register           significance levels and evaluation criteria, this theme study provides           government agencies, Indian communities, and others involved in preservation           activities with the widest possible framework for the evaluation of           nationally significant Historic Contact resources.

**Conclusion**

Historic context-driven goals and priorities should           be considered whenever actions potentially or actually affect associated           cultural resources. Agency planning can identify appropriate preservation           procedures. Plans also can minimize impacts of unanticipated situations.           Plans are created in a real world in which preservation is only one           of many factors considered in any action. Historic context goals and           priorities sometimes can be distinct from certain management considerations.           They cannot, however, be exclusive. Preservationists and project managers           must work together to balance historic context driven planning objectives           with agency or Tribal programs and project requirements. 

The NHL program presently addresses several practical           considerations in resource designation. The wishes of landowners and           other interested parties, for example, are taken into account in any           NHL undertaking. Private owner objection is a legal barrier to designation.           Objections from interested parties also raise significant concerns that           must be addressed directly. Goals and priorities developed by this theme           study reflect the importance of this issue by requiring that landowners           consent to NHL nomination of their properties prior to study. By explicitly           considering such vitally important issues, this theme study has become           a more effective preservation planning management tool. 

As mentioned earlier, the most immediate product resulting           from this project is the group nomination of 26 properties as National           Historic Landmarks. Over the long run, this theme study is expected           to serve as a vehicle providing information on the Historic Contact           period to government agencies, Indian communities, specialists, and           the general public. It is also expected that information contained within           this document will assist in the preservation of all Historic Contact           period properties. Above all, it is hoped that this theme study will           serve as model for application of the historic context concept nationwide.           Further information on this theme study initiative may be obtained by           writing to:

**National Park Service           -****Mid-Atlantic Region****Preservation Planning Branch           U.S. Custom House           2nd & Chestnut, Room 251****Philadelphia, PA 19106.**

Return to: Technical           Briefs | References           

**introduction**

**the                 project**

**historic                 context & project development**

**identification                 issues**

**survey                 review & previous designations**

**potential                 NHL identification**

**evaluation                 issues**

**conclusion**

**references**

**print                 version  **

**technical briefs                 index**
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