International Performance

Measurement & Verification Protocol

Concepts and Practices for

Improved Indoor Environmental Quality

Volume II

www.ipmvp.org

January 2001
International Performance

Measurement & Verification Protocol

Concepts and Practices for

Improved Indoor Environmental Quality

Volume II

January 2001

DOE/GO-102001-1188

International Performance Measurement

& Verification Protocol Committee

www.ipmvp.org

Hard copies available, in limited quantities, from the Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse at 1-800-363-3732.
NOTICE

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States

government. Neither the United States government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees,

makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,

completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents

that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial

product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily

constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States government or any

agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect

those of the United States government or any agency thereof.

Available electronically at http://www.doe.gov/bridge

Available for a processing fee to U.S. Department of Energy

and its contractors, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Scientific and Technical Information

P.O. Box 62

Oak Ridge, TN 37831-0062

phone: 865.576.8401

fax: 865.576.5728

email: reports@adonis.osti.gov

Available for sale to the public, in paper, from:

U.S. Department of Commerce

National Technical Information Service

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, VA 22161

phone: 800.553.6847

fax: 703.605.6900

email: orders@ntis.fedworld.gov

online ordering: http://www.ntis.gov/ordering.htm

Printed on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 20% postconsumer waste

i

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Table of Contents

Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 How to Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4.1 Important Energy-Related IEQ Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4.2 Indoor Thermal Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4.3 Indoor Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4.4 Indoor Pollutants, Their Sources, and Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4.5 Controlling Indoor Pollutant Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.5.1 Pollutant Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.5.2 Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4.5.3 Pressure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.5.4 Air Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.5.5 Natural Pollutant Removal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.5.6 Air Recirculation and Air Flow Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4.5.7 Maintenance, Cleaning, and Commissioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.6 Acute Non-Specific Health Symptoms and Building Related Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.6.1 Non-Specific Health Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4.6.2 Building-Related Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.7 Sensitive Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4.8 Standards, Codes and Guidelines for Ventilation and Indoor Environmental Quality . . . . 12

4.9 Relationship of IEQ to Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Best Practices for Maintaining IEQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5.1 Maintaining Good Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5.1.1 Limiting Pollutant Emissions from Indoor Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

5.1.2 Assuring Adequate Quality of Intake Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.1.3 Maintain Minimum Ventilation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

5.1.4 Recirculation of Indoor Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1.5 Maintenance of the HVAC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1.6 Integrated Approach to IEQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
ii Table of Contents

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

5.2 IEQ Management Plans and Related Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Linkages Between Energy Conservation Measures and IEQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

7 Influence of Energy Conservation Measures on IEQ in Specific Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

7.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

7.2 Identifying the Probable IEQ Outcomes and Predicting Their Magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

7.3 Significance of Predicted Changes in IEQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

8 Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8.2 Goals of IEQ M&V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8.3 Context for IEQ M&V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8.4 M&V Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

8.5 Basic M&V Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8.5.1 Approach 1: No IEQ M&V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

8.5.2 Approach 2: IEQ M&V Based on Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8.5.3 Approach 3: Short Term Measurements of Selected IEQ Parameters . . . . . . . . . 31

8.5.4 Approach 4: Long-term Continuous Measurements of Selected IEQ Parameters 31

8.5.5 Approach 5: Surveys to Assess Occupant Perceptions and Ratings of IEQ . . . . . 31

8.6 M&V Alternatives for Specific IEQ Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

9 Implementing the Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

10 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
iii

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Acknowledgements

PARTICIPATING ORGANIZATIONS

Brazil • Institute Nacional De Eficiencia Energetica (INEE)

• Ministry of Mines and Energy

Bulgaria Bulgarian Foundation for Energy Efficiency (EnEffect)

Canada • Canadian Association of Energy Service Companies (CAESCO)

• Natural Resources Canada (NRC)

China • State Economic and Trade Commission

• Beijing Energy Efficiency Center (BECON)

Czech Republic Stredisko pro Efektivni Vyuzivani Energie (SEVEn7)

India Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI)

Japan Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI)

Korea Korea Energy Management Corporation (KEMCO)

Mexico • Comision Nacional Para El Ahorro De Energia (CONAE)

• Fideicomiso De Apoyo Al Programa De Ahorro De Energia Del Sector 

Electrico (FIDE)

Poland The Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency (FEWE)

Russia Center for Energy Efficiency (CENEf)

Sweden Swedish National Board for Technical and Urban Development

Ukraine Agency for Rational Energy Use and Ecology (ARENA - ECO)

United Kingdom Association for the Conservation of Energy

United States • American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers 

(ASHRAE)

• Association of Energy Engineers (AEE)

• Association of Energy Services Professionals (AESP)

• Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA)

• National Association of Energy Service Companies (NAESCO)

• National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO)

• National Realty Association

• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
iv

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

IPMVP COMMITTEES

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

1 Gregory Kats (Chair), Department of Energy, USA

2 Jim Halpern (Vice Chair), Measuring and Monitoring Services Inc., USA

3 John Armstrong, Hagler Bailly Services, USA

4 Flavio Conti, European Commission, Italy

5 Drury Crawley, US Department of Energy, USA

6 Dave Dayton, HEC Energy, USA

7 Adam Gula, Polish Foundation for Energy Efficiency, Poland

8 Shirley Hansen, Kiona International, USA

9 Leja Hattiangadi, TCE Consulting Engineers Limited, India

10 Maury Hepner, Enron Energy Services, USA

11 Chaan-min Lin, Hong Kong Productivity Council, Hong Kong

12 Arthur Rosenfeld, California Energy Commission, USA

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

1 John Cowan (Co-chair), Cowan Quality Buildings, Canada

2 Steve Kromer (Co-chair), Enron Energy Services, USA

3 David E. Claridge, Texas A & M University, USA

4 Ellen Franconi, Schiller Associates, USA

5 Jeff S. Haberl, Texas A & M University, USA

6 Maury Hepner, Enron Energy Services, USA

7 Satish Kumar, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA

8 Eng Lock Lee, Supersymmetry Services Pvt. Ltd., Singapore

9 Mark Martinez, Southern California Edison, USA

10 David McGeown, NewEnergy, Inc., USA

11 Steve Schiller, Schiller Associates, USA

INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY COMMITTEE

1 Bill Fisk (Chair), Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA

2 Jim Bailey, Building Dynamics, USA

3 Dave Birr, Synchronous Energy Solutions, USA

4 Steve Brown, CSIRO, Australia

5 Andrew Cripps, Building Research Establishment, UK

6 John Doggart, ECD Energy and Environment, UK

7 Dale Gilbert, Built Environment Research, Australia

8 Mike Jawer, Building Owners & Managers Association, USA
 v

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

9 Gregory Kats, Department of Energy, USA

10 Ken-ichi Kimura, Waseda University, Japan

11 Satish Kumar, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA

12 Hal Levin, Hal Levin & Associates, USA

13 Richard Little, National Academy of Sciences, USA

14 David Mudarri, Environmental Protection Agency, USA

15 Tedd Nathanson, Public Works and Government Services, Canada

16 Andy Persily, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA

17 Arthur Rosenfeld, California Energy Commission, USA

18 Sumeet Saksena, Tata Energy Research Institute, India

19 Olli Seppanen, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland

20 Jan Sundell, Int l Center for Indoor Environment and Energy, Denmark

21 Steve Turner, Chelsea Group, USA

22 Ole Valbjoern, Danish Building Research Institute, Denmark

INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY REVIEWERS

1 Ed Arens, University of California, Berkeley, USA

2 Jan W Bakke, Norway

3 Carl-Gustaf Bornehag, Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc., Sweden

4 Terry Brennan, Camroden Associates, USA

5 Graham Charlton, Australian Institute of Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning & 

Heating, Australia

6 Susan Clampitt, General Services Administration, USA

7 Geo Clausen, Technical University, Denmark

8 Jim Coggins, Energy Applications, Inc., USA

9 Catherine Coombs, Steven Winter Associates, Inc., USA

10 Joan Daisey, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA

11 Richard deDear, Macquarian University, Australia

12 Angelo Delsante, CSIRO, Australia

13 David Grimsrud, University of Minnesota, USA

14 Shirley Hansen, Kiona International, USA

15 Sten Olaf Hansen, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

16 Jim Harven, Custom Energy, USA

17 Matti J. Jantunen, National Public Health Institute, Finland

18 Erkki Kahkonen, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Finland

19 Pentti Kalliokoski, University of Kuopio, Finland

20 Greg Kurpiel, Johnson Controls, USA

21 Marianna Luoma, VTT Building Technology, Finland

22 Mark Mendell, NIOSH, USA

23 Jack McCarthy, Environmental Health and Engineering Inc., USA
vi

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

24 Aino Nevalainen, National Public Health Institute, Finland

25 Rob Obenreder, General Services Administration, USA

26 Bud Offermann, Indoor Environment Engineering, San Francisco, USA

27 Deo Prasad, University of New South Wales, Australia

28 Dan Prezembel, The RREEF Funds, USA

29 John Reese, Department of Energy, USA

30 Ed Reid, American Gas Cooling Center, USA

31 James Rogers, Energy Consultant, USA

32 Jorma Sateri, Finnish Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Finland

33 Christine Schweizer, Environment Australia, Australia

34 Jaikrishna Shankavaram, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

35 Staffan Skerfving, Lund University, Sweden

36 John Talbott, Department of Energy, USA

37 Steve Taylor, Taylor Engineering, USA

38 John Tiffany, Tiffany Bader Environmental, USA

39 Gene Tucker, Environmental Protection Agency, USA

40 Dave Warden, DWT Engineering, Canada

41 Davidge Warfield, Tri-Dim Filter Corporation, USA

42 Jim Woods, HP Woods Research Institute, USA

TECHNICAL COORDINATOR

Satish Kumar, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA

Email: SKumar@lbl.gov, Phone: 202-646-7953

We would like to greatefully acknowledge the many organizations that made 

the IPMVP possible. We would like in particular to thank the Office of Building 

Technology, State and Community Programs in DOE s Office of Energy 

Efficiency and Renewable Energy, which has provided essential funding 

support to the IPMVP, including publication of this document.
 vii

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

DISCLAIMER

This Protocol serves as a framework to determine energy and water savings resulting from the 

implementation of an energy efficiency program. It is also intended to help monitor the performance of 

renewable energy systems and to enhance indoor environmental quality in buildings. The IPMVP does 

not create any legal rights or impose any legal obligations on any person or other legal entity. IPMVP 

has no legal authority or legal obligation to oversee, monitor or ensure compliance with provisions 

negotiated and included in contractual arrangements between third persons or third parties. It is the 

responsibility of the parties to a particular contract to reach agreement as to what, if any, of this 

Protocol is included in the contract and to ensure compliance.
1

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

1

Introduction

This year 2000 edition of International Performance Measurement and 

Verification Protocol (IPMVP) has been expanded to address indoor 

environmental quality (IEQ) issues. It provides information that will help 

energy efficiency professionals and building owners and managers maintain or 

improve IEQ and occupant health and comfort during the implementation of 

building energy conservation measures in retrofits or new construction of 

commercial and public buildings.

Volume II focuses exclusively on indoor environmental quality issues (See 

Preface of Volume I for overview of IPMVP). This volume starts with a general 

introduction to IEQ. Best practices for maintaining a high level of IEQ are then 

reviewed. The potential positive and negative influences of specific energy 

conservation measures on IEQ are summarized in a tabular format in Section 5. 

The remainder of the document addresses IEQ measurement and verification 

procedures that may be used to address the following goals: 1) ensure that the 

energy conservation measures have no adverse influence on IEQ, 2) quantify 

the improvements in IEQ resulting from implementation of energy 

conservation measures, and 3) verify that selected IEQ parameters satisfy the 

applicable IEQ guidelines or standards. A multi-step procedure for IEQ 

measurement and verification is presented, followed by a discussion of general 

approaches for measurement and verification and then by a table of 

measurement and verification alternatives linked to specific IEQ parameters.

This document has been prepared by an international team of IEQ and building 

energy efficiency experts and reflects the current state of knowledge. The 

IPMVP, including the IEQ volume will be updated every two years.

2

Purpose

The International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol 

(IPMVP) provides a framework and guidance for the measurement and 

verification of building energy performance, emphasizing the changes in 

energy performance that result from implementation of energy conservation 

measures in buildings. Many building energy conservation measures have the 

potential to positively or negatively affect indoor pollutant concentrations, 

thermal comfort conditions, and lighting quality. These and other indoor 

environmental characteristics are collectively referred to as indoor 

environmental quality1. 

IEQ can influence the health and productivity of building occupants. Small 

changes in occupant health and productivity may be very significant financially, 

potentially exceeding the financial benefits of energy conservation (Fisk and 

Rosenfeld, 1998). It is important that these IEQ considerations be explicitly 

recognized prior to selection and implementation of energy conservation 

measures2. Consequently, the primary purpose of this document is to provide 

information that will help energy conservation professionals and building 

owners and managers maintain or improve IEQ when they implement building 

energy conservation measures in non-industrial commercial and public 

1. The term indoor air quality (IAQ) is sometimes used for the same purpose, although IAQ is also used more

narrowly in reference to the levels of pollutants in indoor air.

2. Conversely, when selecting measures to improve IEQ, the potential impacts of these measures on building

energy use should be considered. This document does not directly address this situation but it includes some

relevant information.
2 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

buildings1. This document also describes some practical IEQ and ventilation 

measurements that, in certain circumstances, can also help energy conservation 

professionals maintain or improve IEQ.

3

How to Use

Section 4 and 5 of this document introduce IEQ through discussions of IEQ 

parameters, indoor pollutant sources, IEQ standards, and methods of maintaining 

a high level of IEQ. These sections are designed to educate building energy 

professionals about IEQ and to provide a foundation for subsequent sections of 

the document. Professionals with a strong working knowledge of IEQ issues can 

skip Section 4 and 5. Section 6 describes the linkage between specific energy 

conservation measures and IEQ, highlighting measures that are particularly 

attractive because they often improve IEQ while saving energy. This information 

is provided in a table so readers can quickly identify the information relevant to 

their situation. Some users of this document may not need to read beyond 

Section 6 because their energy conservation efforts are not likely to significantly 

influence IEQ. Section 7 provides a discussion of the application of Section 6 to 

specific buildings. Section 8 addresses IEQ measurement and verification 

(M&V). An overall IEQ M&V procedure is provided along with a description of 

basic M&V approaches and a table of M&V alternatives for specific IEQ 

parameters. The most practical and useful M&V alternatives are highlighted. 

Section 9 discusses how to implement the concepts laid out in this document. 

Concluding remarks and references are in Sections 10 and 11, respectively.

4 General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

4.1

Important 

EnergyRelated IEQ 

Parameters

Many characteristics of the indoor environment may influence comfort, health, 

satisfaction, and productivity of building occupants. The following indoorenvironmental characteristics are most likely to be influenced by building 

energy conservation measures:

• indoor thermal conditions such as air temperature and its vertical gradient, 

mean radiant temperature, air velocity, and humidity;

• concentrations of pollutants and odors in indoor air and amount of pollutants 

on surfaces;

• lighting intensity and quality;

This document provides more detailed information on indoor air pollution than 

on thermal comfort and lighting because the users of the IPMVP are less likely 

to be knowledgeable about indoor air pollution.

4.2

Indoor Thermal 

Conditions

The influence of the indoor thermal environment on thermal comfort is widely 

recognized. Thermal comfort has been studied for decades resulting in thermal 

comfort standards and models for predicting the level of satisfaction with the 

thermal environment as a function of the occupants clothing and activity level 

1. This document is not intended as substitute for local codes or as a guide to diagnosis and solving specific

IAQ and health problems. Hospitals and other health care facilities have special indoor air quality requirements that are not addressed in this document.
 3

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

(ASHRAE 1997). Despite the significant attention placed on thermal comfort 

by building professionals, dissatisfaction with indoor thermal conditions is the 

most common source of occupant complaints in office buildings (Federspiel 

1998). In a large field study (Schiller et al. 1988), less than 25% of the subjects 

were moderately satisfied or very satisfied with air temperature. Also, 22% of 

the measured thermal conditions in the winter, and almost 50% of measured 

thermal conditions in the summer, were outside of the boundaries of the 1988 

version of the ASHRAE thermal comfort zone. These findings indicate that 

greater effort should be placed on maintaining thermal conditions within the 

prescribed comfort zones. Even in laboratory settings with uniform clothing 

and activity levels, it is not possible to satisfy more than 95% of occupants by 

providing a single uniform thermal environment (Fanger 1970) because thermal 

preferences vary among people. Task conditioning systems that provide 

occupants limited control of the air temperature and velocity in their 

workstation are being explored as a means to maximize thermal comfort (e.g., 

Arens et al. 1991, Bauman et al. 1993).

Extremes in humidity will adversely influence thermal comfort (ASHRAE 

1997, Chapter 8). ASHRAE s thermal comfort zones for summer and winter 

have a lower absolute humidity boundary of 0.045 g H2O per kg dry air 

corresponding approximately to a 30% RH at 20.5°C and a 20% RH at 27°C. 

Relative humidities below approximately 25% have been associated with 

complaints of dry skin, nose, throat, and eyes. At high humidities, discomfort 

will increase due substantially to an increase of skin moisture. The upper 

humidity limits of ASHRAE s thermal comfort zone vary with temperature 

from approximately 60% RH at 26°C to 80% RH at 20°C.

Air temperature and humidity also influence perceptions of the quality of 

indoor air and the level of complaints about non-specific building-related health 

symptoms (often called sick building syndrome symptoms). Higher air 

temperature has been associated with increased health symptom prevalences in 

several studies (Skov et al. 1989, Jaakkola et al. 1991, Wyon 1992, Menzies et 

al. 1993). Occupants perceived acceptability of air quality has been shown to 

decrease as temperature and humidity increase in the range between 18°C, 30% 

RH and 28°C, 70% RH (Fang et al. 1997, Molhave et al. 1993).

4.3

Indoor Lighting

The quality of the indoor environment depends significantly on several aspects 

of lighting (IES 1993, Veitch and Newsham 1998) including the illuminance 

(intensity of light that impinges upon a surface), the amount of glare, and the 

spectrum of the light1. There is evidence that a decrease in the amount of flicker 

in light, i.e., the magnitude of the rapid cyclic change in illuminance over time, 

may be associated with a decrease in headache and eyestrain (Wilkens et al. 

1988) and with an increase in worker performance (Veitch and Newsham 1997). 

In many indoor spaces, the indoor environment is influenced by both daylight 

and by artificial lighting. Characteristics of windows and skylights and their 

shading affect the daylighting of indoors. The quality of electric indoor lighting 

is a function of the types, locations, and number of luminaires, and the optical 

characteristics of indoor surfaces such as their spectral reflectivity and color. 

1. The evidence for effects of spectrum of light on satisfaction and performance is mixed (e.g., Veitch 1994,

Berman 1992)
4 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

The method of lighting control, such as no control, automatic dimming of 

artificial light, and manual control of overhead or task lighting may also 

influence lighting quality.

Lighting characteristics influence the quality of vision and can have 

psychological influences on mood and on perceptions about the pleasantness of a 

space. Because extremes in lighting have a clear impact on performance, indoor 

lighting in commercial buildings is usually maintained within the limits specified 

in guidelines or standards. The recommended range of illuminance is a function 

of the type of visual activity and the age of the occupants. Guidelines also provide 

recommendations for the maximum luminance ratio, i.e., range of luminance in 

the visual field. Occupants satisfaction with lighting may vary with illuminance 

and with the characteristics of the lighting system (Katzev 1992).

4.4

Indoor 

Pollutants, 

Their Sources, 

and Health 

Effects

There are a large number of indoor air pollutants that can influence occupant 

health and the perceived acceptability of indoor air. The following paragraphs 

introduce these pollutants.

Gaseous human bioeffluents: Humans release a variety of odorous gaseous 

bioeffluents, e.g., body odors, which influence the perceived acceptability of 

indoor air. Historically, most standards and guidelines for minimum ventilation 

rates in buildings have been based primarily on the ventilation needed to 

maintain indoor air acceptable to a large proportion (e.g., 80%) of visitors when 

they initially enter a space with occupants as the only indoor pollutant source. 

In the last decade, concerns about other sources of odors and adverse health 

effects from air pollutants have increasingly influenced building ventilation 

standards.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the gaseous human bioeffluents in exhaled air. 

Humans are normally the main indoor source of carbon dioxide. Unvented or 

imperfectly vented combustion appliances can also increase indoor CO2

concentrations. The outdoor CO2 concentration is often approximately 350 

ppm1, whereas indoor concentrations are usually in the range of 500 ppm to a 

few thousand ppm. At these concentrations, CO2 is not thought to be a direct 

cause of adverse health effects; however, CO2 is an easily-measured surrogate 

for other occupant-generated pollutants, such as body odors.

The indoor CO2 concentration is often used, sometimes inappropriately, as an 

indicator of the rate of outside air supply per occupant. If the number of 

occupants and the rate of outside air supply are constant and the CO2 generation 

rate of occupants is known, the rate of outside air supply per occupant is related 

to the equilibrium indoor CO2 concentration in a straightforward manner as 

predicted by a steady-state mass balance calculation (Persily and Dols 1990). 

However, in many buildings, CO2 concentrations never stabilize during a 

workday because occupancy and ventilation rates are not stable for a sufficient 

time period. If the CO2 concentration has not stabilized at its equilibrium value 

and the steady-state relationship between CO2 and ventilation rate is used to 

estimate the rate of outside air supply, the estimated outside air ventilation rate 

may be substantially in error.

1. In urban areas, outdoor CO2 concentrations may substantially exceed 350 ppm and vary considerably with

time.
 5

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx): Indoor concentrations 

of CO and NOx may be higher than outdoor concentrations due to indoor 

unvented combustion (e.g., unvented space heaters), failures in the combustion 

exhaust vent systems of vented appliances, and leakage of air from attached 

parking garages into the building. Tobacco smoking can cause a small increase 

in indoor CO concentrations. Short-term exposures to highly elevated 

concentrations of CO can cause brain damage or death (NRC 1981). Lower 

concentrations can cause chest pain among people with heart disease (NRC 

1981). NO2 is usually considered to be the most important of the indoor 

nitrogen oxides. High concentrations (e.g., 0.5 ppm) of NO2 can cause 

respiratory distress in individuals with asthma and concentrations of 

approximately 1 ppm cause increased airway resistance in health individuals 

(NRC 1981). Long term exposure to much lower concentrations of NO2 may 

be associated with increased respiratory illness among children (Vedal 1985).

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): VOCs are a class of gaseous pollutants 

containing carbon. The indoor air typically contains dozens of VOCs at 

concentrations that are measurable. VOCs are emitted indoors by building 

materials (e.g., paints, pressed wood products, adhesives, etc.), furniture, 

equipment (photocopying machines, printers, etc.), cleaning products, pest 

control products, and combustion activities (cooking, unvented space heating, 

tobacco smoking, indoor vehicle use). Humans also release VOCs as a 

consequence of their metabolism and use of personal products such as 

perfumes. The outdoor air entering buildings also contains VOCs. VOCs in 

contaminated soil adjacent to the building can also be drawn into buildings.

New building materials and furnishings generally emit VOCs at a much higher 

rate than older materials. Emission rates for many VOCs may decline by an order 

of magnitude during the first few weeks after the materials are installed in the 

building. However, the emission rates of some VOCs, such as formaldehyde 

emissions from pressed wood products, decline much more slowly. Because of 

concerns about the health effects of VOCs, many manufacturers have worked to 

reduce the VOC emissions of their products, and some will provide emission 

information to their customers.

Some VOCs are suspected or known carcinogens or causes of adverse 

reproductive effects. Some VOCs also have unpleasant odors or are irritants. 

VOCs are thought to be a cause of non-specific health symptoms that are 

discussed subsequently.

The total volatile organic compound (TVOC) concentration, often used as a 

simple, integrated measure of VOCs, is defined as the total mass of measured 

VOCs per unit volume of air, exclusive of very volatile (e.g., formaldehyde) 

organic compounds. Laboratory studies in which humans have been exposed to 

mixtures of VOCs under controlled conditions (Molhave et al. 1986 and 1993) 

have documented increased health symptoms at TVOC concentrations of the 

order of milligrams per cubic meter of air. A panel of 12 Nordic researchers 

reviewed the literature on VOCs/TVOCs and health and concluded that indoor 

pollution including VOC is most likely a cause of health effects and comfort 

problems and that the scientific literature is inconclusive with respect to TVOC 

as a risk index for health and comfort (Andersson et al. 1997). As an indicator of 

health effects, the TVOC concentration is inherently flawed because the potency 
6 

• 

• 

• •••

of individual VOCs to elicit irritancy symptoms varies by orders of magnitude 

(Tenbrinke 1995). The potency for other potential health effects such as cancer or 

reproductive effects is also highly variable among compounds.

Despite these limitations, unusually high TVOC concentrations in commercial 

buildings, above one or two mg m-3 (Daisey et al. 1994), do indicate the 

presence of strong VOC sources. Further investigations to determine the 

composition of the VOCs and/or to identify the sources may be warranted. The 

probability of adverse heath or comfort effects caused by the high TVOC 

exposures will depend on the composition of the VOC mixture and on the 

concentrations of odorous or harmful compounds.

Radon is a naturally-occurring radioactive gas. The primary source of radon in 

most buildings is the surrounding soil and rock. Radon enters buildings from 

soil as soil gas is drawn into buildings and also enters by diffusion through the 

portions of buildings that contact soil. Earth-based building materials and water 

from wells can also be a source of radon. Radon exposure increases the risk of 

lung cancer (BEIR VI 1998).

Ozone is brought into buildings with outdoor air. Certain types of office 

equipment, such as photocopy machines and laser printers, can also be a source 

of indoor ozone. Ozone causes pulmonary inflammation and other pulmonary 

health effects. Ozone is removed from indoor air by reaction with indoor 

surfaces; thus indoor ozone concentrations are usually lower than outdoor 

concentrations. If indoor sources of ozone are limited, increasing the ventilation 

rate, while decreasing concentrations of indoor-generated pollutants, will 

usually increase the indoor ozone concentration.

In addition to the direct effects of ozone on health, ozone can react chemically 

with VOCs in the indoor air or with surface materials. These reactions may 

produce VOCs that may be a source of chemical irritation (Weschler and 

Schields 1997). 

Moisture is not a pollutant but it has a strong influence on indoor 

environmental quality. Water vapor is generated indoors due to human 

metabolism and human activities involving water use, as well as due to 

unvented combustion activities and by humidifiers. Moist soil may be a source 

of moisture in indoor air and in the flooring materials that contact the soil. The 

implications of high humidity for human health are complex and still a subject 

of debate (Baughman and Arens 1996, Arens and Baughman 1996). In some 

situations, high relative humidities may contribute to growth of fungi and 

bacteria that can adversely affect health.

Condensation of water on cool indoor surfaces (e.g., windows) may damage 

materials and promote the growth of microorganisms. Water leaks, such as roof 

and plumbing leaks, and exposure of building materials to rain or snow during 

building construction are a frequent source of material damage and growth of 

microorganisms. There is quite strong evidence that moisture problems in 

buildings lead to adverse respiratory health effects such as a higher prevalence 

of asthma or lower-respiratory-tract symptoms (e.g., Brunekreef 1992, Dales et 

al. 1991, Spengler et al. 1993; Smedje et al. 1996, Division of Respiratory 

Disease Studies 1984). There are many case studies of moisture-related 

microbiological problems in commercial buildings. The presence of 
 7

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

humidifiers in commercial building HVAC systems has been associated with an 

increase in various respiratory health symptoms.

Particles are present in outdoor air and are also generated indoors from a large 

number of sources (Owen et al. 1992) including tobacco smoking and other 

combustion processes. Some particles and fibers may be generated by indoor 

equipment (e.g. copy machines and printers). Mechanical abrasion and air 

motion may cause particle release from indoor materials. Particles are also 

produced by people, e.g., skin flakes are shed and droplet nuclei are generated 

from sneezing and coughing. Some particles may contain toxic chemicals. 

Some particles, biologic in origin, may cause allergic or inflammatory reactions 

or be a source of infectious disease. Increased morbidity and mortality is 

associated with increases in outdoor particle concentrations (EPA 1996), even 

when concentrations are in the vicinity of the U.S. national ambient air quality 

standard (50 μgÆm-3 for particles smaller than 10 micrometer). Of particular 

concern are the particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers in diameter, which are 

more likely to deposit deep inside the lungs (EPA 1996). A national ambient air 

quality standard for particles (http://www.epa.gov/airs/criteria.html) smaller than 

2.5 micrometers was established by the US Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) in 1997 (15 μgÆm-3 for the three-year average of the annual arithmetic 

mean concentration; 65 μgÆm-3 24-hour average).

Particle size is important because it influences the location where particles 

deposit in the respiratory system (EPA 1996), the efficiency of particle removal 

by air filters, and the rate of particle removal from indoor air by deposition on 

surfaces. The large majority of indoor particles are smaller than 1 μm. Particles 

smaller than approximately 2.5 μm are more likely to deposit deep inside the 

lungs. Many of the bioaerosols are approximately 1 μm and larger, with pollens 

often larger than 10 μm. These larger particles deposit preferentially in the nose.

Non-infectious bioaerosols include pollens, molds, bacteria, dust mite 

allergens, insect fragments, and animal dander. The sources are outdoor air, 

indoor mold and bacteria growth, insects, and pets. These bioaerosols may be 

brought into buildings as air enters or may enter buildings attached to shoes and 

clothing and subsequently be resuspended in the indoor air. The health effects 

of non-infectious bioaerosols include allergy symptoms, asthma symptoms, and 

hypersensitivity pneumonitis which is characterized by inflamation of the 

airway and lung (Gammage and Berven 1997).

Infectious non-communicable bioaerosols are airborne bacteria or fungi that 

can infect humans but that have a non-human source (Gammage and Berven 

1997). The best known example is Legionella, a bacterium that causes 

Legionnaires Disease and Pontiac Fever. Cooling towers and other sources of 

standing water (e.g., humidifiers) are thought to be a source of aerosolized 

Legionella in buildings. Legionella may also be present in potable water 

systems and aspiration of potable water is also thought to be a potential source 

of infection with Legionella. Some fungi, from sources within a building, can 

also infect individuals who are immune compromised.

Infectious communicable bioaerosols generated by one person may cause 

disease in others. These bioaerosols contain bacteria or virus within small 

droplet nuclei produced from the drying of larger liquid droplets, often expelled 
8 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

during coughing or sneezing. Examples of respiratory diseases transmitted, at 

least in part, by bioaerosols include tuberculosis, influenza, measles, and some 

types of common colds. Several studies, as reviewed in Fisk and Rosenfeld 

(1997), have indicated that building characteristics may significantly influence 

the incidence of respiratory disease among building occupants.

Fibers in indoor air include those of asbestos, and man-made mineral fibers 

such as fiberglass, and glass wool. The primary indoor sources are building 

materials, especially insulation products. Exposures to asbestos in industrial 

settings have been shown to cause lung cancer and other lung disease. 

Fiberglass and glass wool fibers are a source of skin irritation. The link between 

fiberglass and glass wool fibers and lung cancer remains uncertain.

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is the diluted mixture of pollutants 

caused by smoking of tobacco and emitted into the indoor air by a smoker (as 

opposed to the mainstream smoke inhaled by a smoker). Constituents of ETS 

include submicron-size particles composed of a large number of chemicals, 

plus a large number of gaseous pollutants. ETS is a source of odor and irritation 

complaints. Panels of experts have reviewed the scientific evidence pertaining 

to the health effects of ETS and concluded that ETS is causally associated with 

lung cancer and heart disease in adults and asthma induction, asthma 

exacerbation, acute lower respiratory tract infections, and middle ear infection 

in children (EPA 1992, California EPA 1997). 

4.5

Controlling 

Indoor Pollutant 

Concentrations

The indoor concentration of a particular air pollutant depends on the outdoor 

concentration, the indoor pollutant generation rate, and on the total rate of 

pollutant removal by ventilation, air cleaning, and other removal processes. A 

simple mass balance equation can be used to illustrate the relationship among 

these variables at steady state in a space with well-mixed air:

 Eq. 1

4.5.1

Pollutant 

Sources

The indoor pollutant generation rate is a function of the type and quantity of 

indoor pollutant sources. For pollutants that have primarily indoor sources, 

excluding human bioeffluents, the indoor pollutant source strength tends to 

vary over a wider range than the other parameters that affect indoor pollutant 

concentrations. The indoor pollutant generation rate is often considered to be 

most important determinant of the indoor pollutant concentration. Eliminating 

or minimizing the emissions of pollutants from indoor sources is a highly 

effective and energy efficient means of reducing indoor pollutant 

concentrations.

4.5.2

Ventilation

In addition to minimizing the emissions of pollutants from indoor sources, to 

maintain acceptable IEQ, ventilation with outside air must be provided at an 

adequate rate. The ventilation rate, i.e., the rate of outside air supply, is usually 

normalized by the floor area (LÆs-1Æm-2), number of occupants (LÆs-1 per 

person), or indoor air volume (h-1 or air changes per hour). The outside air 

supplied to a building must be distributed properly to the various rooms to 

maintain acceptable IEQ throughout the building. The required rate of outside 

Indoor Conc. Outdoor Conc. Indoor Pollutant Generation Rate

Ventilation rate Air Cleaning Rate Rate of Other Removal Processes + + = + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 9

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

air supply often changes with time because of changes in occupancy and 

indoor pollutant emission rates.

Often, local exhaust ventilation is used in rooms with high pollutant or odor 

sources. Exhaust ventilation is more efficient in controlling indoor pollutant 

concentrations than general ventilation of the entire space (general ventilation 

is often called dilution ventilation). Exhaust ventilation is a means of 

controlling pressure differentials, as described below.

4.5.3

Pressure Control

HVAC systems are often used in commercial buildings to maintain pressure 

differences between indoors and outdoors or between different indoor spaces. 

Maintaining buildings under positive pressure relative to outdoors can help to 

maintain IEQ by limiting the infiltration of outdoor air that may adversely 

affect thermal comfort and that may contain moisture and pollutants. 

Maintaining pressure differences between different indoor spaces can limit the 

rate of pollutant transport between these spaces. For example, smoking rooms, 

bathrooms, and laboratories are often depressurized so that pollutants 

generated within these rooms do not leak into the surrounding rooms.

4.5.4

Air Cleaning

Gaseous or particulate air cleaning (ASHRAE 1996, Chapters 24 and 25) may 

be used to remove air pollutants from recirculated indoor air or from incoming 

outdoor air. Most commercial buildings use particle filters in the HVAC 

system. Commonly, these filters have a low particle removal efficiency for 

particles smaller than approximately one micrometer in diameter (Hanley et al. 

1994). However, particle filters with a wide range of efficiencies for 

submicron-size particles are readily available for use in commercial buildings 

and indoor particle concentrations may be lowered substantially by the use of 

higher efficiency air filters. To maintain the efficiency of filter systems, the 

filter installation method must prevent significant air leakage between or 

around the filters. In contrast to particle filters, gaseous air cleaners, such as 

beds of activated carbon, are used in only a small minority of buildings because 

of their higher costs and uncertain performance; however, considerable effort 

is being devoted to the development of new technologies for gaseous air 

cleaning. 

Air cleaning systems require regular maintenance. For example, air filters must 

be periodically replaced to prevent reductions in air flow and to limit odor 

emissions and microbiological growth from soiled filters.

4.5.5

Natural Pollutant 

Removal 

Processes

For some pollutants there are other natural removal processes. Examples are 

loss of ozone due to its reaction with indoor surfaces and the deposition of 

particles on surfaces. These removal processes can substantially influence the 

indoor concentrations of these pollutants.

4.5.6

Air Recirculation 

and Air Flow 

Patterns

The indoor air flow pattern also influences IEQ. Mechanical recirculation of 

air spreads pollutants emitted from localized sources throughout a building so 

that a larger population is exposed; however, recirculation may decrease the 

pollutant concentration near the source. Also, recirculation of air through air 

cleaning systems can reduce indoor pollutant concentrations.
10 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

The pattern of airflow within rooms also influences indoor pollutant exposures. 

A floor-to ceiling indoor airflow pattern, called displacement ventilation, can 

reduce pollutant concentrations in the breathing zone. A short-circuiting air 

flow pattern between supply and return air grills at ceiling level can increase 

pollutant concentrations in the breathing zone.

4.5.7

Maintenance, 

Cleaning, and 

Commissioning

Maintenance, cleaning, and commissioning of the HVAC system and building 

are generally thought to be significant determinants of indoor pollutant 

concentrations. Poor HVAC system maintenance may lead to poor control of 

indoor thermal comfort or outside air supply and to growth of microorganisms 

inside the HVAC system. Air filters may become sources of odors or a substrate 

for microbiological growth (e.g., Elixmann et al. 1990, Martikainen et al. 1990). 

HVAC system commissioning and air balancing help to assure that the system 

performs as intended. In a large study of office buildings with health complaints 

(Sieber et al. 1996), significantly increased prevalences of respiratory health 

symptoms were associated with poorer HVAC maintenance and less frequent 

building cleaning.

The methods and quality of building cleaning affects odor emissions from 

surfaces and the quantity of particles on surfaces that may become suspended 

in the air.

While increased maintenance and cleaning is generally considered beneficial, 

maintenance activities and products can be sources of indoor pollutants (e.g., 

cleaning compounds, waxes) and cleaning activities can be a source of 

resuspended particles.

4.6

Acute NonSpecific Health 

Symptoms and 

Building 

Related Illness

The general public is familiar with many of the health effects that may be 

influenced by IEQ (and by energy conservation measures), such as acute 

respiratory diseases, allergies, asthma, and cancer. This document will not discuss 

the nature of these health effects. Rather, this section will briefly describe two less 

familiar classes of building-related health effects: acute non-specific health 

symptoms associated with buildings and building related illness (BRI). More 

comprehensive discussions of the health effects associated with IEQ factors are 

provided in the published literature (e.g., Gammage and Berven 1996)

4.6.1

Non-Specific 

Health 

Symptoms

The most common health symptoms attributed by building occupants to their 

indoor environments are non-specific health symptoms that do not indicate a 

specific disease, such as irritation of eyes, nose, and skin, headache, fatigue, 

chest tightness, and difficulty breathing. These symptoms are commonly called 

sick building syndrome symptoms; however, we use the term non-specific 

health symptoms because the term sick-building syndrome can be 

misleading (i.e., the building is not sick and the building is not always the cause 

of symptoms). People commonly experience these non-specific health 

symptoms; however, their prevalence or severity varies considerably among 

buildings and, in some buildings, the symptoms coincide with periods of 

occupancy in the building. Buildings within which occupants experience 

unusually high levels of these symptoms are sometimes called sick buildings. 

Some non-specific health symptoms are experienced frequently by a substantial 

fraction of all office workers (e.g., Brightman et al. 1997, Fisk et al. 1993; 
 11

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

Nelson et al. 1995). The causes of non-specific health symptoms appear to be 

multifactorial and are not thoroughly understood. Although psychosocial 

factors such as the level of job stress are known to influence non-specific health 

symptoms, several characteristics of buildings and indoor environments are 

also known or suspected to influence these symptoms including: the type of 

ventilation system, type or existence of humidifier, rate of outside air 

ventilation, the chemical and microbiological pollution in the indoor air and on 

indoor surfaces, and indoor temperature and humidity (Mendell 1993; Sundell 

1994). On average, occupants of sealed air-conditioned buildings report more 

symptoms than occupants of naturally ventilated buildings. Humidifiers 

increase the likelihood that occupants report these symptoms possibly because 

they can be a source of bioaerosols. Most studies have found that lower indoor 

air temperatures are associated with fewer non-specific health symptoms. 

Symptoms have been reduced through practical measures such as increased 

ventilation, decreased temperature, and improved cleaning of floors and chairs 

(Mendell 1993).

Non-specific health symptoms are a distraction from work and can lead to 

absence from work (Preller et al. 1990) and visits to doctors. When problems 

are severe and investigations of the building are required, there are financial 

costs to support the investigations and considerable effort is typically expended 

by building management staff, by health and safety personnel and by building 

engineers. Responses to non-specific health symptoms have included costly 

changes in the building.

4.6.2

BuildingRelated Illness

In contrast to non-specific health symptoms, the term building related illness 

(BRI) is sometimes used to describe a specific building-related health effect 

with known causes and objective clinical findings. Examples of BRIs include 

Legionnaires Disease, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, lung cancer from radon 

exposure, and health effects known to be a consequence of exposures to specific 

toxic compounds in buildings. Allergies and asthma are considered by some to 

be building related illnesses.

4.7

Sensitive 

Populations

Significant subsets of the total population have an increased sensitivity to 

indoor pollutants. Approximately 20% of people have environmental allergies 

and approximately 10% experience asthma (Committee on Health Effects of 

Indoor Allergens 1993). Peoples sensitivity to chemical irritants and their 

ability to detect odors also vary. To maintain low levels of building-related 

health complaints and health effects, the indoor environment must be 

maintained satisfactory for a substantial majority of occupants, many of whom 

are more sensitive than the average person to indoor pollutants.

A very small portion of the population report severe health effects when 

exposed to extremely low concentrations of a large variety of chemicals in the 

air. Their very high sensitivity to these chemicals may follow a period of 

sensitization caused by exposure to a higher concentration of one or more 

chemicals. The term multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) is commonly used to 

describe this phenomenon. There is considerable uncertainty and controversy 

within the medical community about the concept of MCS. The current state of 

knowledge about MCS and its causes, physiological and psychological, is very 
12 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

limited. Owners and operators of buildings and building design and energy 

professionals usually do not have sufficient information to eliminate health 

symptoms in individuals with MCS.

4.8

Standards, 

Codes and 

Guidelines for 

Ventilation and 

Indoor 

Environmental 

Quality

A variety of standards, codes, or guidelines for minimum acceptable ventilation 

rates, lighting, thermal conditions, pollutant concentrations, tobacco smoking 

restrictions, pollutant sources, and building characteristics that influence IEQ 

have been adopted by national, state, regional, or municipal governments. 

Professional organizations also write voluntary or model standards or guidelines 

that are sometimes adopted, in whole or part, by code-making organizations. 

Some of these standards or codes constrain building and HVAC designs but do 

not strictly apply for building operation. A limitation of building design standards, 

applied at the time of new construction, is that these standards often fail to 

stimulate adjustments in building operation as building characteristics and 

building occupancy vary over time. However, failure to operate buildings in a 

manner that meets minimum design code requirements is considered poor 

practice and is likely to be a consideration in the event of IEQ-related litigation. 

Thermal and lighting standards generally specify acceptable ranges for thermal 

and lighting conditions. Ventilation standards may specify minimum acceptable 

rates of outside air supply. Maximum pollutant concentrations are specified in 

some standards for a small number of air pollutants; however, at present there 

are no maximum concentration limits specified in standards for many of the 

pollutants present in indoor air.

IEQ-related codes and standards vary qualitatively and in their quantitative 

specifications. This document does not recommend specific standards to the 

exclusion of others because standards must reflect the regional climate, 

economic situation, and culture. This document does recommend that building 

professionals be familiar with all applicable standards and that the requirements 

in applicable standards be considered minimum requirements. In many 

situations, exceeding the minimum requirements is desirable. Examples of 

prominent codes or standards are listed and briefly described in Table 1.

4.9

Relationship of 

IEQ to 

Productivity

Improvements in IEQ have the potential to improve worker productivity, in part 

by reducing: a) costs for health care, b) sick leave, c) performance decrements 

at work caused by illness or adverse health symptoms; and d) costs of 

responding to occupant complaints and costs of IEQ investigations. Some 

characteristics of the indoor environment, such as temperatures and lighting 

quality, may also influence worker performance without impacting health. In 

many businesses, such as office work1, worker salaries plus benefits dominate 

total costs; therefore, very small percentage increases in productivity, even a 

fraction of one percent, are often sufficient to justify expenditures for building 

improvements that increase productivity. 

At the present time, the linkages between specific building and IEQ 

characteristics and productivity have not been well quantified. However, in a 

critical review and analysis of existing scientific information, Fisk and 

Rosenfeld (1997, 1998) have developed estimates of the potential to improve 

1. In office buildings, salaries are typically about 100 times larger than building energy or maintenance costs.
 13

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

General Introduction to Indoor Environmental Quality

Table 1: Examples of Standards, Codes, or Guidelines Pertinent to IEQ in Nonindustrial, Commercial Buildings

Title Organization Primary Content

ASHRAE / ANSI Standard 

55-1992, Thermal 

Environmental Conditions 

for Human Occupancy 

(ASHRAE 1992b)

ASHRAEa ANSIb Acceptable range for temperature, humidity, and air velocity

ASHRAE Standard 62-

1989, Ventilation for 

acceptable indoor air 

quality (ASHRAE 1989)

ASHRAE ANSI Minimum acceptable rates of ventilation per occupant; Alternate IAQ 

performance path maintains selected pollutant concentrations below 

limits and subjective satisfaction to air above a limit; Includes a few 

pollutant concentration limits

ISO 7730: 1994 Moderate 

thermal environments

determination of the PMV 

and PPD indices and 

specification of the 

conditions for thermal 

comfort (ISO 1994)

International 

Organization for 

Standardization 

(ISO)

Acceptable range for temperature, humidity, and air velocity

ANSI/IESNA —RP-1-1993 ANSI IESNAc For office lighting, topics covered include office tasks, design process, 

lighting criteria for visual performance and comfort, luminous 

environmental factors, the lighting system, maintenance, light areas, 

energy and energy management

European concerted action, 

indoor air quality and its 

impact on man, report no. 

11: guidelines for 

ventilation requirements in 

buildings (ECA 1992)

Commission of the 

European 

Communities, 

Directorate General 

for Science, 

Research, and 

Development

Minimum ventilation rates per unit of sensory indoor pollutant emission 

in olfsd to satisfy 70%, 80%, or 90% of people based on initial judgments 

when they enter space; Alternate minimum ventilation rate for 

protecting health

Air quality guidelines for 

Europe (WHO 1987)

WHO, Regional 

Office for Europe 

Guideline concentrations for 25 chemicals, apply for outdoor and indoor 

air

Indoor climate-air quality: 

NKB publication no. 61e 

(NKB 1991)

Nordic Committee 

on Building 

Regulations (NKB)

General guidelines regarding: minimum quality of intake air; limiting 

spread of pollutants indoors (air recirculation is discouraged); use of low 

emission building materials, furnishings, processes and activities; 

assuring cleanability of buildings and HVAC; air balancing; minimum 

air change efficiency; necessary documentation and operation and 

maintenance. Also: minimum rates of outside air supply that are a sum 

of a minimum rate per unit floor area and a minimum rate per person

Law for Maintenance of 

Sanitation of Buildings, 

1970 (Ministers 1970)

Ministers of Justice, 

Health and Welfare, 

Labor and 

Construction, Japan

Specifies limits or acceptable ranges for indoor temperature, relative 

humidity, air velocity, carbon dioxide concentration, carbon monoxide 

concentration, and suspended particle concentration. Specifies training 

and testing requirements for building sanitation engineers and oversight 

of building maintenance and management by building sanitation 

engineers. Requires maintenance of documents including those on state 

of regulation of air, management of water supply and wastewater, 

cleaning, and control of rodents, insects and other pests. Specifies fines 

for violations of law. 

a. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers

b. American National Standards Institute

c. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America

d. One olf is the rate of sensory pollutant emission from a standard person (non-smoker). The total sensory indoor pollutant emission rate, from people and other sources, is expressed in olfs
14 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

productivity in the U.S. through changes in indoor environments. The review 

indicates that building and HVAC characteristics are associated with 

prevalences of acute respiratory infections and with allergy and asthma 

symptoms and non-specific health symptoms. For the normal range of indoor 

lighting conditions, the effects of improved lighting on the performance of 

typical office work is poorly understood. Several studies have found 

performance to be affected only by unusually low lighting levels or have found 

performance to change only with small low contrast type (Fisk and Rosenfeld 

1997). However, a recent laboratory study with computerized performance 

tests suggests that high frequency ballasts may increase performance (Veitch 

and Newsham 1998). There is evidence that improvements in lighting quality 

can improve the performance of work that is very visually demanding, such as 

mail sorting or detailed product inspections, by several percent. Finally, there 

is evidence that quite small changes in temperature, a couple of degrees 

centigrade, may increase or decrease the performance of office work; however, 

the optimal temperature varies with the type of work. Also, the optimal thermal 

conditions for work performance may differ from the optimal conditions for 

comfort. From analyses of existing scientific literature and calculations using 

statistical data, the estimated potential annual nationwide benefits of 

improvements in IEQ include the following:

• a 10% to 30% reduction in acute respiratory infections and allergy and 

asthma symptoms;

• a 20% to 50% reduction in acute non-specific health symptoms;

• a 0.5% to 5% increase in the performance of office work; and

• associated annual cost savings and productivity gains of $30 billion to 

$170 billion. 

5

Best Practices 

for Maintaining 

IEQ

The recommended best practices for maintaining a high quality indoor 

environment vary throughout the world; however, there are several widely 

accepted elements of best practice. This section describes best practices that 

are widely accepted as beneficial. 

5.1 Maintaining Good Indoor Air Quality

5.1.1

Limiting Pollutant 

Emissions from 

Indoor Sources 

1 Limiting the rates of pollutant emission from indoor sources is essential to 

cost-effectively maintain good IAQ. While the rates of pollutant emission 

from occupants are not generally controllable, emissions from many other 

pollutant sources can be minimized by adhering to the following practices.

Tobacco smoking should be restricted to enclosed and depressurized1

smoking rooms from which air is exhausted to outdoors. Alternately, 

indoor smoking should be entirely eliminated.

2 Building materials, furnishings, office equipment, and cleaning and pest 

control products and practices with low VOC and odor emission rates 

1. Smoking rooms should be maintained depressurized relative to adjoining rooms.
 15

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Best Practices for Maintaining IEQ

should be selected. In general, however, selection of low-emitting products 

is a difficult task because of limited information on VOC emissions, the lack 

of standard methods for determining emission rates, and because of the 

health effects resulting from exposures to many VOCs and VOC mixtures 

are poorly understood. Many cleaning, painting, and pest control activities 

should be performed when the building is unoccupied. Cleaning and pest 

control products must be properly diluted and applied.

3 To limit indoor growth of fungi and bacteria, water leaks from plumbing and 

the building envelope should be eliminated. Building materials that become 

wet should be dried rapidly (e.g., within 1—2 days) or removed and replaced. 

Construction materials, including concrete, should be dry before they are 

covered (e.g., with carpet) or enclosed (e.g., in a wall cavity).

4 To limit microbiological sources in HVAC systems, sources of moisture in 

HVAC systems must be controlled. The entry of water droplets and snow 

into outside air inlets must be restricted by proper design of the air intake 

system, e.g., use of rain-proof louvers and limiting of intake air velocities. 

Condensate drain pans must drain fully, be cleaned periodically, and have 

proper traps in the condensate drainage systems. Air velocities through 

cooling coils and humidifiers must be restricted to prevent water droplets 

from being entrained in the airstream and wetting downstream surfaces.

5 To limit microbiological sources in buildings, condensation of water vapor 

inside the building envelope and on interior building surfaces, including slab 

floors in contact with the soil, must be limited by controlling indoor 

humidity, proper use of moisture barriers and thermal insulation in the 

building envelope, and through control of indoor-to-outdoor pressure 

differences. Specific requirements will vary with climate.

6 A building should not be constructed on soil with unusual levels of 

hazardous contaminants (VOCs or radon) or special measures should be 

used to prevent soil gas from being drawn into the building. When building 

slabs are constructed on soils that are unusually wet, water proofing should 

be used to limit moisture transport from the soil into the slab.

7 Pollutants emitted from strong sources may need to be exhausted directly to 

outdoors. Combustion products from appliances should be vented to 

outdoors. The rates of air exhaust from janitor storage rooms and restrooms 

should be sufficient to maintain these rooms depressurized relative to 

surrounding rooms and the air should be exhausted directly to outdoors. 

Equipment with high emission rates of pollutants or odors should be isolated 

in rooms (e.g., copy machine rooms or kitchens) with high air exchange rates 

with air exhausted directly to outdoors. These rooms should also be 

maintained depressurized. Parking garages should be physically separated 

from occupied spaces and maintained under negative pressure relative to the 

adjoining occupied spaces.

8 Mechanical equipment rooms should not be used for storage of building 

materials, solvents, cleaning supplies, pesticides, adhesives, or other 

pollutant- or odor-emitting materials.

9 During building construction and major renovation projects, unusually strong 

sources of particles and VOCs may be present in the building. (Products or 

processes with low pollutant emissions should be employed when feasible.) 
16 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Occupants must be isolated from these sources of pollutants using temporary 

internal walls as necessary and by maintaining the air pressure in the 

construction area less than the pressure in the adjoining occupied spaces. 

Measures should be taken to ensure that ventilation systems serving the 

construction zone do not become contaminated by construction dusts, or the 

systems should be cleaned thoroughly prior to occupancy (SMACNA 1995). 

A short delay (e.g., few days to weeks) in the occupancy of newly constructed 

or renovated spaces can help to prevent odor and irritancy complaints 

associated with the VOC emissions of new materials.

10 Good housekeeping practices should be employed to limit the accumulation 

of pollutants on surfaces and to reduce the potential for microbiological 

growth on these surfaces.

5.1.2

Assuring 

Adequate 

Quality of Intake 

Air 

Assuring adequate quality of intake air is essential. When possible, buildings 

should be located in areas with acceptable outdoor air quality. Outside air intakes 

should not be located near strong sources of pollutants such as combustion 

stacks, exhausts from fume hoods, sanitary vents, busy streets, loading docks, 

parking garages, standing water, cooling towers, and vegetation. The outside air 

intake must be separated sufficiently from locations where ventilation air is 

exhausted to prevent significant re-entrainment of the exhaust air.

Incoming air should be filtered to remove particles. The recommended 

minimum particle filtration efficiencies vary among IAQ and ventilation 

standards and guidelines; however, use of filters that exceed minimum 

requirements is an option to improve IAQ, often with a small or negligible 

incremental cost. If unacceptable concentrations of gaseous pollutants are 

present in outside air, gaseous air cleaning may be required. 

5.1.3

Maintain 

Minimum 

Ventilation 

Rates 

The minimum ventilation rates specified in the applicable code requirements 

should be maintained or exceeded. The HVAC system should be designed so 

that rates of outside air intake can be measured using practical measurement 

techniques. In buildings with variable air volume (VAV) ventilation systems, 

special controls may be needed to ensure the minimum outside air intake into 

the air handling unit is maintained during all operating conditions (Cohen 1994, 

Drees and Wenger 1992, Solberg et al. 1990).

In addition to maintaining the minimum rate of outside air intake into the 

building, the ventilation system must be designed and balanced to assure the 

proper air delivery to each major room or section of the building. In VAV 

systems, VAV control units must have a minimum open position1 to ensure the 

required outside air supply to specific regions of the building. 

When the air supply and return air registers are placed in or near the ceiling and 

the supply air is warmer than room air, the supply air may short circuit to the 

return registers resulting in poor ventilation at breathing level; i.e., a poor air 

change effectiveness (e.g., Fisk et al. 1997b, ASHRAE 1998). The ventilation 

system should be designed to assure a high air change effectiveness or the rate of 

outside air supply should be increased to correct for poor air change effectiveness. 

1. When internal cooling loads are low, the supply air temperatures may need to be increased to prevent overcooling of the conditioned space.
 17

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Best Practices for Maintaining IEQ

5.1.4

Recirculation of 

Indoor Air 

Recirculation of indoor air is standard practice in some countries, such as the 

U.S., and discouraged in other countries such as those of Scandinavia. When air 

is recirculated, it should be filtered to remove particles. However, filters are 

often used only to prevent soiling and fouling of the HVAC equipment. These 

filters have a very low efficiency for respirable-size particles (smaller than 2.5 

micrometers). Use of filters that exceed minimum requirements is an option to 

improve IAQ, often with a small or negligible incremental cost. 

5.1.5

Maintenance of 

the HVAC 

System 

Regular preventive maintenance of the HVAC system is necessary to assure 

proper delivery of outside air throughout the building and to limit growth of 

microorganisms in the system. A written plan for periodic maintenance should 

be developed and followed and maintenance activities should be documented. 

Elements of periodic maintenance that are important for maintaining good IEQ 

include changing of filters1, cleaning of drain pans and cooling coils, checking 

fan operation, and checking dampers that influence air flow rates. Testing and 

balancing of an HVAC system may be necessary in the following circumstances: 

(a) after significant changes in the building, HVAC system, occupancy; or 

activity within the building (b) when control settings have been readjusted by 

maintenance personnel; and c) when accurate records are not available.

5.1.6

Integrated 

Approach to IEQ

It is widely recognized that an integrated or whole-building approach is the 

most effective means of saving energy in buildings because the energy 

performance of the building depends on the interactions of building systems 

and their control and operation. The IEQ performance of a building also 

depends on the interactions among building design, building materials, and 

building operation, control, and maintenance. Therefore, an integrated or whole 

building approach is recommended to maximize IEQ. Such an integrated 

approach may include the integrated consideration of the following: a) IEQ 

targets or objectives, b) occupancy and indoor pollutant sources and pollutant 

sinks and their variation over time, c) building and HVAC design, d) 

commissioning, e) training and education, and f) building operation and 

maintenance.

5.2

IEQ 

Management 

Plans and 

Related 

Programs 

The establishment and implementation of IEQ management plans is 

recommended to help maintain high quality IEQ and a high level of occupant 

satisfaction with IEQ. Common elements of IEQ management plans include the 

following2:

1 Selecting an IEQ manager, responsible for management and coordination of 

all aspects of IEQ

2 Developing an IEQ profile of the building

3 Assigning responsibilities and training of staff

4 Development of an IEQ checklist

5 Periodic building and HVAC system inspections

6 Facility operation and maintenance practices to maintain IEQ

7 Specific procedures to record and respond to occupant complaints

1. Filters become sources of odors. Also, microorganisms may colonize filters.

2. For a more detailed description of elements in an IEQ management plan, see Building Air Quality Action

Plan, U.S. EPA and NIOSH, http://www.epa.gov/IAQ/base/actionpl.html
18 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

8 Special practices to maintain IEQ during building renovation, painting, 

pesticide use, or other periods of high indoor pollutant generation 

9 Maintaining IEQ documentation

In the US, an independent non-profit private sector program called the Building 

Air Quality Alliance (BAQA) offers recognition to building owners and 

managers who commit to maintaining IAQ primarily through implementation 

of a proactive management plan. BAQA (http://www.baqa.org) has a practical 

step-by-step protocol in checklist form that is reviewed annually with the 

assistance of an IEQ professional.

An IEQ insurance policy is becoming available for buildings that follow BAQA 

guidelines. Other IEQ insurance policies under development are not 

specifically linked to the BAQA process but reportedly will require an 

integrated building assessment.

The principles that underlie the BAQA process are derived substantially from a 

guidance document entitled Building Air Quality prepared by the US. EPA 

and NIOSH (EPA / NIOSH 1991; 

http://www.epa.gov/reg5oair/radon/healbld1.htm#bldgaqguinfo). The US 

EPA/NIOSH have also prepared and an accompanying Building Air Quality 

Action Plan ( http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/actionpl.html).

The US EPA / DOE (Department of Energy) Energy Star Program have recently 

announced a new Energy Star Building labeling program 

(http://www.epa.gov/buildinglabel). Based on current plans, commercial buildings 

whose energy performance is among the top 25% in the nation and which meet 

specific requirements for comfort and IEQ will be awarded and Energy Star 

Building Plaque.

Another private sector organization that promotes improved IEQ, as well as 

energy efficiency, is the US Green Buildings Council (http://www.usgbc.org). The 

Green Building Council has a building rating system called LEED 

(http://www.usgbc.org/programs/index.htm).

6

Linkages 

Between 

Energy 

Conservation 

Measures and 

IEQ

This section lists common energy conservation measures for commercial 

buildings, describes their potential influence on IEQ, and identifies 

precautionary actions or mitigations that can help to assure acceptable IEQ. The 

primary information is provided in Table 2. For many energy conservation 

measures, the cited references provide additional information on the IEQ 

impacts or on the related precautions and mitigations. The measures marked 

with "◆" in Table 2 deserve special consideration because they will often 

simultaneously improve IEQ and save energy. Because of the growing interest 

in IEQ, energy efficiency proposals that are expected to protect or improve IEQ 

will have a competitive advantage relative to proposals that ignore IEQ.

The last column of Table 2 links each energy conservation measure to the most 

directly relevant IEQ measurement and verification (M&V) alternatives 

provided subsequently in Table 4.
19

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 

Lighting

◆ Energy efficient lamps, ballasts, fixtures (IES 1993)

Improved lighting quality is common if lighting system is properly designed and installed.

Emphasize lighting quality in design. Check lighand reflected images in VDT screens. Provide taEnsure that lighting retrofits do not result in distrelease of asbestos, fiberglass, or irritating dusts

Automated lighting controls: occupancy sensors, dimming (IES 1993)

Improved lighting quality possible. Improperly operating control systems can degrade lighting quality

Emphasize lighting quality in design. Commissisystems. Provide task lighting where practical.

Removing lamps and fixtures Risk of insufficient local or overall lighting level. Ensure appropriate light levels and distribution. 

occupant controllable task lighting where approp

Use of window, skylights, light shelves, and light tubes to provide natural lighting. (IES 1993)

Improved or degraded lighting quality are possible depending on placement and optical characteristics of building elements that provide daylight. There is some evidence that proximity to windows, even when they can not be opened, is associated with a decreased frequency of acute non-specific building-related health symptoms (Fisk et al. 1993).

Ensure proper design of natural lighting system lighting problems such as glare, or incorrect or unlevels. Check lighting levels. Provide occupant ctask lighting.

Automatic and manuallyadjustable shading controls, fixed shading, window films (IES 1993)

Improved lighting quality possible. Improperly operating shading controls can degrade lighting quality. Shading can reduce potential pollutant emissions from indoor materials caused (or increased) by exposure to direct sunlight.

Commission shading control systems to ensure poperation. Provide occupant controllable task lig

HVAC energy conservation measuresImprove efficiency of HVAC components (motors, pumps, fans, chillers)

Adverse influence on IEQ unlikely if components have sufficient capacity.

Commission HVAC system to ensure proper perunder full- and part-load in heating and cooling (ASHRAE 1996c)

◆ Heat recovery from exhausted ventilation air or other source of waste heat. 

If heat recovery system allows increase in rate of outside air supply, IEQ will usually be improved. See outside air economizer discussion related to outdoor air pollutants. Some heat recovery systems transfer moisture or pollutants from exhaust to supply airstream. (ASHRAE 1992)

See outside air economizer discussion related to pollutants. Ensure that heat recovery system doeunwanted moisture or pollutants to supply airstr
20

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

Reducing operating time of HVAC components (e.g., fans, chillers) to save energy or limit peak energy demand.

Risk of degraded indoor thermal environment and / or increased indoor air pollutant concentrations if components are not operated during periods of occupancy. Also, when HVAC systems are not operating, indoor pressure differences and the associated transport of pollutants between zones or between outdoors and indoors are not controlled.

Operating periods must be sufficient to ensure athermal comfort and ventilation during occupancwith outside air should precede occupancy to redconcentrations of air pollutants emitted from buimaterials and furnishings during unoccupied / loperiods. Minimize indoor pollutant sources to repollution burden on the ventilation system. Equishutdown to limit peak energy demands should band of limited duration. Use energy efficient HVAthermal energy storage to limit peak energy demsacrificing thermal comfort. Sequencing the starequipment may also reduce peak demands, often adverse influence on IEQ.

◆ Use of outside air economizera for free cooling. 

Generally, IEQ will improve due to the increase in average ventilation rate. (Seppanen et al. 1989; Mudarri et al. 1996) During periods of elevated outdoor pollutant concentrations, economizer use may increase indoor concentrations of outdoor pollutants. In humid climates, economizer use may increase indoor humidities and the potential moisture-related IEQ problems

Locate outside air intakes as far as practical from sources of pollutants such as vehicle exhausts, Hexhausts, trash storage, and restaurant exhausts. 1996b) If outdoor air is highly polluted with partiefficiency air filters. If outdoor air is highly pollozone, consider checking indoor ozone levels anactivated charcoal filters. Design and control HVeconomizer to prevent moisture problems. Econcontrols and associated minimum outside air flow be regularly calibrated and maintained.

◆ Nighttime pre-cooling using outdoor air. (ASHRAE 1995)

Nighttime ventilation may result in decreased indoor concentrations of indoor-generated pollutants when occupants arrive at work. Nighttime ventilation with humid air may result in condensation on HVAC equipment or building components increasing the risk of growth of microorganisms.

Design and operate nighttime ventilation systemmoisture problems. Often, controls prevent nighwhen outdoor dew-point temperature is excessiv

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
21

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

Use of variable air volume (VAV) ventilation system in place of constant volume system.

Risk of insufficient outside air supply when indoor cooling or heating loads are low (Mudarri et al. 1996). See discussion of minimum outside air supply with VAV systems in Section 4.1. Particularly in HVAC systems with fixed outside air fraction, risk of excessive cooling and thermal discomfort when cooling loads are low if minimum outside air supply is maintained and supply air temperature is not increased. Increased risk of thermal comfort problems from supply air dumpingb.

Maintain outside air intake into air handler at or minimum requirement for all supply air flow rateal. 1990, Cohen 1994; Janu et al. 1995, Utterson 1998) Avoid VAV control units that close fully wtemperatures are satisfied. Supply air temperaturto be increased when cooling loads are low. Chelocal outside air supply and indoor temperatures cooling loads. Use supply registers, minimum surates and temperatures that do not cause supply and thermal discomfort.

Use of variable speed drives in place of dampers for flow control.

No influence on IEQ expected. Use flow controllers that depend on measured ai

than theoretical or design flows.

Use of computerized digital HVAC control systems, Energy monitoring and control systems

Flexibility and ease of HVAC control are enhanced with properly operating control systems, hence, IEQ may be improved. Digital controls facilitate use of demand-controlled ventilation based on pollutant sensors.

Assure proper function of control system via com(ASHRAE 1996c). Assure adequate training of boperators.

Reduce air pressure drops and air leakage in duct systems. 

May allow improved air supply and thermal control. May reduce noise generated in duct systems.

Air system balancing may be necessary after retquality of duct assembly to reduce noise.

Use of hydronic radiant heating and coolingc with 

consequent fan energy savings

Mean radiant temperature is affected. Thermal comfort improvement or degradation are possible (e.g., the risk of draft from high air motion decreases but the risk of thermal discomfort from low air motion increases). Hydronic systems increase risk of water leaks or water condensation leading to microbiological growth. Average rate of outside air supply is reduced if radiant cooling precludes use of outside air economizer because of a reduction in capacity of fans and ducts.

Design, operating and maintenance practices of radiant heating and cooling systems should assuthermal comfort and outside air supply and low rleakage and condensation. Periodic cleaning of ror radiators may be necessary. Water leaks shouimmediately repaired. Water damaged materials quickly dried or replaced.

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
22

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

Reduction in average or minimum rate of outside air supply, (especially closure of outside air dampers).

Primary effect is that concentrations of indoor-generated air pollutants will increase potentially leading to complaints and adverse health effects even though indoor concentrations of pollutants from outdoor air may be reduced (especially pollutants like ozone and particles that react with or deposit on indoor surfaces). In air conditioned buildings, indoor humidity may also be reduced.

Maintain rates of outside air supply specified in codes and standards. Do not fully close outside during occupancy. Minimize indoor pollutant sodecrease pollution burden on ventilation systemimproved particle and gaseous air cleaning.

◆ Increase supply air temperature when cooling space (may decrease chiller energy but increase fan energy).

Higher supply air temperatures in VAV ventilation systems will increase supply air flow rates. In many VAV systems, outside air flow rates will also increase leading to reduced concentrations of indoor-generated air pollutants. Increasing chilled water temperatures often reduces the moisture removal by the HVAC system resulting in higher indoor humidities.

Maintain chilled water temperatures sufficiently control of indoor humidity.

Increasing thermostat setpoints during periods of space cooling or decreasing thermostat setpoints during periods of space heating to save energy or limit peak energy demand. (ASHRAE 1992b, ISO 1994).

Air temperatures near or outside of the boundaries of locally applicable thermal comfort zones are likely to increase complaints of thermal discomfort, especially in air-conditioned buildings without provisions for occupant control. Occupants’ perceived acceptability of air quality decreases as temperature increases between 18 °C and 28 °C (Fang et al. 1997). Increased air 

temperature is associated with increased prevalences of acute building related health symptoms in some studies (Mendell 1993)

Maintain temperatures within the bounds of applicomfort standards. Provide occupant-controllabspace heaters . Thermally efficient windows and help to maintain thermal comfort (see Energy EfBuilding Envelope). Resetting of space temperapeak energy demands should be infrequent and oduration. Use energy efficient HVAC systems oenergy storage to limit peak energy demands witsacrificing thermal comfort.

Increase interior or exterior thermal insulation of piping and duct systems

Increased insulation will usually have negligible influence on IEQ. Potential for improved thermal comfort if insulation enables HVAC system to satisfy peak thermal loads. Increased insulation with vapor barriers can reduce moisture condensation and potential for microbiological growth. Potential increase in irritation symptoms if fibers or particles from insulation enter occupied space or if insulation releases VOCs at a high rate. Interior insulation in ducts can reduce fan noise (ASHRAE 1995). Interior insulation in ducts can be colonized by microorganisms (Morey 1991) potentially resulting in increased indoor concentrations of bioaerosols and microbiological VOCs.

Ensure that fibrous insulation is isolated from inMinimize fiber or particle release during installainsulation and perform space cleanup prior to ocinsulation products with low emission rates of Vespecially of odors. The surface of insulation insinterior of ducts should prevent release of fibers and not degrade. Interior duct insulation should nwhere it is likely to become wet or damaged. Promor repair damaged or wet insulation.

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
23

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

CO2 - based demand 

controlled ventilation (DCV).(Carpenter 1996; De Almeida, and Fisk 1997, International Energy Agency 1990, 1992; Emmerich and Persily 1997, Persily 1993, ASTM 1998)

IEQ may improve or degrade depending on the reference condition and on the outside air control strategy used for DCV. Improved IEQ is most likely in spaces with high occupancy where occupantgenerated pollutants dominate. DCV systems that provide outside air only after CO2 concentrations exceed a setpoint may lead to 

substantially increased indoor concentrations of pollutants from building components and furnishings during the first few hours of occupancy

Avoid CO2 - based DCV when building has stro

emissions from sources other than occupants. Venoccupancy to reduce concentrations of pollutantoccupant sources. CO2 measurement locations m

data representative of concentrations in occupied Consider advanced DCV control strategies that sair in proportion to the indoor CO2 generation ra

better surrogate for occupancy than the CO2 con

(Federspiel 1996). Periodically check calibration 

sensors. 

◆ Displacement ventilation (Displacement ventilation systems usually supply 100% outside air with improved IEQ as the main goal. The addition of heat recovery system may be necessary to achieve energy savings relative to some other methods of HVAC.)

Generally, concentrations of indoor-generated air pollutants at breathing zone are reduced. (Seppanen et al. 1989; Yuan et al. 1998) Reduced transport of pollutants from sources to other rooms. Reduced risk of thermal drafts. Increased risk of thermal discomfort due to large vertical gradients in air temperature. Potential increased indoor concentrations of pollutants from outdoors, especially pollutants like ozone and particles that react with or deposit on indoor surfaces. 

See outside air economizer discussion related to pollutants. Design and operate displacement vensystems to avoid drafts in vicinity of supply diffavoid excessive gradients in air temperature. Disventilation, without radiant cooling panels, may only with internal heat generation less than 40 W 

◆ Use of natural ventilation with operable windows as a substitute for air conditioning. (Olgyay 1963, Koenigsberger et al. 1973; Watson and Labs 1983, Awbi 1991, Givoni 1997, Busch 1992) 

In some climates, thermal acceptance of environment may increase because occupants in naturally ventilated buildings are tolerant of a wider range of thermal conditions (De Dear and Brager 1998). Thermal comfort may decrease because of elevated indoor temperatures and humidities. On average, occupants of buildings with natural ventilation and operable windows report fewer acute non-specific health symptoms. Open windows admit sounds from outdoors, potentially degrading the indoor acoustic environment.

Building design, e.g., size, layout, openings for oposition of openings, and shading must assure adeventilation and thermal conditions throughout buGenerally, cross-ventilation is desirable. Occupacontrollable fans can enhance thermal comfort. Owindows should not be located near concentratesources of pollutants or annoying sounds.

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
24

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

◆ Preventive maintenance of HVAC system

Preventive maintenance will help to assure proper HVAC operation, sometimes also saving energy and improving IEQ. Preventive maintenance measures that may save energy and improve IEQ include calibration of temperature and humidity sensors, periodic replacement of air filters, maintenance of airflow and pressures control systems, balancing of airflows to provide proper air distribution, and cleaning of coils and other components to reduce airflow resistance and pollutant sources in the HVAC system.

Ensure that preventive maintenance does not distasbestos fibers (asbestos is present in mechanicamany older buildings).

Energy efficient building envelope:Increased thermal insulation in building envelope. 

Often negligible influence on IEQ. Potential increase in thermal comfort because insulation helps HVAC system satisfy thermal loads and because of reduced radiant heat transfer between occupants and building envelope. Potential increase in irritation symptoms if fibers or binders from insulation enter occupied space or if insulation releases VOCs at a high rate.

Assure that fibrous insulation is isolated from inMinimize fiber or particle release during installainsulation and perform space cleanup prior to ocinsulation products with low emission rates of Vespecially of odors.

Light color roof and walls to reduce solar loads

Often negligible influence on IEQ. Potential increase in thermal comfort because reduced loads help HVAC system satisfy thermal loads and because of reduced radiant heat transfer between occupants and envelope.

NA 

◆ Thermally efficient windows

Improvements in thermal comfort possible from reductions of drafts and reduced radiant heat exchange between occupants and windows (ASHRAE 1995b, Heiselberg 1994, Heiselberg et al 1995). Reduces risk of condensation on windows and associated risks from growth of microorganisms. Thermally efficient windows help to isolate the indoor space from outdoor sounds.

NA 

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
25

Indoor Environmental Quality Appendix to the International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol

Reduce air leakage through building envelope (e.g., install infiltration barriers)

Thermal comfort may increase due to reduced entry of unconditioned air. Reducing air leakage may help to isolate the indoor space from outdoor sounds. Reducing envelope leakage facilitates room or building pressure control via the HVAC system. Indoor concentrations of outdoor pollutants or pollutants from adjoining spaces (e.g., parking garages) may decrease because leakage of outdoor pollutants to indoors decreases. Improperly placed infiltration and vapor barriers can lead to condensation and associated microbiological problems in building envelope. Reduced infiltration of outside air will generally increase concentrations of indoor-generated air pollutants; however, magnitude of increase may be insignificant, particularly if adequate outside air ventilation is provided mechanically.

Ensure adequate mechanical or intentional naturaInfiltration and vapor barriers should be located side of building envelope.

Reducing indoor heat generation or heat gain through building envelopeReduced indoor heat generation through use of energy efficient lighting and equipment or through reduced heat gain through building envelope.

Increased thermal comfort possible if measures enable HVAC system to provide adequate cooling. Decreased thermal comfort possible if building has inadequate heating system. In buildings with VAV ventilation systems, supply air flow rates will decrease when building is being cooled; in turn, rate of outside air supply may decrease (see prior information and references on VAV systems). Reduced heat loads without compensating changes in supply flows may lead to increased indoor humidity because control systems may increase cooling coil discharge temperatures. Excessive cycling and control problems with oversized refrigeration systems may cause discomfort.

Use a control system that maintains outside air ihandler at or above minimum requirement for alflow rates. Avoid VAV control units that close futotal and local outside air supply and indoor temprange of cooling loads. Check for and eliminate cproblems associated with oversized refrigeration 

a. To save energy, economizer systems automatically increase the rate of outside air supply above the minimum setpoint during mild weather.b. The term supply air dumping refers to the tendency for the jet of cool supply air exiting a supply register located at ceiling level to drop toward the floor without su

jet and the warm air within the room. Supply air dumping, which is more common with low supply flow rates, lower supply temperatures, and certain supply difthermal discomfort.

c. A hydronic radiant heating or cooling system uses a heated or chilled liquid to create a heated or cooled radiant panel or surface. The occupants thermal comfo

radiant heat exchange between occupant and the radiant panel.

Table 2: List of Specific ECMs, Their Potential Influence on IEQ, and Related Precautions or Mitigat

Energy Conservation Measure

Potential Influence on IEQ IEQ Precautions or Mitigations 
26 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

7 Influence of Energy Conservation Measures on IEQ in 

Specific Buildings

7.1

Background

Many of the energy conservation measures in Table 2 have multiple potential 

impacts on IEQ. When considering the application of these measures in specific 

buildings, energy conservation professionals may be faced with three important 

questions: 

1 Which of the potential IEQ outcomes will occur in this building and what is 

the expected magnitude of the changes in IEQ? 

2 Will the change in IEQ significantly affect occupants health, comfort, or 

productivity?

3 Can the impacts on IEQ be assessed with measurements? 

A working knowledge of IEQ and its effects on occupants is an essential first 

step in addressing these questions. Section 4 summarizes much of the critical 

background information. This section addresses the first two questions. IEQ 

measurements are reviewed in Section 8.

7.2

Identifying the 

Probable IEQ 

Outcomes and 

Predicting 

Their 

Magnitude

The impact of an energy conservation measure on IEQ may depend on several 

factors including the climate, outdoor air quality, characteristics of the building, 

and the details of implementation of the energy conservation measure.

Warm humid climates increase certain IEQ risks associated with high indoor 

humidity. In humid climates, energy conservation measures that increase the 

rate of outside air supply, such as openable windows or a poorly-controlled 

economizer system, are more likely to result in unacceptable indoor humidities. 

Also, reducing the capacity of HVAC equipment and increasing temperatures at 

cooling coils can result in insufficient moisture removal and excess indoor 

humidity. Condensation of water vapor on radiant cooling panels is much more 

likely in high humidity climates. Maintaining thermal comfort with natural 

ventilation is much more difficult in warm humid climates. 

In cold climates, thermally efficient windows, high levels of thermal insulation 

in the building envelope, and measures that reduce air infiltration are more 

likely to significantly improve thermal comfort by reducing drafts and radiant 

heat losses from occupants to walls and windows. The potential to have very 

low indoor humidities is also increased in cold climates. 

Elevated levels of pollutants in the outdoor air increase certain IEQ risks. 

Energy conservation measures that increase outside air supply, will generally 

improve IEQ by reducing concentrations of indoor-generated air pollutants. 

However, when outdoor air quality is poor, e.g., when outdoor pollutant 

concentrations exceed applicable standards, these same energy conservation 

measures may increase the indoor concentration of outdoor pollutants. 

Characteristics of the building and building HVAC system also influence the 

IEQ outcomes from energy conservation. Only a few of the many possible 

interactions are described here. The magnitude of indoor pollutant emission 

rates is one consideration. If the building contains strong indoor sources of air 

pollutants, energy conservation measures that reduce outside air supply are 
 27

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Influence of Energy Conservation Measures on IEQ in Specific Buildings

much more likely to result in elevated concentrations of these indoor-generated 

pollutants. (The converse is also true.) Similarly, if a building has a low rate of 

outside air supply, pollutants emitted from energy conservation products such 

as sealants are more likely to significantly degrade indoor air quality. Energy 

conservation measures that reduce outside air ventilation are more likely to lead 

to IEQ problems if the initial rate of outside air supply is low. 

Proper implementation of the energy conservation measures can prevent 

many of the potential adverse impacts on IEQ. Most of the possible 

implementation errors are obvious: faulty design, installation, calibrations, 

control methods, commissioning, operation, or maintenance of the energy 

conservation systems or practices can lead to IEQ problems. Proper design, 

training of users, etc. can prevent problems. 

Engineering calculations and computer modeling are the primary tools for 

predicting levels of IEQ or the magnitude of changes in IEQ. Indoor temperatures 

are determined from energy balances, and indoor humidity and pollutant 

concentrations from mass balances. Algorithms for equipment performance are 

often required. The ASHRAE handbooks (e.g., ASHRAE 1992, 1995, 1997) are 

one source for many of the engineering calculations. Simple steady state and 

transient mass balance calculations for estimating pollutant concentrations in a 

single well-mixed zone can be implemented by the user. Several computer 

programs, as reviewed by National Laboratories (1997), are available for 

predicting air infiltration rates, airflows between zones, and indoor pollutant 

concentrations. Proper use of these models generally requires considerable 

expertise in IEQ and experience with the model. The difficulties in obtaining 

model inputs are a major obstacle to IEQ modeling in multizone buildings. 

7.3

Significance of 

Predicted 

Changes in IEQ

Once an expected change in IEQ is identified and, to the degree possible, 

quantified, the resulting influence on occupants health, comfort, or productivity 

should be considered. The main approach for evaluating the significance of 

predicted (or measured) changes in IEQ parameters is to compare the initial and 

final values of these parameters to the values listed as acceptable in the applicable 

standards or guidelines (see Table 1). When assessing significance, the following 

points should be kept in mind: 1) Small changes in indoor temperature, on the 

order of 1°C, may significantly influence thermal comfort, the prevalence of 

acute non-specific building-related health symptoms experienced by workers, 

and perceptions of air quality. 2) Occupants satisfaction with thermal conditions 

may be estimated using thermal comfort models (e.g., ASHRAE 1992b, 

Fountain and Huizenga 1996, ISO 1994); however, recent research suggests that 

these models are imperfect because they do not account for peoples behavioral, 

physiological, or psychosocial adaptations to their thermal environments. 3) 

Changes in lighting are much more likely to influence work performance if the 

work is unusually visually demanding.

For many pollutants, there are no published maximum concentration limits for 

non-industrial work places. The pollutant concentration limits published for 

industrial workplaces, such as the Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) of the 

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH 1998), 

should not be directly applied to non-industrial settings and workers. 
28 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

In assessments of the significance of changes in IEQ, the sensitivity of 

occupants to IEQ is a consideration. Older workers tend to have more stringent 

thermal comfort requirements and the vision of older workers is more likely to 

be adversely affected by low lighting levels. Women report non-specific health 

symptoms more frequently than men do (Mendell 1993, Menzies and Bourbeau 

1997). Workers in buildings with prior or ongoing IAQ or thermal comfort 

problems may be more likely to respond negatively to small decrements in IEQ.

8 Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ1

8.1

Background

As indicated in Table 2, most of the impacts of energy projects on IEQ relate to 

thermal comfort or ventilation. Therefore, the most common parameters subject 

to IEQ M&V will be thermal comfort parameters (e.g., temperatures and 

humidities) and ventilation rates. For lighting retrofits, lighting-related M&V 

may sometimes be warranted. Occasionally, M&V of other IEQ parameters 

may be warranted. Such situations include, for example, building retrofits 

which move the outside air intake close to an outdoor pollutant source or 

measures, such as installation of an economizer, that cause a large increase of 

ventilation rate in a building located in a heavily polluted region. In such 

situations, M&V for specific pollutants (e.g., ozone, particles, carbon 

monoxide, or VOCs) may be desirable. Many IEQ measurements are 

expensive. Measurements should be performed only when there are clear 

objectives and the capabilities and intent to interpret the measurement results.

8.2

Goals of IEQ 

M&V

The appropriate M&V approach will depend on the goals of the IEQ M&V. 

Therefore, a definition of the M&V goals is a critical first step. Examples of 

IEQ M&V goals follow:

Goal 1: To ensure that the energy conservation measures have no adverse 

influence on IEQ.

Goal 2: To quantify the improvements in IEQ resulting from implementation of 

energy conservation measures.

Goal 3: To verify that selected IEQ parameters satisfy the applicable IEQ 

guidelines or standards.

8.3

Context for IEQ 

M&V

This document can be applied under two basic M&V contexts. The first basic 

context, and the primary focus of this volume, is the implementation of energy 

conservation retrofits in existing commercial buildings. Generally, in this 

situation, pre-retrofit and post-retrofit IEQ measurements are compared. A 

broad range of M&V approaches may be applied (e.g., measurements, 

modeling, and surveys). 

1. IEQ measurement and verification (M&V) activities may be hazardous due to the potential for pollutant exposures, falls, and contact with

high voltage or rotating equipment. Staff performing IEQ M&V should receive training in safe work practices. Reference documentation

is available in the US EPA Orientation to Indoor Air Quality: Instructor Kit (or Student Manual). Ordering information can be found at

http://www.epa.gov/iaq/base/baqapp2.html. These documents may also be purchased from the National Technical Information Service

(NTIS), US Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161 (telephone 1-800-553-6847). The NTIS reference

numbers are AVA19276SS00 and AVA 19277B00 for the Instructor Kit and Student manual, respectively.
 29

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ

The second basic context1 is the anticipated future application of energy 

conservation features in new commercial building construction. For this second 

context, when M&V goal 1 or goal 2 are selected, it is necessary to define the 

relevant characteristics of a reference building without the energy conservation 

features and to define the relevant characteristics of the building with the energy 

conservation features implemented. Modeling is the only approach available 

prior to construction to estimate changes in IEQ (M&V goals 1 and 2). After 

construction is completed, measurements may be performed to verify that IEQ 

parameters satisfy applicable codes or standards (M&V goal 3).

8.4

M&V 

Procedure

Table 3 presents a recommended basic procedure for IEQ M&V. The M&V 

Approaches and M&V Alternatives referenced in this table are described later.

1. A building with occupants that have excessive health or comfort complaints is a third potential context for

IEQ M&V. However, this document is not intended as a guide for diagnosis or investigations of the causes

of such complaints. Several existing documents may be consulted for such situations (e.g., EPA / NIOSH

1991; ISIAQ 1996 (in draft), ECA 1989, Weekes and Gammage 1990, Raferty 1993, Nathanson 1995).

Usually, a phased investigative approach is recommended. Early phases include building inspections and

discussions with building occupants. Expensive measurements are recommended only if necessary in subsequent phases of the investigation. These guides point out the importance of maintaining open channels

of communication about the complaints, about IAQ, and about the investigation.

Table 3: The M&V Procedure

Steps in the M&V 

Procedure

Comments

1. Define M&V goals See Section 8.2

2. Select M&V staff a) Staff performing measurements must have necessary skills and 

knowledge; outside consultants with IEQ expertise are generally 

available. b) Owner should consider whether or not measurement 

staff should be independent of the organization (e.g., ESCO) that 

benefits financially from positive findings or if there should be 

independent oversight.

3. Select general M&V 

approach See Section 8.5

4. Select specific IEQ 

parameters and M&V 

alternatives for 

measuring and 

predicting values of 

these parameters

See Section 4, 6, and 8.6

5. Establish plans for 

interpreting M&V data

a) Generally, measured IEQ data or predictions are compared to data 

or predictions from another time period, to baseline data from a 

representative set of buildings, or to values listed in standards. b) See 

Section 4, 8.3, 8.5

6. Define requirements 

for M&V accuracy and 

quality control 

procedures for 

measurements

Often the required accuracy depends on the expected magnitude of 

the change in IEQ. 
30 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

8.5

Basic M&V 

Approaches

This section identifies basic approaches for IEQ M&V and identifies situations 

for which each general approach may be applicable. 

8.5.1

Approach 1: No 

IEQ M&V

Table 2 lists several energy conservation measures (e.g., chiller upgrades) that 

are either unlikely to affect IEQ or that are likely to have only a beneficial 

influence on IEQ. In general, no IEQ M&V will be necessary when the energy 

conservation measures are judged highly unlikely to result in a significant 

adverse IEQ impact. However, IEQ M&V may still be performed if the M&V 

goal is to quantify an anticipated improvement in IEQ.

7. Select measurement 

or assessment periods

a) Often, pre-retrofit values of IEQ parameters are compared to postretrofit values. b) Many IEQ parameters change with time because of 

changes in building operation, indoor pollutant emission rates, or 

outdoor air quality. Measurements should take place under the 

relevant conditions (e.g., minimum outside air supply) or they should 

average over the range of conditions. If weather, outdoor air quality, 

or occupancy differ significantly between the pre- and post-retrofit 

measurement periods, a comparison of pre-retrofit and post-retrofit 

measurements may not accurately indicate the effect of the energy 

conservation on IEQ. c) Indoor thermal conditions and pollutant 

concentrations in buildings do not respond instantly to changes in the 

controlling factors. d) Instantaneous measurements of temperatures, 

humidities, and air pollutant concentrations will often not be 

valuable.

8. Select measurement 

locations

a) Thermal comfort standards provide guidance for measurement 

locations. b) Measurement locations should yield data representative 

of conditions experienced by occupants. Worst-case locations may 

also be monitored. c) The breathing zone is most important location 

for air pollutant measurements. d) Pollutant concentrations in HVAC 

return airstreams may approximately represent average concentration 

in section of building from which the return air is drawn (except with 

displacement ventilation).

9. Define acceptable 

M&V costs

Expenditure should generally be small compared to expected savings 

from energy conservation measures.

10. Select M&V 

instrumentation

Instrumentation must satisfy accuracy, cost, and data logging 

requirements

11. Inform occupants of 

M&V plans

Unexplained measurements may cause occupants concern about 

IEQ.

12. Implement 

measurements, surveys, 

or modeling

Methods employed should meet accuracy, space, and temporal 

specifications and cost constraints. 

13. Analyze and report 

results

Results should generally be available to occupants.

Table 3: The M&V Procedure
 31

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ

8.5.2

Approach 2: IEQ 

M&V Based on 

Modeling

IEQ modeling is usually the only method available to predict the magnitude of 

changes in IEQ associated with implementation of energy conservation measures 

during new construction. Additionally, modeling may be appropriate to estimate 

changes in indoor pollutant concentrations associated with changes in ventilation 

rates or when measurement methods are too expensive or not available. 

Very simple mass balance models for single zones with well-mixed air can 

provide a useful estimate of the change in indoor pollutant concentrations that are 

expected when ventilation rates or indoor pollutant emission rates are modified. 

Many scientific papers describe such models which can be implemented using 

spreadsheet software (e.g., Persily and Dols 1990, Nazaroff et al. 1993, Fisk and 

de Almeida. 1998). Several much more complex multi-zone models are available 

(National Laboratories 1997, Chapter 3). Many of the complex models require 

extensive model inputs and considerable IEQ modeling expertise. 

Lighting simulation tools such as the Radiance program (Ward and Rubinstien 

1998) can model the resultant luminance distribution from most lighting and 

daylighting systems; however, only a few lighting quality parameters, such as 

glare, are computed by these tools. Extensive model inputs and considerable 

modeling expertise are required.

8.5.3

Approach 3: 

Short Term 

Measurements of 

Selected IEQ 

Parameters

Short term measurements of IEQ parameters (e.g., measurements for a month 

or less) may be used for IEQ parameters that do not vary significantly with 

season or with the mode of building operation. Examples of such parameters 

are light levels in core zone of building and minimum outside air flow rates in 

constant volume HVAC systems. Short term measurements may also be 

appropriate when the outcome of interest is an IEQ parameter for a defined set 

of climatic and building operating conditions, such as conditions that leads to 

worst case IEQ. In this instance, short-term measurements can be performed 

only under these conditions. 

8.5.4

Approach 4: 

Long-term 

Continuous 

Measurements of 

Selected IEQ 

Parameters

Long-term continuous measurements are often affordable and useful for 

tracking selected IEQ parameters including indoor temperatures and 

humidities, carbon dioxide concentrations, carbon monoxide concentrations, 

and rates of outside air intake into air handlers. For most other IEQ parameters, 

long-term continuous measurements are prohibitively costly or unavailable. 

The costs of sensors, and sensor maintenance and calibration may be lower in 

continuous monitoring systems that use single sensors to analyze samples 

drawn sequentially from multiple locations. However, drawing some 

pollutants, e.g., particles and many VOCs, through long sampling tubes will 

lead to substantial measurement errors.

8.5.5

Approach 5: 

Surveys to 

Assess 

Occupant 

Perceptions and 

Ratings of IEQ

In many instances, occupant perceptions determined in a survey are as relevant 

an outcome as measured IEQ conditions. Survey costs can be lower or higher 

than costs of physical measurements. 

There are two basic uses of surveys in the context of IEQ M&V. First, 

administration of a survey before and after implementation of an energy 

conservation measure can provide information on the perceived change in IEQ 

and occupant reports of health symptoms1. The second method of using 
32 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

surveys in the context of IAQ M&V is to perform a one-time survey and to 

compare the results to baseline data obtained previously in other buildings with 

the same survey instrument.

Survey data are subjective; hence, these data may be influenced by 

psychosocial factors such as job satisfaction. A portion of the occupants may 

express dissatisfaction even when IEQ is above average. Additionally, surveys 

can only assess the responses to IEQ that are sensed by the human sensory 

systems. IEQ exposures that increase the risk of some chronic health effects, 

such as lung cancer from radon exposures, will not be detected using surveys. 

The survey design and methods of administration can affect the outcome; 

therefore, surveys should be based on established questionnaires and on survey 

administration methods developed by staff with suitable expertise. High 

response rates (e.g., > 80%) to surveys are necessary to reduce risk of bias (e.g., 

a higher response rate from unhappy occupants could bias the overall results).

Well-established survey methods are available for thermal comfort. Thermal 

sensation is commonly assessed using a seven-point scale (e.g., ASHRAE 

1992b, ISO 1994). Baseline data are being compiled by de Dear and Brager 

(1998) from thermal comfort surveys performed throughout the world.

Several survey instruments (questionnaires) have included broad assessments 

of the level of satisfaction with, or perception of, multiple IEQ parameters such 

as lighting level, lighting quality, acoustical quality, air movement, 

acceptability of indoor air quality, ventilation, etc. These same surveys have 

generally collected data on the prevalence or severity of non-specific health 

symptoms experienced by office workers. 

A U.S. EPA-supported survey is collecting data on non-specific symptoms from 

100 office buildings in the US (EPA 1994; Brightman et al. 1997). A European 

Audit Project has collected symptom data from 56 office buildings (Bluyssen et 

al. 1996). Stenberg et al. (1993) and Sundell (1994) describe similar data 

obtained from approximately 5000 office workers in 210 buildings in Sweden.

Questionnaires to evaluate occupant satisfaction with lighting are available 

(Collins et al. 1990, Dillon and Vischer 1987, Eklund and Boyce 1995, Hygge 

and Lofberg 1998) although customization for specific applications may be 

required.

8.6

M&V 

Alternatives for 

Specific IEQ 

Parameters

In tabular form, this section identifies M&V alternatives for specific IEQ 

parameters and provides comments on these alternatives. The M&V 

alternatives for thermal comfort and ventilation are listed first because energy 

conservation retrofits more often affect these IEQ parameters. The tables do not 

include all possible M&V alternatives. The alternatives judged to be the most 

practical and valuable are marked with "◆". General guidance for measurement 

of indoor air pollutant concentrations is available in several publications (e.g., 

ACGIH 1995, Nagda and Harper 1989)

1. There is evidence that responses to surveys of non-specific health symptoms tend to vary even with no apparent change in building conditions or IEQ. Often, occupants report fewer building-related health symptoms on a second of two surveys administered a week or two apart in time. Thus, it may be necessary to

correct the change in survey results obtained from the space with the energy conservation retrofit by subtracting the change in survey results from a control population.
 33

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ

Table 4: Specific M&V Alternatives for IEQ Parameters.

Row IEQ Parameter / M&V 

Alternative

Comments 

Thermal comfort

1 Alternative 1. Multi-parameter 

measurements specified in thermal 

comfort standards (ASHRAE 1992b, 

ISO 1994)

a) Generally one measures air temperature, mean radiant temperature, 

relative humidity, and air velocity at multiple heights in multiple (e.g., 20 

- 30) workspaces. b) Measurement system cost is at least US $5K. The 

system may be moved between locations (e.g., see De Dear and Fountain 

1994). c) This method provides only short-term data at each location. d) 

Thermal comfort instruments are commercially available. 

2 ◆ Alternative 2. Multipoint 

measurement and logging of air 

temperatures and/or humidities using 

portable or permanent inexpensive 

instrumentation

a) In many common situations air temperature measurements at a single 

height (without air velocities, humidity, and mean radiant temperature) are 

adequate. b) This alternative is not appropriate for situations with high air 

velocities (e.g., fans used for cooling), high temperature stratification 

(e.g., displacement ventilation) or large radiant heat gains or losses (e.g., 

near cold windows). c) Temperature sensor accuracy should be ~ 0.25 °C 

because temperature differences < 1 °C may significantly influence 

thermal comfort. d) Humidity sensor accuracy should be ~ 5% RH. e) The 

cost of battery powered sensor with data logger for a single point 

measurement is ~ US$100 to $200. 

3 ◆ Alternative 3. Thermal comfort 

surveys (Schiller et al. 1988, De Dear 

and Fountain 1994)

a) In many instances, surveys are the best alternative. b) Surveys may ask 

about current level of thermal comfort or about thermal comfort during 

prior extended period.

Outside air ventilation rate

4 Alternative 1. Outside airflow into air 

handler measured using anemometry 

(ASHRAE 1988, SMACNA 1993, 

Utterson and Sauer 1998, Solberg et al 

1990)

a) Accuracy is often questionable when measurements are made near 

outside air louvers or dampers. b) ◆ Better accuracy obtained if 

measurements can be made in sufficient length of straight outside air duct. 

5 ◆ Alternative 2. Outside airflow into air 

handler measured based on HVAC 

supply flow and% outside air (Drees et 

al. 1992)

a) Supply air flow is typically from balometers (airflow hoods), pitot tube 

or hot wire anemometer traverses in supply airstream, or permanentlyinstalled supply airflow measurement stations. b) Percent outside air is 

determined from carbon dioxide or tracer gas mass balance. c) The 

temperature method of determining percent outside air is often inaccurate. 

6 Alternative 3. Outside air ventilation 

rates determined using tracer gas 

methods (ASTM 1995, NORDTEST 

1982, 1988, Lagus and Persily 1985, 

ASHRAE 1998, Faulkner et al. 1998, 

Charlesworth 1988)

a) Procedures include tracer gas decays, stepups, and methods based on 

continuous release of tracer to indoors. b) Measurements can account for 

both natural and mechanical ventilation. c) Reasonable (e.g., 15-25%) 

accuracy is possible in many buildings. d) For most tracer gas methods, 

ventilation rates must be reasonably stable during the measurement period. 

e) Measurements are often expensive and require considerable expertise 

(instrumentation costs usually > US $10000). f) Most procedures give 

ventilation rates representative of a short (few hour) time period; some 

provide an average effective ventilation rate for an extended period. 

7 Alternative 4: Outside air ventilation 

rates determined using outside air flow 

measurement stations in air handlers

a) Usually airflow straighteners and multiple point velocity sensors are 

installed in vicinity of outside air inlet dampers / louvers. b) Commercially 

available products are relatively new; therefore, limited performance data 

are available.
34 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Carbon dioxide concentrations

8 ◆ Alternative 1. Real time CO2 infrared 

analyzers with output logged over time 

(Persily and Dols 1990; Persily 1993, 

ASTM 1998)

a) Peak or time average carbon dioxide concentrations are useful 

indicators of how effectively occupant-generated bioeffluents are 

controlled by ventilation and may be fair indicator for other pollutants 

associated with occupancy. b) Several procedures have been used (and 

often misused) to estimate ventilation rates from measured carbon dioxide 

concentrations. In many buildings, it is difficult to accurately determine 

the rate of outside air supply from carbon dioxide data because of 

uncertainties and temporal variations in occupancy, uncertain rates of 

carbon dioxide generation by occupants, and because concentrations 

change slowly after changes in ventilation or occupancy. c) The cost of a 

carbon dioxide analyzer is typically US $700 to $3000.

Carbon monoxide concentrations

9 Alternative 1. Real time infrared 

analyzer with output logged over time 

a. Elevated indoor carbon monoxide concentrations, relative to outdoor 

concentrations, may indicate failure of the venting of a combustion 

appliance or leakage of auto exhaust into the building. b) Typical 

instrumentation cost is a few thousand dollars US.

10 ◆ Alternative 2. Use of low cost carbon 

monoxide alarms.

a. Elevated indoor carbon monoxide, relative to outdoor concentrations, 

may indicate failure of the venting of a combustion appliance or leakage 

of auto exhaust into the building. b) Typical alarm cost is ~ US $100.

Ozone concentrations

11 Alternative 1. Use real time 

electrochemical analyzer with data 

logger

a) May be useful in high-ozone cities to determine if energy conservation 

measures that change ventilation rates significantly influence indooroutdoor ozone concentration ratios or time average indoor ozone 

concentrations. b) Indoor and outdoor concentrations are highly variable 

with time. c) Measurement equipment is relatively expensive, > US $6000, 

so measurement will often be impractical.

Particle concentrations

12 Alternative 1. Real time particle 

counting using light scattering 

instruments.

a) Indoor particle concentrations may be compared to limits specified in 

standards or the influence of the energy conservation measure on the 

indoor-outdoor concentration ratio may be assessed. b) Outdoor air is a 

significant, sometimes dominant, source of indoor particles. c) Indoor and 

outdoor concentrations vary over time. d) Real—time instruments typically 

cost at least a few thousand dollars (US).

13 Alternative 2. Draw air samples through 

filters at constant and known rates and 

weigh filters using precision balance to 

determine collected particle mass. 

(ACGIH 1993)

a) Indoor particle concentrations may be compared to limits specified in 

standards or the influence of the energy conservation measure on the 

indoor-outdoor concentration ratio may be assessed. b) Outdoor air is a 

significant, sometimes dominant, source of indoor particles. c) Indoor and 

outdoor concentrations vary over time. d) Sampling instrumentation costs 

~ US $1000 for a single measurement site. Precision balance may cost a 

few thousand dollars (US). Substantial sample handling costs.

Table 4: Specific M&V Alternatives for IEQ Parameters.
 35

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

Measurement And Verification Alternatives for IEQ

Bioaerosol concentrations

14 Alternative 1. Use single or multi-stage 

impactor to collect samples on culture 

media, incubate and count and identify 

microbial colonies (ACGIH 1990, 

1995b, 1995c)

a) Measurements are expensive; concentrations may vary a great deal with 

time while sample collection periods are less than 15 minutes. b) 

Measurement results depend on culture media and incubation conditions. c) 

Culture based methods do not detect non-culturable (e.g., dead) organisms 

that may elicit health effects. d) High level of expertise required.

Airborne volatile organic compounds

15 ◆ Alternative 1: Collect samples on 

solid sorbents and have samples 

analyzed in a laboratory for TVOC 

using gas chromotography with a flame 

ionization detector or gas 

chromotography—mass spectrometry 

(Hodgson 1995, ECA 1997)

a) See comments in Section 3 on use of TVOC data. b) Cost of sampling 

equipment for a single measurement site is usually < US $1000. c) 

Analysis cost for TVOC is ~ US $100 per sample.

16 Alternative 2. Use sensitive (e.g., photo 

acoustic) infrared analyzer to measure 

TVOC concentration (Hodgson 1995)

Value of TVOC measurements made with infrared analyzers is uncertain 

because analyzer response varies depending on the mixture of compounds 

in the air.

17 Alternative 3: Collect samples on solid 

sorbents and have samples analyzed in a 

laboratory using gas chromotography — 

mass spectrometry for concentrations of 

several individual VOCs (e.g., quantify 

the most abundant VOCs or those from 

known sources) (Hodgson 1995, ECA 

1997, ASTM 1994, 1994b, 1994c, 

1995b, 1996, 1997, 1998b)

a) See comments in Section 3 VOCs. b) Cost of sampling equipment for a 

single measurement site is usually < US $1000. Analysis cost for a set of 

10 to 15 VOCs is ~ US $500 per sample.

Lighting parameters and satisfaction

18 Alternative 1: Light intensity 

measurements made in accordance with 

existing standards (IES 1993)

a) One time measurements of lighting intensity (illuminance at task 

height) and uniformity in typical spaces. b) Instrumentation (light meter) 

is relatively inexpensive (~ US $200 to $400). c) Expertise required to 

determine which spaces are typical and to perform measurements 

correctly.

19 Alternative 2: Multi-parameter 

measurements made in accordance with 

existing standards (IES 1993)

a) Measurements of luminance distribution (obtainable with an image 

capture system) in typical spaces. b) Existing image capture systems are 

still in infancy. Some software is available to analyze images after 

capturing; however, existing analysis tools do not directly compute 

lighting quality parameters from luminance data. c) Measurements of 

direct glare from sources in field of view (both electric light and daylight). 

Requires luminance meter. Difficult to document exact location of 

luminance measurements, thus reproducibility is questionable. d) Some 

light sources (e.g., daylight) are time variant. 

20 ◆ Alternative 3. Occupant comfort or 

satisfaction with lighting assessed via a 

survey (Collins et al. 1990, Dillon and 

Vischer 1987, Eklund and Boyce 1995, 

Hygge and Lofberg 1998)

a) Often the least expensive method. b) Survey results can integrate over 

time. c) A well-designed survey can assist occupants in identifying 

particular sources of lighting problems.

Table 4: Specific M&V Alternatives for IEQ Parameters.
36 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

9

Implementing 

the Guideline

To implement this guideline, the following actions are recommended: 

1 Develop a general knowledge of IEQ through a review of Section 4 and 5 or 

equivalent documentation.

2 For the energy conservation measures that will be implemented, use Table 2, 

Section 7, and supplemental information as necessary to determine: a) the 

potential impacts of the energy conservation measures on IEQ; and b) the 

associated precautions or mitigation measures.

3 Select a goal for IEQ M&V from Section 8.2.

4 Based on the energy conservation measures and goal, select an IEQ M&V 

approach from Section 8.5.

5 Assuming that the selected IEQ M&V approach is not Approach 1 (no IEQ 

M&V), select and implement an IEQ M&V alternative from Table 4. During 

implementation, utilize, as appropriate, steps 4-10 of the M&V procedure 

described in Table 3. If Table 4 does not include an acceptable IEQ M&V 

Alternative, other alternatives may be developed and utilized.

6 Prepare and distribute written documentation of the IEQ M&V process that 

includes descriptions and justifications of important decisions and 

procedures plus a summary and interpretation of findings.

10

Concluding 

Remarks

Awareness of the significant influences of IEQ on the comfort, health, 

satisfaction and productivity of building occupants is increasing. The 

implementation of energy conservation projects in commercial buildings will 

often influence IEQ positively or negatively; therefore, IEQ should be 

considered during the selection and implementation of energy conservation 

measures. For many projects, IEQ problems are easily avoided through proper 

implementation of the energy conservation measures and the application of 

general knowledge about IEQ. In some situations, IEQ M&V is warranted to 

assure that IEQ remains acceptable or to quantify improvements in IEQ. This 

document serves to educate building energy professionals about the most 

relevant aspects of IEQ and also provides guidance on IEQ M&V.

Occupant satisfaction with IEQ 

21 ◆ Assess using survey (see 

Section 8.5.5)

a) See comments on surveys in Section 8.5.5. b) Survey results can 

integrate over time. c) High satisfaction with air quality does not assure 

that pollutants do not pose a health risk. d) Occupants sometimes attribute 

problems to an incorrect source or to unrelated environmental conditions 

(e.g., noise from computers attributed to lighting system ballasts).

Prevalence or severity of acute non-specific health symptoms

22 ◆ Assess using survey (see 

Section 8.5.5)

a) See comments on surveys in Section 8.5.5. b) Survey results can 

integrate over time. c) Low level of self-reported health symptoms does 

not assure that pollutants do not pose a health risk.

Table 4: Specific M&V Alternatives for IEQ Parameters.
 37

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

References

11

References

1 ACGIH (1990) Guidelines for the assessment of bioaerosols in the indoor 

environment, Publication 3180, American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists, Inc., Cincinnati, OH

2 ACGIH (1993) Aerosol measurement: principles, techniques, and applications, Klaus 

Willeke and Paul A. Baron, Eds. American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists, Inc., Publication 9400, Cincinnati, OH 

3 ACGIH (1998) 1998-1999 Threshold limit values for chemical substances and 

physical agents and biological exposure indices. American Conference of 

Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati.

4 ACGIH (1995) Air sampling instruments, 8th Ed., Publication 0030, American 

Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., Cincinnati, OH

5 ACGIH (1995b) Bioaerosols, Harriet Burge, Ed., Publication 9612, American 

Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., Cincinnati, OH

6 ACGIH (1995c) Bioaerosols handbook, Christopher S. Cox and Christopher M. 

Wathes, Eds., Publication 9611, American Conference of Governmental Industrial 

Hygienists, Inc., Cincinnati, OH

7 Andersson, K.; Bakke J.V., Bjorseth, O., Bornehag, C._G., Clausen, G., Hongslo, 

J.K., Kjellman, M., Kjaergaard, S., Levy, F., Molhave, L., Skerfving, S., and Sundell, 

J. (1997) TVOC and health in non-industrial indoor environments: report from a 

Nordic Scientific Consensus Meeting at Langholmen in Stockholm, 1996 , Indoor 

Air 7(2): 78-91.

8 Arens, E and Baughman, A. (1996) Indoor humidity and human health, part 2: 

buildings and their systems , ASHRAE Transactions 102(1): 212-221.

9 Arens, E.A. Bauman, F.S., Johnston, L.P., and Zhang, H. (1991) Testing of localized 

ventilation systems in a new controlled-environment chamber , Indoor Air 1(3), pp. 

263-281.

10 ASHRAE (1988) ASHRAE / ANSI Standard 111-1988, Practices for measurement, 

testing, adjusting, and balancing of building heating, ventilating, and airconditioning systems, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air 

Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta.

11 ASHRAE (1989) ASHRAE standard 62-1989, ventilation for acceptable indoor air 

quality, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, 

Atlanta.

12 ASHRAE (1992) 1992 ASHRAE handbook, HVAC systems and equipment, American 

Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

13 ASHRAE (1992b) ASHRAE / ANSI Standard 55-1992, Thermal environmental 

conditions for human occupancy, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air 

Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

14 ASHRAE (1995) 1995 ASHRAE handbook, HVAC applications, American Society of 

Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

15 ASHRAE (1995b) ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55a-1995, Addendum to thermal 

environmental conditions for human occupancy, American Society of Heating, 

Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

16 ASHRAE (1996) 1996 ASHRAE Handbook, HVAC Systems and Equipment, 

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

17 ASHRAE (1996b) ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 Ventilation for acceptable indoor air 

quality, public review draft, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air 

Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

18 ASHRAE (1996c) Guideline 1-1996 - The HVAC commissioning process, American 

Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.
38 

• 

• 

• •••

19 ASHRAE (1997) 1997 ASHRAE handbook, fundamentals, American Society of 

Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

20 ASHRAE (1998) ASHRAE Standard 129, measuring air change effectiveness, To be 

published by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning 

Engineers, Inc., Atlanta.

21 ASTM (1994) ASTM Standard D 5014-94, standard test methods for measurement 

of formaldehyde in indoor air (passive sampler methodology), American Society for 

Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

22 ASTM (1994b) ASTM Standard D 4947-94, standard practice for chlorodane and 

heptachlor residues in indoor air, American Society for Testing and Materials, West 

Conshohocken, PA.

23 ASTM (1994c) ASTM Standard D 4861-94a, standard practice for sampling and 

selection of analytical techniques for pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in 

indoor air, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

24 ASTM (1995) ASTM Standard E 741-95, standard test methods for determining air 

change in a single zone by means of a tracer gas dilution, American Society for 

Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

25 ASTM (1995b) ASTM Standard D 5466-95, standard test method for determination 

of volatile organic compounds in atmospheres (canister sampling methodology), 

American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA. 

26 ASTM (1996) ASTM Standard D 5075-96E01 standard test method for nicotine and 

3-ethenylpyridine in indoor air, American Society for Testing and Materials, West 

Conshohocken, PA.

27 ASTM (1997) ASTM Standard D 5197-97 standard test method for formaldehyde 

and other carbonyl compounds in air (active sampler methodology), American 

Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

28 ASTM (1998) ASTM Standard D 6245-98, standard guide for using indoor carbon 

dioxide concentrations to evaluate indoor air quality and ventilation, American 

Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

29 ASTM (1998b) ASTM Standard D 6306-98, standard guide for placement and use of 

diffusion controlled passive monitors for gaseous pollutants in indoor air, American 

Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

30 Awbi, H.B. (1991) Ventilation of buildings, Chapman & Hall, Northway, Andover, 

Hants, United Kingdom.

31 Baughman, A. and Arens, E (1996) Indoor humidity and human health, part 1: 

literature review of health effects of humidity-influenced indoor pollutants , 

ASHRAE Transactions 102(1): 193-211.

32 Bauman, F., Baughman, A., Carter, G., and Arens, E. (1997) A field study of PEM 

(Personal Environment Module) performance in Bank of America s San Francisco 

office buildings , CEDR-01-97, University of California, Berkeley 

(cedr@ced.berkeley.edu).

33 Bauman, F.S., Zhang, H., Arens, E.A., and Benton, C. (1993) Localized comfort 

control with a desktop task conditioning system ASHRAE Transactions 99(2), pp. 

733-749.

34 Bearg, D.W. (1993) Indoor air quality and HVAC systems, Lewis Publishers, 

Chelsea, MI

35 BEIR VI (1998) Health effects of exposure to radon: BEIR VI, Committee on the 

Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR VI), National Research Council, 

National Academy Press.

36 Berman, S.M. (1992) Energy efficiency consequences of scotopic sensitivity , 

Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 21(1): 3-14
 39

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

References

37 Bluyssen, P.M., de Oliveira Fernandes, E., Groes, L., Clausen, G., Fanger, P.O., 

Valbjorn, O., Bernhard, C.A., and Roulet, C.A. (1996) European indoor air quality 

audit project in 56 office buildings , Indoor Air 6(4): 221-238.

38 Brightman, H.S., Womble, S.E., Girman, J.R., Sieber, W.K., McCarthy, J.F., Buck, 

R.J., and Spengler, J.D. (1997) Preliminary comparison of questionnaire data from 

two IAQ studies: occupant and workspace characteristics of randomly selected 

buildings and complaint buildings , Proceedings of Healthy Buildings / IAQ 97, vol. 

2, pp. 453-458, Healthy Buildings/ IAQ 97 Washington DC

39 Brunekreef, B. (1992) Damp housing and adult respiratory symptoms , Allergy 47: 

498-502.

40 Busch, J. (1992) A tale of two populations: thermal comfort in air-conditioned and 

naturally ventilated offices in Thailand , Energy and Buildings 18: 235-249.

41 California EPA (1997) Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, 

final report September 1997, California Environmental Protection Agency, 

Sacramento, CA.

42 Carpenter, S.E. (1996) Energy and IAQ impacts of CO2 -based demand-controlled 

ventilation , To be published in ASHRAE Transactions 102(2): 80-88.

43 Charlesworth, P.S. (1988) Air exchange rate and airtightness measurement 

techniques — an application guide, Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, Coventry, 

Great Britain.

44 Cohen, T. (1994) Providing constant ventilation in variable air volume systems , 

ASHRAE Journal 36(5): 38-40.

45 Collins, B.L., Fisher, W., Gillette, G. and Marans, R.W. (1990) Second —level postoccupancy evaluation analysis , Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society

19(2): 21-44

46 Committee on Health Effects of Indoor Allergens (1993) Indoor allergens: assessing 

and controlling adverse health effects, Pope, A.M., Patterson, R., and Burge, H. 

editors, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

47 Daisey, J.M., Hodgson, A.T., Fisk, W.J., Mendell, M.J., Ten Brinke, J.A. (1994) 

"Volatile organic compounds in twelve california office buildings: classes, 

concentrations, and sources", Atmospheric Environment 28(22), pp. 3557-3562.

48 Dales, R.E.; Burnett, R.; and Zwanenburg, H. (1991) Adverse health effects among 

adults exposed to home dampness and molds , American Review of Respiratory 

Disease 143: 505-509.

49 De Almeida, A.T. and Fisk, W.J. (1997) Sensor based demand controlled 

ventilation , LBNL-40599, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.

50 De Dear, R. and Brager, G.S. (1998) Developing an adaptive model of thermal 

comfort and preference , to be published in ASHRAE Transactions 104(1).

51 De Dear, R. and Fountain M. (1994) Field experiments on occupant comfort and 

office building thermal environments in hot-humid climate , ASHRAE Transactions 

100(2): 457-475.

52 Dillon, R. and Vischer, J. (1987) Derivation of the tenant survey assessment method: 

office building occupant survey data analysis, Public Works Canada, Ottawa.

53 Division of Respiratory Disease Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health (1984), Outbreaks of respiratory illness among employees in large office 

buildings -- Tennessee, District of Columbia , MMWR 33(36): 506-513.

54 Drees, K.H., Wenger, J.D., and Janu, G. (1992) Ventilation air flow measurement for 

ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 , ASHRAE Journal 34(10): 40-45.

55 ECA (1989) Report No. 4, Sick building syndrome- a practical guide, European 

Collaborative Action Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man , COST Project 

613, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. 
40 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

56 ECA (1992) Report no. 11: guidelines for ventilation requirements in buildings, EUR 

14441 EN, European collaborative action, indoor air quality & its impact on man, 

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.

57 ECA (1997) Report 19, total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) in indoor air 

quality investigations, European collaborative action, indoor air quality & its impact 

on man, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg.

58 Eklund, N.H. and Boyce, P.R. (1996) The development of a reliable, valid, and 

simple office lighting survey , Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society

25(2): 25-40.

59 Elixmann, J.H., Schata, M., and Jorde W. 1990. "Fungi in filters of air conditioning 

systems cause the building related illness." Proceedings of the Fifth International 

Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, vol. 1, pp. 193-202. 

Published by the International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Inc., 

2344 Haddington Crescent, Ottawa, Ontario, K1H 8J4.

60 Emmerich, S.J. and Persily, A.K. (1997) Literature review on CO2 — based demand 

controlled ventilation, ASHRAE Transactions 103(2): 229-243.

61 EPA (1992) Respiratory health effects of passive smoking: lung cancer and other 

disorders, EPA/600/6-90/006F, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 

DC.

62 EPA (1994) A standardized EPA protocol for characterizing indoor air quality in 

large office buildings, Office of Research and Development and Office of Air and 

Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

63 EPA (1996) Air quality criteria for particulate matter, volume II of III, EPA/600/P95/001bF, US Environmental Protection Agency.

64 EPA / NIOSH (1991) Building air quality: a guide for building owners and facility 

managers, US Environmental Protection Agency and National Institute for 

Occupational safety and Health, EPA/400/1-91/033, Superintendent of Documents, 

PO Box 37195, Pittsburgh, PA 15250

65 Fang, L.; Clausen, G.; and Fanger, P.O. (1997) Impact of temperature and humidity 

on acceptability of indoor air quality during immediate and longer whole-body 

exposures , Proceedings of Healthy Buildings / IAQ 97, vol. 2: 231-236, Healthy 

Buildings/ IAQ 97 Washington DC

66 Fanger, P. O. (1970): Thermal comfort analysis and applications in environmental 

engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York.

67 Faulkner, D.; Fisk, W.J.; Sullivan, D.P.; and Thomas, J.M. Jr. (1998) Characterizing 

building ventilation with the pollutant concentration index: results from field 

studies , To be published in the proceedings of IAQ and Energy 98, October 24 — 27, 

New Orleans, ASHRAE, Atlanta

68 Federspiel, C.C. (1996) On-demand ventilation control: a new approach to demandcontrolled ventilation , Proceedings of Indoor Air 96, vol. 3, pp. 935-940. SEEC 

Ishibashi, Inc., Japan.

69 Federspiel, C.C. (1998) Statistical analysis of unsolicited thermal sensation 

complaints in commercial buildings , ASHRAE Transactions 104(1): 912-923

70 Fisk, W.J. and de Almeida, A.T. (1998) Sensor based demand controlled ventilation: 

a review , LBNL- 41698, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, to 

be published in Energy and Buildings.

71 Fisk, W.J. and Rosenfeld, A.H. (1997) Estimates of improved productivity and 

health from better indoor environments , Indoor Air 7(3): 158-172.
 41

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

References

72 Fisk, W.J. and Rosenfeld, A.H. (1998) Potential nationwide improvements in 

productivity and health from better indoor environments , Proceedings of the 

ACEEE 1998 Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Energy Efficiency 

in a Competitive Environment , August 23-28, Asilomar, CA, pp. 8.85-8.97.

73 Fisk, W.J., Faulkner, D., Sullivan, D., and Bauman, F (1997). Air change 

effectiveness and pollutant removal efficiency during adverse mixing conditions , 

Indoor Air 7: 55-63

74 Fisk, W.J., Mendell, M. J., Daisey, J. M., Faulkner, D., Hodgson, A.T., Nematollahi, 

M., and Macher, J. (1993) "Phase 1 of the California Healthy Building Study: a 

summary" Indoor Air 3(4): 246-254.

75 Fountain, M.E. and Huizenga, C. (1996): "A thermal comfort prediction tool," 

ASHRAE Journal 38(9): 39-42.

76 Gammage, R.B. and Berven, B.A., eds. (1997) Indoor air and human health, second 

edition. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL.

77 Givoni, B. (1997) Passive and low energy cooling of buildings, John Wiley & Sons, 

New York

78 Hanley, J.T., Ensor, D.S., Smith, D.D., and Sparks, L.E. (1994) Fractional aerosol 

filtration efficiency of in-duct ventilation air cleaners , Indoor Air 4(3): 169-178.

79 Heiselberg, P. (1994) Draught risk from cold vertical surfaces , Building and 

Environment 29: 297-301.

80 Heiselberg, P., Overby, H., and Bjorn, E. (1995) Energy-efficient measures to avoid 

downdraft from large glazed facades , ASHRAE Transactions 101(2): 1127-1135.

81 Hodgson, A.T. (1995) A review and limited comparison of methods for measuring 

total volatile organic compounds in indoor air , Indoor Air 5(4): 247-257.

82 Hygge, S. and Loftberg, H. (1998) User evaluation of visual comfort in some 

buildings of the daylight Europe project , Proceedings of the 4th European 

Conference on Energy Efficient Lighting, vol. 2, pp. 69-74, DEF Congress Service, 

Coppenhagen

83 IES (1993) Lighting handbook, reference & application, M.S. Rea Ed., Illuminating 

Engineering Society of North America, New York

84 International Energy Agency (1990) Demand-controlled ventilating systems: state of 

the art review, (editor W. Raatschen) Published by the Swedish Council for Building 

Research, Stockholm.

85 International Energy Agency (1992), Demand controlled ventilation systems - source 

book, Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme, 

Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm.

86 ISIAQ (1996) ISIAQ guidelines: Task Force II - general principles for the 

investigation of IAQ complaints (DRAFT - May 31, 1996) , International Society 

for Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Ottawa (http://www.isiaq.org)

87 ISO (1994) ISO 7730:1994 Moderate thermal environments -- determination of the 

PMV and PPD indices and specification of the conditions for thermal comfort,"

International Organization for Standardization

88 Jaakkola, J.K.; Heinonen, O.P.; and Seppanen, O. (1991) Mechanical ventilation in 

office buildings and the sick building syndrome. An experimental and 

epidemiological study , Indoor Air 2: 111-121.

89 Janu, G.; Wenger, J., and Nesler, C. (1995) Outdoor air flow control for VAV 

systems , ASHRAE Journal 37(4): 62-68.

90 Katzev, R. (1992) The impact of energy-efficient office lighting strategies on 

employee satisfaction and productivity , Environment and Behavior 24(6): 759-778.
42 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

91 Koenigsberger, Ingersoll, Mayhew, Szokolay (1973) Manual of tropical housing and 

building; part 1, climatic design, 320 pp., Longman Group Limited, London and 

New York.

92 Lagus, P. and Persily, A.K. (1985) A review of tracer gas techniques for measuring 

airflows in buildings , ASHRAE Transactions 91(2b): 1075-1087.

93 Martikainen, P.J., Asikainer, A., Nevabiner, A., Jantunen, M., Pasanen, P., and 

Kalliokski, P. (1990) "Microbial growth on ventilation filter materials" Proceedings 

of the Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Toronto, 

vol. 3, pp. 203 - 206. Published by the International Conference on Indoor Air Quality 

and Climate, Inc., 2344 Haddington Crescent, Ottawa, Ontario, K1H 8J4.

94 Mendell, M.J. (1993) Non-specific health symptoms in office workers: a review and 

summary of the epidemiologic literature , Indoor Air 3(4): 227-236.

95 Menzies, D.; Tamblyn, R.; Farant, J.; Hanley, J.; Nunes, F.; and Tamblyn, R. (1993) 

The effect of varying levels of outdoor-air supply on the symptoms of sick building 

syndrome , The New England Journal of Medicine 328(12): 821-827.

96 Ministers (1970) Law for maintenance of sanitation in buildings, Ministers of 

Justice, Health and Welfare, Labor, and Construction, Japan

97 Molhave, L., Bach, B., and Pedersen, O.F. (1986) Human reactions to low 

concentrations of volatile organic compounds , Environment International 12: 167-

175.

98 Molhave, L., Lui, Z., Jorgensen, A.H., Pedersen, O.F., and Kjaergaard, S.K. (1993) 

Sensory and physiological effects on humans of combined exposures to air 

temperatures and volatile organic compounds , Indoor Air 3(3), pp. 155-169.

99 Morey, P.R. and Williams, C.M. (1991) "Is porous insulation inside an HVAC system 

compatible with a healthy building?" Proceedings of IAQ ’91: Healthy Buildings, pp. 

128 - 135. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning 

Engineers, Atlanta.

100 Mudarri, D.; Hall, J.D.; and Werling, E. (1996) Energy cost and IAQ performance 

of ventilation systems and controls , Proceedings of IAQ 96, pp. 151-160, American 

Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.

101 Nagda, N. and Harper, J., (eds.), 1989, Design and protocol for monitoring indoor air 

quality, ASTM STP 1002, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.

102 Nathanson, T. (1995) Indoor air quality in office buildings: a technical guide, A 

report of the Federal-Provincial Advisory Committee on Environmental Health, 

Health Canada, available from Communications Branch, Health Canada, Tunney’s 

Pasture, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A0K9

103 National Laboratories (1997) Survey and discussion of models applicable to the 

transport and fate thrust area of the Department of Energy Chemical and Biological 

Nonproliferation Program , available from the National Technical Information 

Service, US Department of Commerce, Springfield VA. 

104 Nazaroff, W.W., Gadgil, A.J., and Weschler, C.J. (1993) Critique of the use of 

deposition velocity in modeling indoor air quality , In American Society of Testing 

and Materials Standard Technical Publication 1205, ASTM, Philadelphia.

105 Nelson, N.A.; Kaufman, J.D.; Burt, J.; and Karr, C. (1995) Health symptoms and 

the work environment in four nonproblem United States office buildings , Scand. J. 

Work Environ. Health 21(1): 51-59

106 NKB (1991) Indoor climate-air quality: NKB publication no. 61e, Nordic 

Committee on Building Regulations, Espoo, Finland (ISBN 951-47-5322-4)

107 NORDTEST (1982) Standard NT BUILD 232, buildings: rate of ventilation in 

different parts of a building, Edition 2, NORDTEST, Espoo, Finland
 43

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

References

108 NORDTEST (1988) Standard NT VVS 019, buildings - ventilation air: local mean 

age, Edition 2, NORDTEST, Espoo, Finland

109 NRC (1981) Indoor pollutants, Committee on Indoor Pollutants, National Research 

Council, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press.

110 Owen, MK, DS Ensor, and LE Sparks (1992) Airborne particle sizes and sources 

found in indoor air , Atmospheric Environment 26A(12): 2149-2162

111 Persily, A. and Dols, W.S. (1990) The relation of CO2 concentration to office 

building ventilation , ASTM Special Technical Publication 1067-1990, pp. 77-91, 

American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.

112 Persily, A., (1993) "Ventilation, carbon dioxide and ASHRAE Standard 62-1989", 

ASHRAE Journal, 35(7): 40-44.

113 Preller, L.; Zweers, T.; Brunekreef, B.; and Boleij, J.S.M. (1990) Sick leave due to 

work-related complaints among workers in the Netherlands , Proceedings of the 

Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, vol. 1: 227-230, 

International Conference on IAQ and Climate, Ottawa.

114 Raferty, P.J. (1993) The industrial hygienist’s guide to indoor air quality 

investigations, Stock # 144-EQ-93, American Industrial Hygiene Association, 

Fairfax, VA.

115 Schiller, G., E. Arens, F. Bauman, C. Benton, M. Fountain, and T. Doherty. (1988). 

"A field study of thermal environments and comfort in office buildings." ASHRAE 

Transactions, Vol. 94(2): 280-308.

116 Seppanen, O., Fisk, W.J., Eto, J., and Grimsrud, D.T. (1989) "Comparison of 

conventional mixing and displacement air conditioning and ventilating systems in 

U.S. commercial buildings." ASHRAE Transactions 95 (2): 1028-1040.

117 Sieber, W.K., Petersen, M.R., Staynor, L.T., Malkin, R., Mendell, M.J., Wallingford, 

K.M., Wilcox, T.G.,, Crandall, M.S., and Reed, L. (1996) Associations between 

environmental factors and health conditions:, Proceedings of Indoor Air 96, vol. 2, 

pp. 901-906. SEEC Ishibashi, Inc., Japan.

118 Skov, P., Valbjorn, O., Pedersen, B. V. and DISG (1989) "Influence of the indoor 

climate on the sick building syndrome in an office environment", Scand. J Work. 

Environ. Health 16, pp. 1-9. 

119 SMACNA (1993) HVAC systems- testing, adjusting, and balancing, Sheet Metal and 

Air Conditioning Contractors National Association, Chantilly, VA

120 SMACNA (1995) IAQ guidelines for occupied buildings under construction, Sheet 

Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association, Chantilly, VA

121 Smedje, G.; Norback, D.; Wessen, B.; and Edling, C. (1996) Asthma among school 

employees in relation to the school environment , Proceedings of Indoor Air 96, vol. 

1: 611-616, Seec Ishibashi, Inc. Japan

122 Solberg, D.; Dougan, D., and Damiano, L. (1990) Measurement for the control of 

fresh air intake , ASHRAE Journal 32(1): 46-51.

123 Spengler, J., Neas, L., Nakai, S., Dockery, D., Speizer, F., Ware, J., and Raizenne, M. 

(1993) "Respiratory symptoms and housing characteristics", Proceedings of Indoor 

Air ’93, The 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, vol. 1: 

165 - 170., Published by Indoor Air ’93, Helsinki.

124 Stenberg, B., Hansson, Mild, K.H., Sandstrom, M., Sundell, J., and Wall, S. (1993) 

A prevalence study of sick building syndrome (SBS) and facial skin symptoms in 

office workers , Indoor Air 3(2): 71-81.

125 Sundell, J. (1994) On the association between building characteristics, some indoor 

environmental exposures, some allergic manifestations and subjective symptom 

reports Indoor Air Supplement 2. 
44 

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

126 Ten Brinke, J. (1995) Development of new VOC exposure metrics and their 

relationship to sick building syndrome symptoms , Lawrence Berkeley National 

Laboratory Report, LBL-37652, Berkeley, CA.

127 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996) Air quality criteria for particulate 

matter, vol ume II of III, EPA/600/P-95/001bF.

128 Utterson, E. and Sauer, H.J. Jr. (1998) Outside air ventilation control and 

monitoring , ASHRAE Journal 40(1): 31-35.

129 Vedal, S. (1985) Epidemiological studies of childhood illness and pulmonary 

function associated with gas stove use , Chapter 23 in Indoor Air and Human Health, 

Proceedings of the Seventh Life Sciences Symposium, October 29-31, Knoxville, 

TN, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI.

130 Veitch, J.A. [ed.] (1994) Full-spectrum lighting effects on performance, mood, and 

health, IRC-IR-659, pp. 53-111, National Research Council of Canada, Institute for 

Research in Construction, Ottawa, http://www.nrc.ca/irc/light

131 Veitch, J.A. and Newsham, G.R. (1998) Determinant of lighting quality I: state of 

the science , Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 27(1): 92-106.

132 Veitch, J.A. and Newsham, G.R. (1998) Lighting quality and energy-efficiency 

effects on task performance, mood, health, satisfaction, and comfort , Journal of the 

Illuminating Engineering Society. 27(1), 107-129.

133 Victor Olgyay, V. (1963) Design with climate; bioclimatic approach to architectural 

regionalism. 236 pp., Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. 

134 Ward, G. and Rubinstein, F.M. (1988) A new technique for computer simulation of 

illuminated spaces , Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 17(1).

135 Watson, D. and Labs, K. (1983) Climatic design; energy-efficient building principles 

and practices, 280 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

136 Weekes, D.M. and Gammage, R.B. (1990) The practitioner’s approach to indoor air 

quality investigations , Proceedings of the Indoor Air Quality International 

Symposium, Stock # 145-EQ-90, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, 

VA. 

137 Weschler, C.J. and Shields, H.C. (1997) Is the importance of ventilation partially 

explained by indoor chemistry , Proceedings of Healthy Buildings / IAQ 97, vol. 1, 

pp. 293-298, Healthy Buildings/ IAQ 97 Washington DC

138 Wilkins, A.J., Nimmo-Smith, I., Slater, A.I., and Bedocs, L. (1988) "Fluorescent 

lighting, headaches and eyestrain." Proceedings of the CIBSE National Lighting 

Conference, Cambridge (UK), pp. 188-196.

139 World Health Organization (1987) Air quality guidelines for Europe, WHO Regional 

Publications, European Series No. 23, Copenhagen.

140 Wyon, D.P. (1992) "Sick buildings and the experimental approach", Environmental 

Technology 13: 313 - 322.

141 Wyon, D.P. (1996) Indoor environment effects on productivity , Proceedings of 

IAQ 96, pp. 5-15, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning 

Engineers, Atlanta.

142 Yuan, X.; Chen, Q.; and Glicksman, L.R. (1998) A critical review of displacement 

ventilation , to be published in ASHRAE Transactions 104(1).
I

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

• • • • • •

Index

A

acute respiratory infections, 14

air changes, 8

air cleaning, 8—9, 16, 22

air filters, 7, 9—10, 20, 24

air pressure drops, 21

analyzer

electrochemical, 34

infrared, 34—35

asbestos, 8, 19, 24

B

bioaerosols, 7—8, 11, 22

infectious communicable, 7

non-infectious, 7

BRI or building-related illness, 10—11

C

carbon monoxide, 5, 13, 28, 31, 34

CO2 concentration, 4, 23

commissioning, 10, 17, 21, 27

condensate drain pans, 15

cycling, 25

D

DCV or demand controlled ventilation, 23

digital controls, 21

displacement ventilation, 10, 23, 30, 33

E

ECM or energy conservation measure, 1—2, 10, 18—19,

26—28, 30—31, 34, 36

economizer, 19—21, 23, 25—26, 28

effective ventilation rate, 33

Energy Conservation Measure (ECM), 30

ETS or environmental tobacco smoke, 8

exhaust ventilation, 9

F

fiberglass, 8, 19

flame ionization detector, 35

flow controllers, 21

formaldehyde, 5

G

gas chromotography, 35

gaseous human bioeffluents, 4

H

humidifiers, 6—7, 11, 15

humidity sensor, 24, 33

hypersensitivity pneumonitis, 7, 11

I

IEQ modeling, 29

IEQ or indoor environmental quality, 1

illuminance, 3—4, 35

infiltration barrier, 25

L

legionnaires disease, 7, 11

lung cancer, 8, 11, 32

M

mass balance, 4, 8, 27, 31, 33

mass spectrometry, 35

MCS or multiple chemical sensitivity, 11

mean radiant temperature, 2, 21, 33

microbiological growth, 22

modeling, 27, 31

moisture barrier, 15

multi-parameter measurements, 33, 35

N

nighttime pre-cooling, 20

nitrogen oxides, 5

non-specific health symptoms, 3, 5, 10—11, 14, 23, 28,

32, 36

O

odor emissions, 9—10

olf, 13

operable windows, 23

ozone, 6, 9, 20, 22—23, 28, 34

P

particle, 9

particle filters, 9

particles, 7—8, 10, 15—16, 22—23, 34

peak demand, 20

photo acoustic, 35

pontiac fever, 7

pressure control, 9, 25

pressure differences, 9, 15, 20

preventive maintenance, 17, 24
II

• 

• 

• 

•

•

•

R

radiant heating and cooling, 21

radon, 6, 11, 32

S

sensitive populations, 11

sick building syndrome, 3, 10

survey, 28, 30—32, 35—36

T

task conditioning systems, 3

thermal comfort, 2—3, 9—10, 13, 20—28, 30, 32—33

surveys, 32—33

thermal energy storage, 20, 22

thermally efficient windows, 22, 24, 26

thermostat setpoints, 22

TLV or threshold limit value, 27

tracer gas decays, 33

TVOC or total volatile organic compound, 5—6, 35

V

vapor barrier, 22, 25

VAV or variable air volume, 16, 21—22, 25

ventilation rate, 4, 8, 12—13, 16, 20, 28, 31, 33—34

vertical gradients, 23

VOC or volatile organic compound, 5—6, 14—16, 28, 31,

35
DOE/GO-102001-1188

Printed with a renewable source ink on paper containing at

least 50% wastepaper, including 10% postconsumer waste.

OFFICE OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY