The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

COMMISSIONER'S STATEMENT 

The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is the largest, most 

comprehensive, and most rigorous international study of schools and student 

achievement ever conducted. This report, Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. 

Fourth-Grade Mathematics and Science Achievement in International Context

summarizes data on fourth-grade students in 26 countries. It is the second of three 

major TIMSS reports by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in its 

Pursuing Excellence series. The first report, outlining U.S. comparative eighth-grade 

results, was released last fall, while the third report, investigating student achievement 

in the last year of schooling, will be published early next year. Together, these three 

studies will paint a more complete picture than we have ever had about how U.S. 

schooling practices and achievement in mathematics and science compare with the rest 

of the world. The information is intended to help U.S. educators, parents, policy 

makers, and others evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of our schools from an 

international perspective. 

The scope of TIMSS is unprecedented in the annals of education research. The 

international project involved the testing of more than a half-million students in 

mathematics and science at three grade levels in 41 countries. In contrast to previous 

international comparative studies, TIMSS also goes beyond the traditional "horserace" 

data on student performance to analyze the content of textbooks and curricula in 

participating countries and to administer written questionnaires to teachers and students 

regarding their academic practices both inside and outside the classroom. A particularly 

innovative technique used at the eighth grade was the videotaping of a random sample 

of actual mathematics classrooms in the United States, Germany, and Japan, in order to 

better understand key similarities and differences in instructional practices across these 

three countries. 

This wealth of data is being analyzed and published by NCES and others around the 

world. Both individually and collectively, the various TIMSS reports constitute 

important tools that can improve the quality of primary and secondary education for all 

students. That is why the Center has been working cooperatively with other parts of the 

U.S. Department of Education to produce a multi-media resource kit designed for 

educators and those interested in using TIMSS data to improve teaching, curricula, and 

student achievement in states and local communities. 

The TIMSS data provide a reference point with which we can begin to clarify what we 

mean by "world-class" education. They give us tools by which we can benchmark not 

only the performance of our students but the way in which we deliver instruction. Most 

important, they allow the U.S. to learn unique lessons from other members of the world 

community so that we may better pursue the goal of an excellent education for all 

students. 

NCES is releasing the information in a variety of new forms, including CD-ROM, 
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videotape, and the World Wide Web (http://www.ed.gov/NCES/timss). We invite 

everyone who is dedicated to enhancing the quality of our nation's mathematics and 

science education to make the fullest possible use of this rich resource. 

Pascal D. Forgione Jr. 

Commissioner of Education Statistics 

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

• Published Commissioner's Statement

• Executive Summary

• Preface

• Overview

• Study design

• The TIMSS research team

• Organization of this report

• Chapter 1: Achievement

• Chapter 2: Contexts of Learning

• What factors might contribute to the finding that U.S. fourth graders score above the 

international average in both mathematics and science? 

• What factors might contribute to the finding that the international standing of U.S. 

fourth graders is stronger than that of U.S. eighth graders? 

• What factors might contribute to the finding that the international standing of U.S. 

students is stronger in science than in mathematics? 

• List of Figures

• Conclusion, Works Cited and Appendices 1-4 

• Chapter 1: Achievement 

• Key points 

• How well do U.S. fourth graders do in mathematics and science? 

• Some special notes on the test scores 

• Which countries outperform U.S. fourth graders in both subjects? 

• Which countries do U.S. fourth graders outperform in both subjects? 

• How do our fourth graders compare with our major economic partners? 

• How do our best fourth graders compare with others' best? 

• How do our fourth graders score in the different content areas of mathematics and 
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science? 

• Is there a gender gap in mathematics and science at fourth grade? 

• Has U.S. fourth-grade international standing improved over time? 

• How does the performance of U.S. fourth graders compare with that of U.S. eighth 

graders in mathematics and science? 

• How does the performance of U.S. fourth graders compare with that of U.S. eighth 

graders in mathematics and science content areas? 

• Summary 

• Chapter 2: Contexts of Learning 

• Key points 

• WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING THAT U.S. FOURTH 

GRADERS SCORE ABOVE THE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE IN BOTH 

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE? 

• How does the U.S. fourth-grade mathematics and science curriculum differ from 

the international average? 

• Do U.S. fourth graders spend more time in class studying mathematics and 

science? 

• Is homework more common in the U.S. than in other countries? 

• How does the structure of U.S. mathematics and science instruction differ from 

that in other TIMSS nations? 

• Is U.S. classroom organization different from that of other countries? 

• Are calculators and computers more common in U.S. fourth-grade classrooms 

than in other TIMSS countries? 

• Are U.S. fourth-grade teachers better trained than their colleagues in other 

TIMSS countries? 

• Do U.S. teachers experience fewer professional challenges than do teachers in 

other TIMSS countries? 

• Do U.S. students have more educational resources in their homes than do typical 

students in other TIMSS countries? 

• Do U.S. fourth graders have more positive attitudes toward mathematics and 

science than do students in other countries? 

• Is heavy television watching less common among U.S. fourth graders than among 

students in other countries? 
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• Summary 

• WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING THAT THE 

INTERNATIONAL STANDING OF U.S. FOURTH GRADERS IS STRONGER 

THAN THAT OF U.S. EIGHTH GRADERS? 

• Is the U.S. fourth-grade curriculum more focused than that of the eighth grade? 

• Are U.S. fourth graders assigned relatively more mathematics homework than are 

U.S. eighth graders? 

• Is U.S. fourth-grade mathematics and science instruction different from that in 

the eighth grade? 

• Is U.S. fourth-grade mathematics classroom organization different from that in 

the eighth grade? 

• Are calculators used more commonly in U.S. fourth-grade mathematics classes 

than in eighth-grade classes? 

• Are U.S. fourth-grade teachers more experienced than eighth-grade teachers? 

• Do U.S. fourth-grade students have more educational resources in their homes 

than do eighth graders? 

• Do U.S. fourth-grade students watch relatively less TV than eighth-grade 

students? 

• Do U.S. fourth graders like mathematics and science more than do U.S. eighth 

graders? 

• Summary 

• WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING THAT THE 

INTERNATIONAL STANDING OF U.S. STUDENTS IS STRONGER IN SCIENCE 

THAN IN MATHEMATICS? 

• Is the U.S. curriculum more focused in science than in mathematics? 

• Do U.S. students spend relatively more time in class studying science than 

mathematics? 

• Are class sizes different in science than in mathematics? 

• Are U.S. science teachers more experienced than mathematics teachers? 

• Are U.S. student attitudes more positive toward science than they are toward 

mathematics? 

• Summary 

• Conclusions
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• Works Cited

• Appendix 1: Additional TIMSS Reports 

• Appendix 2: Advisors to the U.S. TIMSS Study 

• Appendix 3: National Average Scores and Standard Errors 

• Appendix 4: Summary of National Deviations from International Study Guidelines 

 
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

PREFACE 

The Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) is the largest, most 

comprehensive, and most rigorous international comparison of education ever 

undertaken. During the 1995 school year, the study tested the mathematics and science 

knowledge of a half-million students from 41 nations at five different grade levels. This 

report presents findings from the tests, questionnaires, and curriculum analysis 

performed at the fourth grade. Twenty-six nations participated in the fourth-grade 

assessment. 

• TIMSS' information not only compares achievement, but also provides insights 

into how life in U.S. schools differs from that in other nations. 

• This report on fourth-grade students is the second of a series of three 

public-audience reports titled Pursuing Excellence. The first report presented 

findings on student achievement at eighth grade. The third report will be released 

in the spring of 1998, and will present findings from the twelfth grade. 

Additional reports will provide information on various other topics. 

TIMSS is a fair and accurate comparison of mathematics and science achievement in 

the participating nations. It is not a comparison of "all of our students with other 

nations' best students," a charge that some critics have leveled at previous international 

comparisons. The students who participated in TIMSS were randomly selected to 

represent all students in their respective nations, with the exception of a few nations 

which are clearly noted in this report. The entire assessment process was scrutinized by 

international technical review committees to ensure its adherence to established 

standards. Those nations in which irregularities arose are clearly noted in this and other 

TIMSS reports. 

 

ACHIEVEMENT 

One of our national goals is to be "first in the world in mathematics and science 

achievement by the year 2000," as President Bush and 50 governors declared in 1989. 

In fourth-grade science achievement, we are close to this mark. Fourth graders in only 

one country--Korea--outperform U.S. students in this subject. 

• In mathematics, U.S. fourth graders perform above the international average of 

the 26 TIMSS countries. U.S. students are outperformed by those in 7 countries 

and outperform those in 12 countries. Among our major economic partners who 

participated in the study, our students' scores are below those of Japan, not 

significantly different from those of Canada, and are significantly higher than 

those of England. 
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• In science, U.S. fourth graders also perform above the international average of 

the 26 TIMSS countries. U.S. students are outperformed by students in only one 

country--Korea. U.S. students outperform those in 19 countries. Among our 

major economic partners who participated in the study, our students' scores are 

not significantly different from those of fourth graders in Japan. Our students 

outperform those in England and Canada. 

• In mathematics content areas, our fourth graders exceed the international average 

in five of the six areas assessed. These five areas are: whole numbers; fractions 

and proportionality; data representation, analysis, and probability; geometry; and 

patterns, relations, and functions. In one content area, the U.S. average is lower 

than the international average--measurement, estimation, and number sense. 

• In science content areas, our fourth graders' performance exceeds the 

international average in all four of the areas assessed. In three of these content 

areas--earth science; life science; and environmental issues and the nature of 

science--U.S. fourth grade students are significantly outperformed by only one or 

two other nations. In physical science, five other nations perform significantly 

better than the U.S. 

• If an international talent search were to select the top 10 percent of all 

fourth-grade students in the 26 countries, in mathematics 9 percent of U.S. 

fourth-grade students would be included. In science, 16 percent would be 

included. 

• The international standing of U.S. fourth graders is stronger than that of U.S. 

eighth graders in both mathematics and science. 

• In comparison with their international counterparts, U.S. students perform better 

in science than in mathematics at both the fourth and eighth grades. 

 

CONTEXTS OF LEARNING 

• It is too early in the process of data analysis to provide strong evidence to suggest 

factors that may be related to the patterns of achievement described here. No 

single factor or combination of factors emerges as particularly important. 

• On most background factors studied, there is no difference between the U.S. and 

the international average, or the differences are small. Therefore, these factors are 

unlikely to be strongly associated with our international standing. 

• On those background factors on which there is a difference between the U.S. and 

the international average, the factor is not shared with most high performing 

countries. Therefore, these factors are also unlikely to be strongly associated with 

our international standing. 

• In general, preliminary analyses shed little light on factors which might account 

for the differences between our performance in mathematics and science, and our 
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performance at the fourth and eighth grades. Further analyses are needed to 

provide more definitive insights on these subjects. 

 

CONCLUSION 

This report presents initial findings from TIMSS for fourth-grade mathematics and 

science, and evidence from early analyses concerning the context of U.S. education 

achievement. Adequate understanding of our nation's education in an international 

perspective must await findings from the twelfth-grade data and deeper analysis of data 

at all grade levels. 

TIMSS is not an answer book, but a tool to examine our own national educational 

strengths and weaknesses in an international perspective. All countries, including the 

U.S., have something to learn from other nations, and have something from which other 

countries can learn. These TIMSS findings will be an important source of information 

to guide our nation in the pursuit of excellence into the next century. 

 
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PREFACE 

OVERVIEW 

The Third International Mathematics and Science Study is the largest and most 

comprehensive comparative international study of education that has ever been 

undertaken. A half-million students from 41 countries were tested in 30 different 

languages at five different grade levels to compare their mathematics and science 

achievement. Intensive studies of students, teachers, schools, curriculum, instruction, 

and policy issues were also carried out to understand the educational context in which 

learning takes place. 

Twenty-six countries tested fourth-grade students and made their data available for 

presentation. Of these, 17 met or came close to meeting all of the quality control 

requirements for sampling and data collection. The other 9 countries experienced 

difficulties of various types. All deviations from international quality control 

requirements are described in Appendix 4. The 9 countries within which difficulties 

arose are shown in parentheses both below and in figures contained in this report. 

COUNTRIES PARTICIPATING IN FOURTH-GRADE TIMSS 

(Australia) Japan

(Austria) Korea

 Canada (Kuwait)

 Cyprus (Latvia)

 Czech Republic (Netherlands)

 England New Zealand

 Greece Norway 

 Hong Kong Portugal
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(Hungary) Scotland

 Iceland Singapore

 Iran, Islamic Republic (Slovenia)

 Ireland (Thailand)

 Israel United States

Seventeen other countries participated in one or more aspects of TIMSS but not in the 

fourth-grade study. These countries are Belgium (Flemish), Belgium (French), Bulgaria, 

Colombia, Denmark, France, Germany, Lithuania, Mexico, the Philippines, Romania, 

Russian Federation, Slovak Republic, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. 

TIMSS is an important study for those interested in U.S. education. In 1983, the 

National Commission on Excellence in Education pointed to our nation's low 

performance in international studies as evidence that we were A Nation at Risk. In 1989, 

President Bush and the governors of all 50 states adopted the National Goals for 

Education, one of which was that "by the year 2000, the U.S. will be first in the world 

in mathematics and science achievement." 

Mathematics and science experts have issued major calls for reform in the teaching of 

their subjects. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics published Curriculum 

and Evaluation Standards in 1989 and Professional Standards for Teaching 

Mathematics in 1991. In 1993, the American Association for the Advancement of 

Science followed suit with Benchmarks for Science Literacy, and in 1996, the National 

Academy of Sciences published National Science Education Standards. 

TIMSS helps us measure progress toward our national goal of improving our children's 

academic performance in mathematics and science. But TIMSS is much more than a 

scorecard for the mathematics and science events in the "education Olympics." It is a 

diagnostic tool to help us examine our nation's progress toward improvement of 

mathematics and science education. It was designed to look behind the scorecard to 

illuminate how our education policies and practices compare with those of the world 

community. 

This report draws from the results of the fourth-grade part of the TIMSS study to 

summarize the initial findings concerning mathematics and science achievement and 

schooling at that grade level. It is the second of three reports in the Pursuing Excellence

series. The first report presented initial findings on the eighth grade and was released in 

November 1996. The third report, to be published in spring 1998, will treat findings 
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concerning students in the twelfth grade. Other reports on selected topics will be 

published over the next several years. Much more will be learned as further analysis of 

the TIMSS data continues. 

TIMSS is a fair and accurate comparison of mathematics and science achievement 

in the participating nations. It is not a comparison of "all of our students with 

other nations' best students," a charge that some critics have leveled at previous 

international comparisons. In most of the countries that participated in TIMSS, 

virtually all children attend elementary school, and the students who took the TIMSS 

test were randomly selected to represent all students in their respective nations. The 

entire assessment process was scrutinized by international technical review committees 

to ensure its adherence to established standards. Those nations in which irregularities 

arose are clearly noted in this and other TIMSS reports. 

At each step of its development, TIMSS used careful quality control procedures. An 

international curriculum analysis was carried out prior to the development of the 

assessments to ensure that the tests reflect the mathematics and science curricula of the 

variety of TIMSS countries and do not overemphasize what is taught in only a few. 

International monitors carefully checked the test translations and visited many 

classrooms while the tests were being administered to make sure that the instructions 

were properly followed. The raw data from each country were scrutinized to be sure that 

no anomalies existed, and all analyses were double checked. Finally, this report has 

been written and carefully reviewed to avoid overgeneralization and inaccuracy. 

 

STUDY DESIGN 

TIMSS is the third comparison of mathematics and science achievement carried out by 

the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). 

Previous IEA studies of mathematics and science were conducted for each subject 

separately at various times during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. TIMSS is the first IEA 

study that has assessed both mathematics and science at the same time. Comparative 

studies of other subjects, including reading literacy (1992) \1\ and computers in 

education (1993) \2\ have also been published by the IEA. 

TIMSS was designed to focus on students at three different stages of schooling: midway 

through elementary school, midway through lower secondary school, and at the end of 

upper secondary school. Because countries around the world set different ages at which

children should begin and complete school, decisions about which students should be 

tested needed to take both age and grade level into account. The populations tested are 

listed below. Participation in Population 2 was required of all TIMSS nations, but 

participation in Populations 1 and 3 was optional. 

• Population 1 -- Those students enrolled in the pair of adjacent grades that 

contained the most 9-year-olds. (Grades 3 and 4 in the U.S. and most of the 

world. Grades 2 and 3 or 4 and 5 in some nations.) 

• Population 2 -- Those students in the pair of adjacent grades that contained the 

most 13-year-olds at the time of testing. (Grades 7 and 8 in the U.S. and most of 
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the world. Grades 6 and 7 in a few nations.) 

• Population 3 -- Those students in their final year of secondary school, whatever 

their age. (Grade 12 in the U.S. and most nations. Grades 9-13 in some nations.) 

In all participating countries, students in both public and private schools were 

administered the TIMSS test. In all but a few of the TIMSS countries, virtually all 

Population 1 and 2 children are enrolled in school and were therefore eligible to take 

the test. Testing occurred 2 to 3 months before the end of the 1994-95 school year. 

Students with special needs and disabilities that would make it difficult for them to take 

the test were excused from the assessment. In each country, the test was translated into 

the primary language or languages of instruction. All testing in the U.S. was done in the 

English language. 

Countries participating in TIMSS collected information primarily through assessments 

and questionnaires. Additional information on the content of textbooks and curriculum 

guides was also collected in a separate series of curriculum analyses. The 26 countries 

participating in the Population 1 part of the TIMSS study engaged in three types of data 

collection: 

• Mathematics and science assessments--One and one-half hours in length, the 

assessments included both multiple-choice and free-response items. A smaller 

number of students also completed hands-on performance assessments that will 

be reported later. 

• School, teacher, and student questionnaires--Students answered questions about 

their mathematics and science studies and beliefs. Teachers answered questions 

on their beliefs about mathematics and science and on teaching practices. School 

administrators answered questions about school policies and practices. 

• Curriculum analysis--This exploratory study compared mathematics and science 

curriculum guides and textbooks. It studied subject-matter content, sequencing of 

topics, and expectations for student performance. 

THE TIMSS RESEARCH TEAM 

TIMSS was conducted by the IEA, which is a Netherlands-based organization of 

ministries of education and research institutions in its member countries. The IEA 

delegated responsibility for overall coordination and management of the TIMSS study 

to Professor Albert Beaton at the TIMSS International Study Center, located at Boston 

College. Each of the IEA member nations that made the decision to participate in 

TIMSS paid for and carried out the data collection in its own country according to the 

international guidelines. The costs of the international coordination were paid by the 

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education, 

the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Canadian Government. 

TIMSS in the United States was also funded by NCES and NSF. Professor William 

Schmidt of Michigan State University was the U.S. National Research Coordinator. 
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Policy decisions on the study were made by the U.S. National Coordinating Committee. 

Lois Peak monitored the international and U.S. TIMSS projects. The U.S. data 

collection was carried out by Westat, a private survey research firm. Trevor Williams 

and Nancy Caldwell were Westat project co-directors. The many advisors to the study 

are listed in Appendix 2. 

The U.S. TIMSS team also includes the approximately 4,000 third and 7,000 fourth 

graders who took the assessment, and their principals and teachers in 190 schools 

nationwide. Their cooperation has made this report possible. 

 

ORGANIZATION OF THIS REPORT 

This report summarizes early findings from the fourth-grade data. Both third- and 

fourth-grade students took the TIMSS test as part of Population 1, but this initial report 

focuses on findings for the fourth grade. Future reports based on a more complete and 

extensive analysis of the data will provide deeper understanding and investigate 

relationships among the findings from the different parts of the study. Extensive 

documentation of the data collection methodologies and statistical analyses used in all 

participating countries is available in technical reports \3\ and quality control reports\4\

published by the TIMSS International Study Center at Boston College. Similar technical 

detail for the United States will soon be available from NCES. 

This report is based on the comparative data for 26 countries published by the TIMSS 

International Study Center at Boston College. The report's purpose is to highlight initial 

findings concerning the place of the United States among the participating nations. 

Chapter 1 draws from the results of the student assessments to describe U.S. student 

achievement in mathematics and science in comparison with their international 

counterparts. 

Chapter 2 summarizes the evidence from initial analyses to attempt to address the key 

findings illuminated in Chapter 1. 

 
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CHAPTER 1: ACHIEVEMENT

KEY POINTS:

U.S. fourth graders score above average in both mathematics and science compared 

with the 26 nations in the TIMSS fourth-grade assessment. 

U.S. students' international standing is stronger at the fourth grade than it is at the 

eighth grade in both mathematics and science. 

U.S. students' international standing is stronger in science than it is in mathematics at 

both the fourth and eighth grades. 

In mathematics, 9 percent of U.S. fourth graders would rank among the world's top 10 

percent. In science, 16 percent of U.S. fourth graders would rank among the world's top 

10 percent. 

There is no significant gender gap in fourth-grade mathematics achievement. However, 

in some content areas of fourth-grade science, U.S. boys outperform U.S. girls.

 

In the past, the mathematics and science achievement of U.S. students has been a cause 

for concern. International studies of these subjects conducted over the past 30 years 

show that our students have not performed as well as we might expect in comparison 

with their peers in other nations, especially in mathematics. 

The patterns of academic achievement, however, vary widely. In a recent IEA study of 

reading literacy,\5\ U.S. fourth graders were second only to Finland, and U.S. eighth 

graders ranked among the top nations. Data from the eighth-grade TIMSS study,\6\

released in November 1996, showed that U.S. eighth graders score above the 

international average of the 41 TIMSS countries in science but below the international 

average in mathematics. 

 

HOW WELL DO U.S. FOURTH GRADERS DO IN MATHEMATICS AND 

SCIENCE?

Compared with their international counterparts, U.S. fourth graders perform 

above the international average of the 26 TIMSS countries in both mathematics 

and science. In science, our students are outperformed by only one country--Korea.

Figures 1 and 2 show how U.S. students perform in these subjects. 

Tempting though it may be, it is not correct to report U.S. scores by rank alone, as 

would be the case if one were to say U.S. fourth graders are "number x in the world in 


The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

mathematics." This is because the process of calculating each country's score from the 

sample of students who took the test produces only an estimate of the country's score, 

not the true score itself. This estimate has a margin of error which is expressed as a 

"plus or minus" interval around the estimated score. In TIMSS, we can say with 95 

percent confidence that comparisons of other countries' scores to those of the U.S. are 

accurate plus or minus about 15 points, depending on the design of the sample in the 

other countries. Comparisons of the U.S. with the international average are accurate 

plus or minus about 6 points. (Appendix 3 contains a list of country means and standard 

errors.) Because the precise score cannot be determined with perfect accuracy, to fairly 

compare the U.S. with other countries, nations have been grouped into broad bands 

according to whether their performance is higher than, not significantly different from, 

or lower than the U.S. 

In mathematics, fourth-grade students in 7 countries outperform our fourth graders 

(Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, and 

Austria). Students in 6 countries are not significantly different from ours (Slovenia, 

Ireland, Hungary, Australia, Canada, and Israel). U.S. fourth graders outperform their 

counterparts in 12 nations (Latvia, Scotland, England, Cyprus, Norway, New Zealand, 

Greece, Thailand, Portugal, Iceland, Islamic Republic of Iran, and Kuwait). 

In science, students in only one country--Korea--outperform U.S. fourth graders. 

Students in 5 countries are not significantly different than ours (Japan, Austria, 

Australia, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic), and U.S. fourth graders 

outperform their counterparts in 19 nations (England, Canada, Singapore, Slovenia, 

Ireland, Scotland, Hong Kong, Hungary, New Zealand, Norway, Latvia, Israel, Iceland, 

Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Thailand, Islamic Republic of Iran, and Kuwait). 

 

SOME SPECIAL NOTES ON THE TEST SCORES 

TIMSS is a fair comparison of achievement for several reasons. First, the test was 

jointly developed and carefully reviewed by the participating countries to ensure that 

the items reflected curriculum topics considered important in all countries, and did not 

over-emphasize the curriculum content taught in only a few. Second, international 

monitors carefully reviewed nations' adherence to guidelines to ensure that significant 

numbers of students were not excluded from the testing process for any reason. Those 

nations that did exclude more than 10 percent of their students are clearly noted in this 

and other TIMSS reports. Therefore, we can be sure that the TIMSS scores in this report 

are a fair comparison of virtually all students at the appropriate grade in the various 

countries. 

TIMSS required participating nations to adhere to extremely high technical standards at 

all stages of participation in the project. Of the 26 nations that participated at the fourth 

grade, 17 met or came close to meeting all technical standards for the study. The 

remaining 9 nations, however, experienced difficulties of various types. In some 

countries, the problems arose because a sizable proportion of schools, teachers, or 

students declined to participate. In others, the selection of schools or classrooms was 

not carried out according to international specifications. In still others, students were 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

slightly older than the international target age. The names of those nations in which 

major difficulties arose are shown in parentheses in the figures in this report, and 

Appendix 4 describes these problems encountered. Because of the problems, the same 

amount of confidence cannot be attached to the scores of these 9 countries as to the 

other 17. 

When the international average is calculated only from the 17 countries that met the 

international specifications, the mathematics and science scores of U.S. fourth graders 

are still above the international average for these 17 countries. Figure 3 shows our 

standing in comparison with these 17 nations. 

What do the test scores mean? Due to the complex nature of the design, scoring, and 

analysis of the TIMSS test, a score of 600 does not mean either 600 items, or 60 

percent, correct. Instead, this score indicates where the performance would fall if all 

fourth-grade scores were arranged along a scale running from 0 to 1,000. 

In mathematics, the international average score was 529. A score of 658 or above would 

put a student in the top ten percent of all mathematics students in the 26 TIMSS 

countries, and a score of 601 would put a student in the top quarter. 

In science, the international average score was 524. A score of 660 or higher would put 

a student in the top ten percent of all science students, and a score of 607 would put a 

student in the top quarter. 

 

WHICH COUNTRIES OUTPERFORM U.S. FOURTH GRADERS IN BOTH 

SUBJECTS? 

We can say with confidence that 5 countries outperform the U.S. in mathematics at the 

fourth grade (Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, and the Czech Republic). The 

Netherlands and Austria also outperform us in fourth-grade mathematics, but due to 

deviations in their administration of TIMSS, we have less confidence in their scores. 

Only one nation outperforms the U.S. in science (Korea). Therefore, at the fourth 

grade, only Korea outperforms the U.S. in both mathematics and science. Four 

nations that outperform us in mathematics are not significantly different from us in 

science (Japan, Austria, the Netherlands, and the Czech Republic). Two nations that 

outperform the U.S. in mathematics score lower than the U.S. in science (Singapore and 

Hong Kong). 

 

WHICH COUNTRIES DO U.S. FOURTH GRADERS OUTPERFORM IN BOTH 

SUBJECTS?

We can say with confidence that in both mathematics and science, U.S. fourth 

graders outperform their counterparts in 9 countries. These are: 

• Seven European countries--Iceland, England, Scotland, Norway, Greece, Cyprus, 

and Portugal. 

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• Islamic Republic of Iran and New Zealand. 

U.S. fourth graders also outperform Latvia, Kuwait, and Thailand in both subjects, but 

due to deviations in their administration of TIMSS, we have less confidence in their 

scores. 

 

HOW DO OUR FOURTH GRADERS COMPARE WITH OUR MAJOR 

ECONOMIC PARTNERS?

The "Group of Seven" or G-7 countries are major U.S. economic and political allies. 

The other six nations in this group are Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the 

United Kingdom. Italy did not administer the TIMSS test, and France and Germany did 

not participate in the testing of fourth-grade students. Thus the U.S. can only be 

compared with the United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan. The United Kingdom is made 

up of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales; however, the latter two did not 

participate in TIMSS. England and Scotland both have the same international standing 

in comparison with the U.S. Therefore, in this section, we describe our standing in 

relation to England. 

Except for Japanese scores in mathematics, U.S. fourth graders' mathematics and 

science scores are similar to or higher than those of the other three participating 

G-7 nations. Japanese fourth graders outperform their U.S. counterparts in 

mathematics. U.S. fourth graders' mathematics scores are not significantly different 

from those of Canada and are higher than those in England. In science, U.S. fourth 

graders' scores are not significantly different than those of Japan and are significantly 

higher than those of Canada and England. 

 

HOW DO OUR BEST FOURTH GRADERS COMPARE WITH OTHERS' 

BEST?

Comparisons of averages tell us how typical students perform, but they do not tell us 

about the performance of our nation's best students, including those who are likely to 

continue to study mathematics and science in secondary school and eventually become 

the next generation of mathematicians, scientists, doctors, and engineers. If an 

international talent search were to select the top ten percent of all fourth-grade students 

in the 26 TIMSS countries combined, what percentage of U.S. students would be 

included? 

In mathematics, 9 percent of U.S. fourth graders are in the world's top ten percent.

This is well below the 39 percent of Singaporean students, 26 percent of Korean 

students, and 23 percent of Japanese students who would be chosen in the international 

mathematics talent search. In science, 16 percent of U.S. fourth graders would rank 

among the world's top ten percent. No country has significantly more of their 

students in the top ten percent, and 21 nations have a smaller percentage. Figure 4

shows results for selected countries. 

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If the international talent search were to lower its standards so as to choose the top half 

of all students in the 26 TIMSS countries, in mathematics 56 percent of U.S. fourth 

graders would be included. This compares with 85 percent in Korea, 82 percent in 

Singapore, and 79 percent in Japan. In science, 63 percent of U.S. fourth graders would 

be in the top half of the students in the TIMSS countries, compared with 81 percent of 

students in Korea and 68 percent in Japan. 

 

HOW DO OUR FOURTH GRADERS SCORE IN THE DIFFERENT CONTENT 

AREAS OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE? 

Representing student achievement in mathematics and science as a total score is a 

useful way to summarize achievement. Mathematics and science, however, contain very 

different content areas, which are emphasized and sequenced differently in curricula 

around the world. Based on these national priorities, some content areas are emphasized 

more than others at a particular grade level. 

The TIMSS fourth-grade mathematics test included sets of items designed to sample 

students' ability to do work in the following areas: 

• Whole Numbers (place value; ordering; comparing; problem-solving using 

addition, subtraction, and multiplication).

• Fractions and Proportionality (recognition and work with fractions and 

decimals; word problems).

• Measurement, Estimation, and Number Sense (common measures of size, time, 

temperature; rounding and estimation).

• Data Representation, Analysis, and Probability (use of data in charts, tables, and 

graphs; basic concepts underlying probability).

• Geometry (visualization of two- and three-dimensional forms; basic terms and 

properties; equivalence of figures; coordinate points on grids).

• Patterns, Relations, and Functions (patterns of numbers and shapes; 

representation of simple numerical situations; relationships of sequences of 

numbers). 

In five of the six TIMSS mathematics content areas, the scores of U.S. fourth 

graders are above the international averages for those content areas. U.S. 

fourth-graders' performance is above the international average in whole numbers; 

fractions and proportionality; data representation, analysis and probability; geometry; 

and patterns, relations, and functions. In only one content area is the U.S. average below 

the international average--measurement, estimation and number sense. Figure 5a/5b

shows these results. 

In science, the TIMSS fourth-grade test sampled students' ability to do work in the 

following subjects: 
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• Earth Science (earth features; earth processes; earth in the solar system).

• Life Science (structure; diversity; classification; processes; cycles; and 

interactions of plants and animals). 

• Physical Science (matter; energy and physical processes; forces and motion; 

physical and chemical changes).

• Environmental Issues and the Nature of Science (environmental and resource 

issues; nature of scientific knowledge; interaction of science and technology). 

U.S. fourth graders score above the international average in all four science 

content areas. In three of these content areas--earth science; life science; and 

environmental issues, and the nature of science--U.S. fourth-grade students are 

outperformed by one or two other nations. In physical science, U.S. students are 

outperformed by 5 other nations. Figure 6a/6b shows these results. 

 

IS THERE A GENDER GAP IN MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE AT THE 

FOURTH GRADE?

Policy makers in the U.S. and other countries have made great efforts in recent years to 

make mathematics and science more accessible to girls and to encourage gender equity 

in these subjects. Overall, at the fourth grade, more TIMSS countries have gender 

equity in mathematics than in science. 

The U.S. is one of 22 TIMSS nations in which there is no significant gender gap in 

fourth-grade mathematics achievement. In the science overall score, the U.S. is one 

of ten countries where a gender gap exists. Examining boys' and girls' scores in the 

various science content areas, U.S. boys significantly outperform U.S. girls in the 

content areas of earth science and physical science. There is no significant difference 

between U.S. boys' and girls' scores in life science and in environmental issues and the 

nature of science. 

 

HAS U.S. FOURTH-GRADE INTERNATIONAL STANDING IMPROVED 

OVER TIME?

International comparisons over time are difficult. The first international studies of 

mathematics and science achievement were conducted in the 1960s, and there have 

been other assessments in each subject since that time. However, most assessments 

have focused on middle-school students and students in the final year of high school. 

Assessments of students in the elementary school grades have been conducted less 

frequently. Prior to TIMSS, only one international assessment of elementary-school 

children was undertaken in mathematics, although there were three prior assessments in 

science. 

However, each assessment was done a little differently. A different set of nations 

participated, different topics in mathematics and science were included in the tests, the 






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age and type of students sampled in each country changed slightly, and even the borders 

and names of some of the nations have changed. These and other factors complicate 

comparisons over time and require that any conclusions that are drawn be necessarily 

tentative. 

Among the various international studies conducted over the past 30 years, only the 

International Assessment of Educational Progress (IAEP) tested the mathematics 

achievement of elementary-school students. In the 1991 IAEP assessment of 9-year-olds 

in 14 nations,\7\ U.S. students scored below the international average in mathematics. 

However, as we have seen, in the 1995 TIMSS study reported here, U.S. fourth graders 

scored above the international average of 26 nations in this subject. Comparisons over 

time are difficult, so caution should be exercised in assuming there has been 

significant improvement in our fourth graders' international standing in 

mathematics, but it is a possibility. 

Three previous international science assessments of elementary-school students were 

conducted in the 1960s, 1980s, and early 1990s. The U.S. scored above the international 

average in two of these three studies. In the other study, the U.S. was not different than 

the international average. Moreover, in all three previous studies, only a few nations 

outperformed the U.S. In the 1960s study, one nation out of 11 (Japan); in the 1980s 

study, 5 nations out of 14 (Japan, Korea, Finland, Sweden, and Hungary)\8\, and in the 

1991 study, one nation out of 13 (Korea) outperformed the U.S.\9\ Taken together with 

the TIMSS findings reported here, it appears that U.S. students in the middle years 

of elementary school perform reasonably well in science in comparison with their 

peers in other nations. It is not clear whether this relative international standing 

has changed over time.

 

HOW DOES THE PERFORMANCE OF U.S. FOURTH GRADERS COMPARE 

WITH THAT OF U.S. EIGHTH GRADERS IN MATHEMATICS AND 

SCIENCE?

In both mathematics and science, our international standing is higher at fourth 

grade than it is at eighth grade. Figure 7 provides a quick overview of mathematics 

and science performance at each grade level, in comparison with all of the countries 

participating at each grade level. 

In mathematics, our fourth-grade students score above the international average, while 

our eighth-grade students score below the international average. In science, U.S. 

students score above the international average at both grade levels. However, only one 

nation outperforms us at the fourth grade, while 9 nations outperform us at the eighth 

grade. 

This pattern in relative international standing is also evident when one takes into 

account the fact that 41 nations participated in eighth-grade TIMSS, whereas 26 nations 

participated in the fourth-grade study. Comparisons of U.S. total performance among 

the 26 nations that participated in both the fourth-grade and eighth-grade TIMSS studies 

confirm this observation. Among these 26 nations in mathematics, U.S. fourth graders 

score above the international average and are outperformed by 7 nations, whereas U.S. 
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FIGURE 7: 

U.S. Mathematics and Science Performance at a Glance

How Do U.S. Students Compare with At Grade 4?At Grade 8?

the International Average in...? (26 nations) (41 nations)

Mathematics overall? Above Below

Science overall? Above Above

Mathematics Content Areas:

Data representation, analysis, and probability? Above Above

Geometry? Above Below

Whole numbers? Above x

Fractions and proportionality? Above x

Patterns, relations, and functions? Above x

Measurement, estimation, and number sense? Below x

Fractions and number sense? x Same

Algebra? x Same

Measurement? x Below

Proportionality? x Below

Science Content Areas

Earth science? Above Above

Life science? Above Above

Environment and the nature of science? Above Above

Physical science? Above x

Chemistry? x Same

Physics? x Same

What Percentage of U.S. Students Would Be 

in the International Top 10 Percent in...? At Grade 4?At Grade 8?

Mathematics? 9% 5%

Science? 16% 13%

KEY:

Above = U.S. average performance higher than the average of participating nations at 

that grade. 

Below = U.S. average performance lower than the average of participating nations at 

that grade. 

Same = U.S. average performance not significantly different than the average of 

participating nations at that grade. 

x = Separate content area score not reported for this grade level. 

SOURCE: Mullis et al. (1997) Mathematics Achievement in the Primary School Years. 

Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA; and Martin et al. (1997) Science Achievement in 

the Primary School Years. Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA. U.S. Department of 

Education, National Center for Education Statistics.(1996). Pursuing Excellence: A 

Study of U.S. Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science Teaching, Learning, Curriculum, 

and Achievement in International Context. NCES 97-198, Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office. 
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eighth graders score below the international average and are outperformed by 13 

nations. In science, U.S. fourth graders score above the international average and are 

outperformed by only one other nation. U.S. eighth graders score not significantly 

different from the international average and are outperformed by 8 other nations. 

While the U.S. international standing is lower at fourth grade than at eighth grade, most 

other countries (19 in both mathematics and science) have a similar standing relative to 

the international average at both grade levels. Five countries have a lower relative 

standing at eighth grade than at fourth grade in one subject, and 4 countries (the U.S., 

Scotland, Ireland, and Latvia) have a lower relative standing at eighth grade in both 

subjects. Only one country--the U.S. in mathematics--falls from above the 

international average at fourth grade to below the international average at eighth 

grade.

Another way of looking at the U.S. performance at fourth and eighth grade is to see how 

many countries compare more favorably to the U.S. at eighth grade than they did at 

fourth grade. Of the 25 countries that participate at both grade levels, all perform as 

well or better relative to the U.S. at eighth grade than at fourth grade. That is, no 

country compares less favorably to the U.S. in eighth grade than it does in fourth grade, 

and most compare more favorably. In both subjects, most of the countries (5 out of 6 in 

mathematics and 4 out of 5 in science) with average scores similar to the U.S. in fourth 

grade have scores in eighth grade that are significantly higher than the U.S. Likewise, 

many of the countries (8 of 12 in mathematics and 9 of 19 in science) whose scores are 

below the U.S. in fourth grade have eighth-grade scores that are similar to the U.S., and 

in science, 3 countries (Singapore, Slovenia, and Hungary) have fourth-grade scores 

below the U.S. and eighth-grade scores above the U.S. 

 

HOW DOES THE PERFORMANCE OF U.S. FOURTH GRADERS COMPARE 

WITH THAT OF U.S. EIGHTH GRADERS IN MATHEMATICS AND 

SCIENCE CONTENT AREAS?

The picture for the content areas of mathematics and science is somewhat more 

complicated. Figure 7 displays the results by content area. In mathematics, the 

fourth-grade and eighth-grade tests have only two content areas in which scores are 

reported for both grade levels (data representation, analysis, and probability; and 

geometry). U.S. students' scores in data representation, analysis and probability are 

significantly higher than the international average at both grade levels. U.S. students' 

scores in geometry are above the international average at the fourth grade and below the 

average at the eighth grade. 

With regard to the other mathematics content areas, U.S. fourth graders exceed the 

international average in three content areas (whole numbers; fractions and 

proportionality; and patterns, relations, and functions) but are below it in one 

(measurement, estimation, and number sense). Eighth graders are not different from the 

international average in two content areas (fractions and number sense; and algebra) and 

are below the international average in two areas (measurement and proportionality). 

In science, the fourth-grade and eighth-grade tests have three content areas for which 
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scores are reported at both grade levels. U.S. fourth-graders and eighth-graders' scores 

are higher than the international average in all three of these content areas (earth 

science; life science; and environmental issues and the nature of science). U.S. 

fourth-graders' scores are above the international average in physical science, whereas 

eighth-graders' scores are not different than the international average in physics and 

chemistry. 

 

SUMMARY

The foregoing discussion of TIMSS achievement findings highlights three important 

patterns: 

• U.S. fourth graders are above the international average in both mathematics 

and science.

• The international standing of U.S. fourth graders is stronger than that of 

eighth graders in both subjects.

• U.S. students perform better in science than in mathematics at both the 

fourth and eighth grades in comparison with their international 

counterparts.

The next chapter explores the initial evidence from TIMSS concerning various factors 

that may contribute to these patterns. 

 
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CHAPTER 2: CONTEXTS OF LEARNING

KEY POINTS:

It is too early in the process of data analysis to provide strong evidence to suggest 

factors that may be related to the patterns of achievement described here. No single 

factor or combination of factors emerges as particularly important. 

On most background factors studied, there is no difference between the U.S. and the 

international average, or the differences are small. Therefore, these factors are unlikely 

to be strongly associated with our international standing. 

On those background factors on which there is a difference between the U.S. and the 

international average, the factor is not shared with most high performing countries. 

Therefore, these factors are also unlikely to be strongly associated with our international 

standing. 

In general, preliminary analyses shed little light on factors which might account for the 

differences between our performance in mathematics and science, and our performance 

at the fourth and eighth grades. Further analyses are needed to provide more definitive 

insights on these subjects. 

 

In Chapter 1, we found that U.S. fourth graders score above the international average in 

both mathematics and science, and that in science, our fourth-graders' average scores 

are exceeded by only one other country. This chapter examines the early data available 

from TIMSS about the educational context within which our students learn for evidence 

that might contribute to the three major findings that: 

• U.S. fourth graders score above the international average in both mathematics 

and science.

• The international standing of U.S. fourth graders is stronger than that of eighth 

graders in both subjects.

• Our students' international standing is better in science than in mathematics at 

both fourth and eighth grades.

The evidence presented in this chapter is not conclusive for two reasons. The first is that 

TIMSS questionnaire analyses are still in their early stages, and therefore much more 

information will be available later concerning family background, teacher beliefs about 

mathematics and science, and many other topics that experts believe are associated with 

student performance in these subjects. The second reason is that fourth-grade TIMSS 
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lacks evidence that was available at the eighth grade from videotape and case studies 

from several other countries with which to supplement the questionnaires. For this 

reason, we do not have detailed information about classroom instruction, teacher 

training, students' daily lives, and other key topics in a variety of countries. 

Furthermore, the TIMSS study was designed in such a way that more information was 

collected about mathematics than about science, and about the eighth grade than about 

the fourth or twelfth grade. This complicates comparisons between mathematics and 

science and across grade levels. 

International studies have matured to the point that it is widely recognized that there is 

no "magic tonic" or single factor that is always present in every high-performing 

country and absent in every low performing country. Indeed, education is a vast system 

of many interrelated parts. No single factor or easily identifiable set of factors is clearly 

responsible for high achievement. Furthermore, every characteristic of a 

high-performing country does not necessarily "cause" its high achievement. 

Data on some factors such as student economic status, ethnicity, and others that are 

known to be associated with differences in achievement between students in the U.S. 

are not available for other countries. However, factors such as these cannot be an 

explanation for the differences in the international standing of the U.S. at the fourth 

grade in comparison with the eighth grade, or in mathematics in comparison with 

science, because the same students were tested in both subjects, and there is little 

difference between the economic status and ethnicity of fourth- and eighth-grade 

students in the U.S. This is also the case in other countries. 

Definitive determination of which factors contribute to higher achievement is beyond 

the reach of initial analyses such as those reported here. However, such preliminary 

evidence can be helpful for two reasons. First, it can demonstrate which factors do not

appear to be strongly related to differences in student performance. Second, it can 

indicate directions in which further research might look for explanations of student 

performance. Therefore, let us review the currently available initial evidence concerning 

factors that might contribute to these three major findings. 

 

WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING 

THAT U.S. FOURTH GRADERS SCORE ABOVE THE 

INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE IN BOTH MATHEMATICS AND 

SCIENCE?

Logically, if we are to suggest that any particular factor may be related to the U.S.' 

relatively high international standing in mathematics and science at fourth grade, then 

that same factor should be one on which the U.S. is significantly different from the 

international average in both mathematics and science. Furthermore, the factor should 

usually be found in other high-performing countries and not in low-performing ones. 

If the pattern of evidence for a given factor does not fit both of these criteria 

simultaneously, logically, it is not likely to contribute strongly to the relatively high 
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international standing of the U.S. at the fourth grade. Using these criteria for judging the 

evidence, the following section examines the factors for which TIMSS data are 

currently available to see how the educational context in which U.S. fourth graders 

learn differs from the international average. 

HOW DOES THE U.S. FOURTH-GRADE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE 

CURRICULUM DIFFER FROM THE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE? 

When considering curriculum, a distinction should be made between the officially 

intended curriculum and what teachers actually teach. National, state, and local 

authorities, as well as publishers, set forth the officially intended curriculum in both 

curriculum guidelines and textbooks. Depending on the country, teachers make 

decisions about what to teach based more or less closely on the officially intended 

curriculum. What teachers actually teach their students is sometimes called the 

"implemented curriculum." Both the officially intended curriculum and the 

implemented curriculum must be considered when discussing a nation's goals for 

learning. 

U.S. curriculum is not determined at the national level, as it is in most TIMSS 

countries. In 18 of the 26 countries that participated in TIMSS at the fourth grade, 

curriculum is primarily determined at the national level. It is primarily determined at the 

state level in one country, Canada. Decisions about curriculum are not centralized in the 

remaining 7 countries, one of which is the U.S. In many countries where curriculum 

decision making is not centralized, decisions are made at the district or local level. 

TIMSS studied the "intended curriculum," as set forth by state and local authorities in 

the approximately 40 countries that participated in the fourth-grade curriculum analysis. 

Experts in each country were provided with detailed lists of topics and asked to judge 

which topics were intended to be taught at various grades. Examples of detailed topics 

in mathematics are "common fractions" and "whole number operations." Examples in 

science are "weather and climate" and "electricity." The number of topics intended to be 

taught is here defined as a measure of curricular focus. Nations in which fewer topics 

are intended to be taught are considered to have a more focused curriculum. Some 

experts believe that having fewer topics in the intended curriculum may facilitate higher 

student achievement by allowing the teaching of each topic in more depth. 

When the judgments of the U.S. experts were compared with the international average 

of the approximately 40 countries, it was found that the number of topics intended for 

coverage in the U.S. at the fourth grade was above the international average in 

mathematics, and somewhat below the international average in science. In grades one, 

two, and three, the number of topics intended for coverage in the U.S. is above the 

international average in both mathematics and science. Thus, the evidence is mixed: 

the U.S. fourth-grade intended curriculum is more focused in science and less 

focused in mathematics than the international average, but both are less focused 

compared with the international average at grades one, two, and three. Therefore, 

greater curricular focus (or fewer intended topics,) could not be a strong factor 

contributing to our above-average fourth-grade performance in both subjects. 
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At this time, we are unable to say whether or not the U.S. fourth-grade implemented 

curriculum is more focused than the international average. We can only compare expert 

judgments of the officially intended curriculum because teacher reports from the 

TIMSS questionnaires of what they actually teach are not yet available for any country 

besides the U.S. 

 

DO U.S. FOURTH GRADERS SPEND MORE TIME IN CLASS STUDYING 

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE?

 Our fourth-grade students spend more time in class per week learning 

mathematics and science than do their average international counterparts. U.S. 

fourth graders receive an average of 4.2 hours of instruction per week in mathematics. 

This is 18 minutes more per week than the international average of 3.9 hours. When 

science is taught as a separate subject, U.S. students receive an average of 2.7 hours of 

instruction per week, which is 48 minutes more than the international average of 1.9 

hours per week. Of the countries in which fourth-grade science is taught as a separate 

subject, only Portugal has significantly more hours of instruction. 

However, caution should be exercised in considering class time as a factor that 

might contribute to U.S. fourth graders' above-average performance in 

mathematics, given that 4 of the 7 nations that outperform us in mathematics 

spend less time in class per week than the U.S. and also less than the international 

average. Figure 8 shows the comparison of U.S. weekly hours of instruction with the 

international averages. 

 

IS HOMEWORK MORE COMMON IN THE U.S. THAN IN OTHER 

COUNTRIES? 

U.S. fourth-grade teachers assign about the same amount of mathematics 

homework as teachers in most other countries. When teachers were asked how often 

they assign mathematics homework, the most common response in the majority of 

TIMSS countries was "three or more times a week." Teachers of 71 percent of U.S. 

fourth-grade students respond in this way, a figure slightly above the international 

average of 66 percent. Teachers of another 22 percent of U.S. students report that they 

assign homework once or twice a week. Figure 9 shows these results. The percentage of 

U.S. fourth graders receiving mathematics homework three or more times per week is 

lower than four of the seven countries that outperform us in mathematics, and higher 

than the other three countries that outperform us. 

When asked, "If you assign homework, how many minutes do you usually assign?," 

teachers of most U.S. fourth graders respond "30 minutes or less," which is also the 

case in most other TIMSS countries. TIMSS did not ask teachers about the amount of 

science homework that they assign fourth-grade students. 

 

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HOW DOES THE STRUCTURE OF U.S. MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE 

INSTRUCTION DIFFER FROM THAT IN OTHER TIMSS NATIONS? 

U.S. fourth graders usually study mathematics and science from the same teacher, and 

this is typical of fourth-grade students in most other TIMSS countries. While three 

Asian countries have large class sizes of between 36 and 43 students, U.S. average 

class size (24) is close to the international average (25) for the other countries. The 

three Asian countries with large class sizes outperform the U.S. in math, but only one of 

these countries outperforms us in science. 

 

IS U.S. CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION DIFFERENT THAN THAT OF 

OTHER COUNTRIES? 

Information about teaching collected in the fourth-grade TIMSS study is based on 

teacher questionnaire reports and does not provide as rich or detailed a picture as the 

TIMSS videotape study that was conducted in eighth-grade mathematics classrooms. 

However, initial analyses of the questionnaire data suggest that instructional practices 

in U.S. fourth-grade classrooms are similar to those in other countries.

In most TIMSS countries, teachers of fourth graders report that their two most common 

patterns for organizing instruction used in most or every lesson in both mathematics and 

science is to teach the class as a whole, and to have the students work individually with 

assistance from the teacher. These two patterns are also the most common patterns in 

the U.S. in fourth-grade mathematics. Science in the U.S. is slightly different from 

mathematics because the second most common pattern is to have students work 

together as a class with students responding to each other, rather than individually with 

assistance from the teacher. 

Teachers sometimes organize students to work in pairs, or in small groups with teacher 

assistance. The U.S. is close to the international average in the frequency with which 

teachers have students work in pairs or small groups with teacher assistance. Teachers 

of about one-fifth of students in the U.S. report that they use this pattern in most or 

every mathematics lesson and teachers of one-fourth of students use it in most or every 

science lesson. 

 

ARE CALCULATORS AND COMPUTERS MORE COMMON IN U.S. 

FOURTH-GRADE CLASSROOMS THAN IN OTHER TIMSS COUNTRIES? 

U.S. fourth graders use calculators and computers in mathematics class more 

frequently than do students in most other TIMSS countries. Use of calculators in 

U.S. fourth-grade mathematics classes is about twice the international average. In the 

U.S., teachers of 39 percent of the students report having students use calculators in 

their mathematics classes at least once or twice a week compared with the international 

average of 18 percent. Internationally, the teachers of two-thirds of the TIMSS students 

report that they never or hardly ever had students use calculators in their mathematics 

classes compared with the teachers of one-third of U.S. students. In six of the seven 

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nations that outscore the U.S. in mathematics, teachers of 85 percent or more of 

the students report that students never use calculators in class.

Among the 26 countries that participated in fourth-grade TIMSS, teachers in the U.S. 

and Canada are among the most likely to report that students use computers in at least 

some mathematics lessons. Teachers of 37 percent of the U.S. students report that 

computers are used in at least some lessons, in comparison with 13 percent of students 

internationally. Teachers in five of the seven countries that outscore the U.S. in 

mathematics report that they never or almost never have students use computers in 

mathematics lessons. 

In all countries, fourth-grade students were not allowed to use calculators or computers 

when taking the TIMSS test. 

 

ARE U.S. FOURTH-GRADE TEACHERS BETTER TRAINED THAN THEIR 

COLLEAGUES IN OTHER TIMSS COUNTRIES? 

The profile of a typical U.S. teacher of fourth graders is similar to that of teachers in 

most other TIMSS countries: a woman at least 40 years old with more than 10 years of 

teaching experience. However, teachers of U.S. fourth graders have more university 

training than their counterparts in most TIMSS countries. This is because the U.S. 

is one of only 10 of the 26 nations that participated in TIMSS at the fourth grade that 

requires elementary school teachers to earn a university degree before being certified to 

teach. This university degree typically requires 4 years. Thirteen TIMSS countries 

require a degree from a non-university teacher-training institution, which usually 

requires 3 years to complete. Three nations certify teachers from either universities or 

teacher training institutions. Among the seven countries that outperform the U.S. in 

fourth-grade mathematics, three countries require a university degree and the 

other four countries require a degree from a 3-year teacher-training institution.

Almost all TIMSS countries, including the U.S., require some period of teaching or 

practice experience, as well as an evaluation or examination of the teacher before full 

teacher certification is granted. 

U.S. fourth-grade teachers meet with other teachers to discuss curriculum about as 

frequently as their colleagues in other TIMSS countries. Teachers of about 60 percent of 

U.S. students report that they meet at least once a week with other teachers in their

subject area to discuss and plan curriculum or teaching approaches in mathematics; the 

same is true in science. About 40 percent say they meet less frequently. Teachers in 

many other TIMSS countries report meeting with similar frequency. 

 

DO U.S. TEACHERS EXPERIENCE FEWER PROFESSIONAL CHALLENGES 

THAN DO TEACHERS IN OTHER TIMSS COUNTRIES? 

U.S. teachers' perceptions of their professional challenges are similar to but 

possibly less limiting than teachers in most of the other 26 TIMSS countries. 

Teachers of fourth graders in most TIMSS countries, including the U.S., most 

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frequently cite varying academic abilities of students, and a high student -teacher ratio 

as factors that limit how they teach their class either "quite a lot" or "a great deal." The 

next most frequent challenges are shortages of equipment for use in demonstrations and 

other exercises, and disruptive students. However, teachers of a smaller percentage of 

U.S. students report that these factors limit how they teach their classes than the 

international average. Figure 10 on shows that the U.S. is below the international 

average with respect to all four of these challenges, including classroom discipline. It is 

important to remember, however, that this information represents teachers' subjective 

impressions rather than actual measures of the classroom environment in the various 

countries. 

 

DO U.S. STUDENTS HAVE MORE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES IN THEIR 

HOMES THAN DO TYPICAL STUDENTS IN OTHER TIMSS COUNTRIES? 

Experts believe that homes that have books, a desk in a quiet place for study, a 

dictionary, a computer, and other educational resources provide an environment that 

fosters academic development. U.S. fourth graders have more educational resources 

in their homes than the average student in other TIMSS countries, but this is not 

true of most other high-performing countries. About one-half of U.S. fourth graders 

report that they have three key resources in their home: a dictionary, their own study 

desk, and a computer, compared with about one-third of students in the 26 other TIMSS 

countries. A smaller percentage of fourth graders in four of the seven countries that 

outperform us in mathematics and the one country that outperforms the U.S. in science 

report having all three of these educational resources in their homes than in the U.S. Of 

the other three countries that outperform the U.S. in mathematics, in one country, the 

percentage is about the same as the U.S., in another country the percentage is larger, and 

in another nation the students were not asked this question. 

Fifty-six percent of U.S. fourth graders report having at least 100 books in their homes, 

which is greater than the international average of 42 percent. A smaller percentage of 

students in three of the seven nations that outperform us in mathematics report having 

more than 100 books, and about the same percentage report having at least this many 

books in the three other nations. One nation did not ask its students this question. 

Computers are more common in the homes of U.S. fourth graders than the 

international average, but the U.S. does not lead the world in this respect. In the 

U.S., 56 percent of fourth graders report having a computer at home, compared with the 

international average of 49 percent. In five countries, 75 percent or more of fourth 

graders report having a computer at home: Scotland, England, Iceland, the Netherlands, 

and Ireland. Only one of these nations (the Netherlands) outscores the U.S. in 

mathematics and none in science. In four of the seven nations that outscore the U.S. 

in mathematics, fewer students report having a computer at home than do 

students in the U.S.

 

DO U.S. FOURTH GRADERS HAVE MORE POSITIVE ATTITUDES 

TOWARD MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE THAN DO STUDENTS IN 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

OTHER COUNTRIES? 

More U.S. fourth graders believe it is important to do well in math and science 

and have confidence about their performance in these subjects than their 

international counterparts.

Over 90 percent of students in most TIMSS countries believe that it is important to do 

well in mathematics and science. U.S. students are even more likely to agree that it is 

important to do well in these subjects. In the U.S., virtually all fourth graders think it is 

important to do well; 98 percent believe it is important to do well in mathematics, and 

97 percent believe it is important to do well in science. 

A large majority of fourth graders in the U.S. have confidence that they are doing well 

in mathematics and science, and this is the case in other countries as well. Ninety-one 

percent of U.S. fourth graders either agree or strongly agree that they are doing well in 

mathematics and science. In both mathematics and science, U.S. fourth graders are 

more likely than the international average to strongly agree that they are doing well in 

these subjects. 

Fourth graders in the U.S. report they like both mathematics and science, and the 

percentage who report this is about the same as the average of all TIMSS students. In 

the U.S., 84 percent of fourth graders report that they either "like" mathematics or like

mathematics "a lot." In science, this proportion is 85 percent. 

 

IS HEAVY TELEVISION WATCHING LESS COMMON AMONG U.S. 

FOURTH GRADERS THAN AMONG STUDENTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? 

More U.S. fourth graders watch large amounts of TV than the international 

average. Thirty-two percent of U.S. students report watching three hours or more of 

television on a normal school day. This is higher than the international average of 25 

percent of students who report watching this much. In four of the seven nations that 

outperform us in mathematics, the percentage of students who report watching three or 

more hours of television per night is smaller than the international average. In one 

nation, the percentage is about the same as the international average, and in one it is 

larger. One nation did not ask this question of its students. 

 

SUMMARY 

Let us return to the question with which this section started: "What factors might 

contribute to the finding that U.S. fourth graders score above the international average 

in both mathematics and science?" We have examined the early evidence from the 

TIMSS questionnaires about how various factors related to our fourth-grade education 

in general, and our mathematics and science education in particular, differ from the 

international average. We have also examined whether or not these differences are also 

characteristic of most high-performing countries. It is unlikely that any of the factors 

described in this chapter, when considered in isolation, contribute strongly to U.S. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

performance for two reasons. First, on most of the background factors studied, there is 

no difference between the U.S. and the international average, or the differences are 

small. Second, on those factors on which there is a difference between the U.S. and the 

international average, the factor is not shared with most high performing countries. 

Rather than considering single factors in isolation, it is possible that the combined 

effect of several factors creates an educational environment that nurtures U.S. 

above-average performance. Caution should be exercised, however, in assuming that 

this is the case because most of the characteristics of U.S. fourth-grade education also 

characterize U.S. eighth-grade education, and at the eighth grade, U.S. students score 

below the international average in mathematics. 

There may be other important factors about U.S. education that contribute to our 

above-average performance at the fourth-grade level that were not measured by the 

TIMSS study. There also are likely to be factors that were measured by the TIMSS 

study but have not yet been fully analyzed that will provide more information about 

what contributes to our students' above-average performance at this grade level. 

Even though differences from the international average may not appear to have a strong 

relationship to our international performance, understanding such differences helps us 

view the context of U.S. education in comparative perspective. Therefore, let us 

summarize the initial questionnaire findings about how U.S. fourth-grade mathematics 

and science education differs from the international average: 

• Curriculum is not determined at the national level, as it is in most TIMSS 

countries. 

• Students spend more class time per week studying mathematics and science than 

the international average. 

• Teachers assign about the same amount of mathematics homework as teachers in 

other TIMSS countries. 

• Students use calculators and computers in mathematics class more often than do 

students in most other TIMSS countries. 

• Teachers have more university training than do their colleagues in many other 

TIMSS countries. 

• Teachers' professional challenges are perceived to be similar to, but possibly less 

limiting than, those experienced by teachers in other TIMSS countries. 

• Students have more educational resources in their homes than the international 

average. 

• More U.S. students believe it is important to do well in mathematics and science 

and have more confidence about their performance in these subjects than their 

average international counterpart. 

• More U.S. fourth graders watch large amounts of TV than their international 

counterparts. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING 

THAT THE INTERNATIONAL STANDING OF U.S. FOURTH 

GRADERS IS STRONGER THAN THAT OF U.S. EIGHTH 

GRADERS?

In Chapter 1, we have seen that in both mathematics and science our students' 

international standing is higher at the fourth grade than it is at the eighth grade. In 

mathematics, among the 26 nations that participated at the fourth grade, our students' 

total test scores are above the international average whereas our eighth-graders' scores 

are below the international average of the 41 nations that participated at this grade level. 

In science, our students score above the international average for the 26 nations at the 

fourth grade and the 41 nations at the eighth grade. However, comparing our 

performance with the 26 nations that participated at both grade levels, whereas one 

nation out of the other 25 outperforms us at the fourth grade, eight nations outperform 

us at the eighth grade. The pattern of U.S. younger students performing relatively better 

compared with their international peers is not unique to TIMSS. It is a pattern that has 

been observed in most previous international assessments in mathematics, science, and 

reading.\10\

Later analyses will allow more in-depth study of our students' better international 

standing at the fourth grade than at the eighth grade. At the time of these initial 

analyses, identical data are not available for some factors at both the fourth and eighth

grades, and for both mathematics and science. Further data analysis will allow 

expanded investigation of these questions. In addition, some of the explanations may lie 

with factors that occur prior to the fourth grade or occur in the grades between fourth 

and eighth, for which there are no data. 

The following section examines the initial evidence about factors that might contribute 

to the international standing of our fourth graders being stronger than that of our eighth 

graders. Logically, for a factor to be strongly related to our better international 

performance at the fourth grade, it should be present in different amounts at the fourth 

and eighth grades relative to the international average, and this difference should be 

found in both subjects. 

For example, to consider the amount of homework that U.S. students are assigned as an 

important factor contributing to differences in performance between the two grades, two 

pieces of evidence are desirable. First, the amount of homework fourth graders receive 

should be higher relative to the the international average at the fourth grade than it is at 

the eighth grade. Second, this should be the case in both mathematics and science. 

Using these criteria for judging the evidence, the following section examines the early 

TIMSS data available at this time. 

IS THE U.S. FOURTH-GRADE CURRICULUM MORE FOCUSED THAN 

THAT OF THE EIGHTH GRADE? 

Comparing expert judgments of the officially intended mathematics curriculum, there 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

does not appear to be much difference between the fourth grade and the eighth grade. 

The number of mathematics topics judged as intended by experts is substantially above 

the international average at both grade levels. In science, the number of topics experts 

judged to be intended is slightly below the international average at the fourth grade and 

somewhat above at the eighth grade. If focus is defined as a smaller number of intended 

topics, the evidence concerning the intended curriculum is mixed: in mathematics, 

there is little difference in the amount of focus relative to the international average 

between fourth and eighth grade. In science, the fourth-grade curriculum may be 

more focused than the eighth- grade curriculum, relative to the other TIMSS 

countries. If the full span of grades from first to eighth is examined, the U.S. intended 

curriculum contains more topics than the international average at every grade in both 

subjects, except for fourth-grade science. 

To learn about the implemented curriculum, or what is actually taught, teachers in the 

26 nations that participated in fourth-grade TIMSS were given lists of broad categories 

of subject matter, referred to here as "topic areas." Examples of topic areas in 

mathematics are "whole numbers," and "fractions and decimals," and in science are 

"earth features" and "matter." Teachers were asked to check off those topic areas that 

they had already taught their fourth graders that year or planned to teach them before the 

school year ended in order to provide an estimate of teaching coverage for the whole 

year. At this time, only U.S. data are available on the implemented curriculum. 

Therefore, we can compare the differences between the fourth and eighth grades in the 

U.S., but we cannot tell how relatively focused the U.S. curriculum is compared to 

other countries. 

In mathematics, on average, U.S. fourth graders are taught 14 out of 20 topic areas, and 

eighth graders are taught 16 out of 21 topic areas. In science, on average, U.S. fourth 

graders are taught 16 out of 22 topic areas, and eighth graders are taught 14 out of 22 

topic areas. 

ARE U.S. FOURTH GRADERS ASSIGNED RELATIVELY MORE 

MATHEMATICS HOMEWORK THAN ARE U.S. EIGHTH GRADERS? 

U.S. fourth graders are less frequently assigned mathematics homework than are 

eighth graders, but the frequency of homework is higher than the international average 

in both grades. According to teacher reports, 71 percent of U.S. fourth graders and 86 

percent of U.S. eighth graders are assigned mathematics homework three or more times 

per week. These percentages of students are greater than the international average for 

the fourth and eighth grades. 

IS U.S. FOURTH-GRADE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE INSTRUCTION 

DIFFERENT FROM THAT IN THE EIGHTH GRADE?

U.S. fourth graders usually study mathematics and science from the same teacher, 

and eighth graders usually study it from different teachers, which is also true for 

the majority of students in most other TIMSS countries. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Mathematics class sizes in U.S. fourth and eighth grades are approximately equal 

and are not far from the international average for both grade levels. Except for a 

few Asian countries with very large classes, U.S. class sizes are quite similar to the 

average of the rest of the countries at both grade levels. 

IS U.S. FOURTH-GRADE MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION 

DIFFERENT FROM THAT IN THE EIGHTH GRADE? 

Teachers of fourth- and eighth-grade students report similar patterns of 

organization in their mathematics classes, and at both grade levels these are 

comparable with the international averages. At both grade levels, in most or every 

lesson, the most common pattern of mathematics instruction is for the teacher to teach 

the whole class, or to have students work individually with assistance from the teacher 

during at least some part of most lessons. 

ARE CALCULATORS USED MORE COMMONLY IN U.S. FOURTH-GRADE 

MATHEMATICS CLASSES THAN IN EIGHTH-GRADE CLASSES?

U.S. fourth graders use calculators less frequently in mathematics classes than do 

U.S. eighth graders. Teachers of 39 percent of U.S. fourth graders reported that 

students use calculators in mathematics class at least once or twice a week, in 

comparison with 82 percent of eighth graders. At both grade levels, teachers of U.S. 

students are more likely to report that they have students who use calculators in class 

than the international average. 

ARE U.S. FOURTH-GRADE TEACHERS MORE EXPERIENCED THAN 

EIGHTH-GRADE TEACHERS?

In mathematics, there is little difference between the fourth and eighth grades in 

the percentage of students whose teachers have more than 10 years of experience.

In science, more fourth-grade teachers than eighth-grade teachers have had this much 

experience. In mathematics, teachers of 62 percent of students at both grade levels have 

more than 10 years of teaching experience. In science, teachers of 62 percent of 

fourth-grade students and 52 percent of eighth-grade students have more than 10 years 

of experience. These percentages are close to the international average for fourth- and 

eighth-grade mathematics and fourth-grade science. For science, the percentage of U.S. 

eighth-grade students whose teachers have more than ten years of experience is less 

than the international average. 

DO U.S. FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTS HAVE MORE EDUCATIONAL 

RESOURCES IN THEIR HOMES THAN DO EIGHTH GRADERS?
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Fewer U.S. fourth graders have their own study desk, a computer, and a 

dictionary at home than do eighth graders, but the percentage of U.S. students who 

have all three of these study aids at home is larger than the international average at both 

grade levels. At the fourth grade, 49 percent of U.S. students have all three study aids, 

and at the eighth grade, 56 percent report having all three. 

The percentage of students who report having a computer at home, and the percentage 

who report having at least three bookcases filled with books (or at least 200 books) at 

home is about the same for both grade levels, and both of these percentages are larger 

than the international averages. 

DO U.S. FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTS WATCH RELATIVELY LESS TV 

THAN EIGHTH-GRADE STUDENTS?

U.S. students are more likely than the international average to watch more hours of TV 

in both fourth and eighth grades. 

DO U.S. FOURTH GRADERS LIKE MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE MORE 

THAN DO U.S. EIGHTH GRADERS?

A majority of U.S. fourth and eighth graders report that they like both 

mathematics and science, but more fourth graders report liking these subjects 

than do eighth graders. In mathematics, 84 percent of fourth graders say that they 

"like" mathematics or "like it a lot," compared with 71 percent of eighth graders. In 

science, 85 percent of U.S. fourth graders say that they like the subject or like it a lot 

compared with 71 percent of eighth graders. These percentages are close to the 

international averages for fourth- and eighth-grade science and fourth-grade 

mathematics. For mathematics, the percentage of U.S. eighth graders who like 

mathematics or like it a lot is greater than the international average. 

SUMMARY

None of the factors among those considered appear to strongly contribute to the better 

international standing of U.S. fourth graders in comparison with U.S. eighth graders in 

both subjects. Among the factors for which we have comparable data at both grades,

some factors exhibit little or no difference between fourth and eighth grades or the 

pattern of evidence is mixed. In fact, each of the differences in the U.S. between the 

fourth and eighth grades listed below is typical of most other TIMSS countries and is 

also typical of the international averages for these two grade levels. For some factors, 

such as homework, in-class calculator use, and possession of study aids in the home, 

within the U.S. fourth graders have less of these factors than do eighth graders.

However, compared with the international average on these factors, there is no 

difference in the U.S. standing between the fourth and eighth grades. Therefore, 

evidence concerning why the international standing of U.S. fourth graders is 

The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

stronger than that of eighth graders is inconclusive and incomplete. Further 

analyses will possibly shed more light on this question.

To review the initial findings presented here concerning the differences between fourth 

grade and eighth grade: 

• While U.S. fourth graders are less frequently assigned mathematics homework 

than are eighth graders, both are above the international average.

• In the U.S., as well as other TIMSS countries, fourth graders usually study 

mathematics and science from the same teacher, and eighth graders study it from 

different teachers. U.S. eighth graders are less likely to have science teachers 

with more than ten years of experience than are U.S. fourth graders.

• U.S. fourth graders use calculators in mathematics classes less frequently than do 

eighth graders and both are above the international average.

• While fewer U.S. fourth graders have their own study desk, computer, and 

dictionary at home than eighth graders, the percentages are higher than the 

international average at both grades.

• U.S. fourth graders report that they like mathematics and science more than 

eighth graders, but only U.S. eighth graders in mathematics exceed the 

international average. 

None of these factors, either in isolation or in combination, appear to contribute heavily 

to the relative difference between U.S. fourth- and eighth-grade performance. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

WHAT FACTORS MIGHT CONTRIBUTE TO THE FINDING 

THAT THE INTERNATIONAL STANDING OF U.S. STUDENTS IS 

STRONGER IN SCIENCE THAN IN MATHEMATICS?

In Chapter 1, we have seen that at both the fourth and eighth grades, our international 

standing is stronger in science than it is in mathematics. In science, our students are 

above the international average at both grade levels. Among the 26 nations that 

participated in TIMSS at both the fourth and eighth grades, only one nation outperforms 

us in science at the fourth grade, and 8 nations outperform us at the eighth grade. In 

mathematics, our students are above the international average at the fourth grade and 

below it at the eighth grade. Seven nations outperform us in mathematics at the fourth 

grade and 13 nations outperform us at the eighth grade. 

Logically, if we are to suggest that any particular factor may be related to our students' 

stronger international standing in science than in mathematics, that factor should be 

present in different amounts in mathematics and science, relative to the international 

average. This difference should also be found at both the fourth and eighth grades. 

Further analyses will allow more in-depth comparisons of these types. Based on the data 

available at this time, it is not always possible to compare background characteristics of 

U.S. eighth-grade education to the international average. Currently available TIMSS 

data allow within-U.S. comparison of differences between fourth-grade mathematics 

and science for only a few background factors. At the time of these initial analyses, 

comparable data for the eighth grade are not yet available. Later analyses will allow for 

much deeper investigation of these subjects. 

IS THE U.S. CURRICULUM MORE FOCUSED IN SCIENCE THAN IN 

MATHEMATICS? 

In mathematics, according to expert judgment concerning the number of topics 

officially intended in mathematics, the U.S. intended curriculum includes more topics 

than the international average at both the grades, fourth and eighth. In science, the 

number of topics in the U.S. intended curriculum is somewhat below the international 

average at grade 4, and close to the international average at grade 8. If all grade levels 

between one and eight are examined, science appears closer to the international average 

than mathematics. Thus, the U.S. intended curriculum may be more focused in science 

than in mathematics. 

When asked what they actually teach, teachers of 73 percent of U.S. fourth-grade 

students report teaching fewer than 17 mathematics topic areas per year. In science, the 

comparable figure is 50 percent. At the eighth grade, mathematics teachers of 55 

percent of U.S. students teach less than 17 topics per year, in comparison to science 

teachers of 75 percent of U.S. students. Figure 11 shows these findings. At this time, 

only U.S. data are available on the implemented curriculum. Therefore, we cannot 

compare these U.S. findings to those of other countries. 

In summary, evidence concerning curriculum focus is mixed. Relative to other 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

countries, the U.S. intended curriculum is more focused in science than in 

mathematics at both the fourth and eighth grades.

DO U.S. STUDENTS SPEND RELATIVELY MORE TIME IN CLASS 

STUDYING SCIENCE THAN MATHEMATICS?

As described above, U.S. fourth graders spend more time in class per week learning 

mathematics than learning science. In mathematics, U.S. fourth graders receive 4.2 

hours per week of instruction and 2.7 hours per week in science. In both subjects, U.S. 

fourth graders receive more instruction per week than the international average. 

However, relative to the international average, U.S. fourth graders receive 

considerably more additional science instruction than mathematics instruction.

U.S. fourth graders receive 48 minutes more science instruction per week than the 

international average, and 18 minutes more mathematics instruction per week than the 

international average. 

Initial analyses do not provide comparable information for the eighth grade in both 

subjects, nor do they provide an estimate of total amount of class time per year, taking 

into account the number of weeks in the school year. 

ARE CLASS SIZES DIFFERENT IN SCIENCE THAN IN MATHEMATICS? 

At the fourth grade, there is usually no difference between class sizes in 

mathematics and science because most students in the U.S. and in the majority of 

TIMSS countries study mathematics and science in the same class from the same 

teacher. 

ARE U.S. SCIENCE TEACHERS MORE EXPERIENCED THAN 

MATHEMATICS TEACHERS?

Evidence concerning teacher experience is mixed. Both absolutely, and compared 

with the international average, U.S. eighth graders are less likely to have teachers with 

more than 10 years of experience in science than in mathematics. In the U.S., 52 percent 

of eighth-grade students have science teachers with more than 10 years of experience, 

compared with the international average of 62 percent. In mathematics, 62 percent of 

U.S. students have teachers with more than 10 years of experience, which is not 

significantly different from the international average. 

At the fourth grade, in the U.S. and most countries, teachers have had the same amount 

of mathematics and science teaching experience because the same teacher teaches both 

subjects. 

 

ARE U.S. STUDENT ATTITUDES MORE POSITIVE TOWARD SCIENCE 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

THAN THEY ARE TOWARD MATHEMATICS?

Approximately equal percentages of U.S. students have positive attitudes toward 

mathematics as have positive attitudes toward science. In both subjects, at both the 

fourth and eighth grades, a majority of students report that they like these subjects and 

feel that they usually do well in them. In both subjects, the percentage of U.S. students 

who express positive attitudes is similar to the international average except in 

eighth-grade mathematics where the percentage of U.S. students who liked the subject 

was above the international average. 

SUMMARY

Evidence concerning why the international standing of U.S. students is stronger in 

science than in mathematics is inconclusive and incomplete. Further analyses will 

shed more light on this question. For most of the factors for which data are currently 

available, there is no difference between mathematics and science, or evidence from the 

fourth and eighth grades is mixed. The only factor among those reviewed here that 

exhibits a difference between mathematics and science is: 

• Compared with the international average, U.S. fourth graders receive 

considerably more additional instruction per week in science than in 

mathematics. 

However, it is not clear if this difference is also characteristic of the eighth grade, or if it 

represents more total class time per year. Therefore, caution should be used in assuming 

that it contributes strongly to U.S. students' stronger performance in science than in 

mathematics. 

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

CONCLUSIONS 

This report has presented highlights from initial analyses of the academic performance 

of U.S. fourth graders in comparison with the 26 countries that participated in the 

TIMSS fourth-grade study. The report has also presented the evidence available from 

early analyses concerning why U.S. students perform above the international average at 

the fourth grade, and why their comparative international standing is stronger at the 

fourth grade than at the eighth grade, and stronger in science than in mathematics. 

Adequate understanding of the answers to these questions must await deeper analysis. 

TIMSS does not suggest any single factor or combination of factors that leads to high 

academic performance in every country. If anything, TIMSS suggests that there may be 

multiple recipes for excellence and that different combinations of factors may 

contribute to high achievement in different countries. There are no educational 

characteristics that are present in every high-performing TIMSS country. 

Although the evidence presented in this report does not point to any factors that are 

strongly related to high achievement, the evidence does suggest that some factors 

commonly thought to be related are not necessarily so. For example, more time in class, 

more homework, less television, and smaller class sizes have often been thought to be 

strongly related to higher achievement. The TIMSS evidence presented here shows that 

these factors are not necessarily characteristic of most high-performing countries, and

also that they cannot explain the difference between our nation's relative international 

standing at the fourth and eighth grades, and in science and mathematics. 

International comparisons have matured to the point where we can no longer search for 

single factors that always produce world-class performance. Instead, we need to use 

these findings as an objective assessment of the strengths and weaknesses characteristic 

of each specific national education system. All countries, including the U.S., have 

something to learn from other nations, and have something from which other countries 

can learn. TIMSS allows us to examine our own national educational strengths and 

weaknesses in the mirror of other nations. 

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

WORKS CITED 

1. Elley, W.B. (1992). How in the World Do Students Read? The Hague, 

Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational 

Achievement. [Back]

2. Pelgrum, H. and Plomp, T. (1993). International IEA Computers in Education 

Study. New York: Pergamon Press. [Back]

3. Martin, M. and Kelly, D. (1996). Third International Mathematics and Science 

Study: Technical Report, Volume 1: Design and Development. Chestnut Hill, 

MA: Boston College. [Back]

4. Martin, M. and Mullis, I. V. S. (1996). Third International Mathematics and 

Science Study: Quality Assurance in Data Collection. Chestnut Hill, MA: Boston 

College. [Back]

5. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). 

Reading Literacy in the United States: Findings from the IEA Reading Literacy 

Study. NCES 96-258. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. [Back]

6. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1996). 

Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science 

Teaching, Learning, Curriculum, and Achievement in International Context.

NCES 97-198, Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. [Back]

7. Lapointe, A., Mead, N., and Askew, J. (1992). Learning Mathematics. Princeton, 

NJ: Educational Testing Service. [Back]

8. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1992). 

International Mathematics and Science Assessments: What Have We Learned?

NCES 92-011. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. [Back]

9. Lapointe, A., Askew, J., and Mead, N. (1992). Learning Science. Princeton, NJ: 

Educational Testing Service. [Back]

10.U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1994). 

Understanding the Performance of U.S. Students on International Assessments.

NCES 94-240. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. [Back]

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

APPENDIX 1: ADDITIONAL TIMSS REPORTS 

 

WHERE CAN I FIND A GOOD SUMMARY OF TIMSS FINDINGS THAT 

PUTS U.S. EDUCATION IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE? 

Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Eighth-Grade Mathematics and Science 

Teaching, Learning, Curriculum, and Achievement in International Context,

November 1996--This report draws from the assessments, surveys, video, and case 

studies of TIMSS to summarize the most important findings concerning U.S. 

achievement and schooling in the eighth grade. Paperback, 80 pp. $9.50.

To order, contact: U.S. Government Bookstore Superintendent of Documents, U.S. 

Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402; Telephone: (202) 512-1800; Fax: 

(202) 512-2250; E-mail: bybsys@access.digex.net; Internet: 

http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs. GPO #065-000-00959-5. Also may be downloaded

from http://www.ed.gov/NCES/timss. 

Pursuing Excellence: A Study of U.S. Fourth-Grade Mathematics and Science 

Achievement in International Context--This report summarizes the most important 

findings concerning U.S. achievement and schooling in the fourth grade. 

Paperback.

To order, contact: U.S. Government Bookstore Superintendent of Documents, U.S. 

Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402; Telephone: (202) 512-1800; Fax: 

(202) 512-2250; E-mail: bybsys@access.digex.net; Internet: 

http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs. NCES 97-255. Also may be downloaded from: 

http://www.ed.gov/NCES/timss. 

TIMSS: A Video Report, February 1997--This video summarizes the TIMSS' key 

findings concerning U.S. eighth-grade education and includes the views of 

business leaders, policymakers, educators, and researchers on the study's 

implications for America's schools. 13 minutes. $20. 

To order, contact: U.S. Government Bookstore Superintendent of Documents, U.S. 

Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402; Telephone: (202) 512-1800; Fax: 

(202) 512-2250; E-mail: bybsys@access.digex.net; Internet: 

http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs. GPO #065-000-01003-8. 

Highlights of Results from TIMSS, November 1996--Glossy brochure, 8 pp.

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Web Sites--There are several web sites devoted to TIMSS. For general information 

about the study as well as direct access to many TIMSS publications, please see: 

http://www.ed.gov/NCES/timss

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/timss

http://uttou2.to.utwente.nl/

http://ustimss.msu.edu/

WHERE CAN I FIND A DETAILED INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF 

EIGHTH-GRADE STUDENTS? 

Mathematics Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEA's Third International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), November 1996--This report focuses on 

mathematics achievement in 41 countries at the two grades with the largest 

proportion of 13-year-olds--the seventh and eighth grades in most countries. The 

report includes selected background information about students and teachers. 

Paperback, 176 pp. + 60 pp. Appendix, $30.

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu. Also can be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International. 

Science Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEA's Third International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), November 1996--This report focuses on 

science achievement in 41 countries at the two grades with the largest proportion 

of 13-year-olds--the seventh and eighth grades in most countries. The report 

includes selected background information about students and teachers. 

Paperback, 168 pp. + 62 pp. Appendix, $30.

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu. Also can be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International 

WHERE CAN I FIND A DETAILED INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF 

FOURTH-GRADE STUDENTS? 

Mathematics Achievement in the Elementary School Years: IEA's Third 

International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), June 1997--This report 

focuses on mathematics achievement in 26 countries at the two grades with the 

largest proportion of 9-year-olds--the third and fourth grades in most countries. 

The report includes selected background information about students and teachers. 

Paperback. $20 (+ $7 shipping and handling, if international).

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu. Also can be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International 

Science Achievement in the Elementary School Years: IEA's Third International 

Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), June 1997--This report focuses on science 

achievement in 26 countries at the two grades with the largest proportion of 

9-year-olds--the third and fourth grades in most countries. The report includes 

selected background information about students and teachers. Paperback. $20 (+ 

$7 shipping and handling, if international).

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu. Also can be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International. 

HOW CAN I GET A FIRST HAND GLIMPSE OF ACTUAL CLASSROOM 

LESSONS IN THE UNITED STATES, GERMANY, AND JAPAN? 

VHS VIDEO Examples from the Eighth-Grade Mathematics Lessons in the United 

States, Japan, and Germany--Actual footage of eighth-grade mathematics classes in 

Germany, the U.S., and Japan lets viewers see firsthand an abbreviated geometry 

and algebra lesson in each of three countries: Germany, Japan, and the United 

States. 72 minutes.

To order, contact: National Center for Education Statistics, 555 New Jersey Ave., Suite 

#402A, NW, Washington, DC 20208; Telephone: (202) 219-1333; Fax: (202) 

219-1736; E-mail: TIMSS@ed.gov. 

CD-ROM Video Examples from the TIMSS Videotape Classroom Study: 

Eighth-Grade Mathematics in Germany, Japan, and the United States--Actual 

footage of eighth-grade mathematics classes lets viewers see first hand an 

abbreviated geometry and algebra lesson in each of three countries: Germany, 

Japan, and the United States.

Minimum System Requirements: 

IBM PC or 100 percent compatible, MS Windows ® (Windows 95 ® recommended), 

Pentium ® 90, 16 mb of RAM, 256 color SVGA or better, Double-speed or higher 

CD-ROM drive, Sound Card, or 

Macintosh ® PowerPC 100 ® or 100 percent compatible System 7.5.3, 16 mb of RAM, 

256-color or better, Netscape Navigator ® 3.0 with MPG plug-in Double-speed or 

higher CD-ROM drive. 

To order, contact: National Education Data Resource Center, c/o Pinkerton Computer 

Consultants, Inc., 1900 N. Beauregard St., Suite 200, Alexandria, VA 22311-1722; 

Telephone: (703) 845-3151; Fax: (703) 820-7465; E-mail: ndrc@inet.ed.gov; Internet 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

address: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/ncesprograms/elementary/others/ndrc.html 

WHERE CAN I FIND OUT WHAT TIMSS HAS LEARNED ABOUT 

CURRICULUM? 

A Splintered Vision: An Analysis of U.S. Mathematics and Science Curricula, 

1997--This book enunciates the argument that mathematics and science curricula 

in U.S. schools suffer from a lack of focus. The authors contend that in their effort 

to canvas as many topics as possible, both teachers and textbook publishers fail to 

delve into the most important subjects with sufficient depth. 176 pp. Hardback 

ISBN: 0-7923-4440-5, $87; Paperback ISBN: 0-7923-4441-3, $49.

To order, contact: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, Order Department, P.O. Box 

358, Accord Station, Hingham, MA 02018-0358; Telephone: (617) 871-6600; Fax 

(617) 871-6528; E-mail: kluwer@wkap.com; Internet: (Kluwer) http://www.wkap.nl or 

(TIMSS U.S. National Research Center) http://ustimss.msu.edu/publicat.htm. 

Many Visions, Many Aims: Volume 1, A Cross-National Exploration of Curricular 

Intentions in School Mathematics, 1997--An analysis of mathematics curriculum 

guides and textbooks in 50 countries. This report looks at the sequence and the 

topics covered from kindergarten through the end of secondary school, analyzed 

in a comparative framework. 286 pp. Hardback ISBN: 0-7923-4436-7, $120; 

Paperback ISBN: 0-7923-4437-5, $55.

To order, contact: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, Order Department, P.O. Box 

358, Accord Station, Hingham, MA 02018-0358; Telephone: (617) 871-6600; Fax 

(617) 871-6528. E-mail: kluwer@wkap.com; Internet: (Kluwer) http://www.wkap.nl or 

(TIMSS U.S. National Research Center) http://ustimss.msu.edu/publicat.htm. 

Characterizing Pedagogical Flow: An Investigation of Mathematics and Science 

Teaching in Six Countries, 1996--Describes the results of the Study of Mathematics 

and Science Opportunity (SMSO) survey, which investigated curriculum content 

and instructional methods in France, Japan, Norway, Spain, Switzerland, and the 

United States using case studies in each participating country. 229 pp. Hardback 

ISBN: 07923-42720, $110; Paperback ISBN: 07923-42739, $49.

To order, contact: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group, Order Department, P.O. Box 

358, Accord Station, Hingham, MA 02018-0358; Telephone: (617) 871-6600; Fax 

(617) 871-6528. E-mail: kluwer@wkap.com; Internet: (Kluwer) http://www.wkap.nl or 

(TIMSS U.S. National Research Center) http://ustimss.msu.edu/publicat.htm. 

TIMSS Monograph Series No. 3 Mathematics Textbooks: A Comparative Study of 

Grade 8 Texts, 1995--Geoffrey Howson, Emeritus Professor of Mathematical 

Curriculum Studies at the University of Southhampton, England, examines eight 

mathematics textbooks for 13-year-olds for their pedagogical and philosophical 

similarities and differences. Texts are from the United States, the Netherlands, the 

United Kingdom, Norway, Spain, France, Switzerland, and Japan. Paperback, 96 

pp. ISBN: 1-895766-03-6. $16.95.

To order, contact: Pacific Educational Press, Faculty of Education, University of British 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4; Telephone: (604) 822-5385; Fax: (604) 

822-6603; E-mail: cedwards@interchange.ubc.ca. 

WHERE CAN I FIND OUT MORE ABOUT THE METHODOLOGY OF 

TIMSS? 

Third International Mathematics and Science Study: Quality Assurance in Data 

Collection, 1996--A report on the quality assurance program that ensured the 

comparability of results across participating countries. The program emphasized 

instrument translation and adaptation, sampling response rates, test 

administration and data collection, the reliability of the coding process, and the 

integrity of the database. 93 pp. + 91 pp. Appendix. 

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; Fax 

(617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu; Also, may be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International. 

Third International Mathematics and Science Study: Technical Report, Volume 1 

Design and Development, 1996--This report describes the study, design, and 

development of TIMSS up to, but not including, the operational stage of main data 

collection. Paperback, 149 pp. + 40 pp. Appendix.

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu; Also, may be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International. 

TIMSS Monograph Series No. 1 Curriculum Frameworks for Mathematics and 

Science, 1993--This monograph explains the study's foci and its key first step - the 

development of the curriculum frameworks that served as the guide for designing 

the study's achievement tests. The frameworks are included in the appendices. 

Paperback, 102 pp. ISBN: 0-88865-090-6. $16.95.

To order, contact: Pacific Educational Press, Faculty of Education, University of British 

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4. Telephone: (604) 822-5385. Fax: (604) 

822-6603. E-mail: cedwards@interchange.ubc.ca. 

TIMSS Monograph Series No. 2 Research Questions and Study Design, 1996--This 

monograph presents the study's research objectives along with discussions that 

include: the impact of prior studies on the design of TIMSS; how the research 

questions were derived from TIMSS' conceptual framework; and how the 

research questions and test items were tailored to meet the contexts of the 

participating countries. Paperback, 112 pp. ISBN: 1-895766-02-8. $17.95.

To order, contact: Pacific Educational Press, Faculty of Education, University of British 

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4; Telephone: (604) 822-5385; Fax: (604) 

822-6603; E-mail: cedwards@interchange.ubc.ca. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

WHERE CAN I READ THE ACTUAL TEST ITEMS GIVEN TO STUDENTS? 

TIMSS Mathematics Items Released Set for Population 2 (Seventh and eighth 

grades)--All publicly released items used to assess seventh- and eighth-grade 

students in the TIMSS study. Paperback, 142 pp. $20 (+ $5 shipping and handling, 

if international).

TIMSS Science Items Released Set for Population 2 (Seventh and eighth grades)--All 

publicly released items used to assess seventh- and eighth-grade students in the 

TIMSS study. Paperback, 127 pp. $20 (+ $5 shipping and handling, if 

international).

TIMSS Mathematics Items Released Set for Population 1 (Third and fourth 

grades)--All publicly released items used to assess third- and fourth-grade students 

in the TIMSS study. Paperback. $20 (+ $5 shipping and handling, if international). 

TIMSS Science Items Released Set for Population 1 (Third and fourth grades)--All 

publicly released items used to assess third- and fourth-grade students in the 

TIMSS study. Paperback. $20 (+ $5 shipping and handling, if international). 

To order, contact: TIMSS International Study Center, Center for the Study of Testing, 

Evaluation, and Educational Policy (CSTEEP), Campion Hall Room 323, School of 

Education, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02167; Telephone: (617) 552-4521; 

Fax: (617) 552-8419; E-mail: timss@bc.edu; Also, can be downloaded from: 

http://wwwcsteep.bc.edu/TIMSS1/TIMSSPublications.html#International. 

HOW CAN I FIND OUT MORE ABOUT EDUCATION IN VARIOUS TIMSS 

COUNTRIES? 

National Contexts for Mathematics and Science Education: An Encyclopedia of the 

Education Systems Participating in TIMSS, 1997--Each participating country's 

education system is discussed in a separate chapter, considering geographic and 

economic influences, school governance, teacher education, curriculum, and other 

factors. Hardback, 423 pp. $75.

To order, contact: Pacific Educational Press, Faculty of Education, University of British 

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Z4; Telephone: (604) 822-5385; Fax: (604) 

822-6603; E-mail: cedwards@interchange.ubc.ca. 

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

APPENDIX 2: ADVISORS TO THE U.S. TIMSS STUDY 

William Schmidt--Chair

U.S. TIMSS National Research Coordinator 

Michigan State University 

Gordon Ambach

Council of Chief State School Officers 

Deborah Ball

University of Michigan 

Audrey Champagne

SUNY University at Albany 

David Cohen

University of Michigan 

John Dossey

Illinois State University 

Emerson Elliott

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education 

Sheldon Glashow

Harvard University 

Larry Hedges

University of Chicago 

Henry Heikkinen

University of Northern Colorado 

Jeremy Kilpatrick

University of Georgia 

Mary Lindquist

Columbus College 

Marcia Linn

University of California at Berkeley 

Robert Linn

University of Colorado 

Paul Sally

University of Chicago 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

Richard Shavelson

Stanford University 

Bruce Spencer

Northwestern University 

Elizabeth Stage

University of California 

James Taylor

Global M 

Kenneth Travers

University of Illinois 

Paul Williams

University of Wisconsin 

 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

APPENDIX 3 : NATIONAL AVERAGE SCORES AND 

STANDARD ERRORS 

The 95 percent "plus or minus" confidence interval around 

each nation's score is two times the standard error.

----------------------------------------------------------------

 MATHEMATICS SCIENCE

 ------------------- -------------------

NATION AVERAGE STANDARD AVERAGE STANDARD

 ERROR ERROR

----------------------------------------------------------------

(AUSTRALIA) 546 3.1 562 2.9 

(AUSTRIA) 559 3.1 565 3.3 

 CANADA 532 3.3 549 3.0 

 CYPRUS 502 3.1 475 3.3 

 CZECH REPUBLIC 567 3.3 557 3.1 

 ENGLAND 513 3.2 551 3.3 

 GREECE 492 4.4 497 4.1 

 HONG KONG 587 4.3 533 3.7 

(HUNGARY) 548 3.7 532 3.4 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

 ICELAND 474 2.7 505 3.3 

 IRAN, ISLAMIC REP. 429 4.0 416 3.9 

 IRELAND 550 3.4 539 3.3 

 (ISRAEL) 531 3.5 505 3.6 

 JAPAN 597 2.1 574 1.8 

 KOREA 611 2.1 597 1.9 

(KUWAIT) 400 2.8 401 3.1 

(LATVIA (LSS)) 525 4.8 512 4.9 

(NETHERLANDS) 577 3.4 557 3.1 

 NEW ZEALAND 499 4.3 531 4.9 

 NORWAY 502 3.0 530 3.6 

 PORTUGAL 475 3.5 480 4.0 

 SCOTLAND 520 3.9 536 4.2 

 SINGAPORE 625 5.3 547 5.0 

(SLOVENIA) 552 3.2 546 3.3 

(THAILAND) 490 4.7 473 4.9 

 UNITED STATES 545 3.0 565 3.1 

---------------------------------------------------------------- 

MATHEMATICS INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE = 529 

SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL AVERAGE = 524 

Source: Mullis et al. (1997) Mathematics Achievement in the Primary 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

School Years. Table 1.1. Boston College: Chestnut Hill, MA and Martin et 

al. (1997) Science Achievement in the Primary School Years. Table 1.1. 

Boston College: Chestnut Hill, MA. 

Note: Nations not meeting international guidelines are shown in 

parentheses. 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

APPENDIX 4: SUMMARY OF NATIONAL DEVIATIONS FROM 

INTERNATIONAL STUDY GUIDELINES 

Eleven of the 26 TIMSS countries experienced a more or less serious deviation from 

international guidelines for execution of the study. In 9 countries, the TIMSS 

International Study Center considered the deviations to be sufficiently serious to raise 

questions about the confidence to be placed in their scores. These 9 nations with major 

difficulties are noted with an asterisk. 

*Australia--Participation rate did not meet the international criterion of 75 percent of 

schools and students combined. Participation rate was 69 percent after replacements for 

refusals were substituted. 

*Austria--Participation rate did not meet either the international criterion of at least 50 

percent participation by schools before replacement or 75 percent of schools and 

students combined. The initial participation rate was 49 percent for schools before 

replacement. Participation rate was 69 percent after replacements for refusals were 

substituted. 

England--More than the international criterion of 10 percent of schools and students 

were excused from the test for various reasons, with resulting coverage of 88 percent of 

the desired population. Participation rate of 83 percent of schools and students 

combined was achieved only after replacements for refusals were substituted. 

*Hungary--International guidelines for sampling procedures at the classroom level 

were not followed. 

*Israel--International guidelines for sampling procedures at the classroom level were 

not followed. Test administered only in the Hebrew-speaking public school system, and 

participation rate did not meet either the international criterion of at least 50 percent 

participation by schools before replacement or 75 percent of schools and students 

combined. Israel tested only the fourth grade, in contrast to other nations that tested the 

two adjacent grades containing the most 9-year olds. Participation rate was 38 percent 

both before and after replacements for refusals were substituted. 

*Kuwait--International guidelines for sampling procedures at the classroom level were 

not followed. In contrast to other nations that tested two adjacent grades, Kuwait tested 

the fifth grade, which contained relatively few 9-year olds. 

*Latvia (LSS)--Test administered only in Latvian-speaking schools, with resulting 

coverage of 60 percent of the desired population. Because coverage fell below the 

international 65 percent population-coverage criterion, Latvia is designated (LSS) for 

Latvian-speaking schools. 

*Netherlands--Participation rate did not meet either the international criterion of at 

least 50 percent participation by schools before replacement or 75 percent of schools 
The Third International Mathematics and Scien...

and students combined. The initial participation rate before replacement was 29 percent. 

Participation rate was 59 percent after replacements for refusals were substituted. 

Scotland--Participation rate of 76 percent of schools and students combined was 

achieved only after replacements for refusals were substituted. 

*Slovenia--Students tested were older than those in other countries because Slovenia 

did not test the two grades with the most 9-year olds. 

*Thailand--International guidelines for sampling procedures at the classroom level 

were not followed. The sample included a high percentage of older students.