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|   | *This staff working paper was discussed at the Council's             January 2002 meeting.             It was prepared by staff solely to aid discussion, and does not represent             the official views of the Council or of the United States Government.*            See also Staff             Working Paper 3a: Arguments for "Reproductive" Cloning 
**Staff Working Paper 3b****Arguments against "Reproductive Cloning"**
Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the arguments presented in defense        of human cloning is the extent to which they have to stretch and work        to get around what appears to be an almost instinctive revulsion against        cloning human beings on the part of the public and many scientists and        decision makers. For reasons that many people have difficulty articulating,        nearly everyone agrees that they do not want to see a cloned human being        brought to term. What should we make of this revulsion? Is it mere prejudice,        born of ignorance and of the fear of novelty? Or does it rest in some        genuine insight? Exploring and explaining this revulsion, which persists in the face of        what in many cases appear to be rigorous and internally consistent analytical        and philosophical arguments in defense of human "reproductive"cloning, is a task that may have much to teach us about the purpose and        the proper role of bioethics in our times. For if our revulsion rises        up from deep within us, it may rest upon and express a sense of our humanity        and its meaning that we are unaccustomed to expressing in logical, political        and rhetorical terms. Making an effort to express these ideas -- these        human goods -- in clear, distinct and rigorous form will help us see what        is at stake in the matter of cloning: what is at risk, what there is to        defend, and why it ought to be defended. The arguments put forward in defense of "reproductive" cloning        tend to strike the ear at first as more familiar and congenial because        they generally address themselves to subjects we are quite used to dealing        with in our political and public life: to individual rights, to the satisfaction        of personal desires, to the exercise of human will. Modern liberal democratic        politics is especially good at thinking about these human goods and at        providing for them. Arguments against permitting human cloning have a        far less familiar ring to them, because while they do draw on some of        the most prominent and important liberal premises (for instance by pointing        to serious concerns about safety and consent, among others) they also        draw upon a rather different set of human goods, to which our politics        does not often address itself explicitly: human dignity and worth; human        bonds, both natural and social; the freedom that can come only from certain        sorts of limits on the human will; the meaning and the power of our procreative        nature and its relation to our mortality. These are, in many ways, the        highest human things, but they are not always, and should not be always,        political things; and so our politics does not often think of them. We        human individuals, however, do think about them. They speak to us often        more clearly and directly than do the theories of individual rights and        the promise of comfort and even of health. For the most part, we are quite        well able to keep these two realms -- one higher but less political, the        other lower but more immediate and practical -- separate. But when the        two fall into conflict, we are challenged to prioritize among them. The prospect of twenty-first century biotechnology forces us to think        of this, because it threatens to bring the two realms into conflict. It        does so precisely because the powers it makes possible are to be used        on the bodies and minds of human beings, and in ways that go beyond the        traditional medical goal of healing the sick. In their quest for comfort        and health, advocates of human cloning seek to give new form to human        procreation -- and we must think of what that might do to all the human        goods that are connected in countless subtle ways to human procreation.        In their desire to empower human will, they seek to break the mold of        natural human limitation -- and we must think of where a new standard        of human behavior and dignity might come from. In their quest for the        empowerment of individuals, they raise questions that human societies        can answer only together -- and we must face these questions and consider        them carefully before we decide how we ought to proceed. All the human goods in question -- individual rights, the quest for health        and longer life, the desire for a biologically related child, the desire        for freedom, human dignity, human humility and wonder, and the procreative        character of human life -- are of great importance to us; but as biology        and medicine seek out new powers, some of these goods may come into conflict        with others. It will be up to us, as individuals and particularly as political        communities, to address these conflicts, and in doing so we must take        an active role and not simply let things fall where they may. The stakes        are too high for passivity. The promise is too great. The risks are too        serious. And we must deliberate carefully to reach the wisest judgment        and to determine the best course of action. In making this judgment, we        must understand and we must articulate as clearly as possible both sets        of human goods: not only the one we are very good at talking about, but        also the other, which we rarely speak of, but which we find impossible        to ignore. The arguments in favor of human "reproductive" cloning speak        mostly, though not exclusively, in the terms of human choice and human        comfort and health. The arguments in favor of refraining from "reproductive"cloning and prohibiting it will speak mostly (though again certainly not        exclusively) in the terms of human dignity, human flourishing, and human        nature. In both cases, it is less the technical details of cloning that        matter, and more the meaning of "reproductive" cloning in relation        to those goods and those ideals that matter most to us all. Opposition to human "reproductive" cloning falls into several        general categories, some of which address the more familiar questions        of safety, consent, and individual rights, but most of which focus mainly        on the larger human questions at stake in making this decision. **1. Safety and Health of Children and Mothers**The first of these is a concern raised by nearly everyone on all sides        of the cloning debate: the safety of all involved. Even most proponents        of "reproductive" cloning generally qualify their support with        a caveat about the safety of the procedure. Almost no one argues that        cloning is presently safe enough to attempt on human beings, and the example        of cloning experiments in other mammals strongly suggests that human "reproductive"cloning is, at least for now, far too risky to attempt. Safety concerns        revolve around potential dangers to the cloned child, as well as to the        egg donor and the surrogate mother.Risks to the cloned child must be taken especially seriously, not least        because -- unlike the risks to the egg donor and surrogate mother -- they        cannot be accepted knowingly and freely by the person who will bear them.        The risks to the cloned child have at this point led nearly everyone involved        in the debate to consider cloning thoroughly unsafe. In animal experiments        to date, only approximately 5 percent of attempts to clone have resulted        in live births, and a substantial portion of those live-born clones have        suffered complications that proved fatal fairly quickly.1 Longer term        consequences are of course not known, since the oldest successfully cloned        mammal is only approximately five years of age. Some medium-term consequences,        including premature aging, immune system failures, and sudden unexplained        deaths, have already become apparent in some cloned mammals. Furthermore, there are concerns that a cell from an individual who has        lived for some years may have accumulated genetic mutations which -- if        used in the cloning of a new human life -- may predispose the new individual        to certain sorts of cancer and other diseases. 2Along with these threats to the health and well being of the cloned child,        there appear to exist some risks to the health of the egg donor (particularly        risks to her future reproductive health caused by the hormonal treatments        required for egg donation) and risks to the health of the surrogate mother        (for instance, animal experiments suggest a higher than average likelihood        of overweight offspring, which can adversely affect the health of the        birth-mother.) These concerns have convinced most of those involved in the field that        attempts at "reproductive" cloning at present would constitute        unethical experimentation on human subjects, and should be forbidden.        These considerations of safety were among the primary factors that led        the National Bioethics Advisory Commission to call for a prohibition of        human "reproductive" cloning in 1997, and the evidence in support        of such concerns has only grown since then. Nonetheless, as the NBAC report also articulated, safety concerns may        well be temporary, and could prove amenable to technical solutions.3 These        concerns constitute a persuasive argument for a moratorium or temporary        ban; but in themselves they do not get beyond the technicalities of cloning        to the deep moral, social, and ethical issues involved. The present Council,        given its membership and its charter, may be more inclined to consider        the meaning of cloning beyond its technical feasibility and its safety        record, and to look at the more permanent significance of cloning as an        activity that reflects on those who engage in it and on the society that        permits or encourages it. It is in those areas of inquiry that serious        and permanent objections to cloning arise with the greatest force. **2. Consent**Beyond physical safety, the prospect of "reproductive" cloning        also raises concerns about a potential violation of the rights of individuals,        particularly through a denial of the right to consent to the use of one's        body in experimentation or medical procedures. Consent from the human clone itself is of course impossible to obtain.        It may be argued, on the one hand, that no one consents to his own birth,        so concerns about consent are misplaced when applied to the unborn. But        as George Annas and others have argued, the issue is not so simple. For        reasons having much to do with the safety concerns raised above and the        social and psychological concerns to be addressed below, an attempt to        clone a human being would expose the cloned individual-to-be to great        risks of harm, in addition to, and different from, those accompanying        other sorts of reproduction. Given the risks, and the fact that consent        cannot be obtained, the ethical choice may be to avoid the experiment.        Against this point it might be said that the alternative to cloning is        for the cloned individual not to exist at all, and that no one would prefer        non-existence to the chance at life. Such an argument, however, could        easily come to be used as an excuse for absolutely any use and abuse of        embryonic or newborn life. Giving life to an individual does not grant        one the right to harm that individual. It is true that the scientist cannot        ask an unconceived child for permission, but this puts a burden on the        scientist, not on the child. All that the scientist can know is that he        or she is putting a newly created life at enormous risk; and given that        knowledge, the ethics of human experimentation suggest that the best option        is to avoid the procedure altogether. Indeed, an inquiry into the purpose and meaning of consent may well support        this point. Why, after all, does society insist upon consent as an essential        principle of the ethics of scientific research? The requirement for consent        is not quite an end in itself. It exists to protect the weak and the vulnerable,        and particularly to protect them from the powerful. It would therefore        be morally questionable, at the very least, to choose to impose potentially        grave harm on an individual, even by the very act of choosing to give        them life. A separate question of consent arises in light of the possibility that        individuals, living or dead, may be used as sources of DNA for a cloning        procedure without their permission or even their knowledge. Unlike other        forms of reproduction, including assisted reproduction and in vitro fertilization,        cloning could be carried out with DNA from individuals who have chosen        to be involved in a reproductive procedure. While an egg or sperm donor        may not consent specifically to have the egg or sperm used in a particular        reproductive procedure, the donor has knowingly donated the sperm or egg,        and thus has consented to having them used in such procedures in general.        But since, at least in theory, the nucleus of any cell from a given individual        could be inserted into an egg to clone that individual, and since cells        can be obtained illicitly with relative ease, individuals may find themselves        cloned without their knowledge or approval, and thus essentially forced        to reproduce without their consent. A subset of this problem involves the cloning of the deceased, who, like        the unborn, cannot provide or deny consent. Among the possible uses for        cloning suggested by proponents of human "reproductive" cloning        is the opportunity it offers for parents of a deceased child, or the family        of any deceased individual to clone that individual. Such an action, taken        without prior permission, could be a patent violation of the principles        of reproductive consent, though of course the individual whose rights        are violated would be unable to object. In these different ways, the long-standing insistence on obtaining consent        for medical procedures, and particularly reproductive ones, could be seriously        undermined by the advent of human "reproductive" cloning. **3. Eugenics and Enhancement**Human "reproductive" cloning could also come to be used for        eugenic purposes: that is, in an attempt to alter (with the aim of improving)        the genetic constitution of future generations. Indeed, that is the stated        purpose of some proponents of "reproductive" cloning, and has        been at the heart of much support for the concept of "reproductive"cloning for decades. Proponents of eugenics were once far more open regarding        their intentions and their hopes to escape the uncertain lottery of sex        and reach an era of controlled and humanly directed reproduction, which        would allow future generations to suffer fewer genetic defects and to        enjoy more advantageous genotypes. In the present debate, the case for        eugenics is not made quite so openly, but it nonetheless remains an important        driving motivation for some proponents of human cloning, and a potential        use of "reproductive" cloning. Cloning can serve the ends of eugenics either by avoiding the genetic        defects that may arise when human reproduction is left to natural chance;        or by preserving and perpetuating outstanding genetic traits. In the future,        if techniques for precise genetic engineering become available, cloning        could be useful for perpetuating the enhanced traits created by such techniques,        and for keeping the "superior" man-made genotype free of the        flaws that sexual reproduction might otherwise introduce. The darkest side of eugenics is of course familiar to any student of the        twentieth century. Its central place in Nazi ideology, and its brutal        and inhuman application by the Third Reich, have put that science largely        out of favor. No argument in today's cloning debate bears any resemblance        to those of Hitler's doctors. But by the same token, it is not primarily        the Nazi analogy that should lead us to reject eugenics. It is a less dark side of eugenic science that threatens to confront us.        This side is well-intentioned but could prove at least as dangerous to        our humanity. The eugenic goal of "better" and "healthy"children combined with modern genetic techniques threatens to blur and        ultimately eliminate the line between therapy and enhancement. Medicine        is guided by the natural standard of health. It is by this standard that        we judge who is in need of medical treatment, and what sort of treatment        might be most appropriate. The doctor's purpose is to restore a sick patient        to health. Indeed, we even practice a kind of "negative" eugenics        guided by this standard: as when parents choose to abort a fetus who has        been diagnosed with a serious genetic disease. This "negative eugenics"may be morally problematic in itself, but it is at least a practice that        is informed by a standard of health. The "positive" eugenics that could receive a great boost from        human "eproductive" cloning does not seek to restore human beings        to natural health when they are ill. Instead, it seeks to alter humanity,        based upon a standard of man's (or some men's) own making. Once the natural        goal of health has been blurred out of existence, medicine will come to        serve only ends designed by human will, and thus may have no limits, may        feel no constraints, and may respect no barriers. Reproduction itself        might come to serve one or another purely man-made end, and future generations        may come to be products of our artful and rational design more than extensions        of our humanity. All of this may well be guided by what plainly seem like        good intentions: to improve the next generation, to enhance the quality        of life of our descendants, to let our children do more than we ourselves        could do. But in the process, we stand to lose the very means by which        to judge the goodness or the wisdom of the particular aims proposed by        a positive eugenics. We stand to lose the sense of what is and is not        human; a set of limits on our hubris; a standard against which to judge        the legitimacy of certain human actions. All of these, along with the        specific traits and characteristics done away with in the process of eugenic        enhancement, could be lost. "Reproductive" cloning may well        contribute to these losses. Eugenics, and cloning itself, may also contribute to an unhealthy belief        in genetic determinism, which could have profoundly negative social consequences.        As we become better able to manipulate and to control human genotypes,        we may tend to place greater importance on the genotype, wishing to secure        for our descendants every possible advantage. To a man with a hammer,        everything begins to look like a nail. To a society armed with the power        to control and change the genome, the genome will suddenly look very much        in need of control and change. The ability to manipulate the genotype        of an individual may tend to convince us of the supreme importance of        genetics in shaping an individual, which in turn may lead us to want more        control, in a self-intensifying cycle pointing toward an increasing surrender        to an ideology of genetic determinism. Whether or not our control of the        genome actually turns out to give us much control over individuals, our        new ability may of itself be enough to lead us to place undue importance        on genetics. It is essential to realize that many of the social concerns raised below        could result from this very attitude. An excessive focus on the importance        of the genotype would exacerbate the social and psychological pressures        to which a cloned individual may be subject. In addition, eugenics may also open the road to a new inequality, by which        only those who can afford it can procure advantages for themselves and        their descendants into future generations. A situation in which only the        rich can grant their children high IQs, broad shoulders and long lives        would prove unbearable to a liberal democracy, and might either lead to        serious social tension or more likely to a government entitlement to genetic        enhancement and manipulation -- managed by the state. By serving the ends of eugenics, "reproductive" cloning may        open the door to all of these various difficulties. **4. Respect for Nature**Cloning also raises a number of concerns about humanity's relation with        the natural world. The precautionary principle, which informs the ideals        of the environmental movement, may have something to say to us about cloning.        It urges us to beware of the unintended consequences of applications of        human power and will -- particularly over nature. Natural systems of great        complexity do not respond well to blunt human intervention, and one can        hardly think of a more complex system than that responsible for human        reproduction. This principle suggests that geneticists should not pretend        to understand the consequences of their profound alterations of human        nature, and lacking such understanding they should not take actions so        drastic as the cloning of a human child.The ethic of environmentalism also preaches a respect for nature as we        find it, and argues that the complex structure of the natural world has        much to teach us. Such an ethic therefore disapproves of efforts aimed        at simply overcoming nature as we find it, and imposing a man-made process        over a slowly evolved natural process. It opposes the hubristic overconfidence        inherent in the cloning project, and fears that such a project may erase        the boundary between the natural and the technological. In addition, cloning, in the unlikely event it should become commonplace,        may diminish the diversity of the human gene-pool. Sexual reproduction        introduces unique combinations of genes into the human gene-pool, while        eugenic cloning aimed at reproducing particular genotypes will tend to        diminish that diversity, and with it the "strength" of the species.        Eugenic enhancement may thus "weaken" future generations. **5. Manufacture and Commodification**"Reproductive" cloning could also represent an enormous step        in the direction of transforming human procreation into human manufacture.        In natural procreation, two individuals come together to give life to        a new individual as a consequence of their own being and their own connection        with one another, rather than merely of their will. They do not design        the final product, they give rise to the child of their embodied selves,        and they therefore do not exert control over the process or the resulting        child. They beget something that is in essence like themselves; they do        not make something that is in essence their own. The product of this process,        therefore, stands beside them fully as a fellow human being, and not beneath        them as a thing made by them with only their own purposes in mind. A manufactured        thing can never stand beside its human maker as an equal, but a begotten        child does stand equally beside its parents. The natural procreative process        allows human beings -- through the union of male and female -- to make        way for fellow human beings, to whom they give rise, but whom they do        not make. It thus endows each new generation with the dignity and freedom        enjoyed by all that came before it. Even most present forms of partially artificial reproduction, including        IVF, essentially imitate this natural process, and while they do begin        to introduce the characteristics of manufacture and industrial technique,        they cannot claim to control the final outcome as an artisan might shape        his artifact. The end they serve is still the same -- the birth of a child        from the sexual union of seed from two progenitors. Reproduction with        the aid of such techniques therefore still at least implicitly arises        from (and gives rise to) a willingness to accept the product of a process        we do not control. In this sort of procreation, children emerge out of        the same mysterious process from which their parents came, and therefore        are not mere creatures of their parents. Human "reproductive" cloning, and the forms of human manufacture        it might make possible, could be quite different. Here, the process would        begin with a very specific end-product in mind, and would be tailored        to produce that product. Scientists or parents would set out to produce        specific individuals for particular reasons, and the individuals might        well come to be subjected to those reasons. The procreative process could        come to be seen as a means of meeting some very specific ends, and the        resulting children would be products of a designed manufacturing process:        means to the satisfaction of a particular desire, or to some other end.        They would be means, not ends in themselves. Things made by man stand subservient to the man who made them. Manufactured        goods are always understood to have been made to serve a purpose, not        to exist independently and freely. Scientists who clone (or even merely        breed) animals make no secret of the instrumental purposes behind their        actions -- they act with specific instrumental ends in mind, and the resulting        animals are means to that preexisting end. Human cloning threatens to        introduce the same approach and the same attitudes into human procreation.        The transformation of human procreation into human manufacture could thus        result in a radical dehumanization of the resulting children, as well        as of those who set out to clone, and by its effect on societal attitudes        also a dehumanization of everyone else. When we become able to look upon        some human beings as manufactured goods, no matter how perfect, we may        become less able to look upon any human beings as fully independent persons,        endowed with liberty and deserving of respect and dignity. There is also cause for concern about the dignity of the sources of "raw        material" in the cloning process, who are after all human beings        themselves. Of particular concern are the attitudes that the industrialization        of human reproduction might engender (and to some extent are already engendering)        toward egg donors. Wide-scale human cloning depends upon the availability        of large numbers of eggs, which would need to be donated (or otherwise        procured). With the introduction of the attitudes and approaches of manufacturing        into the realm of human reproduction, women who donate (or sell) their        eggs for use in cloning could increasingly come to be seen as mere sources        of raw material, and in time may come to be pressured to donate or sell,        for the sake of life or science or progress. The attitudes of modern industrial        societies toward the sources of their raw materials are well known, and        turning human beings into such "natural resources" is a worrisome        prospect. A further concern along these lines has to do with the commercialization        of human reproduction that would almost necessarily follow from the industrialization        of cloning techniques. Manufactured objects naturally become commodities        in the marketplace, and their manufacture comes to be guided by market        principles and financial concerns. When the "products" are human        beings, the "market" could easily become a radically dehumanizing        force. "Reproductive" cloning presents us with the potential for a        market in clones of particular outstanding individuals (as in some sense        already occurs with existing techniques when potential parents seek egg        or sperm donors with high IQs or deep blue eyes); or more generally for        the further encroachment of market principles and profit motives into        the realm of human procreation. Present techniques already point the way        toward a world of celebrity cell auctions and rent-a-womb agencies, and        the widespread use of human "reproductive" cloning might very        well get us there. The concerns expressed here -- and, indeed, throughout this critique of        cloning -- do not depend on cloning becoming a very widespread practice.        On the contrary, even small scale markets, say, in celebrity cloning,        could affect far more than just the lives of those individuals who are        involved in particular transactions within them. The acceptance of such        markets by society would affect the way everyone thinks about the issues        at stake. The adoption of market terms and ideas in the arena of human        moral choices could easily blind us to genuine moral issues. The reconceptualization        of society as a system of rent-seeking, of human life as a scarce good        in demand, and of moral wrongs as mere costs, could make us far less capable        of reasoning thoughtfully about our status and responsibilities as human        beings. In sum, human manufacture, guided by market principles, violates some        fundamental principles of human dignity and moral conduct; and "reproductive"cloning could make such violations easier and thus more common. **6. Identity and Individuality**The above-stated concerns about the consequences of cloning as a manufacturing        process lead into broader and more serious concerns about the mental and        emotional life and the personal and social relations of the individual        produced by a "reproductive" cloning procedure. These concerns        would apply even if cloning was only conducted on a small scale. The natural procreative process is uniquely capable of endowing new human        beings with a combination of rootedness and family bonds on the one hand,        and independence and individuality on the other. Our genetic uniqueness        and our genetic relatedness to others both mirror and ground this social        human truth: Each of us has a unique, never-before-enacted life to live        with a unique trajectory from birth to death; and each of us owes our        existence and our rearing to those who have come before and who have brought        us into being and taken responsibility for our existence and our rearing.        By nature, every child is tied to two biological parents, and that child's        unique genetic identity is determined by what is essentially a chance        combination of these parents' genotypes. Each child is thus related equally        and by the closest of natural bonds to two adult human beings and yet        each child is genetically unique. Both these characteristics, and the        procreative nature of humanity from which they arise and to which they        point, help give shape to the psyche of each of us, and to the human institutions        that allow us to thrive.Our genetic uniqueness, manifested externally in our looks and our fingerprints        and internally in our immune systems, is one source of our sense of freedom        and independence. It symbolizes our autonomy and it endows us with a sense        of possibility. Each of us knows that no one has ever had our unique combination        of natural characteristics before. We know that no one knows all the potentialialities        contained within that combination. A cloned child, however, will live        out a life shaped by a genotype that has already lived. However much or        little this may actually mean in terms of hard scientific fact, it could        mean a great deal to that individual's experience of life. He or she may        be constantly held up to the model of the source of his or her cloned        genotype, or may (consciously and unconsciously) hold himself or herself        up to that model. He or she would be denied the opportunity to live a        life that in all respects has never been lived before, and (perhaps more        importantly) might know things about his or her own genetic destiny that        may constrain his or her range of options and sense of freedom. It may be reasonably argued that genetic individuality as such is not        an essential human good, since identical twins share a common genotype        and seem not to be harmed by it. But this argument misses entirely the        context and environment into which a human clone would be born. Identical        twins are born together, before either one has developed and shown what        his or her potential -- natural or otherwise -- may be. They are each        largely free of the burden of measuring up to or even just knowing the        genetic traits of the other, since neither twin is yet known to the world.        But a clone is the twin of a person who is already (or was) living. Moreover,        he or she was cloned from that person's DNA for a reason, and must therefore        in one way or another deal with his or her connection to that person and        that reason. This would constrain the clone's individuality or sense of        self in ways that differ in kind from the experience of identical twins.        The key, again, is the cloned individual's life as that individual experiences        it, and not just the scientific question of the extent to which genetic        identity actually shapes us. In these ways, even though genotype is certainly not destiny, the cloned        individual and the society around him may come to place too much importance        on the genotype, because as something known it is something which can        be analyzed. By leading this individual to be judged in relation to his        genetically virtually identical twin source in a way that others are not        judged, his status as a clone could turn that origin into a kind of destiny,        and might sharply constrain his freedom and sense of identity. It could        prove very difficult for the cloned individual to step outside the shadow        of his progenitor, and to live a truly new, unique, and free and independent        life. The cloned individual's sense of independence could also suffer because        of his status as a being made to order by another. Children conceived        by sexual reproduction (even with the aid of IVF) know that they, like        all human beings before them, entered the world as something of a surprise.        No parent knows exactly what to expect, and so every good parent is willing        to accept what comes and to welcome the children as they are. This characteristic        of human procreation encourages parents to start off on their important        task with an attitude of acceptance and humility, and to start the new        child off on its course through life as one who is welcomed, whatever        he or she turns out to be. Parents, of course, will proceed to rear and        educate their child with certain aims in mind, but these aims tend to        be moderated and informed by the need to humbly accept the child they        have begotten, as that child is. A great deal of our sense of freedom        and independence derives from this vital aspect of our relationship with        our progenitors. But the cloned child does not (or at the very least may        think he does not) share such a relationship with his parents. The cloned        child will have been created by the deliberate design of parents or scientists,        and thus his relation to others will be fundamentally different from that        of naturally conceived individuals. As discussed above, a begotten child        stands in the same relation to the world as his parents; a created child        -- any kind of manufactured or designed child -- does not. He stands beneath        his parents and others in a way that children generally do not: as a human        artifact designed and constructed. This fact of his origins almost cannot        help but harm the cloned person's sense of individuality and freedom.        At the same time that our procreative origins endow us with individuality        and freedom, our natural connection to our family of origin also binds        us to the human world in ways that matter deeply. Personal and social        identity and social links of responsibility are connected in countless        ways to ties of biological kinship. The psychic identity of the cloned        individual, already troubled by a diminished sense of individuality as        mentioned above, could be much further troubled by the utter confusion        of kinship relations that would result from the circumstances of its origins.        **7. Family and Procreation**Just as the cloned individual's sense of individuality may be confused        by his origin, his connection to others, and particularly to their own        family, may become muddled as well. Moreover, this effect could be mirrored        and amplified in the effect that cloning might have on the institution        of the family, and the way in which individuals and communities come to        think of procreation. The clone's place in the scheme of human relations will be uncertain and        confused. The usual clear designations of father and mother, sister and        brother, would be confounded. The clone would have only one genetic parent,        his or her connection to grandparents would span both one and two generations        at once, and every other family relation would be similarly confused.        Even if the child was cloned from someone who is not a member of the family        in which the child is raised, the fact would remain (and may be known        to the child) that he or she has been created in the nearly precise genetic        image of another, for some particular reason with some particular design        in mind. This is far from the way children generally (and naturally) relate        to their family of origin, and the differences may tend to run against        the grain of the social institutions that surround the family. It may be sensibly argued that some social arrangements already in existence        break the link between natural kin and social family structure. A great        many children, after all, are adopted, and live happy lives in loving        families in the absence of biological connections with their parents.        Some children are also conceived by artificial insemination and various        IVF techniques, and may have unusual relationships with their genetic        parents, or no relationships at all. This is true, but it must be noted        that all of these existing arrangements attempt to emulate the model of        the natural family (at least in its arrangement of the generations), while        cloning actually runs against the grain of that model. Adopted children,        like biological children, are welcomed as they are (sometimes more so        than biological children), frequently before their adoptive parents know        much about what they are and may become. They were not conceived with        some specific predetermined end in mind, and indeed they were not conceived        to be adopted (nearly no one deliberately produces children for the purpose        of adoption.) Their connection to the parents who raise them is not biological,        but it follows closely the model of the biological family: It is based,        in most cases, on a loving union of the parents aimed at raising up a        new and unique individual whom the parents did not make but whom they        wish to love, protect, and guide. It combines the same genetic uniqueness        and the social connectivity of the biological parent-child relationship.        Nothing about the adoptive child-parent relationship prevents the development        of traditional familial bonds. The same generally holds true for children        conceived through IVF for the same reasons. But something about the relationship between the cloned child and the        cloning parent may indeed interfere with the development of these traditional        social bonds. The confusion created by the complicated relationship of        cloner to cloned may mean that no clear lines of parent-child, sibling-sibling,        or other familial kin relations will develop. These vital links could        be subject to serious confusion and uncertainty, and so the model of the        natural family would be very difficult if not impossible to emulate. By        breaking through the natural boundaries between generations, cloning threatens        to undo the social links between them. A clone of oneself is a brother        and a son, or a sister and a daughter. Should you relate to him or her        as parent or as sibling? Neither relationship could take form very well        under the strains of the peculiarly muddled natural relation established        by cloning. The point may be made thus: Existing family relationships are either drawn        from or based upon the relationships that naturally arise from the process        of human procreation. Cloning not only does not point naturally to these        relations, it actively opposes them by undermining their foundations,        especially the relationships between generations. The cloned child's psychic        health and sense of identity may well be placed in jeopardy. And the family, as an institution, may be harmed as well. The family,        of course, is at once a social and a natural institution, and the two        elements reinforce each other in countless subtle ways. Breaking some        of the links between them could leave the institution of the family without        a firm grounding in nature and without strong social support. This may take form, for one thing, in the attitudes of parents toward        their roles. As stated above, parents who choose to have a child at least        tacitly acknowledge a certain humility before the procreative process        which is out of their hands. They tacitly acknowledge the limits of their        power to control, and they implicitly promise to accept their child, whatever        he or she proves to be. This humility before the hand of procreative chance        sets the parents in a certain relation to the child, and helps set quite        necessary boundaries on the power of one generation over another. In cloning        a child, on the other hand, parents seek to exercise total control over        the outcome of the reproductive process itself. This does not mean that        they completely shape their child before it is born: After all, there        is more to each of us than our genome and our environment. But it does        mean that they control and -- even if they do not -- that they will be        held responsible for those things that parents have until now been forced        to leave to chance, and that they therefore do not acknowledge, with humility,        the limits of their powers, but rather they approach procreation as an        exercise of their power and will. Rather than accept whatever child they        turn out to have given rise to, these parents determine in advance what        sort of child they will accept. The resulting child is much more the product        of these expectations than a child conceived in the natural way would        be. Such a cloned child is likely to be regarded more like a possession        of its parents, or even an instrument of their will, than a normally conceived        child would be. The parents begin their child's life with an overbearing        act that must be said to border on despotism. They begin the new child's        life by restricting the new child's independence and individuality. The        family, in this way, loses something of its character as a nursery of        a novel and independent new human generation, and gains something of the        character of an instrument of the present generation. This does not mean        that the parents are ill-intentioned, but it could very well mean that        their children are less free to flourish. The character of families thus        changes in ways we may not like. Other, more immediately concrete, troubles may confront family life as        well. The parents of a cloned child may find themselves unable to treat        a child who is the clone of someone they have known (let alone of themselves)        in the way that parents may presently treat a child generated sexually.        Such a cloned child would be born with an unnatural and perhaps unhealthy        relation to someone (past or present) in the world, and this could make        healthy family life more difficult. In addition, the presence of human clones may over time tend to undermine        society's sense of what a family relationship means and how it relates        to nature, sex and reproduction. The distance between the procreative        nature of humanity and the social status of the family could grow, and        both may become less thoroughly grounded in one another. That grounding,        as has been discussed, is vital for both, and its diminution could bring        with it profound problems. Family relations, and social relations in general,        are founded at the deepest level on mankind's procreative nature, and        on our character as begotten and begetting creatures. Undoing that nature        and that character may tend to undo the roots and the foundations of family        structure and family life. Much about the way we live as human beings        has to do with our procreative nature: begetting and belonging condition        the way we think of our place in the world, our place among human beings,        our place in time, our mortality. Society is structured around all of        these things. Human institutions, and particularly those (like the family) that transcend        specific times and places, are storehouses of human wisdom. They possess        in their very structure more intelligence and experience than do the thoughts        and ideas of any particular generation. Undoing these institutions, as        "reproductive" cloning may begin to do, would very likely have        far greater repercussions than we can fully contemplate. **8. Impact on Society**These repercussions, moreover, would not be limited to the lives of individuals        and families directly affected by cloning. Indeed, the impact of human        "reproductive" cloning on society at large may be the least        appreciated, but among the most important, factors to consider in contemplating        a public policy on human cloning. Cloning is a human activity, which affects not only those who are cloned        or who are clones, but also the entire society that allows or that supports        (and therefore that engages in) such activity -- as would be the case        with a society that allows some of its members to practice slavery, to        take a most extreme example. The question before us is whether "reproductive"cloning is an activity that we, as a society, should engage in. In addressing        this question, we must reach well beyond the rights of individuals, and        the difficulties or benefits that cloned children or their families might        encounter. The question we must face has to do with what we, as a society,        will permit ourselves to do. When we say that "reproductive"cloning may erode our respect for the dignity of human beings, we must        say that we, as a society that engages in cloning, would be responsible        for that erosion. When we argue that vital social institutions could be        harmed, we must acknowledge that it is we, as a society that clones, that        would be harming them. We should not ask if "reproductive" cloning        is something that some people somewhere should be permitted to do. We        must ask if cloning is something that all of us together should want to        do or should allow ourselves to do. Insofar as we permit cloning in our        society, we are the cloners and the cloned, just as we are the society        affected by the process. Only when we see that do we understand our responsibility        in crafting a public policy regarding human "reproductive" cloning.        Since we are the ones acting to clone, we must further realize that our        actions will affect us not only in what they directly do to us, but also        in the way they shape our thinking. A society that clones human beings        is a society that thinks about human beings differently than a society        that refuses to do so. We must therefore also ask ourselves how we as        a society prefer to think of human beings.These sorts of questions are not easy for a modern liberal polity to contend        with. We are not accustomed to thinking in these terms, and we are not        comfortable using them in political discourse. But cloning (along with        the accompanying broader issues raised by contemporary biotechnology)        forces us, as few other matters do, to think this way, because cloning        is a human activity that threatens (or promises) to affect the very nexus        of human societies: the junction of human generations. Liberal society        will not and should not seek to regulate every sort of human activity,        but it cannot help but involve itself in those that directly affect its        highest and most urgent tasks: tasks like its own perpetuation and the        transmission of its ideals and way of life to future generations. Doing        nothing about such a subject is not an option. If we as a society refrain        from considering the question entirely, we would -- implicitly -- be saying        yes to cloning, with all that such a statement would entail. We face the        choice only of engaging in cloning or forbidding it, and the option we        select will say a lot about us. Given the issues involved, there is no        neutral ground for the polity to hold in this particular debate. Society exists beyond individuals, beyond generations. And among the highest        tasks of any society is the management of its relation to the future,        and the transmission of its institutions and its ideals to the next generation.        As we have seen, it is here, at this vital junction of the generations,        that cloning threatens to wreak havoc, and this junction is insufficiently        protected by the market and by private interests. It is here that cloning        poses a special challenge to society, and it is here that politics becomes        important in meeting that challenge. Politics becomes important because politics is the means that a free society        has at its disposal to protect its common interests, to serve its common        needs and to express its common will. There is, in modern free societies,        a very reasonable reticence to bring politics into what is usually quite        properly thought of as the very private realm of human reproduction. This        attitude is generally a healthy one, but in some cases it is dangerously        misplaced, and "reproductive" cloning is such a case. It is        so precisely because "reproductive" cloning would affect more        than individuals, and more than the private relationships at the heart        of reproductive choices. The way in which the next generation will enter        this world has everything to do with the way in which our society will        live into the future. A society that produces children through cloning        is a society that thinks about children and family and the human condition        in a certain way; and we must be given the option, as a society, to decide        if that is the way that we wish to think about these most important matters.        

1. For further details see Working               Paper: Scientific Aspects of Human and Animal Cloning.2. Some further examples of these concerns about               the safety of cloned children may be found in the article reprinted               in Working Paper: Scientific               Aspects of Human and Animal Cloning, Appendix A.              3. Though it must be noted that however safe animal cloning may               become, the first attempt to clone a human being will constitute               an extremely dangerous experiment on the cloned individual, since               identical techniques have yielded vastly different results in different               animal species.               See also Staff Working Paper:               Arguments for "Reproductive" Cloning |