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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   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|   | *This staff working paper was discussed at the Council's January 2002 meeting. It was prepared by staffsolely to aid discussion, and does not represent the official views of the Council or of the United States Government.*           See also Staff             Working Paper: Arguments Against "Reproductive" Cloning 
**Staff Working Paper****Arguments for "Reproductive Cloning"**
This working paper, prepared for the second of our three sessions on human        cloning, addresses the following matters: What are the ethical arguments        for and against human "reproductive" cloning? Should society        ban it? How do advocates of each position respond        to the arguments of the other side? How should concern about fundamental        human goods (such as human nature, culture, family, individuality, rights,        and dignity) shape our judgment about the ethics of human cloning? The        paper is divided into two distinct sections, 3a and 3b, which present        the case in favor of and against "reproductive" cloning, respectively.        **3a. Arguments for "Reproductive" Cloning**The widespread unease, fear, and revulsion that most Americans feel at        the idea of cloning human beings is undeniable. Human cloning challenges        long-standing assumptions about human life and human nature. It elicits        in many people the image of Mary Shelley's *Frankenstein* or Aldous        Huxley's *Brave New World*, where biology and science reduce men        and women to monsters or machines. But the stability and wisdom of these prejudices, when viewed in the larger        course of human and technological progress, remains an open question.        How often in history has the unknown and undone been called "evil"or "hubristic" or "impossible," only to become normal,        desirable, and celebrated? How often have new discoveries and new powers        over nature been described as fundamental "leaps," when in fact        they are a continuation of previous (and accepted) innovations? Of course,        there are certainly technologies that many of us probably wish could be        undiscovered. And the historical fact that individuals and societies have        embraced, over time, technologies that they once feared and rejected does        not prove that the technologies are good, only that people became convinced        that they are good. In other words, just because something is possible        does not mean it is desirable. But equally true is the fact that just        because something is new -- even "revolutionary" -- does not        mean it ought to be feared and rejected. A sober judgment about human cloning, therefore, requires a full consideration        of our prejudices, and perhaps the discovery that our prejudices are not        the only or even the best ones. Among those who desire to clone human        beings -- both for experimental and for reproductive purposes -- three        human goods (or ideas of human good) are central: The first is *the        good of human freedom*: to inquire, to invent, to reproduce, to seek        human progress, to live out one's chosen course of life, to dare to know        the unknown and to do the undone. The second is *the desire to relieve        man's estate*: to prevent and treat diseases; to improve the life chances        and opportunities of ever more people; and to expand what is humanly possible        by improving man's genetic potentialities and capacities. The third is        *the good of human love*: love of oneself and one's existence; love        of one's spouse or partner, with whom one desires to share the rearing        of a "biologically related" child; and love of the potential        child himself or herself. This working paper will begin by listing the justifiable -- or potentially        justifiable -- reasons for human reproductive cloning, as well as the        reasons why human cloning ought not to be banned. It will then direct        most of its attention to reexamining our moral prejudices relevant to        human cloning. It will suggest that the public's repugnance against cloning        may be extreme or misguided, and not likely to last once (or if) the technology        becomes safe and its good (or justifiable) uses become apparent. **A. Reasons for Reproductive Cloning**The reasons for human reproductive cloning can perhaps be broken down        into two basic groups: *liberal* (a through f) and *eugenic*(g through i). The first are recognizable and defensible within the core        values of modern liberal democracy; the second run against the grain of        our prejudices -- for now, if not forever. Reproductive cloning, it is argued: a. Allows infertile couples to have children who are biologically related        to one of the parents.1b. Allows nontraditional couples and individuals (same-sex couples, single        mothers, single fathers) to have children who are biologically related        to themselves. c. Allows people to have children without the risk of known genetic diseases.        d. Allows people to attempt to "replace" children who have died        prematurely. e. Allows parents to produce children who would be ideal transplant donors        for a desperately ill existing child. f. Expands reproductive freedom and reproductive choice. g. Allows families or society to reproduce individuals of great genius,        talent, or beauty, presumed to be based on their desirable or superior        genetic make-ups. h. Allows society to prepare for the unpredictable nature of the future:        for example, extreme circumstances may require the re-creation of certain        desirable genomes. i. Human cloning is the next step in human evolution; the gateway to the        genetic self-improvement of mankind; and the desirable continuation of        modern civilization's mastery of nature for the relief of man's estate.        **B. The Case Against Banning Reproductive Cloning**Beyond the deep disagreements about the ethics of human cloning, there        are prudential, social, and political questions regarding whether banning        human cloning is desirable or feasible, and whether its unintended consequences        are more or less significant than its intended purpose. The arguments against such a ban include the following: a. Government should not or cannot interfere with reproductive rights,        even if a majority of society believes certain forms of reproduction are        undesirable or immoral. b. Human cloning is so strange that only a small number of people will        try to reproduce in this way, and even if they are successful the effect        on society would be limited or insignificant, and does not justify state        intervention. c. Banning human cloning at the federal level is unconstitutional, and        would be an undesirable increase of federal power. d. Banning human cloning will not succeed. People will violate the ban        or move their cloning activities "offshore" to more permissive        settings. Better therefore to allow it and to regulate its use. e. Banning human cloning threatens other legitimate avenues of scientific        research, and sets a dangerous precedent against the freedom of scientific        inquiry. f. Banning human cloning would threaten widely accepted forms of assisted        reproduction (such as artificial insemination and IVF). g. Even if human cloning is not desirable in light of society's present-day        values, it is likely that cloned children will one day exist, and banning        cloning today will set a dangerous precedent that future cloned people        are unequal, undesirable, and lack equal civil rights. It will establish        an unnecessary legacy of discrimination. **C. The Safety of Human Cloning**2a. The ends justify the means: Beneficial research and technological breakthroughs        often come with costs, including research on human embryos and fetuses.        b. Safety is possible without requiring overly reckless experimentation:        Parallel with IVF. **D. Moral and Philosophical Considerations -- Reexamining        Our Prejudices**1. Existence versus Non-Existence: Those who oppose human cloning believe        a class of potential human beings (human clones) should never be created,        and hence should never exist. This raises a series of questions and problems:        If a child were in fact created through human cloning, would that child        possess "human dignity"? Would the cloned child be "sacred"in the eyes of those who affirm the sacredness of human life? If yes,        do opponents of cloning believe that potentially dignified and sacred        human beings (cloned children) should be denied existence, even if they        could be created safely? Opponents of human cloning offer three answers to this challenge: First,        they say that it is not potential clones that are the object of their        repugnance, but rather those who would create the cloned children, the        desire to create them, and the act of creating them. Second, they say        that seeking to stop something from coming to be is not necessarily a        denial of the dignity of the thing (or the class of persons) that is stopped.        Third, they say that arguing against the possible maiming of unborn children        (like arguing against the siring of children through rape or incest) is        not the same as saying those children should be mistreated once or if        they were to exist or that their existence would lack human dignity. These are indeed serious, perhaps impregnable objections. Nevertheless,        on these questions, it may be worth considering a comparison of the ethics        of human cloning and the ethics of the selective abortion of embryos with        genetic defects. For on the one hand, many opponents of human cloning        at the same time affirm being over non-being on the question of whether        to abort "imperfects," arguing that it is a false mercy to kill        unborn children even if they have been diagnosed with certain biological        or genetic defects. They affirm the sacredness of all human life, including        the sacredness of the sick, disabled, and "non-normal." On the        other hand, they argue against the creation of human clones, and therefore        seem to prefer the non-existence of a class of human beings over existence.        Of course, the difference here is that many of those who seek to stop        human cloning would do so before any individual clones have been created.        Selective abortion, by contrast, is a "remedy" after the fact        -- after unborn individuals have already been created, who are imperfect        in some way because of the "misfortunes" of natural fertilization        rather than the mistakes of the laboratory. But this difference, in the        end, seems less significant than whether existence is affirmed -- however        "imperfect" or "non-normal" those who would exist        might be -- or whether existence is denied. And if the concern is specifically        about the potential "maiming" of children, do objections to        human cloning lose their force if the technique were to become as safe        in the future as IVF is in the present? Moreover, when or if it becomes likely that human cloning will happen,        doesn't prudence require that arguments against it be moderated or even        muted for the sake of the dignity, well-being, and self-esteem of the        clones that exist? What would it feel like to be a child that a significant        portion of society wants to "ban"? The answer to this question,        of course, can cut both ways: as a reason never to clone in the first        place, or as a reason to tolerate human clones and human cloning, because        society will not likely stop it. One's answer to this question depends        not just on whether one believes a ban on human cloning is morally desirable        but also on whether one believes it is possible or likely to be effective.        There may be both philosophical and practical difficulties connected with        holding that clones should never exist, but that if they do in fact come        into being they will posses human dignity. (Just as it seems problematic        to say that whole classes of unborn children with certain diseases should        be preemptively aborted, while those who live with such diseases are still        human beings in the full sense.) 3It also seems plausible to argue that a cloned individual, once born,        would prefer existence as a clone to no existence at all, which would        leave opponents of cloning in the intolerant position of saying: "We        don't want you; better for us and for you that you never existed."**2. The Many Faces of Human Dignity:** What gives        human beings dignity? What defines human nature? What responsibilities        and duties define the good life, the good society, or the good civilization?        On these questions, there are deep disagreements -- perhaps irreconcilable        conflicts -- between competing ideals, competing moralities, and therefore        a competing sense of what is justified and what is not, what is good and        what is evil. It is therefore not so easy to say that cloning is an assault        on human dignity. **Example 1:** Person A may believe human life is        defined by the achievements of the strong and those endowed with superior        intelligence (or by the rights of all citizens to become these things);        and that any eugenic or reproductive program that increases the number        and capacity of such human beings (say, by cloning individuals with the        best genotypes) is morally good. Person B may believe that human life        is defined by the equal dignity of all human beings *as they are*or *as God has made them*, and that the good society is defined by        its capacity to protect the powerless and needy against the powerful and        uncaring, and by its capacity to secure the equal rights of all. **Example 2:** Person A may believe that the human        quest for immortality through science, even if destined to be unsuccessful        for the foreseeable future, is what defines the good life, and that the        spirited scientists who seek this goal with their research, even at the        expense of human embryos, are heroic. Person B may believe that realism        about human mortality is the key to wisdom and virtue, and that far more        important than how long human beings live is the way they live: the depth        of their loves and commitments, their calm acceptance of life's hardships        and duties, their willingness to respect life and to honor moral limits,        their courage in the face of danger, and so forth. **Example 3:** Person A may believe that prenatal        screening and abortion of embryos that will grow up sick and suffering        is a form of mercy. Person B may believe that selective abortion of the        "imperfect" is a form of murder or unjustifiable discrimination        or both. **Example 4:** Person A may believe that giving        children the best genetic equipment expands individual rights -- both        the rights of those who clone (by increasing their reproductive choices)        and the rights of the cloned (whose future opportunities and capabilities        may be expanded by guaranteeing them a superior genome). Person B may        believe that choosing the genetic characteristics of children through        human cloning destroys individual rights, because it reduces children        to objects or artifacts and denies individuals the right to a genetically        open future. Both moral outlooks are rationally defensible. Both are rooted        in ideals about human nature and human dignity. **3. Nature versus Culture (or History):** Any normative        idea linked to "human nature" inevitably runs into the problem        of what is natural versus what is historical or cultural. Especially when        it comes to technological innovation, things that at first seem dangerous,        hubristic, and unnatural often quickly or eventually come to be accepted        as tolerable, normal, and beneficial. This does not necessarily mean that        our accommodation of technology means that the technologies to which we        accommodate ourselves are good. But the recent history of other reproductive        technologies (artificial insemination, IVF) is instructive: Both were        questioned and even denounced at first, but are now accepted and even        celebrated by most citizens, including those committed to an "essentialist"idea of human nature and traditional ideas of the family. This dilemma of nature versus culture is also apparent when it comes to        matters of sexuality, reproduction, and the family. Homosexuality, for        example, was once illegal and taboo on the grounds of being "unnatural,"but is now widely if not universally tolerated. Given this dilemma, it        seems defensible to argue that our fears about human cloning may be understandable,        in light of our past, but must be reexamined in the light of the present        and future: in the light of evolving culture, science, and technology.        And while one may call into question whether the forward movement of history        and technology is desirable, doing so may require a larger critique of        progress than most critics of cloning are prepared to make. Indeed, by        conceding the goodness of (or being willing to tolerate) technologies        like IVF, and by accepting "non-traditional" forms of family        life and novel contexts for rearing the young, cloning critics may have        already conceded the most serious grounds for objecting to reproductive        cloning. **4. Human versus Post-Human:** Those who appeal        to human nature and traditional virtue in opposition to cloning must acknowledge        that much of human history is a story of cruelty, failure, and suffering.        It may be that human nature -- or the human condition -- can be improved,        which is to some the very definition of progress. The nature of that improvement        may be unpredictable, and one can certainly imagine a scenario in which        human cloning might contribute to human self-improvement rather than undermining        what is believed to be human nature. Perhaps, in the long run, it will        prove no more natural for human beings to suffer, or to marry, or to reproduce        sexually, than it is natural for them not to fly in airplanes, explore        beyond the earth, or discover the true movements of the planets. The matter        of evolution presents additional questions, since it shows humankind,        with all other species, to be apparently in continuous transition. Viewed        in the light of our long evolutionary history, post-humanity would seem        to be less a choice than a destiny, and perhaps ultimately a desirable        destiny.4**5. Environment versus Genetics:** Which scenario        would be more fundamentally different from what we accept as the normal        human experience in America in 2002: To grow up as a healthy clone in        Scarsdale, New York, or to grow up as a non-clone in ancient Egypt? To        grow up as a healthy clone in Chevy Chase, Maryland, or a non-clone in        the most underdeveloped part of the world? Which is more normal or desirable:        A naturally conceived child with a genetic disease who dies at age three        or a child conceived through cloning who lives a full and healthy life?        And what if the clone grew up separate from his "genetic parent"-- say, in an adopted household where the rearing parents did not even        know the source of their child's DNA? Granted, our judgments about human cloning ought not to be made in such        stark and artificial "either-or" terms. But the point of these        examples is that having a genome already lived may be insignificant when        compared with the circumstances in which one lives. Moreover, it seems        especially problematic to say that human dignity depends in a fundamental        way on family lineage, when it is clear that people born to single parents,        people who are adopted, and people reared in "non-traditional"families all acquire an intelligible and meaningful place in the world.        (Of course, one must acknowledge that there is no existing analogue to        being a child whose complete genetic make-up is both selected in advance        and "already lived" by another.) Both genetics and environment matter, but the essential point is not clone        versus non-clone, but a healthy genome and healthy environment versus        an unhealthy genome and an unhealthy environment. Certainly, one could        argue that to be the "genetic twin" of one's "father"or "mother" is an unhealthy psychological environment for a        child. But it is certainly not the worst environment imaginable -- far        from it -- and it may be that the psychological harm of being a clone        is rooted in socially constructed (historical) ideas of human individuality        and human dignity rather than anything essential about human nature. **6. Two Ideas of Humility:** Those who advocate        human cloning and those who oppose human cloning typically have very different        conceptions of the meaning of humility: Those who oppose cloning believe        human beings must be humble *before* nature (that is, humble about        our wisdom and capacity to improve or modify the human condition for the        better). They believe human beings should not act in ways that undermine,        transform, or rebel against the lasting truths of human existence -- defined        in part by the differences between men and women; by the central role        of family, lineage, and sexual reproduction; and by the givenness of human        mortality. Humility means living well in light of our true condition --        including the unchosen burdens and responsibilities of human life -- and        maintaining laws that prevent those who would use technology to undermine        human nature By contrast, those who advocate for human cloning believe human beings        must be humble *about* nature -- or at least humble about imposing        one idea of human nature on everyone. They believe that what defines human        life is its openness to fundamental change and the history of those fundamental        changes; and that those who unreasonably seek to halt human experimentation        and human progress act with a reactionary hubris that is morally unjustified.        (This raises the question, of course, of whether any restraints on technology        -- or, for that matter, on all human behavior -- are reasonable to those        who believe human nature is "open-ended"?)In reality, the argument over the meaning of humility is an argument about        conflicting ideals and the conflicting social policies that follow from        those ideals. These conflicts include: the ideal of preserving the traditional        family *versus* the ideal of overcoming or transforming it; the ideal        of protecting the weak (including human embryos) *versus* the ideal        of using the weak to help the strong or using the unborn to help the living;        the ideal that the human condition is fundamentally fixed, and that what        is true about our nature is more significant than what is altered by history        versus the ideal that human nature is fluid, that the transformations        of history are fundamental, and that the role of those in the present        is to imagine the next transformations and make them happen; the ideal        that man is properly measured by being or nature or God versus the ideal        that man should be the measure of all things (even as this measure is        itself ever-changeable). Of course, prudence demands judging the best        balance among these competing ideals. But this "best balance"inevitably depends on how much significance one gives each of the different        ideals, and whether one believes the ideals themselves have inherent or        only subjectively determined value. In the end, it may be that neither side can "prove" its case        beyond a reasonable doubt. For example: It is perfectly plausible for        Person A to say that his goal is to "end suffering and disease,"and that this goal (the improved genetic endowment of future generations)        justifies overturning society's current taboos regarding cloning and eugenics.        Person B can counter that the goal of making men "perfect" or        "better" is unrealistic, and that seeking it through baby-manufacture        is unethical. But again, neither side can "prove" its case.        How many things have been declared unrealistic but shown otherwise? And        how can one prove that embryos, or the sick, or the weak, have equal value        to the living, or the healthy, or the strong? Is it more hubristic to        seek to end suffering and disease or to stop those who believe they can?        Is it more humble to accept the limits of the human condition or to deny        any fixed ideas about man as man and therefore to deny the legitimacy        of state regulation of scientific research? Perhaps humility and hubris        -- and the ideas of human dignity and human purpose that ground them,        as well as the proper application of prudence -- are ultimately in the        eye of the beholder.**7. Conclusion:** Taken together, some reasons        for pursuing human cloning are recognizable; others are shocking. Those        that are recognizable -- most notably, cloning as another possible option        for the remedy of infertility -- parallel earlier technologies that once        shocked or disturbed us, like artificial insemination and IVF. These recognizable        reasons to clone can thus be defended within the core values of modern        liberal democracy: expanding individual rights and reproductive choices;        expanding tolerance for all classes of people; support for technology;        protection of the rights of scientists to do unrestricted research; caution        about using the power of the state to regulate private decisions; and        so on.The shocking reasons for cloning (for example, the eugenic improvement        of human beings and the quest for post-humanity) are not illegitimate        just because they run against the grain of our prejudices. For it may        be that our present-day moral presumptions are misguided, and that a rational        case for humanitarian or evolutionary eugenics deserves a fair hearing;        and that its various advocates deserve at least some room to prove their        case or pursue their ideals. And while such ideals offer a direct challenge        to our idea of civilization, the truth is that our values and purposes        are not the only morally justifiable ones, and our civilization is not        likely to be the last form of human (or post-human) civilization in history.        

1. In most of the world, there is generally a strong        desire for human couples to have biologically related children. In the        United States in particular, there is a bias in law, custom, and medicine        to foster and permit this. Treatment of infertility has become a medical        sub-specialty. Procedures such as IVF have enabled many infertile couples,        single parents, and individuals with genetic diseases to have children        who are biologically related to one or both of the parents. In the United        States, with minor exceptions, the state does not regulate who can produce        children or the number of children permitted per family. These decisions        are left to individuals and are part of what we mean by reproductive freedom.        Part of the current debate about reproductive cloning thus involves whether        it is necessarily or desirably a component of reproductive freedom, and        whether there are unique or justifiable reasons to reproduce with human        cloning.  2. For a larger discussion of the state of human               cloning technology, see Working Paper:               Scientific Aspects of Human and Animal Cloning.3. Nevertheless, one must concede that such an argument        could be used also for the following reasons: 1) to justify any kind of        mistreatment of the unborn, on the grounds that criticizing such mistreatment        is also a criticism of the mistreated; and 2) to indict even such things        as preventative medicine or good nutrition as a form of not embracing        unborn children "as they are" or "as God has given them."Is there anything problematic in saying that pregnant mothers must not        take thalidomide or heroin, but the maimed children of those who are reckless        must still be treated with lovingkindness and respect? Is not this "paradox"built into all efforts to prevent injury and defect in the unborn?  4. Of course, it must be acknowledged that to claim        that something is desirable for human beings implies a prior idea of what        is good for human beings (which suggests an idea of "human nature"and of what is normatively human). back to top
            See also  Staff Working Paper: Arguments             Against "Reproductive" Cloning |