**** ****

**Breaking the Cycle of Violence:****Recommendations to Improve theCriminal Justice Response to Child Victims and Witnesses**
**June 1999**  
**U.S. Department of Justice****Office of Justice Programs****810 Seventh Street, N.W.****Washington, D.C. 20531** 
**Janet Reno*****Attorney General***
**Eric H. Holder, Jr.*****Deputy Attorney General***
**Raymond C. Fisher*****Associate Attorney General***
**Laurie Robinson*****Assistant Attorney General***
**Noel Brennan*****Deputy Assistant Attorney General***
**Kathryn M. Turman*****Acting Director, Office for Victims of Crime*** 

**Office of Justice Programs****World Wide Web Homepage:*****http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov***

**Office for Victims of Crime****World Wide Web Homepage:*****http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/***
 
**For grant and funding information contact:****Department of Justice Response Center****1-800-421-6770** 
**NCJ #176983** 
**The Office for Victims of Crime is a component of the Office of JusticePrograms, which****also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of JusticeStatistics, the****National Institute of Justice, and the Office of Juvenile Justiceand Delinquency Prevention.**

**Contents**
Message from the Director                                                                                                ii
Executive Summary                                                                                                             iii
Children as Victims and Witnesses                                                                                   1    Prevalence                                                                                                                         1    Invisible Victims: Children Who WitnessViolence                                                    1    Long-Term Impact of Victimizationand Witnessing Violence                                  3
Child Victims and Witnesses in the Criminal Justice System                                       4    A System Designed for Adults                                                                                     5
What Works: Innovative Practices and Programs                                                         6    Specialization and Training of CriminalJustice Professionals                                 7    Use of Child Interview Specialists                                                                                8    Interacting with Children Who WitnessDomestic Violence                                    9    Multidisciplinary Initiatives                                                                                         10    Children's Advocacy Centers                                                                                      11    Child Death Review Teams                                                                                          11    Child Development - Community Policing                                                                 12    Legal Representation for Child Victims                                                                      13    Reform of Juvenile/Family Court Handlingof Child Abuse and Neglect Cases   13    Use of Victim Assistance Professionals                                                                     14    Preparing Children for Court: CourtSchool Programs                                              14    Special Courtroom Accommodations                                                                          15    Victim Impact Statements: In a Child'sWords                                                           17
Recommendations for Improving the Response to ChildrenExposed to Violence   18    Recommendations for All Criminal JusticeProfessionals                                         18    Specific Recommendations for Law EnforcementAgencies                                    18    Specific Recommendations for Prosecutors'Offices                                                 19    Specific Recommendations for CriminalCourt Judges and Administrators          19
Conclusion                                                                                                                            20
Resources for Information and Training                                                                           21
Innovative Programs                                                                                                           22
References                                                                                                                            23  
**Message from the Deputy Attorney General**
Some of the most important cases investigators, prosecutors,and judges will handle during the course of their careers are those involvingchild victims and witnesses. The stakes are incredibly high. What happensto these children has a significant impact both on individual childrenand on the overall safety and well-being of communities.
Children who are victims of or witnesses to violent crimeare at an increased risk for delinquency, adult criminality, and violentbehavior. National studies have shown that being abused or neglected asa child increases the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by 53 percentand of arrest for a violent crime as an adult by 38 percent.1 It also placeschildren at significant risk for substance abuse, mental illness, and suicide.Witnessing family violence appears to have both short- and long-term effectson children. Intervening in the lives of victimized children before negativepatterns of behavior, low self-esteem, and damaged character are establishedmay be the only real opportunity to prevent future violence in our streetsand in our homes.
If the criminal justice system does not take victimizationof children seriously, it is unrealistic to expect our communities to viewcrimes against children as a serious problem. Children need to know thattheir lives and well-being are critically important to our society. Childrenneed to know that their safety is a priority. Perpetrators need to knowthat their actions will have severe consequences.
To respond effectively to child victims and witnesses,those of us in the criminal justice system must learn to do things differently.Being involved in a case as a victim or witness is intimidating and stressfulfor adults; children find it even more terrifying. We must adapt our practiceto meet the needs of child victims and witnesses in an age-appropriateand sensitive manner. Doing so will make the process less traumatic forchildren, will enhance the ability of the child to participate effectively,and will increase the chances of a successful outcome to the investigationand prosecution.
Over the last decade, police departments, prosecutors'offices, and courts have developed extraordinary innovations. This monographattempts to describe the best practices and programs that focus on theresponse to child victims and witnesses. We hope it will serve as a blueprintfor policymakers and criminal justice professionals who recognize the importanceof intervening effectively in the lives of victimized children as a wayto prevent future crime and violence.
**Eric H. Holder, Jr.**Deputy Attorney General
and
**Kathryn M. Turman**Acting Director, Office for Victims of Crime 1 Widom, C.S., "The Cycle of Violence," (Research inBrief), National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice, 1992. **Executive Summary**
Children represent one-quarter of American crime victims.They suffer abuse at the hands of their parents and caretakers; they arevictimized by strangers; they are exposed to violence when they witnesscrimes in their homes and neighborhoods. Children have a limited capacityto understand the violence they experience and almost no capacity to protectthemselves. They need to be treated with compassion and professionalismby criminal justice personnel from the first response to the crime andthroughout the prosecution process. Effective, age-appropriate interactionand practices adapted to the child can reduce the trauma child victimsand child witnesses experience and minimize their long-term physical, emotional,and social problems. This monograph offers recommendations and sample practicesthat can improve the response of criminal justice personnel to childrenwho are victims of and witnesses to crime.
Child victims and child witnesses provide our societyand our judicial system with a huge challenge. Children who are victimsof or witnesses to violent crime are at an increased risk for delinquency,adult criminality, and violent behavior. National studies show that neglected,abused, and otherwise victimized children grow up to have an increasedrisk of criminal behavior, substance abuse, mental illness, and suicide.If our criminal justice system can intervene effectively in the lives ofvictimized children as soon as the crime occurs, we have a real opportunityto prevent the spawning of future violence in our streets and in our homes.
By taking the victimization of children seriously, weteach our communities to view crime against children as the serious problemthat it is. We also teach perpetrators that their actions will result insevere consequences. To effectively pursue and prosecute the offendersin cases involving child victims and child witnesses, investigators, prosecutors,and judges must adapt their practices to meet the needs of these childrenin an age-appropriate and sensitive manner. Reducing trauma to the childincreases the child's participation, leading to an increased chance ofa successful outcome to the investigation and prosecution.
After outlining the challenges the criminal justice systemfaces in responding to child victims and child witnesses, this monographpresents model practices and makes several recommendations. To improvetheir response to child victims and child witnesses, this monograph offersspecific recommendations to law enforcement personnel, prosecutors, andcriminal court judges and administrators. However, the following five recommendationsare offered to ***all*** criminal justice professionals to improvetheir response to children exposed to violence:-  To ensure the earliest possible recognition and reportingof crimes against children, all criminal justice professionals who comein contact with children should be: 1) trained to identify children whoare exposed to violence as victims or witnesses and 2) informed of theimpact of victimization on children.
-  Criminal justice professionals assigned to handle cases involvingchild victims and child witnesses should have more indepth training inforensic interviewing, child development, identification of abuse-relatedinjuries, the emotional and psychological impact of abuse, and legal issuesrelated to child victims and witnesses.
-  Children who witness violence should be provided the samelevel of victim assistance and special protections within the criminaland juvenile justice systems as child victims.
-  Criminal justice agencies handling cases involving childrenas victims and witnesses should work in collaboration with other agencieshaving responsibility for at-risk children, such as family and juvenilecourts, social services agencies, medical and mental health providers,and victim services agencies. When multiple agencies are involved in achild's life, communication among professionals is critical to ensure completeand accurate information is available to decision makers to ensure thechild is adequately protected.
-  Criminal justice professionals should adapt their practiceto recognize the developmental stages and needs of child victims and witnessesto ensure they are sensitively treated throughout the investigative andtrial process.
This monograph describes the best practices and programsthat focus on the most effective response to child victims and child witnessesby all those who work in our criminal justice system, beginning at thecrime scene and continuing through the prosecution. We hope that the information,skills, programs, and practices described in this document will serve asa blueprint for policymakers, criminal justice professionals, and all thosewho recognize the importance of effective intervention in the lives ofvictimized children as a way to prevent future crime and violence. 
**Children as Victims and Witnesses**
**Prevalence**"In all the wide-ranging discussionsabout crime over the last few years, there is an important fact that isnot often recognized or talked about: Children and youth are substantiallymore vulnerable to crime victimization in general than are adults. Notjust more likely to be offenders, young people are also more likely, muchmore likely, to be victims."2 Young people, particularly teens, commitabout 18 percent of crime but make up about 25 percent of victims. Annually,an estimated 1 million violent crimes involving child victims are reportedto the police, and another 1.1 million cases of child abuse are substantiatedby child protection agencies. As many as half a million children may beencountered by police during domestic violence arrests. Of the nation's22.3 million adolescents aged 12 to 17, approximately 1.8 million reportedhaving been victims of a serious sexual assault, 3.9 million reported havingbeen victims of a serious physical assault, and almost 9 million reportedhaving witnessed serious violence during their lifetimes.3
It appears that all children, regardlessof race or social class, are victimized at higher rates than adults inboth urban and rural areas. Children are more vulnerable because of theirsize, age, and dependency status. Children have little or no control overwho lives in their home or who associates with members of the household.Certain children are targeted more frequently, including those labeled"bad kids"; shy, lonely, and compliant children; preverbal and very youngchildren; and emotionally disturbed or "needy" adolescents. Children withphysical, emotional, or developmental disabilities are particularly vulnerableto victimization.
Children are victimized in multipleways - sexual and physical assaults, sexual exploitation (such as forcinga child or teenager into prostitution or posing for pornography), neglect,homicide, and abduction. Their assailants are frequently their parentsbut may be other family members, friends, acquaintances, caretakers, andstrangers. The closer the relationship of the child to the offender, thestronger the feelings of betrayal, particularly as time goes by. The longerthe abuse continues, the more difficult it is for the victim to recover.  2 Finkelhor, D., Ph.D.,"Children as Victims of Crime and Violence," Congressional Briefing, July14, 1998.
3 Kilpatrick, D., and Saunders, B.,"Prevalence and Consequences of Child Victimization," Crime Victims Researchand Treatment Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Research inBrief, National Institute of Justice, 1997. 
**Invisible Victims: Children Who WitnessViolence**
In this country, children witnessviolent crimes on a daily basis, including homicide, rape, assault, anddomestic violence. Even when child witnesses do not suffer physical injury,the emotional consequences of viewing or hearing violent acts are severeand long-lasting. In fact, children who witness violence often experiencemany of the same symptoms and lasting effects as children who are victimsof violence themselves, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Although child witnesses to violentcrimes are often on the scene when police respond, investigators may overlookboth the child's ability to provide information and the child's traumafrom witnessing the violence. Adults often minimize or deny the presenceof children at the scene while crimes are occurring. However, when childrenare questioned later about events they witnessed or heard, they are ableto provide, depending on their stage of development, a detailed descriptionof the events.4 It is not uncommon for adults - even some mental healthprofessionals - to minimize the impact on children of witnessing violenceand fail to provide appropriate intervention. Caretakers may mistakenlybelieve that young children will "forget" about the violent event if theyare "left alone" and not reminded of it. On the contrary, children needto talk about what they saw and their perceptions of the consequences.Further, child victims and witnesses need to be free from intimidationand persuasion aimed at pressuring them to change their description ofevents.
While exact numbers are not available,it is clear that each year hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of childrenwitness domestic violence and are present in many domestic violence incidentsto which police agencies respond. It is estimated that physical abuse ofchildren occurs in between a third and half of domestic violence situationsinvolving abuse of the mother. Children who are present during domesticviolence are at an increased risk for being murdered or physically injured.Children who are exposed to domestic violence experience feelings of terror,isolation, guilt, helplessness, and grief. Many children exhibit psychosomaticcomplaints such as headaches, stomach problems, and other medical problems.Children can experience problems with depression, anxiety, embarrassment,and, if exposed to violence for an extended period of time, ambivalence.Children act out what they see; their demonstration of violent behaviorcan be a manifestation of their exposure to domestic violence.5
Approximately 34 percent of rapesare estimated to occur in the victim's home where children are likely tobe present to see or hear the sexual assault of their mothers or caretakers.Depending on the age of the children and their knowledge of sexual activity,their perceptions of the assault and their reactions will vary significantly.Children who are present during a sexual assault are at significant riskfor developing post-traumatic stress disorder. Children may have recurrentand intrusive thoughts about the sexual assault and may reenact the eventin repetitive play. Feeling a loss of control and the inability to protecttheir mothers may leave children feeling anxious, depressed, vulnerable,and angry. After witnessing a sexual assault, children may become moreconcerned with their own safety and may exhibit more anger and irritabilitythan prior to the assault.6
Children witness many different typesof homicide. They may witness the death of a sibling, parent, another relative,a friend, or a stranger. When a child witnesses the fatal abuse of a siblingor parent, it is highly probable that the child knows the perpetrator intimatelyas a parent or other family member. A child who witnesses a homicide islikely to be traumatized and may experience a range of grief responses.The child may have recurrent and intrusive thoughts about the homicide,traumatic or anxiety-provoking dreams, other sleep disturbances, and adiminished interest in activities.4 Christianson, S. A., "EmotionalStress and Eyewitness Memory: A Critical Review," *Psychological Bulletin*,vol. 112, 1992.
5 Rhea, M. H., Chafey, K. H., Dohner,V. A., and Terragno, R., "The Silent Victims of Domestic Violence - WhoWill Speak*?" Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing*,vol. 9, no. 3, 1996.
6 Pynoos, R. S. and Nader, K., "ChildrenWho Witness the Sexual Assaults of Their Mothers," *Journal of the AmericanAcademy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry*, vol. 27, 1988.  **Long-Term Impact of Victimization and WitnessingViolence**
Exposure to violence as a victimor witness poses a serious threat to American children. In 1992, the NationalInstitute of Justice released a report, "The Cycle of Violence," by CathySpatz Widom, University of Albany, New York. The reported study revealeda significant link between victimization in childhood and later involvementin violent crimes, revealing a cycle of violence. Those who had been abusedor neglected as children were more likely to be arrested as juveniles andas adults for violent crimes. On average, abused and neglected childrenbegin committing crimes at younger ages, they commit nearly twice as manyoffenses as nonabused children, and they are arrested more frequently.Widom also interviewed a large number of people 20 years after their childhoodvictimization. Findings from this follow-up study suggest that the long-termconsequences of childhood victimization may also include mental healthproblems, educational difficulties, alcohol and drug abuse, and employmentproblems.
Saunders and Kilpatrick found thatapproximately 2 million adolescents, ages 12-17, appear to have sufferedfrom post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - a long-term mental healthcondition characterized by depression, anxiety, flashbacks, nightmares,and other behavioral and physiological symptoms. A significant number ofthese adolescents abuse alcohol and drugs as a method of coping with PTSD.Estimates are that 25 percent of disabled adults were disabled as a resultof physical or sexual victimization. In younger children, victimizationand PTSD can derail normal mental, emotional, and physical development.
Since trauma in children may notbe revealed for months or years, caretakers, service providers, and supportpersons should not postpone reporting abuse or providing assistance inthe form of support or therapy because they feel the child is "too young"to understand, appears to be unaffected, or suffered the victimizationyears ago. While a child's traumatic reaction to victimization cannot beprevented, it can be minimized when assistance is provided quickly.
Children who are victims of or witnessesto violence need to be identified quickly and their continued safety ensured.They need to be able to communicate what happened and to have the realityof their experience validated. Child victims and witnesses need emotionalsupport from nonoffending family members, their caretakers, the school,and the professionals involved in any investigation or civil or criminalcase. Child victims need age-appropriate therapeutic services from mentalhealth professionals who have training and experience working with violentvictimization and traumatized children.
Not all children who are exposedto violence develop symptoms associated with the trauma. Many children,supported by nonoffending family members and other support systems, canbe very resilient. The criminal justice response can be a critical turningpoint in defining how experiencing violence will impact a child's life.  
**Child Victims and Witnesses inthe Criminal Justice System**
Child victims and witnesses facesome difficult issues that may impact their ability to participate effectivelyin the criminal justice process. First, children are just that - children.The way they understand, communicate, and participate is determined bytheir developmental status. The adult professionals working with childrenmust be able and willing to adjust their approach to the child's developmentallevel. Since most law enforcement officers and prosecutors are not childdevelopment specialists, it becomes critical to do two things - to involveother professionals who can provide advice and assistance in dealing withchildren and to give police and prosecutors enough training to providethem a basic understanding of child development.
If the perpetrator is a family member,child protective services and the dependency court are likely to becomeinvolved. Disclosure of abuse or violence can result in total upheavalof the child's life. Caregivers and parents often initially disbelievethe child, minimize the acts, or withdraw affection. The suspected abusermay be arrested, causing havoc in the family, including loss of financialsupport and recriminations from family members. The child may be removedfrom the home and placed in foster care. Social service and legal systemresponses may feel like punishment to the child, prompting the child torecant the disclosure. A child victim may have tried to report previouslybut the report was not documented. The child may have been threatened withpersonal harm, harm to a loved one, or public embarrassment.
Children are more likely than adultvictims to blame themselves, particularly when they have a close bond withthe abuser. Perpetrators often tell their child victims that the abuseor violence was the child's fault. Since adults are powerful authorityfigures, the child is likely to accept that explanation. In a child's mind,it is easier for the child to believe he or she was somehow to blame forthe abuse than to recognize and accept that an adult who was supposed toprotect the child instead intentionally harmed the child.
Like adults, children find it upsettingto talk about traumatic events. As they talk about it, children may "re-live"the abuse and feel the associated emotions again. This is particularlytrue of younger children. Professionals should be sensitive to the potentialimpact of this "re-emergence" into the details of the crime. This "re-living"of the abuse may intensify the victim's trauma and generate behavior thatposes additional barriers to successful investigation and prosecution.
Most children do not make up storiesof abuse. False allegations are the exception. Professionals should notlet the possibility of a false report prevent a thorough investigation.They should know that it is far more likely a child will lie to concealabuse to protect the abuser.
Children disclose abuse and factsregarding traumatic events over time. The more comfortable a child becomeswith an adult, the more likely he or she is to provide additional information.This dynamic can present particular problems for police and prosecutorswho may face challenges to the child's credibility because the child didnot present complete information at the initial interview.  
**A System Designed For Adults**
The criminal justice system is notdesigned to accommodate the special developmental needs of children. Manypolice officers, attorneys, judges, and other criminal justice professionalsfind it difficult to work with children. Many children find the criminaljustice system intimidating, particularly the courtroom experience. Underthese circumstances, the child can be a poor witness, providing weak testimonyand contributing less information than needed to make or win the case.Also, the lengthy process of navigating the formal and adversarial criminaland civil justice systems can affect the child's psychological developmentin significant and long-lasting ways. Listed below are a number of court-relatedfactors that have been identified as stressful for child victims and witnesses:-  Multiple interviews and not using developmentallyappropriate language.
-  Delays and continuances.
-  Testifying more than once.
-  Lack of communication between professionals.
-  Fear of public exposure.
-  Lack of understanding of complex legalprocedures.
-  Face-to-face contact with the defendant.
-  Practices that are insensitive to developmentalneeds.
-  Harsh cross-examination.
-  Lack of adequate support and victimsservices.
-  Sequestration of witnesses who may besupportive to the child.
-  Placement that exposes the child tointimidation, pressure, or continued abuse.
-  Inadequate preparation for testifying.
-  Lack of evidence other than the testimonyof the child.7
It is clearly in the best interest ofthe child and criminal justice system to handle child victims and witnessesin the most effective and sensitive manner possible. A number of studieshave found the following: reducing the number of interviews of childrencan minimize psychological harm to child victims (Tedesco & Schnell,1987); testifying is not necessarily harmful to children if adequate preparationis conducted (Goodman et al., 1992; Oates et al., 1995; Whitcomb, Goodman,Runyon, and Hoak, 1994); and, having a trusted person help the child preparefor court and be with the child when he or she testified reduced the anxietyof the child (Henry, 1997).
To ensure children receive specialassistance, all professionals working with child victims and witnessesmust be willing to learn the basics of child development, to tailor theirmethods of practice to children, and to take advantage of the skills andservices of allied professionals such as victim-witness advocates and childinterview specialists. Studies indicate that the participation of victim-witnessadvocates in child sexual abuse cases appears to increase the percentageof guilty verdicts. One study found the conviction rate for child sexualabuse cases almost doubled (38 percent to 72 percent) after offices implementedchild victim-witness advocacy programs. The proportion of offenders receivingprison sentences also almost doubled, from 25 percent to 48 percent. Overthe same period, prison sentences increased from 9.24 years to 16.48 years(Dible and Teske, 1993). Research consistently suggests that prepared andrelaxed child victims and witnesses are more credible, enabling prosecutorsto present stronger cases and win more convictions.7 Lipovsky, J., and Stern, P.,"Preparing Children for Court: An Interdisciplinary View," Child Maltreatment,vol. 2, no. 2, May 1997. Working effectively with child victimsis emotionally demanding. While some adults have a natural ability to relatecomfortably to children, many do not, especially to children whose livesand experiences are different from their own. With training and guidance,however, all professionals can develop skills that improve their abilityto work with young victims and witnesses.  
**What Works: Innovative Practicesand Programs**
During the past 15 years, the criminaljustice system has seen a huge increase in the number of cases involvingchild victims and witnesses. Over time and with experience, many individualsand agencies have developed programs and practices that enhance the abilityof criminal justice professionals to handle these cases more effectivelyand to prevent unnecessary system-related trauma for children. These programsinclude multidisciplinary initiatives that do a number of things: theycoordinate the responses of the various agencies involved with the childvictims; they enhance support and representation for child victims in thecriminal justice and juvenile court system; and, they access treatmentprograms to help children recover and to help prevent future revictimization.Ultimately, improving practice with child victims benefits both the childvictims and the cause of justice. Some helpful strategies are listed below:-  Apply "child friendly" practices whenworking with children.
-  Use personnel trained in interviewingchildren to meet with the children as soon as possible after the event.Use standard interviewing protocols for child victims and witnesses.
-  Involve victim advocates and cliniciansin the early stages to help manage these cases and ensure that assistanceis provided to child victims on a continuing basis.
-  Prepare children for court in a mannerthat is developmentally appropriate and sensitive to the child's mentalhealth needs. In many cases, it may be necessary to have a clinician assessthe psychological capability of the child to testify in court.
-  Use a multidisciplinary, team approachwhen handling cases involving child victims and witnesses. Maintain goodcommunication with representatives from other agencies involved with thechild.
********
**Specialization and Training of Criminal JusticeProfessionals**
Police officers need to be trainedto recognize the situations in which children may be victims and witnesses.Both prosecutors and police officers need information and training on howto interview children. Police also need information on how to appropriatelyhandle children on crime scenes.
Law enforcement agencies and chiefprosecutors should designate specialists or create special units to handlechild victims and witnesses. Officers and prosecutors assigned to childcases need to have a basic understanding of normal child development andlimitations for children of different ages. Cases involving child victimsand witnesses require more time and resources than do most other typesof cases. A national survey of prosecutors found that of all cases, childabuse and adult sexual assault required the most time and resources.8 Tobe effective, professionals handling these cases should have reasonablecase loads and access to victim assistance professionals who also havespecial training for working with child victims.
Criminal justice agencies shouldprovide a "child friendly," developmentally appropriate place to work withchildren. Many police departments and prosecutors' offices set aside aroom designed to be comfortable and appropriate for interviewing or preparingchildren. Other agencies use existing facilities created for these purposes,which may be housed in children's hospitals or children's advocacy centers.
**Dallas Crimes Against Children Unit, Dallas,Texas**
The Dallas Police Department InvestigationsUnit has developed four specialty areas for crimes against children:-  The Child Abuse Unit works with fourother partner agencies at the Dallas Children's Advocacy Center to conductinvestigations in a child friendly environment in cases of physical, sexual,and fatal child abuse and neglect.
-  The Child Exploitation Unit investigateschild sexual offenses and exploitation involving nonfamily members.
-  The Internet Crimes Against ChildrenUnit handles Internet child pornography cases.
-  The Sex Offender Apprehension Program(SOAP) was developed in response to the Sex Offender Registration Law.By strictly enforcing compliance with the law, the SOAP arrested 600 registeredsex offenders within its first 2 years of operation and won the Weber-SeaveyAward for innovative law enforcement.
8 National Assessment Program:1994 Survey Results, National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department ofJustice, Washington, DC. **Use of Child Interview Specialists**
Conducting a forensic interview witha child about traumatic events the child experienced or witnessed can bedifficult. If done incorrectly, it can jeopardize a case. To obtain reliableinformation from a child, the interviewer must assess the developmentallevel of the child and adapt the interview accordingly. Professionals conductingforensic interviews should use consistent methods and should follow a testedprotocol. To be effective and legally defensible, any forensic interviewingprotocol should include techniques based on updated research.
It is extremely important that professionalswho interview child victims have adequate training. Cases involving veryyoung children (under age 6), severely abused children, children who havewitnessed extreme violence, and children with developmental disabilitiesrequire experienced, highly trained interviewers. Children's Advocacy Centersand hospital-based child protection teams are frequently good sources forfinding experienced interviewers and receiving training. Interview trainingis also offered at many regional and national child abuse conferences andon-site through organizations funded by the Department of Justice. (Seethe section at the end of this monograph for training and informationalresources).
The environment in which the childis interviewed is also very important. Many jurisdictions now have facilitiesthat allow observation through a two-way mirror, by closed-circuit television,or by videotaping the interview. The American Professional Society on theAbuse of Children (APSAC) has developed a series of practice guidelinesfor professionals on a variety of issues, including use of anatomical dolls,videotaping of child interviews, and medical evaluations of suspected childabuse victims. (For information on how to contact APSAC, see the resourcesection of this monograph.) 
**District of Columbia U.S. Attorney's Office**
When prosecutors in the U.S. Attorney'sOffice in the District of Columbia must work on a murder case involvinga young child as the only witness or if they must prosecute a case in whichchildren were the victims of violent crime, they can go down the hall forhelp. Working and closely with the prosecutors to conduct forensic interviewsin the Children's Advocacy Center and to meet with children to preparefor trial are Child Interview Specialists - Licensed Clinical Social Workerswith extensive experience working with children and knowledge of childdevelopment. By building relationships with the traumatized children, thespecialists are often able to get clear statements, bolster the children'sconfidence, and make it far more likely that child witnesses will be crediblein court. Equally important, the children have the opportunity to havetheir experience validated, to receive help understanding and verbalizingtheir feelings about the crime they experienced, and to be linked to communityresources for help with recovery from their ordeal. This demonstrationproject, funded by the Office for Victims of Crime, is being replicatedin other U.S. Attorneys' offices throughout the country. 
**Interacting with Children Who Witness DomesticViolence**
Children often see or hear domesticassaults. Children may become injured when they attempt to intervene andprotect the victim parent, or they may be intended targets of the assaultalong with the victim parent. When police arrive on the scene, childrenmay not be in plain view. Police officers responding to the crime shouldnot assume that the children did not hear or see the violence. It is importantfor the police officers to ascertain what the children saw or heard, whiletaking care not to interview the children in the presence of the perpetrator.In some States, committing domestic violence in the presence of childrenmay result in child endangerment charges or enhanced sentences. In mostcases, prosecutors should avoid using children as witnesses against theperpetrating parent since doing so may cause additional trauma to the child.
Prosecutors may encounter cases involvingsevere violence where a child may be the only witness or may be able toprovide crucial testimony. Criminal justice officials should take specialcare to let the child know that the trial and the outcome are not the child'sresponsibility, but the direct result of the violent parent's behavior.In some circumstances, children may be empowered by testifying-particularlyif the perpetrator is not a natural parent or if the child witness feelsvery negatively about the perpetrator. Children who witness domestic violenceneed support, as does their battered parent; both will need counselingand education about domestic violence.
Children who witness violence againsta sibling should not be ignored. Many of the same issues found in domesticviolence cases occur when the victim is another child. Children may feelresponsible for the violence or for not protecting the victim. Childrenwho witness the homicide of another family member will need special supportservices, including mental health services, from professionals trainedto work with highly traumatized children. 
**The San Diego Children's Hospital Family ViolenceProgram, San Diego, California**
The San Diego Children's HospitalFamily Violence Program assists battered mothers in their efforts to establisha safe environment for their children and themselves. Serving 120 womenand 350 children each year, the program pairs battered women and theirchildren with a two-person team of advocate and therapist. Mother and childreceive free intensive advocacy, legal consultation, and mental healthservices. The children are often treated for PTSD and receive a range ofpreventive and therapeutic interventions, including age appropriate playtherapy and teen groups. At intake, 88 percent of the program participantsreport physical assault. At the six-month followup, the level of physicalviolence the women experience has decreased to 10 percent. The proportionof children exposed to family violence decreased from 85 percent to 20percent. 
**Multidisciplinary Initiatives**
Cases involving child victims tendto involve multiple agencies and professionals from various disciplines.In such cases, both the professionals and the child victims benefit fromeffective communication and collaboration. Experience indicates that coordinatedresponses to child victim cases can:-  Reduce the number of interviews a childundergoes.
-  Minimize the number of people involvedin a case.
-  Enhance the quality of evidence discoveredfor criminal prosecution or civil litigation.
-  Provide information essential to familyand child protection service agencies.
-  Minimize the likelihood of conflictsamong agencies with different philosophies and mandates.9
Cases involving child witnesses alsoinvolve complex medical issues and family relationships. These cases ofteninvolve a number of people and systems, including family members, police,clergy, hospital staff, prosecutors, guardians ad litem, civil attorneys,criminal defense attorneys, child protection agencies, family courts, andtherapeutic clinicians. Prosecutors and victim advocates have to be particularlydiligent in managing the case to monitor and provide for the well-beingof the child witness.
Many communities have some form ofmultidisciplinary team (MDT) to effectively manage child abuse cases thatinvolve several agencies. The purpose of multidisciplinary child abuseteams is to reduce duplication of agency procedures and the number of childinterviews and to coordinate intervention and services. Apparent inconsistenciesin young victims' statements are often caused by the phrasing of questionsand differences in the way individuals interpret answers. Jointly conductedor monitored interviews can reduce inconsistencies and improve the qualityof information.
Sharing information, expertise, andexperiences with other professionals can improve the quality and outcomeof child victim cases. Law enforcement officers and prosecutors with limitedknowledge of child development stages should consult social workers andtherapists who have studied and are experienced with troubled children.They should also meet with pediatricians and medical examiners. Socialworkers and medical providers may consult with police officers who canprovide guidance on investigation and evidentiary issues.
Many States have laws requiring jointinvestigations and cooperation between law enforcement and child protectionagencies in child abuse cases. Other States have laws authorizing creationof multidisciplinary and multiagency child protection teams. Many moreStates have informal information-sharing arrangements. A formal MDT isnot necessary for effective collaboration and information sharing, butthe interagency relationships do need to be developed and institutionalizedthrough written policies or memoranda of understanding.9 Joint Investigations of ChildAbuse: Report of a Symposium, National Institute of Justice, U.S. Departmentof Justice (p. 3), July 1993.  **Children's Advocacy Centers**
One of the best examples of a teamapproach to handling child victim cases is children's advocacy centers.More than 350 communities have established or are in the process of developingchildren's advocacy center programs. These centers allow law enforcementofficers, child protection workers, prosecutors, victim advocates, medicalprofessionals, and therapists to coordinate the investigation, prosecution,and treatment of the child victim. A single or limited number of investigatoryinterviews are conducted in "child friendly" settings rather than multipleinterviews in intimidating environments. The children's advocacy centerapproach makes it easier for a team of professionals with varied expertiseto work together to ensure that maltreatment of children is responded toin the most appropriate way with the least amount of additional traumato child victims during the various stages of criminal justice intervention.Some centers are affiliated with medical centers and/or have facilitiesfor medical examinations. Many are equipped with one-way mirrors and havevideotaping capacity. All children's advocacy centers are furnished withyoung children in mind. The coordinated approach and team decision-makingprocesses also improve the quality of information and increase the numberof successful prosecutions. The Office of Juvenile Justice and DelinquencyPrevention (OJJDP) in the U.S. Department of Justice provides funds tocommunities seeking to establish or strengthen children's advocacy centers.The funds are administered by the National Children's Alliance, which maintainsa directory of existing centers (see the resource section of this monograph).  
**Child Death Review Teams**
Homicide is the leading cause ofnonillness death of children under age five. More than half of these childvictims are under age two. A significant number of these deaths are initiallymisidentified as SIDS or accidental deaths. Until recently, the death ofa child as a result of chronic child abuse or severe neglect was not recognizedunder most State laws as an intentional homicide, nor prosecuted as first-degreemurder. Today, more than 23 States and the District of Columbia have adopted"homicide by abuse" laws that do not require proof of specific intent tokill when a child's death results from abuse, thus allowing stiffer sentences,sanctions, and penalties. Child death review teams, first initiated inLos Angeles County in 1978, now exist in all 50 States and the Districtof Columbia and are charged with examining the circumstances surroundingcertain child deaths known or suspected to be preventable or the resultof child abuse or neglect. Child death review teams try to correctly determinewhen children have died from abuse or neglect, identifying risk factorsand systemic problems in hopes of preventing future deaths. Most teamsconsist of representatives from law enforcement, the prosecutor, childprotective services, the medical examiner or coroner's office, public healthagencies, and emergency medical personnel and pediatricians.
The ICAN National Center on ChildFatality Review was launched by the Interagency Council on Child Abuseand Neglect in 1996 with support from the Los Angeles Times Mirror Foundation,the U.S. Department of Justice, and others. The Center provides technicalassistance and information to communities seeking to develop or enhancea child death review team. The Center also facilitates the exchange ofinformation among teams across the country. The Center's repository ofinformation from case reviews provides a valuable resource for teams toidentify and to prevent future child fatalities, serious abuse and neglect,and accidental injuries and death. 
**Child Development - Community Policing**
The New Haven Department of PoliceServices and the Child Study Center at the Yale University School of Medicine,New Haven, Connecticut, have developed a unique collaborative program toaddress the psychological impact of family and community violence on childrenand families. The Child Development-Community Policing (CD-CP) programbrings together police officers and mental health professionals to provideeach other with training and consultation and to provide direct interdisciplinaryintervention for children who are victims, witnesses, or perpetrators ofviolent crime. Police officers can call for support from a mental healthclinician at the scene of a crime 24 hours a day. Clinicians respond immediatelyto work with traumatized children; if needed, they continue to work withthe child and the family in a clinic or school setting. Families who becomeinvolved in the CD-CP program can receive ongoing intervention and supportcoordinated by a multidisciplinary case-conferencing team. 
**CD-CP Addresses Gang Violence and Domestic Violence**
Through the Community Outreach Policein Schools (COPS) program, police officers and mental health professionalsoffer school-based support groups in the New Haven schools most affectedby gang violence. These groups help fifth and sixth graders learn aboutthemselves, understand their reactions to the violence around them, verbalizetheir fears, and learn to solve problems. Children who have participatedin this program show a marked change in their relationships with theircommunity police officers.
Focusing on the neighborhood of FairHaven, the CD-CP program is implementing an approach to intervention indomestic violence cases where children are present that combines: 1) externalauthority to interrupt the violence, 2) concrete support for mothers' andchildren's safety through legal advocacy and linkages to other social services,and 3) acute and follow-up counseling services for women and their children.This approach is based on the assumption that the best help for batteredwomen and their children is achieved by increasing their safety throughthe arrest of the perpetrator, heightened police presence, and realisticsafety planning. 
**Legal Representation for Child Victims**
For children who are the subjectof protection proceedings in juvenile or family court, the Child AbusePrevention and Treatment Act requires States to provide child victims withindependent representation. In some communities, children are representedin such cases by an attorney appointed to act as guardian ad litem. Courtsin hundreds of communities are also using volunteer court-appointed specialadvocates who perform independent assessments of the children's circumstancesand file their own reports with the court. The National Court-AppointedSpecial Advocate Association is funded by OJJDP to help courts establisha volunteer program and to standardize training for volunteer advocates.The American Bar Association has developed standards and practices forlawyers representing children in abuse and neglect cases. While most ofthese programs are available only in family or juvenile courts, there hasbeen an increase in the use of independent legal advocacy for child victimsin criminal court proceedings. 
**Reform of Juvenile/Family Court Handling ofChild Abuse and Neglect Cases**
In recent years, several importantdevelopments are helping improve the ability of juvenile and family courtsto work with greater effectiveness and speed in cases involving maltreatedchildren. State court systems in 48 States received funding from the Children'sBureau at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services to evaluateand improve operations in child abuse and neglect-related proceedings.Based upon administrative reforms undertaken by the Hamilton County, Ohio,Juvenile and Family Court, the National Council of Juvenile and FamilyCourt Judges in 1995 developed and published a document entitled "ResourceGuidelines: Improving Court Practice in Child Abuse and Neglect Cases."This publication sets forth the essential elements of properly conductedcourt hearings and describes how courts can more efficiently manage theirwork to ensure each child receives a fair, thorough, and speedy court process.
Using the "Resource Guidelines" asa blueprint, the Child Victims Model Courts Project of the National Councilof Juvenile and Family Court Judges and the OJJPD focus on improving howcourts handle child abuse and neglect cases. Since 1995, eighteen courtshave adopted the model court practices developed in Hamilton County, Ohio.The model courts practices are characterized by the use of alternativedispute resolution; community-based services; multidisciplinary, court-ledmeetings and training; court calendar improvements; assignment of a singlemagistrate for the life of the case; more substantive preliminary hearings;and, increased representation for families and children.
Criminal courts can learn from theexample of the juvenile and family court innovations to improve systemresponses to children. Children who are crime victims or witnesses maybe involved in both juvenile and criminal courts and benefit from closecoordination between the two systems. 
**Model Children's Court, El Paso, Texas**
The Honorable Patricia Macias, LeadJudge for the El Paso Children's Court, guides that community's effortto improve the court's response to abused and neglected children. In allcases requiring foster care placement for abused or neglected children,the Court involves local networks of professionals to provide "front-loaded"services to increase the likelihood of safe permanent homes. A new assessmentfoster home project has been established to provide a nurturing home environmentwhere the child's special needs can be immediately identified. To ensurethat the child's support system is fully involved in the proceedings, theCourt provides simultaneous language interpretation for all non-English-speakingcourt participants, and foster parents testify at each hearing and participatein permanency transition teams. Through such innovations, the court hasstreamlined court procedures and reduced the length of time children spendin foster care. 
**Use of Victim Assistance Professionals**
Numerous victim assistance programsprovide special support services for child victims who are involved incriminal justice system cases. Research indicates that participation ofa victim-witness advocate appears to increase guilty verdicts in sexualabuse cases, suggesting that better prepared and more relaxed child victimsand child witnesses are more credible at trial (Dible & Teske, 1993).Advocates working with child victims and child witnesses should have specializedtraining and experience with abused and traumatized children. A child advocateor a child interview specialist may provide a great deal of assistance,including the following: interview or help interview child victims or childwitnesses; assess safety issues; assess the mental condition and developmentallevel of the child; as necessary, refer the child for more in-depth psychologicalassessment; participate in support groups or individual counseling; explainthe legal process to the child and the nonoffending caretaker; make crisisintervention and social services referrals; conduct court preparation;provide logistical support for the child victim and family, including transportationand assistance with medical and therapy appointments; and, support thevictim during trial, including accompanying the child to court when heor she testifies. Advocates can also help the victim and/or caretaker completevictim impact statements for sentencing, if desired. Victim advocates canhelp monitor the child's situation and alert prosecutors when the childis not supported, when stay-away orders are violated, or when the childis threatened or coerced into recanting. Many police departments and prosecutors'offices have their own victim assistance units and advocates who work closelywith officers and prosecutors. 
**Preparing Children for Court: Court School Programs**
Every witness needs some preparationprior to testifying. To bring a child into the complex and often stressfulprocess of testifying in court without careful preparation is unthinkable.A child who knows what to expect and is prepared for his or her role willprovide more credible testimony. Child victims and witnesses require extratime and special effort to prepare for court. There are two primary methodsof preparing a child - individual preparation by the prosecuting attorneyor through a group process that focuses on general orientation programs,such as court school. Individual preparation is best handled by the caseprosecutor and a victim advocate. It should be tailored to the specificage and needs of the child. Specific case issues are covered in this typeof preparation. Many prosecutors will take the child witness to an emptycourtroom to familiarize the child with the setting.
Court school programs are designedto orient the child victim and child witness to the court process and tothe role of the witness. These programs are usually facilitated by victimadvocates and prosecutors and include a group of children scheduled totestify in the near future. Most programs include role-playing, a courtroomtour, and opportunities to practice answering questions in the courtroom.Individual cases are never discussed, and the program is designed to avoidjeopardizing the child's testimony in any way. Court school programs mayuse props, such as puppets, child-sized judges robes, coloring/activitybooks about court, and a wooden model of a courtroom with moveable figures.Court school programs help reduce anxiety in children and normalize whatmay have been a strange and frightening process. Many programs includea concurrent session for nonoffending parents and caretakers to provideinformation about the court process and how they can support their children. 
**Kids' Court, King County, Seattle, Washington**
In King County, Washington, Kids'Court and Teen Court empower child crime victims and their parents througheducation about the legal process. In the five-hour Saturday court school,children meet with a judge and prosecutor and participate in activitiesthat help them understand the roles of court personnel, discuss their concernsabout testifying in court, and feel comfortable in the courtroom. Judgesand prosecutors lead discussions about the importance of telling the truthand answer children's questions about the upcoming trial. Children andtheir parents learn stress reduction techniques to help them through thetrial. Kids' Court has developed a comprehensive curriculum and has servedover 1,200 children in the last 9 years. It is being replicated in severalcities throughout the United States and abroad. 
**Special Courtroom Accommodations**
Judges should make efforts to ensurethat the trial process and courtroom atmosphere help the child witnessesprovide true and accurate information without unnecessary revictimization.Judges need to know and understand the special developmental needs of children.Judges can do many things to prevent trauma to children in court, suchas making sure all objections are argued outside the hearing or presenceof the child, requiring that all attorneys use developmentally appropriatelanguage when questioning child witnesses, and arranging the courtroomto be less intimidating for the child witness. A simple example of howto arrange the courtroom to avoid intimidating the child witness wouldbe to allow the child to sit in a child-sized chair or to allow the childto sit next to a support person. Continuances should be limited unlessit is in the best interest of the particular child or in the cause of justice.Speedy resolution of child victim cases should be encouraged. In Federalcases, when a child will be called to give testimony, judges can designatethe case as being of special public importance which gives the case precedenceover all others on the judge's calendar (18 U.S.C. 3509(j)). Safe and separatewaiting areas should be available to prevent the child from encounteringthe defendant and the defendant's family. If a separate waiting area isimpossible, a victim-witness advocate should remain with the child andcaretaker to monitor the situation. Children should be allowed to havea support person in court with them. Judges should take care to ensurethat the defense attorney does not unnecessarily subpoena support persons.
Courts should consider alternativesto live testimony. If the child would be too traumatized by seeing thedefendant in the courtroom, prosecutors should consider making a motionfor him or her to testify via closed circuit television. The use of closedcircuit television has advantages and disadvantages. It may help reducetrauma and enable the child to testify more effectively, but it may beless compelling than a child's live presence in the courtroom. Prosecutingattorneys should weigh the advantages and disadvantages of testimony viaclosed circuit television on a case-by-case basis, always keeping in mindthe level of trauma to the child. The Federal courts and many States allowvideotaped testimony of children under special circumstances; some Statesinclude tapes of original forensic interviews with children. These videotapesmay be particularly useful when child victims recant their testimony. 
**Los Angeles County Children's Court, Los Angeles,California**
Children's Court in Los Angeles County,California, was built with the 550 children who come to court each dayin mind. Courtrooms have child-size proportions, a lower judge's bench,no jury box, and limited seating. Children who await hearings are protectedfrom contact with offenders through private waiting rooms and seating areasthat carry the Disney Channel and other children's programming. Duringthe inevitable delays, an arts program and play rooms safely occupy thechildren. On site, immediate services and personnel, including school systempersonnel, mental health providers, and victim advocates are availablefor planning and consultation with children and families. Dependency Courtadministrators insist that more important than the new child-friendly facilityis the court's philosophy that supports children's involvement in a securecourt environment in all court proceedings affecting them. 
**Victim Impact Statements: In a Child's Words**
A victim impact statement (VIS) froma child can be a powerful evidentiary tool, bringing the full impact ofthe crime home to the judge or jury in a potent way. Clearly, child victimsshould not be forced to make a VIS nor be made uncomfortable or fearfulwhile making one. The process of making the VIS actually becomes an importantstep in the healing process for many children.
In most States and the District ofColumbia, children have the right to present a VIS at the time of sentencingor to have an adult present a statement on their behalf. Since most childrenneed help preparing a VIS, a victim advocate can work with the child todevelop one that is accurate and age-appropriate. Knowledgeable professionalsshould assess the substantial body of research documenting the initialand long-term psychological effects of abuse on children and be sure topresent this evidence as part of the VIS.
In most cases, the primary impactof abuse is psychological, not financial. However, the treatment of medicaland psychological damage resulting from the abuse will often have a significantfinancial impact on the victim and the victim's family. Therefore, thefinancial impact portion of the victim impact statement should cover expendituresfor medical treatment and psychological counseling expenditures. A restitutionorder should be requested for these expenditures, with contingencies forpossible future medical and psychological expenses related to the crime.
While most VIS are technical documentsunlikely to be reviewed directly by children, many children understandand like the idea of writing a letter to the judge describing what happenedand how they were affected. Very young children can be encouraged to drawpictures of how they feel about the crime, themselves, or the defendant.Victim-witness advocates may wish to ask the child questions and transcribethe answers. Some courts allow audiotapes or videotapes of children makingstatements during an interview. Oral statements by the child at sentencingcan be effective in helping judges understand the crime's impact. If aseverely traumatized or injured child cannot provide a statement or drawing,the caretaker, physician, or therapist should prepare the primary statementand present it as part of an information package. Copies of research articlesthat document the short- and long-term impact of victimization on childrencan be attached. Nonoffending parents are usually good sources of informationon how the abuse affected the child, the siblings, and the entire family.Siblings are often forgotten secondary victims and should be allowed toparticipate in the process or make their own VIS. Older children shouldbe encouraged to write a letter to the judge expressing their feelingsabout the crime and the defendant. Some adolescent victims express theirfeelings and thoughts related to their abusive experience by keeping journals,writing poetry, or creating artwork. Copies of these can be presented aspart of their VIS. 
**Recommendations for Improvingthe Response to Children Exposed to Violence**
**Recommendations for All Criminal Justice Professionals**(1) To ensure the earliest possiblerecognition and reporting of crimes against children, all criminal justiceprofessionals who come in contact with children should be trained to identifychildren who are exposed to violence as victims or witnesses and shouldbe informed of the impact of victimization.
(2) Criminal justice professionalsassigned to handle cases involving child victims should have more indepthtraining in forensic interviewing, child development, identification ofabuse-related injuries, the emotional and psychological impact of abuse,and legal issues related to child victims and witnesses.
(3) Children who witness violenceshould be provided the same level of victim assistance and special protectionswithin the criminal and juvenile justice systems as child victims.
(4) Criminal justice agencies handlingcases involving children as victims and witnesses should work in collaborationwith other agencies having responsibility for at-risk children, such asfamily and juvenile courts, social services agencies, medical and mentalhealth providers, and victim services agencies. When multiple agenciesare involved in a child's life, communication among professionals is criticalto ensure complete and accurate information is available to decisionmakersto ensure the child is adequately protected.
(5) Criminal justice professionalsshould adapt their practice to recognize the developmental stages and needsof child victims and witnesses to ensure they are sensitively treated throughoutthe investigative and trial process. **Specific Recommendations for Law Enforcement Agencies**(1) All officers should have atleast basic training in recognizing and responding to children who areabused, neglected, or exposed to violence.
(2) Agency heads should speciallyassign officers to handle cases involving child victims and witnesses,ensuring these officers receive indepth training in interviewing children,identifying injury, child development, and understanding the impact ofvictimization and witnessing violence on children.
(3) Police agencies should have writtenchild abuse policies that provide sufficient guidance for making importantdecisions, such as whether to arrest a suspected perpetrator, whether toplace a child in protective custody, and how to deal with unusual or difficultsituations.
(4) Law enforcement investigatorsshould work in collaboration with medical and mental health providers,child protective services agencies, and victim assistance providers. **Specific Recommendations for Prosecutors' Offices**(1) Chief prosecutors should ensurethat cases involving child victims and witnesses receive priority and arehandled as expeditiously as possible, minimizing unnecessary delays. Theyshould ensure that child victims and witnesses receive support servicesas they go through the criminal justice process.
(2) Prosecutors should be speciallyassigned to handle cases involving child victims and witnesses, receivingindepth training on issues related to victimization of children, includingmedical and legal issues.
(3) Prosecutors should ensure thatchild victims and witnesses are adequately and appropriately prepared forthe court process and testifying.
(4) Prosecutors should work in collaborationwith medical and mental health providers, child protective services agencies,and victim assistance providers.  **Specific Recommendations for Criminal Court Judgesand Administrators**(1) Judges should ensure that casesinvolving children as victims and witnesses receive high priority and arehandled as expeditiously as possible, minimizing unnecessary delays andcontinuances.
(2) Judges who handle cases involvingchild victimization should receive adequate training in the dynamics ofchild maltreatment as well as the impact of victimization and witnessingviolence on children and child development.
(3) Judges and court administratorsshould ensure that the developmental needs of children are recognized andaccommodated in the arrangement of the courtroom. Separate and safe waitingareas should be provided for child victims and witnesses.
(4) Judges should ensure that thedevelopmental stages and needs of children are recognized and addressedthroughout the court process by requiring that all attorneys use age-appropriatelanguage, by timing hearings and testimony to meet the attention span andphysical needs of the child, and by allowing the use of testimonial aidswhen necessary to facilitate the ability of the child to testify.
(5) Children should be presumed tobe competent to testify.
(6) Judges should be flexible inallowing the child to have a support person present while testifying andshould guard against unnecessary sequestration of support persons.
(7) Judges should ensure that childvictims and witnesses, or their support persons, have an opportunity topresent victim impact information. Judges should allow the victim impactinformation to be presented in a format consistent with the child's ageand developmental level. **Conclusion**
We ask a great deal of children whohave been victims or witnesses to crime when we ask them to participatein the criminal justice system. It is a system designed for adults, notfor children. We expect young children to take part in a process that manyadults find complex, confusing, and intimidating. We want children to answerdetailed questions about terrifying events in the presence of strangersand the defendant. If an investigation and a trial are a search for thetruth, then we must do everything we can to enable children to tell whathappened to them as clearly and completely as possible. Just as the criminaljustice system makes accommodations for victims and witnesses who do notspeak English or who have physical handicaps, it must also make accommodationsfor children. It is important that criminal justice professionals adapttheir practice to the special needs of child victims and witnesses. Ifchildren cannot participate effectively in the criminal justice system,it may be impossible to protect them from future victimization and to holdthe offenders accountable for their actions. 
**Resources for Information andTraining**
The following professional organizationsand clearinghouses provide information on research, best practice, andtraining opportunities.
**American Professional Societyon the Abuse of Children (APSAC)**407 S. Dearborn Street, Suite 1300Chicago, IL 60605312-554-0166E-mail: APSACAdmn@adl.com
**Child Victim Model Court Project**National Council of Juvenile andFamily Court JudgesP.O. Box 8970Reno, NV 89507775-784-6012
**National Center for Child FatalityReview**4024 Durfee AvenueEl Monte, CA 91732626-455-4585****
**National Center for Missing andExploited Children**2101 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 550Arlington, VA 22201-53021-800-THE-LOST (1-800-843-5678)World Wide Web: http://www.missingkids.orgInternet E-mail: 77431.177@compuserve.com
**National Center for Prosecutionof Child Abuse/American Prosecutors Research Institute**99 Canal Place, Suite 510Alexandria, VA 22314703-739-0321
**National Center for State andLocal Law Enforcement Training**Fox Valley Technical CollegeCriminal Justice DepartmentP.O. Box 2277Appleton, WI 54913-22771-800-648-4966
**National Children's Alliance**1319 F Street, NW, Suite 1001Washington, DC 20004-11061-800-239-9950
**National Clearinghouse on ChildAbuse and Neglect Information**300 C Street, SWWashington, DC 20447703-385-7565 or 1-800-FYI-3366E-mail: nccanch@calib.com
**National Court Appointed SpecialAdvocate (CASA) Association**100 W. Harrison Street, North Tower,Suite 500Seattle, WA 981191-800-628-3233206-270-0072World Wide Web: http://www.nationalcasa.org
**National Criminal Justice ReferenceService (NCJRS)**1600 Research BoulevardRockville, MD 20850E-mail: askncjrs@ncjrs.orgJuvenile Justice Clearinghouse 1-800-638-8736Office for Victims of Crime ResourceCenter 1-800-627-6872Fax: 301-251-5212
**National Organization of BlackLaw Enforcement Executives (NOBLE)**4609 Pinecrest Office Park Drive,Suite FAlexandria, VA 22312703-658-1529
**Police Executive Research Forum(PERF)**1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite930Washington, DC 20036202-466-7820 
**Innovative Programs**
**Child Development-Community Policing(CD-CP) Program**Yale Child Study Center47 College Street, Suite 212New Haven, CT 06520203-785-7047
**Dallas Police Department**Youth and Family Crimes Division106 S. Harewood Street, Room 225Dallas, TX 75201214-670-5936
**King County Kids' Court**3020 Issaguah Pine Lake, SE, Suite514Issaguah, WA 98029206-386-KIDS or 206-296-9067
**San Diego Children's HospitalFamily Violence Program**3020 Children's Way, Mail Code 5087San Diego, CA 92123619-495-7719
**U.S. Attorney's Office, Districtof Columbia**Child Interview Specialists555 4th Street, NWWashington, DC 20001202-305-4882  
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This document was last updated on April 19, 2001