# Patent

## Title
Securing multifactor authentication

## Abstract

In certain embodiments, a system receives a request sent by a device to authorize an operation. The system initiates display of an image encoding a challenge code to allow the device to capture the image and extract the challenge code. The device calculates a response using the challenge code and a seed, and sends the response to the system. In certain examples, the device may send the request over a first channel and the response over a second channel distinct from the first channel. In other examples, the device displays the response and a user inputs the response into a computing system to send to the system.

## Background
BACKGROUND
Web service systems may require an entity to be authenticated in order to access a service. Authentication may use one, two, or more independent factors to identify an entity, such as a user. As an example, the user may be required to provide information, such as a passcode. As another example, the user may be required to have a device, such as an authentication device. As yet another example, the user may be required to provide biometric data.
In certain situations, the authentication device may generate information required to access a web service. For example, the authentication device may calculate a one-time passcode that the user enters into a computing system. If the one-time passcode is valid, the user may be able to gain access to the web service through the computing system.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a system that may be used to provision a device to be an authentication device and/or allow a device to authorize an operation;
FIG. 2 illustrates an example of an overview of a method for providing authentication information via an image that may be performed by the system of FIG. 1;
FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a method for provisioning a device to be an authentication device that may be performed by the web services system of FIG. 1; and
FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a method for allowing a device to authorize an operation that may be performed by the web services system of FIG. 1.



DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS
Certain embodiments may provide for efficient and/or effective provisioning of an authentication device. In certain embodiments, a web services system may receive a request to provision a device, such as a telephone, as an authentication device. The web services system may initiate display of an image that communicates a key. The telephone may capture (for example, photograph) the image, extract the key from the image, and then send key information associated with the key to the web services system. If the key information is valid, the web services system may send a seed to the telephone, which the telephone may use to generate one-time passcodes. The embodiments may be more efficient than requiring a user to read the key from an image and then manually input the key information. The embodiments may be more effective if they avoid user error in reading and/or inputting the key information.
Certain embodiments may allow a device to authorize an operation. In the embodiments, a server may receive a request sent by a device to authorize an operation. The device has a seed. Display of an image encoding a challenge code is initiated to allow the device to capture the image and extract the challenge code. A response authorizing the operation is calculated by the device using the challenge code and the seed. The response is sent by the device to the server. In certain examples, the request may be received over a first channel, and the response may be received over a second channel distinct from the first channel. In other examples, the response is displayed by the device and input by the user.
FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a system that may be used to provision a device to be an authentication device and/or allow a device to authorize an operation. In the illustrated example, system 10 includes a device 20, a computing system 22, a web services system 24, an application server 26, and a communication network 28 coupled as illustrated.
In certain embodiments, web services system 24 receives a request to provision device 20, such as a telephone, as an authentication device. Web services system 24 initiates display of an image communicating a key to allow the telephone to photograph the image and to send the key information. Web services system 24 receives the key information and determines that the key information is valid. In response to the determination, web services system 24 sends a seed to the telephone to provision the telephone to be an authentication device. The telephone can use the seed to generate one-time passcodes to access a service of web services system 24.
In certain embodiments, web services system 24 receives a request sent by device 20 to authorize an operation. Web services system 24 initiates display of an image encoding a challenge code to allow device 20 to capture the image and extract the challenge code. Device 20 calculates a response using the challenge code and a seed, and sends the response to web services system 24. In certain examples, device 20 may send the request over a first channel and the response over a second channel distinct from the first channel. In other examples, device 20 displays the response and a user inputs the response into computing system 22.
Web services system 24 may include one or more computing systems that provide a resource or perform an operation. An example of a resource is a system or a web service that provides communication between devices over a communication network. Web services system 24 may control access to the resource by requiring an entity requesting access to provide authentication information. An operation may be performed for a user in response to authorization from the user. Examples of operations include providing a resource to the user and performing transaction on a resource (such as a bank account) of the user.
In the illustrated example, web services system 24 includes an interface (IF) 40, logic 42, and one or more memories 44. Logic 42 includes one or more processors 46 and applications such as a provisioning module 48, secret generators 50, and an authentication module 52. Provisioning module 48 may be used to provision device 20 to be an authentication device to allow device 20 to generate authentication information. Examples of methods for provisioning device 20 are described in more detail with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3.
Secret generators 50 generate secret information, such as authentication information, and then generate an image that can communication the secret information. Examples of authentication information include passcodes, seeds, and key information such as keys. A passcode may be a string of one or more characters that may be used for authentication, for example, to prove identity and/or gain access to a resource. A character may be a unit of information that may correspond to a grapheme or a symbol such as a letter, number, or punctuation mark. Seeds and keys are described in more detail below.
Authentication information may be used for authentication to access a resource, or may be used to calculate or obtain additional authentication information used to access the resource. For example, authentication information may include a passcode, a value used to calculate a passcode, or key information that may be used to retrieve a passcode. In certain embodiments, authentication information may comprise seed information and/or key information. In certain embodiments, a user may be requested to input user authentication information, such as a passcode, a signature, and/or biometric data (such as a fingerprint, a voice sample, and/or facial feature).
In the example, secret generators 50 include a key generator 60 and a seed generator 62. Key generator 60 generates key information that may include a key itself, information used to generate and/or obtain a key, or information generated using a key. A key may be a sequence with pseudo-random characteristics that can be used as an encryption key at one end of communication, and as a decryption key at the other end. Examples of keys include public/private key sets. In certain embodiments, key information may be used to obtain other authentication information, such as a seed. In certain embodiments, a key may be a one-time use key that can be used only once. In other embodiments, a key may be used more than once.
Seed generator 62 generates seed information that may include a seed itself or information used to generate and/or obtain a seed. A seed may be used to calculate one-time passcodes. A one-time (or one-use or single-use) passcode may be a passcode that is valid for a short period of time and/or that may be used only once. Techniques for generating passcodes, such as one-time passcodes, from a seed is described in more detail below.
In the example, secret generators 50 also includes an image generator 68. Image generator 68 generates images that communicate authentication information. An image may include one or more frames. For example, an image may be a photograph with one frame or a video with a sequence of frames. An image may include any suitable number of pixels, where each pixel may have any suitable pixel value. For example, an image may have an array of m×n pixels, where each pixel may have a value representing a particular intensity and/or wavelength. As another example, an image may be a sequence of frames, each frame having a set of one, two, or more pixels, where the set of pixels have one of two (or more) possible values, such as a light or dark value.
An image may communicate information in any suitable manner. As an example, an image may be an optical machine-readable representation of information where patterns of the image correspond to particular information. Examples of such images include graphical codes (such as barcodes or quick response (QR) codes) that have particular geometric patterns (such as squares, dots, polygons, bars, or other shapes) that can be optically scanned to obtain the information.
As another example, an image may include a human-readable representation of information that may be captured and translated into machine-readable information using optical character recognition. For example, such an image may include human-readable characters that can be photographed or scanned and translated to machine-readable information.
As another example, an image may include a digital watermark that embeds information into the image via subtle changes to the image data. For example, steganography hides the information within an object that can conceal the information. Steganographic coding may be placed inside of a transport layer, such as a document file, image file, program, or protocol.
In certain embodiments, an image may comprise any suitable sensor data, such as visual data, audio data, and/or other sensor data output by any suitable sensor of an authentication device. For example, an image may comprise sound, with or without a visual image.
An image may communicate any other suitable information that may be extracted by device 20 and may be sent to web services system 24. For example, an image may communicate an account identifier. A user may have different accounts for different vendors, applications, etc. As another example, a website identifier may be communicated to identify the website for which device 20 is requesting access. As another example, an image may include instructions for contacting a server, such as application server 26.
Authentication module 52 authenticates an entity attempting to access a resource of web services system 24. Authentication module 52 may request authentication information to authenticate the entity and may check whether the authentication information is valid. For example, valid key information may be required to obtain a seed, and a one-time passcode generated from the seed may be required to access a resource.
Device 20 may be any suitable device that can be provisioned to be an authentication device. In certain embodiments, device 20 may be a general computing device, which may comprise a computing system. In certain embodiments, device 20 may be a mobile device, which may be a handheld device that can communicate wirelessly. Examples of mobile devices include telephones (such as cellular, mobile, or smart), digital assistants (such as personal or enterprise), and gaming devices. In other embodiments, device 20 may be a dedicated authentication device that has image capture capabilities.
An authentication device may be a hardware security token that generates passcodes such as one-time passcodes. An authentication device may be used with zero, one, or more other independent authentication factors. For example, in addition to information generated by an authentication device, a passcode and/or biometric data may be required in order to access a resource.
In certain embodiments, device 20 may capture an image communicating secret information and/or extract the information from the image to yield authentication information that may be used to access a service of web services system 24. In the illustrated example, device 20 includes an image capture module 30 and a secret extractor 32. An image capture module 30 may include a camera, microphone, and/or scanner. Image capture module 30 may capture an image of an object by recording visible or other light reflected and/or emitted from the object or by recording sound. Image capture module 30 may then output image data generated from the recorded light, which may be used to reproduce and/or analyze the image. Device 20 may or may not have a network connection.
Secret extractor 32 extracts authentication information and may use the authentication information or may calculate additional authentication information from the extracted authentication information to access a service. The additional authentication information may be calculated by applying a mathematical function to the extracted authentication information. In certain embodiments, secret extractor 32 calculates passcodes from a seed by applying a mathematical function to the seed and a parameter that changes. Examples of the changing parameter include a time value (such as a current time), a counter value, a previous passcode, or a challenge code sent by web services system 24.
Computing system 22 may comprise any suitable computing system, and may include one or more interfaces, logic, and one or more memories, which are described in more detail below. Computing system 22 include a display 38, which may be a hardware device that can display an image. In certain embodiments, computing system 22 may receive image data and display an image on display 38 according to the image data.
Application server 26 may be a server that provides applications to device 20. In certain embodiments, application server 26 may be an application store that sells an application to device 20 for payment. In certain situations, it may not be desirable for application server 26 to provide applications that include secret information. Accordingly, device 20 may first obtain the application from application server 26 and then obtain secret information from web services system 24.
FIG. 2 illustrates an example of an overview of a method for providing authentication information via an image that may be performed by the system of FIG. 1. In the example, image generator 68 generates an image that communicates authentication information. Image generator 68 facilitates display of the image by sending image data to computing system 22 to display on display 38 Display 38 displays the image. Image capture module 30 of device 20 captures the image. Secret extractor 32 of device 20 receives the image data and extracts the authentication information from the image data. Device 20 then sends the authentication information to authentication module 52 of web services system 24 in order to facilitate access to a service of web services system.
In certain embodiments, web services system 24 receives a request for certification for device 20 to send messages to a server. The request may be generated by a third-party application on device 20 that sends web service requests to the server. Web services system 24 initiates display of an image communicating certification information to allow the device 20 to photograph the image to use the certification information to send the messages to the server. The certification information may be used by the device to calculate a certification and key information.
In certain embodiments, web services system 24 initiates display of an image communicating a challenge code. Device 20 photographs the image to extract the challenge code. Device 20 calculates a response from the authentication information and the challenge code and sends the response to web services system 24. Web services system 24 may allow access based on the response. The challenge-response may using any suitable protocol, such as the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP).
In certain embodiments, a response may be calculated according to a physical feature associated with the device, such as temperature, location, acceleration, and/or other feature of the device or of the environment surrounding the device. For example, a response code may be calculated according to the physical location of the device. The location may be determined by a location detector that detects location using GPS sensing or proximity to networks, such as wireless or Bluetooth networks. In a certain example, the device may refuse to calculate a response outside a particular area.
FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a method for provisioning device 20 as an authentication device. The method may be performed by software downloaded onto device 20 and/or web services system 24 of FIG. 1. In certain embodiments, web services system 24 may comprise one or more computing systems that perform the method. For example, one computing system may perform the method, or one computing system may perform a portion of the method and one or more other computing systems may perform other portions of the method.
Computing system 22 requests initiation of a provisioning process at step 110. For example, a user may use computing system 22 to log onto a website of web services system 24 and to access a security credentials page of the website. Provisioning module 48 of web services system 24 sends an instruction to obtain an authentication device application from application server 26 at step 114. For example, the security credentials page may display an instruction to download the authentication device application and provide the website address of application server 26.
Device 20 requests the application from application server 26 at step 118. For example, device 20 may access application server 26 using the given website address. In some situations, application server 26 may be an application store, so device 20 may provide payment in exchange for the application. Application server 26 sends the application to the authentication device at step 120. In certain embodiments, the application does not include secret information needed to provision device 20 as an authentication device, so device 20 may still need to obtain the secret information.
Computing system 22 sends a request to provision device 20 as an authentication device, and web services system 24 receives the request at step 124. Key generator 60 of web services system 24 generates a key at step 128. For example, key generator 60 may generate a pseudo-random key. Image generator 68 of web services system 24 generates an image that communicates the key at step 130. For example, image generator 68 may generate image data with a digital watermark that can be used to display an image that communicates the key.
Web services system 24 initiates display of the image at step 134. In certain embodiments, display of the image may be initiated by sending image data that can be used by a display to generate the image. For example, image services system 24 may send the image data to computing system 22 to display the image. Display 38 of computing system 22 displays the image at step 138. Image capture module 30 of device 20 captures the image at step 140. For example, device 20 may photograph the image to yield image data. Secret extractor 32 extracts the key at step 144. For example, secret extractor 32 determines the key from the digital watermark of the image data.
Device 20 sends key information associated with the key to web services system 24 at step 148. The key information may include the key itself or a signature calculated from the key. For example, device 20 may send the key information using a web service call. The key information is determined to be valid at step 150. For example, web services system 24 may check that the key information conforms to accepted parameters, has been assigned, and/or has not been previously used. In certain embodiments, steps 148 and 150 may be omitted. In these embodiments, web services system 24 may send a seed that is encrypted under the key information, and device can use the key information to decrypt the seed.
In response to the determination, web services system 24 sends a seed to device 20 at step 154 to provision device 20 as an authentication device. The seed may be used to generate one-time passcodes (OTPs). Device 20 generates a one-time passcode from the seed to access a website of web services system 24 at step 158. For example, device 20 may apply a mathematical function to the seed to generate the one-time passcode.
Computing system 22 receives the one-time passcode at step 160. For example, the user may read the one-time passcode from device 20 and input the one-time passcode into computing system 22. Computing system 22 sends the one-time passcode, and web services system 24 receives the one-time passcode at step 164. Web services system 24 authenticates the user using the one-time passcode at step 168. Web services system 24 may then allow the user to access a service of system 24.
FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a method for allowing device 20 to authorize an operation. The method may be performed by software downloaded onto device 20 and/or web services system 24 of FIG. 1. In certain embodiments, web services system 24 may comprise one or more computing systems that perform the method. For example, one computing system may perform the method, or one computing system may perform a portion of the method and one or more other computing systems may perform other portions of the method. In certain embodiments, device 20 may have a seed, which may have been obtained according to a method described herein.
Computing system 22 requests initiation of authorization of an operation at step 204. For example, a user may use computing system 22 to log onto a website of web services system 24. In certain embodiments, the request may be sent over a first communication channel.
Web services system 24 initiates display of an image communicating a challenge code at step 210. In certain embodiments, display of the image may be initiated by sending image data that can be used by a display to generate the image. For example, image services system 24 may send the image data to computing system 22 to display the image. In certain embodiments, web services system 24 may also initiate display one or more other images. Examples of other images include: a confirmation screen describing the operation that the user is authorizing; a request for a response authorizing the operation; and a request for a user passcode to be input into device 20.
Display 38 of computing system 22 displays the image at step 214. Image capture module 30 of device 20 captures the image at step 218. For example, device 20 may photograph the image to yield image data. Secret extractor 32 extracts the challenge code at step 220. For example, secret extractor 32 determines the challenge code from the digital watermark of the image data. Device 20 calculates a response using the challenge code and the seed at step 224. For example, the response may be calculated according to Digest::SHA256.
Step 228 and steps 230 through 238 describe examples of ways that device 20 can provide the response to web services system 24. As a first example, device 20 sends the response to web services system 24 using a second communication channel that is distinct from the first communication channel. Distinct channels may have one, two or more, or all links that are different. As a second example, device 20 displays the response at step 230. The user reads the response and inputs the response into computing system 22 at step 234. Computing system 22 send the response to web services system 24 at step 238. In certain embodiments, web services system 24 may also receive other information. For example, web services system 24 may receive confirmation that a valid user passcode has been input into device 20.
Under certain circumstances, examples of the method may defend against confused deputy attacks. For example, the user can independently verify the operation being authorized, so a keylogger cannot steal the one-time passcode and relay it to an attacker to perform a different transaction before the user hits enter.
Modifications, additions, or omissions may be made to the systems and apparatuses disclosed herein without departing from the scope of the invention. The components of the systems and apparatuses may be integrated or separated. Moreover, the operations of the systems and apparatuses may be performed by more, fewer, or other components. For example, the operations of secret generators 50 and authentication module 52 may be performed by one component, or the operations of authentication module 52 may be performed by more than one component. Additionally, operations of the systems and apparatuses may be performed using any suitable logic comprising software, hardware, and/or other logic. As used in this document, “each” refers to each member of a set or each member of a subset of a set.
Modifications, additions, or omissions may be made to the methods disclosed herein without departing from the scope of the invention. The methods may include more, fewer, or other steps. Additionally, steps may be performed in any suitable order.
In certain embodiments, an entity that performs a first step that precedes (such as leads to) a second step may be regarded as facilitating the second step. For example, if an entity performs step A that precedes step B, the entity also facilitates step B. In certain embodiments, a first entity that performs a first step that precedes a second step that may be performed by a second entity may be regarded as allowing the second entity to perform the second step. For example, if a first entity performs step A that precedes step B that may be performed by a second entity, the first entity also allows the second entity to perform step B.
Systems may include one or more computing systems. A component of the systems and apparatuses disclosed herein (such as a general computing device) may include an interface, logic, memory, and/or other suitable element. An interface receives input, sends output, processes the input and/or output, and/or performs other suitable operation. An interface may comprise hardware and/or software.
Logic performs the operations of the component, for example, executes instructions to generate output from input. Logic may include hardware, software, and/or other logic. Logic may be encoded in one or more tangible media and may perform operations when executed by a computer. Certain logic, such as a processor, may manage the operation of a component. Examples of a processor (or processing unit) include one or more computers, one or more microprocessors, one or more applications, and/or other logic.
In particular embodiments, the operations of the embodiments may be performed by one or more computer readable media encoded with a computer program, software, computer executable instructions, and/or instructions capable of being executed by a computer. In particular embodiments, the operations of the embodiments may be performed by one or more computer readable media storing, embodied with, and/or encoded with a computer program and/or having a stored and/or an encoded computer program.
A memory (or memory unit) stores information. A memory may comprise one or more non-transitory, tangible, computer-readable, and/or computer-executable storage media. Examples of memory include computer memory (for example, Random Access Memory (RAM) or Read Only Memory (ROM)), mass storage media (for example, a hard disk), removable storage media (for example, a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), database and/or network storage (for example, a server), and/or other computer-readable medium.
Components of the systems and apparatuses disclosed may be coupled by any suitable communication network such as communication network 28. A communication network may comprise all or a portion of one or more of the following: a public switched telephone network (PSTN), a public or private data network, a local area network (LAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), a wide area network (WAN), a local, regional, or global communication or computer network such as the Internet, a wireline or wireless network, an enterprise intranet, other suitable communication link, or any combination of any of the preceding.
Although this disclosure has been described in terms of certain embodiments, alterations and permutations of the embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the above description of the embodiments does not constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure, as defined by the following claims.

## Claims

1. A system comprising:
one or more memories that store an image comprising an optical machine-readable representation of a challenge code; and
one or more processing units cause the system to:
receive a request sent by a computing system to authorize an operation, the request received over a first channel, the computing system having a seed;
provide to the computing system information configured to cause the computing system to display the image and to allow a communications device to capture a challenge code from the image, the image comprising the optical machine-readable representation of the challenge code that can be extracted from the image by the communications device, the communications device including a networking interface for communicating with the system over a second channel; and
receive, from the communications device, a response authorizing the operation, the response calculated using the challenge code captured by the communications device and the seed, the response received over the second channel distinct from the first channel.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processing units further:
initiate, by the computing system, display of a confirmation screen describing the operation.

3. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processing units further:
request, in response to the response authorizing the operation received from the communications device, user authentication information to be input into the communications device; and
receive confirmation that the user authentication information has been input into the communications device.

4. The system of claim 3, wherein receiving confirmation that the user authentication information has been input into the device further comprises a user response received from the device, the user response including user input into the device.

5. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processing units further:
provide to the computing system, an initial image comprising authentication information configured to allow the communications device to obtain the seed by at least capturing the authentication information from the image.

6. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processing units further:
provide to the computing system, an initial image comprising key information configured to allow the communications device to obtain the seed by at least:
capturing the key information from the image; and
determining the seed based at least in part on the captured key information.

7. The system of claim 1, wherein the communications device comprising at least one of the following:
a general computing device;
a mobile device; or
a dedicated authentication device.

8. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processing units further provide an authorization request to the computing system, the authorization request requesting the response authorizing the operation from the device and provided in response to the received request sent by the computing system to authorize the operation.

9. The system of claim 1, wherein the response is calculated, at least in part, by applying a mathematical function to the seed and a parameter that changes.

10. The system of claim 9, wherein the parameter that changes is a time value, a counter value, a previous passcode, or a challenge code.

11. A computer-implemented method under the control of one or more computing systems comprising:
receiving a request sent by a computing system to authorize an operation, the computing system having a seed and associated with a user, the request transmitted over a first communication channel;
providing the computing system with information configured to cause the computing system to initiate display of an image, the image comprising an optical machine-readable representation of a challenge code and to allow a device to capture the image and extract the challenge code, the device including a communications interface for transmitting information over a second communications channel different from the first communications channel; and
receiving, from the device over the second communications, a response authorizing the operation, the response calculated using the challenge code captured by the device and the seed.

12. The method of claim 11, further comprising:
initiating display of a confirmation screen by the computing system, the confirmation screen describing a process for authorization of the operation.

13. The method of claim 11, further comprising:
in response to receiving the request from the computing system, requesting the response authorizing the operation.

14. The method of claim 11, further comprising:
transmitting a request to the device requesting user authentication information to be inputted into a user input device of the device; and
receiving confirmation that the user authentication information has been inputted into the device.

15. The method of claim 11, further comprising:
transmitting a command to the computing system configured to cause the computing system to initiate display of an initial image communicating authentication information to allow the device to obtain the seed by at least capturing the initial image and extracting the seed from the initial image.

16. The method of claim 15, further comprising:
obtaining, from the device, confirmation that the device has extracted the seed from the initial image.

17. The method of claim 11, further comprising:
transmitting a command to the device configured to cause the device to initiate initiating display of an initial image communicating key information to allow the computing system to obtain the seed.

18. The method of claim 11, wherein the device comprising at least one of the following:
a general computing device;
a mobile device; or
a dedicated authentication device.

19. The method of claim 11, wherein the response is calculated, at least in part, by applying a mathematical function to the seed and a parameter that changes.

20. The method of claim 19, wherein the parameter that changes is a time value, a counter value, a previous passcode, or a challenge code.

21. A set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media having stored thereon executable instructions that, as a result of being executed by one or more processors of a first computing system and a second computing system, cause the first computing systems and the second computing system to perform operations comprising:
sending, by the second computing system to a server, a request to authorize an operation that requires information from the first computing system to be provided to the server, the second computing system having a seed and the request being transmitted over a first communications channel;
capturing an image, displayed by the second computing system, comprising an optical machine-readable representation of a challenge code, the image displayed by the second computing system in response to the request;
extracting the challenge code from the image;
calculating a response authorizing the operation using the challenge code and the seed; and
providing, using a communications interface of the first computing device, the response to the server over a second communications channel distinct from the first communications channel.

22. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein providing the response to the server further comprising:
displaying the response to allow a user of the device to input at least a portion of the information included the response.

23. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media media of claim 21, wherein the operations further comprises:
displaying a confirmation screen describing the operation.

24. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein the operations further comprises:
displaying a request for the response authorizing the operation.

25. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein the operations further comprises:
displaying a request for user authentication information to be input into an input device; and
confirming that the user authentication information has been input into the input device.

26. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein the second computing system further comprises at least one of the following:
a general computing device;
a server computing system; or
a personal computing system.

27. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein calculating the response authorizing the operation further comprises:
calculating the response according to a physical location of the first computing system.

28. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein calculating the response authorizing the operation further comprises:
calculating a response according to a physical feature associated with the first computing system.

29. The media of claim 21, wherein calculating the response authorizing the operation further comprises prompting a user of the first computing system for information to be included in the response.

30. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 21, wherein calculating the response comprises applying a mathematical function to the seed and a parameter that changes.

31. The set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media of claim 30, wherein the parameter that changes is a time value, a counter value, a previous passcode, or a challenge code.