|  |
|--|
|  |  |  |  |  |
|--|--|--|--|--|
|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    |  |  |  |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--|--|--|
| **Published by the DOI Departmental Consulting Archeologist/NPS Archeology Program, National Park Service, Washington, DC, September           1991.**

*This Technical Brief describes the legal background           and case histories for archeological protection. Its purpose is to provide           a convenient summary of archeological protection and preservation as           an issue in law and jurisprudence that will be of use to jurists who           may need assistance in casework.*

*Portions of this technical brief depart from the           standard for reference citations, i.e., American Antiquity style, in           favor of endnotes and legal usages, standard legal citation format,           which are more helpful to attorneys and judges. Also, the standardized           Federal government spelling of "archeology" is used throughout, except           in titles and direct references to the Archaeological Resources Protection           Act where it is spelled "archaeology."*

**Introduction**

Despite a variety of Federal, Tribal, State and even           local laws passed over the last 85 years, the amount of looting and           vandalism of irreplaceable archeological resources continues to increase.           Archeological sites are located on both public and private lands. Many           of the areas are remote and difficult to patrol, 1           although considerable numbers of archeological sites are also to be           found in more densely populated areas such as New England, the Midwest,           Southeast, and the West Coast.

This technical brief examines: (1) the current profile           of civil and criminal actions brought since passage of the Archaeological           Resources Protection Act (ARPA);2           (2) potential areas of application for ARPA; (3) other laws and regulations           that afford protection to archeological resources; and (4) case patterns           through an overview of LOOT information currently available.

**History           and Purpose**

**Statutes           Prior to ARPA**Federal preservation law dates from the early 19th century,           when its primary focus was to document information and collect items           of importance in connection with national public figures and historic           military events. 3           The extended efforts beginning In the mid-19th century to save George           Washington's home, Mt. Vernon, and protect the archeological remains           and monumental architecture of Southwest sites such as Casa Grande Ruins           exemplify such early preservation measures, most of which resulted in           cases involving the taking of public property for preservation or beautification           purposes. 4           The first case in which the Supreme Court recognized that the Federal           government had the power to condemn private 5           property in order to preserve an historic site was United States v.           Gettysburg Electric Railway Co. (1896), which allowed the creation of           Gettysburg Battlefield Memorial. 6           In its decision the Court refused to adopt a narrow constitutional interpretation           offered by the railroad, which would have placed the condemnation of           its property outside the definition of a taking for a "public purpose"           necessary for government condemnation of property. The Court did not           discuss whether the government could utilize regulatory schemes to facilitate           historic preservation, nor did it address the question of whether the           government could extend its efforts to condemn and acquire sites with           no apparent historical connections--issues which would be extremely           important in the future development of preservation law.

Around the turn of the century, local governments began           to adopt a European approach to land use and zoning regulation for the           purpose of preserving the "local character" of their towns. The City           of Baltimore, for example, adopted a 70-foot maximum height regulation           to maintain the character of its residential and commercial areas. A           similar regulation was adopted the same year by the city the of Boston.           The Baltimore regulation was challenged in Cochran v. Preston (1908)           7           and upheld by the Court of Appeals on the ground that it was designed           to reduce fire hazards in addition to containing an aesthetic preservation           goal. The Boston ordinance was also challenged, and ended up before           the Supreme Court in 1909. 8           The Court upheld the ordinance as being reasonably related to public           health and safety, primarily in the area of fire prevention. Still,           the Court did not address the issue of whether government regulation           could be justified under constitutional substantive due process standards           for preservation reasons. It would be 1978 before that question would           be answered in the affirmative.9

**Antiquities           Act**Federal policy to preserve historic and prehistoric           sites on Federal lands was first embodied in the Antiquities           Act of 1906, 10           which authorizes a permit system for investigation of archeological           sites on Federal and Indian lands, and gives the President the power           to establish national monuments on Federal lands for the purpose of           protecting historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures,           and other objects of historic or scientific interest. The Antiquities           Act specifies protection of antiquities on **all           lands owned or controlled by the Federal government**           and gives authority **for           their proper care and management to the Departments having jurisdiction**.           This means that Indian lands, forest preserves, and military reservations           are included. The statute has no felony provisions, and penalties limited           to criminal misdemeanor charges with fines up to $500 and/or 90 days           imprisonment, are imposed upon those "who shall appropriate, excavate,           injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or           any object of antiquity situated on lands owned or controlled" by the           Federal government unless they have a permit 11 issued through           the Secretary of the Department having jurisdiction. 12 Previously,           specific legislative authorization was required for each designation.           Although the authority to regulate the excavation or collection of archeological           remains from federally controlled lands now rests principally with ARPA,           monuments still are created under the Antiquities Act, and that statute           limits monuments to "the smallest area compatible with the proper care           and management of the objects to be protected." 13

**Historic           Sites Act**The           Historic Sites Act, 14           enacted in 1935, declared a Federal policy to preserve historic and           prehistoric properties of national significance. It gives the Secretary           of the Interior authority to make historic surveys, as well as other           broad powers to protect historic properties and establishes the National           Historic Landmarks Program. This legislation sets standards for identification           and preservation of National Historic Landmarks. It does not contain           any sections that address enforcement. 15

**National           Historic Preservation Act (NHPA)**NHPA           was originally passed by Congress in 196616           and established a Federal policy of cooperation with other nations,           Tribes, States, and local governments to protect historic sites and           values. Together with its implementing regulations, NHPA authorizes           the National Register of Historic Places, 17           creates the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, 18           provides further considerations for National Historic Landmarks, 19           and creates procedures for approved State and Local Government Programs.           20           The National Register of Historic Places criteria for evaluation of           properties to be nominated are found at 36 CFR Part 60.4. Consideration           is given to "districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects that           possess integrity of location, design, setting, materials, workmanship,           feeling, and association" and that are (a) related to events that have           made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history;           or that are (b) associated with the lives of persons significant in           our past; or that (c) bear a pattern of distinctive characteristics           of historic, architectural, archeological, engineering or cultural significance;           or that (d) have yielded or may in the future yield important information           as to our history or prehistory. 

Regulatory provisions accompanying NHPA require the           State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs) to prepare and implement           State historic preservation plans.21           Protection of identified historic sites is facilitated through implementation           of NHPA Section 106 review, which is a five-step process designed to           ensure that historic properties arr considered during the planning and           execution of Federal projects.22

The major amendments to NHPA, passed in 1980, 23           provide support for archeological resources protection because they           codify those portions of Executive Order 11593 24           requiring Federal agencies to develop programs to inventory and evaluate           historic resources. The amendments also authorize Federal agencies to           charge reasonable costs for such activities to Federal permittees and           licensees. 25

**Archeological           and Historic Preservation Act 26           (AHPA)**Though it has been called the Archeological Recovery           Act and the Reservoir Salvage Act, AHPA           has no official short title. Most importantly, it requires Federal agencies           to preserve historic and archeological data, including the objects and           materials collected from archeological sites, which may otherwise be           lost or destroyed as a result of "any Federal construction project or           federally licensed activity or program." Up to 1 percent of project           funds may be appropriated to conduct archeological data recovery activities,           in addition to any costs for archeological work required for project           planning. 27

**Archaeological           Resources Protection Act (ARPA)**Of the laws currently in place for protecting archeological           resources, one of the most far-reaching is the Archaeological           Resources Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA)28           with its subsequent amendments of 1988. 29           This is particularly true since adoption in 1984 of uniform regulations           by which many aspects of ARPA are enforced. 30           Under Section 6 of ARPA the first significant criminal penalties can           now be imposed for the vandalism, alteration, or destruction of historic           and prehistoric sites 31           on Federal and Indian lands, as well as for the sale, purchase, exchange,           transport, or receipt of any archeological resource if that resource           was excavated or removed from public lands or Indian lands or in violation           of state or local law. The penalties include up to $250,000 in fines           and up to five years imprisonment. 32           In addition, ARPA provides civil penalties for the acts prohibited under           Section 6, as well as for violations of ARPA permits. 33           The penalties include the forfeiture of property used for illegal site           disturbances or destruction and forfeiture of illegally obtained artifacts.           34

The critical provisions of ARPA make it illegal to excavate           or remove any archeological resources from Federal or Indian lands without           a permit from the Federal land manager. Permits for archeological work           on Indian lands may be granted only after obtaining consent of the Indian           allottee or Indian Tribe owning or having jurisdiction over such lands.           One of the conditions for issuance of a permit is that the applicant           demonstrate that proposed activities will provide increased knowledge           of archeological resources. A primary purpose of the statute is to increase           the exchange of information and general communication among governmental           entities, professional archeologists, and the public. Finally, ARPA           requires uniform regulations to be promulgated by the Secretaries of           the Interior, Defense, and Agriculture and the Chairman of the Tennessee           Valley Authority. Federal land managers, as defined in ARPA, may promulgate           additional regulations, consistent with the uniform regulations, which           may be needed by their agencies.

Currently there are a few State statutes that address           protecting archeologically significant sites located on private lands           but there are no comparable Federal statutes. Unlike the European nations,           the United States has not embraced the concept of a national cultural           heritage law that protects significant resources within the boundaries           of private ownership of land. 

Although the most recent amendments to ARPA will improve           the effectiveness of the anti-looting portions of the statute via interagency           cooperation, there are certain areas in which the only effective remedy           will be increased involvement of the law enforcement community. This           community includes local, State, and Federal law enforcement personnel,           attorneys, and the judiciary involved at each level of prosecution.           At present many of these individuals do not know that the statute exists,           or if they are aware of it, they still prefer to utilize more familiar           State and local laws that prohibit theft, vandalism, or trespass. Although           such laws do take care of some of the problems, they do not deal effectively           with the destruction of cultural resources and information because the           focus is in punishing specific common law offenses.35           Because these laws are also more familiar to the members of juries,           as well as the judges, who may be deciding the cases, prosecutors often           see a strategic advantage in presenting a cause of action that will           not be misunderstood. 

When Congress passed ARPA in 1979, legislators and preservationists           hoped that it would result in a reduction of vandalism and looting of           the nation's prehistoric and historic archeological sites. They looked           to ARPA as a vehicle for education that would lead to a heightened public           awareness of the problem as well as provide a major deterrent to looters           and illegal commercial traffickers through its substantial penalty provisions.           36           This continues to be the case, as ARPA was strengthened by the 1988           amendments with requirements that Federal agencies develop plans for           surveying lands not scheduled for projects, develop and implement systems           for reporting and recording archeological violations, and develop public           awareness programs. The amendments also provide for a lower felony threshold,           reduced from $5,000 to $500 damage caused, and prohibit attempts to           damage archeological resources. 37           Today, the successful enforcement of ARPA depends upon a variety of           interrelated factors: 
-  Education of the professional communities, including archeologists,             agency managers, law enforcement personnel, and jurists, particularly             in the areas of preservation law, policy and technology;             Education of the citizenry at large to foster awareness and appreciation             of both historic and prehistoric cultural resources and the importance             of protecting and preserving those resources;            A team approach to collection of data and evidence in investigative             casework;           
-  Communication and cooperation among the agencies that, under the             statute, are responsible for the joint administration of the law,             including,                - Effective monitoring of the condition of archeological resources                 by land managing agencies, and                Effective cooperation between law enforcement and cultural resource                 personnel in managing these resources; and             Research and development of more effective protection measures.
38
**Related           Federal Legislation**
In addition to the statutes that specifically address           cultural resources preservation, other legislation also recognizes the           importance of historic and prehistoric site protection. While the preservation           statutes themselves may be limited by weaknesses in certain areas, their           enforcement potential may be increased by their function in tandem with           other laws:

***Department           of Transportation Act (DOTA)***39No program undertaken by the Federal Highway Administration,           Federal Aviation Administration, Urban Mass Transit Administration,           or the U.S. Coast Guard will be approved when it requires use of land           from a historic site, whether of national, State, or local significance,           *unless there is no feasible and prudent alternative but to use such           lands, and unless the program includes all possible planning to minimize           harm to the historic properties* (emphasis added). 40

***National           Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)***41Because NEPA's           Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) requirement applies to all proposed           major Federal actions that may significantly affect the quality of the           human environment, it.,has become an effective procedural statute that           is applicable to cultural resources preservation. 42           The EIS must be prepared prior to such proposed actions. Both NEPA and           NHPA apply only to Federal actions, and although these statutes neither           specifically prohibit activities that may ultimately result in damage           to or destruction of archeological resources nor require actions to           preserve cultural resources, the courts have usually considered NEPA           applicable to such resources, in that the natural environment includes           our "historic and cultural heritage". 43

***American           Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA)***44This Act seeks to protect and preserve traditional Native           American, Eskimo, Aleut, and Hawaiian spiritual beliefs and practices           by providing access to ancient sites for these Native peoples. AIRFA           also provides for the use and possession of sacred objects by members           of the Native American Tribes. Archeological site protection is a Federal           activity related to AIRFA, since it directs the various agencies to           consult with Native traditional religious leaders in a cooperative effort           to develop and implement policies and procedures that will aid in determining           how to protect and preserve Native American cultural and spiritual traditions.           Section 10(a) of ARPA requires that uniform regulations be promulgated           for ARPA after consideration of AIRFA.

***Federal           Collections Act of 1966***45This Act requires that Federal agencies attempt collection           of all claims for money or property damage arising out of activities           on Federal lands, including claims resulting from unauthorized or illegal           activities that damage or destroy cultural resources. Historic and prehistoric           sites have clearly been defined as "resources" under the Antiquities           Act, NHPA, and ARPA, and collection requires careful analysis by a professional           archeologist whose training includes methods of site appraisal, such           as provided in the uniform regulations for ARPA, that will translate           site damage into monetary terms and satisfy the evidentiary requirements           of a court case. 46

***18           U.S.C. 641, Embezzlement and Theft***47This           statute provides that, "Whoever embezzles, steals, purloins, or           knowingly converts to his use or the use of another, or without authority,           sells, conveys, or disposes of any record...or thing of value of the           United States or of any department or agency thereof... or whoever receives,           conceals, or retains the same with intent to convert it to his use or           gain, knowing it to have been embezzled, stolen, purloined, or converted           shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than 10           years, or both; but if the value of such property does not exceed the           sum of $100, he shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not           more than one year, or both." "The word, 'value' means face, par, or           market value, or cost price, either wholesale or retail, whichever is           greater." This statute, together with the malicious mischief statute,           may be used in coordination with ARPA to establish liability of looters           as well as their connected commercial agents or dealers in artifacts.           48

***18           U.S.C. 1361, Destruction of Government Property (Malicious Mischief)***This statute provides: "Whoever willfully injures or           commits any depredation against any property of the United States, or           of any department or agency thereof...shall be punished as follows:
If the damage to such property exceeds the sum of $100, by           a fine of not more than $10,000 or imprisonment for not more than ten           years, or both; if the damage to such property does not exceed the sum           of $100, by a fine of not more than $1,000, or by imprisonment for not           more than one year, or both.
The advantages to including this statute when litigating           against looters and vandals is clear, since its penalties may be applied           to partial site destruction or to destruction and/or removal of smaller           non-replaceable resources such as portions of pots, chipping tools,           and fabric remnants.49

***18           U.S.C 1163, Embezzlement and Theft from Indian Tribal Organizations***This statute is similar to 18 U.S.C. 641, described           above, but it applies specifically to embezzlement and theft from Indian           Tribes. Alternative fines are also applicable to both the malicious           mischief and embezzlement/theft statutes. Pursuant to 18 U.S.C. 3571,           maximum fines may be imposed for convictions under 18 U.S.C. 1163, 18           U.S.C. 641, and 18 U.S.C. 1361, as follows:
Misdemeanor conviction, value less than $100.00, up to $100,000           maximum fine. Felony conviction, value exceeds $100,000, maximum fine           up to $250,000.
If the defendant is an organization, the maximum fine           rates are doubled, although no term of imprisonment can be imposed.

***18           U.S.C. 371, Conspiracy to Commit Offense or Defraud the States***For a discussion of the application of the Fifth Amendment           double jeopardy clause to subsequent criminal prosecutions and the possibility           of bar as to "same offense" charges, see *Grady v. Corbin*, 110           S. Ct. 2084 (decided May 29, 1990).

**Companion           State Statutes**Research into existing State statutes that are applicable           to archeological resources protection was begun by examining a collection           of State laws contained in National Park Service (NPS) files. The list           obtained was expanded through a search of the LEXIS and the WESTLAW           computer services. Additional information was provided through correspondence           with participants in the NPS, Forest Service, and Federal Law Enforcement           Training Center who provided LOOT Clearinghouse information (see discussion           of LOOT Clearinghouse below). The chart of State statutes (Appendix           1) represents the several categories that were needed to identify           statutes applicable to cultural resources protection. Use of these categories           was particularly important in the computer searches because there are           no generalized cultural resources headings under which these laws can           be principally found. Finding these laws depends upon how an individual           State categorizes the nature of the protection or the type of offense           committed. The laws covering archeological resources protection rarely           are codified under a single heading. Additionally, it is likely that           new laws have been passed in State legislatures and existing laws may           have been re-titled or consolidated since June 1990, the date of this           research. 

State statutes in force as of July 1990, fall into five           categories that reinforce or complement ARPA (See Appendix           1): 
- Restrictions on sales of antiquities or forgeries (14 States);            Laws to discourage activities that damage archeological resources             on private land (11 States);           Mirror ARPA statutes, including penalty provisions (37 States);           
- Penalties for disturbances of marked and unmarked burial sites (11             States). Eight states have reinterment statutes, but onlv two of these             also have an anti-disturbance statute; and            Statutes providing for acquisition of real property or artifacts.50
An additional seven states had pending legislation for           1989-90 sessions in one or more of the five categories, with the emphasis           of proposed legislation upon marked and unmarked burial sites. In addition,           several States have statutes providing protection to specific areas,           such as underwater salvage sites (10 States), caves (4 States), earthworks           (2 States), forts (2 States), ghost-towns (Colorado only), petroglyphs           or rock art (3 States), and State preserves (Iowa only).

Many States have statutes that establish State archeologists,           State historical agencies, involvement in cultural resources issues           by Native Americans through established advisory councils, and State           registers of historic places. There are also statutes that provide for           State cultural resources surveys, regulatory issuance of permits for           field investigations, obligations to report discoveries that may have           historic or prehistoric archeological significance, and protection of           the confidentiality of site locations.

Return to: Technical           Briefs | Section 1 | Section 2           | Section 3 | Endnotes           

**introduction**

**history                 and purpose**

**survey                 of SHPO resources protection activities**

**application                 of ARPA**

**endnotes**

**appendices**

**print                 version  **

**technical briefs                 index**
DOI |			History & Culture | 			Search | 			Contact | 			FOIA |			Privacy |			Disclaimer |			USA.gov
 MJB/EJL 
-  archeology       in the parks   
-  archeology       nationwide   
-  professional       tools   
-  for       the public   
-  kennewick       man 
-  the       antiquities act 
-  what's       new 
-             
-             
-  technical assistance 
-  databases 
-  standards & guidelines 
-  training & education 
-  reports 
-  publications 
-             
-             
-             
-  features 
-  learn and participate 
-  for teachers |