Women and Military

Service

A History, Analysis, and Overview of Key

Issues

M. C. Devilbiss

Senior Research Fellow

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

November 1990

 

DISCLAIMER

 

Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the author

and do not necessarily represent the views of Air University, the United States Air Force, the Department

of Defense, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public release: distribution unlimited.

Table of Contents

Contact: Air University Press

Last updated: 1998 October 16

[ AU Press Home Page | Contents ]

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Contents

Chapter

DISCLAIMER

DEDICATION

FOREWORD

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 HISTORICAL

PATTERNS AND

RECENT POLICY

SHIFTS

2 ANALYSIS: MAJOR

INSTRUMENTS AND

PATTERNS OF CHANGE

3 OVERVIEW OF KEY

ISSUES: MAJOR

PROBLEMS

REMAINING

APPENDIX

REFERENCES

Illustrations

[ Order Form ]

Women and Military Service

A History, Analysis, and Overview of Key Issues

by

M. C. Devilbiss, PhD

Senior Research Fellow

Air University Press

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

November 1990

[Air University Press Home Page | Feedback? Email to Air University Press ]

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Disclaimer

Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the author

and do not necessarily represent the views of Air University, the United States Air Force, the Department

of Defense, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public release: distribution unlimited.

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To my mother

Delores Sittig Devilbiss

and

To the memory of my father,

John Austin Devilbiss

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Foreword

Today's Air Force depends in large part on women to meet its mission requirements. Tomorrow's Air

Force may depend on women even more. It behooves us, then. to examine those issues that are of

concern to women in the military.

AUCADRE is pleased to provide a forum for this discussion of those issues. The opinions expressed are,

of course, those of the author and not of AUCADRE.

DENNIS M. DREW, Colonel, USAF

Director 

Airpower Research Institute 

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About the Author

M. C. Devilbiss received a PhD in sociology from Purdue University and was a postdoctoral research

fellow at Yale University. She has taught sociology, psychology, and organizational behavior courses,

both at the graduate and undergraduate levels at various colleges and universities throughout the United

States, including Norwich University in Northfield, Vermont (one of the nation's four private military

colleges). From 1984-86, she was a senior research fellow at Air University Center for Aerospace

Doctrine, Research, and Education (AUCADRE) at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama; and from

1986-88 she was a research sociologist for the US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social

Sciences in Alexandria, Virginia. Her military experience includes two years of active duty as a US

Army officer and eight years as an enlisted woman in the Air National Guard. Her various military duties

have included assignments as basic training instructor, supply officer, electrical specialist, and aircraft

armament systems specialist (bomb and missile loader) on the F-4 aircraft. Since 1975, she has been

writing and publishing on women's issues in the armed forces. Dr Devilbiss currently resides in

Frederick, Maryland.

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Preface

Today, the armed forces of virtually all nations have women in them. In the United States, women

represent about 10 percent of the active duty military population. Thus the topic of women and military

service is an important and timely one.

Women have served in and with the United States armed forces since the founding of our nation; yet it

has only been since the 1970s that issues concerning women in the military have been seriously and

systematically pursued by both scholars and military planners. This volume is an effort to identify and

examine key events, questions, and policies pertaining to women in the United States armed forces. To

do this, a multidisciplinary analytical strategy that incorporates the methodology and conceptual tools of

history, social science, organizational theory, policy analysis, and future studies was adopted.

Chapter 1 presents a history of women in the US armed forces. To understand the contemporary situation

of women in the military, it is necessary to understand the historical roots of the issues. Many of the

questions being raised about women in the military today have also been issues of concern in the past;

thus these questions have a "military" history. In fact, there have been several recurring questions about

the utilization of women in the military. These issues have relevance today just as they had in the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the ways in which we address and answer these concerns may be

different now because of (1) changing patterns of societal expectations, and (2) changes in the military

organization itself.

It is these issues that form the basis for chapter 2, which uses social science concepts and analytical

methods to examine major instruments and patterns of change regarding women in the armed forces.

Both internal military factors and factors external to the military organization are examined for their

effects on the military roles of women. "What forces seem to determine the extent and the scope of the

utilization of women in the military?" is the question explored.

Chapter 3 identifies and analyzes 10 contemporary "key issue areas" pertaining to women in the military.

It examines not only the visible symptoms of current problems but also the underlying causes that

contribute to them. Utilizing an "organizational culture" approach, chapter 3 examines the organizational

values and assumptions upon which military policy is built and looks at the future of women in the US

armed forces. Finally, it examines some potentially useful techniques that could be employed in future

policy planning.

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Acknowledgments

A book is seldom the product of just one writer; the combination of many people's efforts help to bring it

successfully to completion. I would like to recognize those people who assisted in the production of this

book and to thank them for their many hours of dedicated effort.

The initial draft of this manuscript was written while I was assigned as a senior research fellow at the Air

University Center for aerospace Doctrine, Research, and Education (AUCADRE) at Maxwell AFB,

Alabama, during 1984-86. Since that time, many events and new policies have affected the situation of

women in the armed forces. Accordingly, this text has been revised and updated to include a

consideration of these materials. I would especially like to thank Col Dennis M. Drew, director of the

Airpower Research Institute, for his assistance. Special thanks also go to my editor, Preston Bryant; the

Production Division; and Dr Elizabeth Bradley, all at the Air University Press. Finally, I would like to

acknowledge the support of my sister Bonnie Devilbiss Roger, who heard all about this manuscript

throughout its various stages of completion, and also my mother Delores Sittig Devilbiss, who not only

heard all about the book but actually funded a "summer sabbatical" for me so that I could finish writing

it. It is in appreciation of these efforts that I dedicate this book.

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Introduction

This book explores three major questions concerning the roles of women in the military. They are:

● What has been the history of policy development on this issue?

● Why and how have policy changes occurred?

● What concerns and issues remain on the policy agenda?

A critical analysis of these questions yielded a set of working hypotheses that helped to explain the

history and evolution of policy in this arena. In brief, these hypotheses are:

● The incorporation of women into the US armed forces has been an evolutionary process.

Factors that have been instrumental in effecting change for women in the military have been both

external (change has come through forces outside the military) and internal (change has been a

product of intraorganizational forces). For example, the roles of women in the US armed forces

have reflected to a great extent the roles of women in the society at large (an external factor), but

these have also reflected the changing structure of the military organization itself (an internal

consideration). One particularly influential internal factor stands out, however: The perception of

"military need" (variously defined in differing circumstances) has been the primary driver in the

utilization of women in the US armed forces.

● 

Major current policy issues concerning women in the military are pragmatic, visible illustrations of

unresolved underlying issues. For a more complete understanding of these concerns, it is necessary

to bring not only these visible problems but also their underlying issues and their institutional

supports under close examination and analysis. It is only through such a process that constructive

suggestions for change can realistically be made.

The discussion that follows examines these hypotheses as each question—history, instruments and

patterns of policy change, and issues remaining—is explored in turn.

● 

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Chapter 1

Historical Patterns and Recent Policy Shifts

The incorporation of women into the US armed forces has been an evolutionary process.

Women have served in and with the armed forces of the United States since the very beginning of its

history as a nation. But although it is known that "during the 18th and 19th centuries, women were

routinely present with the armies in battle,"1 it is very difficult to document the exact nature and scope of

their participation due to the loss and selective preservation of many of these early records. However,

two American historians have studied the military activities of women during the revolutionary war and

have identified several roles in which women were involved.

Linda K. Kerber cites women's utilization in that war as, among other things, espionage agents, cooks,

laundresses, military nurses, and matron and boardinghouse landladies. (The eighteenth-century

boardinghouse served the double purpose of caring for both the sick and the traveler and can be thought

of as an early version of the military hospital.)2 Linda Grant DePauw identifies three major categories of

military participation for women during the American Revolution: "First, those . . . referred to as Women

of the army', or 'army women'; second, those enlisted as regular troops fighting in uniform side by side

with male Continentals; and third, women serving as irregular fighters affiliated with local militia

companies." Far from being "camp followers" or "battlefield domestics," DePauw says, the "women of

the army" were a distinct branch of the Continental Army that performed duties with artillery units on the

battlefield and served as medics both in the field and in military hospitals. The second category of

women, perhaps a few hundred according to DePauw, "served in combat with the Continental Army (as)

regularly enlisted soldiers." Some served disguised as males (wore male clothing and enlisted under male

names) while others who fought as regular soldiers made no effort to conceal their sex; they fought in

combat and drew pay, rations, and pensions under their own names. Finally, local militia units (as

opposed to regular garrison troops) were often composed partly or entirely of women and were employed

as local defense forces. Further, DePauw notes that women also served on warships during this period.3

It is important to observe here that women served with, not in, the armed forces during this time. That is,

even though they may have been paid (or not paid) for the duties they performed, they did not hold

military rank and were thus attached to, not a part of, the armed forces.

Women continued to perform various roles within the military organizations of the nineteenth century.

Conflicts during this time included the War of 1812, the Civil War (1861-65), and the Spanish-American

War (1898). This century was also the period of expansion of the American frontier. There is evidence

that women were employed by the military as scouts and that some were also attached to frontier

outposts at this time.4

During the Civil War, women acted as saboteurs, couriers, and spies;5 they also performed what would

be termed combat support and combat service support functions today: cooking, laundering, supplying

ammunition on the battlefield, and performing camp maintenance.6 In addition—once again—women

disguised as men served in the army and fought in combat.

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Judging from its subsequent impact, however, the single most influential contribution made by women

during this time was in the field of health care.7 As was the case during the American Revolution, "death

due to disease (in the Civil War) continued to account for a far greater proportion of mortality in the war

than death due to wounds and injury; thus the care of the sick and injured (was) a riskier military

occupation than that of soldier."8 Trained medical personnel were in great demand but short supply. The

efforts of Clara Barton and the Sanitary Commission (composed largely of women and established by the

Union army under pressure from the women's Central Association of Relief) helped to enforce standards

of sanitation and thus dramatically reduced the number of deaths due to disease.9 These women "also

obtained permission to convert transport ships into the first primitive hospital ships to care for the

wounded."10 In addition, some 6,000 female nurses were recruited and trained to serve with the Union

army, primarily through the efforts of Dorothea Dix, appointed superintendent of women nurses by the

US secretary of war.11 A significant event in US women's military history occurred during the Civil War:

Dr Mary Walker, a combat surgeon and the first woman doctor in the US Army, was awarded the Medal

of Honor by Congress. Walker has been the only woman thus far in US history ever to receive this

award.12

But, however grateful the armed forces were for the women's wartime contributions (particularly those of

the nurses), they did not yet perceive of women as either integral to or a continuing part of the military

organization. Thus "when the war ended in 1865, the Army reverted to the practice of using enlisted men

for patient care in its hospitals, and the female nurses went home."13

During the Spanish-American War, women nurses were given an opportunity to serve because they

possessed a skill that the military needed and the services could not recruit nearly enough male medical

corpsmen to deal with an epidemic of typhoid fever among US troops. To address this need, Congress

authorized the military to appoint women as nurses—but as civilian workers rather than as uniformed

members of the military. Between 1988 and 1901, approximately 1,500 women served as nurses under

contract to the Army and Navy in the United States, overseas (Cuba, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Japan, China,

the Philippines), and aboard the hospital ship USS Relief.14 The contributions and quality of service of

the contract nurses during this period convinced the surgeon general of the Army to request that the

legislation necessary to give the nurses quasi-military status be drawn up.

Congress established the Army Nurse Corps in 1901 and the Navy Nurse Corps in 1908. The status of

these corps relative to their respective military organizations was an ambiguous one, perhaps best

described as a military "auxiliary": nurses "had no military rank, equal pay, or other benefits (of) military

service such as retirement or veterans benefits."15 Yet the importance of the establishment of a

permanent nurse corps of women within the armed forces is clear—the skills and contributions of trained

nurses were being recognized as an essential and ongoing part of military organizations. The importance

of the nurse corps' auxiliary organizational status was that although their role was seen as permanent and

ongoing, women—even those with skills vital to a military organization—were still considered to be

outside the "real" military structure.

With this nebulous foot in the military door, the precise status of women in military organizations was an

issue that would continue to present itself. Scarcely had the twentieth century begun when, after much

internal debate, the United States again found itself engaged in mobilization for military operations—this

time on a global scale. Not surprisingly, both the Army and the Navy faced increasing personnel

shortages in certain critical skill areas. A number of these shortages existed in those jobs classified as

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"combat support" occupations. The question was, could these needs be alleviated by placing skilled

women into these heretofore considered male military jobs? The answer seemed to be an elusive one,

subject as it was to legal constraints and interpretations of the times. Faced with this context and with

similar manpower shortages for their respective services, Secretary of War Newton D. Baker and

Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels both concluded that skilled women must be utilized but came to

exactly opposite conclusions as to their organizational statuses. For example, the Navy faced a desperate

shortage of clerks (yeomen). Capt Joy Bright Hancock, USN, later assistant chief of staff of Naval

Personnel for Women, described Secretary Daniels's retelling of his solution to this problem:

"Is there any law that says a yeoman must be a man?" I (Daniels) asked my legal advisors.

The answer was that there was not, but that only men had heretofore been enlisted. The law

did not contain the restrictive word "male."

"Then enroll women in the Naval Reserve as yeomen," I said, "and we will have the best

clerical assistance the county can provide." Tremendous gasps were heard, but this was an

order, and it was carried out.16

Thus women were enrolled into the Naval Coastal Defense Reserve in 1917, given uniforms and enlisted

rank in the ratings of yeomen (F), radio electricians, and "such other ratings as the Commandants

considered essential to the District organization." Some of the additional duties at which the yeomen (F)

were employed included those of draftsmen, fingerprint experts, translators, camouflage designers, and

recruiters.17 They served in the United States as well as overseas, some seeing "duty with hospital units

in France and with intelligence units in Puerto Rico."18

Soon after women were enrolled in the Navy, Maj Gen George Barnett, commandant of the Marine

Corps,

wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Navy requesting authority "to enroll women in the

Marine Corps Reserve for clerical duty at Headquarters Marine Corps and at other Marine

Corps offices In the United States where their services might be utilized to replace men who

may be qualified for active field service."19

Secretary Daniels sent back his approval on 8 August 1918.

Ultimately, about 12,500 yeomen women and 305 women Marines served in the Navy and Marine Corps

in World War I. There is also evidence that women were enlisted into the Coast Guard at this time to

perform needed clerical duties. Thus the yeomen and Marine reserves of World War I were the first

American women "to be accorded full military rank and status." Such a designation meant that they

received the same pay as enlisted men of corresponding rank (but women were permitted to advance only

up to the rank of sergeant), wore uniforms and rank insignia, took an oath of office, were subject to

military discipline, had a service obligation (four years), and, as veterans, were "afforded the full benefits

legislated into law, the same as their male counterparts."20

Things were very different, however, with regard to the incorporation of women from the Army side.

Secretary of War Baker was particularly opposed to any notion of military status for women and, unlike

Secretary of the Navy Daniels, chose to utilize women (other than those in the nurse corps) in a strictly

civilian capacity. Thus, those women who worked for the Army in jobs often similar to those performed

by the yeomen (F) and Marine reservists (F) continued to hold a civilian rather than a military status,

despite several requests for their militarization from Army commanders and heads of agencies in the

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field. Mattie E. Treadwell recounts that requests for the skills and services of American women in a

military status came from several areas. Requests came from:

Gen John J. Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces, for bilingual (French

and English) telephone operators for the Signal Corps;

● 

the Quartermaster General for a proposed "Women's Auxiliary Quartermaster Corps" tasked with

support duties for supply and procurement;

● 

● the chief of Engineers;

● the Operations Branch of the General Staff;

and the chief of Ordnance for women in clerical, stenographic, and other needed skill areas in

which men, because of combat requirements, could not be obtained.

● 

These entreaties did not receive favorable consideration at the War Department level, however. In fact,

"legislation to enlist 'effective and able-bodied women' had . . . [even] been introduced in Congress in

December of 1917, but had been returned to the House Military Affairs Committee by the Secretary of

War with an expression of his disapproval."21

General Pershing did get women telephone operators—civilian contract workers, some of whom wore

uniforms but none of whom had military status. But Gen James G. Harbord, commander of the Services

of Supply in Europe, who had requested 5,000 skilled military women be sent to perform clerical duties

with the Quartermaster Corps, received 5,000 limited-duty, unskilled Army enlisted men instead.

Ultimately, some women did perform duties in the Quartermaster Corps both stateside and overseas; but

they did so as civilian contract employees, not as military personnel.22

During this time, of course, there were also women in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps, albeit still with

their quasi-military status. What seemed to matter to the military as the United States entered World War

I in April 1917, was not the nurses' status but their presence in the organization. As mobilization began,

the Army's active duty nurse corps stood at 403; it would grow to a peak strength of 21,480, serving at

198 stations in the United States and overseas in France, Belgium, England, Italy, Siberia, Hawaii, Puerto

Rico, and the Philippine Islands. During World War I, "Army nurses were assigned to casualty clearing

stations and surgical teams in field hospitals as well as to mobile, evacuation, base, camp, and

convalescent hospitals. They also served on hospital trains and transport ships, . . . in busy cantonment

and general hospitals, at ports of embarkation, and at other military outposts." The Navy Nurse Corps,

smaller (less than 1,500 members) but no less devoted to duty, also established a reputation for courage

and sacrifice during this difficult time.23

All women in the US armed forces, except the nurses, were transferred to inactive duty and then

discharged at the end of World War I. The nurse role was seen as a continuing one even in peacetime, but

the quasi-military status of the nurses continued to be a source of debate. In the case of the Army, both

"the War Department and the Surgeon General's office fought against granting women (commissioned)

rank, contending that it would be improper to give women rank that might give them hierarchical

superiority to male officers . . . [also] many objections were posed based on the assumption that military

rank should be reserved for those engaged in combat." The other side argued that female nurses needed

commissioned rank so as to increase efficiency in working relationships. In 1920 a compromise was

effected: nurses would receive "relative rank," which entitled them to a similar nomenclature and insignia

relative to male officers in the grades of second lieutenant through major, and "authority in and about

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military hospitals next after (male) officers of the Medical Department." "Relative rank" meant a separate

and unequal status. Women lacked the authority and privileges—and the comparable pay—of male

commissioned officers.24

For the next two decades, no women except nurses were in the military. In fact, the Naval Reserve Act of

1916, which had authorized the Navy to enlist "citizens"—the loophole that had enabled enrollment of

"yeomen (F) and Marines (F)"—was changed in 1925 to limit eligibility to "male citizens."25 The Navy

Department could no longer enlist women without express Congressional approval.

But there is some evidence that the Army at this time was at least thinking about possible roles that

women might play in future military conflicts. Both the Phipps Plan, submitted to the War Department in

1926, and the Hughes Plan, presented in 1928, "envisioned a women's corps that would be in the Army

rather than attached to it as an auxiliary." In 1939 a plan completed by the Army personnel staff at the

request of the Army chief of staff called for a women's corps "patterned after the all-male Civilian

Conservation Corps (CCC)" with women in a civilian status attached to the military (similar to the status

of the women nurses in the nineteenth century) rather than as members with rank and full military status.

However, all of these plans were filed away and the Army took no action to implement any of them

during this time. Thus on the eve of World War II, when the US armed forces were faced once more with

involvement in global hostilities, the situation again was one of a small military force that needed to be

expanded rapidly, a serious manpower shortage, and no women except nurses "on board."26

Principally to help alleviate the shortage of manpower in certain needed areas (particularly in clerical

skills, but in other fields as well), women were taken into the armed services, this time in all branches.

Women's "line" (nonmedical) components of the services (each headed by a female director or adviser,

her title varying from service to service) were established at this time. The first service to take this step

was the Army. Legislation sponsored by Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers was passed in 1942 (P.L.

554) to establish the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), a small group of women attached to, but

not in, the Army. It is worth noting that Congresswoman Rogers wanted to give women in the Army full,

not auxiliary, military status. However, some Army officials disagreed. In a report to the chief of staff on

the question of women's organizational status, the assistant chief of staff for personnel wrote, "the

purpose of this study . . . is to permit the organization of a women's force along the lines which meet with

War Department approval, so that when it is forced upon us, as it undoubtedly will be, we shall be able to

run it our way." Thus, "the War Department's unwillingness to go the whole way and provide women

with full status, combined with opposition from members of Congress to the idea, convinced Rogers that

compromise on this point was the only way to get any legislation at all."27

There turned out to be many problems with the auxiliary structure, however. Particularly troublesome

was the lack of military control over members in an auxiliary, but there were other problems as well.

From the very beginning, the auxiliary status did not work.... Its members did Army jobs in

lieu of soldiers but were administered under a separate, parallel set of regulations. [Their]

legal status was dubious, and there was no legally binding contract that could prevent a

woman from leaving anytime she chose to.... If they went overseas. WAACs did not have

the same legal protection as the men, nor were they entitled to the same benefits if injured.

Under the WAAC, military women were not entitled to the same pay as their male

counterparts, to entitlements for dependents, or to military rank.28

In 1943, after much debate in Congress, another bill was passed. It established the Women's Army Corps

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(WAC), whose members would have full military status. Most members of the WAAC joined the WAC,

and additional civilian women were recruited into the WAC as well.

Meanwhile, the Navy was faced with similar manpower shortages and critically needed skills.

In January 1942, seeing the handwriting on the bulkhead, the Bureau of Personnel

recommended to the Secretary of the Navy that Congress be requested to authorize creation

of a women's organization. The Secretary agreed but made it quite clear that he wanted the

Navy women in the Reserve, not in an auxiliary such as the Army was proposing.... Right up

to the last an attempt was made to end-run the Secretary of the Navy on this point by getting

the President to favor an auxiliary.... It was only through the intercession of Mrs Roosevelt

with the President that the Navy Secretary got the nod for a Women's Naval Reserve.29

In July 1942 P.L. 689 established the Navy Women's Reserve, integrated at the start as a part of the

Naval Reserve and not a separate "women's corps" like the WAC in the Army structure. The Navy

women were, however, soon known by the acronym WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer

Emergency Service), thus establishing at least the perception of a separate women's organization. The

Marine Corps Women's Reserve was also established by P.L. 689; they were known as Women Marines.

In November 1942 the US Coast Guard Women's Reserve was established by P.L. 773. Their acronym,

SPARs, came from the Coast Guard motto Semper Paratus—Always Ready. (The title of "reservist" is a

somewhat confusing one here. Although for organizational purposes they were in the reserve component

of their respective service branches, virtually all of these women reservists were called to serve on active

duty during this time.) Following World War II, when the US Air Force was established as a separate

branch of the armed forces, an office of director, Women in the Air Force (WAF) (headed by a female

colonel), was set up by the Air Force even though the law itself (Title 3 of the Women's Armed Services'

Integration Act of 1948) did not require it to do so. Organizationally, women in the Air Force were

airmen and US Air Force officers (rather than WAF airmen and WAF officers) right from the very

beginning, although they were perhaps not perceived in this way. "Most male officers, and many female

officers . . . faced with the day-to-day decisions [and] trained in Army traditions found old habits hard to

break. Instinctively, they thought of women as a separate category of people."30 This perception came to

be both legacy and institutionally reinforced as the various women's directors offices continued to

function in the military from the 1940s until the 1970s.

Over the course of World War II, about 350,000 women served in the United States military. They

performed in a variety of roles, including medical and administrative jobs, as well as being pilots, truck

drivers, airplane mechanics, air traffic controllers, naval air navigators, metalsmiths, and electricians.31

Unlike its World War II allies, the United States chose not to utilize women in combat roles. The

importance and the reverberations of this decision would be felt throughout the twentieth century.

Service policy and subsequent legislation explicitly prevented women from volunteering for or

performing combat roles, or, in the case of women in the World War II Navy, from serving in overseas

combat areas. The Army, however, thought the latter was permissible; many WACs were assigned to

duty overseas during World War II. Rather than engaging in combat herself, it was felt that the important

job for a woman in the military in World War II was to "free a man to fight"; that is, to perform a support

role in the military so that a man could be released to perform a combat role. This particular belief had

actually begun with the first use of uniformed women in line specialties two decades earlier, but it came

into its own during World War II and was a frequently used recruiting technique until its effectiveness

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was undercut by resentment on the part of both men and women. Even though its overt use was

discontinued, the idea itself persisted.32

Meanwhile, the issue of women and the draft continued to surface. Two large US allies (the Soviet Union

and Great Britain) were conscripting women as well as men and were using both in combat roles. At the

same time, American men were being drafted for the armed forces under the Selective Training and

Service Act of 1940 while all women in the US armed forces were volunteers. With the "free a man to

fight" strategy, the impetus was not on utilizing women in combat roles, but on using them to fill

personnel shortages in other areas, especially in medical and support roles. Attempts to address severe

needs in these areas were reflected in three formal proposals for a draft of women: in 1942 within the

War Department (to draft a half-million women per year for the next three years); in 1944 when

legislation was introduced into Congress to draft unemployed single women (between the ages of 20 and

35) rather than drafting older married men (fathers in particular); and in 1945 when the Nurses Selective

Service Bill passed the House. Even though there appeared to be public support for the idea—78 percent

of Americans believed that single women should be drafted before any more fathers were taken, and

even single women agreed by a three-to-one majority—legislation to draft American women was never

enacted.33

Fueled by the Berlin crisis in 1948, the major piece of legislation regarding women and their roles within

the military that did become law during this period came after the close of World War II. Despite the

record of women's service, the debate in Congress continued over their status vis-à-vis the military. The

major ideological breakthroughs regarding women and the military that came about during World War II

were that women could be in the armed forces (wear uniforms and have military rank), and that their

contributions could be important and continuing ones. But this institutionalized and continuing

contribution of women contained an important caveat: their numbers and roles in the military were to be

limited. What was needed was a small group of women, established and on board in all the military

services, which could serve as the basis for the expansion of womanpower in the event of another

national emergency.

Public Law 625, the Women's Armed Services' Integration Act of 1948 (called the Integration Act), was

thus an important legislative and ideological turning point in several ways. Whatever the reasons behind

it—a mobilization base for womanpower was the primary idea—the law established for the first time a

permanent role for women in the nation's armed forces. This institutionalization of their role meant that

women would never again be mobilized and then immediately discharged following a war or crisis while

men continued to serve at all times. Yet while this act established the role of women in the military as a

continuing one, it also set the boundaries of that role. It imposed a 2-percent ceiling on the number of

women who could be on active duty in each branch of the armed forces, limited each service to only one

woman line colonel or Navy captain, excluded women entirely from flag rank (general and admiral),

established that women's promotion lists would be separate from men's for all services except the Air

Force, set differing enlistment standards and dependency entitlements for men and women, and

authorized the service Secretaries to prescribe the military authority that women might

exercise and the kind of military duty to which they might be assigned provided, in the case

of the Navy and Air Force, that they "may not be assigned to duty in aircraft while such

aircraft are engaged in combat missions": nor, in the case of the Navy, "may they be

assigned to duty on vessels of the Navy except hospital ships and naval transports."34

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Importantly, nearly every one of P.L. 625's provisions restricting the utilization of women would come

under debate over the next few years and some would be changed, either by legislation or by policy

modification.

The post-World War II era included the Berlin crisis, the Korean War, the cold war, and the Vietnam

War; and throughout the 1950s and 1960s, women continued to serve in the armed forces, primarily in

medical, administrative, communications, training, and logistics roles. Their numbers remained steady at

less than 2 percent of the total force. During this time, three particular events were to have important

implications: the utilization of women during the Korean War, the establishment of the Defense

Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS), and the passage of P.L. 90-130 in 1967

(which altered several provisions of P.L. 625).

In 1950 the war in Korea necessitated once again a substantial increase in the size of US forces.

Personnel strength levels had been sharply cut back with demobilization at the close of World War II.

The draft of American men had continued, but now draft calls had to be increased. Selected reserves

were also called up. There were 22,000 women volunteers in the armed forces, about one-third of whom

were in health career fields. The need for nurses was especially critical; in fact, most military women

who served in the Far East, especially in Korea, during this time were nurses. Both voluntary and

involuntary recalls of WAC reservists to active duty also occurred during this period. Moreover, in

response to a request from Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower Anna Rosenberg, Congress

temporarily removed the 2-percent ceiling on women. However, efforts to recruit increased numbers of

qualified women volunteers met with continued shortfalls throughout this period.35

To help address these pressing personnel needs during the Korean War, to help the services recruit more

women, and to serve as a public relations vehicle for women's programs, DACOWlTS was formed in

1951. The secretary of defense appointed 50 prominent women from business, the professions, public

service, and civilian leadership. The DACOWITS committee still exists, but its role has evolved into one

that places, by comparison, somewhat less emphasis on public relations and somewhat more emphasis on

its advisory function. It attempts to identify issues of concern to women in the military and to be an

advocate for those concerns to the secretary of defense.

It was partially due to the efforts of DACOWITS members in 1967 that legislative relief for military

women from some of the promotion restrictions of the 1948 Integration Act came about; but the

legislation that ultimately became P.L. 90-130 was drafted principally for other reasons. In the

mid-1960s, as US involvement in Vietnam increased, public opposition to a draft also increased.

Between 1964 and 1966, various studies were conducted to look at the desirability of increasing the

number of women in the armed forces up to the 2-percent ceiling. In 1967 the President's Commission on

the Selective Service recommended that "opportunities should be made available for more women to

serve in the Armed Forces, thus reducing the number of men who must be involuntarily called to duty."

That same year, the Department of Defense (DOD) directed that three steps be taken to help ease the

critical manpower shortage the services faced: (1) enlistment standards for males would be lowered in

order for the services to take in 100,000 men who would not have qualified under previous standards; (2)

a civilian substitution program would convert some positions in military support activities from military

to civilian ones; and (3) the number of women in the military services would be increased.36

Among its 1967 provisions, Public Law 90-130 removed the 2-percent ceiling on female participation in

the armed forces. However, the authority to prescribe the numbers and percentages of women in the

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military was merely transferred at this time from the letter of the law to the discretion of the individual

service secretaries; limits could be—and in fact were—still imposed. In addition, the 1967 law removed

the restrictions that had prohibited the promotion of women to the ranks of general and admiral.

Important to the bill's passage were the military manpower crunch, public opposition to a draft, and

promotion bottlenecks for military women. The Integration Act had placed a ceiling on their promotions,

which had in turn forced attrition for many women officers, especially those who had been

commissioned in World War II; there was no place for these women to advance in the organization, so

they had to get out. This was particularly true for the Navy, but it had a serious impact on the other

services as well.

Although the idea of women as generals and admirals was not an entirely new one, it was not a

particularly popular one at the time. Public Law 90-130 nevertheless allowed for increased promotional

opportunities, and the first promotions of women to brigadier general occurred in 1970. By 1982, all of

the services had a woman brigadier general or admiral (one star); by 1984, all had at least one woman

two star: Maj Gen Mary E. Clarke (USA), Maj Gen Jeanne Holm (USAF), Maj Gen Norma Brown

(USAF), and Rear Adm Grace Hopper (USN). The total number of women who have been promoted to

general or admiral since the law first permitted it in 1967 has been minuscule; in 1988, nine active duty

general officers were women.37

American military involvement in Vietnam during the 1960s and 1970s included the utilization of

women from the first days to the last. Most of the women who saw service in Southeast Asia during this

time were nurses, but some women in the women's "line" components who had administrative, logistical,

and other specialties served there as well. Although it is difficult to establish exact numbers, one source

states that 7,500 American military women served in Southeast Asia over the course of the Vietnam War.

Again, as had been the case in all wars in which women had served in or with the US military, some

women returned with combat decorations, some returned with wounds (physical and/or psychological),

and some did not return at all.38

As US involvement in Southeast Asia wound down, draft calls for men were first lowered, then reduced

to zero. The draft was finally terminated in January 1973. Since then, all service members—both women

and men—in the US armed forces have been volunteers.

The advent of the all-volunteer force precipitated a series of changes for women in the military. In some

respects, the 1970s can be considered a revolutionary time for military women because a number of

significant changes in policies relating to them occurred very quickly during that decade. Channels for

these changes included DOD policy modification, legislative enactment, and (for the first time) judicial

mandate.

Yet in other important ways, the 1970s can be considered an evolutionary decade since many of the

issues dealt with were ones that had a policy history and had been simmering for a long while. Moreover,

these issues continued to be raised as areas of concern in the 1980s.

To examine the critical events of the 1970s, it is helpful to categorize them into five principal areas: (1)

special advisory committees, task forces, and organizational monitors; (2) marriage and family policy;

(3) numbers; (4) training; and (5) military roles.

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Special Advisory Committees, Task Forces,

and Organizational Monitors

Between 1973 and 1978, all of the services phased out their women directors offices. Administratively,

this was most problematic for the Army since the Women's Army Corps was legally mandated in the

1948 Integration Act and specific legislation was required to terminate it. The other services had never

been legally required to set up an office for a director of women, but each had done so. These were

advisory rather than command positions; but the women officers appointed to them usually had direct

access to their service chiefs on issues concerning all military women.

Disestablishment of the women directors offices, especially the WAC, was met with mixed reactions.

Objections were raised by many military women who felt that loss of the women's director positions

meant the loss of a significant base of influence at top levels of the military organization. There was also

the perceived loss of a women's support network and, especially in the case of the WAC, an institutional

identity—and the high esprit de corps associated with them. Proponents, however, viewed the demise of

the structure (dubbed the "petticoat channel") as a movement away from a separate and unequal status

and toward one of fuller incorporation into the organization itself. The latter view eventually proved

correct, although some lingering concerns remained. Policies and situations of concern to military

women didn't go away; and the DACOWlTS (the volunteer civilian advisory group) alone was left as an

institutional resource for Department of Defense policymakers.

Thus lacking a mechanism for uniformed military expertise on issues that had especial impact upon

women, the DOD subsequently adopted an ad hoc (as needed) strategy and structure (a review board, a

committee, and a task force) to deal with many of these questions. In 1977 a Committee on Women in

the NATO Forces was established. This group—composed of representatives of eleven NATO member

countries (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands,

Norway, Portugal, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States)—is "a consultative body on

policy concerning women in the armed forces of the alliance (whose) aim is to encourage the most

effective utilization of the capabilities of women in the services."39 Also in 1977, legislation (P.L.

95-202, Section 401) granting veterans status to the Women's Air Force Service Pilots of World War II

became part of the impetus for DOD Directive 1000.20, Active Duty Service Determinations for Civilian

or Contractual Groups, in 1979. This directive established a Department of Defense Civilian/Military

Service Review Board charged with reviewing applications from groups of civilian or contractual

personnel and determining "whether the service rendered by a group shall be considered active military

service for the purpose of all laws administered by the Veterans Administration."40

In 1983, the Veterans Administration Advisory Committee on Women Veterans was created—initially as

an internal advisory group within the Veterans Administration (VA), then subsequently "mandated by

Congress under Title III—Women Veterans, Public Law 98-160."41 And in 1984 the secretary of defense

established the Task Force on Equity for Women, which "will evaluate the effects of defense policies,

programs, and practices on opportunities for women and will recommend changes where appropriate."42

This five-member task force is chaired by the assistant secretary of defense for manpower, installations,

and logistics.

Thus there is a continuing concern for institutional forums to deal with organizational issues that

particularly involve military women. The major ongoing policy question here is, what mechanism(s) and

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organizational structures should be used to identify and deal with these issues?

Marriage and Family Policy

Official policies pertaining to marriage and to dependent children for military women had been evolving

since World War II. The initial question was whether a woman's decision to marry would either render

her ineligible for enlistment in the first place or, if she were already in the military, make her ineligible to

remain in uniform. Marriage was not necessarily a bar to enlistment or retention for women during

World War II, but it did subsequently become one.

Female recruiting shortfalls in the 1960s, coupled with the services' approval to release women from their

enlistment obligations due to marriage, translated into significant womanpower losses for the military. A

policy change to retain married servicewomen reduced female attrition as expected; but it also

subsequently increased the number of married women in the service (many of whom had military

husbands), and this in turn increased the number of requests for both military spouses to be assigned to

the same location. Marriage and retention in the service for military women were no longer mutually

exclusive statuses, but this situation had now raised some not entirely anticipated organizational

consequences.43

Even though marriage was now permissible, the services continued to think of married servicemen and

married servicewomen differently, especially with regard to benefits and dependents. Although the

DACOWITS had long questioned this seeming inequity, and legislation addressing this had even been

introduced into Congress, in the end it was the Supreme Court that decided the matter. In 1973, in

Frontiero v. Richardson, the Supreme Court ruled that it was unconstitutional for the armed forces to

require a servicewoman to prove that her civilian spouse and/or unmarried minor children were

dependent upon her for more than half of their support unless they required the same thing of servicemen

(whose civilian wives and unmarried minor children were automatically classified as dependents by the

armed forces). Thus required to equalize their rules for dependents' entitlements, the services changed

their policies so that servicewomen were subject to the same treatment in this regard as were servicemen.

Marriage and dependency entitlements (especially if these were for a spouse) were one thing, and child

custody and pregnancy quite another, to the military. A 1951 Executive Order (EO 10240) signed by

President Harry S. Truman gave the services permission to discharge a woman if she became pregnant,

gave birth to a child, or became a parent by adoption or a stepparent: the services took it as a mandate.

Waivers to the minor child custody policy were given to military women in the 1950s and 1960s but

often reluctantly and always on a case-by-case basis. In the late 1960s, military women for whom child

custody presented a potential forced choice between their children and their military careers began to file

suit on this question, claiming a violation of their 14th Amendment equal protection rights, the same

argument used later in Frontiero v. Richardson. But in the early 1970s, the military rescinded the minor

children discharge policy for military women, rendering these cases moot.44

This did not lay to rest other implications of this issue. In June 1985 a case with a nine-year legal history

was brought before a federal judge in New York. In his ruling, Judge John T. Curtain of the US District

Court in Buffalo "upheld the right of the Air Force and Army to ban single parents from enlisting."45

And changes to policy regarding minor child custody and single parenting have not always received

universal support, both because of perceived implications for possible assignment and mobility

restrictions and because they have opened up the lid on a "related matter"—pregnancy.

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The issue of pregnant military women was, and still is, a highly emotionally charged one. Rather than

automatically discharging a woman from the service when proof of pregnancy was discovered, as had

been the case, the services began in 1971 to go to a policy of waivers of discharge for pregnancy. They

also changed the enlistment rules so that women with children were no longer automatically excluded

from entering the service. Subsequently, although some women with children were seeking waivers to

stay in, the services were still experiencing a loss of 6 percent of their enlisted women (about 3,000)

annually to pregnancy and parenthood, which resulted in a move by the DOD to declare the involuntary

separation with waiver policy no longer "viable" and to instruct the services to develop and implement

policies of voluntary separation for pregnancy and parenthood.46 The services objected, citing concerns

regarding availability for deployment and potential loss of duty time, but were directed to comply with a

voluntary separation policy by 1975. Meanwhile, litigation brought against the services by military

women on this issue was in the courts. In 1976, in Crawford v. Cushman, the 2d District Court ruled that

a Marine Corps regulation requiring the discharge of a pregnant woman Marine violated the Fifth

Amendment due process clause because it set up an irrefutable presumption that any pregnant woman in

uniform was permanently unfit for duty.

In the late 1970s, shortly after the decision was made to permit women who became pregnant to remain

in the military, maternity uniforms were developed by each service and were made available for

individual purchase. In 1982 the Army approved a "maternity work uniform," consisting of shirt and

trousers with a camouflage pattern, and scheduled it to be available in the Army supply system by 1985.

But this time, rather than being an item for personal purchase, the maternity work uniform was

considered an item of organizational equipment. Since "organizational items belong to the unit, not the

soldier, and are repaired and replaced at government expense," such a move could be perceived as an

attempt at an organizational adaptation to the fact that "approximately 4-5 percent of the female force is

pregnant at any one time."47

The pregnancy issue has raised concerns for the armed forces in three major areas: the potential

availability of pregnant military women for mobilization, "work arounds" (circumstances where people

do not carry their own share of responsibilities in the work group situation), and health care issues.

Increasingly, attention is being paid to a scientific analysis of these concerns rather than accepting

"conventional wisdom" on these matters—which may sometimes be factually erroneous— as a basis for

making policy decisions. For example, in 1985 the Army Medical Department announced plans

regarding a study to be undertaken on the health status of women in the Army. It was directed by Brig

Gen Connie L. Slewitzke (chief, Army Nurse Corps) and conducted by the US Army Health Care Studies

and Clinical Investigation Activity at Fort Sam Houston, Texas. The study focused on pregnancy and

other female-specific health issues and examined the utilization and perceptions of the Army health care

system by both male and female soldiers. It also concentrated on "the perceptions of company

commanders and first sergeants concerning differences in health problems of men and women."48

Another study that would "monitor thousands of pregnancies and major gynecological operations (during

1985-86) in an effort to determine the quality of care that servicewomen and female dependents are

receiving in military (Army, Air Force, and Navy) hospitals," was coordinated by the Defense

Department's Health Affairs Office.49 In 1988 the Pentagon's Health Program Review and Evaluation

Office conducted the first worldwide survey of military women's health care concerns. An 86-item

questionnaire on OB/GYN care and access to health care services was sent to a random sample of Army,

Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps women.50

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In summary then, family policy issues have received increased organizational attention in the military of

recent years largely because of the interest of particular groups such as DACOWITS and the Armed

Services YMCA. The influence of congressional advocates—especially Senator Edward Kennedy

(D-Mass.) and Representatives Henry B. Gonzalez (D-Tex.) and Patricia Schroeder (D-Colo.)—was also

very important, as was the perceived linkage between the family and the individual servicemember's

morale and reenlistment intent.51

The Military Family Resource Center (MFRC), originally established as a demonstration project in 1980

(in response to a 1979 General Accounting Office—GAO—recommendation) and carried forward by the

Armed Services YMCA, became a permanent organizational element of DOD in October 1984 when it

became part of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs. Later, the 1986

Defense Authorization Bill contained provisions for the transfer of the MFRC to the Office of the

Assistant Secretary of Defense for Force Management and Personnel and for the creation of an additional

office—the Office of Family Policy—to be established under the assistant secretary of defense. It is

especially important in the context of the present discussion to point out that the archival (the collection

of studies and information on military family life), the program monitoring and coordinating, and the

policy-recommending functions of these offices were set up to provide support and advocacy to the

families of all military members, not just the families of military women.52 In 1986 the US Army began

a major five-year research effort to collect baseline data on the Army family and to provide policy

recommendations in key family areas.

These family policy questions of marriage, pregnancy, parenthood, family services, and joint-spouse

assignments are only just beginning to be seriously addressed. The major ongoing policy questions for

this set of issues are: How should such concerns be dealt with, and what organizational implications do

they raise?

Numbers

Perhaps the most important change for women in the military in the decade of the 1970s was the

dramatic increase in their numbers. This buildup of womanpower, most dramatic, virtually overnight in

the early 1970s, began to level off in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

In the early 1970s, with the legislation authorizing the draft about to expire, the DOD established the

Central All-Volunteer Task Force to examine various alternatives for fielding an all-volunteer military

force. In 1971 the DOD directed the task force to study the utilization of military women in order to

"provide a contingency option for meeting all-volunteer force objectives by increasing the use of women

to offset any shortage of men."53 In 1972 a special congressional subcommittee on military manpower

held hearings on the role of women in the military. The committee's final report noted "that in an

atmosphere of a zero draft environment or an all-volunteer military force, women could and should play

a more important role."54 Subsequently, the services were directed to develop contingency plans to

increase the use of women in the military. The head of the task force suggested that these increases

include a 40-percent increase for the Marine Corps and a doubling of the number of women in the Army,

Air Force, and Navy in 1977.55

As it turned out, these contingency plans became action plans: the services increased the number of

women even more than anticipated between 1972 and 1976. By the late 1970s, the expansion rates had

slackened; but the number of women in the military continued to increase.

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Table 1

Female Military Personnel on Active

Duty in the US Armed Forces

 

Date

 

Women

Active Duty

Personnel*

31 May 1945 266,256 12,124,418

30 Jun 1948 14,458 1,445,910

30 Jun 1949 18,081 1,615,360

30 Jun 1950 22,069 1,460,261

30 Jun 1951 39,625 3,249,455

 

30 Jun 1952 45,934 3,635,912

30 Jun 1953 45,485 3,555,067

30 Jun 1954 38,600 3,302,104

30 Jun 1955 35,191 2,935,107

30 Jun 1956 33,646 2,806,441

 

30 Jun 1957 32,173 2,795,798

30 Jun 1958 31,176 2,600,581

30 Jun 1959 31,718 2,565,000

30 Jun 1960 31,550 2,476,435

30 Jun 1961 32,071 2,483,771

 

30 Jun 1962 32,213 2,807,819

30 Jun 1963 30,771 2,699,677

30 Jun 1964 29,795 2,687,409

30 Jun 1965 30,610 2,655,389

30 Jun 1966 32,589 3,094,058

30 Jun 1967 35,173 3,376,880

30 Jun 1968 38,397 3,547,902

30 Jun 1969 39,506 3,460,162

30 Jun 1970 41,479 3,066,294

30 Jun 1971 42,775 2,714,727

 

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30 Jun 1972 45,033 2,323,079

30 Jun 1973 55,402 2,252,810

30 Jun 1974 74,715 2,162,005

30 Jun 1975 96,868 2,128,120

30 Jun 1976 109,133 2,081,910

 

30 Sep 1976 11,753 2,083,581

30 Sep 1977 18,966 2,074,543

30 Sep 1978 34,312 2,062,404

30 Sep 1979 51,082 2,027,494

30 Sep 1980 71,418 2,050,627

 

30 Sep 1981 84,651 2,082,560

30 Sep 1982 88,599 2,108,612

30 Sep 1983 197,878 2,123,349

30 Sep 1984 100,827 2,138,157

 

31 Dec 1985 213,357 2,150,379

30 Sep 1986 218,889 2,169,112

30 Sep 1987 223,805 2,174,219

30 Jun 1988 220,476 2,104,307

* For comparison purposes.

Note: Totals include officer and enlisted personnel.

Sources: 1945-1984 figures taken from Department of Defense, Selected Manpower Statistics: Fiscal Year

1984, pages 55-57, 78-79, and derived from pages 20-23. 1985-1986 figures from Department of Defense,

Selected Manpower Statistics: 30 Sep 1986, pages 5, 16. 1987 figures from Department of Defense, Selected

Manpower Statistics: 30 Sep 1987, pages 5, 18. 1988 figures from Department of Defense, Selected Manpower

Statistics: 30 Jun 1988, pages 5, 16.

The expansion of the numbers of women in the military at this time was prompted by two significant

events: the demise of the draft as a source of military manpower and the passage of the Equal Rights

Amendment by Congress in 1972. It was the perception of military decision makers that both these

events would have significant implications for policies concerning the utilization of women in the armed

forces.56

All during the time that the numbers of women in the military were increasing, much study and

assessment of this phenomenon was going on. An underlying assumption was that there was an upper

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limit on the number of women that could be incorporated into the military—due to certain

restrictions—and that it was important to determine exactly what this number was. Among the

restrictions on the utilization of women were those statutory ones posed by the combat prohibitions in

Title 10 (the 1948 Integration Act) and certain conditions and policy restraints in the services themselves,

especially "facilities limitations" (the lack of accommodations for women in certain locations) and

particularly in the case of the Navy, the "rotation base"—the number of shore jobs that women could

occupy were it not for the policy that these jobs must be saved for men returning from sea duty. In the

late 1970s, another potentially limiting factor was identified: the effect of the increased utilization of

women on the essence of the military mission itself—combat effectiveness. The assumption was that a

certain percentage of women in a unit would be likely to have a negative effect on effectiveness; and

there was an effort to determine just what this number was. The Army's data from two of its own studies,

however, failed to find an adverse effect.57

Yet the concern with the questions "what are the limits on the utilization of women?" and "what are the

effects of the increased utilization of women on the military mission?" continued into the 1980s. In a

1981 movement subsequently known as "Womanpause," the DOD announced a reappraisal of accession

goals and policies regarding women in the military and a subsequent "pause" on recruiting to assess the

impact of women on military readiness. Upon the completion of this DOD policy review in 1981, female

recruiting levels were negotiated between DOD and each of the services.58

In January 1982 the secretary of defense sent memos to the service secretaries. They read, in part,

"qualified women are essential to obtaining the numbers of quality people required to maintain the

readiness of our forces"; and they instructed the service secretaries to "personally review" policies to see

that women were not discriminated against in recruiting or career opportunities. The Department of

Defense Authorization Act, 1985, required the Air Force to increase the number of women recruits. The

percentage of new Air Force recruits who were women would go from 14 percent in 1985 to 19 percent

in 1987 to 22 percent by the end of fiscal year 1988. The Air Force balked at this idea and was eventually

able to get the 1987 requirement canceled and the 1988 requirement delayed.59

In summary, the questions of "how many women can the military utilize?" and "what are some of the

organizational effects of the incorporation of increased numbers and percentages of women in the armed

forces?" are not new issues but important ongoing policy concerns.

Training

While the numbers of women in the armed forces in the 1970s was increasing, training and job

assignment opportunities for women were also increasing. The route to an officer's commission for most

young men—the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program in colleges and universities«was

opened to women on a trial basis in the 1960s. By 1972, all of the services had women enrolled in their

ROTC programs; and by the end of the decade, significant numbers of women were obtaining their

commissions via this route.60 By the mid-1970s, NCO leadership schools and academies, schools for

drill sergeants, officer candidate programs, and service schools for senior officers had been opened to

women; and women had begun to appear on the staffs and faculties of these schools as well.

Enlistment standards moved in the direction of equalization for men and women,61 and basic training

courses were gender integrated (with the exception of the Marine Corps) in the mid-1970s. (The Army

reverted to separate basic training courses for men and women in the mid-1980s.) Mandatory weapons

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training for most military women was also begun in the mid-1970s. All of these changes came about

through policy modifications designed to specifically allow women to participate in these programs.

Legislative action was required for the admission of women to the military service academies. By 1975

two federal academies—the US Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York, and the US Coast

Guard Academy at New London, Connecticut—had opened their doors to women. Policies and feelings

on this at the military service academies (the Army at West Point, New York; the Navy at Annapolis,

Maryland; and the Air Force at Colorado Springs, Colorado) were, however, another matter. In the early

1970s, women desiring admission to the service academies (who had been nominated by members of

Congress only to have their application returned unconsidered) filed suit against the services. The service

academies objected to the admission of women because facilities would have to be modified to

accommodate women, the program itself might have to be changed, and, most importantly, the business

of the service academies was to train leaders for combat. The academies argued that since women were

forbidden by law from assuming combat duties, then it was inappropriate for them to receive training at

the military academies. But a GAO survey of the types of jobs that service academy graduates had held

revealed that a substantial number of them had never had a combat assignment. The service academies

were therefore not in the exclusive business of training leaders for combat jobs.62

Public Law 94-106, signed by President Gerald Ford in 1975, admitted women to the nation's three

military service academies for the first time. The legislation became effective in the fall of 1976, thus

making the class of 1980 the first gender-integrated academy classes. Facility problems proved to be few,

and no changes in the academic programs were required as the result of admitting women. Physical

training requirements, however, did have to reflect lower standards for women. (Some of these standards

were later raised as subsequent women, helped by Title 9 physical education and training programs in

their high schools, were admitted by the academies. Nevertheless, different physical standards and

qualifications for women remain in effect at the service academies.)

Training opportunities and standards for military women are an ongoing policy concern. One question is,

What are the causes and effects of the average lower physical ability of military women on their job

performance, and how does this translate to the question of organizational effectiveness? A second major

question links the training and utilization issues: What kind(s) of training shall women receive for what

kind(s) of military jobs?

Military Roles

The expanding numbers of women in the military (especially occurring, as this phenomenon did, within a

climate of expanding occupational options for women in general) inevitably raised the issue of types of

jobs open to women. After women had performed a wide variety of military roles in World War II, they

had been relegated to only a very few types of jobs throughout the two decades that followed. However,

during the late 1960s and early 1970s, a significant shift in service philosophy occurred. Suddenly,

military women were no longer to be solely utilized in health care occupations or as "typewriter

soldiers"; now they could be, and were, assigned to nontraditional roles such as maintenance,

mechanical, electrical, and skilled craft fields. (Strictly speaking, however, given their history of

participation in these job areas in World War II, such occupations were not really "nontraditional" for

women at all.) Essentially overnight, job prospects for women went from limited openings in a very few

fields to an ever-increasing number of jobs available in virtually all noncombat positions in the military.

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In 1972, for example, 90 percent of all enlisted women in the military were classified as being in

"traditional" fields (especially administration and health care); in 1980, only 54 percent were so

classified.63 This opening up of roles for women coincided with the end of a military draft for men and

the introduction of an all-volunteer armed force.

While this expansion of roles most particularly affected the career fields and choices available to enlisted

women, women officers also became eligible for some new opportunities at this time. In the mid-1970s

for instance, opportunities for women to command and supervise men (rather than exercising authority

solely over other women) were approved. In the late 1970s, the separate promotion lists for male and

female officers were eliminated, thus making women compete for the first time with men for promotion.

This made some of the senior-ranking women quite concerned when they wondered, not without cause,

whether their historical exclusion from certain types of job opportunities and assignments—and their

consequent lack of experience because of this—might handicap them when competing for promotion

with men who have had these opportunities and experiences.

Perhaps the three most significant areas of changing roles for military women during the 1970s occurred

in their assignment to aircraft, missile, and seagoing specialist positions. This was particularly important

since (1) these represented the core roles (the central activities) of the Air Force and Navy, and (2) the

1948 Integration Act legacy, which had barred women from duty aboard Navy ships and from Navy and

Air Force aircraft engaged in combat missions, still remained as legal restrictions (Title 10, U.S.C.,

Sections 6015 and 8549) to the assignment and utilization of women in those services.

Yet, women pinned on Naval aviator wings in 1973; and women began to fly in Army aviation

specialties in 1974, principally as helicopter pilots. Women pilots flew for the Air Force in 1977, but

only in certain types of aircraft: weather, reconnaissance, tanker, personnel and cargo transport, and

flying hospitals (medical evacuation airplanes). Gradually, the Air Force opened other types of

opportunities to women pilots: the Airborne Warning and Control Squadron (AWACS) in 1982; the

RC-135 reconnaissance and EC-130 electronic countermeasure aircraft in 1986. Air Force fighter and

bomber aircraft (designated as "combat aircraft") are still off limits to women, although Air Force

women can serve as instructor pilots. Women in other NATO nations are beginning to be trained as

combat fighter pilots,64 and in 1986 the US Navy had its first women test pilots.65 In 1988 all aviator

positions on reconnaissance and electronic warfare support flying billets were opened to women.66

It must be emphasized that only a very small number of women (a few hundred) were, and are, admitted

into aviation specialties in the US armed forces. Among the reasons for this are the restrictions on their

utilization in such roles, the consequent difficulty in getting and maintaining the required number of

flying hours, and the possibility of limited military career options for women in aviation fields.

Title 10 contained no provisions to exclude women from operating missile systems, most probably

because large intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) with long-range combat capabilities were not in

the weapon systems inventories of the armed forces when the combat exclusion provisions for women

were codified into US law in 1948. In the post-World War II era, however, several kinds of missile

systems became important parts of the US military arsenal. In 1977 the secretary of the Air Force opened

the missile launch career held to women, allowing them to be part of four-person launch crews on the

liquid-fueled Titan missiles. However, the more modern Minuteman solid-fuel missiles had only

two-person crews, and concern was raised over "stress and privacy" problems that might arise with a

mixed-gender crew. In 1980 the Air Force surveyed male Minuteman crew members (and their wives) to

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determine opinions regarding women in Minuteman crews. The negative responses to this survey

question helped to keep women out of Minuteman crew positions until a later Air Force study on the

utilization of military women in such roles led to a decision to incorporate them into these crews

beginning in 1985.67 The decision was also made to train women as Peacekeeper (MX) ICBM crew

members. In the case of both Minuteman and Peacekeeper, however (both two-person crews), women

launch officers could initially serve only with other women launch officers. In part because of complaints

from men that such a situation resulted in the women launch officers "not carrying an equal share of the

duty," mixed-gender crew assignments for ICBMs became the rule beginning 1 January 1988.68

Another new Air Force missile, the ground-launched cruise missile (GLCM), will have women as crew

members. Unlike the domestic landbased ICBMs, however, GLCMs can be operated from a mobile

platform that can be forward deployed in a field environment. But once again, as is the case for women

pilots, the number of women on missile launch crews is very small.

Between 1984 and 1985, the Air Force opened not only missile launch crew positions to women but

another "nontraditional" role (security police jobs) as well.69 And in 1988 "more than 2,700 positions for

women in the Air Force Red Horse (construction) and mobile aerial port squadrons" were opened.70 An

interesting historical footnote here is the fact that the same 1985 force composition study that led to the

recommendation for removing the requirement for a 22-percent female recruit rate in 1987 also led to a

revision in the Air Force's combat exclusion policy that opened up about 800 jobs to women (principally

flying and crewing C-130 and EC-130 aircraft and serving at forward air control posts and munitions

storage sites).71

But while flying aircraft and launching missiles are Jobs actually performed by relatively few

people—men or women—in the armed forces, duty at sea involves virtually all members of the nation's

sea services; all members, that is, except many women in the Navy and Marine Corps who, for the most

part, have remained ashore. The 1948 Integration Act had been worded to preclude women from serving

on all Naval vessels except hospital ships and transports. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, this exception

had made it possible for Navy nurses (as they had in World War II) to serve on hospital ships, this time

located in Southeast Asia. But when the last Navy hospital ship was decommissioned in 1971, even this

was not possible.

On 7 August 1972, the chief of Naval Operations, Adm Elmo R. Zumwaldt, citing "the imminence of an

all-volunteer force (which) has heightened the importance of women as a vital personnel resource,"

announced in Z-Gram 116 that there would be limited entry of enlisted women into all jobs in the Navy,

to include the seagoing ratings, and that the USS Sanctuary (a hospital ship) would have a

gender-integrated crew. Approximately 20 women officers and 53 enlisted women became a part of this

ship's crew, most were assigned to the hospital, but some held jobs on the deck and in other areas.72 The

Sanctuary was decommissioned in 1975, but the Navy began to assign women to nonoceangoing vessels

such as tugs and harbor craft.

During 1977 and 1978, Navy officials went to Congress to get an amendment that would allow women to

serve on noncombatant ships such as tenders and repair ships. While Congress was considering this

matter, Judge John J. Sirica ruled in Owens v. Brown that the provisions of the blanket exclusion of Navy

women from sea duty contained in Section 6015 were unconstitutional under equal protection rights

guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment. Subsequently, Congress approved the Navy's suggested

modifications to Section 6015; and in 1978 President Jimmy Carter signed P.L. 95-485, which provided

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that women in the Navy could be assigned to sea duty aboard noncombatant ships and could be assigned

to temporary duty (less than 180 days) aboard combatant ships. At about the same time, the US Coast

Guard (under the Department of Transportation rather than the Department of Defense, and thus not

subject to Section 6015's restrictions) began assigning mixed-gender crews to its high-endurance cutters.

In 1978 the Coast Guard removed all assignment restrictions based on gender. Since then, women have

served on, and in some cases commanded, US Coast Guard ships.73 In December 1987 the Navy

approved the assignment of women to ships in its combat logistics force and in 1989 selected its first

woman for at-sea command of a commissioned Navy ship.74 In 1988 the Marine Corps announced that

"these female noncommissioned officers . . . will be serving aboard two of the Navy's three (submarine)

tenders as part of their Marine security detachments."75

In 1973 DOD had recommended repeal of the combat exclusion contained in Title 10; but the issue was

dropped when an Army review led the services themselves to suggest that the subject of women in

combat was too controversial and that a move to repeal the Title 10 prohibitions might delay passage of

the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act to which it was attached.

In 1979 DOD again recommended repeal of the combat exclusion provisions because of the limiting

effects they had on Air Force and Navy personnel policy. This time, the proposal was sent to Congress,

and the House Armed Services Military Personnel Subcommittee held hearings on it. But rather than

debating the need for flexibility in the Army's review, the subcommittee recommended closing 23 job

categories to women—job categories that had previously been open to them.76 However, "in 1985, after

a review directed by the Secretary of the Army, many of the job categories closed in 1982 were

reopened."77 And when the Army went to its direct combat probability code (DCPC) in 1983, it

discovered that it had on board many women in the "P1" (highest probability of combat)

positions—positions that were theoretically closed to them. Transferring these women out of such

specialties proved to be more difficult than at first thought. Particularly in Europe, unit commanders

wanted them—in part because there were not enough men to fill the vacancies. In 1987 this affected

about 250 women assigned to P1 combat units in West Germany, many of whom were subsequently

transferred by direct order of the commander, US Army Europe.78

For the Navy and Marine Corps, the biggest changes in the "women and combat" issue have come

through modification of the Section 6015 legislation and the assignment of women to ships in the Navy's

combat logistics force (1987) and as embassy guards in overseas posts (in 1979 and again in 1988) for

the Marine Corps.79 In the 1970s and 1980s, the Air Force expanded its definition of aircraft types its

women were allowed to fly and of which intercontinental ballistic missiles they were permitted to launch.

It must be stressed again, however, that important restrictions on women's roles remain in all the

services; women as a class are prohibited from performing certain kinds of military jobs ("combat"

roles). As this book goes to press, legislation that would open all combat support positions in the military

to women, cosponsored by Senators William Proxmire (R-Wis.) and William Cohen (R-Me.), has again

been introduced in Congress.80

Underlying much of the discussion during this time of expanding roles for women (1970s and 1980s)

were of course the combat exclusion provisions contained in the law and, in fact, the definitions of

"combat" itself. Two related issues—registration and conscription—were also raised regarding women.

Because these issues are of such importance in the contemporary debate concerning the utilization of

women in the military, they will be examined here in greater detail.

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As we have seen, the Women's Armed Services' Integration Act of 1948 (the Integration Act) provided a

permanent and continuing role for women in the US armed forces. Importantly, however, this act also

included three major restrictions: on the rank that women could attain, on the percentage of women in the

military, and on the types of duties women could perform. Forty years later, the first two restrictions have

been removed but the third one remains. It has come to be known as the "combat exclusion."

Today, all branches of the US armed forces have restrictions on the kinds of jobs that women can

perform. Some of these are imposed on the services from "outside"—the statutory restrictions contained

in Title 10 of the United States Code (the 1948 Integration Act) while others are imposed from "inside"

the organization (the restrictions a particular service sets for itself). Table 2 provides a closer look at

these restrictions.

Table 2

Combat Exclusion Laws and Policies Pertaining to the

Utilization of Women in the US Armed Forces

1. Statutory provisions on the utilization of women in the military are

 contained in Title 10 of the United States Code:

 a. 10 USC Section 8549 prohibits the permanent assignment of

 women in the Air Force to duty in aircraft engaged in combat

 missions. (In Section 8067, however, exceptions are made for

 women who are medical, dental, chaplain, or other

 "professionals.")

 b. 10 USC Section 6015 prohibits the permanent assignment of

 Navy women to duty on vessels or aircraft that engage in

 combat missions.

 c. 10 USC Section 3012 gives authority to the Secretary of the

 Army to assign, detail, and prescribe duties to all members of

 the Army. (Thus the Army has no statutory limitations on the

 utilization of women.)

2. In addition to the above restrictions, service policies also limit the

 utilization of military women:

 a. The Marine Corps, under the Department of the Navy, follows

 the restrictions placed on the utilization of women in Section

 6015. Also, its policies further restrict women in the Marine

 Corps from serving in either combat or combat "situations."

 b. The Army has no statutory restrictions on the utilization of

 women. However, in 1977, it developed and adopted a

 Combat Exclusion Policy that prevents women from serving in

 certain jobs designated as "combat" military occupational

 specialties. In addition, in 1983 the Army developed a direct

 combat probability code (DCPC) that restricts the assignment

 of women according to battlefield location. Positions are coded

 "P1" to "P7." "P1" positions (representing the highest combat

 probability) are closed to women.

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 c. In 1988 US Secretary of Defense Frank Carlucci "approved a

 new standard for judging which military jobs should be closed

 to women, a standard that will apply to all the services. From

 now on, jobs will be closed to women only when they carry a

 risk of exposure to direct combat, hostile fire, or capture that

 is 'equal to or greater' than the risk for similar units in the

 same theater of operations."

Sources: M. C. Devilbiss, "Job Training Opportunities for Women in the US Armed Forces," in Job Training for

Women: Research Perspective and Policy Directions, ed. Sharon Harlan and Ronnie J. Steinberg

(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); and "New 'Risk Rule' for Women to Apply to All Services,"

Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 4

Linked with the combat issue has been the debate over a draft. Legislative authority for the conscription

of males expired in 1972. In 1975 President Ford terminated peacetime registration. In 1980 President

Carter sought funds to begin to register men again. He also sought an amendment to the Selective Service

Act so that women would be required to register. Hearings were held in both the House and Senate on

these questions. Like the hearings on the Title 10 provisions, there was much divided Congressional,

interest group, and public opinion on the issue of registering women. In 1981 the Supreme Court handed

down its decision in Rostker v. Goldberg, a suit that had originally been filed in 1971 by draft-eligible

males who argued that conscription was unlawful because it violated their equal protection rights under

the Fifth Amendment since such legislation did not impose a similar obligation for women. On 25 June

1981 the Supreme Court ruled that "Congress had the constitutional authority to exclude women from the

military draft." Congress then approved the funds to register men, but not women, and a peacetime

registration of young men for the armed forces was reinstated.81

In 1979, in testimonies before Congress, the surgeons general of the Army, Navy, and Air Force

recommended a draft of doctors. In 1981 a General Accounting Office report "found that a nurse draft

was the only practical way to counter wartime shortages." The report also noted that a draft of women

was a politically sensitive issue. In 1984 the Health Personnel Mobilization Act, proposing a draft of

health care professionals for service in the military, was sent "to the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA) for inclusion in an 'M-day (Mobilization-Day) Emergency Package' [to] become part of

a body of legislation that could be put through Congress rapidly in time of 'national emergency.'" As the

Nurses Selective Service Bill would have done in World War II, this particular proposal would also have

had the effect of mandating registration for women (albeit particular groups of women), since "98

percent of nurses, half the veterinary and pharmacy students, and almost a third of medical students are

women." In April 1985 the surgeon general of the Army "asked Congress to consider peacetime

registration of doctors and nurses as a solution to 'severe' shortages in the Reserves." But a Department of

Defense spokesman later said that DOD did not support this proposal and did not "intend to propose

peacetime registration of health professionals."82 The shortage of military nurses continued in the late

1980s, recruiting was difficult, and at least one service (the Navy) attempted to cope with the shortage by

bringing in civilian registered nurses.83

All of these issues—types of jobs for women in the military, combat exclusions mandated by law and by

policy, and the question of registration and conscription—are ongoing public and military organizational

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concerns that relate to the long-continuing policy issue, what is to be the role of women in the armed

forces?

Notes

1. Jeanne Holm. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982),

4.

2. Linda K. Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel

Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 48-74.

3. Linda Grant DePauw, "Women in Combat: The Revolutionary War Experience," Armed Forces and

Society 7, no. 2 (Winter 1981): 209-26.

4. Ibid., 224; see also D. Bruce Bell and Robert B. Iadeluca, "The Origins of Volunteer Support for Army

Family Programs." Minerva Quarterly Report on Women and the Military 6. no. 3 (Fall 1988): 26-43.

5. Holm, 6.

6. Martin Binkin and Shirley J. Bach, Women and the Military (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution,

1977), 5.

7. Holm, 7.

8. M. C. Devilbiss, "Women and War: A Conceptual Framework for Historical and Contemporary Roles"

(Paper presented at a special session of the American Sociological Association annual meeting. San

Antonio, Tex., August 1984).

9. John R. Brumgardt, ed., Civil War Nurse: The Diary and Letters of Hannah Ropes (Knoxville:

University of Tennessee Press, 1980).

10. Holm, 7.

11. Ibid., 8.

12. Leonard Berlow, "Mary Walker: Only Woman to Win the Medal of Honor," Times Magazine, 1

September 1980, 60-61. The medal was subsequently taken away from her, and then later restored.

13. Holm, 8.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid., 9.

16. Joy Bright Hancock, Lady in the Navy (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1972), 22.

17. Ibid., 23-28.

18. Holm, 12.

19. Linda L. Hewitt, Woman Marines in World War I (Washington, D.C.: History and Museums

Division, Headquarters US Marine Corps, 1974), 4.

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20. Holm, 12; Hewitt, 9, 41: Binkin and Bach, 5: see also Mattie E. Treadwell, The Women's Army Corps

(Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1954).

21. Treadwell, 6-8.

22. Ibid., 7; Holm, 15; M. C. Devilbiss, "Women in the Armed Forces" (Paper presented at the Fifth

Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y., June 1981).

23. Philip A. Kalisch and Margaret Scobey, "Female Nurses in American Wars: Helplessness Suspended

for the Duration" (Paper presented at the biennial conference of the Inter-University Seminar on the

Armed Forces and Society, Chicago, October 1980).

24. Ibid.

25. Holm, 17.

26. Ibid., 19.

27. Ibid., 22.

28. Ibid., 24.

29. Ibid., 26-27.

30. Ibid., 131.

31. D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard University Press, 1984): Sally VanWagenen Keil, Those Wonderful Women in Their Flying

Machines (New York: Rawson Wade Publishers, Inc., 1979): Binkin and Bach: Jack Cassin-Scott,

Women at War: 1939-45 (London: Osprey Publishing, 1980); Hancock, 275-76; Treadwell.

32. Campbell, 38-40.

33. Treadwell, 351; Holm, 354-56.

34. Holm, 120.

35. Ibid., 149-50.

36. Ibid., 187-91.

37. Department of Defense, Military Manpower Statistics, Washington, D.C.: Office of the Secretary of

Defense (Manpower, Reserve Affairs, and Logistics), 30 June 1988, 19; "Mixed Crews Assigned to

Missiles," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 10. Between 1967 and 1988, 34 military

women achieved flag rank.

38. Lynda VanDevanter with Christopher Morgan, Home Before Morning (New York: Warner Books,

1983).

39. Department of Defense, Going Strong! Women in Defense, Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant

Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve Affairs, and Logistics), 1984.

40. DOD Directive 1000.20, Active Duty Service Determinations for Civilian or Contractual Groups, 24

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January 1979.

41. Jeanne M. Holm, "Report of the Veterans Administration Advisory Committee on Women in the

Military," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military 6, no. 4 (Winter 1988): 1-24.

42. DOD, Going Strong!, 5.

43. Holm, Women In the Military, 280-90.

44. Ibid., 292-97.

45. P. J. Budahn, "Bar on Single-Parent Enlistments Upheld," Air Force Times, 8 July 1985, 90.

46. Holm, Women in the Military, 300.

47. Don Hirst, "Camouflage Maternity Work Uniform to Enter Supply System in August," Army Times,

10 June 1985, 14. Subsequently, the other services adopted camouflage maternity uniforms. The Marine

Corps was last (1 October 1985).

48. "Health Status of Women in the Army To Be Studied," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and

the Military 3, no. 2 (Summer 1985): 43-45.

49. Paul Smith, "Services to Launch Study of Military Pregnancy Care," Air Force Times, 20 May 1985,

14.

50. "Defense Department Surveys Women's Health Concerns," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 4 (Winter

1988): 7.

51. Martha Lynn Craver, "Full Senate Approves Family Improvements," Air Force Times, 3 June 1985,

1.

52. Tom Burgess, "Conferees Approve Most Family Benefits," Air Force Times, 12 August 1985, 1.

53. Holm, Women in the Military, 249.

54. Ibid., 250.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid., 246-49.

57. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Alexandria, Va., "Women Content

in Units Force Development Test (MAXWAC)," 1977; and "Women Content n the Army: REFORGER

77 (REFWAC 77)," 1978. Tests were conducted in combat support units in the field under simulated

combat conditions. Percentages of women in the units ranged from zero to 35. The presence of women

did not adversely affect unit performance.

58. Holm, Women in the Military, 388.

59. This victory came at the cost of having to redo the Air Force accession methodology (computerized

"manpower" system) for obtaining new recruits.

60. Holm, Women in the Military, 270.

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61. "Tougher Enlistment Standards for Women Are Legal: Court Says," Minerva's Bulletin Board 2. no.

1 (Spring 1989): 8.

62. Holm, Women in the Military, 310.

63. Ibid., 275.

64. "Canadian Women Training as Combat Pilots," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 13.

65. "Navy Lieutenant Is Military's First Woman Jet Test Pilot," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women

and the Military 6. no. 3 (Fall 1986): 38-39.

66. "Air Force Opens More Jobs to Women," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 6.

67. Holm, Women in the Military, 323-24; "Women to Join Minuteman Crew Force," Airman Magazine,

March 1985, 3.

68. "Mixed Crews Assigned to Missiles," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 4.

69. John Ginovsky, "Women to Fill SP Slots," Air Force Times, 1 October 1984.

70. "Air Force Opens More Jobs to Women," 6.

71. "800 More Jobs Open to Women," Maxwell-Gunter Dispatch, 9 May 1985, 19.

72. Holm, Women in the Military, 329.

73. Ibid., 332-34. Currently, the only sea duty restrictions for women in the Coast Guard have to do with

bunking: women are assigned in units of 10. "Coast Guard Enlisted Men and Women Compete for

Positions at Sea," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 11.

74. "Women to Deploy on Combat Logistics Force Vessels," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 2 (Summer

1988): 11; "More Women to Command at Sea," Minerva's Bulletin Board 2, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 11.

75. "Women Marines Go to Sea," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 7.

76. Holm, Women in the Military, 338-39.

77. Carolyn H. Becraft, "Women and the Military: Organizational Stress and Politics" (Paper presented at

the Conference on Women and Work, University of Texas at Arlington, May 1988).

78. "Women in Army Combat Units To Be Reassigned," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the

Military 5, no. 4 (Winter 1987): 38-39.

79. "Women to Deploy on Combat Logistics Force Vessels"; "Women Marines to Train as Embassy

Guards," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 12.

80. Senator William Proxmire tried from 1977 to 1986 to get legislation introduced that would repeal the

Title 10 restrictions on the Air Force and Navy, making women's assignments an administrative task for

those services as it already was for the Army. Judith Hicks Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman

(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 120.

81. Holm, Women in the Military, 377.

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82. Neil Roland, "Becker Asks Registration of Doctors," Army Times, 10 June 1985, 13.

83. "Few Jobs Left for Emergency Medicine Navy Nurses," Minerva's Bulletin Board 2, no. 1 (Spring

1989): 12.

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Chapter 2

Analysis: Major Instruments

and Patterns of Change

Factors that have been instrumental in effecting change for women in the military have been

both external (change has come through forces outside the military) and internal (change has

been a product of intraorganizational forces). For example, the roles of women in the US

armed forces have reflected to a great extent the roles of women in society at large (an

external factor), but they have also reflected the changing structure of the military

organization itself (an internal consideration). One particularly influential internal factor

stands out; however, the perception of "military need" (variously defined in differing

circumstances) has been the primary driver in the utilization of women in the US armed

forces.

Historically, changes in military policy have resulted from internal pressure, an external impetus, or an

interaction of external and internal forces. For effecting policy change in the case of women in the

military, the latter two routes have been relatively more successful. External factors by themselves appear

to have been unsuccessful in imposing change on an "unwilling" military (at least in this case), except as

they have been facilitators—setting the stage for change rather than being the direct cause of it. The

military has rarely braved to outside pressure alone to alter its internal rules and policies. The judicial,

legislative, and executive branches of the government have given the military services much latitude and

autonomy in making and enforcing their own internal policies.1

External Factors

Examples of external factors that influenced policy change relative to women in the military are cultural

norms and assumptions. Over the course of its history as a nation, the United States has witnessed many

changes in many assumptions regarding women and in notions of women's place in American society. In

the process of social change, many traditional assumptions and ways of thinking have coexisted

alongside new ideas.

Every historical period has had a set of guiding assumptions that have served to shape attitudes and

definitions within that period's social institutions. When viewing (even recent) history, it is sometimes

difficult to understand the pervasive influence of many of these traditional assumptions, since they seem

so far removed from what is accepted as truth today. Yet it is vitally important to understand the

particular historical context and its prevailing notions to pinpoint potential or actual forces of change.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, notions of women mainly as property, as nonpersons (i.e., as

possessions of men—typically fathers or husbands—and as having a derivative status through men rather

than an independent status of their own), as dutiful daughters, as "helpmates" (wives-companions), and

as nurturant mothers helped to shape ideas of appropriate roles for women. These notions were reflected

in the values and philosophies of American social institutions, the military included.

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In the twentieth century, ideas and legal measures that gave women access to certain rights as citizens

(enfranchisement, holding public office, and serving in the armed forces) began to hold sway as views of

appropriate roles for women began to be redefined. Ideas of "women as citizens" and "women as

persons" began to coexist alongside more traditional roles for women.

In the early history of the United States, because women were neither citizens nor even persons in the

eyes of the law—there was controversy over whether the term people included women. Questions often

arose over the implications of this legal position. Most educational and employment opportunities and

virtually all avenues for political participation were typically denied to women by custom, policy, or

law.2 Within this context, then, it is easier to see why the question of women's status vis-à-vis the

military organization was the subject of so much protracted controversy. It was this question plus the

issue of defining appropriate jobs for women in the military that preoccupied the armed forces for a

century and a half.3 In light of the fact that these two issues have coexisted historically, it can be

suggested that how women have been utilized in and with the military is vitally linked to societal notions

regarding women's status and, moreover, is consistent with prevailing cultural assumptions about what

the concept of "femininity" does not include. Support for this idea can be seen when "women's status

relative to the military" and "jobs women could perform within the military" are historically juxtaposed.

Six important stages in the development of these ideas can then be identified (table 3).4

Table 3

Important Historical Developmental Stages in the

Utilization of Women in the Military

 1. The American Revolution—everyone and all resources are needed to fight this type

of war. Even women and other nonpersons (such as slaves, servants, and children) may be

used in this emergency situation; women perform a variety of duties, including direct

combat roles.

 2. The late-eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries—women have no obligation to be

in the armed forces since they are not citizens; and since they cannot bear arms, they are

virtually useless to a military that has mostly "combat" jobs.

 3. The mid- to late-nineteenth century (includes the Civil War and Spanish-American

War)—in an emergency, it is permissible for women to serve in civilian capacities

attached to the armed forces in a variety of roles, especially as nurses (a critically needed

skill and a role consistent with—an extension of—the view of women as "nurturant

mothers").

 4. The early twentieth century (includes World War I)—in an emergency, it is

permissible for women to be in the military, but only at lower ranks and only in critically

needed areas (especially medical and clerical jobs) where they already possess the skills

and where the labor of men is in short supply; after the emergency, all women must leave

the military except nurses, whose role is institutionalized but with a quasi-military status.

 5. The midtwentieth century (includes World War II, Korea, Vietnam)—in an

emergency, women can be in the military and perform a wide variety of jobs short of

actual combat; after the emergency, women can have a permanent and ongoing role in the

armed forces, but they can perform only a very limited number and variety of jobs, all of

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which must be in peripheral roles (support functions).

 6. The late-twentieth century—increasing numbers of women in the military have

greatly expanded job opportunities; but they form a special protected subset of military

members who are officially exempt from combat jobs by policy and law.

Helping to ease the transition from each of these stages to the next were the changing cultural ideas of

women's roles and the changing definitions of femininity that accompanied these shifts.5 Each subsequent

stage was in keeping with the new notions of appropriate roles and places for women. We can see, for

example, how historical ideas of women as nurturant mothers and as wives-companions (assistants to

men) helped guide notions of which military roles were appropriate to them at the time (e.g., as nurses, as

clerical workers, and in support jobs). In the late-twentieth century, ideas of women as political, physical,

intellectual, emotional, and social equals of men began to coexist alongside more traditional notions of

women and their roles. It is in viewing the present age with these diverse but coexistent cultural

assumptions that the contemporary situation surrounding women in the military (with its competing and

often contradictory norms and expectations, values, and definitions of opportunities) becomes much

easier to understand.

Cultural assumptions are important in the case of women in the military because they can either provide

support for the status quo or be facilitating frameworks for change. Cultural beliefs do not necessarily

induce change by themselves; tied in with specific events or circumstances, however, they may be

important factors in influencing change. A similar argument can be made for the importance of

influencing rather than directing change in the case of outside special interest (lobbying) groups. It has

been noted, for instance, that neither expanded societal notions of women's roles per se nor pressure from

certain feminist organizations for wider opportunities provided the major impetus for the expanded

number and variety of jobs available to women in the military in the early to mid-1970s. Rather, it was

the perception on the part of the military that the Equal Rights Amendment would be ratified and

become law and would then affect military policy in this area that prompted change. Thus, policy

changes at this time were an effort by the military to retain internal control over issues concerning

women in the armed forces; and rather than being a response to external pressure, policy change reflected

an interaction between these external forces and internal military considerations.6

A third external influencing factor, legislation, has also had an influencing effect upon the formulation of

military policy in this area. In some instances, it has directed change. A good example is Public Law

(P.L.) 94-106, which admitted women to the nation's service academies for the first time. Other pieces of

legislation (e.g., P.L.554 in 1942, the WAAC Bin; P.L. 90-130 in 1967, which lifted the 2-percent ceiling

on numbers and opened up promotions; and P.L. 95-485 in 1978, which modified the provisions of Title

10, Section 6015, for the Navy) appear to have been examples of change imposed on the military by an

external source (Congress) but were actually heavily influenced by the armed forces themselves. The

services made their viewpoints known regarding provisions to be contained in the legislation. Thus,

legislation passed by Congress and incorporated into law may be said to be an important external

influencing factor for change in the situation of women and the military at some times; at other times,

legislation simply formalizes (codifies into statute) the military's own estimation of its needs in this area.

A fourth factor, judicial decision, is probably the most powerful external precipitator of change because

of these questions. Some court rulings on matters related to military policy on women—Frontiero v.

Richardson, 411 U.S. 677 (1973) on dependency entitlements and Crawford v. Cushman, 531 F.2d 114

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(2d Cir. 1976) on the issue of pregnancy and fitness for duty—have forced change. Such cases have often

involved questions of constitutional rights. On questions pertaining to utilization, especially what role

women will play in the armed forces, the courts have generally deferred to the military itself.7

These external factors—cultural assumptions, outside interest groups, legislation, and judicial

decisions—are not the only effecters of change in the status of women in the military. Internal factors

also play an important and influential role in the process of policy evolution.

Internal Factors

Like cultural assumptions, which are more powerful forces for change when they are linked with other

factors, individual efforts within the ranks to effect change in the status of women in the military have

been relatively unsuccessful except when they have been tied to more formal channels and mechanisms.

The women directors' offices and the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services

(DACOWITS), both internal advisory groups, have been successful in effecting changes in policy on

military women only when their recommendations and concerns have obtained a sympathetic hearing

with higher-level decision makers (e.g., service chiefs, service secretaries, members of key congressional

committees, and the president).

Key individual decision makers, irrespective of the means by which they arrived at their decisions on

particular issues, have been crucial internal influences for policy change. Classic examples of this are the

quite different decisions, under similar circumstances of need, reached by Secretary of War Henry L.

Stimson and Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels regarding the utilization of women vis-à-vis the

military in World War I. As the makers of military policy, the service secretaries. the Joint Chiefs of

Staff, and the heads of major military commands and activities will continue to be instrumental in

prompting policy change.

Clearly, policy decisions are not random; they must rest on some basis or justification. It is in seeking out

this internal basis for policy decisions that crucial influencing factors can be determined. This author

believes that the major internal basis for policy decisions on issues of women in the military has been the

concept of military necessity, an umbrella term that encompasses both "changing military organizational

structure" and "military needs."8

Some opportunities for women in the military have come about through changes in the structure of the

military organization itself. This can be shown by looking at preindustrial times: the United States relied

on a strategy of defensive domestic retaliation, wars were fought principally on the participants' lands

and waters, and armies and navies were typically small and localized. With the advent of

industrialization in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, concepts of military strategy and

international relationships changed dramatically. Americans were now forced to think in more

macroscopic terms, such as extending the definition of the home front to more than a localized boundary.

Defense was now a global issue. Moreover, industrialization and standardization made it possible to

mass-produce the food, clothing, weapons, and equipment necessary to support very large armies in the

field for prolonged periods of time. But to do so required the labor of both women and men.9

The advent of industrialization also created drastic changes in the military itself as an organization. It

became larger, more differentiated, and increasingly complex, as did many other societal institutions at

the time. The "new military" thus required new, more, and different kinds of jobs. Whereas the military

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forces of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were organizations consisting primarily of individuals

with combat jobs, the twentieth-century military was overwhelmingly composed of support, service, and

noncombat specialties. These were the kinds of jobs considered appropriate for women at the time.

Furthermore, women were frequently needed in these jobs because they already possessed the requisite

training and skills; and the supply of men to fill these jobs was often severely limited.

Military need has been a major factor in the utilization of women in the military and in the development

of policies pertaining to them. In fact, definitions of military need have often overridden other influential

forces and pressures for change. At times, the military's utilization of women has been a bit more

restrictive than generally accepted societal notions of appropriate roles for women. At other times,

however, the military's utilization of women has seemed somewhat more liberal than generally believed.

Some examples will serve here to illustrate this point.

As has been shown, the United States was slow historically to incorporate women into its armed forces.

This may in large measure have been due to the masculine ethos of the military and to the general

acceptance of the idea that war, like politics, was a man's business.10 Even when women possessed skills

that the military could use (e.g., medical, administrative, and clerical skills), organizational limitations

were placed on women's utilization if there were no emergencies and if manpower levels were sufficient

to get the lob done. Illustrative of this is the period immediately following World War II until the late

1960s, when the numbers of women in the military were limited by law and when the military utilized

even fewer women than the law allowed (and the types of military jobs available to women were

severely restricted by the military's own policies). The fact that women were first permitted to be

uniformed military members, that is, allowed to become members of the organization at all, during the

twentieth century also serves to illustrate the military's historical policy of restriction and exclusion of

women when armies and navies were small and sufficient manpower was available. It is important to

point out that the nineteenth-century military was not the only American social institution to limit

women's participation. Thus, the military appears, at first glance, to be merely a reflection of the times.

However, the converse is also true: it is also important to note that during this time, when critical skills

that women possessed were needed by the military, they were put to use even in the face of resistance.

For example, in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the military's use of uniformed female

nurses was a novel idea and one that met with much opposition. However, women were utilized as nurses

during periods of wartime (their early contributions were especially significant in the Civil War and the

Spanish-American War) because casualty rates from disease and injury were extremely high: thus their

medical skills were greatly needed. In World War I, the scarcity of men to perform needed clerical duties

opened the door for women who had these skills to serve in and with the armed forces. In World War II,

women were used in an increasing number of combat support and combat service support jobs because of

a critical need for personnel. In the early to mid-1970s, increasing opportunities for a greater number of

women in a wide variety of jobs short of direct combat helped to meet personnel accession needs in an

all-volunteer force.

In all of these cases, the needs of the military have framed its policies on the incorporation and utilization

of women. Both the situation of more restrictive use (the 1950s and 1960s) and the situation of more

extensive use (World War II and the early days of the all-volunteer force) have been legitimated by the

concept of military need. Military need has then been linked to the notion of military effectiveness—the

idea that the very interests of national security depend on the effective performance of the military

mission, which can only be maximized by either more or fewer women utilized in either expanded roles

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or in a limited number of jobs. Thus, instead of using "national security interests" to frame and guide its

policy proactively in this area, the armed forces have used these concerns as ex post facto justifications

for internal utilization policies—policies which have been primarily driven by notions of military need.

This is not to say, of course, that some important and influential individual decision makers have not

been motivated by a genuine desire to increase, or to limit, opportunities for women in the military.11 It

simply states that such individual desires have taken place within the context of what constituted

"military need" at a particular point in time. Subsequently, policies on women in the military have

reflected the boundaries of that perceived need. A general conclusion to be drawn from history, then, is

that although societal definitions and individual decision makers' perceptions of jobs that are appropriate

for women are important in establishing notions of appropriate military roles for women, they are less

important than overriding military organizational contingencies.

Table 4 represents the various factors affecting change in the situation of women and the military. An

understanding and appreciation of the historical context in which particular events took place helps in

assessing the success of each factor. Finally, it should be noted that combinations of two or more factors

("interaction effects" such as "informal individual and group efforts" and "court decisions" or "cultural

assumptions" and "influential individual decision makers") have likewise been instrumental in affecting

change in this area.12

Table 4

Historical Factors Influencing Change

for Women in the Military

 

 

External

Influencing Factors

Internal

Influencing Factors

Most Successful Court Decisions Military Needs

Very Successful Law and

Legislation

Changing Military

Organizational Structure

Moderately

Successful

Outside Pressure

Groups

Influential Individual

Decision Makers

Least

Successful

Cultural Assumptions and Social

Norms*

Informal Individual or Group Efforts

"within the Ranks"*

*These two factors by themselves may be considered as least successful historical strategies for change.

However, both have been important facilitators for change when linked with other forces (such as law, court

decision, influential decision makers).

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Notes

1. Judith Hicks Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989),

108-33.

2. Shelia M. Rothman, Women's Proper Place (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1978).

3. It can in fact be argued that these two questions are still fundamental sources of controversy.

4. Albie Sachs and Joan Hoff Wilson, Sexism and the Law (New York: Free Press, 1978).

5. M. C. Devilbiss, "Women and War: A Conceptual Framework for Historical and Contemporary Roles

(Paper presented at a special session of the American Sociological Association annual meeting, San

Antonio, Tex., August 1984).

6. Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982),

24-59; Stiehm, 102-12.

7. See Owens v. Brown, 455 F. Supp. 291 (D.D.C. 1978) which, although ruling that the exclusion of

women as a class from sea duty was unconstitutional, nevertheless left the specifics of actually assigning

women to these jobs up to the Navy, noting that these were "essentially military decisions"; and Rostker

v. Goldberg, 101 S. Ct. 2646 (1981), in which the Supreme Court, on the issue of drafting women into

the military, showed a "'healthy deference' to the other branches of government." Stiehm, 39, 119,

122-23.

8. A similar point is made in Stiehm, 111-13.

9. M. C. Devilbiss, "Women in the Armed Forces" (Paper presented at the fifth Berkshire Conference on

the History of Women, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y., June 1981). For an extensive treatment of

this issue, see D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era

(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984).

10. Stiehm, 224-27.

11. Ibid., 132.

12. Ibid., 113.

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Chapter 3

Overview of Key Issues:

Major Problems Remaining

Major current policy issues concerning women in the military are pragmatic, visible

illustrations of unresolved, underlying issues. For a more complete understanding of these

concerns, it is necessary to bring not only these visible problems but also their underlying

issues and their institutional supports under close examination and analysis. It is only

through such a process that constructive suggestions for change can realistically be made.

Setting a policy agenda for issues pertaining to women in the military is a complex task, a task made

even more difficult by the presence of several analytically confounding elements that present potential

barriers to effective analysis. For example, a highly visible policy concern may often be a reflection or

symptom of an underlying—and sometimes hidden—cause. Such a situation may be present in many

different areas of military policy, but it is especially the case for policy concerning women.1

The key to a thorough analysis of items on the current policy agenda lies in unraveling the elements of

those contributory causes that are at the base of the visible issues—somewhat akin to what a physician

goes through in attempting to diagnose a problem or disease by looking at a patient's manifest physical

symptoms. Policy analysis, however, yet another critical and even more difficult analytical step is

required if one wishes to get to the root of the hidden causes themselves: seek out the values and

perceptions that form the underlying institutional supports for these contributory factors. This process is

especially challenging because such institutional values and perceptions are not likely to be written

down. Nevertheless, they form the basis for commonly and often tacitly accepted belief systems and

behavioral norms taken as virtually axiomatic because they are so much a part and product of the

environment.2 Especially confounding is the particular case of policy concerning women in the military

and the fact that such institutional supports may often have emotional as well as factual elements

attached to them; and emotional realities (even if they are in disagreement with factual realities) are less

subject to rational analysis and suggestions for change. Table 5 outlines three key levels of policy

analysis.

Table 5

Levels of Policy Analysis

Level I*

 Overt Symptoms

Practical problems that need

immediate solutions

Level II**

 Contributory causes

Unresolved continuing issues

and concerns

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Level III***

 Underlying institutional

 supports

Organizational assumptions and fundamental belief

systems; organizational self-concept

 * Usually seen and recognized.

 ** Can be seen or unseen, recognized or unrecognized.

*** Usually unseen and unrecognized.

Ten Key Issue Areas

It is the contention of this author that an effective and thorough analysis of the policy agenda of issues

pertaining to women in the military must be approached on all three levels (visible symptoms,

contributory causes, and underlying institutional supports). Using the background information provided

in the previous chapters, the following discussion will consider 10 major current policy areas affecting

women in the military. In each of these areas, overt symptoms (Level I) will be highlighted first.

Contributory causes (Level II) will then be addressed. Identifying these contributory causes is of

particular importance since using them to pose questions at the conceptual level may often make the

common denominator running through several seemingly unrelated issues more clear. The needs

assessment can then be used as a springboard for more effective policy resolutions aimed at the real

cause of an issue, not just at its symptoms. Last, the analysis will explore the connections between these

questions and the underlying institutional values and perceptions (Level III). A summary of the 10

current key issue areas to be explored appears in table 6. See also the appendix.

Table 6

Ten Current Key Issue Areas Affecting

Women in the US Armed Forces

● Organizational monitors

● Family policy

● Numbers

● Training

● Roles

● Combat exclusion

● The draft

● Minority women

Special concerns (health care, uniforms, equipment design, performance

evaluations)

● 

● Images

The following discussion presents one attempt at an open assessment of what the values and perceptions

underlying these key issue areas may be. It is hoped that this will at least open up a dialogue on some of

these concerns. It is only by recognizing the values and perceptions contained within our guiding,

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fundamental organizational assumptions that we can begin to see how they may be directing us.

Organizational Monitors

The organizational history of groups that concern issues affecting women in the military appears to imply

an institutional assumption that these issues are best addressed by advisory bodies rather than those who

make policy decisions. Put another way, this institutional assumption says that direct knowledge is not

essential to decision-making authority in this area: nor does direct knowledge carry with it the

organizational authority to make decisions. Furthermore, the phaseout of the women directors' offices

and the placing of their function in boards, committees, and task forces has eliminated the institutional

memory base. This has led to reinventing the wheel on many of these issues and to the implication that

no uniformed authority need have the full-time job of directly monitoring and having knowledge of these

issues.

The foregoing seems to imply an organizational assumption that issues pertaining to women in the

military are not perceived as of central interest. Otherwise, there would be a uniformed,

knowledge-based authority to monitor these concerns, make decisions concerning them, and be an

advocate for them vis-à-vis other institutional interests.3

But what about the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS), the

Department of Defense's own organizational element that deals with "women's issues"? When we look

closely at the actual structure and authority of DACOWITS, we can detect some underlying

organizational assumptions. In chapter 1, we noted that the DACOWITS is the only continuing

organizational monitor for issues and concerns affecting women in the military. However, the

DACOWITS was established in 1951 as an advisory body and as an unpaid volunteer civilian group

(with a military staff consisting of a small group of administrative personnel to do its record keeping).

These original characteristics of the committee have not changed. The continuing organizational facts

about this group can be identified as follows: (1) it is not a policy-making body; (2) it is civilian, not

military, and therefore (3) it has little direct power to effect change in the situation of women in the

military. (This is not to say that the DACOWITS has not been instrumental in negotiating for change in

certain policies affecting military women; it often has been very influential. The point is that it is the

mission of the DACOWITS to advise military decision makers on issues of concern to military women,

not to make policy in this area.)

Another important point must be emphasized concerning the issue of underlying organizational

assumptions regarding issues affecting women in the military. This is the continuing historical reality

that "it is primarily men—the commander-in-chief, the members of Congress, the civilian military

secretaries, and military commanders—who make military policy. It is they who determine what

[military] men and women may and must do."4 Thus we find that it is principally men who make policy

decisions about military women and, moreover, that these men make decisions about women in the

military as a group.5 But this organizational preference for making decisions for women in the armed

forces as an undifferentiated category of people ignores the fact that "women in the military" are an

increasingly differentiated group (they are not all single "career women" anymore); and moreover, their

experiences—and thus the important questions and concerns facing them—will vary, depending on the

branch of armed forces in which they serve.6 All of these points serve to underscore the urgent need for

more institutionally powerful organizational monitors of issues especially affecting women in the

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military.

Given this overall context then, it is not hard to see why, under the present circumstances, the military

(and especially military decision makers) may perceive individuals and interest groups who monitor

issues of concern to military women as potential adversaries. This may be in part because it is often these

groups who have access to the knowledge, background, and history on many of these concerns, and

because they seek answers from the military on whether and how a particular concern is being addressed

(they look for "organizational accountability"). This puts the military in a defensive position: It must

respond; and it must often justify its work in an area or its lack of attention to it. To further compound the

situation, questions about the utilization and treatment of women in the military are often potential news

media items, which means public monitoring and censure are possible; the organization therefore faces

the potential loss of internal control over such policy decisions.

The issue of an organizational monitor for the concerns of women in the military is not an easy one to

solve. In this, as in other military matters, there is a need for institutional loyalty and a certain amount of

institutional control; but there is also a need to listen to outside monitors who will call the organization

and its assumptions to task when the need arises. The present "solution of choice" (monitoring by the

DACOWITS and by various task forces) is ineffective because it divorces the knowledge base on these

issues from the direct authority to effect change in them; thus the "advising" and the "deciding" on issues

of importance to military women continue to be separate responsibilities.

The organizational monitor issue is, of course, exacerbated by the speed of social change. Once almost

entirely segregated from the military mainstream, women were relatively rapidly "integrated" into the

organizational structure during the early 1970s. However, this organizational incorporation was done at

the same time a knowledge base and an awareness of their particular concerns was not being

incorporated into the military mainstream. Until this knowledge base and awareness becomes fully

incorporated into the organization (i.e., becomes a part of common knowledge so that a separate

monitoring body is no longer necessary), it is essential to have some institutionalized structure or

mechanism with decision-making authority to act as a knowledgeable overseer for these concerns. To

address this need, each of the services should establish a uniformed organizational component that would

be tasked with performing the following functions:

● collect, store, maintain, and protect information on issues pertaining to women in the military.

● serve as an institutional "advocate" to monitor these issues and to assess the need for change.

provide a coordinating service for the military and outside individuals or groups who also are

concerned with issues in this area.

● 

● facilitate coordination, approval, and enactment of the best possible decisions in these matters.

If an organizational element such as this (i.e., fully incorporated and legitimated within the institution) is

not established by the military, then issues particularly affecting women in the armed forces will continue

to be monitored by other than military authorities. But even if such a structure is formally established

within the military itself, this does not—nor should it—preclude an interest and involvement in these

issues by outside individuals and groups. Input from both internal and external sources will continue to

be important factors in constructing a more objective and realistic perspective on these issues.7

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Family Policy

A look at the organizational response to family policy issues indicates a historical tendency by the

military to discount the need for policy change in this area until these concerns are brought to its

attention by outside interest groups, legislative enactment, or judicial review. In fact, even since 1980,

the military has examined family policy issues only reluctantly and is just now beginning to define the

issues as of central organizational concern. A key factor in the approach to such issues appears to be the

presence or absence of a military necessity to look at them. Here, "military necessity" connotes two

things: (1) it is militarily necessary to look at an issue when a significant and powerful outside influence

defines it as an issue of concern, and (2) it is militarily necessary to look at these issues when they begin

to affect other important elements of the organization itself. The institutional assumption here appears to

be that issues impacting upon military women become more central when they affect military men; they

are then defined as "organizational concerns" rather than "women's issues."8 This is especially the case

for family policy questions where some additional institutional assumptions are also at work.

Issues of marriage, pregnancy, and parenthood are particularly illustrative of these organizational

assumptions. With marriage (especially the joint-spouse issue), the organizational concern is not that

military women are marrying military men—it's that military women are marrying military men and then

wanting to stay in the military themselves.9 The pregnancy issue is an extremely emotional one; and

again, the organizational concern is not that military women are getting pregnant but that they are doing

so while maintaining military careers. Likewise, the notion of military members becoming parents is not

in itself negatively sanctioned (in fact, it may even be a positively sanctioned behavior); but once a child

is born, the institutional assumption is that of the mother as the primary caretaker. It is a challenge to the

organization if the mother wishes to continue to pursue her career within it. This seems to imply that the

organizational assumptions at work here are those that can be labeled "traditional views" of family roles:

male as primary breadwinner, female as primary homemaker and child caretaker.10 In fact, the

underlying organizational assumption may be that "motherhood"—but not "fatherhood—is incompatible

with effective military service or even (as policies of the recent past regarding pregnancy and even

current prohibition over enlisting single parents show us) with military service at all.11 The reality of a

married woman with a full-time career and the image of a pregnant woman in uniform run counter to

deeply held institutional beliefs. Protestations that pregnancy and parenthood (especially motherhood)

may adversely affect mobility, readiness, or job performance,12 and that joint-spouse assignment requests

are increasingly difficult for the organization to cope with, may reflect real problems indeed; but such

protestations represent not so much reasons for resistance to change as closely embraced institutional

values and perceptions.

To begin to try to address this situation on a rational level, it is probably best to start with the reality that

men's and women's family and work role expectations are becoming increasingly similar; that is, many

women, like men, do marry and have children and also have careers. This situation reflects a set of

changing perceptions of family and work roles within the society as a whole; and military women

(especially those of a younger generation) are likely to come to the military with these "contemporary"

(as opposed to "traditional") ideas and expectations. Marriage combined with a career, and also other

"family planning" options such as birth control, abortion, and elective single parenthood, may be seen as

realistic individual choices for them.13 Such choices, however, fly in the face of the more "traditional"

organizational assumptions concerning military careers and motherhood.

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Given this reality, the services are faced with a choice. Their policy decisions can forbid marriage,

pregnancy, and parenthood (any or all of these) for military women, and force—as they have in the

past—a loss of women who make this choice. Alternatively, the services can accept the processes of

marriage, pregnancy, and parenthood (any or all of these) for military women, as they do now, and adapt

organizational policies to address them.14 One way this could be approached would be to determine the

rates for marriage, pregnancy, and family size for populations of comparable civilian women and use this

data as a basis for planning purposes in the armed forces. Cohort analysis and life-cycle variables in the

study of family policy concerns for military women could also prove very useful.15

The institutional assumptions of few or no women with career interests and of women as junior partners

(or even as "property") in marital relationships must be altered to reflect the times. Also, the

organizational assumptions that military responsibilities will always take precedence over family

obligations,16 and that the volunteer labor of military spouses will always be available17 need to be

reexamined in light of changing individual expectations and organizational realities. The challenge is to

evolve family policies that realistically reflect a set of changing factual conditions and not to cling to a

set of organizational assumptions that no longer fit the realities of the situation. If the services are slow to

examine their policies, and particularly their institutional assumptions in this area, changes in family

policies will continue to be imposed upon them from the outside.

Numbers, Training, and Roles

These three areas will be considered together not only because they pose interrelated policy questions,

but also because there appear to be several common organizational assumptions that pervade them.

Turning first to the "numbers" (accession) question,18 we see that numbers (and percentages) of women

in the military, although increasing since 1973, still remain small relative to the numbers and percentages

of men in the military.19 Since the larger society from which the pool of military eligibles is drawn

reflects a "balanced" gender ratio (approximately a 50/50 distribution), we need to question why military

organizations have highly skewed gender ratios, and why such ratios persist. We are better able to "get

at" the underlying organizational assumptions in this area when we pose the question this way: "why

don't women make up fifty percent of the military when they are fifty percent of the population?" (Why

are there "so few" women in the military?)

The reasons that numbers of women in the military are low (and are kept low) may be based on the

following organizational assumptions: that women are of limited utilizability (i.e., they are able to

perform only certain types of jobs), and that women are a liability to the military or, perhaps more

accurately, more of a liability than an asset to the military (their "costs" may outweigh their "benefits" in

important ways).20 There is some element of objective reality to the first assumption (women are indeed

barred from certain types of military jobs), but we must look into this situation further to ask why this is

the case. When we do so, we find that women are considered to be of limited utilizability because they

are thought to be incapable as a group of performing certain types of jobs (specifically, "combat"

jobs—the central and most important military roles). These jobs are therefore naturally considered

"inappropriate" and "off-limits" to women. (Put another way, the "naturalness" argument here is that the

"very nature" of such jobs is incompatible with the "very nature" of women.)21 Thus, all women's

participation in the military is limited because of women's perceived "inherent" group characteristic.

Relatedly, military women are judged by the organization to be a liability not only because they have

limited use but also because they are believed to be less available (and therefore contribute to attrition

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and to lessened organizational preparedness),22 and they cannot be "substituted" in all cases for military

men.23 Military women can therefore be described as "better qualified" than military men (because they

are typically subject to higher enlistment standards) but not as "useful" or "valuable" to the organization

because of "structural constraints"—the limitations that the military itself places upon women's

participation. Yet these same structural constraints are the very result of the limitations that the military's

own organizational assumptions impose! Thus we see here what can only be described as the

"policy/ideology tautology": the military cannot utilize more women (its policy outcomes) because the

military cannot utilize more women (its ideological belief).

We need also to give brief attention to the second aspect of the gender roles question here. Having

identified some possible organizational assumptions as to why military organizations established highly

skewed gender roles in the first place, we must now ask: why do such skewed ratios persist? This is the

low-visibility issue and its related component, the low-power question. If women exist in low numbers in

the military because they are perceived to be less utilizable and an organizational liability, then the

continuance of their low relative numbers (and their low relative power in the organization) can serve to

perpetuate the idea that women are unimportant or unnecessary to the organization and that the

organization is not dependent on them. (We will be examining these organizational assumptions in

greater detail in the "images of military women" key issue area. For now, we simply need to note their

relationship to the "numbers" and "leadership roles" questions.)

We discover a similar set of organizational assumptions emerging when we examine the question of

"training" for women in the military. We see that the training military women receive is guided by the

assumption that women "can" perform only certain types of military roles. Let us examine more closely

the word can in this context. It may be taken to mean that women "have the ability to" perform only

certain types of military jobs, or that women are "allowed to" perform only certain types of military jobs.

The first meaning of the word can may be thought of as the "inherent performance inability" cause. If

this belief is true, then the second meaning of the word can is the resulting organizational effect: if

women are incapable of performing certain types of jobs, then it follows that they should be assigned to

only those jobs they can perform. The problem with this reasoning is, of course, twofold: (1) is the first

assumption (the inherent performance inability assumption) true? and (2) how can we know whether it is

true or false in the absence of giving women the opportunity to perform (and to succeed or to fail) in

certain jobs? To make this point more clearly, we can contrast the situation for military women with the

military's opposite" organizational assumptions for men: (1) men can be trained for all roles (because

they have the potential ability to perform them), and (2) there are no military roles that men cannot fill

(because there are no structural constraints—organizational limitations—on men as a group).24

Another important aspect of the question of training for women in the armed forces is the "gendered"

nature of military occupational specialties. This manifests itself organizationally as the belief (and the

policy) that there are "men only" military Jobs, that there are "interchangeable" (that is, appropriate for

both men and women) military jobs, and that there are no "women only" military jobs. The underlying

organizational assumptions upon which this "sexual division of labor" in the armed forces25 rests are the

inherent performance inability of women (with the related "organizational fear" that if women—who are,

by definition, incapable—are put into jobs they cannot perform, then the organization itself will suffer),

and that warfare is manly26 and therefore the military is a male institution.

We see the "inherent performance inability of the group" assumption applying to other aspects of training

(and job performance) situations as well. For example, there is the organizational perception that when

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women perform deficiently, it is because they are women and not for other reasons.27 (The comparable

organizational assumption for men is that men's deficient performance is due to some individual

shortcoming, not due to a categorical "shortcoming"; i.e., gender.)

Issues of training for military women relate to two other key areas: (1) basic military instruction,28 and

(2) the notion of "traditional" versus "nontraditional" military occupations for women. We noted

previously that basic military training was initially gender segregated, became gender integrated, and

then was desegregated once more. At first glance, this may seem to be due to the "inherent performance

inability" assumption; that is, that women cannot be trained in basic military (combat) skills because they

are unable to learn these skills. There is, however, a more compelling reason for the organizational

assumption driving women's exclusion here. The assumption behind gender-segregated basic training is

that the basic skills necessary to become a soldier or sailor are qualitatively different (separate and

unequal) for men and women and that once men and women have qualified to be a part of the military,

there are certain basic skills which must be common knowledge for all military men, but not for any

military women. Here we can see the "training" and "military roles" connection quite clearly: (1) all men

need to have certain fundamental military skills (the skills of a combat warrior) even though most men in

the military will not be placed in "combat" jobs, and (2) such skills and knowledge are completely

unnecessary for military women because (in theory at least) the organization prohibits their assignment to

such jobs. One result is that the foundational knowledge base of the organization is shared by all of its

men and none of its women.29

"Training" questions also relate to the "traditionality" of military jobs. The terms traditional and

nontraditional are meaningful only when referring to jobs for military women, not to jobs for military

men because men "traditionally" have performed all types of military jobs whereas (it is believed)

women have not.30 The problem here arises when we look at the "tradition" and see that, in fact, women

throughout US history have performed all types of military roles, including hand-to-hand combat.31 It

must be, then, that what are considered to be "traditional" or "nontraditional" jobs for military women

relate not to past history but to "living memory." Jobs are "traditional" (and therefore, by extension,

"appropriate" for women) when it is not uncommon to see women performing such roles in the

organization. When women are not assigned to particular occupations (or when they are present in such

jobs only in extremely low numbers), then the military considers such jobs as atypical (that is, as

"nontraditional") for women.32 It is especially important to note that in such "nontraditional" military

jobs, the competence—and even the mere presence—of women in such jobs is constantly subject to test,

on both individual and group bases. Women in "nontraditional" military jobs often express the notion

that they must "prove" themselves in every new job situation.33 Indeed they must prove themselves for

two reasons: (1) to demonstrate that they (as individuals) are competent in their jobs, and (2) to show that

"women" can perform such duties. The latter reason is especially related to the organizational assumption

that women are uncommon in (or absent from) such jobs because they are incapable of performing them.

Thus we see that the assumptions about the numbers of women in the armed forces and about the kind of

military training women will receive ultimately relate to assumptions about the roles they will perform in

military organizations. This can be stated in the form of the question, "how can and should women

serve?"34 (Note that this is not the same question as that posed for military men, since the assumption is

that men can and should serve in all ways—the question is, how can they serve best?) Stating the

"women's utilization" question35 in such a way reveals the organizational assumption that women have

"a place" in the military and it is important to define exactly what that place is. Through subjecting such

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a line of reasoning to close scrutiny, we can arrive at an important insight: there are only two major

self-limiting systems of stratification (statuses that make a difference) within the military—the

officer/enlisted distinction and the male/female distinction. These two "either/or" categories are the two

most important defining criteria of membership in the US armed forces. Membership in these categories

(the former an achieved status, the latter an ascribed one) determines the individual's "place" within the

military organization.

Examining these two "either/or" categories further, we discover where the issues of women's "low

visibility" and "low power" come together. Low power is in one sense a product of low visibility; but it

also results from a lack of women in military leadership and decision-making roles. One reason for the

absence of women in key military positions is that promotions are often tied to experience in combat

roles and women cannot be assigned to combat roles. But there is another organizational dynamic at

work here: what the military envisions a "military leader" ought to be.

Leaders of an organization personify that organization's values. If women are seen as marginal36 within

the organization, then most certainly it would not be appropriate to have them as leaders of such

organizations. But let us pursue an analysis of these "organizational self-concepts" a bit further. Another

reason why military organizations may not want women in leadership roles is that women in such roles

may "act" in leadership "ways" that are fundamentally different from the way men act in leadership roles.

This is the issue of leadership "style." Although this is still very much an open question (as it is in the

corporate world),37 it has indeed been suggested that the "power-down" leadership model within the

military can be an effective one for women. However, this model is an emerging one for women and it is

still seen as somewhat incompatible for women to fill the "traditional" role of military leadership.38 But

if some women use the "powerdown" style, it may cause them to be seen as "weak" or "ineffectual"

leaders. Here then we see that the question of "women in military leadership roles" is more than a

question of individual capacity (or lack of capacity) for such roles—it is a matter of the underlying

organizational assumptions of what a "military leader" looks like and does. Unless and until a perceptible

shift occurs in these assumptions (and we see the beginnings of such a shift as high-ranking male military

leaders effectively employ "nontraditional" leadership styles),39 women in military leadership roles will

continue to be limited not only because of organizational assumptions and views about women, but also

because of the underlying organizational view of itself (the "organizational self-concept").

As we have seen, the role of women in the US armed forces has been an evolutionary one. Historically,

women were judged not to be an appropriate part of the military (they served a military function, but did

so as civilians, not as military members). They have been viewed as emergency or "part time" help in the

military, as serving in peripheral rather than in core roles in the armed forces, and as a resource of last

resort. However, at the present time, these organizational assumptions may be evolving toward the

assumptions that women are a legitimate part of military organizations, and that women are an important

and continuing resource in their own right. Organizational assumptions about women's military roles

will continue to evolve as women become increasingly "substitutable" for (interchangeable with) men in

military roles40 and as the organizational character of the military itself changes.41

Combat Exclusion

When we examined the "numbers, training, and roles" questions in the previous section, we saw that

women form a "less utilizable" subcategory of US military personnel principally because of the class

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restrictions that the services place upon them.42 In this section, we will see that "the most important limit

on the military's ability to 'use' women derives from those laws which prohibit their (even voluntary)

participation in combat."43

Some of the debate in this arena is directly over the question of inclusion or exclusion of women in

combat roles. Yet on another level, it can be seen that the argument is really over whether women are to

be included or excluded in the military's most central roles—those institutionally defined as the "most

valuable." Thus, the question of "women in combat roles" is also a question about organizational status

and organizational power; specifically, how much of each shall women in the military have?

The subject of "women in combat roles" is an emotional one and thus not often subjected to empirical

evidence. However, when the attempt is made to rationally sort out the "pros and cons" of the debate, we

can discover five major arguments on each side (table 7).

Table 7

Arguments For and Against Women in Combat Roles

Con

 1. The occupational specialization argument: combat is a man's job.

 2. The environment/danger argument: a combat environment is unsuitable for women; they

should be protected from it.

 3. The combat effectiveness argument: the presence of women in a unit would destroy that

unit's effectiveness and thus its ability to accomplish its combat mission.

 4. The physical strength argument: women are physically weaker than men and thus are

unable to perform combat jobs.

 5. The national security interests/figurehead force argument: the presence of more women in

the military, and specifically in combat roles, will lead other nations to perceive United States

forces as weak.44

Pro

 1. The historical argument: women have served in combat roles efficiently and effectively.

 2. The sex discrimination argument: the blanket restriction of women as a class from a

category of jobs is unjustly discriminatory since some women are just as capable and interested

in performing combat jobs as men are.

 3. The opportunity argument: women should have the right of equal access to all types of

jobs, combat roles included.

 4. The citizenship argument: equality of citizenship rights implies equality of sacrifice (a

potentiality of combat roles) as well as equality of opportunity.

 5. The military necessity argument: because of population profiles, the number of young

men eligible for military service in the 1980s declined and the military had to rely increasingly

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upon women, bringing forth the question of women in combat roles.

With the possible exception of the historical fact argument ("pro" # 1), the points in table 7 represent

assumptions about women and their roles in military organizations. Because (in theory at least) current

law and military policy prohibit the assignment of women to combat roles, we must look to the "con"

side of the debate in order to help bring the underlying organizational assumptions about this issue to the

surface.

There are, however, two curious elements in all of this debate that need to be especially recognized. One

is that many of the organizational assumptions cited above appear to persist in spite of facts (sometimes

the military's own facts) to the contrary.45 When this happens, these assumptions take on the character of

"myth"—that is, they become guiding assumptions that are based on the primacy of belief over

evidence.46 (Senator William Proxmire used the term myth to describe three of the above

assumptions—women should be barred from combat, female soldiers can be protected, and the combat

exclusion policy enhances national security.)47

A second curious element of this debate is that, in spite of the legal and policy restriction on their

assignments, women in the US military are in fact assigned to positions considered to be "combat"

roles.48 (This situation is made possible, of course, by the military's own definitions: what does or does

not constitute a "combat" role in the US armed forces is frequently subject to change.) Thus the question

as to whether military women "should be" assigned to combat roles is often a moot point because they

are already there doing jobs that "look like" combat roles and in many cases are even defined as such.

What is very interesting here is the question of why, given this reality, the military chooses to perpetuate

the assumptions that women cannot perform combat roles and are not in fact assigned to "combat" jobs.

Perhaps the answer to this can be found in the "organizational self-concept" referred to in the previous

section. By denying that women can perform combat duties and are in fact in such roles, the military can

maintain its image as a male institution.

The combat exclusion is a difficult problem for military women since all women in the armed forces are

affected by it, and the career development opportunities of many women are directly limited by it.

Furthermore, the combat exclusion of women in the military affects men as well, since men must then (in

theory at least) fill all combat jobs. Thus, the "risks" of military duty are unequal for men and women.49

However, the organizational assumptions surrounding the idea of women in combat roles support all of

these outcomes since it is believed (1) that women (as a class) are a less utilizable resource, (2) that any

individual woman's50 career development is secondary to the overall goal of an effective military

organization, (3) that combat is a man's job, and (4) that when serving their country, military women

should be protected (by military men) from the dangers that are a realistic part of military service.51

One reason the "women in combat roles" debate is a continuing one is that notions concerning the role of

women in military organizations are changing. During World War II, for example, it was assumed that

all women in the military were noncombatants; this assumption may no longer universally apply.52

Moreover, the assumption that military women should not be exposed to the occupational risks of

military service (the "protection" assumption) may not fit the expectations of the current generation of

young people, men and women alike.53 Finally, it is important to emphasize that, while the issue of

women in combat roles is one that is meeting with charging organizational assumptions,54 it is also one

that will be influenced by debate in the public arena because it is not solely an internal issue: it is a

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matter of public policy and law.

The Draft

The issue of women and conscription shares some points in common with the issue of women in combat

roles. One such similarity is that both of these questions are public policy issues, not simply internal

military matters. A second commonality is that these issues, once historically distinct, are now becoming

closely tied to one another—in part because societal norms and expectations concerning men's and

women's roles are changing.

Unlike several other nations (e.g., Israel, the Soviet Union, Great Britain) women in the United States

have never been subject to conscription in the armed forces. (Indeed, this in itself is curious, since public

opinion surveys—since 1940—have largely supported the idea of drafting women, and legislation has

been introduced into Congress on more than one occasion to do so.)55 In order to tease out the underlying

assumptions here—indeed to better understand these and other key aspects of the issue of "women and

the draft" in general—we need to keep in mind the historical background of this subject. In doing so, we

need to focus particularly upon the changing assumptions surrounding not only women's roles, but also

on the changing assumptions surrounding the military organization and the draft itself.

Since the eighteenth century, it has been considered fundamental to the idea of conscription that service

in the armed forces is an obligation of citizenship. This is the concept of the "citizen-soldier."56 In the

early days of the American Republic, the term citizen included only a small number of people; much

more numerous were noncitizens, a category that included all slaves, servants, women, American

Indians, aliens from other nations, and other marginal and excluded populations. Since women could not

be citizens, it thus followed that they could not be soldiers—except of course in the American

Revolution, when everyone was needed to fight and even "marginal people" could be used, albeit as

resources of last resort.57 In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when the concept of

"citizenship" became less exclusive and women were gradually entitled by law to be citizens, women

came to be seen as having the right—but not the responsibility— to serve in the armed forces.58

Participation in the military was thus deemed voluntary for women, rather than either voluntary or

coerced, as was the case for men. (In part this may be due to the fact that the armed forces were able to

get many women to do necessary national defense work at this time by using them in civilian capacities

rather than in military roles, even though the actual jobs that some civilian and military women

performed entailed virtually identical duties and skills.)59

Since the 1970s, however, with the advent of an all-volunteer military force and also the rise of the

contemporary women's movement, many questions and assumptions underlying the issue of women and

the draft have been challenged. One of these questions is the draft's gender exclusivity: Why are men

subject to the draft while women are not? Since the Supreme Court in 1981 upheld the constitutionality

of registration for men only, it would not seem too far off the mark to suggest that the underlying

assumption is that even though women are citizens, they form a special protected subclass of citizens

(similar to children, the aged, and physically handicapped males, for example) who are not subject to the

obligations of citizenship that other citizens ("able-bodied" young men) are. It would also seem (given

the nature of the arguments cited during Congressional deliberations over this issue) that it is only

now—in the late-twentieth century—that the idea of national conscription for women implies their

utilization in combat roles.60 This situation thus brings together not only the idea of equal citizenship

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obligations for men and women, but also the idea that such equal citizenship responsibilities may imply

the participation of men and women in the armed forces on an equal basis.

We can easily see now why the issue of women in the draft is such a thorny one. Subjecting men and

women to potentially equal treatment in a national draft and in a military organization would require that

the following assumptions be discarded: (1) women do not have the responsibility for military service, as

men do; (2) women in the military are, at best, of limited organizational utilizability and, at worst, a

resource of last resort; (3) women are incapable of performing combat roles; and (4) all women (but

especially military women) should be protected (by military men) from the dangers of combat. Occurring

at the same time, however, are challenges to other important underlying assumptions. These are the keys

to the "public policy" aspects of this debate.

Raising the possibility that women could be subject to the same conditions of military service that apply

to men gives rise to close scrutiny of the present assumption that national defense needs are

fundamentally different for women and men.61 Such questioning brings into clearer focus the basis for

the assumption currently in place. This is the "separate spheres" concept, which argues that men and

women "serve" their country in fundamentally different ways: he at "the front" in battle—she safe away

from battle, as a symbol of home and (possibly) as a part of the civilian defense effort. But the press for

women's equality (and for first-class citizenship) in the contemporary United States severely challenges

the efficacy of these assumptions.

Curiously however, just as the press for women's equality has challenged the idea that conditions of

citizenship and national defense are "separate and unequal" for men and women, it has also called into

question the meaning of national service itself. Contemporary feminist thought has placed the concept of

the "citizen-soldier" (being one implies being the other) under the analytic microscope. Questions

surrounding the issue of "women and the draft" relate to more than that subject alone: they are a debate

over the question of whether service in the armed forces is an obligation of citizenship for either women

or men. Thus we see the changing nature of the concept of "service" itself. Such a notion currently

appears to be evolving from an emphasis exclusively upon "military" service to the more broadly

inclusive idea of "national" service, which would also include, for example, the participation of young

men and women in programs designed to address specific "other-than-military" community and national

needs (e.g., delivering meals, tutoring, fire fighting, or other public service).62

Interestingly, it is precisely here that the military's shortage of health care professionals can be placed in

context most clearly. This organizational need for physicians, nurses, and other medical specialists can

be seen as a reflection of the overall societal need for people with such skills. Importantly, military health

care needs (as the armed forces themselves have long known) can often be taken care of by either

military or civilian personnel. Thus the concept of "national" service illustrates the possibility of

addressing such important military needs through a young civilian labor pool rather than forcing the

military to rely on its "own" resources for all of its health care needs.63

One final point is worthy of note here. Since the military draft ended in 1973, an entire generation of

Americans has grown up with the notion of military service as a voluntary rather than an obligatory

experience. Such a situation has made the expectations surrounding military service more similar than

different for young women and men. The young man's responsibility of having to register for a potential

military draft may cause some young women and men to consider the contingency of possible military

duty somewhat differently,64 but the important overall point here is still the same: military service is no

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longer a universal life expectation and a common65 life experience for young men and an atypical life

experience for young women. Both women and men serve in the contemporary US armed forces by

choice; and this commonality of choice may serve as a uniting force to foster cohesion—rather than

alienation—between male and female military personnel. Whereas men's eligibility for the draft served to

separate military men and women, an all-volunteer force serves to make men's and women's expectations

of military "responsibilities" more similar.

Just where does this leave the question of "women and the draft"? Posing this question calls attention not

only to its own underlying assumptions but to some underlying assumptions in other arenas as well.

Clearly, the question of "women and the draft" is providing much of the catalyst for a national

reassessment of these issues: men's and women's roles in the military and in other contexts, men's and

women's citizenship responsibilities, the question of what constitutes "national service," and whether

national service is specifically a military concern.

Minority Women

Perhaps the most striking aspect of this area is its being cited here as a key issue. Indeed, if we are

"surprised" to see it identified as important, then we are alerted at the very outset to the possibility of the

following organizational assumption: that the issue of minority women in the military is seen as affecting

so small a number of so small a "component" of the armed forces that it is hardly worth considering as an

"issue" at all. Indeed, distinctions between women are frequently not made in research on military

populations, the term blacks in military surveys typically refers to black males, and any woman in the

military who is both nonwhite and nonblack is virtually ignored. These facts tell us much more than the

usual statistical caveat, "some groups were too small to make any meaningful interpretations possible."66

Much-needed input from minority women in the military is apparently being virtually ignored.

The problems facing women in a predominately male institution may be additionally compounded by

racial and ethnic group factors. Minority women in the military are not only in a predominately male

institution, they are in a predominately white male institution. Such an institution, as we have seen, often

refuses to acknowledge the needs and concerns of military women as an overall group, much less a

subcategory within that group. Such organizational neglect is especially disheartening since the needs

and concerns of military minority women may in some cases be very different from both white military

women and nonwhite military men.67

But there is more than just the "needs and concerns" element here. It is also important to ask why there

are relatively few minority women in the military in the first place (this relates to questions of accession

standards) and why there are so few minority women in military leadership positions (this relates to

career advancement issues). On the surface, the answer (justification?) may be that few minority women

are interested in military careers and they form such a small pool of those eligible for promotional

opportunities that it is easy to see why they do not hold a larger number of leadership positions. But we

need to subject that answer to close examination—other factors may be at work here. Specifically,

assumptions such as "ignore them because their numbers are small," "they are of such low visibility in

the organization that they can be treated as if they do not exist," "minority women are not interested

in/qualified for military careers," or "minority women would not make good military leaders" may exist;

if so they certainly need to be closely scrutinized.

Perhaps ironically, since current law and policy forbid discrimination in the armed forces based on race

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(but permit it based on gender), the way to bring the issue of military minority women to the forefront

may be to identify it as a racial/ethnic issue rather than a gender-related one. Such an issue touches both

areas, however. Whatever the case, though, simply identifying the issue as important would help to give

it (and its implications) some needed visibility. This is not a simple task, however, for the issue impels us

to ask some very hard questions like whether there are racist and/or sexist attitudes, assumptions,

policies, or practices in the military.68 If so, we must then ask whether such attitudes and practices are

acceptable. If these policies and practices do exist but are not acceptable, what must be done? Posing and

analyzing such questions are crucial to providing the organizational attention and commitment these

issues need and deserve.

Special Concerns

An alternative title for this section could be "issues that differentially impact upon military women."

Framing such issues in this way is useful because we can uncover two possible organizational

assumptions at the outset: (1) women are "nonstandard" military personnel, and (2) issues differentially

impacting upon military women are "women's problems," not central or mainstream "organizational

concerns."

The issues of women's unique health care needs and uniforms for women illustrate these assumptions

quite well. If, for example, the armed forces were a predominately female institution, then the health care

concerns of women would be seen as standard and recurring issues and organizational services would be

put in place to deal with them on an expected and regular basis; and the standard uniform would be

designed for women (uniforms for men would be an extra burden and a "deviation").

But in reality the assumption is that the military is a male institution and so the "problem" becomes that

of (sometimes literally) shaping women to it.69 Actually, however, the "problem" may lie in the basic

assumption itself, which is at odds with the reality of the situation: there are in fact women in the military

and there will continue to be women in the military! Thus the real issue here may be getting the military

to recognize and accept—and modify its organizational structure and services to reflect—the actual

reality rather than assumptions about it.

Many of the issues of special concern to military women (e.g., lack of health care services, uniforms that

do not fit well, and equipment not designed for them—situations which have a negative impact upon

their morale and their safety)70 also challenge another possible organizational assumption: that

"personnel" issues are less important than "hardware" issues. When compulsory military service (for

men) was the rule (and not having enough military personnel was usually not a problem), the assumption

of "the primacy of things over people" may have been a workable one since personnel (men) were

relatively available and replaceable. In an all-volunteer force, however, the continued viability of this

assumption is severely suspect. Personnel are neither available in unlimited supply nor as greatly

interchangeable as they once were. This may be due in large measure to the rapidly changing nature of

the military toward more sophisticated technology and the increasingly technical expertise and

specialization required to operate and maintain high-tech systems.

The assumption of "the primacy of things over people" is an excellent example of assumptions that no

longer seem to fit reality. In US military forces of the late twentieth century, we are gradually beginning

to see a shift in the hardware versus people assumptions, albeit more toward a "people are important, too"

rather than a "people are more important" idea.71 In helping to focus the attention of the armed forces on

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their concerns, women have helped to make personnel concerns in general a more front-burner issue for

military organizations. Thus, it can be argued that such organizational reprioritization of personnel issues

has benefited military men as well. But the question is, then, have military women won the battle but lost

the war? Have women drawn organizational attention to personnel matters "in general" (usually

conceived of as matters affecting a general number of military personnel; i.e., men) and thus taken

attention away from their own needs (less numeric, but no less important—to them)?

Such a situation may in fact have been the case had it not been for some important external factors, as we

saw in chapter 2. This has especially been the case for health care and family policy issues. It is in these

areas in particular that we can see the impact of "women's alliances." These issues have received support

from women in Congress and the DACOWITS, and they reflect common areas of concern to both

women in the military and military wives. If, indeed, women have been "too small a group," "too

unimportant," or "too nonvocal" to be taken seriously, then the support of some outside authority or a

group with similar concerns has been necessary. And in recognizing why such assistance is necessary in

the first place, we uncover some other possible organizational assumptions: "women's concerns" are just

that and are tangential to the "real business" of military organizations ("hardware" and "men's concerns");

furthermore, the special concerns of military women can be ignored by military decision makers unless

they affect other (central) parts of the organization or are given visibility by outside agencies.

It is interesting to note here the "overlapping" nature of some of the issues of special concern to military

women. But while health care and family policy affect both military women and military wives, other

issues are assumed to affect military women only: uniforms, equipment design, sexual harassment in the

workplace, and women's military career development. Such an assumption would be correct, however,

only if these groups were quite distinct from one another.72 As we have seen however, increasing

numbers of military wives are servicewomen themselves, thus setting the stage for a natural alliance

between military women and military wives. One result may be a more visible "push" for issues of

special concern to military women. In fact, as we saw earlier, those military women who are married to

military men represent a group that also needs to be singled out by military policymakers for particular

attention because they may have a "double occupational identity" as both women in the military and

military spouses.

As women in general achieve more equality in marital roles and as an occupational identity apart from

their husband's status becomes increasingly important to them, will servicewomen with military

husbands begin to challenge the organization's assumptions about both military women and military

wives? Will the fact that their husbands are in uniform also force a reexamination of traditional

organizational assumptions surrounding military men? (Are they indeed all single, young, and available

for any assignment worldwide? If some are married, will their wives perform certain—volunteer—work

necessary to the effective operation of the organization? Will the "family"—child care—responsibilities

presumably performed by those wives be shared with their husbands? Or must these responsibilities be

taken care of in another organizational way because both wives and husbands have military duties?)73

Finally, we need to examine the areas of job performance evaluation and sexual harassment. Sexual

harassment began as a problem primarily affecting women and was eventually assigned organizational

priority when its importance was highlighted by an external authority (in this case, Congress and the

federal civilian workforce). It was then defined by the organization as a problem that applied to both

women and men. To be sure, sexual harassment is a situation that can and does affect both women and

men as victims and as perpetrators; but it primarily has men as its perpetrators and women as its

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victims.74 The armed forces have treated the symptom, but have not addressed the cause (sexism).

It is easier to impose sanctions on actions than on attitudes, and the military has the power to effectively

coerce its members' actions. But in not addressing the root cause of sexual harassment against women,

the military has avoided addressing the more fundamental question of sexism. Thus there are military

policies against "sexual harassment," but not against "sexism." This may be due to an organizational

assumption that sexism is permissible in military organizations.75 It is similar to saying that

discrimination will not be tolerated but prejudice is okay. Or, as is the case currently for women in the

military—by both policy and law—both discrimination and prejudice are okay.76

Such a situation leaves military women especially vulnerable to sexual harassment and different

expectations on the job.77 The situation may in fact be described as one of a great deal of "gender

consciousness" in military organizations. For a woman in the military, what matters first is her gender;

for a man in the military, what matters first is his occupational identity.

Research on the "unwritten rules" that apply to professional women in other occupational settings may

help us to understand the dilemma facing military women.78 Because of the assumptions that surround

their participation in the organization in the first place (if you are a woman in a military organization,

then you are a part of an organization that finds it acceptable to discriminate against you), whether

women are being evaluated on their own merits or on their gender (or on expectations surrounding both

of these) is a difficult question to answer.

Images

This final key area is crucial to an understanding of the issues facing women in the military. It is, in fact,

the area from which all other concerns in this study are ultimately derived.

We have already "seen" one image of women in the military: They are invisible! A closely related

perception is that if they exist, then they are men.79 If these images can be sustained, the underlying

organizational assumption that the military is a male organization can be kept in place.

We may be beginning to see the evolution of this assumption, however, or at least the assumption that the

military is an exclusively male organization. The Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of

the United States was revised in 1988 to read "I am an American . . ." rather than "I am an American

fighting man."80 The organizational assumption now may be that the armed forces are a predominately

male organization, although evidence of the exclusivity assumption's existence can still be detected. Two

important elements are at work here: the "personnel profile" reality and the "institutional ethos"

assumption. Just because there are, in fact, women in the armed forces (personnel profile) doesn't mean

that they "belong" there (institutional ethos). Moreover, one cannot be a competent "warrior" and a

"woman" as well; the two statuses are seen as being incompatible.81

Thus it is important to ask, "what kind" of women are in this male-dominated institution? The objective

reality is that there are "all kinds" of women in the military: the population is very diversified and will

probably become increasingly so as military "policies catch up with realities."82 But the organizational

assumption is not one of diversity. The common stereotype of military women, at least since the slander

campaign of World War II,83 is that their sexuality is suspect. Military women are either "sexual

mascots" (prostitutes) for military men84 or they are "unnatural women (lesbians) who persist in

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performing men's roles.85 The psychological and professional damage caused by recent manifestations of

these organizational assumptions can be devastating.86 Moreover, the organizational impact (the effects

of these assumptions on all women in the military) can hardly be assessed. At the very least, it affects

their day-to-day professional lives. And organizational assumptions may also help to explain why many

women may believe themselves to be entrapped by the military's sexual double standard;87 military men

are expected to be actively sexual while actively sexual military women are either "prostitutes" or

"lesbians" (if singe), or "faithful wives" (if married). (The remaining alternatives—"celibate" or

"discrete"—are often not seen as "viable options" for military women.)

Besides being seen as potential "distractors" or "competitors" to military men, women are seen as weak

and thus "a threat to national defense." Some assumptions that can be seen as "positive" actually

represent negative connotations about women: that the presence of women in the military fosters

cohesion by uniting (white and nonwhite) men;88 and that women in the military contribute to (men's)

esprit de corps by serving as the target of sexist humor.89 All of these assumptions serve to reinforce the

belief that men's contribution to the military is legitimate while women's contribution to the military is

questionable.

If such assumptions can impact negatively on not only military women but also on the military itself,

should they be evolving toward a more positive view? Data from the recently gender-integrated service

academies regarding attitudes toward women seems to be ambivalent.90 Recruiting advertisements

directed at women may often set up false expectations; they may be unaware of the real limits upon their

participation in the military until they are actually in it. And there are far fewer ads directed toward

women than men, thus perpetuating the assumption that men have more of "a place" in this institution

than women.

One other place to look for images of women in the military is in popular culture, especially the news

media and film. Here, the signs are a bit more positive—women in the military are increasingly being

recognized as having contributed to the defense of the nation.91 And while some recent films continue to

perpetuate the assumption of military women as sexually suspect, other films put forward more positive

images.92 Ironically, perhaps the most positive images of military women are found in science fiction

and fantasy. And "although it's possible to dismiss these programs as 'kid's stuff,' they may help define

roles that the recruits of the 1990's will have grown up with. Whether popular materials influence these

young people or merely reflect their interests and perspectives, images of military women exhibiting

courage, power, and leadership have become more common in [these programs].93

Yet women in the military are still seen as "the other."94 It is especially necessary to address this

organizational assumption; and the armed forces themselves could do much to dispel it. Particularly

essential here is more training in the area of sexual harassment (how and why not to do it). Also, more

emphasis must be placed on the historical contribution of women to our nation's defense (if it is

important to recognize the contributions of military men, it is also important to recognize the

contributions of military women).95 Finally, increased attention must be placed on the issue of how the

leadership (command climate) environment and the everyday work setting can help to foster images of

military women as coprofessionals with military men.96

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Conclusions

In all the issues examined throughout this work, two underlying problems manifest themselves: a lack of

recognition of organization assumptions and a lack of change in the face of new information. These two

problems are very much interrelated. If we do not recognize the very fundamental assumptions on which

policy decisions are based, we cannot as readily change them when the facts of the situation warrant it.

Not wanting to change our assumptions, we try instead to fit the facts (and our policies) to them.

It appears that this may be the case for many of our policies concerning women in the military. In effect,

the situation and "the rules" have changed but our modern military has not adapted itself to this new

world. The time is long overdue for a thorough analysis of these issues and the courage to change our

policies—and our institutional assumptions—where they are no longer appropriate.

The values of a nation, as embodied in its social institutions and public policies, are mutually influential

forces. Just as change in public policy may often be a response to change in societal values, laws and

policies can be the agents of change in institutional arrangements, conditions, and assumptions. This

helps to explain not only how policies are formed, but also the spirit and extent to which they may be

accepted and carried out. The role of women in the US armed forces is an excellent illustration.

Epilogue

An examination of women's "past" and "present" in the military implies a related question: What is the

"future" of women in the US armed forces? This question should not be ignored.

The issues facing women in the military can be thought of as divided into two major parts: "new" issues

and "recurring" ones. However, as we have seen, new issues are often simply recurring issues phrased in

different ways with slightly different emphases. Thus, these recurring issues can be thought of as

"themes" that frame the overall picture of women in the military.

We have seen that the incorporation of women into the US armed forces has been an evolutionary

process, spanning more than 200 years of history. During this time, there have been 12 major recurring

questions (themes) concerning the utilization of women in the US military. These recurring themes can

be identified in both historical and contemporary debate:

1. Should women be in the military at all?

2. If they are to be in the military, should they be given full military status (rank, benefits and privileges,

duties and obligations)?

3. What kinds of military training should they get?

4. What kinds of military tasks should they perform?

5. What should be the relationship between women and weapons?

6. How many women should there be in military organizations?

7. How high (to what rank) are women permitted to progress in the organization?

8. How well will military men and women work together? (Especially, will men take military orders

from women; i.e., does positional authority "apply" or "count" in the case of women?)

9. What effects will women's biologies and concerns have on an organization based on men's biologies

and concerns?

10. Who will monitor the interests and concerns of women in the military?

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11. Can women (as individuals or as a group) be incorporated into the "brotherhood of war"?

12. Will women change the ethos of military organizations?

With such a framework in mind, it is much easier to identify and place "new" issues in context. Actually,

though, what is a new issue concerning women in the military may simply be the issue that is most

important at the time: issues concerning family policy and the combat exclusion are currently of greater

importance and visibility than are questions of positional authority and whether women should be in the

military at all. But all of the 12 themes are still there.

Perhaps the most useful analytic tool for identifying and predicting new issues likely to be of

consequence to women in the future is Judith Hicks Stiehm's "generations of military women" or cohort

analysis approach.97 This method looks at the expectations and "the rules" surrounding women's

participation in the armed forces when they entered military service, and the important events and policy

decisions throughout the service careers of women in these age cohorts. Life-cycle variables (especially

marriage and family planning decisions) are also considered important. The 12-recurring-themes

approach and Stiehm's cohort analysis methodology, if refined and put into wider use, may provide

potentially powerful techniques to assist in future policy planning.

Finally, we must look beyond the question of "women in the military" to the larger context of the

organization itself. This author has suggested elsewhere that the role of the military may be changing

from one of "combat" to a more widely inclusive one of "conflict management."98 If such is the case,

then the issue will not simply be one of how (and whether) to incorporate women into combat, but will

be one of how (and whether) to train all military personnel in peacemaking as well as war-waging roles.

Notes

1. M. C. Devilbiss, "Needs and Values in Military Decision-Making" (Paper presented at the biennial

meeting of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Chicago, October 1987).

2. Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers,

1985).

3. An analogy here might be with Air Force organizational structure. Experts in Tactical Air Command,

Strategic Air Command, or Military Airlift Command, for example, would "look out for" and be

advocates of TAC, SAC, and MAC interests, respectively. Presumably, these experts would also have

decision-making authority in their respective arenas.

4. Judith Hicks Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989),

182. As more women enter decision-making positions in political and military roles, this reality may

change; but the notion that it is still principally men who make military policy continues to hold true in

the twentieth century.

5. Ibid., 50. Military policymakers also make decisions about men as a group, but Stiehm's point is still

well-taken: "the reverse experience [women making decisions about men as a category] is probably one

that few adult men have had or can ever imagine.

6. Ibid., 13, 21, 213-20: see also M. C. Devilbiss, "Job Opportunities for Women in the U.S. Armed

Forces," in Job Training for Women: Research Perspectives and Policy Directions, ed. Sharon Harlan

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and Ronnie J. Stienberg [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989).

7. Stiehm, 65-66, 148-53, devotes considerable attention to the question of scientific veracity and

accountability as factors in policy decisions on women in the military. This is the "objectivity" versus the

"right answers" charge about studies involving women in the military that was raised by Dr Mary Evelyn

Bragg Huey, Texas Woman's University president and DACOWITS chair; in her letter to Secretary of

Defense Caspar Weinberger, June 1983.

8. Thus "family policy" issues became of increasing concern when they were thought to impact upon the

readiness and retention of military men. When "family policy" issues were seen as largely—or as

specifically—"women's issues," they were not of central concern.

9. For specific demographics on the changing marital and family roles for military enlisted personal, see

Stiehm, 41-44.

10. Ibid., 213.

11. Ibid., 42, 118. 119.

12. Indeed the question here may not be what if military women with children (mothers) don't show up

for deployments, but what if they do? This may be called the "baby brigade" question. The military may

fear that it would have a large child care problem on its hands in the second instance, even though care of

children in case of parental deployment is deemed an individual, not an organizational, responsibility.

See Stiehm, 21, 42, 217.

13. Ibid., 125.

14. Such a step would then assume that women in uniform are important to the accomplishment of the

military mission and therefore the military wishes to have and/or keep women in it. However, this may

not be the case; in fact the organizational assumption may be that women are not essential. See Stiehm,

221; and Brian Mitchell, Weak Link. The Feminization of the American Military (Washington, D.C.:

Regnery Gateway Publishers, 1989).

15. Stiehm, 28-46. Her analysis Is a good example of this.

16. M. C. Devilbiss and Carolyn C. Perrucci, "Effects of Role Multiplicity on U.S. Army Personnel,"

Journal of Political and Military Sociology 10, no. 1 (Spring 1982): 1-13.

17. Stiehm, 221.

18. Ibid., 174. "Accessions are the heart of the women-in-the-military matter. If women are not accessed,

all other considerations become moot." Accession questions are, however, based on logical prior

assumptions concerning "images" of women in military organizations—and indeed images of military

organizations {organizational "self-concepts") as well. It is these "images" issues, it will be argued here,

that form the heart of the "women-in-the-military matter."

19. The present percentage of women in the military (approximately 10 percent) falls into Kanter's

classification of a "skewed" group in which the sex ratio is more than 100:0 but less than 85:15.

Characteristic of such a group, according to Kanter, is a "dominant-versus-token culture" in which the

token group survives in the environment by adapting to the culture of the dominant group. See Rosabeth

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Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1977), 129-212,

245-49.

20. Mitchell.

21. Several authors make this point. See for example Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War (New York:

Basic Books, Inc., 1987); and Cynthia Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's

Lives (Boston: South End Press, 1983).

22. It is important to identify and examine these underlying organizational beliefs because in doing so we

are hyped to understand why—even in the absence of data to the contrary (women do not have more

overall "lost time" than men, for example) the perception persists that military women are "less

available" or "less able" and for these reasons are liabilities to the organization. See, for example, data

presented in "Pregnancy in the Navy: Impact on Absenteeism, Attrition, and Work Group Morale," by

Marsha S. Olson and Susan S. Stumpf, TR 78-25 (San Diego, Calif.: Navy Personnel Research and

Development Center, 1978). Such perceptions continue because they are rooted in fundamental

organizational assumptions about the limited usefulness and lower value of women in the military

relative to men in the military.

23. See a critique of the limited substitutability of military women for military men in Women and the

Military, by Martin Binkin and Shirley J. Bach (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1977).

24. Such assumptions about men's military roles have not always been the case. In fact such assumptions

are relatively recent ones. At one time—and arguably there are still indications of this in the military

today (see John Ginovsky, "Black Pilots: Why Does the Air Force Attract So Few?" "Prejudices Existed

Then and Exist Now," and "Complaints of Race Discrimination Have Risen during the Last Two Years,"

Air Force Times, 5 June 1989, 14, 15, 20)—nonwhite males were considered to have the ability to

perform only certain types of military jobs. Thus (as is the case currently for all women), nonwhite males

were similarly restricted by military organizations to assignments in only those certain types of jobs. See

M. C. Devilbiss, "Cynthia Enloe's Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies, " in Women's

Studies International Forum 5, no. 3 (Fall 1982): 378-81.

25. This concept is identified and explained in further detail in Nina Yuval-Davis, "Sexual Division of

Labour in Militaries," in Loaded Questions: Women in the Military, ed. Wendy Chapkis (Washington,

D.C.: Transnational Institute, 1981), 31-35.

26. Stiehm, 224-27.

27. See Stiehm, 149; and M. C. Devilbiss, "Gender Integration and Unit Deployment: A Study of GI Jo,"

Armed Forces and Society 11, no. 4 (Summer 1985): 536-37.

28. It is in basic military training, rather than in subsequent "advanced training" or "professional military

education" that we can see these organizational assumptions at work most clearly. Most advanced

training courses in the military (under basic training courses) are gender integrated.

29. These arguments are most applicable to the case of enlisted men and women. Male and female

officers receive gender-integrated basic military training through ROTC and the service academies. Thus,

their initial knowledge base and the skills they acquire are likely to be more similar than dissimilar.

30. The case can be made that "nurse" is a "nontraditional" job for military men since men were not

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allowed to be military nurses until 1955 (Army) and 1967 (Navy). However, men have always performed

medical roles in military organizations.

31. Linda Grant DePauw, "Women in Combat: The Revolutionary War Experience," Armed Forces and

Society 7, no. 2 (Winter 1981): 209-26.

32. Stiehm, 15, 102, argues that all women in the military are in a "nontraditional" job. The issue,

however, is that of comparison groups. If we are comparing military women to civilian women, then

Stiehm's observation holds. If, however, we are looking "inside" the military as an organization, then the

distinction can be made between "traditional" and "nontraditional" roles for women based on the

"history" of women's participation in such jobs.

33. Background Review: Women in Military (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1981), 77;

and Myrna Rottman, "Women Graduates of the Coast Guard Academy: Views from the Bridge," Armed

Forces and Society 11, no. 2 (Winter 1985): 250-62.

34. These different assumptions surrounding the male and female "utilization questions" are identified by

Stiehm, 135.

35. Phrasing the question in this way ("how many women can the military utilize?") presupposes that

there is an upper limit on the number of women the military can use. Put another way, the question is

"how many of a less utilizable group of people can the military contain?" See further discussion in

Stiehm, 155-78.

36. Or even as unnecessary! Mitchell.

37. Marilyn Loden, Feminine Leadership, or, How to Succeed in Business without Being One of the Boys

(New York: Times Books, 1985).

38. M. C. Devilbiss, "Creating a Positive Command Climate: New Roles for Leaders" (Paper presented at

the Center for Army Leadership, Third Annual Leadership Research Conference, Kansas City, Missouri,

May 1987).

39. Ibid., 6-12. Two case study examples are Air Force Gen W. L. ("Bill") Creech and Army Lt Gen

Walter F. Ulmer, Jr.

40. That is, the role itself becomes more important than the characteristics of the person in it. This is the

notion of an evolving emphasis on the achieved dimension of role (how well one performs one's job—an

individual consideration) over the ascribed dimension of role (one's membership in a particular category

or class of people—a group consideration).

41. As the mobilization model of the military evolves into the standing force model, as the conscript

force evolves into an all-volunteer force, and as a primarily combat organization evolves into a conflict

management institution. See M. C. Devilbiss, "Defense in the Global Village: The Impact and

Consequences of Global 'Megatrends' on the U.S. Military" (Paper presented at the annual conference of

the International Security Studies Section of the International Studies Association, Washington, D.C.,

November 1988).

42. That legal restrictions (title 10, US Code) apply to the utilization of women in the Air Force and

Navy is true, but all branches of the armed forces place many more restrictions on the utilization of

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women than the law requires. See Binkin and Bach.

43. Stiehm, 156.

44. M. C. Devilbiss, "Attitudes toward Women in Combat Roles" (Paper presented at the biennial

conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Chicago, October 1981); see

also Stiehm, 224-30.

45. "Women Content in Units Force Development Test (MAXWAC)" (Alexandria, Va.: Army Research

Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 1977); "Women Content in the Army: REFORGER 77

(REFWAC 77)" (Alexandria, Va.: Army Research Institute, 1978); Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "Female GIs

in the Field," Society 22, no. 6 (September-October 1985): 28-33; and Devilbiss, "Gender Integration and

Unit Deployment," 523-52.

46. Barbara Tuchman, The March of Folly: From Troy to Vietnam (New York: Ballantine Books, 1984);

see also Stiehm, 223, 224.

47. Senator William Proxmire entered these remarks in the Congressional Record on 21 March, 24

March, and 25 March 1986.

48. "Women in Army Combat Units To Be Reassigned," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the

Military 5, no. 4 (Winter 1987): 38-39.

49. Stiehm, 230-32.

50. Also any individual man's career development. But if women are "less valuable" to the organization,

then (theoretically) hampering a woman's career development is not as serious an organizational matter

as hampering a man's.

51. For an excellent discussion of the "protection assumption," see Judith Hicks Stiehm, "The Protected,

the Protector, and the Defender," Women's Studies International Quarterly 5, no. 3 (Fall 1982): 367-76.

52. Compare data on current roles for military women with a history of their utilization in World War II.

See Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: An Finished Revolution (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982);

and Mattie E. Treadwell, The Women's Army Corps {Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military

History, 1954).

53. Perry D. Luckett, "Military Women in Contemporary Film, Television, and Media," Minerva:

Quarterly Report on Women and the Military 7, no. 2 (Summer 1989).

54. The contemporary experience of women in other NATO) nations (e.g., Canada, Denmark) in direct

combat roles (land, sea, and air) provides some organizational comparisons for the US case. For more on

this issue, see Nancy L. Goldman. ed., Female Soldiers—Combatants or Noncombatants? Historical and

Contemporary Perspectives (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1982); and Ralph P. Witherspoon,

"Female Soldiers in Combat—A Policy Adrift," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military

6, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 1-28.

55. Stiehm, 181-92; M. C. Devilbiss, "Women and Compulsory Military Service" (Paper presented at the

annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, New York, August 1980).

56. David R. Segal, Nora Scott Kinzer, and Cohn C. Woelfel, "The Concept of Citizenship and Attitudes

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toward Women in Combat," Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 3 (1977): 469-77; M. C. Devilbiss,

"Women and the Draft" in The Military Draft: Selected Readings on Conscription, ed. Martin Anderson

(Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1982).

57. DePauw, "Women in Combat."

58. Devilbiss, "Women and Compulsory Military Service."

59. D'Ann Campbell, Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Cambridge, Mass.:

Harvard University Press, 1984).

60. Stiehm, 190-92, cites contemporary survey data which points up objections to women both being

prohibited from and coerced into combat roles.

61. This is the issue of whether or not, when women participate in national defense, they should do so on

different terms than men. Moreover, there are differing public opinion views on women and national

service and national defense. See Stiehm, 181-92.

62. Legislation to enact. The "National Community Service Act" was introduced in Congress in the

Spring of 1989. Other "national service" legislation is also pending.

63. A potential issue here would be the skills question: would those young people subject to national

service have such medical training and skills?

64. However, if the young man's experience is having to register but never realistically expecting to be

"called up," then the experiences of young men and young women are still more similar than different.

65. Here the word common is used to mean uniting as well as typical. It may also be seen in the sense of

initiatory.

66. Data collection specifically on women in the military is now becoming more likely to include

information on minority military women. See Background Review.

67. Stiehm, 188. Black women are, for example, more likely to perceive the military as an opportunity.

This may affect accessions and reenlistment rates.

68. John Ginovsky, "AF Opposes Recruitment Quotas for Women," Air Force Times, 6 May 1985.

69. Stiehm, 239-41.

70. Ibid., 23-24.

71. New Air Force slogans suggest that "our people are our most important resources." Slogans need,

however, to be incorporated and demonstrated into the actual working environment before they can

become more than "lip service" to a new concept.

72. And/or if either (or both) groups altruistically considered the concerns of any other person or group

as "their own" concern as well, even if they were not personally affected by it.

73. Such a situation would, however, assume the primary or "military" over "family" role

obligations—an assumption the military (and the society at large) is prepared to apply to men, but not to

women. This assumption may be changing as occupational roles become increasingly important for

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women, and family roles become increasingly important for men. Thus the perception of the military as a

"marital martial institutions" in conflict. Stiehm, 213-22.

74. Stiehm, 150-53, 205-8, makes important points in this regard. One is that certain harassment in the

military can be thought of as generic harassment (applying to both women and men, as an organizational

expectation). A second point is that sexual harassment in particular is predominately a "junior enlisted

woman" issue; that is, for military women it "lessens" (overtly?) with age and rank. And third, sexual

harassment is particularly prevalent for women in "nontraditional" military occupations, perhaps because

of the continued questioning of the legitimacy of women's presence in such roles.

75. Linda Grant DePauw, "Gender as Stigma: Probing Some Sensitive Issues," Minerva: Quarterly

Report on Women and the Military 6. no. 1 (Spring 1988).

76. Mitchell. It is argued that discrimination against women in the armed forces is permissible because

national security is more important. This is based on the assumption that women in the military—and

especially in combat roles—would compromise, not enhance, national security.

77. These issues relate, of course, to "command climate." Stiehm, 151. See also Devilbiss, "Creating a

Positive Command Climate."

78. See Patricia A. McBroom, The Third Sex: The New Profession Woman (New York: William Murray

and Co., 1983); and Karen O. Dunivin, "There's Men, There's Women, and There's Me: The Role and

Strategy of Military Women," Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military 6, no. 2 (Summer

1988): 43-68.

79. Or, perhaps more accurately here, that they are "like everyone else"; that is, men. See Stiehm,

230-32.

80. However, it took a military woman to point out the gender exclusivity language of the old code, and

the commander in chief of the armed forces to correct it. "Code of Conduct for Fighting 'Men' Revised,"

Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 6-7.

81. Mitchell.

82. Holm, 260-88: Stiehm, 28-46.

83. Treadwell, 191-218.

84. See Philip A. Kalisch and Margaret Scobey, "Female Nurses in American Wars: Helplessness

Suspended for the Duration" (Paper presented at the biennial conferences of the Inter-University Seminar

on Armed Forces and Society, Chicago, October 1980).

85. DePauw, "Gender as Stigma," 32-35.

86. Stiehm, 127-32.

87. Ibid., 124.

88. Ibid., 154.

89. Marvin R. Koller, Humor and Society (Houston, Tex.: Cap and Gown Press, 1988): 240-41.

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90. In some service academies, men become more "traditional" in their attitudes toward women; in other

academies, men progressively adopted more "contemporary" attitudes toward women. See Judith Hicks

Stiehm, Bring Me Men and Women: Mandated Change at the U.S. Air Force Academy (Berkeley, Calif.:

University of California Press, 1981).

91. For example, recent efforts to construct a "nurse" statue near the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in

Washington, D.C.; also efforts to establish a Women in Military Service Memorial in Arlington

Cemetery.

92. Luckett.

93. Ibid.

94. DePauw, "Gender as Stigma," 35.

95. And it is necessary to have this training for all military personnel, not just for military women.

96. Tuchman.

97. Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman, 28-46.

98. Devilbiss, "Defense in the Global Village."

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Appendix

Ten Current Key Issue Areas Affecting

Women in the US Armed Forces

Organizational Monitors

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Several diverse groups are set up for the purpose of dealing with issues affecting women in the

military.

 b. Military decision makers lack expertise on background and implications of issues affecting military

women.

 c. Special outside interest groups, judicial authorities, and congressional representatives become

monitors and advocates for issues concerning women in the military.

 d. Military women become more active in forming unofficial support groups and professional

societies for the purpose of discussing issues of mutual interest and to seek information (and often

justification) from policymakers on recent decisions affecting military women.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Disestablishment in the 1970s of women's directors offices, specially equipped with the knowledge

base and the ability to monitor these issues and then offer advice to decision makers on this basis.

 b. Crucial background knowledge and information on this issue rests in the hands of a small

specialized group of experts, many of whom are civilians.

 c. Legislative and judicial authorities have begun to define certain policies pertaining to military

women as inequitable and have pressed the military for justification and/or policy resolution.

 d. Military women's perception of common interests and a need to network; fear of the loss of a

significant organizational power base or a source of top level influence for women's concerns; and fear

that the organizational monitors available may hurt rather than help them.1

3. Conceptional question to ask:

 What organizational structure and mechanisms will be used to (1) identify and (2) deal with these

issues?

4. The need:

 An institutional collectivity of informed experts who are able, on the basis of their expertise, to make

policy decisions on issues of concern to women in the military and who have the organizational

authority to do so.

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Family Policy

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. About five to 10 percent of female military personnel pregnant at any one time.

 b. Increase in number of single parents who are military members.

 c. Increase in number of dual career military couples (both husband and wife in the military).

 d. More requests for joint-spouse assignments.

 e. Deployability concerns within the organization about military members with family responsibilities

(especially military women).

 f. "Job versus family" conflicts and their potential impact on retention.

 g. Fraternization between male and female military members becoming more visible and frequent, and

being of increasing concern.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Military women in child-bearing years not forced to choose between having a family and having a

military career.

 b. Child custody not a bar to retention in the military.

 c. Potential field of eligible marriage partners exists in the military as it does in comparable civilian

careers and locations; also, women increasingly perceive the military as an attractive career choice and

may elect to stay in with their husbands rather than seek other careers.

 d. Married military members' changing expectations: choosing to be assigned at a location with their

spouse as the norm rather than the exception.

 e. Organizational pressure for all military members to be available for worldwide duty and to carry

their share of duties so that others will not have to "pick up the slack."

 f. Changing individual expectations and values. The life sector expectations/responsibilities of the

job" may not always be given priority by the military member over that person's "family"

expectations/responsibilities.

 g. Military men and women increasingly work together and have the opportunity to get acquainted; in

this situation, some romantic interpersonal attractions may occur.

3. Conceptual question to ask:

 How should the organizational issues and implications of marriage, pregnancy, and parenthood "be

dealt with" and what implications do they raise for the military as an institution?

4. The need:

 Factual information on the extent to which these issues affect how many military members, an

appraisal of their needs, and then scientific study of the actual organizational effects of family policy

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issues; policy resolution based on these assessments.

Numbers

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Increasing numbers of women in the military.

 b. Increasing percentages of women in the military.

 c. Different accession and growth rates for women in different branches of the armed forces.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. In an emergency or in an all-volunteer environment, women become an increasingly valuable

personnel resource.

 b. Widening span of military job opportunities for women due to internal organizational necessities

(changing military organizational structure and military personnel requirements) facilitated by external

factors and pressures. In a force of relatively stable size, more military Jobs designed as male-female

interchangeable, and a greater overall military need for job skills that women possess or can be

"appropriately" trained for.

 c. Service branches separately identify and negotiate female requirements with their respective service

secretaries.

3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. What are some of the organizational effects of the incorporation of increased numbers and

percentages of women in the armed forces?

 b. What are the assumptions behind perceptions of accession, utilization, retention, and promotion

issues for women in the military? Are these assumptions accurate and valid?

4. The need:

 An open assessment of the need that the military has for womanpower and the scrutiny of

assumptions upon which this need determination is based.

Training

 1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Men and women are sometimes trained together and sometimes trained separately for military

duties. Basic military training, once gender-integrated for almost all of the services.

 b. Training situations and techniques of instruction may be different for women and men.

 c. Women are not trained in the full range of military specialties as men are.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Current law and service policy perceives certain types of training (particularly combat skills) as

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essential for all men but unnecessary for all women; women are seen to slow men down in physical

training and are therefore separated and/or given less demanding programs.

 b. Perceptions of instructors may influence instructional techniques; men are allowed repeated

chances to "learn by doing" while women may have fewer opportunities to fail and try again.

 c. Exclusion of women from combat roles by law (Title 10 of the US Code for Air Force and Navy)

and by policy (Combat Exclusion Policy for the Army) form the basis for their exclusion from training in

those jobs designated "combat" by the services.

3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. What kind of training shall women receive for what kind(s) of military jobs?

 b. What is the relationship of military training programs to the actual and the perceived abilities of

women as a group? to women as individuals?

 c. Why is access to military training programs different for women than it is for men?

 d. What does the concept of "military leadership" mean, and are current training programs adequately

preparing women to assume positions as military leaders?

4. The need:

 A clear linkage between training programs for women and their subsequent utilization in the

organization so that women can (a) acquire the training and skills they need, and (b) utilize the abilities

they possess and acquire.

Roles

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Sexual division of labor within the military.2

 b. Men are in all military jobs, including the military's "core" roles combat; women are not in all

military jobs, and jobs they do hold are in peripheral (support or backup), not central, roles.

 c. Interpersonal difficulties may arise in work situations, especially where women are utilized in

"nontraditional" roles.

 d. Very few women in high level positions and/or of high military rank.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Perception and identification of certain military jobs as exclusively male, predominately male, or

predominately female (none perceived as exclusively female).3

 b. Exclusion of women as a class from combat roles based on law and service policy; moreover,

"command climate" (perceptions, interpretations, decisions, and regulations made by local policymakers

and supervisors) may also influence the utilization of women, particularly those who are trained in

"nontraditional" specialties.4 Perception that the military's central roles call solely for manpower.

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 c. Perception by work group members that women in nontraditional military occupations may not

possess the requisite knowledge, skills, and training to adequately function in these jobs; further

perception of nonlegitimacy of women ("no right to be there") in these roles. Perceived threat to working

group environment, interpersonal relationships (especially to "male bonding"), and individual group

members' self-concepts.5

 d. Number of women who can be promoted to high rank limited because of small pool of eligibles;

when promotion bottlenecks occur, some military women, seeing that there is no room for them to

advance in the organization, may elect to leave it.

3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. Why (for what purpose) is there a sexual division of labor in the military.

 b. In utilization considerations, why are women judged first as a class and then as individuals with

different abilities, aptitudes, and interests, while men are judged on individual abilities, aptitudes, and

interests alone? Why are women (especially those in nontraditional roles) often perceived as not

legitimate or not skilled in these roles in comparison with men of similar background and training?

 c. What are the personal (individual) and organizational (structural) barriers to women's promotional

and career opportunities in the military?

 d. What roles do laws, policies, and command climates (as separate and as interacting forces) play in

the utilization of women in the military?6

4. The need:

 An honest assessment of the contribution that women as individuals can make to the furtherance of

the military's mission and the organizational mechanisms put in place to accomplish that mission.

Combat Exclusion

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Women (because of class restrictions placed on them as a group) cannot be assigned to certain

types of military Jobs (combat).

 b. Women are theoretically placed in "noncombat" military roles only, but analyses of actual military

positions show some women are assigned to and working in "combat" jobs.

 c. Career opportunities for women in certain military specialties (e.g., aviation and certain sea duty

ratings are limited because of the combat exclusion.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Title 10 of the United States Code (sections 6015 and 8549) currently restricts women as a class (all

women, because they are women) from serving in "combat" positions in the Navy and Air Force,

respectively. The Army's combat exclusion policy, although not a statutory prohibition, has the same

ultimate effect: exclusion of women as a class from "combat" positions.

 b. It is hard to define just what is and what is not a combat role in the US armed forces. Moreover, this

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definition is subject to interpretation and change at the behest of military decision makers.

 c. Certain military specialties have combat assignment career paths; therefore individual women

(who, as a group, are restricted from combat assignments) are prohibited by their class membership from

serving in the required assignment(s) necessary for them (as individuals) to advance in their careers.

Thus, even women who receive initial training in certain specialties—and possess the required

skills—cannot be fully utilized to support the military mission.

3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. Why are women utilizable in only certain ways (jobs) in the military?

 b. Is a "combat exclusion" in military organizations justifiable for any group of military personnel?

Why/why not?

4. The need:

 To identify the reason(s} and assumptions behind combat exclusion for women in the military, to

scrutinize the validity of these reasons and assumptions, and to openly assess the individual effects and

organizational impacts of continuation, modification, or elimination of this exclusion.

The Draft

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Absence of conscription (compulsory military service); registration currently required of men but

not of women.

 b. Currently, all personnel (men and women) serve in the military as volunteers. In much of the recent

past, however, men were both conscripts and volunteers while women served only as volunteers in the

US armed forces.7

 c. A shortage of medical personnel in particular may force the issue of drafting women into the US

military.

 d. A debate on compulsory "national service" includes the question of whether women will be subject

to the draft.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Congress proposes, and the Supreme Court upholds, the legality of registration for men but not

women.

 b. Although the idea of conscripting women has often been formally proposed (and public opinion

poll data supports such an idea), the United States—unlike some other nations—has never required

women to register or to be drafted for military service.

 c. Many of the required medical specialties in the military are occupational areas that employ

significant numbers of women.

 d. Changing expectations regarding the concepts of "citizenship," "national defense," and "national

service," and the extent to which these are women's as well as men's responsibilities.

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3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. What are the reasons for a draft? What is the relationship between "national service" and "national

defense"?

 b. What are the reasons for including women in a national draft? What are the reasons for excluding

them?8

 c. Are there alternatives to a national conscription of health care professionals in having enough

people to fill military health career roles?

4. The need:

 An assessment of the changing nature of the civilian-military interface in contemporary society, along

with a reassessment of the military as an organization "in context" with other organizations in the broad,

overall context of national security/national defense. An examination of the changing participation of

women (as individuals, as a group) in statecraft and nation-building roles.

Minority Women

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Increasing numbers of minority women in the military.

 b. Feelings of isolation (of being a "minority within a minority").

 c. Lack of a sense of the history and contributions of women in general—and minority women in

particular—to the US armed forces.

 d. Concerns and behaviors (e.g., higher reenlistment rates) that may be dissimilar to other identifiable

gender and racial subgroups within the military.9

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Military service (especially its pay scales and occupational choices) seen as an increasingly

attractive job choice/career option for minority women.

 b. Low absolute numbers of minority women in the military; lack of role models of high-ranking

military minority women.

 c. Lack of an institutional commitment on the part of the military services to publicize the history and

contributions of military women.

 d. Low absolute numbers often result in ignoring this group's needs and/or behavior; also, often a lack

of appropriate comparison or reference group within studies that do focus on military minority women.

3. The need:

 An assessment of the special needs of this group. The adoption by all military organizations of a

program recognizing the historical contributions of women in the military in general and minority

women in particular. Organizational assessments of particular matters of personal and career importance

(e.g., assignment and promotion realities, racism and sexual harassment) to military minority women.

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The inclusion of minority women as a category of interest in studies done on military personnel, and

comparison groups identified for such studies (e.g., white women in the military, nonwhite men in the

military, nonwhite civilian women, nonwhite women in other service areas).

Special Concerns

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Lack of facilities and skilled medical personnel for special health care needs of military women.

 b.Items of uniform often do not fit women properly (e.g., boots are a recurring problem) and therefore

may contribute to health and safety hazards and job performance inefficiencies; uniform clothing that

serves to identify as a separate group (e.g., headgear).

 c. Women's military grooming and personal appearance standards are difficult to define; also, lack of

knowledge on the part of male supervisors and coworkers as to appropriate standards for women.

 d. Equipment designed for the average size (American) man may be difficult for the average size

woman (and for smaller men) to operate, posing potential safety and performance compromises.10

 e. Job performance evaluations may be different for men and women doing similar jobs in similar

ways.

 f. Cases on sexual harassment are increasing.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Lack of information on, and misperceptions and misunderstandings about, the particular health care

needs of military women.

 b. Perceptions of women's uniforms as an extra burden on the system; maintaining distinguishing

uniform markers as visible symbols to set women off as a special part of the military.

 c. Women's issues" defined as not central to the organization and therefore not as important.

 d. Perceptions of men as the "norm" (the standard); women as the "other" (the exception).11

 e. Job performance evaluations based on and affected by perceptions of gender, not on job

performance itself.

 f. Once thought to be inherent to military organizations, sexism in the form of overt sexual harassment

is beginning to be defined as unacceptable. Yet there is the continuing perception of women in the

military as sexual objects, not as coprofessionals.

3. Conceptual questions to ask:

 a. Why are issues of special concern to women seen as less important or central to the organization

than issues of special concern to men?

 b. Why are women as a group "marked off"?

 c. Why is it difficult to see military women as coprofessionals with military men?

Devilbiss--Appendix

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4. The need:

 To define issues of special concern to women in the military as important to the military and as

organizational concerns, not as "women's problems"; on this basis, to begin to seek solutions to issues in

this area.

Images

1. Overt symptoms:

 a. Images of women portrayed in recruiting ads may not make clear the limitations imposed on jobs

available to women and may raise false hopes and expectations.

 b. Women in the military are often portrayed negatively in the media and in folklore.

 c. Women in the military—and women veterans—are invisible.

2. Contributory causes:

 a. Frequency of recruiting ads less for women than for men; ads portray "ideal situations" because this

is a technique to "sell" the military as a job option/career choice to women.

 b. In fiction and in oral (and sometimes, written) history, we find hidden assumptions expressed about

women in the military; they are personifications of evil, deviance, etc.

 c. Perception that women were not there, did not contribute, or did not experience the same horrible

circumstances of war as men did. Perception that women were not—or should not be—a part of military

organizations.12 Fear that recognition of women's presence in and contributions to military organizations

implies a dependence on them and a debt owed to them.

3. The need:

 To continue to define sexual harassment as unacceptable behavior in military organizations and to

increase efforts to eliminate it. To examine the relationship between sexual harassment and its larger

context (sexism) and determine whether this concept is also considered to be unacceptable in military

organizations. To identify the common perceptions of women in the military through public opinion

research and through surveys within military organizations themselves, and then to ask: what is the

reason for these perceptions? are these perceptions detrimental to servicewomen? to servicemen? if these

perceptions are detrimental, how can negative images be changed into positive ones?

Notes

1. "DACOWITS Blamed for Parris Island Witch Hunt," Minerva's Bulletin Board 1, no. 1 (Spring 1988):

7, 8.

2. Nina Yuval-Davis. "Sexual Division of Labour in Militaries," in Loaded Questions: Women in the

Military, ed. Wendy Chapkis (Washington, D.C.: Transnational Institute, 1981), 31-35.

3. Judith Hicks Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Woman (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989),

90, 91, 175, 204.

Devilbiss--Appendix

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4. Ibid., 16, 22, 23, 26.

5. Ibid., 151, 152.

6. M. C. Devilbiss, "Creating a Positive Command Climate: New Roles for Leaders" (Paper presented at

the Center for Army Leadership, Third Annual Leadership Research Conference, Kansas City, Missouri,

May 1987).

7. During the American Revolution, qualified women were subject to local militia call-up (a localized

"draft"), just as qualified men were. See Linda Grant DePauw, "Women in Combat: The Revolutionary

War Experience," Armed Forces and Society 7, no. 2 (Winter 1981): 209-26.

8. Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall pointed out the need to ask the reasons for excluding

women from registration in his dissent in Rostker v. Goldberg, 101 S. Ct. 2646 (1981).

9. Martin Binkin and Mark J. Eitelberg, with Alvin J. Schexnider and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the

Military (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1982), 171.

10. Stiehm, 147, 203.

11. Linda Grant DePauw, "Gender as Stigma: Probing Some Sensitive Issues," Minerva: Quarterly

Report on Women and the Military 6, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 29-43; see also Stiehm, 208.

12. Brian Mitchell, Weak Link: The Feminization of the American Military (Washington, D.C: Regnery

Gateway Publishers, 1989).

Devilbiss--Appendix

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Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. "Women

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________. "Women Content in Units Force Development Test (MAXWAC)."

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Becraft, Carolyn H. "Women and the Military: Organizational Stress and

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Binkin, Martin, and Mark J. Eitelberg, with Alvin J. Schexnider and Marvin M.

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Brumgardt, John R., ed. Civil War Nurse: The Diary and Letters of Hannah

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Budahn, P. J. "Bar on Single-Parent Enlistments Upheld." Air Force Times,

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Burgess, Tom. "Conferees Approve Most Family Benefits." Air Force Times,

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Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America. Private Lives in a Patriotic

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__________. "Women and War: A Conceptual Framework for Historical

 and Contemporary Roles." Paper presented at a special session of the

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Devilbiss, M. C., and Carolyn C. Perrucci. "Effects of Role Multiplicity on

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"800 More Jobs Open to Women." Maxwell-Gunter Dispatch, 9 May 1985.

Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Women and War. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1987. Enloe, Cynthia. Does

Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's

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"Few Jobs Left for Emergency Medicine Navy Nurses." Minerva's Bulletin

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Ginovsky, John. "AF Opposes Recruitment Quotas for Women." Air Force

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__________. "Black Pilots: Why Does the Air Force Attract So Few?" Air

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__________. "Complaints of Race Discrimination Have Risen during the Last

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Devilbiss--References

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__________. "Prejudices Existed Then and Exist Now." Air Force Times,

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__________. "Women to Fill SP Slots." Air Force Times, 1 October 1984.

Goldman, Nancy L., ed. Female Soldiers—Combatants or Noncombatants?

 Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Westport, Conn.:

 Greenwood Press, 1982.

Hancock, Joy Bright. Lady in the Navy. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute

 Press, 1972.

"Health Status of Women in the Army To Be Studied." Minerva: Quarterly

 Report on Women and the Military 3, no. 2 (Summer 1985).

Hewitt, Linda L. Woman Marines in World War I. Washington, D.C.: History

 and Museums Division, Headquarters US Marine Corps, 1974.

Hirst, Don. "Camouflage Maternity Work Uniform to Enter Supply System

 in August." Army Times, 10 June 1985.

Holm, Jeanne M. "Report of the Veterans Administration Advisory Committee

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 the Military 6, no. 4 (winter 1988).

__________. Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution. Novato,

 Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982.

Huey, Mary Evelyn Bragg, Texas Woman's University president and

 DACOWITS chair. Letter to Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger,

 June 1983.

Kalisch, Philip A., and Margaret Scobey. "Female Nurses in American

 Wars: Helplessness Suspended for the Duration." Paper presented at

 the biennial conference of the Inter-University Seminar on the Armed

 Forces and Society, Chicago, October 1980.

Kanter, Rosabeth Moss. Men and Women of the Corporation. New York:

 Basic Books, Inc., 1977.

Keil, Sally VanWagenen. Those Wonderful Women in Their Flying

 Machines. New York: Rawson Wade Publishers, Inc., 1979.

Kerber, Linda K. Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in

 Revolutionary America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina

 Press, 1980.

Koller, Marvin R. Humor and Society. Houston, Tex.: Cap and Gown

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Loden, Marilyn. Feminine Leadership, or, How to Succeed in Business

Devilbiss--References

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McBroom, Patricia A. The Third Sex: The New Professional Woman.

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Mitchell, Brian. Weak Link: The Feminization of the American Military.

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"Navy Lieutenant Is Military's First Woman Jet Test Pilot." Minerva:

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Roland, Neil. "Becker Asks Registration of Doctors." Army Times,

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Rostker v. Goldberg. 101 S. Ct. 2646 (1981).

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Stiehm, Judith Hicks. Arms and the Enlisted Woman. Philadelphia: Temple

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__________. Bring Me Men and Woman: Mandated Change at the U.S.

 Air Force Academy. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1981.

__________. "The Protected, the Protector, and the Defender." Women's

 Studies International Quarterly 5, no. 3 (Fall 1982).

"Tougher Enlistment Standards for Women Are Legal: Court Says." Minerva's

 Bulletin Board 2, no. 1 (Spring 1989).

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"Women to Join Minuteman Crew Force." Airman Magazine, March 1985.

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 Questions: Women in the Military, edited by Wendy Chapkis.

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Devilbiss--References

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Illustrations

Table

1 Female Military Personnel on Active Duty in the US Armed Forces

2 Combat Exclusion Laws and Policies Pertaining to the Utilization of Women in the US Armed

Forces

3 Important Historical Developmental Stages in the Utilization of Women in the Military

4 Historical Factors Influencing Change for Women in the Military

5 Levels of Policy Analysis

6 Ten Current Key Issue Areas Affecting Women in the US Armed Forces

7 Arguments For and Against Women in Combat Roles

[AU Press Home Page|Contents]

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Contents

Chapter

DISCLAIMER

DEDICATION

FOREWORD

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 HISTORICAL PATTERNS AND RECENT POLICY SHIFTS

2 ANALYSIS: MAJOR INSTRUMENTS AND PATTERNS OF CHANGE

3 OVERVIEW OF KEY ISSUES: MAJOR PROBLEMS REMAINING

APPENDIX

REFERENCES

Illustrations

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Air University

Style Guide

for WRITERS and EDITORS

1996

Air University

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

Contents

● Foreword

● Preface

● Acknowledgments

Air University Style Guide

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[N] [O] [P] [Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W] [X] [Y] [Z]

● 

● Appendix A: Notes

● Appendix B: Bibliography

● Appendix C: Copyright

● Bibliography

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

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Air University

Style Guide

for

Writers & Editors

September 1996

Air University

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Foreword

The faculty, staff, and students of Air University have always been

productive members of the academic community. Until now, however, we

have not had a document that could unify our writing stylistically. The Air

University Style Guide will do just that.

Rapid expansion in the field of electronic media—especially the

Internet—promises increased access to AU research and writing. For that

reason, we should assure that our efforts are sound—not only substantively

but stylistically. Based on recognized but forward-looking principles of

standard English usage, the Air University Style Guide provides reliable

guidance on such matters as punctuation, capitalization, abbreviation,

documentation, numbers, spelling, and much more. Following the advice

found in this guide will make AU publications stylistically consistent and

acceptable. I commend it to your use.

JAY W. KELLEY

Lieutenant General, USAF

Commander

Air University

iii
Preface

The world is full of stylebooks, style guides, and style manuals. Every

publishing house, news agency, major newspaper, magazine, and journal has

its own. Style guides are available at every bookstore and library, and every

serious writer or editor owns at least one. Why then should Air University

develop still another?

Writing for publication in the Air Force is different in many ways from

writing for commercial publication or writing for a newspaper or a scholarly

journal. Air University people—and Air Force people in general—do write

for all of those outlets and more. Specifically, they write reviews, articles,

monographs, theses, and books on Air Force special topics and instructional

materials for Air Force professional military education courses—both for

conventional and electronic publication. The basic tenets of English usage

are the same for Air Force writers as for writers “on the outside,” of course,

but audiences are different, terminology is specialized, and Air Force

readers are attuned to their own language and its rhythms. In light of these

differences and similarities, and faced with the proliferation of style

manuals—many of them giving conflicting instruction—Air Force writers

and editors should welcome a single, authoritative style reference

specifically tailored to offer detailed guidance and information.

This publication won’t teach you how to write or edit, but it will give you

a coherent, consistent, stylistic base for writing and editing. It’s a kind of

road map around some of the obstacles to readable writing. It prescribes

simple rules for the most common problems facing the Air Force writer,

combining what are considered the best practices, as outlined in a wide

number of sourcebooks (see bibliography). Using this guide will free the

writer and editor from juggling one stylebook against another and trying to

remember which book is approved for which area of style. It will also bring

some stylistic consistency to writing produced through Air University.

The Air University Style Guide attempts to clarify and simplify matters

for the writer by removing the most common obstacles to readability in Air

Force writing: overuse of capitalization, of acronyms and other forms of

abbreviation, and of passive voice. The key word here is overuse, for we

realize that all of these forms have their proper functions and do not impede

the reader when used in moderation. Similarly, we prefer an openpunctuation style, which discourages the overuse of commas, colons, and

semicolons and the use of periods in abbreviations. In our opinion, open

punctuation—like direct writing—is easier to read, and that is all to the

good. Punctuation marks should enhance clarity of expression; if they don’t,

we say leave them out.

For easy reference, the guide is arranged in dictionary style. The user

need only look up the topic alphabetically without having to consult an

v
index or a table of contents. Extensive cross-references enhance the guide’s

usefulness.

The guide by no means covers every problem that faces writers and

editors. Where it is insufficient for your needs, we recommend The Chicago

Manual of Style (14th ed.), on which much of this guide relies for principles

and examples. For spellings and definitions, we use Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, and its chief

abridgement, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). In this

guide, the term dictionary refers to either one or both of these sources. For

grammar, we follow the guidance of Writer’s Guide and Index to English

(7th ed.), by Wilma R. and David R. Ebbitt.

This guide is just that—a guide. It is meant to remove obstacles to good

writing, not to become one. The ultimate proof of the guide’s worth is its

utility to Air Force writers and editors. On that basis, it should prove

valuable indeed.

vi
Acknowledgments

The Air University Style Guide is a comprehensive reference book

compiled primarily for use by people who write and edit within Air

University. It is flavored, however, by its “informal coordination” with a

number of respected writers, style arbiters, and friends outside Air

University, and it has proved useful to many Air Force writers.

The guide reflects growth brought on by years of use in its former

incarnation as the Air University Press Style Guide. It includes added

material, adjustments made in the interest of simplicity and consistency, and

a more direct approach, while retaining the spirit of the original document.

We expect the development of the guide to continue, with periodic revisions

to accommodate appropriate additions and changes.

To that end, we thank all of the people who reviewed the manuscript and

gave their thoughtful suggestions for its improvement. We invite interested

writers and editors to send their comments and suggestions for later editions

to Air University Press, 170 West Selfridge Street, Maxwell AFB, AL

36112-6610.

ALLAN W. HOWEY, Colonel, USAF

Director

Air University Press

vii
a/an. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a

historical event, not an historical event. Since an acronym is usually

read as a series of letters or as a word, choose the indefinite article in

accordance with the pronunciation of the first letter (an NCA decision)

or the pronunciation of the word (a NATO meeting).

AB (air base). Cite a first reference to a specific air base as follows:

Rhein-Main Air Base (AB), Germany. Subsequent references:

Rhein-Main AB, Germany; the air base; the base. See also AFB.

abbreviations and acronyms. Use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly:

don’t abbreviate words and phrases merely for the sake of doing so

when brevity is not of the essence, and don’t saturate writing with

abbreviations, acronyms, and the like to the detriment of reader

comprehension.

Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms in headings unless the

spelled-out term would make the heading unwieldy. You may,

however, begin or end a sentence with an abbreviation or acronym.

Spell out the name of an agency, organization, and so forth, the first

time you use it, and follow it with the acronym or abbreviation in

parentheses; you may use the acronym or abbreviation (without periods)

thereafter:

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Air Command and Staff College (ACSC)

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

Cable News Network (CNN)

program evaluation review technique (PERT)

professional military education (PME)

As a reminder to the reader, you may want to spell out acronyms or

abbreviations that you have identified previously—especially when

you haven’t used them in a long time. You do not have to include the

acronym or abbreviation again in parentheses.

Although a term may be plural or possessive, do not make the acronym

or abbreviation plural or possessive on first usage: cluster bomb units

(CBU); low noise amplifiers (LNA); commander in chief’s (CINC). Use

the plural or possessive form for subsequent occurrences of the acronym

or abbreviation, when appropriate: CBUs, LNAs, CINC’s.

Spell out the names of countries in text. Use USSR (Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics) to refer to the country as it existed between 1917

and 1991. You may abbreviate the names of countries in tables and

figures, if necessary. See also Commonwealth of Independent States;

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR; US; USSR.

A

1
United States

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

Republic of South Africa

Commonwealth of Independent States

Abbreviate civilian and military titles or ranks if you use a person’s

full name. Do not use periods with military ranks. When you use only

the last name, spell out the title or rank: (see also military titles before

names)

Adm Chester W. Nimitz Admiral Nimitz

Vice Adm John Smith Admiral Smith

Gen Robert E. Lee General Lee

Brig Gen James Stewart General Stewart

Lt Col Martin L. Green Colonel Green

Maj Frank T. Boothe Major Boothe

Capt Donald D. Martin Captain Martin

1st Lt Peter N. Cushing Lieutenant Cushing

2d Lt Boyd D. Yeats Lieutenant Yeats

Wing Comdr David Schubert Commander Schubert

CMSgt Robert Patterson Chief Patterson

MSgt Walter Austin Sergeant Austin

A1C K. L. Jones Airman Jones

Sen. John F. Kerry (D-Mass.) Senator Kerry

Rep. Terry Everett (R-Ala.) Representative Everett

Cong. Glen Browder Congressman Browder

Abbreviate units of measure after spelling out on first usage (no

periods) when they are used repeatedly; otherwise spell out the terms.

Capitalize abbreviations for terms derived from proper names (e.g.,

Hz). Singular and plural abbreviated forms for units of measure are the

same. See also numbers.

gallon gal

hertz Hz

kilogram kg

miles per hour MPH

degrees Celsius 70° C

revolutions per minute rpm

kilometer km

millimeter mm

pounds per square inch psi

nautical miles NM

Spell out the names of states, territories, and possessions of the

United States in textual material. When the names appear in lists,

tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and indexes, use the following

abbreviations:

2
Ala. Kans. Ohio

Alaska Ky. Okla.

Amer. Samoa La. Oreg. or Ore.

Ariz. Maine Pa.

Ark. Md. P.R.

Calif. Mass. R.I.

C.Z. Mich. S.C.

Colo. Minn. S.Dak.

Conn. Miss. Tenn.

Del. Mo. Tex.

D.C. Mont. Utah

Fla. Nebr. Vt.

Ga. Nev. Va.

Guam N.H. V.I.

Hawaii N.J. Wash.

Idaho N.Mex. W.Va.

Ill. N.Y. Wis. or Wisc.

Ind. N.C. Wyo.

Iowa N.Dak.

In notes, bibliographies, and reference lists, you may use abbreviations

freely, but be consistent. You may also use abbreviated forms in

parenthetical references. Use the following terms: vol. 1, bk. 1, pt. 2, no.

2, chap. 2, fig. 4, art. 3, sec. 4, par. 5, col. 6, p. 7, n.d. (no date). The

plurals are vols., bks., pts., nos., chaps., figs., arts., secs., pars., cols., pp.

above. You may use above to refer to information higher on the same page

or on a preceding page:

There are flaws in the above interpretation.

academic degrees and titles. Abbreviate academic degrees and titles (no

periods) after a personal name. See also bachelor’s degree; master’s

degree.

BA

MA

PhD

LLD

MD

DDS

JP (justice of the peace)

MP (member of Parliament)

active Air Force

active duty (n., adj.)

active voice. When the grammatical subject performs the action represented

by the verb, the verb is in active voice.

3
The congregation sang “Abide with Me.”

Mr. Conrad gave his son a car.

The police caught the thieves.

See also passive voice.

acts, amendments, bills, and laws. Capitalize the full title (formal or

popular) of an act or law, but lowercase all shortened forms: Atomic

Energy Act, the act; Sherman Antitrust Law, the antitrust law, the law;

Article 6, the article.

A legislative measure is a bill until it is enacted; it then becomes an

act or law. Lowercase bills and proposed constitutional amendments

not yet enacted into law: equal rights amendment, food stamp bill.

Capitalize an enacted and ratified amendment to the United States

Constitution when you use its formal title (including the number): the

Fifth Amendment, the 18th Amendment. But lowercase informal titles

of amendments: the income tax amendment.

A.D. (anno Domini). The abbreviation A.D. (set in small caps) precedes the

year: A.D. 107. See also B.C.

administration. Capitalize administration as part of the name of an agency:

General Services Administration. Lowercase administration as part of

the name of a political organization: Nixon administration.

AFB (Air Force base). Cite a first reference to a specific Air Force base as

follows: Maxwell Air Force Base (AFB), Alabama. Subsequent

references: Maxwell AFB, Alabama; the Air Force base; the base. In

notes and bibliographies, abbreviate the name of the state: Maxwell

AFB, Ala.

AFRES (Air Force Reserve). See also Reserve(s).

African-American (n., adj.)

Afro-American (n., adj.)

AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps)

agency. Capitalize the full title of an agency, but lowercase the shortened

form: Federal Security Agency, the agency.

aircraft. Do not italicize the class designation and class name of aircraft:

F-15 Eagle, SR-71 Blackbird, Boeing 747. Italicize the name of a

particular aircraft: Spirit of St. Louis, Enola Gay. Show model

4
designations by adding the letter without a space: F-4C, B-52H. Form

plurals by adding an s (no apostrophe): F-15s, SR-71s, F-4Cs, B-52Hs

See also apostrophe; italics.

aircrew

air division. If you refer to an air division (now defunct), use the following

form: 2d Air Division. For generic references, use air division.

airdrop (n.)

air-drop (v.)

air-droppable (adj.)

airfield

air force. Spell out air force either as a noun or an adjective.

Always use initial capitals when you refer to the US Air Force. Use

lowercase letters when you refer to an air force in general.

Capitalize the term when it is part of the official name of a foreign

air force: Royal Air Force. But use lowercase letters for subsequent

references: British air force.

When you refer to a numbered air force, spell out and capitalize the

ordinal number: Fifth Air Force, Fourteenth Air Force. Use arabic

numbers to refer to units below the level of numbered air forces: 502d

Air Base Wing, 2d Aircraft Delivery Group.

Air Force abbreviations. See Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense

Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.

Air Force One (the president’s aircraft)

Air Force–wide (adj., adv.)

air land (v.).

air-land (adj.)

AirLand Battle

airlift (n., v.)

airman

5
airpower. But land power, sea power, space power.

airspace

air strike (n.)

allied, allies. Capitalize allied and allies when you mention them in the

context of World War I and World War II.

all-weather fighter

A.M. (ante meridiem [before noon]). The standard practice is to typeset

the abbreviation in small caps.

amendments. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

ampersand (&). Change & in original titles to and: Aviation Week and

Space Technology. You may use either the ampersand or and as it

appears in company names in notes, bibliographies, lists, and parenthetical references (Harper & Row, Harper and Row), but be consistent.

The ampersand also occurs in some abbreviations: R&D.

and/or. Acceptable, but overuse can make your writing stilted.

ANG (Air National Guard). Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard; use

lowercase letters for guardsman.

anti-. Words formed with the prefix anti- are usually written solid:

antiaircraft, antisubmarine. See also compound words.

apostrophe. Form the possessive of singular nouns by adding an apostrophe

and an s, and the possessive of plural nouns (except for irregular

plurals) by adding an apostrophe only: the student’s book, the oxen’s

tails, the libraries’ directors, the United States’s policy. However, if

the addition of ‘s to a singular noun causes difficulty in pronunciation,

add the apostrophe only: for righteousness’ sake.

Show joint possession by using the possessive form for the second

noun only: Bill and Judy’s home. Show individual possession by using

the possessive form for both nouns: our dog’s and cat’s toys. Form

expressions of duration in the same way you do possessives: an hour’s

delay, three weeks’ worth.

You can apply the general rule to most proper nouns, including most

names ending in sibilants: Burns’s poems, Marx’s theories, Jefferson

Davis’s home (but Aristophanes’ play), the Rosses’ and the Williamses’

lands.

6
Form the possessive of nouns ending in silent s according to the

general rule: corps’s.

To show possession for compound nouns, add an apostrophe s to the

final word: secretary-treasurer’s, mother-in-law’s, mothers-in-law’s.

To show possession for indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and

an s to the last component of the pronoun: someone’s car, somebody

else’s books.

Do not use apostrophes in plurals of decades identified by century:

1960s, 1980s.

Do not use apostrophes to show plurals of letters and figures unless

such punctuation is necessary to avoid confusion: Bs and Cs; 1s, 2s,

and 3s; B-52s and F-15s; but A’s, a’s, i’s, and u’s.

appendix. Designate appendixes as Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C,

and so forth. Lowercase appendix when you refer to an appendix in

text (see appendix A). If you wish to include a published document,

such as an Air Force instruction, as an appendix to your study, you

should reproduce that document verbatim.

armed forces

army. Always capitalize army when you refer to the US Army, but use

lowercase letters when you refer to an army in general:

A contemporary army is probably more effective than its World War II

counterpart.

For foreign armies, see capitalization.

ARNG (Army National Guard). Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard.

art, artwork. See illustration.

article (part of a document). See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

7
bachelor’s degree. Also Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science. See also

academic degrees and titles.

back matter. Elements following the main text of a book are back matter.

In order, these elements are appendix(es), notes or references,

glossary, bibliography, list of contributors, and index(es).

base. See AB; AFB.

battalion. Capitalize battalion in proper names: 3d Battalion, 10th Battalion.

battle. Capitalize the full titles of battles (you may lowercase battle to

indicate the location where the battle took place): Battle of the Bulge,

Battle (or battle) of Bunker Hill.

battle line

B.C. (before Christ). The abbreviation (set in small caps) follows the

year: 240 B.C. See also A.D.

below. You may use below to refer to information lower on the same page

or on a following page:

These exercises, discussed below, are important to a unit’s training.

Berlin airlift

Berlin Wall

biannual, biennial. Biannual and semiannual mean twice a year; biennial means

every two years. For clarity, use twice a year or every two years instead.

bibliography. A bibliography is a list of books, articles, and other works

that you use in preparing your manuscript. Place it at the end of the

book, before the index. You may submit a bibliography arranged in a

straight alphabetical list, a bibliography divided into the kinds of

materials used (books, theses and papers, government publications,

and periodicals), or a selected bibliography that may or may not be

annotated.

An alphabetical list is the most common type of bibliography.

Arrange all sources alphabetically by the last names of the authors, in a

single list. When no author is given, use the first important word of the

title of a book or of an article as the key word for alphabetizing.

B

9
In a lengthy bibliography, you may want to divide the references into

kinds of sources (books, articles, newspapers, depositories, or

collections). Whatever the arrangement, do not list any source more than

once.

You may use an annotated bibliography when you want to direct the

reader to other works for further reading and study. An annotated

bibliography is also useful when you want to briefly explain the

contents, relevance, or value of specific sections of the book.

Invert the names of authors (i.e., last name first) and separate the

various components of information with periods rather than commas

(as is the case with notes).

The following examples show citations in bibliographic format:

AFM 1-1. Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force. 2 vols.,

March 1992.

AFPD 36-4. Personnel: Air Force Civilian Training and Education, 26 July 1994.

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and

Peter Paret. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Cressey, George B. China’s Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land

and Its People. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934.

Cuskey, Walter R., Arnold William Klein, and William Krasner. Drug-Trip

Abroad: American Drug-Refugees in Amsterdam and London. Philadelphia:

University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.

Drew, Col Dennis M. “Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from

10,000 Feet.” Airpower Journal 2, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 4–16.

Fairbank, John K. “The People’s Middle Kingdom.” Foreign Affairs 58 (June

1964): 943–68.

Schurman, Franz. China Today. New York: Vintage Books, 1970.

________. Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of

Modern China. New York: Vintage Books, 1967.

Spencer, Scott. “Childhood’s End.” Harper’s, May 1979, 16–19.

Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, Tex.:

University of Texas Press, 1984.

See appendix B; page 137 of this guide; and The Chicago Manual of

Style (14th ed.) for more examples and specific rules for developing a

bibliography.

bills. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

bimonthly. Bimonthly means every two months; semimonthly means twice a

month. For clarity, use every two months or twice a month instead.

biweekly. Biweekly can mean every two weeks or twice a week. For clarity,

use every two weeks or twice a week instead.

black. Use black (or Black) officer, black (or Black) people, blacks (or

Blacks). See also African-American; Afro-American; Negro, Negroes.

10
block quotations. Use block quotations for passages that are easily set apart

from the text, that are 10 or more typed lines, or that involve more than

one paragraph. Indent from both sides and single-space the quoted

material. Do not use quotation marks to enclose the quotation, and do not

indent for paragraphing. Indicate a new paragraph in a block quotation by

skipping a line. The block quotation should reflect the paragraphing of the

original. See also direct quotations; ellipses; quotations.

In volume one of AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United

States Air Force (March 1992), Gen Merrill A. McPeak remarks,

The guidance this manual provides will be valuable to those

in field units and to those in headquarters, to those in

operations and to those in support areas, to those who

understand air and space power and to those who are just

learning. In short, this manual will be valuable to the entire

force.

I expect every airman and, in particular, every noncommissioned and commissioned officer to read, study, and

understand volume I and to become fully conversant with

volume II. The contents of these two volumes are at the

heart of the profession of arms for airmen. (Page v)

board. Capitalize board when it is part of a proper name: National Labor

Relations Board. Use board for generic references. See also

capitalization.

brackets. Use square brackets to enclose editorial interpolations within

quoted material (to clarify references and make corrections). They may

also function as parentheses within parentheses.

“In April [actually July] 1943 Jones published his first novel.”

Gen Charles Horner controlled coalition air assets during the Gulf War

(specifically, he was the joint force air component commander [JFACC]).

Brookings Institution

building names. Capitalize the names of governmental buildings, churches,

office buildings, hotels, and specially designated rooms: the Capitol

(state or national), Criminal Courts Building, First Presbyterian

Church, Empire State Building, Oak Room.

buildup (n.)

build up (v.)

bullets. See display dots.

11
bureau. Capitalize bureau when it is part of a proper name but not in reference

to a newspaper’s news bureau: Bureau of Indian Affairs, Newspaper

Advertising Bureau, the Washington bureau of the New York Times. See

also capitalization.

by-product

12
caliber (of weapons). Indicate the caliber of a gun either in whole numbers or

decimals, depending on the type: .38-caliber revolver, 9-mm automatic,

105-mm howitzer, 12-gauge shotgun.

capitalization. The modern tendency is to use as few capital letters as

possible. A guiding principle is to avoid capitalizing anytime you are

in doubt. The following conventions will help you decide whether

capital letters are appropriate.

Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles and titles

of nobility when they immediately precede someone’s name:

President Clinton General Kelley

Secretary of Defense Perry Sergeant Mann

Queen Caroline Professor Elliott

Cardinal Bernadin Colonel Allen

Capitalize titles associated with more than one person:

Generals Grant and Lee

Lowercase titles that follow someone’s name or that stand alone:

Bill Clinton, president the president

 of the United States

William Perry, secretary the secretary of defense

 of defense

Richard Shelby, senator the senator

 from Alabama

Gen Ronald R. Fogleman, the chief of staff

 Air Force chief of staff

Lt Gen Jay W. Kelley, the commander

 Air University commander

Lowercase titles used in apposition to a name:

Montgomery mayor Emory Folmar

Air Force general John M. Loh

Names of buildings, monuments, and so forth, are capitalized:

the White House the Eiffel Tower

the Israeli Embassy the Tomb of the Unknowns

Capitalize the full and (oftentimes) the shortened names of national

governmental and military bodies:

C

13
US Congress Congress

Department of Defense Defense Department,

 the department

Department of State State Department,

 the department

US Air Force Air Force

US Army Army

US Marine Corps Marine Corps, Marines

US Navy Navy

Montgomery City Council city council

Capitalize the full names of boards, committees, organizations, and

bureaus:

National Labor Relations Board

Committee on Foreign Affairs

Organization of American States

Bureau of Census

Veterans Administration

Do not capitalize shortened forms of the full titles for departments,

directorates, centers, and similar organizations:

Department of Labor the department

Directorate of Data Processing the directorate

Center for Strategic Studies the center

Special Plans Division the division

Air University Press the press

Publication Design Branch the branch

Capitalize the titles of treaties, laws, acts, bills, amendments, and

similar documents, but lowercase their shortened forms (see also acts,

amendments, bills, and laws):

Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces the treaty

 (INF) Treaty

Conventional Forces in Europe the treaty

 (CFE) Treaty

Treaty of Verdun the treaty

National Labor Relations Act the labor act, the act

First Amendment the amendment

 (to the US Constitution)

Capitalize the full names of judicial bodies; lowercase shortened

forms and adjective derivatives (see also Supreme Court):

California Supreme Court, state supreme court

Circuit Court of Calhoun County, county court, circuit court

traffic court, juvenile court

Capitalize the names of national and international organizations,

movements, alliances, and members of political parties, but do not

14
capitalize the words movement, platform, bloc, and so forth, as part of

organizational terms.

Bolshevik, Bolshevist, Bolshevik movement, Bolshevism, bolshevist (generic),

 bolshevism (generic)

Communist Party (or party), the party, Communist(s), Communist bloc,

 Communism, communist (generic), communism (generic)

Communist Party USA (CPUSA)

Common Market

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat, democracy, democrat (general advocate

 of democracy)

Eastern bloc

Fascist Party (or party), Fascist(s), fascist (generic), fascism (generic)

Federalist Party (or party), Federalist(s), federalist (generic)

Holy Alliance

Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist, marxism (generic), marxist (generic)

right wing, right-winger, leftist, the Right, the Left

Socialist Party (or party), socialism (generic), socialist (generic)

Capitalize the names of generally accepted historical or cultural

epochs:

Dark Ages

Jazz Age

Middle Ages

Reformation

Roaring Twenties

Capitalize the full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets,

regiments, battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the

words army, navy, air force, and so forth when they are not part of an

official title (except when they refer to US forces). Similarly,

capitalize the official names of foreign military forces, but lowercase

subsequent references to those forces:

Allied armies

Army of Northern Virginia

Axis powers

Continental army (American Revolution)

Eighth Air Force

Fifth Army, the Fifth, the army

1st Battalion, 178th Infantry; the battalion, the 178th

French foreign legion

Israeli Air Force, the air force

the 187th Fighter Group (Air National Guard), the group

People’s Liberation Army, Red China’s army, the army

Royal Air Force, British air force, the air force

Royal Navy, British navy, the navy

Royal Scots Fusiliers, the fusiliers

Seventh Fleet, the fleet

3d Infantry Division, the division, the infantry

Union army (American Civil War)

United States Army, the Army, the American Army, the armed forces

15
United States Coast Guard, the Coast Guard

United States Marine Corps, the Marine Corps, the US Marines, Fleet Marine Corps

United States Signal Corps, the Signal Corps

Capitalize the full titles of wars but lowercase the words war and

battle when used alone:

American Civil War, the Civil War, the war

American Revolution, the Revolution, the Revolutionary War

Battle (or battle) of Bunker Hill

Battle of the Bulge, the bulge

European theater of operations

Falklands War

Gulf War

Korean conflict

Korean War

Operation Overlord

Seven Years’ War

Spanish Civil War

Tet offensive

Vietnam War

western front (World War I)

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the war, the two world wars

World War II (or 2), the Second World War

Capitalize the names of medals and awards:

Distinguished Flying Cross

Medal of Honor, congressional medal

Purple Heart

Victoria Cross (but croix de guerre)

Capitalize but don’t italicize the designations of make, names of

planes, and names of space programs (see also italics):

Boeing 747 Project Apollo

Concorde Trident Missile

Nike U-boat

Don’t capitalize or italicize generic types of vessels, aircraft, and so

forth:

aircraft carrier

space shuttle

submarine

Capitalize the titles of official documents, regulations (now replaced

by instructions), directives, letters, standard forms, and shortened

forms of titles, but don’t capitalize common nouns that refer to them:

AFM 50-14, Drill and Ceremonies the manual

AFP 13-5, US Air Force Effective the pamphlet

 Writing Course

16
AFPD 10-8, Operations: Air Force the policy directive

Support to Civil Authorities

AFI 90-501, Criteria for Air Force the instruction

Assessments

Capitalize such words as empire, state, county, and so forth,

designating political divisions of the world, when they are part of a

proper name. Lowercase these terms when they are not part of a proper

name or when they stand alone:

Montgomery County, the county

11th Congressional District, the congressional district, the district

Fifth Ward, the ward

Indiana Territory, the territory of Indiana, the territory

New England states

New York City, the city of New York, the city

Roman Empire, the empire

Washington State, the state of Washington

the British colonies

Capitalize all principal words in titles and subheadings. See also

titles of works.

Capitalize proper names that designate parts of the world or specific

regions:

Central America North American continent

central Europe, but Central Europe North Pole

 (political division of World War I) the South, southerner,

the Continent (Europe), the European Southerner (Civil War context)

 continent Southern Hemisphere

the East, easterner, eastern seaboard South Pacific, southern Pacific

eastern Europe, but Eastern Europe the Southwest (US)

 (political division) tropic of Cancer

Far East West Coast

Far West western Europe, but Western

the Gulf, Persian Gulf region Europe (political division)

the North, northerner, Northerner Western world

 (Civil War context) Southeast Asia

North Africa, northern Africa

Lowercase the names of the four seasons (unless personified):

spring, summer, fall, winter

In April, Spring sends her showers to pierce the drought of March.

Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

DS 613— Strategic Force Employment, CL 6362—Air Staff Familiarization.

Capitalize registered trademark names:

Coca-Cola (but cola drink) Levi’s

Kleenex (but tissue) Ping-Pong (but table tennis)

Band-Aid Xerox

17
Capitalize signs, notices, and mottoes in text:

The company had a No Entrance sign at the gate.

The cry of the French Revolution was Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

See also mottoes.

caption. A caption, which is never a complete sentence, provides information about an illustration. Table titles are also captions. See also

legend.

Figure 50.-Restructuring Air Force Intelligence

CAS (close air support)

cease-fire (n., adj.)

centuries and decades. Spell out (in lowercase letters) references to

particular centuries: the eighth century, the twentieth century. Use

figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s.

See also numbers.

chapter. Lowercase chapter and spell it out in text. You may abbreviate

the word in parenthetical references (chap. 5). Use arabic figures for

chapter numbers, even if the chapter numbers in the work you are

citing are spelled out or in roman numerals. The same principle

holds true for other divisions of a book: part 1, section 3, book 7,

volume 2.

chief of naval operations

chief of staff. See capitalization.

choke point

CINC (commander in chief). See also capitalization.

citizen-soldier

civil service

clauses. See comma; that, which; which.

cold war

18
colon. Use a colon to indicate a break in a sentence of the same degree as

one indicated by a semicolon. The colon, however, also signals some

sort of relationship between the separated elements. The second

element, for example, may illustrate or amplify the first:

Music is more than a collection of notes: it conveys deep feelings and emotions.

You may use a colon to introduce a list or a series. If you use terms

such as namely, for example, or that is to introduce the list or series, do

not use a colon unless the list or series consists of one or more

complete clauses:

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period:

Byron, Shelly, and Keats.

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period,

namely, Byron, Shelly, and Keats.

Use a colon after the terms as follows or the following to enumerate

several items:

Test scores were as follows: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

The class made the following test scores: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

Use a capital letter after a colon when the following material

consists of more than one sentence or is a formal statement or

quotation:

He had two reasons for not attending the awards ceremony: First, he was shy.

Second, he had nothing appropriate to wear.

Beneath the surface, however, is the less tangible question of values: Are the

old truths true?

Do not use a colon between an element in the introductory

statement and its complement or object:

NOT

My three immediate goals are: to survive midyear exams, to get to Colorado,

and to ski until my legs wear out.

BUT

My three immediate goals are to survive midyear exams. . . .

NOT

His friend accused him of: wiggling in his seat, talking during the lecture, and

not remembering what was said.

BUT

His friend accused him of wiggling in his seat. . . .

19
Place a colon outside quotation marks:

Will had one objection to “Altarwise by Owl Light at the Halfway House”: it

was incomprehensible.

comma. Use a comma as follows:

• to set off nonrestrictive clauses—those you could omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

Ebeneezer Scrooge, who lived alone, refused to celebrate Christmas.

• after long introductory phrases:

After reading the letter from the manufacturer, Mary decided to sue the

company.

• before and or or in a series of three or more elements:

Thomas Hobbes said life in the Middle Ages was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,

and short.

• to set off addresses and place-names:

The harmless drudge lives at 108 Deerfield Drive, Troy, Alabama.

They moved from Paris, Texas, to Rome, Georgia, in 1987. (Note commas

before and after state name.)

• to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence:

Dr. Lopez criticized the report, and he asked the committee to revise it.

• to separate coordinate adjectives that modify the same noun:

Most people consider her a generous, outgoing person.

• to separate groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more

(except page numbers):

2,100

465,230

5,722,465

Do not use a comma in the following situations:

• to set off restrictive clauses—those you could not omit without

changing the meaning of the main clause:

The notion that all men are created equal was a radical one.

• after a short introductory phrase:

By April 1865 the Confederacy was clearly doomed.

20
• to set off the year in military date style:

They signed the order on 26 July 1947 in Washington.

• to separate compound predicates in a simple sentence:

Patsy graduated in May and went to work in June.

• to separate adjectives when the first modifies the combined idea

of the second plus the noun:

The estate is surrounded by an old stone wall.

The professor was a little old man.

• to set off a Jr., Sr., or a roman numeral from a name:

Adlai E. Stevenson III (but see bibliography)

Harry Connick Jr. plays piano and sings.

For more information on commas, see The Chicago Manual of Style

(14th ed.), paragraphs 5.29 through 5.88.

committee. See congressional committees and subcommittees.

Commonwealth of Independent States. Use this term to refer to the entity

whose members were part of the former Soviet Union. See also

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

communism. See capitalization.

communist. See capitalization.

Communist bloc. See capitalization.

Communist Party (or party). See capitalization.

compound words. There are three types of compound words: open (air

brake), solid (aircrew), and hyphenated (air-cooled). These words are

either permanent (found in the dictionary) or temporary (not found in

the dictionary). Use the dictionary’s spelling of permanent compounds.

For help in spelling temporary noun and adjective compounds, refer to

table 6.1, “Spelling Guide for Compound Words and Words with

Prefixes and Suffixes,” in The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). If

the examples there do not pertain to the temporary compound in

question, spell it open (e.g., war fighter). For more help in spelling

temporary noun compounds, together with temporary verb, adverb, and

21
adjective compounds, refer to “The Writing of Compounds” in

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged.

Words formed with prefixes like non-, pre-, and re- are usually

spelled solid: nonnuclear, prearrange, reenlist.

Words with the suffix -like are often used to form new compounds

and are generally spelled solid: childlike, businesslike, lifelike; but

bull-like, Faulkner-like.

Words combined with the suffix -fold are spelled solid unless they

are formed with figures: threefold, multifold, 20-fold.

A few noun compounds are always spelled open: those beginning

with relationship words, such as Mother Nature, fellow traveler, sister

ship, parent company, and most compounds ending with general, such

as attorney general, adjutant general, and comptroller general (but

governor-general).

Adjective compounds consisting of adverbs ending in -ly plus

participle or adjective are left open: poorly written story, rapidly

developing area. Compounds formed from unhyphenated proper names

are left open: Methodist Episcopal Church, Southeast Asian country.

Chemical names are open: carbon monoxide poisoning, hydrochloric

acid bottle. Words naming colors are open: sea green gown, grayish

blue car. See also hyphenated compound words.

Congress. Always capitalize Congress when you are referring to the US

Congress.

congressional. Lowercase congressional except when it is part of a title or

office: Congressional Record, Congressional Budget Office, congressional district.

congressional committees and subcommittees. Capitalize committee or

subcommittee when the words are part of a full title: Committee on

Foreign Affairs, the committee; Subcommittee on Energy and the

Environment, the subcommittee.

congressman, congresswoman. Lowercase congressman and congresswoman except when they precede a person’s name. Capitalize senator

and representative when they precede a person’s name: Congresswoman Lowey, the congresswoman from New York; Senator Shelby,

the senator from Alabama. See also abbreviations.

constitutional amendments. Capitalize the full titles of amendments to the

US Constitution: Fifth Amendment, 18th Amendment, the amendment.

See also acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

22
copyright. See appendix C.

cost-effective (adj.)

cost-effectiveness (n.)

counter-. Compound words with the prefix counter- are usually spelled

solid: counterair, countermeasure, counterblow, counterclockwise. See

also compound words.

countries. Spell out the names of countries in text. See also abbreviations;

United States; US; USSR.

court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

coworkers

credit line. See illustration; legend.

crew member

cross-train (v.)

Cuban missile crisis

currency. See money; numbers.

23
dangling modifier. A verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence dangles

when the word it should modify is not present:

Running along the street, my nose felt frozen.

Here, running along the street seems to modify nose. Correct this

problem by adding a word that the verbal phrase can logically modify:

Running along the street, I felt as if my nose were frozen.

dash. The dashes most commonly used are the em dash (sometimes typed as

two hyphens) and the en dash (sometimes typed as a hyphen).

Use an em dash or a pair of em dashes to indicate a sudden break or

abrupt change in thought:

My world and the real world—what a contrast!

He asked—no demanded—that the door be opened.

to set off interrupting or clarifying elements:

These are shore deposits—gravel, sand, and clay—but marine deposits underlie

them.

to introduce a final statement that summarizes a series of ideas:

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom from

fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.

to set off a word or phrase in the main clause that emphasizes or

explains:

George worked several days on the system—a system that was designed to

increase production in the department.

If text set off by a pair of dashes requires a question mark or

exclamation point, place it before the second dash:

Suddenly, Richard—had he lost his senses?—threw his plate across the room.

Do not use more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

The en dash is one-half the length of an em dash and is longer than a

hyphen. Use an en dash to connect continuing or inclusive numbers

D

25
such as dates, time, or reference numbers: 1957–63, February–March

1971, pages 12–15.

The en dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective,

one element of which consists of two words or a hyphenated word: New

York–London flight; Air Force–wide changes; quasi-public–quasi-judicial

body.

data. You may consider data singular or plural. Choose one, and use it

consistently throughout your text. Be sure that verbs and qualifiers

agree with the number that you choose:

The data is now in, but we have not examined much of it.

The data are now in, but we have not examined many of them.

database

dates. Write exact dates in day-month-year sequence without internal

punctuation: 11 March 1950. See also numbers.

daytime

D.C. (District of Columbia)

D day

decades. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s

and 1890s. Spell out or use figures and apostrophes for references to

particular decades: the eighties, the ‘80s. See also numbers.

decision maker (n.)

decision making (n.)

decision-making (adj.)

de-emphasize

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party),

democracy. See also capitalization.

department. See capitalization.

directions (north, south, east, west, etc.). See capitalization.

director, directorate. See capitalization.

26
direct quotations. Certain rules apply when you quote directly from the

work of other writers. You should credit your source by identifying it

in an endnote. If you quote at length from a copyrighted work, you

should obtain written permission from the holder of the copyright.

Reproduce the passage verbatim, including original spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation, with the following exceptions:

1.-You may change single quotation marks to double quotation

marks and vice versa, if necessary.

2.-You may change the initial letter to a capital or lowercase letter.

3.-You may omit the final period or change it to a comma, and

you may omit punctuation marks where you insert ellipsis points.

4.-You should usually omit original note-reference marks in a

short quotation from a scholarly work. You may insert note

references of your own within quotations.

5.-You may correct an obvious typographical error in a passage quoted

from a modern source, but you should usually preserve idiosyncratic

spellings in a passage from an older work or manuscript source unless

doing so would impair clarity. You should inform the reader of

any such alterations, usually in a note.

See also notes; plagiarism; quotations.

display dots. Display dots are typographical devices used to emphasize

specific items; they are not organizational devices used to subordinate

textual elements. Use them when one item is not more important than

the others or when the items do not show a sequence. Your entries may

be either complete or incomplete sentences but should be parallel in

grammatical structure. Generally each entry should be no longer than

two or three sentences. Since display dots are used primarily for

emphasis, you should use them sparingly, and keep the information

they set off as short as possible. Indent each entry, and align run-over

lines with the first word after the dot. The following examples show

the acceptable use of display dots:

A special court-martial tries intermediate noncapital offenses. It may be

convened by any of the following:

•-Any person who may convene a general court-martial.

•-A commander empowered by the secretary of the Air Force unless

otherwise directed.

•-A commander of a wing, group, or separate squadron of the Air Force

unless otherwise directed.

27
Specifically, the Office of Antiterrorism is charged with the following

measures:

•-Helping the newly formed Air Force Antiterrorism Council keep pace

with related developments. Members of the council include senior

officers of various deputy and assistant chiefs of staff, the Office of

Security Police, the Office of the Judge Advocate General, and other

agencies.

•-Developing policy and guidance concerning security measures and

precautions.

•-Monitoring terrorist trends and providing information on such matters to

interested agencies and commands.

The Camp David accords provide a process to facilitate the implementation of

Resolution 242:

•-a five-year transitional period for the West Bank and Gaza, providing full

autonomy to the inhabitants;

•-negotiations on the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and on a peace

treaty between Jordan and Israel, to begin no later than three years into

the transitional period;

•-a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt; and

•-principles for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighboring

states.

The following engineering data support centers have been established:

•-The Cryptologic Equipment Engineering Data Support Center

•-The Nuclear Ordnance Engineering Data Support Center

•-The Aerospace Guidance and Metrological Engineering Data Support

Center

•-Communications-Electronics Engineering Data Support Center

In classified reports, material emphasized by display dots is considered part of the paragraph that introduced it, not as a separate

paragraph.

District of Columbia (D.C.)

division. See capitalization.

doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy

directives. On first usage, spell out the name of the publication and

include the abbreviation in parentheses; you may then refer to the

publication by abbreviation and number. Italicize the title of the

publication: Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60, Training and

Education, AFDD 60; Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501, Criteria for

Air Force Assessments, AFI 90-501; Air Force Manual (AFM) 10-41,

28
Operation Plan and Concept Plan Development, AFM 10-41; Army

Field Manual (FM) 27-10, Law of Land Warfare, FM 27-10; Air Force

Pamphlet (AFP) 36-2705, Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, AFP

36-2705; Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-4, Personnel: Air Force

Civilian Training and Education, AFPD 36-4.

documentation. See bibliography; notes.

DOD (Department of Defense)

dollars. See money; numbers.

Dr. (doctor). Use a period with the abbreviation. See also Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms.

29
earth. Lowercase earth except when you refer to it as one of the bodies in

the solar system. The same principle applies to sun and moon. In this

context, use the with sun and moon but not with earth: Mars has a

diameter halfway between those of the Moon and Earth.

earth satellites. Use arabic numerals in designations of artificial satellites:

Skylab 2, Voyager 2. Earlier spacecraft used roman numerals: Gemini

II. See also spacecraft.

earth station

East Berlin, East Germany. Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

e.g. (for example). Avoid using e.g. in text; use for example instead. Use

the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical

references or tabular matter.

ellipses. Ellipses (or ellipsis points [dots]) indicate the omission of a word,

phrase, line, or paragraph from within a quoted passage. Ellipsis points

come in threes; are set on the line like periods; and are separated from

each other, from the text, and from any contiguous punctuation by one

space.

Use three ellipsis points to indicate an omission in the middle of a

quoted sentence: “The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor . . .

has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.”

Indicate the omission of the last part of a sentence by a period and

three ellipsis points. Leave no space between the period and the

preceding word: “The Soviets also have research programs under way

on kinetic energy weapons. . . . These programs have been highly

successful.” If the sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation

point, retain that punctuation and follow it with three ellipsis points:

“What is the major strength of the Soviet space program? . . . ”

Remember that ellipsis points are seldom used at the beginning or end

of a quoted passage.

Indicate the omission of one or more paragraphs in a long block

quotation by three ellipsis points following the period at the end of the

paragraph preceding the omitted paragraph. If a paragraph in the block

quotation—other than the first paragraph—begins with a sentence that

does not open the paragraph in the original, it should be preceded by

three ellipsis points:

E

31
Such a tremendous increase in capability exceeds their future civil and

scientific requirements. The gap between what we perceive to be Soviet

launch requirements and launch capabilities is of great concern to us. . . .

. . . this system will expand the current US ICBM field coverage to

include US submarine-launched ballistic missiles. . . .

When you replace part of a quoted passage with different wording,

enclose the new term(s) with square brackets, but do not use ellipsis

points to show that the original wording has been omitted:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor deployed around

Moscow has an inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] deployed around Moscow has an

inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

However, if bracketed material is contiguous to ellipsis points which

show that part of a quoted passage has been omitted (and not replaced

with different wording), retain the ellipsis points:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] . . . has an inherent ASAT

capability against low-altitude satellites.

Do not use ellipsis points if the quotation begins with an incomplete

sentence that completes a sentence in the text:

For example, we now know that the Soviets “are currently producing about

50 SL-4/SL-6-type vehicles each year—a rate of nearly one a week.”

Do not use ellipsis points if the quotation begins with an incomplete

sentence that does not complete the sentence in the text:

The manned space program is the centerpiece of the Soviet space effort:

“[Establishment] of a continuous cosmonaut presence in near-earth orbit is only the

latest of many impressive feats.”

See also brackets.

E-mail (n., v.)

emphasis. See italics.

empire. See capitalization.

endgame

endnotes. See notes.

en masse

en route

32
ensure. To make sure or certain, guarantee. See also insure.

entitle, title (v.). These terms are used interchangeably in the sense of

designating or calling by a title: A book entitled Roderick Random was

on the list of required readings.

EO (executive order). Lowercase executive order and spell it out when the

number of the order is not given. Always capitalize the term when you

use it with the number, but abbreviate with the number only after you

spell it out on first reference: Executive Order (EO) 1654, EO 1654,

the executive order.

epigraph. You may include an epigraph—a pertinent quotation—at the

head of a chapter. Do not enclose it in quotation marks. You may set

the epigraph in italics in the same size type as the text or in roman a

size smaller. Identify the source of the quotation on the following line.

Cite only the author’s name (sometimes preceded by a dash) and

usually the title of the work. If the author is well known, you may cite

the last name only. Do not footnote an epigraph.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen

and philosophers and divines.

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Essays, First Series: Self-Reliance

et al. (and others). When you cite a work by more than three authors, give

the full name of the first author listed, followed by et al.:

 1. Jaroslav Pelikan et al., Religion and the University, York University

Invitation Lecture Series (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 109.

etc. (et cetera, and so forth). Formal, scholarly writing discourages the use

of etc. in text, restricting it to lists, tables, and parenthetical

references. Such usage requires that etc. and phrases such as and

so forth be set off by commas.

exercises. Capitalize only the initial letter(s) of the name of the exercise

unless the name is an acronym: Desert Strike, REFORGER (return of

forces to Germany). See also operations.

33
fact-finding (n., adj.)

federal, federal government

feedback

field test (n.)

field-test (v.)

fighter-bomber

figures. See numbers or illustration, as applicable.

firearm; firebomb (n., v.); firepower

first, firstly. When you enumerate points in textual material, use firstly,

secondly, and so forth, or first, second, and so forth. Do not mix the

two: first, secondly.

first person. See I, we.

flight crew

flight line (n.)

flight-line (adj.)

flight path

floor leader. Lowercase floor leader, whether preceding or following the

name:

the Republican floor leader, Hugh L. Brown

Rep. Hugh L. Brown, the Republican floor leader

follow-on (n., adj.)

follow-up (n., adj.)

follow up (v.)

F

35
footnotes. See notes.

force mix (n.)

foreign military services. See capitalization.

foreign terms. See italics.

foreword. The foreword (not forward) is part of the front matter of a book,

appearing before the preface. It is usually two to four pages long and is

written by someone other than the author of the book. The name of the

person who wrote the foreword appears at the end of the foreword. See

also front matter.

forms (titles of). See italics.

fort. Spell out and capitalize fort when it is part of a proper name: Fort

Hood.

fractions. See numbers.

free world or Free World

frequencies. See abbreviations.

front line (n.)

frontline (adj.)

front matter. Elements preceding the main text of a book are front matter

or preliminaries. In order, they include the title page, copyright notice,

dedication, table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables,

foreword, preface, acknowledgments (if not part of preface), and

introduction (if not part of text). Use lowercase roman numerals to

number the preliminary pages of the manuscript.

full time (n.)

full-time (adj., adv.)

FY (fiscal year)

36
Gadhafi, Mu’ammar

general (military rank). See abbreviations; capitalization; military titles

and offices.

G force, G suit, G turns

glossary. Include a glossary if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical

terms in your text. Arrange the words, abbreviations, or acronyms and

their definitions in alphabetical order, and place the glossary before the

bibliography. See also back matter.

GO (general order). Lowercase general order and spell it out when you are

referring in general to the official numbered and dated publication.

Capitalize the term when you use it with the number, but abbreviate

with the number only after you spell it out on first reference: General

Order (GO) 6-325, GO 6-325, the general order.

government, federal government, US government

group. Capitalize group when you use it as part of a proper name: 42d

Medical Group, the group.

Gulf War. See also capitalization; Persian Gulf War.

guns. See caliber (of weapons).

G

37
half-. Most adjective compounds with half are hyphenated; a few are closed:

half-cocked, half-blooded, half-witted, halfhearted, halfway. See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

half century

he, him, his. See sexist language.

headings. See subheadings.

headquarters. Spell out and capitalize headquarters when you refer to Air

Force headquarters and headquarters of major commands: Headquarters

USAF, Headquarters ACC, but the headquarters.

HF (high frequency)

high-. Most adjective compounds with high are hyphenated before the noun. After

the noun, you may write them open, unless ambiguity would result; some

compounds with high are closed: high-level meeting, highbrow, highfalutin,

highland. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

highway. Capitalize highway in proper names, but lowercase the shortened

form: Alcan Highway, the highway. Use arabic numerals to designate

state, federal, and interstate highways: Interstate 85, Alabama 41.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

house. Capitalize house when you refer to the House of Representatives, in

full or shortened form: the House. Lowercase house in other contexts:

the lower house of Congress.

hundreds. See numbers.

hyphen. Use a hyphen when you must divide a word at the end of a line

and in some compound words. See also hyphenated compound

words; word division.

hyphenated compound words. Hyphenated compounds are words joined by

a hyphen or hyphens, such as many-sided, ill-fated, and mother-in-law.

There is no all-inclusive rule for hyphenation of compound words. If

you are not sure about the way a particular compound is written, look

it up in the dictionary or The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.), table

6.1, “Spelling Guide for Compound Words and Words with Prefixes and

H

39
Suffixes,” or refer to “The Writing of Compounds” in Webster’s Third

New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged.

The following are a few general principles:

Use a hyphen to prevent ambiguity. For example, slow moving van could

mean a moving van that is slow (no hyphen necessary) or a van that is

moving slowly: slow-moving van. Although adjective compounds

traditionally are hyphenated before the noun they modify and are written

open after the noun, you may omit the hyphen in all cases if there is no

chance of ambiguity or misreading: smoke filled room, red hot iron. This

principle holds true even if the compound is hyphenated in the dictionary.

Do not hyphenate an adjective compound consisting of an adverb ending in

-ly plus participle or adjective (highly developed organism).

Hyphenate adjective compounds beginning with well, ill, better, best,

little, lesser, and least when they precede the noun, and leave them open

after the noun: well-dressed man (but the man is well dressed);

best-known work (but the work is best known); ill-advised action (but the

action is ill advised). Leave such compounds open when they are

modified by an adverb: very well dressed man. If you enclose an adjective

compound that you would normally hyphenate in quotation marks, you

may omit the hyphen: “well dressed” man. See also well.

Measurement compounds are also hyphenated: six-inch-wide board,

three-mile limit, 24-gallon tank. If you abbreviate the unit of measure,

omit the hyphen: 24 gal tank.

Compounds consisting of numerals and the word percent are left

open: 25 percent decrease.

Hyphenate when the second element of a compound is capitalized

or is a number: pre–World War II events, post-1980 developments.

Hyphenate when spelling the word solid creates a homonym, as in

re-mark (mark again) versus remark (say).

Hyphenate some compounds in which the last letter of the prefix is

the same as the first letter of the word following: anti-intellectual,

anti-inflammatory.

Use a “suspension” hyphen to carry the force of a modifier to a later

noun: second- or third-rate powers; second-, third-, and fourth-grade

students.

Some noun compounds are always hyphenated: relative words with

great and in-law, such as great-uncle, great-great-grandmother,

sister-in-law; noun plus noun, expressing two different but equally

important functions, such as secretary-treasurer; two-word compounds

ending in elect, such as governor-elect (but probate judge elect); some

multiple-word compounds including a preposition and describing someone

or something, such as jack-of-all-trades (but flash in the pan). Some

permanent compounds beginning with vice are hyphenated, such as

vice-chancellor, but not vice admiral or vice president or viceroy. See also

vice-.

40
Do not hyphenate capitalized geographical terms used as adjectives:

Southeast Asian country, Mobile Bay cruise. See also compound words;

titles of works.

41
I, we. You may use these pronouns occasionally in the text rather than the

formal “the author(s).”

ibid. See notes.

i.e. (that is). Avoid using i.e. in text; use that is instead. Use the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in parenthetical references or

tabular matter.

ill-. See hyphenated compound words.

illustration. An illustration (figure) may be a chart, map, line drawing,

photograph, painting, or graph. Tables are not considered illustrations.

See also tables.

Number your illustrations consecutively throughout the text, and

refer to them by their numbers, either parenthetically (fig. 8) or as part

of the text:

The totals shown in figure 3 are rounded off to the nearest dollar.

If each chapter in a book is written by a different author, the

numbering of figures restarts with each new chapter. For precise

identification of figures, you may wish to use a combination of chapter

number, a period, and figure number: 2.1, 2.2., 2.3, and so forth.

If the illustration is not your own, identify the source with a credit

line, either at the end of the legend or caption, usually in parentheses,

or parallel to the lower edge of the illustration (see legend). Before

using an illustration from a copyrighted source, obtain a formal

(written) release from the copyright owner. See also caption;

copyright; legend; tables.

important, importantly. You may use either important or importantly as a

sentence modifier:

The truth is evident; more important, it will prevail.

The truth is evident; more importantly, it will prevail.

Choose one, and use it consistently.

inbrief (v.)

inbriefing (n., v.)

I

43
in-depth (adj., adv.)

index. An index helps your reader find details about particular subjects.

Meaningful entries direct the reader to pertinent references in the

text—not just to passing remarks. Consult chapter 17 of The Chicago

Manual of Style (14th ed.) for preparation of an index.

insure. Often synonymous with ensure (i.e., to make certain by taking

necessary measures and precautions). Insure also carries the distinctive

sense of providing or obtaining insurance. See also ensure.

inter-. The prefix inter- nearly always occurs in solid compounds: interrelated,

interaction, international. Hyphenate such compounds when the second

element is capitalized: inter-American. See also compound words;

hyphenated compound words.

international date line

Internet (the global network of computers)

in-theater (adj., adv.)

iron curtain. This term is often capitalized (Iron Curtain) when it refers to a

barrier that isolates an area under Soviet control.

it. Use it to refer to inanimate objects and some living things; you may also

use the term in impersonal statements and in idioms:

The couple bought a house but did not like it.

The newborn baby kept its eyes shut tightly.

It has been three hours since it began to rain.

We will have to play it by ear.

Using it rather than a personal pronoun in some instances, however,

can make your writing stilted: it is believed instead of I believe.

italics. Italicize titles and subtitles of published books, periodicals,

pamphlets, manuals, proceedings and collections, newspapers, and

sections of newspapers published separately (The Art of War, Fortune

500, etc.). If you are marking a manuscript by hand, use underlining to

indicate italics.

Italicize titles of motion pictures, continuing television and radio

series, long poems and musical compositions, and plays. Put titles of

TV shows, songs, and radio programs in roman type and enclose them

in quotation marks:

44
Casablanca Handel’s Messiah

public television’s Masterpiece Theater Seinfeld

radio’s The Green Hornet “In the Mood”

Paradise Lost radio’s “Christmas ‘96 at the

 Kennedy Center”

If you use the names of newspapers, titles of books, or other

italicized names in the plural, set the ending in roman type: There were

five Journals and two Tribunes on the shelf.

Punctuation marks should be in the same style or font of type as the

word, letter, character, or symbol immediately preceding them, as is

the case with the following question mark, semicolon, and colon:

What is meant by random selection?

Luke 4:16a;

Point: one-twelfth of a pica

A question mark or exclamation point that immediately follows an

italicized title and that is not part of the title should be set in roman to

avoid misreading:

When did she write Together Again?

but

After she wrote What Next?

Parentheses and brackets that enclose italicized text may also be set in

italics:

[continued]

(An exception is [sic].) However, if only one end of the enclosed text

is italicized, the parentheses or brackets should be roman:

(he objected to the term handicapped)

Italicize the proper names of specific ships and submarines but not the

accompanying abbreviations SS or HMS: HMS Shannon, SS United

States, CSS Alabama, Kiev-class submarine. Capitalize but do not

italicize make of aircraft and ships and names of space programs: Boeing

707, Project Apollo, ICBM, U-boat, DC-3. See also aircraft; spacecraft.

Do not italicize titles of forms or put them in quotation marks.

Instead, capitalize the main words: AF Form 673, Request to Issue

Publication; AU Form 107, Request for Loan.

Italicize terms singled out as terms and words referred to as words

(see also quotation marks):

The standard meaning of the term leftist is an adherent of the left wing of a

party or movement.

Gladys cringed whenever anyone said ain’t.

45
Italicize terms from languages other than English: Leutnant, sic transit

gloria mundi, aux armes. However, if foreign terms are included in the main

listing of a standard English dictionary, do not italicize them: weltschmerz,

schadenfreude, ad hoc, fin de siècle, blitzkrieg, détente, déjà vu, perestroika,

raison d’être, vis-à-vis.

Isolated foreign proper nouns are not italicized, even when cited as

foreign terms:

Moscow (in Russian, Moskva) has been the capital of the Russian national state

since the late fourteenth century.

Italicize the names of legal cases; v. (versus) may be roman or italic

(but be consistent):

Brown v. Board of Education

King v. City of Los Angeles

Italicize the shortened case name:

Miranda or the Miranda case.

You may occasionally use italics (not boldface) to emphasize a

point:

Effective intelligence is essential to military operations.

This device should be used sparingly. If your text is well written, the

reader should have no problem determining what you consider

important.

If you use italics to emphasize a word or words in a quotation,

indicate that you have done so by adding a phrase such as “emphasis

added” or “italics added” in parentheses following the quotation, as in

this block quotation:

Today we know that in wartime, even in a conventional war

of limited duration, the two superpowers would fight a

battle of attrition in space until one side or other had

wrested control. And the winner would use the surviving

space system to decide the contests on land and sea.

(Emphasis added)7

Similarly, you may use an appropriate phrase to show that an

italicized part of a quotation is not your doing but appears in the

original, as in this run-in quotation:

Gen Muir S. Fairchild noted that “each nation differs from

all other nations, not only in its degree of vulnerability to

air attack, but also in the kind of vulnerability” (emphasis in

original).21

46
In a quotation with a mixture of original and added italics, use

bracketed phrases immediately following the italicized passages to

differentiate between them:

Whether the means of protecting satellites will be adequate

to ensure the survivability [emphasis added] of particular

space-based BMD systems will depend in part on the kinds

of systems deployed and in part on future Soviet

antisatellite capabilities. Insufficient information is now

available to resolve the survivability question [emphasis in

original].24

47
JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff). Capitalize Joint Chiefs of Staff as an official

title, but use joint chiefs as the shortened form. See also capitalization.

jeep. Lowercase jeep when you are referring to a military vehicle.

Capitalize the word when you are referring to the trademark of the

civilian vehicle.

JFACC (joint force air component commander)

journals. Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize the

full title: Journal of Political and Military Sociology. See also italics;

titles of works.

Jr. Use a period with Jr.; do not set it off with commas. See also comma.

James Adair Jr.

JSTARS (joint surveillance, target attack radar system).

judicial branch. See capitalization.

J

49
-keeper. Compound words that end with -keeper are usually written solid:

bookkeeper, scorekeeper, timekeeper, hotelkeeper; but tollgate keeper.

See also compound words.

Korean conflict

Korean War

K

51
landmass

land power

latitude, longitude. Spell out latitude and longitude in text or standing alone:

longitude 80 degrees east; the polar latitudes, from 20° 50+ north latitude

to 20° 50+ south latitude. In tables you may abbreviate as follows:

lat. 41°15+40′′ N

long. 90°18+30′′ W

laws. See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

legal cases. See italics.

legend. An explanation of the material contained in an illustration (figure) is

called a legend, which consists of one or more complete sentences.

Technically, if the explanation is not a complete sentence, it is a caption

(see also caption). You may use a mixture of legends and captions to

identify your figures. The legend follows the figure number on a line

parallel to the bottom line of the illustration. When you use a legend

(complete sentence[s]), place a period at the end. When you use a caption,

you may use headline-style capitalization or sentence-style capitalization.

See also titles of works. Do not use a period at the end, unless you run a

caption and legend together.

Figure 1.-Carrier Air Wing. As the Air Force assembles composite wings, it

would do well to study how the Navy operates its carrier air wings. The

composite nature of the carrier air wing is evident from this deck photo of

the USS Theodore Roosevelt and its complement of aircraft.

Figure 2.-System Flowchart Applied to Mission Accomplishment

If the illustration is not your own, identify the source with a credit

line at the end of the legend, in parentheses, or you may run it parallel

to the lower edge of the illustration:

Source:-Maj Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World

Order,” Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 (Fall 1992): 51.

Figure 3.-Competitive effects on general and administrative costs

OR

Figure 3.-Competitive effects on general and administrative costs (From Maj

Paul G. Hough, “Financial Management for the New World Order,” Airpower

Journal 6, no. 3 [Fall 1992]: 51)

L

53
If you use such words as left, right, top, bottom, or left to right to

identify individual subjects within the illustration, put them in italics,

preceding the subjects they identify. See also caption.

Figure 1.-Left to right: George Jones, Henry Johnson, and John Hopkins.

Figure 3.-Upper left, B-1; upper right, F-15; lower left, C-5; center, XV-3;

lower right, XV-15.

If your table of contents includes a list of illustrations, do not simply

reprint the captions and legends as they appear in the text. A short

caption is appropriate for your list, but you should shorten long

captions and legends.

legislative bodies, legislative branch. See capitalization.

LF (low frequency)

LGB (laser-guided bomb)

LIC (low intensity conflict)

lists. You may run lists into the text or set them apart in a vertical

enumeration. Use arabic numerals in both styles.

For a run-in enumeration, enclose the numbers in parentheses

without a period. Use a comma to separate items in a simple series if

there is little or no punctuation within the items; otherwise, use a

semicolon:

Plain English standards are (1) present material in a logical, orderly sequence,

(2) write in a clear, uncluttered style, and (3) write in active voice.

Note that the items in the series should be grammatically parallel.

For a vertical enumeration, use numbers without parentheses but

follow with a period. If each element in the list is a complete sentence,

use a period at the end of each. Set the list flush with the text or indent.

Align runover lines with the first word after the numeral.

 The following steps increase your effectiveness as a communicator:

 1.-Use English that is alive.

 2.-Analyze the purpose and audience, taking care to select a subject that will

 - be of interest to the audience.

 3.-Conduct the research.

 4.-Support your ideas.

You may put in vertical form a list that completes a sentence begun

in an introductory element; punctuate it as if it had been a continuous

part of the sentence:

54
The loan office told Richard to

1.-fill out the application forms,

2.-make a copy for himself, and

3.-return all paperwork in one week.

Or you may omit the punctuation after all such items:

The five categories of research sources are

1.-abstracts of student papers

2.-Air Force sources

3.-DOD sources

4.-periodicals

5.-other sources

Be consistent throughout the document.

LOC (lines of communications)

localities and regions. Capitalize the popular names of specific localities

and regions: East Side, Sun Belt, Twin Cities. See also capitalization.

loc. cit. (loco citato). In the place cited. Use a shortened reference instead.

See notes.

logistic or logistical (adj.)

logistics (n.). Logistics may take a singular or plural verb. Choose one, and

be consistent.

long term (n.).

long-term (adj.).

Luftwaffe. No italics.

55
magazine titles. See italics.

man-. Compound words with man- are solid, hyphenated, and open:

mankind, man-hour(s), man jack. See also compound words;

hyphenated compound words; sexist language; work hour(s).

man-hour(s) (n.). See also sexist language; work hour(s).

Marine Corps, Marine(s), marine. Capitalize marine(s) as a synonym for

the US Marine Corps: Jim enlisted in the Marines; a Marine landing;

but three marines, a company of marines. Shortened title: Marine

Corps, but the corps. As a guide to capitalization, apply the following

test: If the word soldier or soldiers would fit logically in place of

marine or marines, use m. If Army, Navy, or Air Force can be substituted logically for Marines, use M.

Marshall Plan, the plan

master’s degree. Also Master of Arts, Master of Science. See also

academic degrees and titles.

material, materiel. Material refers to any matter or substance from which

something is made. Materiel refers more specifically to apparatus or

equipment (e.g., military supplies).

measurements. If you use an abbreviation for the unit of measure, always

express the quantity by a figure:

-3 mi 50 lb

55 MPH 35 mm film

See also abbreviations; hyphenated compound words; numbers.

medals. Capitalize specific names of medals and awards:

Medal of Honor; congressional medal

Distinguished Flying Cross

Legion of Merit

See also capitalization.

M

57
media. The plural of medium. Use with a plural verb. Although the term is

used in the singular in references to agencies of mass communications, that usage is not well established. See also data.

Messrs., Mmes. Messrs. is the plural of Mr.; use a period: Messrs. Jones,

Brown, and Robinson. Mmes is the plural of madam or madame or

Mrs.; no period: Mmes Banker, Moore, Richards, and McCormack.

microcomputer

mid-. Adjective compounds with mid- are usually spelled solid, unless the

second element begins with a capital letter: midair collision, midAtlantic tempest. Noun compounds with mid- are usually solid; if the

second word is a proper noun, the compound may be open or hyphenated:

midsummer, mid Atlantic, mid-Victorian. See also compound words;

hyphenated compound words.

Middle Ages

MiG(s). Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by the

design bureau of Gen Artem Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail Gurevich.

military establishment

military-industrial complex

military rank. See military titles and offices.

military terms. Capitalize full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets,

regiments, battalions, companies, corps, and so forth. Lowercase the

words army, navy, air force, and so forth, standing alone or when they

are not part of an official title (except when they refer to US forces):

When questioned about a separate air force, the general saw it as a matter for

the Army to decide.

See also capitalization.

military time. Time measured in hours numbered zero to 23 (as 0100, 0800,

1600, 2300), from one midnight to the next; midnight is 0000, not

2400. No internal punctuation. See also numbers.

military titles and offices. Capitalize and abbreviate titles that precede full

names; capitalize and spell out titles that precede surnames only.

58
Lowercase and spell out titles following a personal name or used alone

in place of a name:

Gen Ulysses S. Grant, commander in chief of the Union army; General Grant;

the commander in chief; the general

Gen Curtis E. LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command; General LeMay;

the general

But General of the Army Douglas MacArthur; Douglas MacArthur, general of

the Army; General MacArthur; the general

Sgt Phyllis Forsman; a noncommissioned officer (NCO); Sergeant Forsman; the

sergeant

Chester W. Nimitz, fleet admiral; Admiral Nimitz, commander of the Pacific

Fleet; the admiral

Col (Brig Gen–select) Peter D. Haynes

Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery (but Army generals Patton and Bradley)

See also abbreviations; capitalization.

military units.

Air Force units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to and

including air divisions (now defunct). Spell out the names of numbered

air forces:

2d Aircraft Delivery Group

31st Combat Support Group

22d Fighter Wing

834th Air Division

Twenty-third Air Force

Army units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to and

including divisions. Write corps names with roman numerals, and

designate Army groups with arabic numerals. Spell out the names of

numbered armies:

2d Armored Cavalry Regiment

210th Field Artillery Brigade

82d Airborne Division

XVIII Airborne Corps

3d Army Group

First Army

Navy units. Use arabic numerals to designate the number of task

forces; spell out fleet numbers:

Task Force 58

Fifth Fleet

Marine Corps units. Use the same designations as Army units.

militia (sing.), militias (pl.)

mind-set

59
minelayer (n.)

mine laying (n.)

mine-laying (adj.)

minesweeper (n.)

minesweeping (n., adj.)

MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) (n.,v.).

MIRVed, MIRVing.

missileman

MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research

Corporation)

MOA (memorandum of agreement)

money. Use a dollar sign and numerals to express large sums of money:

Both companies agreed on a price of $2 million. See also numbers.

moon. See earth.

mottoes. You may enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks,

capitalize them as if they were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

“A penny saved is a penny earned” was his favorite maxim.

The flag bore the motto Don’t Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto All for one and one for all.

MOU (memorandum of understanding)

MPH. See abbreviations.

Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms. Use a period with all except Mme. Spell out “Mister”

when it connotes military rank: Mister Roberts. See also Messrs., Mmes.

multi-. Words with the prefix multi- are usually written solid: multibreak,

multicylinder, multiengine. See also compound words.

60
naval forces. Lowercase naval forces, but use Navy forces when you refer

to the US Navy.

naval station. Capitalize naval station only in proper names: Norfolk Naval

Station, the naval station, the station. Use Navy station when you refer

to the US Navy.

Navy. Capitalize Navy when you refer to the US Navy. For foreign naval

forces, see capitalization.

NCA (National Command Authorities)

near real time (n.)

near-real-time (adj.)

near term (n.)

near-term (adj.)

Negro, Negroes. Use black(s) or Black(s), African-American(s), and

Afro-American(s). Use of Negro(es) is appropriate in certain historical

citations: “In October 1940, the War Department announced . . . that

Negro Aviation Units would be organized as soon as the necessary

personnel were trained.”

news maker

newspapers. Italicize the names of newspapers: Christian Science Monitor,

Chicago Sun-Times. In text, lowercase the and set it in roman type:

John read the Wall Street Journal religiously. Omit the definite article

in note references to newspapers. See also italics.

nicknames. Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when you place it

within the full name:

George Herman “Babe” Ruth

When you use a nickname as part of or in place of a personal name,

omit the quotation marks:

Stonewall Jackson

the Iron Duke

N

61
nighttime

no. Use a period after the abbreviation for number.

non-. Words prefixed by non- are usually written solid: nonviolent, nonoperating,

nonnegotiable, nonparty. See also compound words.

notes. Use the numbered endnote system of documentation. Number your notes

consecutively—beginning with 1—throughout a chapter and throughout

the list of notes at the end of the chapter. In your text, put a superior

numeral at the end of a sentence or at least at the end of a clause,

following any punctuation marks (except a dash) or closing parentheses:

Strategic considerations were often discussed, and Arnold urged abandonment

of the “old ‘island to island’ theory.”6

(When General Powell gave Bush a probable number of casualties, the president approved the attack.)8

Include the following items in a reference to a book: (1) author’s or

editor’s full name (as it appears on the title page), first name first,

including military rank or academic title if included on title page, or

name of institution responsible for writing the book (note that the

editor’s name may also follow the title of the book); (2) title of the

book, including subtitle, in italics; (3) editor, compiler, or translator, if

any; (4) edition, if not the first; (5) number of volumes (if referring to

multivolume work as a whole); (6) volume number of multivolume

work; (7) title of volume, if applicable; (8) series, if any, and number

in the series; (9) facts of publication—city where published, publisher,

and date of publication, all in parentheses; (10) volume number (if

citing multivolume work, all of whose volumes have the same title);

(11) page number(s) of the specific citation.

 1.-Winston Burdett, Encounter with the Middle East (New York: Viking

Press, 1981), 90.

Include the following items in a reference to an article in a

periodical: (1) author’s full name, first name first, including military

rank or academic title if included in byline of article; (2) title of the

article in quotation marks; (3) title of the periodical in italics; (4)

volume (and issue number) of the periodical; (5) date of the volume or

of the issue; and (6) page number(s) of the particular citation.

 2.-Maj Michael L. Mosier, “Getting a Grip on Careerism,” Airpower Journal

2, no. 2 (Summer 1988): 55.

You may shorten subsequent references to a source. For a shortened

form, use only the last name of the author, followed by a comma and

the page number of the reference. If you have cited more than one

work by the same author, include a short title in addition to the

62
author’s last name. The word ibid. (ibidem, “in the same place”) refers

to a single work cited in the note immediately preceding. Never use

ibid. if more than one work is cited in the preceding note. Do not

italicize ibid. in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere citato, “in the

work cited”) or loc. cit. (loco citato, “in the place cited”). Instead, use

the shortened form of the citation.

Always use arabic figures for volume numbers even when they

appear as roman numerals in the book or journal itself.

Examples of full and shortened references:

 3.-Franz Schurman, Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the

Origins of Modern China (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 206–8.

 4.-John K. Fairbank, “The People’s Middle Kingdom,” Foreign Affairs 58

(1964): 943–68.

 5.-Capt Gerald G. O’Rourke, “Our Peaceful Navy,” US Naval Institute

Proceedings, April 1989, 79–83.

 6.-Franz Schurman, Japan Today (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 97–100.

 7.-Schurman, Imperial China, 174. [Shortened form of note 3 with different

page number.]

 8.-Ibid., 176. [All information the same as in the preceding note except page

number.]

 9.-Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter

Paret (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 25.

 10.-James N. Stevens, The Foundations of Communist China, 2 vols.

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969), 1:150.

 11.-Ibid., 2:96. [All information the same as in the preceding note except

volume number and page number.]

 12.-Ibid., 147. [The same volume number as in the preceding note.]

 13.-Ibid. [The same page number as in the preceding note.]

See appendix A of this guide or The Chicago Manual of Style (14th

ed.) for citations of public documents and unpublished materials.

nuclear triad

numbered air force. Spell out names of numbered air forces: Eighth Air

Force, Twenty-Third Air Force. Use figures for a smaller unit: 15th

Air Group. See also military units.

numbers. Refer to the following principles when you need to make

decisions about using numbers in your writing.

Spell out whole numbers one through nine and any of those

numbers followed by hundred, thousand, hundred thousand, million,

and so forth. Use figures for all other numbers:

Katie read three books in two months.

The convention center can hold five thousand people.

There are 25 graduate students in the philosophy department.

63
If you wish, you may use figures followed by million, billion, and so forth

to express large numbers:

There are more than one (or 1) billion people in China.

By the end of the year the corporation was in debt by $2.3 million.

If a sentence contains several numbers, some of them 10 or above,

follow the basic rule:

We are authorized six officers, 39 enlisted personnel, and three civilians in our two

squadrons.

Express numbers between one thousand and ten thousand (except for

numbers such as two thousand, three thousand, etc.) in terms of hundreds:

The newspaper had fifteen hundred subscribers.

The general rule for spelling numbers also applies to ordinal

numbers (use d alone, not nd and rd, for second and third):

The 92d through 103d hours of the drill were conducted by Sergeant Adams.

Spell out any number that starts a sentence:

Twelve people applied for the job.

Apply the rules for spelling out whole numbers one through nine and for

large numbers to adjective modifiers:

four-mile hike 11-mile hike

five-day week 40-hour week

five-ton truck nine-thousand-ton ship

two (or 2)-million-member union ten (or 10)-million-vote margin

four-year-old boy

In mathematical, statistical, technical, or scientific texts, express

physical quantities such as distances, lengths, areas, volumes, pressures,

and so forth in figures:

60 miles 110 volts

15 yards -10 tons

40 acres —3 meters

-31

/3 cubic feet -45 pounds

In ordinary textual matter, apply the basic rule for the spelling of

numbers:

Doris lost five pounds in a week.

John’s car can barely go 60 miles an hour.

64
Spell out common fractions in textual matter:

More than one-third of the class failed the exam.

My brothers and I live within three and one-half miles of each other.

Use figures to express a combination of mixed numbers and whole

numbers:

He typed the report on 81/2-by-11-inch paper.

If you abbreviate a unit of measure, express the quantity with a

figure:

-9 mi 35 mm

30 lb 20 km

Use figures with symbols:

5

1

/2′′ 8° F

Use figures for decimal fractions:

He multiplied the number by 3.17.

In textual matter, use the word percent preceded by figures; in a table or chart, or in

scientific or statistical text, you may use the symbol %.

-1 percent

50 percent

Spell out or use figures for amounts of money in US currency in accordance with

the basic rule. If you spell out the number, spell out the unit of currency; if you use

figures, use the symbols $ or +:

The tax has been raised four cents.

The club raised a total of $425.

Use a dollar sign, figures, and units of millions or billions to express large sums of

money:

Jim signed with the Atlanta Falcons for $3 million.

Use figures for fractional amounts over one dollar, like other decimal fractions.

When you use whole-dollar amounts in the same context with fractional amounts, set

the whole-dollar amounts with zeros after the decimal point:

The music store sold CDs for $12.00 to $15.98.

65
Always write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year. Use figures for the day,

spell out the month, and use a four-digit year. Do not use internal punctuation:

7 December 1941

In textual matter, indicate inclusive years as follows: 1968–72 or from 1968 to

1972 (never from 1968–72). In endnotes, use 1968–1972.

Spell out references to particular centuries; spell out or use figures and apostrophes

for references to decades:

the twentieth century

during the sixties and seventies

the ‘60s and ‘70s

If you identify decades by their century, use figures:

the 1880s and 1890s

Spell out times of day in even, half, and quarter hours:

We went to the theater at a quarter after seven.

The service starts at five o’clock.

Use figures to emphasize an exact time:

The program is televised at 8:35 in the morning.

If you use the 24-hour system, do not punctuate between the hours and minutes

(see also military time):

The officers’ club opens at 0815.

Our duty hours are from 0730 to 1100 and from 1130 to 1600.

Use the following style for inclusive page numbers:

First Number Second Number Examples

Less than 100 Use all digits 3–10, 71–72, 96–117

100 or multiple of 100 Use all digits 100–104, 600–613, 1100–1123

101 through 109 (in Use changed part only, 107–8, 505–17, 1002–6

 multiples of 100) omitting unneeded zeros

110 through 199 Use two digits, or 321–25, 415–32, 1536–38,

 (in multiples of 100) more if needed 1496–504, 14325–28,

 11564–78, 13792–803

Use an initial ordinal number (spelled out if ninth or less) to designate particular

dynasties, governments, and governing bodies:

First Continental Congress 98th Congress

Third Reich 18th Dynasty

Sixth International Fifth Republic

66
Use ordinal numbers to designate political divisions. The rule for spelling out

numbers applies:

Fifth Congressional District

12th Precinct

Second Election District

Form the plurals of spelled-out numbers just as you would form the plurals of other

nouns; add s (no apostrophe) to form the plurals of figures:

Hickock’s hand contained two pairs: aces and eights.

The grades for the class were six 98s, three 100s, and the rest below 89.

In figures of one thousand or more (except page numbers), use a comma to set off

groups of three digits, counting from the right:

2,000 34,000

In spelled-out fractional numbers, connect the numerator and the denominator with

a hyphen unless either contains a hyphen:

three-fourths

six and seven-eighths

four and one-half years

seven and twenty-one thirty-seconds

67
officials, government. See capitalization.

off-line (adj., adv.)

off-load (v.)

omissions. See ellipses.

on board (adv.). Aboard. He is on board the ship.

onboard (adj.). An onboard computer.

ongoing (adj.)

on-line (adj., adv.)

onload (v.)

op. cit. (opere citato). In the work cited. Use a shortened reference instead.

See notes.

operations, names of. Write the names of operations with initial capital

letters: Operation Haylift, Operation Torch, Operation Crossroad,

Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

organizations. See capitalization.

outbrief (v.)

outbriefing (n., v.)

over-. Compound words with the prefix over- are usually spelled solid:

overage, overproduction, overeager, override. See also compound

words.

O

69
page numbers. You may either omit the abbreviations p. and pp. to designate

page numbers, or you may use them—as long as you are consistent:

 2.-Brig Gen Stuart R. Boyd, “Leadership and High Technology,” Airpower

Journal 3, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 8 [or p. 8].

pamphlets. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and

policy directives.

parentheses. Use parentheses when material inserted in a sentence is so loosely

connected with the main thought of the sentence that commas would not be

adequate. Such insertions may be explanatory, amplifying, or digressive:

Another illustration reflects a much more recent instance of a doctrinal notion

(table 4).

This manual (issued to all students) covers the fundamental problems.

The funeral for her brother (she misses him terribly) was a sad affair.

If a comma is necessary, place it after the second parenthesis, not

before the first. If the parenthetical element within a sentence is itself a

sentence, omit the period but retain a question mark or exclamation point:

As the machine gunner opened fire (it was a .50-caliber gun), all movement

ceased.

As the machine gunner opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement

ceased.

If parentheses enclose an independent sentence, place the period

inside the second parenthesis:

Albert convinced me to go back to college. (I always found his logic

irresistible.)

Use parentheses to enclose enumerating letters or numerals (without

periods) within a sentence:

His aims were (1) to consolidate the position, (2) to establish contact with

guerrillas, and (3) to regain control over the inhabitants.

part-time (adj., adv.)

party (political). See capitalization.

passive voice. Passive voice is a verbal construction consisting of a past

participle and some form of the verb be; all other forms are active.

When the subject of a verb receives the action, the verb is said to be

in the passive voice:

P

71
“Abide with Me” was sung by the congregation.

Jimmy was given a car by his father.

The pit was dug fully eight feet deep.

They had been caught.

You can identify passive voice by looking for the following:

1.-The receiver of the verb’s action comes before the verb.

2.-The verb has two parts: some form of the verb be plus the past participle of a

main verb (most of them end in -en or -ed).

3.-If the doer appears at all, it follows the verb and is usually the object of the

preposition by.

The best writers use passive voice sparingly and always intentionally: they are predisposed toward the use of active voice. But

passive voice has several important uses.

In the writer’s mind, the object may be more important than the doer:

The bill was passed without opposition.

The well was drilled in solid rock.

Our house was painted last year.

You may use passive voice if you do not want to name the person or

thing that performs the action. For example:

President Reagan was elected in 1980.

The parts were shipped on 1 June.

The passive voice allows various degrees of emphasis by placing

the name of the act or the doer at the end:

Our house is being painted. (Active: They are painting our house.)

Our house was painted by Joe Mead and his brother. (Active: Joe Mead and his

brother painted our house.)

“Abide with Me” was sung by the choir. (Active: The choir sang “Abide with

Me.”)

If you overuse passive voice, your writing will tend to become

awkward and wordy. Since passive voice does not always show the

doer, you may forget to include important information. The result may

be confusing.

Requests must be approved beforehand. (By whom?)

The commander must approve requests beforehand.

The figures were lost. (By whom?)

We lost the figures.

peacekeeper

peacekeeping (n., adj.)

72
peacemaker

peacemaking (n., adj.)

peacetime

per annum

per capita

percent. Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it with

arabic numerals: a 10 percent increase. You may use the symbol % in

tables and in scientific or statistical text.

period. Place a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. If you

use a quotation at the end of a sentence, place the period within the

closing quotation mark. If you use a quotation before the end of a

sentence, omit the period or replace it with a comma. When using

parentheses or brackets to enclose an independent sentence, place the

period inside the final parenthesis or bracket. If the enclosed matter is part

of a sentence, place the period outside the final parenthesis or bracket:

The commander said, “You’re only half right.”

“One should always say, ‘I mean what I say.’”

“I’m sure I say what I mean,” said Alice.

The decision to keep the sentence or drop it is a judgment call. (Writing is hard

work precisely because it requires so many judgment calls.)

The driver glanced in his rearview mirror at the passenger (certainly an

eccentric fellow).

See also lists; parentheses; quotation marks.

periodicals. See italics.

Persian Gulf War. See also capitalization; Gulf War.

PGM (precision-guided munitions)

Philippines 

plagiarism. Plagiarism entails using the work of other writers as if it were

your own. This serious offense not only can lead to a lawsuit but also

can bring about severe professional repercussions for the plagiarist. If

you use another person’s wording or if you put another person’s idea

73
into your own words, you should identify the borrowed passage and

credit the author in a note.

Strategy [is] the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the

ends of policy.

 —B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy

If you incorporate Liddell Hart’s definition of strategy in your text

with the intention of leading your readers to believe that it is your own,

you would be guilty of plagiarism. Using another writer’s exact

wording is permissible only if you identify the passage in your text by

enclosing it in quotation marks and including an endnote:

Perhaps strategy is more properly defined as “the art of distributing and

applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy.”2

You should then credit your source by including a proper citation in

your list of notes:

 2.-B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick Praeger, Inc.,

1954), 335.

Similarly, you should identify and credit passages that you put in

your own words (paraphrase). Paraphrasing, however, is not simply a

matter of changing or rearranging a few words here and there; you

must recast the passage:

unacceptable paraphrase

Strategy is the art of applying and distributing military

means to achieve the objectives of policy.2

acceptable paraphrase

B. H. Liddell Hart envisioned a country’s military as an

instrument for carrying out national policy. The purpose of

strategy, then, is deciding how to use the military toward

this end.2

Ideally, you should introduce your paraphrase so that the reader has no

question about where your own commentary ends and where your

paraphrase begins, as is the case in the example above (i.e., mentioning the

author’s name marks the beginning of the paraphrase, and the endnote

number shows where it ends). See also copyright; direct quotations;

quotations.

P.M. (post meridiem [after noon]). The standard practice is to typeset

the abbreviation in small caps.

policy directives. See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals,

pamphlets, and policy directives.

policy maker (n.)

74
policy making (n.)

policy-making (adj.)

possessive. See apostrophe.

post-. Compound words with the prefix post- are usually spelled solid:

postwar, postaxial, postmortem, but post-cold-war world. See also

compound words.

POW (prisoner of war)

pre-. Compound words with the prefix pre- are usually spelled solid:

preexisting, predetermined, prejudge, preempt. See also compound

words.

preliminaries. See front matter.

president. Capitalize president only when it precedes a person’s name;

otherwise, lowercase it. Do not abbreviate the term. See also

capitalization.

pro-. Compound words with the prefix pro- are usually spelled solid:

progovernment, proslavery. See also compound words.

problem solver (n.)

problem solving (n.)

problem-solving (adj.)

profanity. Do not use profanity in any of the writing you do under the aegis

of Air University. If you must use such language (e.g., to preserve the

tone of a passage), use a combination of initial letter(s) and hyphens:

The general, under tremendous pressure to implement an air campaign plan,

screamed at the colonel, “Your idea isn’t worth a sh--!”

75
proofreaders’ marks. The following signs are used in marking manuscripts:

Delete Insert em dash

Delete and close up Insert en dash

Close up; delete space Insert semicolon

Insert space Insert colon

Begin new paragraph Insert period

Indent one em from left Insert question mark

 or right

 Query to author—in

Move to left margin

Move to right Spell out

Center Transpose

Move down Wrong font—circle letter

Move up Set in boldface type

Insert marginal addition Set in roman type

Straighten type; align Set in italic type—

 horizontally underscore word

Align vertically Set in CAPITALS

Insert comma Set in SMALL CAPITALS

Insert apostrophe (or Set in lowercase

 single quotation mark)

Caps and lowercase

Insert quotation marks

Lowercase letter

subscript (H2O)

Let it stand; restore

superscript (a2

) words crossed out

Insert hyphen

NOTE: If you want to underline a word for emphasis, you must so indicate in a

marginal note to the printer. All words underscored in a typed manuscript

without such a note will always appear in italics.

76
The following paragraph illustrates the use of proofreaders’ marks:

HOW AN EDITOR MARKS A MANUSCRIPT

Editing a manuscipt from which type is to be set

requires a different method than that used in correcting

proof.1

 A correction or an operational sign are inserted in

a line of type not in the margins as in proof reading.

Operators looks at every line of the manuscript as they

set type, so any editors change must be in it’s proper

place and clearly written.

For more information on proofreaders’ marks, see The Chicago

Manual of Style, 14th ed. (3.19–36).

PSYOP (psychological operations)

PSYWAR (psychological warfare)

punctuation. See apostrophe; brackets; colon; comma; dash; ellipses;

hyphen; parentheses; period; question mark; quotation marks;

semicolon.

77
quantities. See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

question mark. Put a question mark at the end of a direct question within a

sentence:

How am I going to pass this test? was the question I kept asking myself.

As Mary asked herself, Why am I doing this for him? she glared balefully at

John.

Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:

I asked him what he was doing.

How he had managed to fool me was the question no one could answer.

Put a question mark inside quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets

only when it is part of the quoted or parenthetical matter:

The colonel asked, “Did you receive our inspection report?”

Did you say, “The base commander wants the report immediately”?

Which of the concepts do you believe to be generally shared (at least by your

contemporaries)?

quotation marks. Enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in double

quotation marks. Use single quotation marks to enclose quotations

within quotations. Quotations within block quotations require double

quotation marks.

Enclose a conference title in quotation marks:

“American Writers in the 1930s,” a symposium held at the University of

Alabama, 15–16 September 1975.

but

the 1994 State Conference on Writing across the Curriculum.

You may use quotation marks to enclose words used in an ironic

sense, references to spoken language, and slang terms. Subsequent

occurrences need not include the quotation marks. See also italics.

The “consultation” could be heard three blocks away.

In Elizabethan dialogue, a change from “you” to “thou” often implies studied

insult.

Jacob’s grandfather called his Adam’s apple his “go fetch it.”

Q

79
Place a comma or a final period within quotation marks—single or

double. Put other punctuation marks within quotation marks only if

they are part of the quotation. See also period.

He said, “I will go.”

He asked, “Shall we evacuate the area?”

Place a colon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

There is one substantial problem with Whitman’s “O Captain, My Captain”: it

is doggerel.

You may use quotation marks to refer to a word as a word (see also

italics):

The term “boy” has a pejorative sense in some contexts.

Titles of articles in journals and newspapers; chapter titles; and

titles of short stories, short poems, dissertations, theses, and essays are

enclosed in quotation marks. See also italics.

quotations. You may incorporate quotations in the text as a part of a

sentence and enclose them in quotation marks or set them off from the

text as a block quotation. If the quoted matter is lengthy (10 or more

lines), you should usually set it off from the text. See also block

quotations; direct quotations; ellipses.

You should integrate short quotations into the text. When you use a

quotation as part of a sentence, lowercase the initial letter and omit or

change the end punctuation (if appropriate), even though the original is

a complete sentence beginning with a capital. But when the quotation

is not dependent on the rest of the sentence, capitalize the initial letter.

If a quotation that is only part of a sentence in the original forms a

complete sentence as quoted, you may change a lowercase letter to a

capital.

Colonel Green emphasized that “the military plays an important role in the

political arena” (p. 7).

Colonel Green emphasized, “The military plays an important role in the

political arena” (p. 7).

Colonel Green made the following statement: “Military [power] plays an

important role in the political arena” (p. 7).

80
RAND. Use RAND instead of Rand Corporation.

rank. See military titles and offices.

rates of speed, frequencies, and so forth. See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

re-. Compound words with the prefix re- are usually spelled solid: reedit,

reeducate, reelect, reenlist, reequip, reexamine, reunify. See also

compound words.

real time (n.)

real-time (adj.)

real-world (adj.)

regiment. 2d Armored Cavalry Regiment, the regiment. See also

capitalization; military units.

regions of the world. See capitalization.

regular. Capitalize regular when you use it as part of the name of a

component: Regular Air Force, Regular Army.

Republican Party (or party), Republican(s) (member[s] of the party).

See also capitalization.

Reserve(s). Capitalize reserve if it is part of the name of a component: Air

Force Reserve, Ready Reserve, Standby Reserve. Capitalize the term

as a synonym for Air Force Reserve: the Reserve. But use reserve

component, the reserve officer, the reservist(s). As a guide to

capitalization, apply the following test: If the word airman would fit

logically in place of reserve officer or reservist, use r. If Air Force

Reserve can be logically substituted for reserve, use R. The same rule

applies to other military services.

retired military personnel. To designate retired personnel, use this form:

Maj Ronald R. Dowdy, USAF, Retired.

risk taking

R

81
ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps)

Russia, Russian. These words apply to the nation before 1917; to the

former Russian Soviet Socialist Republic; to the independent state

formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991; and to the

language and the ethnological origin of the people of that state. See

also Commonwealth of Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union,

USSR.

82
Saint. When Saint occurs in proper names, spell it out in text and either

spell it out or abbreviate (St.) in notes, bibliographic entries, and

parenthe- tical references (pick one and be consistent). When the word

is part of someone’s name, follow that person’s usage (e.g., as

indicated in Webster’s New Biographical Dictionary).

Marco de Saint-Hilaire Barry St. Leger

satellites. See earth satellites.

SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)

sea-lane

sea lift (n.)

sea-lift (v., adj.)

sea power

seasons. Do not capitalize the four seasons unless they are personified:

spring, summer, fall, winter. See also capitalization.

security classification. Capitalize only the initial letter of a term indicating

a specific security classification: Secret, Confidential.

see, see also. Italicize see and see also in your index but not in your

documentation. Capitalize the terms only when they begin a sentence.

self-. Most self- compounds are hyphenated: self-reliant, self-sustaining, but

selfless, selfsame. See also hyphenated compound words.

semi-. Compound words with the prefix semi- are usually spelled solid:

semifinal, semiofficial, but semi-indirect. See also compound words.

semiannual. Avoid semiannual; use twice a year instead.

semicolon. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not connected

by a coordinating conjunction:

John stayed home for the holidays; he had nowhere else to go.

S

83
Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs such as however,

therefore, hence, consequently, moreover, nevertheless, and so forth,

when they connect two independent clauses. (Use a comma after these

words.)

All such missions should remain secondary to the primary mission; however, all

commanders of flying Air Force units must prepare to fly such missions with

minimum notice.

You may want to use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction

in a compound sentence whose independent clauses are long and

contain internal punctuation:

Ishmael, the narrator, goes to sea, he says, “Whenever it is a damp, drizzly

November” in his soul; and Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea because of

his obsession to hunt and kill the great albino whale, Moby Dick.

When items in a series are lengthy or contain internal punctuation,

separate them by semicolons:

Mark prepared for the exam by reading the material, which caused him great

difficulty; by studying with Tom, who knew less than he did; and by praying,

which he did frequently.

We will need the following supplies: pencils, three boxes; pens, five boxes;

paper, four reams; typewriter ribbons, 15; and staples, two boxes.

Place a semicolon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

Dan’s favorite poem is “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”; he reads it

whenever he feels troubled.

Sam gave his wife a toaster oven for her birthday (he was a very practical

fellow); needless to say, she was overwhelmed.

Senate. Capitalize Senate when you are referring to the US Senate.

senator. Lowercase senator following a personal name or used alone in

place of a name. See also abbreviations; capitalization.

series. The number of commas separating items in a series should be one

less than the number of items in the series. Hence, three items in a

series should be separated by two commas: planes, boats, and trains.

See also comma.

service. Lowercase service when you use it in reference to one of a nation’s

military forces (e.g., an army or navy).

84
sexist language. The following guidance facilitates clarity of expression; it

does not pretend to resolve perceived problems of sexism in written

English.

Do not use terms that stereotype occupations by sex (e.g., by always

referring to a nurse as she or a pilot as he) or that exclude either sex

from positions of authority (e.g., a commander should brief his staff on

new policy). Otherwise, the following usages are acceptable: (1) words

that are sexually denotative but not clearly stigmatized, such as lady;

(2) masculine or feminine pronouns in reference to antecedents whose

sex is unspecified (e.g., every patient had her temperature checked)

unless the usage stereotypes occupations or positions (the phrase his or

her is acceptable, as are he or she and him or her in appropriate

contexts, but these constructions are awkward and should be used

sparingly); (3) she and her in reference to nations, cities, and ships

(Britain must guard her traditions); (4) substitution of a plural pronoun

for a singular masculine or feminine pronoun if the antecedent is made

plural (e.g., all patients had their temperatures checked) but not if the

antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (e.g., NOT everyone had their

temperature checked, BUT everyone had his [or her] temperature

checked); (5) generic man, whether freestanding or in compounds

(e.g., mankind, manpower); (6) compounds with person (as long as the

form is not ludicrous: chairperson but not personhole cover).

she, her, hers. See sexist language.

ships, names of. See italics.

short-range (adj.)

short term (n.)

short-term (adj.)

show of force

sic (so; thus; in this manner). Use sic, italicized and bracketed, to indicate

misspelling or improper usage in the original:

The newscaster announced that “the pilot got out of his plane and laid [sic]

down on the ground after his harrowing flight.”

Signal Corps, the corps

SLOC (sea line of communication)

Smithsonian Institution

85
SO (special order). Lowercase and spell out special order when you are

referring in general to the official numbered and dated publication.

Capitalize the term when it is used with the number, but abbreviate

with the number only after you spell it out on first reference: Special

Order (SO) T-013, SO T-013, the special order.

so-called. Do not enclose in quotation marks or set in italics a word or

phrase following the term so-called:

The so-called model citizen beat his wife regularly.

Socialist Party (or party), Socialist (member of the party), socialism. See

capitalization.

SOP (standing operating procedures)

source citation. See bibliography; notes.

source note. See illustration; legend.

South. Capitalize South when you refer to a specific geographical region.

See also capitalization.

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR. Use these terms instead of Russian(s) or

Russia when you refer to the people or the nation from 1917 to 1991.

See also Commonwealth of Independent States.

space-. Compounds with space- are solid, open, and hyphenated: spaceman,

spaceship, spaceflight, space suit, space station, space walk, space age,

space power, space shuttle, space-age (adj.), space-time. See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

spacecraft. Italicize specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites:

Gemini II, Apollo 11. Also italicize names of particular space vehicles

or components: Eagle (Apollo 11 lunar module), Columbia (Apollo 11

command module or space shuttle), and Friendship 7 (Alan Shepard’s

Mercury capsule). See also earth satellites.

space power

space programs. Capitalize but do not italicize the names of space

programs: Project Apollo.

Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House, the

Speaker. Capitalize Speaker to avoid ambiguity.

86
spelling. Use Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English

Language, Unabridged and Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary

(10th ed.) as authoritative sources for the spelling of common words.

These sources often identify variations in spelling that belong to

standard usage (e.g., toward or towards; adviser also advisor; flyer

variant of flier). Either spelling is acceptable. Select the one you

prefer, and use it consistently. For the spelling of place-names, refer to

authoritative sources such as the Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of the

World, Webster’s New Geographical Dictionary, and the section on

“Geographical Names” in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary

(10th ed.).

Spetsnaz. No italics.

sputnik. Lowercase sputnik except when you designate a particular satellite:

Sputnik II.

squadron. Capitalize squadron when you designate a numbered unit, but

lowercase the term when it stands alone: 732d Bomber Squadron, the

squadron.

Sr. Use a period with Sr.; do not set it off with commas:

M. H. Abrahms Sr. lives at the end of the street.

standby (n., adj.). Capitalize standby when you use it as part of the Air

Force Reserve: Standby Reserve. See also Reserve(s).

standoff (n., adj.)

stand off (v.)

state names. See abbreviations.

stealth bomber, stealth technology

sub-. Compound words with the prefix sub- are usually written solid:

subcommittee, subcontract, substandard, but sub-Saharan Africa. See

also compound words.

subcommittee. See congressional committees and subcommittees.

subheadings. You may use up to three levels of subheadings to divide your

text: centered, flush and hang, and run-in (highest to lowest). You

should have at least two subheadings for each level used (i.e., at least

87
two centered subheadings, etc.). Do not “stack” headings (i.e.,

immediately follow one heading with another); rather, be sure that

headings are separated by text.

Observations

 Given this background, the key question remains, Does

the composite wing work in combat? The answer is

obvious. . . .

Why the Composite Wing Worked So Well

 The composite training undergone by the wing’s personnel contributed to the successful completion of their

mission. . . .

Evaluation and Inspection. Tactical evaluations, operational readiness inspections, and other exercises have

created a solid foundation of training in both units and

individuals. . . .

subtitle. Use a colon to separate the main title from the subtitle. A regular

word space follows the colon:

Skating on Thin Ice: A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

sun. See earth.

superpower

Supreme Court (of the United States). Use the Court as a shortened

reference to the Supreme Court.

88
tables. Use tables for the economical presentation of large amounts of

information. Give every table a number, and refer to it in the text by

that number, either directly or parenthetically. In your references, don’t

just repeat the facts presented in the table. Most of the time, a simple

cross-reference is sufficient (see table 1). Number your tables (with

arabic numerals) in the order in which they appear in the text.

Numbering is continuous throughout the text. However, if your book

consists of chapters by different authors, the numbering restarts with

each chapter. If your book has appendixes with tables, use distinctive

numbers for those tables (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1, C.2, etc.).

 Center the table number and title (caption) above the table, placing

the table number above the title. Alternatively, you may place these

elements flush left. (Further, you may place table number and title on

the same line, leaving more than normal word space between them.)

The title should identify the table and give facts rather than provide

discussion and comment:

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics

Not:

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics by Addition of Other

Managerial Leadership Characteristics

If the table continues to other pages, use a notation such as Table

3—continued. You may include a subheading for your title; if so,

enclose it in parentheses and place it on a separate line. Do not type the

title or subheading in full caps. Instead, use headline style or sentence

style. Whichever style you use, be consistent throughout the text.

Your table must have at least two columns. At the top of the

columns, include headings that identify the material in the column. Do

not use vertical rules to separate the columns. Make the first column

heading singular in number (e.g., Party). The other headings may be

singular or plural (e.g., Votes, Seats Won). Use headline or sentence

style for the column headings, and either center successive lines or

place them flush left. You may include subheadings with the column

headings; enclose them in parentheses. You may use abbreviations in

the subheadings. Because the width of the column headings determines

the width of the table, keep the headings as brief as possible.

T

89
List the names of categories or individuals in the left-hand column

(stub) of your table, and put information about them in the other

columns. Be sure that items in the stub are grammatically parallel. Do

not number stub items, and do not use ditto marks in the stub. Indent

runover lines two spaces more than the regular indention. Write stub

items in sentence style, without a period at the end:

Computers

 Zenith

 Gateway

 IBM

Printers

 Hewlett-Packard

 Epson

 Star

If you use the word Total at the foot of the stub, indent it two spaces

more than the greatest indention above it.

Align a column of figures on the decimal points or commas. Also

align dollar signs and percentage signs. If all figures in a column are

the same kind, place the dollar signs and percentage signs only at the

top of the column and after any horizontal rule cutting across it. Omit

the signs if the table title or column head shows what the figures are.

In a column consisting of information expressed in words, center all

items if they are short, but flush them left if they are long.

If you wish to refer to specific parts of a table, use superior

letters—beginning with a—as reference marks. You may use them on

column headings, on stub items, and in the body of the table—but not

on the table number or title. Place the reference marks beginning at the

upper left and extending across the table and downward, row by row.

If you reproduce a table from another source, include a source note

below the body of the table, introduced by the word Source(s) (in

italics or cap & small caps), rather than footnoting the table number

and including a note in the list of chapter notes.

90
Table 1

Sorties Flown in Operation Desert Storm

TotalSortie Allies USAF Other US Coalition

AIa

4,600 24,000 11,900 40,500

OCAb

1,400 4,500 600 6,500

CASc

 —-0 -1,500 -1,500 -3,000

 Total strike sortiesd

6,000 30,000 14,000 50,000

Aerial refuelling 1,500 10,000 1,500 13,000

DCAe

4,100 3,200 2,700 10,000

SEADf

0 2,800 1,200 4,000

Tactical airlift 4,300 14,000 0 18,300

Otherg

-1,100 -6,000 -7,900 15,000

 Total nonstrike sorties 11,000 36,000 13,300 60,300

 Approximate grand total of all Desert Storm sorties 110,300

Sources: Department of the Air Force, Air Force Performance in Desert Storm (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, April

1991); and author’s collation of published data.

aAir interdiction—in this case a conflation of both strategic (against Iraqi installations)

and operational (against Iraqi air, ground, and naval forces) bombing, including

battlefield interdiction (against Iraqi forces behind the front).

bOffensive counterair (i.e., attacks against Iraqi air force bases and related facilities).

c

Close air support (i.e., attacks against Iraqi ground forces at the front).

d

Strike as here defined includes all aircraft that penetrated hostile airspace in the course

of ground-attack missions, with or without ground-attack ordnance of their own.

eDefensive counterair (i.e., air defense patrols and intercepts).

f

Suppression of enemy air defenses (i.e., attacks against Iraqi antiaircraft missiles,

guns, and related radar and other facilities).

gAirborne early warning, airborne electronic surveillance, electronic warfare, and other.

91
TACAIR (tactical air)

takeoff (n.)

take off (v.)

takeover (n.)

take over (v.)

temperature. See numbers.

TEMPEST (special shielding against electromagnetic radiation)

that, which. Clauses introduced by the relative pronouns that and which are

of two kinds: restrictive and nonrestrictive.

A clause is restrictive or defining when the information it provides

about something in the main clause is essential to the meaning of the

statement. It is generally preceded by the relative pronoun that but can

be introduced by which:

I am looking for the book that I lost yesterday.

Of all the cars for sale, we preferred the one which had the lowest mileage.

A nonrestrictive clause is descriptive, can be set off from the rest of

the sentence by commas, must be self-contained, and is introduced

only by which:

My house, which is old and large, is located on Elm Street.

In some circumstances that can be omitted from restrictive clauses:

When it is the object of a verb: the songs (that) we used to sing.

When it is the object of a preposition: the boy (that) we gave the apples to.

When it is the complement of some form of the verb be: He is not the man

(that) his father was.

When it is technically the subject of the verb be but standing in the complement

position: We gave him all (that) there was.

In recent years, many Air Force writers have taken this option to the

extreme by omitting that altogether. Oftentimes, however, that must be

retained for clarity. For example, when a time element follows the

verb, the conjunction that is always needed to make clear whether the

time element applies to the material preceding or following:

Governor James announced today that he would sign the income tax bill.

92
Here, if that is omitted, the sentence could mean either that the

governor made the announcement today or that he would sign the bill

today.

When a sentence with two parallel clauses requires the expression

and that in the second part, you must retain that in the first part of the

sentence for parallel construction:

The senator said that she would run next year and that James Corley would be

her campaign manager.

After verbs like said or announced, you may omit that for conciseness: He said (that) he was tired. But if the subject of the clause

following the verb can be mistaken for that verb’s direct object, that

must be retained:

He said that mere words could not express his feelings.

See also which.

theater, theatre. Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war.

Lowercase the term, as in European theater. Either spelling is acceptable; choose one and use it consistently.

there is, there are. When you use there as the anticipatory subject, make

the verb agree in number with the “real” subject, which follows it:

“There is a lesson to be learned here, and there are many more lessons

to be learned.” However, like repeated use of it is . . . , repeated use of

there is . . . and there are . . . deprives the sentence of strong

subject-verb combinations. See also it.

third-. Compound words with third- occur in all three stylings: third base,

third baseman, third class (n.), third degree (n.), third grader, thirdhand

(adj. and adv.), third-class (adj.), third-degree (adj.). See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

third world or Third World (n., adj.)

this. Although criticized by some writers, using this to refer to the idea

conveyed in a preceding sentence is acceptable if the reference is

neither confusing nor ambiguous:

John lost his job. This made his creditors uneasy.

However, do not use this when it refers only to some part of an idea or

to an antecedent that is not actually expressed:

93
Because of inherited venereal disease, their population remains static. This

worries the elders of the tribe. (Venereal disease? Static population? Both?)

The poet is widely admired, but it is difficult to make a living at this. (Writing

poetry, but not expressed in sentence.)

Do not use demonstrative this in place of personal pronouns:

We were much impressed by the tour director. This man (not this) is a capable

and well-informed person.

time. See A.M.; military time; numbers; P.M.

titles of persons and offices. See capitalization; military titles and offices.

titles of works. Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions in titles and

subheadings. Lowercase articles (the, a, an), coordinating conjunctions

(and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so), and prepositions, unless they are the

first or last words of the title or subtitle. Lowercase the to in

infinitives.

The Problem with Our Airpower Doctrine

Always capitalize the first element of a hyphenated compound word

in a title; capitalize the other elements unless they are articles,

prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions:

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

Over-the-Hill Gang

Fly-by-Night Businesses

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated prefix unless it is

a proper noun or proper adjective:

Anti-inflationary Guidelines

Non-Christian Religions

Capitalize the final element of a hyphenated compound at the end of

a title, unless it is a hyphenated prefix:

Avoiding a Run-In

Haven of Anti-intellectualism

TO (technical order). Lowercase and spell out technical order when you

are referring in general to the publications in the Air Force series: the

technical order. Always capitalize the term when it is used with the

number, but abbreviate it only after spelling it out on first reference:

Technical Order (TO) 00-25-4, TO 00-25-4.

94
trademarks. The symbols ® and TM, which often accompany registered

trademark names on product packaging and in advertisements, need

not be used in running text.

trans-. Words formed with the prefix trans- are generally closed: transship,

transcontinental, transoceanic. Compounds whose second element is a

capitalized word are hyphenated: trans-America, but transatlantic. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

treaties, pacts, and plans. See capitalization.

tri-. Compound words with tri- are usually closed: tricolor, trilingual,

tristate. See also compound words.

95
UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice)

UHF (ultrahigh frequency)

ultra-. Most compounds with ultra- are solid: ultramodern, ultrasonic, but

ultra-atomic, ultra-German. See also hyphenated compound words.

un-. Most compounds with un- are solid: unbiased, unsolved, unused. See

also compound words.

UN (United Nations). You may use UN as either a noun or an adjective.

under-. Most compounds with under- are solid: underbid, underdevelop,

underestimate, underground, undersea, underreport. See also compound words.

undersecretary

underway (adj.)

under way (adv.)

United States. Spell out in text. See also abbreviations; US.

United States Air Force, US Air Force, Air Force, USAF

United States Army, US Army, Army, USA

United States Marine Corps, US Marine Corps, Marine Corps, USMC

United States Navy, US Navy, Navy, USN

units of measure. See measurements.

upon (prep.). You may use upon as a synonym of on: His salary depends

upon his performance.

US (United States). Use US as an adjective only. See also abbreviations.

USAF. You may use USAF alone or in combination with other words (e.g.,

Headquarters USAF, or in names in which it is part of the official title).

U

97
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Use USSR to refer to the

country as it existed between 1917 and 1991. See also Commonwealth

of Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

98
versus (v.). Use v. instead of vs. in names of court cases. You may omit the

period when you cite case names in endnotes. Otherwise, use versus.

See also italics.

VHF (very high frequency)

vice (prep.). In place of, replacing: John Doe was appointed postmaster vice

Richard Roe.

vice-. Compounds with vice- can be open, solid, or hyphenated: vice admiral,

vice chief, vice commander, vice marshal, vice minister, vice president,

vice squad, viceroyalty, vice-chairman, vice-consul. See also compound

words; hyphenated compound words.

vice versa

Vietcong

Vietminh

Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.)

Vietnam War

viz. (videlicet; that is to say, namely)

V

99
walk-. Most compounds with walk- are either hyphenated or solid: walk-on

(n.), walk-up (n.), walkout (n.), walkover (n.). See also compound

words; hyphenated compound words.

war-. Compounds with war- occur in all three stylings: war chest, war

power, war room, war zone, warlike, warpath, warplane, warship,

wartime, war-game (v.). See also compound words.

war fighter

war fighting (n.)

war-fighting (adj.)

war-game (v.), as war-gamed an invasion.

war game (n.)

war gamer (n.)

war-gaming (adj.)

war gaming (n.)

warhead

war making (n.)

war-making (adj.)

warplane

wars. Capitalize full titles of wars, but lowercase the shortened form:

Spanish-American War, the war; Korean War, the war; Vietnam War,

the war.

Warsaw Pact, Warsaw Pact nations

warship

wartime

W

101
Washington, D.C. You may use Washington, D.C., or simply Washington

in documentation to identify the place of publication, as long as you

are consistent.

wavelength(s)

we. See I, we.

weapon (caliber of). See caliber.

weapon system(s) or weapons system(s). Choose one, and use it consistently.

weights and measurements. See measurements; numbers.

well-. Most compounds formed with the adverb well- are either hyphenated or

solid: well-being (n.), well-defined (adj.), well-grounded (adj.), wellintentioned (adj.), well-known (adj.), well-read (adj.), well-spoken (adj.),

well-timed (adj.), wellborn (adj.), wellness (n.).

Generally, you should hyphenate compounds with well before the

noun: A well-known man came to my house. Do not use the hyphen

when the expression carries a modifier: A very well known man made

an unexpected appearance at the party. Do not use the hyphen when

the compound follows the noun it modifies: She is well known for her

recipes. See also hyphenated compound words.

West Berlin, West Germany. Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany

alone, in references to the city and country when they were divided.

West(ern). Capitalize terms with west(ern) if they are considered proper

names; lowercase such terms if they are not considered proper names

or if they are merely directional: Western world, the West, Midwest

(US), Far West, but western, far western, western Pacific Ocean. See

also capitalization.

western front (World War I)

Western Hemisphere

whereas. See while.

whether. When whether introduces a complete or elliptical adverbial clause,

use or not after whether: Whether the car was in good condition or not,

he was determined to buy it. In noun clauses, you may use the words

or not with whether for emphasis, but they are not necessary: Whether

Tom goes to Birmingham today depends on the weather. When the

102
alternatives are fully expressed, the use of or not with whether is

redundant: Whether he lived inside or outside the city limits was

irrelevant. You should repeat whether after or when the alternatives

are long and complex (Whether . . . or whether . . .).

which. Normally, which introduces nonrestrictive clauses:

I read The Once and Future King, which is a retelling of Arthurian legend.

It may also introduce restrictive clauses:

They were part of a generation which had been taught to appreciate the beauty

of simplicity.

If you have already used the relative pronoun that in the sentence,

you may use which to avoid repetition:

They proposed an operational testing and evaluation method that was based on

an approach which evolved from their experiences during the testing of the

weapon system.

Which sometimes unambiguously refers to an entire preceding

statement rather than to a single word:

She ignored him, which proved unwise.

Sometimes, however, the antecedent of which may be in doubt:

Some people worry about overeating, which can be unhealthy. Worrying?

Overeating?

Sometimes it is better to rewrite the sentence:

Worrying about overeating can be unhealthy.

while. You may use the conjunction while to mean “during the time that”:

Take a nap while I’m out.

or “as long as”:

While there’s life, there’s hope.

or “whereas”:

Skiing is easy for an expert, while it is dangerous for a novice.

or “although”:

103
While respected, he is not liked.

or “similarly and at the same time that”:

While the book will be welcomed by scholars, it will make an immediate appeal

to the general reader.

white. Use white (or White) officer, white (or White) people, whites (or

Whites), European Americans.

white paper. Lowercase white paper unless it is part of a title:

The State Department summarized its findings in a white paper on terrorism.

The State Department released its findings in a report, “A White Paper on

Terrorism.”

wide-. Compounds beginning with wide- occur in all three stylings: wide

receiver (n.), widemouthed (adj.), widespread (adj.), wide-awake (adj.),

wide-eyed (adj.), wide-spreading (adj.). See also compound words;

hyphenated compound words.

-wide. Compounds ending in -wide are written solid unless they are long

and cumbersome: countrywide, nationwide, servicewide, statewide,

theaterwide, worldwide, but university-wide, Air Force–wide. The

hyphenated forms are written open after the noun: The directive

applied Air Force wide. See also compound words; hyphenated

compound words.

wing. Capitalize wing when it is part of a proper name: 42d Air Base Wing,

but the wing.

wingspan

wiretap (v., n.)

wiretapper (n.)

word division. Generally, you should follow the syllable division indicated

in the dictionary when you break words at the ends of lines. Note the

following prohibitions, however: do not carry over a final syllable

whose only vowel sound is that of a syllabic “l” (prin-ciples, not

princi-ples); do not carry over a vowel that forms a syllable in the

middle of a word (preju-dice, not prej-udice); do not divide a word if

doing so would result in a one-letter division (e.g., again, idol, item,

unite); avoid carrying over two-letter endings (fully, not ful-ly); if

possible, do not break hyphenated compound words except at the

104
hyphen (court-/martial, not court-mar-/tial); words originally

compounded of other words but now spelled solid should be divided at

the natural breaks whenever possible (school-master is better than

schoolmas-ter); also, try to make a division after a prefix rather than

dividing at any other point in the word (dis-pleasure is better than

displea-sure). Do not end more than three succeeding lines in hyphens.

words. See compound words; hyphenated compound words; spelling.

words as words. See italics; quotation marks.

work-. Compounds with work- occur in all three stylings: work ethic, workday,

work-up (n.). See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

work-around (n.)

work around (v.)

workforce

work hour(s) (n.). See also man-hour(s).

workload

work order. Write work order in lowercase letters when you refer to the

work order in general. Capitalize the term when you refer to the title of

the standardized form, as Work Order Request (AF Form 332).

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the Great War, the war, the

two world wars.

World War II (or 2), the Second World War, the war.

worldwide (adj., adv.)

WWW (World Wide Web)

105
–X–

Xerox. Xerox is a registered trademark. You can use Xerox as a noun to

mean a xerographic copier; you can use xerox as a verb to mean to

copy on a Xerox copier.

–Y–

year. Use figures to designate specific years unless the sentence begins with

the year:

Nineteen forty-five was an eventful year.

World War II ended in 1945.

In informal contexts, you may abbreviate the full number of a

particular year: the spirit of ‘76.

If you use the month with the year, do not use internal punctuation:

The study began in May 1979. See also dates; numbers.

year-. Compounds beginning with year- occur in all three stylings: year of

grace, yearbook, year-end. See also compound words; hyphenated

compound words.

–Z–

zero, zeros (also zeroes). Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount instead of

using a dash or leaving the space blank.

zip or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code. When you write the zip code

number with the name of a state, do not use a comma before the

number: Troy, AL 36081.

Y

X Z

107
APPENDIX A

Examples of several categories of notes appear below. For other

examples, see chapter 15 of The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). Place

notes at the end of each chapter—not at the bottom of the page or at the end

of the book. For subsequent references, use ibid. or a shortened form of the

note. Use ibid. to refer to the note immediately preceding. Otherwise, use

the last name of the author, followed by a comma and the page number(s)

of the reference. If you have cited more than one work by the same author,

use a short title in addition to the author’s last name.

Books

One author

1.-Gen William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday & Co., 1976), 112, 195–96. [Reproduce the author’s name as it

appears on the title page.]

Two authors

2.-John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars:

Military Education and National Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton

University Press, 1957), 117–21. [List the authors’ names in the order in

which they appear on the title page.]

Three authors

3.-Robert Strausz-Hupe, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony, A

Forward Strategy for America (New York: Harper & Bros., 1961), 117.

[List the authors’ names in the order in which they appear on the title page.]

More than three authors

4.-Gerald Pomper et al., The Election of 1976 (New York: McKay, 1977), 61.

[Give the name of the author listed first on the title page followed by “et al.”

or “and others.”]

5.-Pomper et al., 60. [shortened form]

No author given

6.-Soviet Military Power (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1983), 13–18. [Do not use Anonymous or Anon.]

109
Editor, compiler, or translator

7.-Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force,

1907–1957 (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1957), 7. [Use the name of

the editor, compiler, or translator in place of the author when no author’s

name appears on the title page.]

8.-J. P. Mayer, Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, trans.

George Lawrence (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969), 648. [When the

author’s name appears on the title page, place the name of the editor,

compiler, or translator after the title, preceded by ed. [edited by], comp.

[compiled by], or trans. [translated by].]

9.-Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and

Peter Paret (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 145–47.

10.-Marshal Foch, The Principles of War, trans. Hilaire Belloc (London:

Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1918), 7, 18–19.

Multivolume works and series

11.-Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces

in World War II, vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to

December 1943 (1949; new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force

History, 1983), 288–95. [One volume in the series.]

Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in

World War II, 7 vols. (1948–1958; new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office

of Air Force History, 1983). [Entire series.]

12.-Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of

Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948), 521.

13.-Warren A. Trest, Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past

Effects and Future Implications, CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future

of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

University Press, December 1991), 12.

Association or institution as author

14.-Gates Commission, The Report of the President’s Commission on an

All-Volunteer Armed Force (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,

1970), 3–9.

15.-Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America

(Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1973), 104–6.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

16.-Col John A. Warden III, “Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century,”

in Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns,

ed. Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,

110
August 1994), 320–21. [If you are citing the entire chapter or contribution,

include inclusive page numbers.]

17.-Warden, 325. [shortened form]

18.-Dr. Lewis B. Ware, “Regional Study 1: Conflict and Confrontation in

the Post-Cold-War Middle East,” in Challenge and Response: Anticipating

US Military Security Concerns, ed. Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB,

Ala.: Air University Press, August 1994), 49. [When you cite a different

chapter/contribution in the same book as previously cited, include a full

citation for that book.]

19.-Capt John T. Folmar, “Desert Storm Chapstick,” in From the Line in

the Sand: Accounts of USAF Company Grade Officers in Support of Desert

Shield/Desert Storm, ed. Capt Michael P. Vriesenga (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air University Press, March 1994), 19–20.

Edition

20.-John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, 5th ed. (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980), 23–25.

21.-Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and

Society, 2d ed. rev. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1951), 68–71.

22.-Weiner, 74. [shortened form]

Reprint editions

23.-Neil Harris, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years,

1790–1860 (1966; reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 43–44.

24.-Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (1942;

new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 67.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

25.-“Congress Sends Nixon a Message,” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

26.-TSgt Jim Katzaman, “Basics of Bombing,” Airman, June 1986, 8–12.

27.-“Unions Are Alien to Our Defense System,” The Retired Officer,

May 1976, 25.

28.-“Currents in the News,” U.S. News and World Report, 11 February 1980, 5.

29.-Jay Finegan, “Struggling with Inflation,” Times Magazine (supplement to Air Force Times), 1 September 1980, 4.

Volume number shown

30.-Col Richard F. Rosser, “American Civil-Military Relations in the

1980s,” Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14–15.

111
31.-Donald S. Zagoria, “China’s Quiet Revolution,” Foreign Affairs 62,

no. 4 (Spring 1984): 879–904.

32.-Philip Handler, “The American University Today,” American Scientist

64, no. 3 (May–June 1976): 254–57.

33.-Franklin D. Margiotta, “A Military Elite in Transition: Air Force Leaders

in the 1980s,” Armed Forces and Society 2, no. 2 (Winter 1976): 155–84.

34.-Margiotta, 176. [shortened form]

Newspaper Items

Editorial

35.-Editorial, Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986. [Omit the initial the

from titles of English language newpapers.]

News story

36.-S. Fred Singer, “What Is Happening to World Oil?” Wall Street

Journal, 10 March 1982.

37.-William Robbins, “Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75,” New York

Times, Sunday, 17 February 1980, sec. 3.

38.-Lt Gen Murphy A. Cheaney, “Military’s Quality Medical Care for a

Healthy Army,” Washington Times, 16 December 1985, final edition.

Encyclopedia Articles

39.-Encyclopedia Americana, 1974 ed., s.v. “prize courts and prize jurisdiction.” [Cite the item, preceded by s.v. (sub verbo, “under the word”).]

40.-Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1973 ed., s.v. “canning, commercial.”

41.-Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1966 ed., s.v. “deism.”

Historical Studies

42.-Robert T. Finney, History of the Air Corps Tactical School,

1920–1940, USAF Historical Study 100 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF

Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 35–38.

43.-R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Documentary Research Division, Air University, 1954), 16–21.

44.-Chase C. Mooney and Martha E. Layman, Organization of

Military Aeronautics, 1907–1935, Army Air Forces Historical Study

25 (Washington, D.C.: Army Air Forces Historical Division, 1944),

29–32.

112
45.-Herman S. Wolk, USAF Plans and Policies: Logistics and Base

Construction in Southeast Asia, 1967 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force

History, 1968), 36–39.

46.-Thomas H. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air

Arm, 1917–1941, USAF Historical Study 89 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF

Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 9–10.

Staff Studies

47.-Evaluation Division, Air University, To Analyze the USAF

Publications System for Producing Manuals, staff study, 13 July 1948.

48.-Col Herbert V. Staudenmaier, CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation

Study, staff study, 31 March 1983.

49.-Col Charles G. Williamson, chief, Status of Operations Division,

Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate

of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status of Operations

Report, staff study, 3 March 1943.

50.-Williamson, Status of Operations Report. [shortened form]

Unit and Staff Office Histories

51.-History, Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of

Plans, Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958, 114, 163–64.

52.-History, Research Studies Institute, July–December 1959, 1.

53.-History of the Office of the Inspector General USAF, Directorate of

Special Investigations, 1 January–30 June 1963, 45–47.

54.-History, Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953, 193–94.

Reports

Published

55.-John Erickson, The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics,

USSI Report 73-3 (Washington, D.C.: United States Strategic Institute,

1973), 5.

56.-Richard V. L. Cooper, Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer

Force, RAND Report R-1450-ARPA (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND,

September 1977), 86–94.

57.-Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress:

Student Attrition at the Five Federal Service Academies (Washington, D.C.:

General Accounting Office, 1976), 16–23.

58.-Nancy Guinn, Identification of Service Irritants, AFHRL-TR-75-52

(Brooks AFB, Tex.: Air Force Systems Command, 1973).

113
59.-James E. Dougherty and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff, Eurocommunism and

the Atlantic Alliance, special report (Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign

Policy Analysis, 1977), 6.

60.-Department of Defense, Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense

and the Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy,

and Secretary of the Air Force, July 1, 1958 to June 30, 1959 (Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1960), 44.

61.-Maj Mark A. Cochran, Unit-Level Automation for Air Force

Contingency Operations in Low-Intensity Conflict, Research Report no.

AU-ARI-91-4 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, June 1992), 21.

Unpublished

62.-Maj John B. Hungerford Jr., “Organization for Military Space: A

Historical Perspective,” Research Report no. 82-1235 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air Command and Staff College, 1982), 9–19.

63.-Report of Air Corps Board, “Revision of Field Service Regulations,”

study no. 45, 15 November 1983, 2.

64.-Report of the General Headquarters Air Force (Provisional) 1933, ca.

20 July 1933.

Unpublished Papers

65.-Richard K. Betts, “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force:

American Military Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976” (PhD diss.,

Harvard University, 1975), 78–86.

66.-Betts, 80. [shortened form]

67.-Dorothy Ross, “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study

in Social Mobility” (master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.), 142–55.

68.-P. Thomas, “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military” (paper

presented at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica,

Calif., February 1976), 8.

69.-Thomas, 7. [shortened form]

Public Documents

When you use an endnote citing congressional hearings and other public

documents, include the following information:

1.-Author (name of house, committee, and subcommittee if any)

2.-Title of document

3.-Number of Congress and session number

4.-Date of publication (year)

5.-Part and number of report or document, if applicable

6.-Page number(s)

114
Sometimes you may need to include additional information. Take all

information from the title page of the document.

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

70.-House, A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased

for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards, 86th

Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H.R. 1341, 1–4.

71.-House, Organization and Management of Missile Programs, Eleventh

Report by the Committee on Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, H.R. 1121, 154–56.

72.-House, Organization and Management, 155. [shortened form]

73.-House Committee on Education and Labor, White House Conference

on Aging: Report to Accompany S. J. Res. 117, 90th Cong., 2d sess., 1 May

1968, 5.

74.-Senate, Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations,

70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935, S. Doc. 92, pt. 71A.

75.-House, United States Defense Policies in 1958, 86th Cong., 1st sess.,

1959, H. Doc. 227, 114.

76.-H.R. Report 871, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943, 49.

77.-Senate, Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and

Use of Outer Space, 1954–1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, S. Doc. 18, 55–56.

78.-Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Foreign

Policy, 86th Cong., 2d sess., 1960, Committee Print, 1:729.

79.-House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Central America, 1981: Report

to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, prepared by Hon Gerry E. Studds, 97th

Cong., 1st sess., 1981, Committee Print, 31.

80.-House Committee, Central America, 1981, 30. [shortened form]

81.-Department of State, American Foreign Policy, Current Documents,

1958 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962), 1413.

Hearings

82.-Senate, Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the

Air Force of the Committee on Armed Services, 84th Cong., 2d sess., 1956,

52.

83.-Senate, Study of Air Power, 1727. [shortened form]

84.-Senate, Investigation of Governmental Organization for Space Activities:

Hearings before the Subcommittee on Governmental Activities of the

Committee on Aeronautical and Space Science, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959,

379–80.

85.-House, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1954: Hearings

before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong.,

1st sess., 1953, 317.

115
86.-House, DOD Appropriations for 1954, 289–91. [shortened form]

87.-House, Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services:

Hearings before the Select Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the

United States Air Services, 69th Cong., 2d sess., 1925, pt. 4:2269–70.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Known as public laws or statutes, bills and resolutions first appear in the

Congressional Record, then in United States Statutes at Large, often in the

United States Code Annotated, and finally in the United States Code.

88.-Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100.

89.-Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100,

Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985): H8461–66.

90.-H.R. 11818, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1956, sec. 301(a).

91.-S. Resolution 218, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1954.

92.-Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2d sess. (1

August 1946), 12, 19.

93.-Atomic Energy Act of 1946, US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 767, 774.

[Citations to the statutes are to volume, year, and page number.]

94.-Declaratory Judgment Act, US Code, vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

[Citations to the code are always to section number, not page.]

95.-Declaratory Judgment Act, secs. 2201–2. [shortened form]

Executive department documents

96.-Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (Washington,

D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense [Manpower, Reserve

Affairs and Logistics], March 1982), 19.

97.-Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth, 23. [shortened

form]

98.-Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve Manpower

Strengths and Statistics, Fiscal Year 1985 Summary (Washington, D.C.:

Assistant Secretary of Defense [Reserve Affairs], n.d.), 8.

99.-Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve, 16. [shortened

form]

Presidential proclamations, executive

orders, other documents

100.-President, Proclamation, “Supplemental Quota on Imports of

Long-Staple Cotton,” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127,

microfiche.

116
101.-Executive Order 9877, Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July

1947.

102.-EO 9877. [shortened form]

103.-Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D.

Eisenhower, 1957 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1958),

796.

104.-Public Papers: Eisenhower, 274–90. [shortened form]

105.-Statement of the president, 26 January 1968, in Weekly Compilation

of Presidential Documents 4, no. 4 (29 January 1968): 133.

106.-UN General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI), “International

Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 20 December 1961.

Classified Sources

Mark classified documents with the classification of the title (immediately

following the title) and with the overall classification of the document (at the

end of the publication data). If you take unclassified information from a

classified source, put a statement to that effect after the overall classification

marking.

107.-TAF SON 302-81, Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack

Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

108.-Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence, “Linebacker II: 18–29

December 72” (U), supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information

extracted is unclassified.

109.-Robert L. Faloon, Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U)

(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1983), 37. (Secret) Information

extracted is unclassified.

Letters and Indorsements

110.-Maj W. G. Kilner, executive, Office of Chief of Air Service, to

commandant, Air Service Tactical School, letter, subject: Proposed Revision

of the Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12 April 1925.

111.-Lt Col C. C. Culver to chief of Air Corps, letter, subject: Doctrine of

Employing an Aerial Force, 9 June 1928; 1st ind., Maj L. W. McIntosh,

executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps, to commandant, Air Corps

Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

112.-The Adjutant General to commanding generals, all corps areas et al.,

letter, subject: General Headquarters Air Force, 31 December 1934.

113.-Capt Harry A. Johnson, Command and General Staff School, to

chief, Air Corps, letter, subject: Multiengine Fighter Aircraft, 18 January

1935; 2d ind., Lt Col H. A. Pratt, chief, Air Corps, Materiel Division, to

117
chief, Air Corps, 16 February 1935; 3d ind., Col A. G. Fisher, president, Air

Corps Board, to chief, Air Corps, 15 July 1945.

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

114.-Lt Col G. W. Bundy, War Plans Division, War Department General

Staff, memorandum to Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division,

subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

115.-Col William W. Momyer, deputy commandant for evaluation, Air

War College, memorandum to Maj Gen John DeF. Barker, deputy

commanding general, Air University, subject: Progress of the Manual

Program, 17 September 1952.

116.-Momyer. [shortened form]

Draft memorandum

117.-Chief, Air Corps, draft memorandum to chief of staff, Army,

subject: Additional Naval Air Bases, 28 March 1938.

Memorandum of understanding

118.-Secretary of the Army, memorandum of understanding with

secretary of the Air Force, subject: Contractor Applications and Procedures,

2 October 1951.

Memorandum for record

119.-Gen Nathan F. Twining, vice chief of staff, US Air Force,

memorandum for record, subject: Functions of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus,

and General White, 17 November 1950.

120.-Maj Frank M. Johnson, memorandum for record, subject: Guided

Missiles Program, 22 August 1951.

Messages

121.-Message, TST-587, Joint Chiefs of Staff, to commanding general,

Strategic Air Command, 13 April 1949.

122.-Message, AFCVC-51413, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 14 August 1950.

123.-Message, 281415Z OCT 90, US Air Force to commanding general,

Far East Air Forces, 28 October 1990.

118
Manuals, Instructions,

Directives, and Other Publications

124.-Air Force Manual (AFM) 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the

United States Air Force, vol. 1, March 1992, v.

125.-AFM 1-1, vol. 1, 5. [shortened form]

126.-War Department, Field Service Regulations, United States Army

(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1924), 11, 21–24.

127.-War Department Training Regulation (WDTR) 440-15, Employment of the Air Forces of the Army, 15 October 1935.

128.-WDTR 440-15. [shortened form]

129.-Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501, Criteria for Air Force Assessments,

August 1995.

130.-Air Force Pamphlet (AFP) 36-2705, Discrimination and Sexual

Harassment, February 1995.

131.-Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60, Training and Education,

October 1995.

132.-DOD Directive 5030.18, Department of Defense Support of

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 25 August 1966.

133.-TIG [The Inspector General] Brief, 27 March 1970, 3.

134.-Maj Gary Ambrose, Staff Summary Sheet, Memorandum of

Agreement on USAF Air Refueling Support for Navy Operations, 13

December 1985.

135.-Air Force Policy Letter for Commanders: Supplement, February 1970, 2–6.

Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

136.-Quoted in George E. Lowe, The Age of Deterrence (Boston: Little

Brown & Co., 1964), 232.

137.-Quoted in Lowe, 234. [shortened form]

138.-Quoted in Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy Fights a Limited

War: Korea, 1950–1953,” in Major Crises in American History:

Documentary Problems, ed. Merrill F. Peterson and Leonard W. Levy (New

York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), 2:481.

139.-Letter of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to Cong. Robert

Miller, 3 November 1961, in House, Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on

Armed Services, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, 2729–30.

140.-Statement of Lt Gen Paul Gorman, director for plans and policy,

Organization of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in Senate, Department of Defense

Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1982: Hearings before the

119
Subcommittee on Sea Power and Force Projection of the Committee on

Armed Services, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, pt. 4:89.

141.-Statement of F. Trubee Davison in “U.S. President’s Air Policy

Commission,” unclassified testimony before the President’s Air Policy

Commission (Washington, D.C.: 1 December 1947, mimeographed), 6:2644–49.

142.-Davison, 6:2648. [shortened form]

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,

Digests, Notes, and So Forth

143.-Diary of Fleet Adm William D. Leahy, 8 February 1946, William D.

Leahy Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

144.-Minutes of the War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October 1905, quoted in Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906,

61.

145.-Minutes of monthly meetings of Army Air Forces Board, 2 January

1945.

146.-Minutes of the Patch Sword II Conference conducted at Headquarters AFSC, Andrews AFB, Maryland, October 1981, 26.

147.-Chronology, Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966), 252, 305,

373.

148.-Air Staff Summary Sheet, Lt Col Andrew C. Barbee, Policy and

Plans Group, Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, 20 March 1967.

149.-Daily Staff Digest, Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

150.-Notes, Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

151.-Briefing, 6127th Air Terminal Group, subject: Air Terminal

Detachments in Korea, 1 March 1951.

152.-Brig Gen Mervin E. Gross, chief, Requirements Division, Aviation

Section, Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces,

record and routing (R&R) sheet, subject: Centralization of Certain

Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

153.-Gross, R&R sheet, 27 November 1944. [shortened form]

154.-FM 90-14, “Rear Battle,” final draft, 19 November 1984, i.

Lectures and Addresses

155.-Maj Gen Mason M. Patrick, “The Army Air Service,” lecture, Army

War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 9 November 1925.

156.-Patrick. [shortened form]

120
157.-Gen Curtis E. LeMay, chief of staff, US Air Force, address to the

Air Force Association Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

158.-Gen Earle G. Wheeler, graduation address to the Industrial College

of the Armed Forces, Washington, D.C., 11 June 1963.

159.-Sir Robert Saundby, “British Air Doctrine,” lecture, Air War

College, Maxwell AFB, Ala., 10 November 1953.

Interviews

160.-Jerry Gibson, MCI Communications Corp., interviewed by author,

7 March 1983.

161.-Richard Voit, Warren Brasselle, and Kerry Deimer, interviewed by

author during visit to MCI Communications Corp., Southern Region,

Atlanta, Ga., 22 April 1983.

162.-Maj Gen C. E. McKnight Jr., US Army Communications Command,

Fort Huachuca, Ariz., interviewed by author, 24 February 1983.

163.-McKnight. [shortened form]

164.-Lt Col Jerry A. Singleton, transcript of oral history interview by Dr.

James C. Hasdorff, 30 October 1992, 24, US Air Force Academy Library,

Colorado Springs, Colo.

Video Recordings

165.-Morris Massey, What You Are Is, CBS-Fox Video, 30 min., 1983,

videocassette.

166.-Louis J. Mihalyi, Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa (Santa

Barbara, Calif.: Visual Education, 1975), slides.

Translation Services

167.-Sergey Agafonov, “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of

Tokyo to Open in Moscow,” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992, 7, in FBIS [Foreign

Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia, FBIS-USR92-079, 29 June 1992, 4.

168.-A. Boldinyuk, “The Karelian Issue: Does It Exist, and If So, in What

Form?” Pravda, 11 June 1992, 3, in FBIS-USR-92-079, 2. [subsequent

reference to same FBIS issue]

169.-Robert Minasov, “Gosznak Is Not Equal to the Task,” Rossiyskaya

Gazeta, 18 June 1992, 1, in FBIS-USR-92-080, 1 July 1992, 6. [subsequent

reference to different FBIS issue but same coverage (i.e., Central Eurasia)]

121
170.-“Opposition Parties Oppose Election Postponement,” Korea Times,

25 June 1992, 2, in FBIS Daily Report: East Asia, FBIS-EAS-92-123, 25

June 1992, 23.

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Include the following items in notes citing information published on

CD-ROM:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

1. Author’s name (if given) 1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Publication information for 2. Title of material accessed

printed source (including title (in quotation marks)

and date of print publication) 3. Date of material (if given)

3. Title of database (in italics) 4. Title of database (in italics)

4. Publication medium (CD-ROM) 5. Publication medium (CD-ROM)

5. Name of vendor 6. Name of vendor

6. Date of electronic publication 7. Date of electronic publication

171.-Natalie Angier, “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for

You,” New York Times, 13 April 1993, late ed., C1; New York Times

Ondisc, CD-ROM, UMI-Proquest, October 1993.

172.-Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990); ERIC,

CD-ROM, Silver Platter, June 1993.

173.-Michelle Cash Russo, “Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction

Blahs,” RQ: Reference Quarterly 32 (1992): 178–83; Infotrac: Magazine

Index Plus, CD-ROM, Information Access, December 1993.

174.-Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc., “Reebok: Company Report,”

29 July 1993; General Business File, CD-ROM, Information Access,

December 1993.

175.-US Department of State, “Industrial Outlook for Petroleum and

Natural Gas,” 1992; National Trade Data Bank, CD-ROM, US Department

of Commerce, 1993.

Use the following form for CD-ROMs published a single time instead of

periodically, without plans for updates or revisions:

176.-The CIA World Factbook; CD-ROM (Minneapolis: Quanta, 1992).

177.-The Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed.; CD-ROM (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1992).

Diskette

Include the following items in notes citing information published on

diskette:

122
1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Title of part of work, if relevant (in quotation marks)

3. Title of work (in italics)

4. Edition, release, or version, if relevant

5. Publication medium (diskette)

6. City of publication

7. Name of publisher

8. Year of publication

178.-Michael Joyce, Afternoon: A Story; diskette (Watertown, Conn.:

Eastgate, 1987).

179.-Richard D. Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology,

and the Arts; diskette (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

180.-Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Dejection: An Ode,” The Complete Poetical

Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Ernest Hartley Coleridge, vol. 1 (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1912), 362–68; diskette (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

Computer service

Include the following items in notes citing information available through a

computer service:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

1. Author’s name (if given) 1. Author’s name (if given)

2. Publication information for 2. Title of material accessed

printed source (including title (in quotation marks)

and date of print publication) 3. Date of material (if given)

3. Title of database (in italics) 4. Title of database (in italics)

4. Publication medium (on-line) 5. Publication medium (on-line)

5. Name of computer service 6. Name of computer service

6. Date accessed 7. Date accessed

181.-Natalie Angier, “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for

You,” New York Times, 13 April 1993, late ed., C1; New York Times Online,

on-line, Nexis, 10 February 1994.

182.-Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990); ERIC,

on-line, BRS, 22 November 1993.

183.-“Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994”;

Dow Jones Futures and Index Quotes, on-line, Dow Jones News Retrieval,

6 December 1994.

184.-“Middle Ages”; Academic American Encyclopedia, on-line, Prodigy,

30 March 1992.

Computer network

Include the following items in notes citing electronic journals, newsletters, etc.,

available through a computer network:

123
1. Author’s name (if given) 5. Date of publication

2. Title of article or document 6. Number of pages or n.p.

(in quotation marks) (no pagination)

3. Title of journal, newsletter, 7. Publication medium (on-line)

etc. (in italics) 8. Name of computer network

4. Volume number, issue number, 9. Date accessed

or other identifying number 10. Electronic address

 (If you have to break the address

at the end of a line, do so after

punctuation [e.g., / or .])

185.-Capt Edward B. Westermann, “Contemporary Civil-Military Relations:

Is the Republic in Danger?” Airpower Journal, Summer 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 14 February 1996, available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/apj/wester.html.

186.-William Schipper, “Quirk and Wrenn Grammar,” AnSax-L, 22

February 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 10 December 1995, available from

http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

187.-David Schorr, “New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities,”

Air Chronicles, 30 October 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 January 1995,

available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

188.-Tom Huntington, “Encore for an SST,” Air and Space Magazine,

30 October 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.html.

189.-“Update on Cockpit Motion Facility,” Flight Simulation News,

February 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

http://ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

190.-“Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by

Library,” AU [Auburn University] Report—Faculty and Staff Newsletter,

14 August 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/8-14-95/cuts.

Use the following form to cite electronic texts (e.g., literary works and

historical documents) available through computer networks:

191.-Frances McSparran, ed., Octovian, Early English Text Society, no. 289

(London: Oxford University Press, 1986); on-line, Internet, 6 April 1994,

available from ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

124
APPENDIX B

Examples of several categories of bibliographic citations appear below.

For other examples, see the entry bibliography in this guide and chapter 15

of The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.).

Books

One author

Westmoreland, Gen William C. A Soldier Reports. Garden City, N.Y.:

Doubleday & Co., 1976.

Two authors

Masland, John W., and Laurence I. Radway. Soldiers and Scholars: Military

Education and National Policy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University

Press, 1957.

Three authors

Strausz-Hupe, Robert, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony. A

Forward Strategy for America. New York: Harper & Bros., 1961.

More than three authors

Pomper, Gerald, et al. The Election of 1976. New York: McKay, 1977.

No author given

Soviet Military Power. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1983.

Editor, compiler, or translator

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard

and Peter Paret. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957.

Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, 1957.

Mayer, J. P. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America. Translated by

George Lawrence. New York: Doubleday & Co., 1969.

125
Multivolume works and series

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in

World War II. 7 vols. 1948–1958. New imprint, Washington, D.C.:

Office of Air Force History, 1983.

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in

World War II. Vol. 2, Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to

December 1943. 1949. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air

Force History, 1983.

Trest, Warren A. Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and

Future Implications. CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the Air

Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University

Press, December 1991.

Association or institution as author

Gates Commission. The Report of the President’s Commission on an AllVolunteer Armed Force. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,

1970.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

Warden, Col John A., III. “Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century.” In

Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns.

Edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

University Press, August 1994.

Edition

Hazard, John N. The Soviet System of Government. 5th ed. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Reprint editions

Harris, Neil. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860.

1966. Reprint, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

“Congress Sends Nixon a Message.” Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

Volume number shown

Rosser, Col Richard F. “American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s.”

Naval War College Review 24, no. 10 (June 1972): [first and last page

numbers of article (e.g., 14–20)].

126
Newspaper Items

Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986.

New York Times, 17 February–11 March 1996.

Encyclopedia Articles

Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies.

Historical Studies

Finney, Robert T. History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940.

USAF Historical Study 100. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF Historical

Division, Air University, 1955.

Staff Studies

Evaluation Division, Air University. To Analyze the USAF Publications

System for Producing Manuals. Staff study, 13 July 1948.

Staudenmaier, Col Herbert V. CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study.

Staff study, 31 March 1983.

Unit and Staff Office Histories

History. Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans,

Headquarters USAF, July–December 1958.

History. Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953.

Reports

Published

Erickson, John. The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics. USSI

Report 73-3. Washington, D.C.: United States Strategic Institute, 1973.

Unpublished

Hungerford, Maj John B. Jr. “Organization for Military Space: A Historical

Perspective.” Research Report no. 82-1235. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

Command and Staff College, 1982.

127
Unpublished Papers

Betts, Richard K. “Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force: American Military

Influence in Crisis Decisions, 1945–1976.” PhD diss., Harvard

University, 1975.

Ross, Dorothy. “The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in

Social Mobility.” Master’s thesis, Columbia University, n.d.

Thomas, P. “Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military.” Paper presented

at the RAND Conference on Defense Manpower. Santa Monica, Calif.,

February 1976.

Public Documents

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

US House. A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased

for Use by the Federal Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards.

86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959. H. R. 1341.

US Senate. Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use

of Outer Space, 1954–1962. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963. S. Doc. 18.

US Senate. Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations. 70th Cong., 1st sess., 1935. S. Doc. 92.

Hearings

US Senate. Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Air

Force of the Committee on Armed Services. 84th Cong., 2d sess., 1956.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Public Law 585. 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1 August 1946.

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 755–75.

Declaratory Judgment Act. US Code. Vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

US House. Food Security Act of 1985. 99th Cong., 1st sess., H. R. 2100.

Congressional Record, 131, no. 132, daily ed. (8 October 1985): H8461–66.

Executive department documents

US Department of Defense. Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration

of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery. Washington, D.C.:

Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve

Affairs and Logistics), March 1982.

128
Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States:

Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1958.

Executive Order 9877. Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July 1947.

President. Proclamation. “Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple

Cotton.” Federal Register 15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127. Microfiche.

Classified Sources

Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence. “Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72”

(U). Supporting document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted

is unclassified.

Faloon, Robert L. Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U). Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air University Press, 1983. (Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

TAF SON 302-81. Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack

Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982. (Secret)

Letters and Indorsements

Culver, Lt Col C. C. To chief of Air Corps. Letter. Subject: Doctrine of Employing an Aerial Force, 9 June 1928. 1st ind. Maj L. W. McIntosh,

executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps. To commandant, Air

Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

Kilner, Maj W. G., executive, Office of Chief of Air Service. To commandant,

Air Service Tactical School. Letter. Subject: Proposed Revision of the

Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12 April 1925.

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

Bundy, Lt Col G. W., War Plans Division, War Department General Staff.

Memorandum. To Lt Col Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division.

Subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

Draft memorandum

Chief, Air Corps. Draft memorandum. To chief of staff, Army. Subject:

Additional Naval Air Bases, 28 March 1938.

129
Memorandum of understanding

Secretary of the Army. Memorandum of understanding. With secretary of the

Air Force. Subject: Contractor Applications and Procedures, 2 October

1951.

Memorandum for record

Twining, Gen Nathan F., vice chief of staff, US Air Force. Memorandum for

record. Subject: Functions of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus, and General

White, 17 November 1950.

Messages

Message. 281415Z OCT 90. US Air Force. To commanding general, Far

East Air Forces, 28 October 1990.

Manuals, Instructions, Directives,

and Other Publications

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60. Training and Education,

October 1995.

Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501. Criteria for Air Force Assessments,

August 1995.

Air Force Manual (AFM) 1-1. Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United

States Air Force. 2 vols., March 1992.

Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-2705. Discrimination and Sexual

Harassment, February 1995.

Department of Defense (DOD) Directive 5030.18. Department of Defense

Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 25 August

1966.

Sources Cited/Quoted in Another Source

McNamara, Robert, secretary of defense. To Cong. Robert Miller. Letter, 3

November 1961. In US House. Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval

and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the Committee on

Armed Services. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.

130
Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,

Digests, Notes, and So Forth

Barbee, Lt Col Andrew C., Policy and Plans Group. Air Staff Summary

Sheet. Report of Air Force Support of National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, 20 March 1967.

Briefing. 6127th Air Terminal Group. Subject: Air Terminal Detachments in

Korea, 1 March 1951.

Chronology. Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966).

Daily Staff Digest. Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

Field Manual (FM) 90-14. “Rear Battle.” Final draft, 19 November 1984.

Gross, Brig Gen Mervin E., chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section,

Signal Corps, Office of the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces.

Record and Routing (R&R) sheet. Subject: Centralization of Certain

Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. Diary. William D. Leahy Papers. Manuscript

Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Minutes. War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October

1905. In Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906.

Notes. Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

Lectures and Addresses

LeMay, Gen Curtis E., chief of staff, US Air Force. Address. Air Force

Association Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

Patrick, Maj Gen Mason M. “The Army Air Service.” Lecture. Army War

College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa., 9 November 1925.

Wheeler, Gen Earle G. Graduation address. Industrial College of the Armed

Forces, Washington, D.C., 11 June 1963.

Interviews

It is not necessary to include interviews in a bibliography.

Video Recordings

Massey, Morris. What You Are Is. CBS-Fox Video. 30 min., 1983. Videocassette.

Mihalyi, Louis J. Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa. Santa Barbara,

Calif.: Visual Education, 1975. Slides.

131
Translation Services

Agafonov, Sergey. “Japan in Russia’s Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to

Open in Moscow.” Izvestiya, 9 June 1992. In FBIS [Foreign Broadcast

Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia. FBIS-USR-92-079, 29

June 1992.

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Angier, Natalie. “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You.” New

York Times, 13 April 1993. New York Times Ondisc. CD-ROM.

UMI-Proquest, October 1993.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse

on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC.

CD-ROM. Silver Platter, June 1993.

The Oxford English Dictionary. 2d ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1992.

Russo, Michelle Cash. “Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction Blahs.” RQ:

Reference Quarterly 32 (1992): [first and last page numbers of article

(e.g., 178–83)]. Infotrac: Magazine Index Plus. CD-ROM. Information

Access, December 1993.

Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc. “Reebok: Company Report,” 29 July 1993.

General Business File. CD-ROM. Information Access, December

1993.

Diskette

Joyce, Michael. Afternoon: A Story. Diskette. Watertown, Conn.: Eastgate,

1987.

Computer service

Angier, Natalie. “Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You.” New

York Times, 13 April 1993. New York Times Online. On-line. Nexis, 10

February 1994.

“Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994.” Dow

Jones Futures and Index Quotes. On-line. Dow Jones News Retrieval,

6 December 1994.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse

on Elementary and Early Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC. On-line.

BRS, 22 November 1993.

132
Computer network

“Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by Library.” AU [Auburn

University] Report—Faculty and Staff Newsletter, 14 August 1995, n.p.

[no pagination]. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996. Available from

gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/8-14-95/cuts.

Huntington, Tom. “Encore for an SST.” Air and Space Magazine, 30

October 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996. Available

from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.html.

McSparran, Frances, ed. Octovian. Early English Text Society, no. 289.

London: Oxford University Press, 1986. On-line. Internet, 6 April 1994.

Available from ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

Schipper, William. “Quirk and Wrenn Grammar.” AnSax-L, 22 February

1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 10 December 1995. Available from

http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

Schorr, David. “New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities.” Air

Chronicles, 30 October 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 January 1995.

Available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

“Update on Cockpit Motion Facility.” Flight Simulation News, February

1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15 February 1996. Available from

http://ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

Westermann, Capt Edward B. “Contemporary Civil-Military Relations: Is the

Republic in Danger?” Airpower Journal, Summer 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet,

14 February 1996. Available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/apj/wester.html.

133
APPENDIX C

Copyright

An “original work of authorship” is protected by the copyright laws

of the United States, regardless of whether or not the work is published

and whether or not it is registered with the Copyright Office. “Works

of authorship” include written manuscripts and other literary works, as

well as original graphic or pictorial material, visual art, audiovisual

works, motion pictures, and sound recordings. The owner of a

copyright has the exclusive right of reproduction, adaptation,

publication, performance, and display of the work. For that reason, if

you intend to use another person’s work (e.g., text, graphs, tables,

photographs, paintings, film clips, music clips, etc.) in a work of your

own, you must obtain written permission from the copyright owner.

Two important exceptions to this principle follow.

First, you need not obtain permission if the work is in the public

domain. Such works are considered public property and may be used

by anybody. A work of the United States government (defined as a

work prepared by an officer or employee of the United States

government as part of that person’s official duties) is in the public

domain, as is a work whose copyright has expired. The duration of a

copyright is the life of the author plus 50 years (other time limits apply

when the author is unknown). If you have any doubts about the

currency of a work’s copyright, check with the Copyright Office. If 75

years have passed since the year of publication in the United States and

the Copyright Office certifies that it has no information to the contrary,

you may safely assume that the work is in the public domain.

Second, you need not obtain permission if you use material in

accordance with the doctrine of fair use. This doctrine allows you to

use another person’s work for purposes of criticism, comment, news

reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. For example, you may

quote passages of copyrighted material for purposes of critical analysis

and review or for purposes of supporting your own work. You may

also reproduce copyrighted pictorial material for critical purposes (e.g.,

use of a photograph to facilitate commentary on techniques of

photographic composition). In determining whether a use is fair, the

doctrine considers the following four factors:

1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such

use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes.

Commercial use generally is presumed to be unfair. On the other hand,

135
nonprofit educational use is not deemed automatically to be fair, but it

is more likely to be so treated, particularly if a public benefit results

from the use.

2. The nature of the copyrighted work. The use of creative works,

as opposed to informational ones, is less likely to be deemed fair use.

Fictional works are afforded more protection than factual ones.

3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to

the copyrighted work as a whole. The doctrine of fair use does not

specify a particular number of words, lines, graphs, and so forth, that

you may use without permission. A rule of reasonableness applies,

both quantitatively and qualitatively. Generally speaking, you cannot

reproduce a work in its entirety—a poem, an essay, a song, or an

individually copyrighted article in a journal or magazine—without

obtaining permission. Nor can you use the “heart of the work” (i.e., the

key or essential material) without obtaining permission.

4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of,

the copyrighted work. While all of the factors must be considered in

determining the applicability of the fair use doctrine, this fourth and

final factor is the single most important element of the analysis.

Commercial use is presumptively harmful to the future value of the

work used. Noncommercial use, however, requires a meaningful (and

demonstrable) likelihood of future harm before the use is considered

unfair.

Whether or not you obtain permission from the copyright owner to

use part of a work, you should always credit the author and the source

of the borrowed material [see also plagiarism]. Merely acknowledging

the source does not substitute for obtaining permission if circumstances so

dictate. If you do obtain permission, you should identify your source,

followed by a statement such as “Reprinted by permission of the

publisher.” An illustration should be accompanied by a note such as

“Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art.”

The rapid expansion of electronic communications and the growth

of the Internet have given rise to complex legal issues that are as yet

unresolved. Pending legislation and ongoing litigation will no doubt

have an effect on how copyright laws are applied on-line. In the

meantime, you would do well to assume that the same principles of

copyright protection that apply to traditional written and pictorial

material apply to materials found on-line. That is, you should obtain

permission to use any text, photographs, artwork, and so forth that you

find on-line unless that material is in the public domain or you

reproduce it in accordance with the doctrine of fair use (and you

should credit your source in any case). Likewise, you should apply the

same principles that apply to materials you use in your printed writings

to any materials you want to use in electronic or multimedia creations,

such as CD-ROMs.

136
Bibliography

Air War College. Handbook on Research and Writing. Maxwell AFB, Ala.:

Air University, 1982.

AU-12. Plain English, Please! Prepared by John Smith and Maj John R.

Grellman Jr. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University, 1982.

The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1993.

Copperud, Roy H. American Usage and Style: The Consensus. New York:

Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980.

Ebbitt, Wilma R., and David R. Ebbitt. Writer’s Guide and Index to English.

7th ed. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1982.

Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. A Dictionary of Contemporary

American Usage. New York: Random House, 1957.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New

York: Modern Language Association of America, 1995.

Heflin, Woodford Agee, ed. The United States Air Force Dictionary.

Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1956.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Mass.:

Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989.

Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield, Mass.:

Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1993.

The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage: A Desk Book of

Guidelines for Writers and Editors. Revised and edited by Lewis

Jordan. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1976.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

United States Government Printing Office: Style Manual. Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1984.

Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language,

Unabridged. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Co., 1981.

137
Air University Style Guide

Foreword

The faculty, staff, and students of Air University have always been productive members of the academic

community. Until now, however, we have not had a document that could unify our writing stylistically.

The Air University Style Guide will do just that.

Rapid expansion in the field of electronic media—especially the Internet—promises increased access to

AU research and writing. For that reason, we should assure that our efforts are sound—not only

substantively but stylistically. Based on recognized but forward-looking principles of standard English

usage, the Air University Style Guide provides reliable guidance on such matters as punctuation,

capitalization, abbreviation, documentation, numbers, spelling, and much more. Following the advice

found in this guide will make AU publications stylistically consistent and acceptable. I commend it to

your use.

JAY W. KELLEY

Lieutenant General, USAF

Commander

Air University

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [H] [I] [J] [K] [L] [M] [N] [O] [P] [Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W] [X] [Y] [Z]

 Preface

 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

 Back to Research Starting Points

 Back to Air University Home Page

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If you wish to receive a response to this message, it is critical that you provide a valid e-mail address.

If you do not receive a copy of your message, you did not provide a valid e-mail address.

 to Marvin.Bassett@maxwell.af.mil (Marvin-Bassett)

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Air University Style Guide

—A—

a/an.

Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a historical event, not an historical

event. Since an acronym is usually read as a series of letters or as a word, choose the indefinite

article in accordance with the pronunciation of the first letter (an NCA decision) or the

pronunciation of the word (a NATO meeting).

AB (air base).

Cite a first reference to a specific air base as follows: Rhein-Main Air Base (AB), Germany.

Subsequent references: Rhein-Main AB, Germany; the air base; the base. See also AFB.

abbreviations and acronyms.

Use abbreviations and acronyms sparingly: don't abbreviate words and phrases merely for the sake

of doing so when brevity is not of the essence, and don't saturate writing with abbreviations,

acronyms, and the like to the detriment of reader comprehension.

Avoid using abbreviations and acronyms in headings unless the spelled-out term would make the

heading unwieldy. You may, however, begin or end a sentence with an abbreviation or acronym.

Spell out the name of an agency, organization, and so forth, the first time you use it, and follow it

with the acronym or abbreviation in parentheses; you may use the acronym or abbreviation

(without periods) thereafter:

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

Air Command and Staff College (ACSC)

Internal Revenue Service (IRS)

Cable News Network (CNN)

program evaluation review technique (PERT)

professional military education (PME)

As a reminder to the reader, you may want to spell out acronyms or abbreviations that you have

identified previously—especially when you haven't used them in a long time. You do not have to

include the acronym or abbreviation again in parentheses.

Although a term may be plural or possessive, do not make the acronym or abbreviation plural or

possessive on first usage: cluster bomb units (CBU); low noise amplifiers (LNA); commander in

chief's (CINC). Use the plural or possessive form for subsequent occurrences of the acronym or

abbreviation, when appropriate: CBUs, LNAs, CINC's.

Spell out the names of countries in text. Use USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) to refer

to the country as it existed between 1917 and 1991. You may abbreviate the names of countries in

tables and figures, if necessary. See also Commonwealth of Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet

Union, USSR; US; USSR.

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United States

United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom

Republic of South Africa

Commonwealth of Independent States

Abbreviate civilian and military titles or ranks if you use a person's full name. Do not use periods

with military ranks. When you use only the last name, spell out the title or rank: (see also military

titles before names)

Adm Chester W. Nimitz Admiral Nimitz

Vice Adm John Smith Admiral Smith

Gen Robert E. Lee General Lee

Brig Gen James Stewart General Stewart

Lt Col Martin L. Green Colonel Green

Maj Frank T. Boothe Major Boothe

Capt Donald D. Martin Captain Martin

1st Lt Peter N. Cushing Lieutenant Cushing

2d Lt Boyd D. Yeats Lieutenant Yeats

Wing Comdr David Schubert Commander Schubert

CMSgt Robert Patterson Chief Patterson

MSgt Walter Austin Sergeant Austin

A1C K. L. Jones Airman Jones

Sen. John F. Kerry (D-Mass.) Senator Kerry

Rep. Terry Everett (R-Ala.) Representative Everett

Cong. Glen Browder Congressman Browder

Abbreviate units of measure after spelling out on first usage (no periods) when they are used

repeatedly; otherwise spell out the terms. Capitalize abbreviations for terms derived from proper

names (e.g., Hz). Singular and plural abbreviated forms for units of measure are the same. See also

numbers.

gallon gal

hertz Hz

kilogram kg

miles per hour MPH

degrees Celsius 70° C

revolutions per minute rpm

kilometer km

millimeter mm

pounds per square inch psi

nautical miles NM

Spell out the names of states, territories, and possessions of the United States in textual material.

When the names appear in lists, tabular matter, notes, bibliographies, and indexes, use the

following abbreviations:

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Ala. Kans. Ohio

Alaska Ky. Okla.

Amer. Samoa La. Oreg. or Ore.

Ariz. Maine Pa.

Ark. Md. P.R.

Calif. Mass. R.I.

C.Z. Mich. S.C.

Colo. Minn. S.Dak.

Conn. Miss. Tenn.

Del. Mo. Tex.

D.C. Mont. Utah

Fla. Nebr. Vt.

Ga. Nev. Va.

Guam N.H. V.I.

Hawaii N.J. Wash.

Idaho N.Mex. W.Va.

Ill. N.Y. Wis. or Wisc.

Ind. N.C. Wyo.

Iowa N.Dak.

In notes, bibliographies, and reference lists, you may use abbreviations freely, but be consistent.

You may also use abbreviated forms in parenthetical references. Use the following terms: vol. 1,

bk. 1, pt. 2, no. 2, chap. 2, fig. 4, art. 3, sec. 4, par. 5, col. 6, p. 7, n.d. (no date). The plurals are

vols., bks., pts., nos., chaps., figs., arts., secs., pars., cols., pp.

above.

You may use above to refer to information higher on the same page or on a preceding page:

There are flaws in the above interpretation.

academic degrees and titles.

Abbreviate academic degrees and titles (no periods) after a personal name. See also bachelor's

degree; master's degree.

BA

MA

PhD

LLD

MD

DDS

JP (justice of the peace)

MP (member of Parliament)

active Air Force

active duty (n., adj.)

active voice.

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When the grammatical subject performs the action represented by the verb, the verb is in active

voice.

The congregation sang "Abide with Me."

Mr. Conrad gave his son a car.

The police caught the thieves.

See also passive voice.

acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

Capitalize the full title (formal or popular) of an act or law, but lowercase all shortened forms:

Atomic Energy Act, the act; Sherman Antitrust Law, the antitrust law, the law; Article 6, the

article.

A legislative measure is a bill until it is enacted; it then becomes an act or law. Lowercase bills and

proposed constitutional amendments not yet enacted into law: equal rights amendment, food stamp

bill.

Capitalize an enacted and ratified amendment to the United States Constitution when you use its

formal title (including the number): the Fifth Amendment, the 18th Amendment. But lowercase

informal titles of amendments: the income tax amendment.

A.D. (anno Domini).

The abbreviation A.D. (set in small caps) precedes the year: A.D. 107. See also B.C.

administration.

Capitalize administration as part of the name of an agency: General Services Administration.

Lowercase administration as part of the name of a political organization: Nixon administration.

AFB (Air Force base).

Cite a first reference to a specific Air Force base as follows: Maxwell Air Force Base (AFB),

Alabama. Subsequent references: Maxwell AFB, Alabama; the Air Force base; the base. In notes

and bibliographies, abbreviate the name of the state: Maxwell AFB, Ala.

AFRES (Air Force Reserve).

See also Reserve(s).

African-American (n., adj.)

Afro-American (n., adj.)

AFROTC (Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps)

agency.

Capitalize the full title of an agency, but lowercase the shortened form: Federal Security Agency,

the agency.

aircraft.

Do not italicize the class designation and class name of aircraft: F-15 Eagle, SR-71 Blackbird,

Boeing 747. Italicize the name of a particular aircraft: Spirit of St. Louis, Enola Gay. Show model

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designations by adding the letter without a space: F-4C, B-52H. Form plurals by adding an s (no

apostrophe): F-15s, SR-71s, F-4Cs, B-52Hs. See also apostrophe; italics.

aircrew

air division.

If you refer to an air division (now defunct), use the following form: 2d Air Division. For generic

references, use air division.

airdrop (n.)

air-drop (v.)

air-droppable (adj.)

airfield

air force.

Spell out air force either as a noun or an adjective.

Always use initial capitals when you refer to the US Air Force. Use lowercase letters when you

refer to an air force in general.

Capitalize the term when it is part of the official name of a foreign air force: Royal Air Force. But

use lowercase letters for subsequent references: British air force.

When you refer to a numbered air force, spell out and capitalize the ordinal number: Fifth Air

Force, Fourteenth Air Force. Use arabic numbers to refer to units below the level of numbered air

forces: 502d Air Base Wing, 2d Aircraft Delivery Group.

Air Force abbreviations.

See Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms.

Air Force One (the president's aircraft)

Air Force–wide (adj., adv.)

air land (v.)

air-land (adj.)

AirLand Battle

airlift (n., v.)

airman

airpower.

But land power, sea power, space power.

airspace

air strike (n.)

allied, allies.

Capitalize allied and allies when you mention them in the context of World War I and World War

II.

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all-weather fighter

A.M. (ante meridiem [before noon]).

The standard practice is to typeset the abbreviation in small caps.

amendments.

See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

ampersand (&).

Change & in original titles to and: Aviation Week and Space Technology. You may use either the

ampersand or and as it appears in company names in notes, bibliographies, lists, and parenthetical

references (Harper & Row, Harper and Row), but be consistent. The ampersand also occurs in

some abbreviations: R&D.

and/or.

Acceptable, but overuse can make your writing stilted.

ANG (Air National Guard).

Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard; use lowercase letters for guardsman.

anti-.

Words formed with the prefix anti- are usually written solid: antiaircraft, antisubmarine. See also

compound words.

apostrophe.

Form the possessive of singular nouns by adding an apostrophe and an s, and the possessive of

plural nouns (except for irregular plurals) by adding an apostrophe only: the student's book, the

oxen's tails, the libraries' directors, the United States's policy. However, if the addition of 's to a

singular noun causes difficulty in pronunciation, add the apostrophe only: for righteousness' sake.

Show joint possession by using the possessive form for the second noun only: Bill and Judy's

home. Show individual possession by using the possessive form for both nouns: our dog's and cat's

toys. Form expressions of duration in the same way you do possessives: an hour's delay, three

weeks' worth.

You can apply the general rule to most proper nouns, including most names ending in sibilants:

Burns's poems, Marx's theories, Jefferson Davis's home (but Aristophanes' play), the Rosses' and

the Williamses' lands.

Form the possessive of nouns ending in silent s according to the general rule: corps's.

To show possession for compound nouns, add an apostrophe s to the final word:

secretary-treasurer's, mother-in-law's, mothers-in-law's.

To show possession for indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and an s to the last component of

the pronoun: someone's car, somebody else's books.

Do not use apostrophes in plurals of decades identified by century: 1960s, 1980s.

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Do not use apostrophes to show plurals of letters and figures unless such punctuation is necessary

to avoid confusion: Bs and Cs; 1s, 2s, and 3s; B-52s and F-15s; but A's, a's, i's, and u's.

appendix.

Designate appendixes as Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, and so forth. Lowercase

appendix when you refer to an appendix in text (see appendix A). If you wish to include a

published document, such as an Air Force instruction, as an appendix to your study, you should

reproduce that document verbatim.

armed forces

army.

Always capitalize army when you refer to the US Army, but use lowercase letters when you refer

to an army in general:

A contemporary army is probably more effective than its World War II counterpart.

For foreign armies, see capitalization.

ARNG (Army National Guard).

Capitalize the shortened title: the Guard.

art, artwork.

See illustration.

article (part of a document).

See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [H] [I] [J] [K] [L] [M] [N] [O] [P] [Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W] [X] [Y] [Z]

 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

 Back to Research Starting Points

 Back to Air University Home Page

Air University Style Guide: A

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Air University Style Guide

—C—

caliber (of weapons).

Indicate the caliber of a gun either in whole numbers or decimals, depending on the type:

.38-caliber revolver, 9-mm automatic, 105-mm howitzer, 12-gauge shotgun.

capitalization.

The modern tendency is to use as few capital letters as possible. A guiding principle is to avoid

capitalizing anytime you are in doubt. The following conventions will help you decide whether

capital letters are appropriate.

Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles and titles of nobility when they

immediately precede someone's name:

President Clinton General Kelley

Secretary of Defense Perry Sergeant Mann

Queen Caroline Professor Elliott

Cardinal Bernadin Colonel Allen

Capitalize titles associated with more than one person:

Generals Grant and Lee

Lowercase titles that follow someone's name or that stand alone:

Bill Clinton, president

 of the United States

the president

William Perry, secretary

 of defense

the secretary of defense

Richard Shelby, senator

 from Alabama

the senator

Gen Ronald R. Fogleman,

 Air Force chief of staff

the chief of staff

Lt Gen Jay W. Kelley,

 Air University commander

the commander

Lowercase titles used in apposition to a name:

Montgomery mayor Emory Folmar

Air Force general John M. Loh

Names of buildings, monuments, and so forth, are capitalized:

the White House the Eiffel Tower

the Israeli Embassy the Tomb of the Unknowns

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Capitalize the full and (oftentimes) the shortened names of national governmental and military

bodies:

US Congress Congress

Department of Defense Defense Department,

 the department

Department of State State Department,

 the department

US Air Force Air Force

US Army Army

US Marine Corps Marine Corps, Marines

US Navy Navy

Montgomery City Council city council

Capitalize the full names of boards, committees, organizations, and bureaus:

National Labor Relations Board

Committee on Foreign Affairs

Organization of American States

Bureau of Census

Veterans Administration

Do not capitalize shortened forms of the full titles for departments, directorates, centers, and

similar organizations:

Department of Labor the department

Directorate of Data Processing the directorate

Center for Strategic Studies the center

Special Plans Division the division

Air University Press the press

Publication Design Branch the branch

Capitalize the titles of treaties, laws, acts, bills, amendments, and similar documents, but lowercase

their shortened forms (see also acts, amendments, bills, and laws):

Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces

 (INF) Treaty

the treaty

Conventional Forces in Europe

 (CFE) Treaty

the treaty

Treaty of Verdun the treaty

National Labor Relations Act the labor act, the act

First Amendment

 (to the US Constitution)

the amendment

Capitalize the full names of judicial bodies; lowercase shortened forms and adjective derivatives

(see also Supreme Court):

California Supreme Court, state supreme court

Circuit Court of Calhoun County, county court, circuit court

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traffic court, juvenile court

Capitalize the names of national and international organizations, movements, alliances, and

members of political parties, but do not capitalize the words movement, platform, bloc, and so

forth, as part of organizational terms.

Bolshevik, Bolshevist, Bolshevik movement, Bolshevism, bolshevist (generic),

bolshevism (generic)

Communist Party (or party), the party, Communist(s), Communist bloc, Communism,

communist (generic), communism (generic)

Communist Party USA (CPUSA)

Common Market

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat, democracy, democrat (general advocate of

democracy)

Eastern bloc

Fascist Party (or party), Fascist(s), fascist (generic), fascism (generic)

Federalist Party (or party), Federalist(s), federalist (generic)

Holy Alliance

Marxism-Leninism, Marxist-Leninist, marxism (generic), marxist (generic)

right wing, right-winger, leftist, the Right, the Left

Socialist Party (or party), socialism (generic), socialist (generic)

Capitalize the names of generally accepted historical or cultural epochs:

Dark Ages

Jazz Age

Middle Ages

Reformation

Roaring Twenties

Capitalize the full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments, battalions, companies,

corps, and so forth. Lowercase the words army, navy, air force, and so forth when they are not part

of an official title (except when they refer to US forces). Similarly, capitalize the official names of

foreign military forces, but lowercase subsequent references to those forces:

Allied armies

Army of Northern Virginia

Axis powers

Continental army (American Revolution)

Eighth Air Force

Fifth Army, the Fifth, the army

1st Battalion, 178th Infantry; the battalion, the 178th

French foreign legion

Israeli Air Force, the air force

the 187th Fighter Group (Air National Guard), the group

People's Liberation Army, Red China's army, the army

Royal Air Force, British air force, the air force

Royal Navy, British navy, the navy

Royal Scots Fusiliers, the fusiliers

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Seventh Fleet, the fleet

3d Infantry Division, the division, the infantry

Union army (American Civil War)

United States Army, the Army, the American Army, the armed forces

United States Coast Guard, the Coast Guard

United States Marine Corps, the Marine Corps, the US Marines, Fleet Marine Corps

United States Signal Corps, the Signal Corps

Capitalize the full titles of wars but lowercase the words war and battle when used alone:

American Civil War, the Civil War, the war

American Revolution, the Revolution, the Revolutionary War

Battle (or battle) of Bunker Hill

Battle of the Bulge, the bulge

European theater of operations

Falklands War

Gulf War

Korean conflict

Korean War

Operation Overlord

Seven Years' War

Spanish Civil War

Tet offensive

Vietnam War

western front (World War I)

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the war, the two world wars

World War II (or 2), the Second World War

Capitalize the names of medals and awards:

Distinguished Flying Cross

Medal of Honor, congressional medal

Purple Heart

Victoria Cross (but croix de guerre)

Capitalize but don't italicize the designations of make, names of planes, and names of space

programs (see also italics):

Boeing 747 Project Apollo

Concorde Trident Missile

Nike U-boat

Don't capitalize or italicize generic types of vessels, aircraft, and so forth:

aircraft carrier

space shuttle

submarine

Capitalize the titles of official documents, regulations (now replaced by instructions), directives,

letters, standard forms, and shortened forms of titles, but don't capitalize common nouns that refer

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to them:

AFM 50-14, Drill and Ceremonies the manual

AFP 13-5, US Air Force Effective

 Writing Course

the pamphlet

AFPD 10-8, Operations: Air Force

 Support to Civil Authorities

the policy directive

AFI 90-501, Criteria for Air Force

 Assessments

the instruction

Capitalize such words as empire, state, county, and so forth, designating political divisions of the

world, when they are part of a proper name. Lowercase these terms when they are not part of a

proper name or when they stand alone:

Montgomery County, the county

11th Congressional District, the congressional district, the district

Fifth Ward, the ward

Indiana Territory, the territory of Indiana, the territory

New England states

New York City, the city of New York, the city

Roman Empire, the empire

Washington State, the state of Washington

the British colonies

Capitalize all principal words in titles and subheadings. See also titles of works.

Capitalize proper names that designate parts of the world or specific regions:

Central America

central Europe, but Central Europe

 (political division of World War I)

the Continent (Europe), the European

 continent

the East, easterner, eastern seaboard

eastern Europe, but Eastern Europe

 (political division)

Far East

Far West

the Gulf, Persian Gulf region

the North, northerner, Northerner

 (Civil War context)

North Africa, northern Africa

North American continent

North Pole

the South, southerner,

 Southerner (Civil War context)

Southern Hemisphere

South Pacific, southern Pacific

the Southwest (US)

tropic of Cancer

West Coast

western Europe, but Western

 Europe (political division)

Western world

Southeast Asia

Lowercase the names of the four seasons (unless personified):

spring, summer, fall, winter

In April, Spring sends her showers to pierce the drought of March.

Capitalize the names of specific academic courses:

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DS 613—Strategic Force Employment, CL 6362—Air Staff Familiarization.

Capitalize registered trademark names:

Coca-Cola (but cola drink) Levi's

Kleenex (but tissue) Ping-Pong (but table tennis)

Band-Aid Xerox

Capitalize signs, notices, and mottoes in text:

The company had a No Entrance sign at the gate.

The cry of the French Revolution was Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.

See also mottoes.

caption.

A caption, which is never a complete sentence, provides information about an illustration. Table

titles are also captions. See also legend.

Figure 50. Restructuring Air Force Intelligence

CAS (close air support)

cease-fire (n., adj.)

centuries and decades.

Spell out (in lowercase letters) references to particular centuries: the eighth century, the twentieth

century. Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s. See also

numbers.

chapter.

Lowercase chapter and spell it out in text. You may abbreviate the word in parenthetical

references (chap. 5). Use arabic figures for chapter numbers, even if the chapter numbers in the

work you are citing are spelled out or in roman numerals. The same principle holds true for other

divisions of a book: part 1, section 3, book 7, volume 2.

chief of naval operations

chief of staff.

See capitalization.

choke point

CINC (commander in chief).

See also capitalization.

citizen-soldier

civil service

clauses.

See comma; that, which; which.

cold war

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colon.

Use a colon to indicate a break in a sentence of the same degree as one indicated by a semicolon.

The colon, however, also signals some sort of relationship between the separated elements. The

second element, for example, may illustrate or amplify the first:

Music is more than a collection of notes: it conveys deep feelings and emotions.

You may use a colon to introduce a list or a series. If you use terms such as namely, for example,

or that is to introduce the list or series, do not use a colon unless the list or series consists of one or

more complete clauses:

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period: Byron,

Shelly, and Keats.

The book covered three of the most important writers of the Romantic Period,

namely, Byron, Shelly, and Keats.

Use a colon after the terms as follows or the following to enumerate several items:

Test scores were as follows: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

The class made the following test scores: two 95s, two 80s, and one 65.

Use a capital letter after a colon when the following material consists of more than one sentence or

is a formal statement or quotation:

He had two reasons for not attending the awards ceremony: First, he was shy. Second,

he had nothing appropriate to wear.

Beneath the surface, however, is the less tangible question of values: Are the old

truths true?

Do not use a colon between an element in the introductory statement and its complement or object:

not

My three immediate goals are: to survive midyear exams, to get to Colorado, and to

ski until my legs wear out.

but

My three immediate goals are to survive midyear exams. . . .

not

His friend accused him of: wiggling in his seat, talking during the lecture, and not

remembering what was said.

but

His friend accused him of wiggling in his seat. . . .

Place a colon outside quotation marks:

Will had one objection to "Altarwise by Owl Light at the Halfway House": it was

incomprehensible.

comma.

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Use a comma as follows:

to set off nonrestrictive clauses—those you could omit without changing the meaning of the

main clause:

Ebeneezer Scrooge, who lived alone, refused to celebrate Christmas.

❍ 

after long introductory phrases:

After reading the letter from the manufacturer, Mary decided to sue the

company.

❍ 

before and or or in a series of three or more elements:

Thomas Hobbes said life in the Middle Ages was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish,

and short.

❍ 

to set off addresses and place-names:

The harmless drudge lives at 108 Deerfield Drive, Troy, Alabama.

They moved from Paris, Texas, to Rome, Georgia, in 1987. (Note commas

before and after state name.)

❍ 

to separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence:

Dr. Lopez criticized the report, and he asked the committee to revise it.

❍ 

to separate coordinate adjectives that modify the same noun:

Most people consider her a generous, outgoing person.

❍ 

to separate groups of three digits in numbers of 1,000 or more (except page numbers):

2,100

465,230

5,722,465

❍ 

Do not use a comma in the following situations:

to set off restrictive clauses—those you could not omit without changing the meaning of the

main clause:

The notion that all men are created equal was a radical one.

❍ 

after a short introductory phrase:

By April 1865 the Confederacy was clearly doomed.

❍ 

to set off the year in military date style:

They signed the order on 26 July 1947 in Washington.

❍ 

to separate compound predicates in a simple sentence:

Patsy graduated in May and went to work in June.

❍ 

to separate adjectives when the first modifies the combined idea of the second plus the noun:

The estate is surrounded by an old stone wall.

The professor was a little old man.

❍ 

to set off a Jr., Sr., or a roman numeral from a name:

Adlai E. Stevenson III (but see bibliography)

❍ 

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Harry Connick Jr. plays piano and sings.

For more information on commas, see The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.), paragraphs 5.29

through 5.88.

committee.

See congressional committees and subcommittees.

Commonwealth of Independent States.

Use this term to refer to the entity whose members were part of the former Soviet Union. See also

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

communism.

See capitalization.

communist.

See capitalization.

Communist bloc.

See capitalization.

Communist Party (or party).

See capitalization.

compound words.

There are three types of compound words: open (air brake), solid (aircrew), and hyphenated

(air-cooled). These words are either permanent (found in the dictionary) or temporary (not found

in the dictionary). Use the dictionary's spelling of permanent compounds. For help in spelling

temporary noun and adjective compounds, refer to table 6.1, "Spelling Guide for Compound

Words and Words with Prefixes and Suffixes," in The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). If the

examples there do not pertain to the temporary compound in question, spell it open (e.g., war

fighter). For more help in spelling temporary noun compounds, together with temporary verb,

adverb, and adjective compounds, refer to "The Writing of Compounds" in Webster's Third New

International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged.

Words formed with prefixes like non-, pre-, and re- are usually spelled solid: nonnuclear,

prearrange, reenlist.

Words with the suffix -like are often used to form new compounds and are generally spelled solid:

childlike, businesslike, lifelike; but bull-like, Faulkner-like.

Words combined with the suffix -fold are spelled solid unless they are formed with figures:

threefold, multifold, 20-fold.

A few noun compounds are always spelled open: those beginning with relationship words, such as

Mother Nature, fellow traveler, sister ship, parent company, and most compounds ending with

general, such as attorney general, adjutant general, and comptroller general (but

governor-general).

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Adjective compounds consisting of adverbs ending in -ly plus participle or adjective are left open:

poorly written story, rapidly developing area. Compounds formed from unhyphenated proper

names are left open: Methodist Episcopal Church, Southeast Asian country. Chemical names are

open: carbon monoxide poisoning, hydrochloric acid bottle. Words naming colors are open: sea

green gown, grayish blue car. See also hyphenated compound words.

Congress.

Always capitalize Congress when you are referring to the US Congress.

congressional.

Lowercase congressional except when it is part of a title or office: Congressional Record,

Congressional Budget Office, congressional district.

congressional committees and subcommittees.

Capitalize committee or subcommittee when the words are part of a full title: Committee on

Foreign Affairs, the committee; Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment, the subcommittee.

congressman, congresswoman.

Lowercase congressman and congresswoman except when they precede a person's name.

Capitalize senator and representative when they precede a person's name: Congresswoman

Lowey, the congresswoman from New York; Senator Shelby, the senator from Alabama. See also

abbreviations.

constitutional amendments.

Capitalize the full titles of amendments to the US Constitution: Fifth Amendment, 18th

Amendment, the amendment. See also acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

copyright.

See appendix C.

cost-effective (adj.)

cost-effectiveness (n.)

counter-.

Compound words with the prefix counter- are usually spelled solid: counterair, countermeasure,

counterblow, counterclockwise. See also compound words.

countries.

Spell out the names of countries in text. See also abbreviations; United States; US; USSR.

court-martial (n., v.), courts-martial (n., plural)

coworkers

credit line.

See illustration; legend.

crew member

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cross-train (v.)

Cuban missile crisis

currency.

See money; numbers.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—S—

Saint.

When Saint occurs in proper names, spell it out in text and either spell it out or abbreviate (St.) in

notes, bibliographic entries, and parenthetical references (pick one and be consistent). When the

word is part of someone's name, follow that person's usage (e.g., as indicated in Webster's New

Biographical Dictionary).

Marco de Saint-Hilaire Barry St. Leger

satellites.

See earth satellites.

SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative)

sea-lane

sea lift (n.)

sea-lift (v., adj.)

sea power

seasons.

Do not capitalize the four seasons unless they are personified: spring, summer, fall, winter. See

also capitalization.

security classification.

Capitalize only the initial letter of a term indicating a specific security classification: Secret,

Confidential.

see, see also.

Italicize see and see also in your index but not in your documentation. Capitalize the terms only

when they begin a sentence.

self-.

Most self- compounds are hyphenated: self-reliant, self-sustaining, but selfless, selfsame. See also

hyphenated compound words.

semi-.

Compound words with the prefix semi- are usually spelled solid: semifinal, semiofficial, but

semi-indirect. See also compound words.

semiannual.

Avoid semiannual; use twice a year instead.

semicolon.

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Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses not connected by a coordinating conjunction:

John stayed home for the holidays; he had nowhere else to go.

Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, hence, consequently,

moreover, nevertheless, and so forth, when they connect two independent clauses. (Use a comma

after these words.)

All such missions should remain secondary to the primary mission; however, all

commanders of flying Air Force units must prepare to fly such missions with

minimum notice.

You may want to use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence whose

independent clauses are long and contain internal punctuation:

Ishmael, the narrator, goes to sea, he says, "Whenever it is a damp, drizzly

November" in his soul; and Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea because of his

obsession to hunt and kill the great albino whale, Moby Dick.

When items in a series are lengthy or contain internal punctuation, separate them by semicolons:

Mark prepared for the exam by reading the material, which caused him great

difficulty; by studying with Tom, who knew less than he did; and by praying, which

he did frequently.

We will need the following supplies: pencils, three boxes; pens, five boxes; paper,

four reams; typewriter ribbons, 15; and staples, two boxes.

Place a semicolon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

Dan's favorite poem is "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening"; he reads it

whenever he feels troubled.

Sam gave his wife a toaster oven for her birthday (he was a very practical fellow);

needless to say, she was overwhelmed.

Senate.

Capitalize Senate when you are referring to the US Senate.

senator.

Lowercase senator following a personal name or used alone in place of a name. See also

abbreviations; capitalization.

series.

The number of commas separating items in a series should be one less than the number of items in

the series. Hence, three items in a series should be separated by two commas: planes, boats, and

trains. See also comma.

service.

Lowercase service when you use it in reference to one of a nation's military forces (e.g., an army

or navy).

sexist language.

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The following guidance facilitates clarity of expression; it does not pretend to resolve perceived

problems of sexism in written English.

Do not use terms that stereotype occupations by sex (e.g., by always referring to a nurse as she or a

pilot as he) or that exclude either sex from positions of authority (e.g., a commander should brief

his staff on new policy). Otherwise, the following usages are acceptable: (1) words that are

sexually denotative but not clearly stigmatized, such as lady; (2) masculine or feminine pronouns

in reference to antecedents whose sex is unspecified (e.g., every patient had her temperature

checked) unless the usage stereotypes occupations or positions (the phrase his or her is acceptable,

as are he or she and him or her in appropriate contexts, but these constructions are awkward and

should be used sparingly); (3) she and her in reference to nations, cities, and ships (Britain must

guard her traditions); (4) substitution of a plural pronoun for a singular masculine or feminine

pronoun if the antecedent is made plural (e.g., all patients had their temperatures checked) but not

if the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun (e.g., NOT everyone had their temperature checked, BUT

everyone had his [or her] temperature checked); (5) generic man, whether freestanding or in

compounds (e.g., mankind, manpower); (6) compounds with person (as long as the form is not

ludicrous: chairperson but not personhole cover).

she, her, hers.

See sexist language.

ships, names of.

See italics.

short-range (adj.)

short term (n.)

short-term (adj.)

show of force

sic (so; thus; in this manner).

Use sic, italicized and bracketed, to indicate misspelling or improper usage in the original:

The newscaster announced that "the pilot got out of his plane and laid [sic] down on

the ground after his harrowing flight."

Signal Corps, the corps

SLOC (sea line of communication)

Smithsonian Institution

SO (special order).

Lowercase and spell out special order when you are referring in general to the official numbered

and dated publication. Capitalize the term when it is used with the number, but abbreviate with the

number only after you spell it out on first reference: Special Order (SO) T-013, SO T-013, the

special order.

so-called.

Do not enclose in quotation marks or set in italics a word or phrase following the term so-called:

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The so-called model citizen beat his wife regularly.

Socialist Party (or party), Socialist (member of the party), socialism.

See capitalization.

SOP (standing operating procedures)

source citation.

See bibliography; notes.

source note.

See illustration; legend.

South.

Capitalize South when you refer to a specific geographical region. See also capitalization.

Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

Use these terms instead of Russian(s) or Russia when you refer to the people or the nation from

1917 to 1991. See also Commonwealth of Independent States.

space-.

Compounds with space- are solid, open, and hyphenated: spaceman, spaceship, spaceflight, space

suit, space station, space walk, space age, space power, space shuttle, space-age (adj.), space-time.

See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

spacecraft.

Italicize specific names of spacecraft and artificial satellites: Gemini II, Apollo 11. Also italicize

names of particular space vehicles or components: Eagle (Apollo 11 lunar module), Columbia

(Apollo 11 command module or space shuttle), and Friendship 7 (Alan Shepard's Mercury

capsule). See also earth satellites.

space power

space programs.

Capitalize but do not italicize the names of space programs: Project Apollo.

Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Speaker of the House, the Speaker.

Capitalize Speaker to avoid ambiguity.

spelling.

Use Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged and

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.) as authoritative sources for the spelling of

common words. These sources often identify variations in spelling that belong to standard usage

(e.g., toward or towards; adviser also advisor; flyer variant of flier). Either spelling is acceptable.

Select the one you prefer, and use it consistently. For the spelling of place-names, refer to

authoritative sources such as the Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World, Webster's New

Geographical Dictionary, and the section on "Geographical Names" in Merriam-Webster's

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Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.).

Spetsnaz.

No italics.

sputnik.

Lowercase sputnik except when you designate a particular satellite: Sputnik II.

squadron.

Capitalize squadron when you designate a numbered unit, but lowercase the term when it stands

alone: 732d Bomber Squadron, the squadron.

Sr.

Use a period with Sr.; do not set it off with commas:

M. H. Abrahms Sr. lives at the end of the street.

standby (n., adj.).

Capitalize standby when you use it as part of the Air Force Reserve: Standby Reserve. See also

Reserve(s).

standoff (n., adj.)

stand off (v.)

state names.

See abbreviations.

stealth bomber, stealth technology

sub-.

Compound words with the prefix sub- are usually written solid: subcommittee, subcontract,

substandard, but sub-Saharan Africa. See also compound words.

subcommittee.

See congressional committees and subcommittees.

subheadings.

You may use up to three levels of subheadings to divide your text: centered, flush and hang, and

run-in (highest to lowest). You should have at least two subheadings for each level used (i.e., at

least two centered subheadings, etc.). Do not "stack" headings (i.e., immediately follow one

heading with another); rather, be sure that headings are separated by text.

Observations

Given this background, the key question remains, Does the composite wing work in combat? The

answer is obvious. . . .

Why the Composite Wing Worked So Well

The composite training undergone by the wing's personnel contributed to the successful

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completion of their mission. . . .

Evaluation and Inspection. Tactical evaluations, operational readiness inspections, and other

exercises have created a solid foundation of training in both units and individuals. . . .

subtitle.

Use a colon to separate the main title from the subtitle. A regular word space follows the colon:

Skating on Thin Ice: A Study of Honesty in Political Campaigning

sun.

See earth.

superpower

Supreme Court (of the United States).

Use the Court as a shortened reference to the Supreme Court.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—E—

earth.

Lowercase earth except when you refer to it as one of the bodies in the solar system. The same

principle applies to sun and moon. In this context, use the with sun and moon but not with earth:

Mars has a diameter halfway between those of the Moon and Earth.

earth satellites.

Use arabic numerals in designations of artificial satellites: Skylab 2, Voyager 2. Earlier spacecraft

used roman numerals: Gemini II. See also spacecraft.

earth station

East Berlin, East Germany.

Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany alone, in references to the city and country when they

were divided.

e.g. (for example).

Avoid using e.g. in text; use for example instead. Use the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only

in parenthetical references or tabular matter.

ellipses.

Ellipses (or ellipsis points [dots]) indicate the omission of a word, phrase, line, or paragraph from

within a quoted passage. Ellipsis points come in threes; are set on the line like periods; and are

separated from each other, from the text, and from any contiguous punctuation by one space.

Use three ellipsis points to indicate an omission in the middle of a quoted sentence: "The

nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor . . . has an inherent ASAT capability against

low-altitude satellites." Indicate the omission of the last part of a sentence by a period and three

ellipsis points. Leave no space between the period and the preceding word: "The Soviets also have

research programs under way on kinetic energy weapons. . . . These programs have been highly

successful." If the sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation point, retain that punctuation

and follow it with three ellipsis points: "What is the major strength of the Soviet space program? . .

. " Remember that ellipsis points are seldom used at the beginning or end of a quoted passage.

Indicate the omission of one or more paragraphs in a long block quotation by three ellipsis points

following the period at the end of the paragraph preceding the omitted paragraph. If a paragraph in

the block quotation—other than the first paragraph—begins with a sentence that does not open the

paragraph in the original, it should be preceded by three ellipsis points:

Such a tremendous increase in capability exceeds their future civil and scientific

requirements. The gap between what we perceive to be Soviet launch requirements

and launch capabilities is of great concern to us. . . .

. . . this system will expand the current US ICBM field coverage to include US

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submarine-launched ballistic missiles. . . .

When you replace part of a quoted passage with different wording, enclose the new term(s) with

square brackets, but do not use ellipsis points to show that the original wording has been omitted:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH ABM interceptor deployed around Moscow has an

inherent ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] deployed around Moscow has an inherent

ASAT capability against low-altitude satellites.

However, if bracketed material is contiguous to ellipsis points which show that part of a quoted

passage has been omitted (and not replaced with different wording), retain the ellipsis points:

The nuclear-armed GALOSH [missile] . . . has an inherent ASAT capability against

low-altitude satellites.

Do not use ellipsis points if the quotation begins with an incomplete sentence that completes a

sentence in the text:

For example, we now know that the Soviets "are currently producing about 50

SL-4/SL-6-type vehicles each year—a rate of nearly one a week."

Do not use ellipsis points if the quotation begins with an incomplete sentence that does not

complete the sentence in the text:

The manned space program is the centerpiece of the Soviet space effort:

"[Establishment] of a continuous cosmonaut presence in near-earth orbit is only the

latest of many impressive feats."

See also brackets.

E-mail (n., v.)

emphasis.

See italics.

empire.

See capitalization.

endgame

endnotes.

See notes.

en masse

en route

ensure.

To make sure or certain, guarantee. See also insure.

entitle, title (v.).

These terms are used interchangeably in the sense of designating or calling by a title: A book

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entitled Roderick Random was on the list of required readings.

EO (executive order).

Lowercase executive order and spell it out when the number of the order is not given. Always

capitalize the term when you use it with the number, but abbreviate with the number only after you

spell it out on first reference: Executive Order (EO) 1654, EO 1654, the executive order.

epigraph.

You may include an epigraph—a pertinent quotation—at the head of a chapter. Do not enclose it

in quotation marks. You may set the epigraph in italics in the same size type as the text or in

roman a size smaller. Identify the source of the quotation on the following line. Cite only the

author's name (sometimes preceded by a dash) and usually the title of the work. If the author is

well known, you may cite the last name only. Do not footnote an epigraph.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and

philosophers and divines.

—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Essays, First Series: Self-Reliance

et al. (and others).

When you cite a work by more than three authors, give the full name of the first author listed,

followed by et al.:

1. Jaroslav Pelikan et al., Religion and the University, York University Invitation

Lecture Series (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1964), 109.

etc. (et cetera, and so forth).

Formal, scholarly writing discourages the use of etc. in text, restricting it to lists, tables, and

parenthetical references. Such usage requires that etc. and phrases such as and so forth be set off

by commas.

exercises.

Capitalize only the initial letter(s) of the name of the exercise unless the name is an acronym:

Desert Strike, REFORGER (return of forces to Germany). See also operations.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—B—

bachelor's degree.

Also Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science. See also academic degrees and titles.

back matter.

Elements following the main text of a book are back matter. In order, these elements are

appendix(es), notes or references, glossary, bibliography, list of contributors, and index(es).

base.

See AB; AFB.

battalion.

Capitalize battalion in proper names: 3d Battalion, 10th Battalion.

battle.

Capitalize the full titles of battles (you may lowercase battle to indicate the location where the

battle took place): Battle of the Bulge, Battle (or battle) of Bunker Hill.

battle line

B.C. (before Christ).

The abbreviation (set in small caps) follows the year: 240 B.C. See also A.D.

below.

You may use below to refer to information lower on the same page or on a following page:

These exercises, discussed below, are important to a unit's training.

Berlin airlift

Berlin Wall

biannual, biennial.

Biannual and semiannual mean twice a year; biennial means every two years. For clarity, use

twice a year or every two years instead.

bibliography.

A bibliography is a list of books, articles, and other works that you use in preparing your

manuscript. Place it at the end of the book, before the index. You may submit a bibliography

arranged in a straight alphabetical list, a bibliography divided into the kinds of materials used

(books, theses and papers, government publications, and periodicals), or a selected bibliography

that may or may not be annotated.

An alphabetical list is the most common type of bibliography. Arrange all sources alphabetically

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by the last names of the authors, in a single list. When no author is given, use the first important

word of the title of a book or of an article as the key word for alphabetizing.

In a lengthy bibliography, you may want to divide the references into kinds of sources (books,

articles, newspapers, depositories, or collections). Whatever the arrangement, do not list any

source more than once.

You may use an annotated bibliography when you want to direct the reader to other works for

further reading and study. An annotated bibliography is also useful when you want to briefly

explain the contents, relevance, or value of specific sections of the book.

Invert the names of authors (i.e., last name first) and separate the various components of

information with periods rather than commas (as is the case with notes).

The following examples show citations in bibliographic format:

AFM 1-1. Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force. 2 vols., March 1992.

AFPD 36-4. Personnel: Air Force Civilian Training and Education, 26 July 1994.

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret.

Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Cressey, George B. China's Geographic Foundations: A Survey of the Land and Its People.

New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1934.

Cuskey, Walter R., Arnold William Klein, and William Krasner. Drug-Trip Abroad:

American Drug-Refugees in Amsterdam and London. Philadelphia: University of

Pennsylvania Press, 1972.

Drew, Col Dennis M. "Joint Operations: The World Looks Different from 10,000 Feet."

Airpower Journal 2, no. 3 (Fall 1988): 4–16.

Fairbank, John K. "The People's Middle Kingdom." Foreign Affairs 58 (June 1964):

943–68.

Schurman, Franz. China Today. New York: Vintage Books, 1970.

———. Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of Modern China.

New York: Vintage Books, 1967.

Spencer, Scott. "Childhood's End." Harper's, May 1979, 16–19.

Stevenson, Adlai E., III. The Citizen and His Government. Austin, Tex.: University of Texas

Press, 1984.

See appendix B; page 137 of this guide; and The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.) for more

examples and specific rules for developing a bibliography.

bills.

See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

bimonthly.

Bimonthly means every two months; semimonthly means twice a month. For clarity, use every two

months or twice a month instead.

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biweekly.

Biweekly can mean every two weeks or twice a week. For clarity, use every two weeks or twice a

week instead.

black.

Use black (or Black) officer, black (or Black) people, blacks (or Blacks). See also

African-American; Afro-American; Negro, Negroes.

block quotations.

Use block quotations for passages that are easily set apart from the text, that are 10 or more typed

lines, or that involve more than one paragraph. Indent from both sides and single-space the quoted

material. Do not use quotation marks to enclose the quotation, and do not indent for paragraphing.

Indicate a new paragraph in a block quotation by skipping a line. The block quotation should

reflect the paragraphing of the original. See also direct quotations; ellipses; quotations.

In volume one of AFM 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force

(March 1992), Gen Merrill A. McPeak remarks,

The guidance this manual provides will be valuable to those in field units

and to those in headquarters, to those in operations and to those in

support areas, to those who understand air and space power and to those

who are just learning. In short, this manual will be valuable to the entire

force.

I expect every airman and, in particular, every noncommissioned and

commissioned officer to read, study, and understand volume I and to

become fully conversant with volume II. The contents of these two

volumes are at the heart of the profession of arms for airmen. (Page v)

board.

Capitalize board when it is part of a proper name: National Labor Relations Board. Use board for

generic references. See also capitalization.

brackets.

Use square brackets to enclose editorial interpolations within quoted material (to clarify references

and make corrections). They may also function as parentheses within parentheses.

"In April [actually July] 1943 Jones published his first novel."

Gen Charles Horner controlled coalition air assets during the Gulf War (specifically,

he was the joint force air component commander [JFACC]).

Brookings Institution

building names.

Capitalize the names of governmental buildings, churches, office buildings, hotels, and specially

designated rooms: the Capitol (state or national), Criminal Courts Building, First Presbyterian

Church, Empire State Building, Oak Room.

buildup (n.)

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build up (v.)

bullets.

See display dots.

bureau.

Capitalize bureau when it is part of a proper name but not in reference to a newspaper's news

bureau: Bureau of Indian Affairs, Newspaper Advertising Bureau, the Washington bureau of the

New York Times. See also capitalization.

by-product

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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APPENDIX B

Examples of several categories of bibliographic citations appear below. For other examples, see the entry

bibliography in this guide and chapter 15 of The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.).

Books

❍ One author

❍ Two authors

❍ Three authors

❍ More than three authors

❍ No author given

❍ Editor, compiler, or translator

❍ Multivolume works and series

❍ Association or institution as author

❍ Work of one author in a work edited by another

❍ Edition

❍ Reprint editions

● 

Periodicals

❍ Volume number not shown

❍ Volume number shown

● 

● Newspaper Items

● Encyclopedia Articles

● Historical Studies

● Staff Studies

● Unit and Staff Office Histories

Reports

❍ Published

❍ Unpublished

● 

● Unpublished Papers

Public Documents

❍ Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

❍ Hearings

❍ Congressional bills and resolutions

❍ Executive department documents

● 

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❍ Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

● Classified Sources

● Letters and Indorsements

Memorandums

❍ Regular memorandum

❍ Draft memorandum

❍ Memorandum of understanding

❍ Memorandum for record

● 

● Messages

● Manuals, Instructions,Directives, and Other Publications

● Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

● Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries, Digests, Notes, and So Forth

● Lectures and Addresses

● Interviews

● Video Recordings

● Translation Services

Electronic Publications

❍ CD-ROM

❍ Diskette

❍ Computer service

❍ Computer network

● 

Books

One author

Westmoreland, Gen William C. A Soldier Reports. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976.

Two authors

Masland, John W., and Laurence I. Radway. Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and National

Policy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957.

Three authors

Strausz-Hupe, Robert, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony. A Forward Strategy for America.

New York: Harper & Bros., 1961.

More than three authors

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Pomper, Gerald, et al. The Election of 1976. New York: McKay, 1977.

No author given

Soviet Military Power. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1983.

Editor, compiler, or translator

Clausewitz, Carl von. On War. Edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. Princeton,

N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976.

Goldberg, Alfred, ed. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van

Nostrand, 1957.

Mayer, J. P. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America. Translated by George Lawrence. New York:

Doubleday & Co., 1969.

Multivolume works and series

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II. 7 vols.

1948–1958. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

Craven, Wesley Frank, and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 2, Europe:

Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943. 1949. New imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of

Air Force History, 1983.

Trest, Warren A. Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and Future Implications.

CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7. Maxwell AFB,

Ala.: Air University Press, December 1991.

Association or institution as author

Gates Commission. The Report of the President's Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force.

Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

Warden, Col John A., III. "Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century." In Challenge and Response:

Anticipating US Military Security Concerns. Edited by Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

University Press, August 1994.

Edition

Hazard, John N. The Soviet System of Government. 5th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Reprint editions

Harris, Neil. The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860. 1966. Reprint, Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

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"Congress Sends Nixon a Message." Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

Volume number shown

Rosser, Col Richard F. "American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s." Naval War College Review 24,

no. 10 (June 1972): [first and last page numbers of article (e.g., 14–20)].

Newspaper Items

Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986.

New York Times, 17 February–11 March 1996.

Encyclopedia Articles

Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies.

Historical Studies

Finney, Robert T. History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940. USAF Historical Study 100.

Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955.

Staff Studies

Evaluation Division, Air University. To Analyze the USAF Publications System for Producing Manuals.

Staff study, 13 July 1948.

Staudenmaier, Col Herbert V. CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study. Staff study, 31 March 1983.

Unit and Staff Office Histories

History. Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans, Headquarters USAF,

July–December 1958.

History. Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953.

Reports

Published

Erickson, John. The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics. USSI Report 73-3. Washington,

D.C.: United States Strategic Institute, 1973.

Unpublished

Hungerford, Maj John B. Jr. "Organization for Military Space: A Historical Perspective." Research

Report no. 82-1235. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Command and Staff College, 1982.

Unpublished Papers

Betts, Richard K. "Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force: American Military Influence in Crisis

Decisions, 1945–1976." PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975.

Ross, Dorothy. "The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in Social Mobility." Master's thesis,

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Columbia University, n.d.

Thomas, P. "Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military." Paper presented at the RAND Conference

on Defense Manpower. Santa Monica, Calif., February 1976.

Public Documents

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

US House. A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased for Use by the Federal

Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards. 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959. H. R. 1341.

US Senate. Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,

1954–1962. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963. S. Doc. 18.

US Senate. Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations. 70th Cong., 1st sess.,

1935. S. Doc. 92.

Hearings

US Senate. Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Air Force of the Committee on

Armed Services. 84th Cong., 2d sess., 1956.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Public Law 585. 79th Cong., 2d sess., 1 August 1946.

Atomic Energy Act of 1946. US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 755–75.

Declaratory Judgment Act. US Code. Vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952).

US House. Food Security Act of 1985. 99th Cong., 1st sess., H. R. 2100. Congressional Record, 131, no.

132, daily ed. (8 October 1985): H8461–66.

Executive department documents

US Department of Defense. Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the Armed Services

Vocational Aptitude Battery. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense

(Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics), March 1982.

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower,

1957. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1958.

Executive Order 9877. Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July 1947.

President. Proclamation. "Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple Cotton." Federal Register 15,

no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127. Microfiche.

Classified Sources

Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence. "Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72" (U). Supporting document

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III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

Faloon, Robert L. Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U). Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,

1983. (Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

TAF SON 302-81. Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack Capabilities (U), 2 November 1982.

(Secret)

Letters and Indorsements

Culver, Lt Col C. C. To chief of Air Corps. Letter. Subject: Doctrine of Employing an Aerial Force, 9

June 1928. 1st ind. Maj L. W. McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps. To commandant,

Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

Kilner, Maj W. G., executive, Office of Chief of Air Service. To commandant, Air Service Tactical

School. Letter. Subject: Proposed Revision of the Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12

April 1925.

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

Bundy, Lt Col G. W., War Plans Division, War Department General Staff. Memorandum. To Lt Col

Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division. Subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

Draft memorandum

Chief, Air Corps. Draft memorandum. To chief of staff, Army. Subject: Additional Naval Air Bases, 28

March 1938.

Memorandum of understanding

Secretary of the Army. Memorandum of understanding. With secretary of the Air Force. Subject:

Contractor Applications and Procedures, 2 October 1951.

Memorandum for record

Twining, Gen Nathan F., vice chief of staff, US Air Force. Memorandum for record. Subject: Functions

of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus, and General White, 17 November 1950.

Messages

Message. 281415Z OCT 90. US Air Force. To commanding general, Far East Air Forces, 28 October

1990.

Manuals, Instructions, Directives,and Other Publications

Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60. Training and Education, October 1995.

Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501. Criteria for Air Force Assessments, August 1995.

Air Force Manual (AFM) 1-1. Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force. 2 vols., March

1992.

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Air Force Pamphlet (AFPAM) 36-2705. Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, February 1995.

Department of Defense (DOD) Directive 5030.18. Department of Defense Support of National

Aeronautics and Space Administration, 25 August 1966.

Sources Cited/Quoted in Another Source

McNamara, Robert, secretary of defense. To Cong. Robert Miller. Letter, 3 November 1961. In US

House. Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the

Committee on Armed Services. 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963.

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,Digests, Notes, and So Forth

Barbee, Lt Col Andrew C., Policy and Plans Group. Air Staff Summary Sheet. Report of Air Force

Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 20 March 1967.

Briefing. 6127th Air Terminal Group. Subject: Air Terminal Detachments in Korea, 1 March 1951.

Chronology. Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966).

Daily Staff Digest. Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

Field Manual (FM) 90-14. "Rear Battle." Final draft, 19 November 1984.

Gross, Brig Gen Mervin E., chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Office of the

Chief of Research, Army Air Forces. Record and Routing (R&R) sheet. Subject: Centralization of

Certain Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

Leahy, Fleet Adm William D. Diary. William D. Leahy Papers. Manuscript Division, Library of

Congress, Washington, D.C.

Minutes. War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October 1905. In Jones Aviation

Chronology, 1900–1906.

Notes. Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

Lectures and Addresses

LeMay, Gen Curtis E., chief of staff, US Air Force. Address. Air Force Association Convention,

Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

Patrick, Maj Gen Mason M. "The Army Air Service." Lecture. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks,

Pa., 9 November 1925.

Wheeler, Gen Earle G. Graduation address. Industrial College of the Armed Forces, Washington, D.C.,

11 June 1963.

Interviews

It is not necessary to include interviews in a bibliography.

Video Recordings

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Massey, Morris. What You Are Is. CBS-Fox Video. 30 min., 1983. Videocassette.

Mihalyi, Louis J. Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Visual Education, 1975.

Slides.

Translation Services

Agafonov, Sergey. "Japan in Russia's Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to Open in Moscow." Izvestiya, 9

June 1992. In FBIS [Foreign Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia.

FBIS-USR-92-079, 29 June 1992.

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Angier, Natalie. "Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You." New York Times, 13 April 1993.

New York Times Ondisc. CD-ROM. UMI-Proquest, October 1993.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early

Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC. CD-ROM. Silver Platter, June 1993.

Jaffe, Lorna S. The Development of the Base Force, 1989-1992. Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office,

Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993. Joint Electronic Library. "History

Publications." CD-ROM. OC Incorporated, May 1997.

The Oxford English Dictionary. 2d ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Russo, Michelle Cash. "Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction Blahs." RQ: Reference Quarterly 32

(1992): [first and last page numbers of article (e.g., 178–83)]. Infotrac: Magazine Index Plus. CD-ROM.

Information Access, December 1993.

Saint, Gen Crosbie E. "A CINC's View of Operational Art." Military Review, September 1990, 65-78.

Joint Electronic Library. "Research Papers." CD-ROM. OC Incorporated, May 1997.

Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc. "Reebok: Company Report," 29 July 1993. General Business File.

CD-ROM. Information Access, December 1993.

Diskette

Joyce, Michael. Afternoon: A Story. Diskette. Watertown, Conn.: Eastgate, 1987.

Computer service

Angier, Natalie. "Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You." New York Times, 13 April 1993.

New York Times Online. On-line. Nexis, 10 February 1994.

"Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994." Dow Jones Futures and Index Quotes.

On-line. Dow Jones News Retrieval, 6 December 1994.

Guidelines for Family Television Viewing. Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early

Childhood Education, 1990. ERIC. On-line. BRS, 22 November 1993.

Computer network

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"Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by Library." AU [Auburn University]

Report<197>Faculty and Staff Newsletter, 14 August 1995, n.p. [no pagination]. On-line. Internet, 15

February 1996. Available from gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/8-14-95/cuts.

Huntington, Tom. "Encore for an SST." Air and Space Magazine, 30 October 1995, n.p. On-line.

Internet, 15 February 1996. Available from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.html.

Jaffe, Lorna S. The Development of the Base Force, 1989-1992. Washington, D.C.: Joint History Office,

Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993. On-line. Internet, 7 October 1997.

Available from http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/baseforc.pdf.

McSparran, Frances, ed. Octovian. Early English Text Society, no. 289. London: Oxford University

Press, 1986. On-line. Internet, 6 April 1994. Available from

ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

Saint, Gen Crosbie E. "A CINC's View of Operational Art." Military Review, September 1990, 65-78.

On-line. Internet, 7 October 1997. Available from

http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/research_pubs/p120.pdf.

Schipper, William. "Quirk and Wrenn Grammar." AnSax-L, 22 February 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 10

December 1995. Available from http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

Schorr, David. "New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities." Air Chronicles, 30 October 1995, n.p.

On-line. Internet, 15 January 1995. Available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

"Update on Cockpit Motion Facility." Flight Simulation News, February 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 15

February 1996. Available from http://ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

Westermann, Capt Edward B. "Contemporary Civil-Military Relations: Is the Republic in Danger?"

Airpower Journal, Summer 1995, n.p. On-line. Internet, 14 February 1996. Available from

http://www.cdsar.af.mil/apj/wester.html.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Appendix C: Copyright

 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

 Back to Research Starting Points

 Back to Air University Home Page

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Bibliography

Air War College. Handbook on Research and Writing. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University, 1982.

AU-12. Plain English, Please! Prepared by John Smith and Maj John R. Grellman Jr. Maxwell AFB,

Ala.: Air University, 1982.

The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

Copperud, Roy H. American Usage and Style: The Consensus. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,

1980.

Ebbitt, Wilma R., and David R. Ebbitt. Writer's Guide and Index to English. 7th ed. Glenview, Ill.: Scott,

Foresman and Co., 1982.

Evans, Bergen, and Cornelia Evans. A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage. New York:

Random House, 1957.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. New York: Modern Language

Association of America, 1995.

Heflin, Woodford Agee, ed. The United States Air Force Dictionary. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University

Press, 1956.

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary of English Usage. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1989.

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1993.

The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage: A Desk Book of Guidelines for Writers and Editors.

Revised and edited by Lewis Jordan. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co., 1976.

Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. 6th ed. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1996.

United States Government Printing Office: Style Manual. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing

Office, 1984.

Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, Mass.:

G. & C. Merriam Co., 1981.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

 Back to Research Starting Points

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Air University Style Guide

—I—

I, we.

You may use these pronouns occasionally in the text rather than the formal "the author(s)."

ibid.

See notes.

i.e. (that is).

Avoid using i.e. in text; use that is instead. Use the abbreviation, followed by a comma, only in

parenthetical references or tabular matter.

ill-.

See hyphenated compound words.

illustration.

An illustration (figure) may be a chart, map, line drawing, photograph, painting, or graph. Tables

are not considered illustrations. See also tables.

Number your illustrations consecutively throughout the text, and refer to them by their numbers,

either parenthetically (fig. 8) or as part of the text:

The totals shown in figure 3 are rounded off to the nearest dollar.

If each chapter in a book is written by a different author, the numbering of figures restarts with

each new chapter. For precise identification of figures, you may wish to use a combination of

chapter number, a period, and figure number: 2.1, 2.2., 2.3, and so forth.

If the illustration is not your own, identify the source with a credit line, either at the end of the

legend or caption, usually in parentheses, or parallel to the lower edge of the illustration (see

legend). Before using an illustration from a copyrighted source, obtain a formal (written) release

from the copyright owner. See also caption; copyright; legend; tables.

important, importantly.

You may use either important or importantly as a sentence modifier:

The truth is evident; more important, it will prevail.

The truth is evident; more importantly, it will prevail.

Choose one, and use it consistently.

inbrief (v.)

inbriefing (n., v.)

in-depth (adj., adv.)

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index.

An index helps your reader find details about particular subjects. Meaningful entries direct the

reader to pertinent references in the text—not just to passing remarks. Consult chapter 17 of The

Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.) for preparation of an index.

insure.

Often synonymous with ensure (i.e., to make certain by taking necessary measures and

precautions). Insure also carries the distinctive sense of providing or obtaining insurance. See also

ensure.

inter-.

The prefix inter- nearly always occurs in solid compounds: interrelated, interaction, international.

Hyphenate such compounds when the second element is capitalized: inter-American. See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

international date line

Internet (the global network of computers)

in-theater (adj., adv.)

iron curtain.

This term is often capitalized (Iron Curtain) when it refers to a barrier that isolates an area under

Soviet control.

it.

Use it to refer to inanimate objects and some living things; you may also use the term in

impersonal statements and in idioms:

The couple bought a house but did not like it.

The newborn baby kept its eyes shut tightly.

It has been three hours since it began to rain.

We will have to play it by ear.

Using it rather than a personal pronoun in some instances, however, can make your writing stilted:

it is believed instead of I believe.

italics.

Italicize titles and subtitles of published books, periodicals, pamphlets, manuals, proceedings and

collections, newspapers, and sections of newspapers published separately (The Art of War, Fortune

500, etc.). If you are marking a manuscript by hand, use underlining to indicate italics.

Italicize titles of motion pictures, continuing television and radio series, long poems and musical

compositions, and plays. Put titles of TV shows, songs, and radio programs in roman type and

enclose them in quotation marks:

Casablanca Handel's Messiah

public television's Masterpiece Theater Seinfeld

radio's The Green Hornet "In the Mood"

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Paradise Lost radio's "Christmas '96 at the

 Kennedy Center"

If you use the names of newspapers, titles of books, or other italicized names in the plural, set the

ending in roman type: There were five Journals and two Tribunes on the shelf.

Punctuation marks should be in the same style or font of type as the word, letter, character, or

symbol immediately preceding them, as is the case with the following question mark, semicolon,

and colon:

What is meant by random selection?

Luke 4:16a;

Point: one-twelfth of a pica

A question mark or exclamation point that immediately follows an italicized title and that is not

part of the title should be set in roman to avoid misreading:

When did she write Together Again?

but

After she wrote What Next?

Parentheses and brackets that enclose italicized text may also be set in italics:

[continued]

(An exception is [sic].) However, if only one end of the enclosed text is italicized, the parentheses

or brackets should be roman:

(he objected to the term handicapped)

Italicize the proper names of specific ships and submarines but not the accompanying

abbreviations SS or HMS: HMS Shannon, SS United States, CSS Alabama, Kiev-class submarine.

Capitalize but do not italicize make of aircraft and ships and names of space programs: Boeing

707, Project Apollo, ICBM, U-boat, DC-3. See also aircraft; spacecraft.

Do not italicize titles of forms or put them in quotation marks. Instead, capitalize the main words:

AF Form 673, Request to Issue Publication; AU Form 107, Request for Loan.

Italicize terms singled out as terms and words referred to as words (see also quotation marks):

The standard meaning of the term leftist is an adherent of the left wing of a party or

movement.

Gladys cringed whenever anyone said ain't.

Italicize terms from languages other than English: Leutnant, sic transit gloria mundi, aux armes.

However, if foreign terms are included in the main listing of a standard English dictionary, do not

italicize them: weltschmerz, schadenfreude, ad hoc, fin de siècle, blitzkrieg, détente, déjà vu,

perestroika, raison d'être, vis-à-vis.

Isolated foreign proper nouns are not italicized, even when cited as foreign terms:

Moscow (in Russian, Moskva) has been the capital of the Russian national state since

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the late fourteenth century.

Italicize the names of legal cases; v. (versus) may be roman or italic (but be consistent):

Brown v. Board of Education

King v. City of Los Angeles

Italicize the shortened case name:

Miranda or the Miranda case.

You may occasionally use italics (not boldface) to emphasize a point:

Effective intelligence is essential to military operations.

This device should be used sparingly. If your text is well written, the reader should have no

problem determining what you consider important.

If you use italics to emphasize a word or words in a quotation, indicate that you have done so by

adding a phrase such as "emphasis added" or "italics added" in parentheses following the

quotation, as in this block quotation:

Today we know that in wartime, even in a conventional war of limited

duration, the two superpowers would fight a battle of attrition in space

until one side or other had wrested control. And the winner would use the

surviving space system to decide the contests on land and sea. (Emphasis

added)7

Similarly, you may use an appropriate phrase to show that an italicized part of a quotation is not

your doing but appears in the original, as in this run-in quotation:

Gen Muir S. Fairchild noted that "each nation differs from all other

nations, not only in its degree of vulnerability to air attack, but also in

the kind of vulnerability" (emphasis in original).21

In a quotation with a mixture of original and added italics, use bracketed phrases immediately

following the italicized passages to differentiate between them:

Whether the means of protecting satellites will be adequate to ensure the

survivability [emphasis added] of particular space-based BMD systems

will depend in part on the kinds of systems deployed and in part on

future Soviet antisatellite capabilities. Insufficient information is now

available to resolve the survivability question [emphasis in original].24

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—N—

naval forces.

Lowercase naval forces, but use Navy forces when you refer to the US Navy.

naval station.

Capitalize naval station only in proper names: Norfolk Naval Station, the naval station, the station. Use

Navy station when you refer to the US Navy.

Navy.

Capitalize Navy when you refer to the US Navy. For foreign naval forces, see capitalization.

NCA (National Command Authorities)

near real time (n.)

near-real-time (adj.)

near term (n.)

near-term (adj.)

Negro, Negroes.

Use black(s) or Black(s), African-American(s), and Afro-American(s). Use of Negro(es) is appropriate in

certain historical citations: "In October 1940, the War Department announced . . . that Negro Aviation

Units would be organized as soon as the necessary personnel were trained."

news maker

newspapers.

Italicize the names of newspapers: Christian Science Monitor, Chicago Sun-Times. In text, lowercase the

and set it in roman type: John read the Wall Street Journal religiously. Omit the definite article in note

references to newspapers. See also italics.

nicknames.

Enclose a nickname in quotation marks when you place it within the full name:

George Herman "Babe" Ruth

When you use a nickname as part of or in place of a personal name, omit the quotation marks:

Stonewall Jackson

the Iron Duke

nighttime

no.

Use a period after the abbreviation for number.

non-.

Words prefixed by non- are usually written solid: nonviolent, nonoperating, nonnegotiable, nonparty. See

also compound words.

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notes.

Use the numbered endnote system of documentation. Number your notes consecutively—beginning with

1—throughout a chapter and throughout the list of notes at the end of the chapter. In your text, put a

superior numeral at the end of a sentence or at least at the end of a clause, following any punctuation

marks (except a dash) or closing parentheses:

Strategic considerations were often discussed, and Arnold urged abandonment of the "old

'island to island' theory."6

(When General Powell gave Bush a probable number of casualties, the president approved

the attack.)8

Include the following items in a reference to a book: (1) author's or editor's full name (as it appears on the

title page), first name first, including military rank or academic title if included on title page, or name of

institution responsible for writing the book (note that the editor's name may also follow the title of the

book); (2) title of the book, including subtitle, in italics; (3) editor, compiler, or translator, if any; (4)

edition, if not the first; (5) number of volumes (if referring to multivolume work as a whole); (6) volume

number of multivolume work; (7) title of volume, if applicable; (8) series, if any, and number in the

series; (9) facts of publication—city where published, publisher, and date of publication, all in

parentheses; (10) volume number (if citing multivolume work, all of whose volumes have the same title);

(11) page number(s) of the specific citation.

1. Winston Burdett, Encounter with the Middle East (New York: Viking Press, 1981), 90.

Include the following items in a reference to an article in a periodical: (1) author's full name, first name

first, including military rank or academic title if included in byline of article; (2) title of the article in

quotation marks; (3) title of the periodical in italics; (4) volume (and issue number) of the periodical; (5)

date of the volume or of the issue; and (6) page number(s) of the particular citation.

2. Maj Michael L. Mosier, "Getting a Grip on Careerism," Airpower Journal 2, no. 2

(Summer 1988): 55.

You may shorten subsequent references to a source. For a shortened form, use only the last name of the

author, followed by a comma and the page number of the reference. If you have cited more than one work

by the same author, include a short title in addition to the author's last name. The word ibid. (ibidem, "in

the same place") refers to a single work cited in the note immediately preceding. Never use ibid. if more

than one work is cited in the preceding note. Do not italicize ibid. in your notes. Do not use op. cit. (opere

citato, "in the work cited") or loc. cit. (loco citato, "in the place cited"). Instead, use the shortened form of

the citation.

Always use arabic figures for volume numbers even when they appear as roman numerals in the book or

journal itself.

Examples of full and shortened references:

3. Franz Schurman, Imperial China: The Decline of the Last Dynasty and the Origins of

Modern China (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 206–8.

4. John K. Fairbank, "The People's Middle Kingdom," Foreign Affairs 58 (1964): 943–68.

5. Capt Gerald G. O'Rourke, "Our Peaceful Navy," US Naval Institute Proceedings, April

1989, 79–83.

6. Franz Schurman, Japan Today (New York: Vintage Books, 1970), 97–100.

7. Schurman, Imperial China, 174. [Shortened form of note 3 with different page number.]

8. Ibid., 176. [All information the same as in the preceding note except page number.]

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9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton,

N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976), 25.

10. James N. Stevens, The Foundations of Communist China, 2 vols. (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins University Press, 1969), 1:150.

11. Ibid., 2:96. [All information the same as in the preceding note except volume number and

page number.]

12. Ibid., 147. [The same volume number as in the preceding note.]

13. Ibid. [The same page number as in the preceding note.]

See appendix A of this guide or The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.) for citations of public documents

and unpublished materials.

nuclear triad

numbered air force.

Spell out names of numbered air forces: Eighth Air Force, Twenty-Third Air Force. Use figures for a

smaller unit: 15th Air Group. See also military units.

numbers.

Refer to the following principles when you need to make decisions about using numbers in your writing.

Spell out whole numbers one through nine and any of those numbers followed by hundred, thousand,

hundred thousand, million, and so forth. Use figures for all other numbers:

Katie read three books in two months.

The convention center can hold five thousand people.

There are 25 graduate students in the philosophy department.

If you wish, you may use figures followed by million, billion, and so forth to express large numbers:

There are more than one (or 1) billion people in China.

By the end of the year the corporation was in debt by $2.3 million.

If a sentence contains several numbers, some of them 10 or above, follow the basic rule:

We are authorized six officers, 39 enlisted personnel, and three civilians in our two

squadrons.

Express numbers between one thousand and ten thousand (except for numbers such as two thousand,

three thousand, etc.) in terms of hundreds:

The newspaper had fifteen hundred subscribers.

The general rule for spelling numbers also applies to ordinal numbers (use d alone, not nd and rd, for

second and third):

The 92d through 103d hours of the drill were conducted by Sergeant Adams.

Spell out any number that starts a sentence:

Twelve people applied for the job.

Apply the rules for spelling out whole numbers one through nine and for large numbers to adjective

modifiers:

four-mile hike 11-mile hike

five-day week 40-hour week

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five-ton truck nine-thousand-ton ship

two (or 2)-million-member union ten (or 10)-million-vote margin

four-year-old boy

In mathematical, statistical, technical, or scientific texts, express physical quantities such as distances,

lengths, areas, volumes, pressures, and so forth in figures:

60 miles 110 volts

15 yards 10 tons

40 acres 3 meters

31/3 cubic feet 45 pounds

In ordinary textual matter, apply the basic rule for the spelling of numbers:

Doris lost five pounds in a week.

John's car can barely go 60 miles an hour.

Spell out common fractions in textual matter:

More than one-third of the class failed the exam.

My brothers and I live within three and one-half miles of each other.

Use figures to express a combination of mixed numbers and whole numbers:

He typed the report on 81/2-by-11-inch paper.

If you abbreviate a unit of measure, express the quantity with a figure:

9 mi 35 mm

30 lb 20 km

Use figures with symbols:

51/2" 8° F

Use figures for decimal fractions:

He multiplied the number by 3.17.

In textual matter, use the word percent preceded by figures; in a table or chart, or in scientific or statistical

text, you may use the symbol %.

1 percent

50 percent

Spell out or use figures for amounts of money in US currency in accordance with the basic rule. If you

spell out the number, spell out the unit of currency; if you use figures, use the symbols $ or ¢:

The tax has been raised four cents.

The club raised a total of $425.

Use a dollar sign, figures, and units of millions or billions to express large sums of money:

Jim signed with the Atlanta Falcons for $3 million.

Use figures for fractional amounts over one dollar, like other decimal fractions. When you use

whole-dollar amounts in the same context with fractional amounts, set the whole-dollar amounts with

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zeros after the decimal point:

The music store sold CDs for $12.00 to $15.98.

Always write exact dates in the sequence day-month-year. Use figures for the day, spell out the month,

and use a four-digit year. Do not use internal punctuation:

7 December 1941

In textual matter, indicate inclusive years as follows: 1968–72 or from 1968 to 1972 (never from

1968–72). In endnotes, use 1968–1972.

Spell out references to particular centuries; spell out or use figures and apostrophes for references to

decades:

the twentieth century

during the sixties and seventies

the '60s and '70s

If you identify decades by their century, use figures:

the 1880s and 1890s

Spell out times of day in even, half, and quarter hours:

We went to the theater at a quarter after seven.

The service starts at five o'clock.

Use figures to emphasize an exact time:

The program is televised at 8:35 in the morning.

If you use the 24-hour system, do not punctuate between the hours and minutes (see also military time):

The officers' club opens at 0815.

Our duty hours are from 0730 to 1100 and from 1130 to 1600.

Use the following style for inclusive page numbers:

First Number Second Number Examples

Less than 100 Use all digits 3–10, 71–72, 96–117

100 or multiple of 100 Use all digits 100–104, 600–613, 1100–1123

101 through 109 (in

 multiples of 100)

Use changed part only,

 omitting unneeded zeros

107–8, 505–17, 1002–6

110 through 199

 (in multiples of 100)

Use two digits, or

 more if needed

321–25, 415–32, 1536–38,

 1496–504, 14325–28,

 11564–78, 13792–803

Use an initial ordinal number (spelled out if ninth or less) to designate particular dynasties, governments,

and governing bodies:

First Continental Congress 98th Congress

Third Reich 18th Dynasty

Sixth International Fifth Republic

Use ordinal numbers to designate political divisions. The rule for spelling out numbers applies:

Fifth Congressional District

12th Precinct

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Second Election District

Form the plurals of spelled-out numbers just as you would form the plurals of other nouns; add s (no

apostrophe) to form the plurals of figures:

Hickock's hand contained two pairs: aces and eights.

The grades for the class were six 98s, three 100s, and the rest below 89.

In figures of one thousand or more (except page numbers), use a comma to set off groups of three digits,

counting from the right:

2,000 34,000

In spelled-out fractional numbers, connect the numerator and the denominator with a hyphen unless either

contains a hyphen:

three-fourths

six and seven-eighths

four and one-half years

seven and twenty-one thirty-seconds

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

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APPENDIX A

Examples of several categories of notes appear below. For other examples, see chapter 15 of The

Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.). Place notes at the end of each chapter—not at the bottom of the page

or at the end of the book. For subsequent references, use ibid. or a shortened form of the note. Use ibid.

to refer to the note immediately preceding. Otherwise, use the last name of the author, followed by a

comma and the page number(s) of the reference. If you have cited more than one work by the same

author, use a short title in addition to the author's last name.

Books

❍ One author

❍ Two authors

❍ Three authors

❍ More than three authors

❍ No author given

❍ Editor, compiler, or translator

❍ Multivolume works and series

❍ Association or institution as author

❍ Work of one author in a work edited by another

❍ Edition

❍ Reprint editions

● 

Periodicals

❍ Volume number not shown

❍ Volume number shown

● 

Newspaper Items

❍ Editorial

❍ News story

● 

● Encyclopedia Articles

● Historical Studies

● Staff Studies

● Unit and Staff Office Histories

Reports

❍ Published

❍ Unpublished

● 

● Unpublished Papers

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Public Documents

❍ Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

❍ Hearings

❍ Congressional bills and resolutions

❍ Executive department documents

❍ Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

● 

● Classified Sources

● Letters and Indorsements

Memorandums

❍ Regular memorandum

❍ Draft memorandum

❍ Memorandum of understanding

❍ Memorandum for record

● 

● Messages

● Manuals, Instructions, Directives, and Other Publications

● Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

● Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries, Digests, Notes, and So Forth

● Lectures and Addresses

● Interviews

● Video Recordings

● Translation Services

Electronic Publications

❍ CD-ROM

❍ Diskette

❍ Computer service

❍ Computer network

● 

Books

One author

1. Gen William C. Westmoreland, A Soldier Reports (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1976), 112,

195–96. [Reproduce the author's name as it appears on the title page.]

Two authors

2. John W. Masland and Laurence I. Radway, Soldiers and Scholars: Military Education and National

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Policy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957), 117–21. [List the authors' names in the order

in which they appear on the title page.]

Three authors

3. Robert Strausz-Hupe, William R. Kintner, and Stefan T. Possony, A Forward Strategy for America

(New York: Harper & Bros., 1961), 117. [List the authors' names in the order in which they appear on

the title page.]

More than three authors

4. Gerald Pomper et al., The Election of 1976 (New York: McKay, 1977), 61. [Give the name of the

author listed first on the title page followed by "et al." or "and others."]

5. Pomper et al., 60. [shortened form]

No author given

6. Soviet Military Power (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1983), 13–18. [Do not use

Anonymous or Anon.]

Editor, compiler, or translator

7. Alfred Goldberg, ed., A History of the United States Air Force, 1907–1957 (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van

Nostrand, 1957), 7. [Use the name of the editor, compiler, or translator in place of the author when no

author's name appears on the title page.]

8. J. P. Mayer, Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, trans. George Lawrence (New York:

Doubleday & Co., 1969), 648. [When the author's name appears on the title page, place the name of the

editor, compiler, or translator after the title, preceded by ed. [edited by], comp. [compiled by], or trans.

[translated by].]

9. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, N.J.:

Princeton University Press, 1976), 145–47.

10. Marshal Foch, The Principles of War, trans. Hilaire Belloc (London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1918), 7,

18–19.

Multivolume works and series

11. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 2,

Europe: Torch to Pointblank, August 1942 to December 1943 (1949; new imprint, Washington, D.C.:

Office of Air Force History, 1983), 288–95. [One volume in the series.]

Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, 7 vols.

(1948–1958; new imprint, Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1983). [Entire series.]

12. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,

1948), 521.

13. Warren A. Trest, Military Unity and National Policy: Some Past Effects and Future Implications,

CADRE Paper Special Series: The Future of the Air Force, no. AU-ARI-CPSS-91-7 (Maxwell AFB,

Ala.: Air University Press, December 1991), 12.

Association or institution as author

14. Gates Commission, The Report of the President's Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force

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(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), 3–9.

15. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Work in America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,

1973), 104–6.

Work of one author in a work edited by another

16. Col John A. Warden III, "Air Theory for the Twenty-first Century," in Challenge and Response:

Anticipating US Military Security Concerns, ed. Dr. Karl P. Magyar et al. (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air

University Press, August 1994), 320–21. [If you are citing the entire chapter or contribution, include

inclusive page numbers.]

17. Warden, 325. [shortened form]

18. Dr. Lewis B. Ware, "Regional Study 1: Conflict and Confrontation in the Post-Cold-War Middle

East," in Challenge and Response: Anticipating US Military Security Concerns, ed. Dr. Karl P. Magyar

et al. (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, August 1994), 49. [When you cite a different

chapter/contribution in the same book as previously cited, include a full citation for that book.]

19. Capt John T. Folmar, "Desert Storm Chapstick," in From the Line in the Sand: Accounts of USAF

Company Grade Officers in Support of Desert Shield/Desert Storm, ed. Capt Michael P. Vriesenga

(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, March 1994), 19–20.

Edition

20. John N. Hazard, The Soviet System of Government, 5th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1980), 23–25.

21. Norbert Weiner, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society, 2d ed. rev. (Garden

City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1951), 68–71.

22. Weiner, 74. [shortened form]

Reprint editions

23. Neil Harris, The Artist in American Society: The Formative Years, 1790–1860 (1966; reprint,

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 43–44.

24. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (1942; new imprint, Washington, D.C.:

Office of Air Force History, 1983), 67.

Periodicals

Volume number not shown

25. "Congress Sends Nixon a Message," Newsweek, 19 November 1973, 39.

26. TSgt Jim Katzaman, "Basics of Bombing," Airman, June 1986, 8–12.

27. "Unions Are Alien to Our Defense System," The Retired Officer, May 1976, 25.

28. "Currents in the News," U.S. News and World Report, 11 February 1980, 5.

29. Jay Finegan, "Struggling with Inflation," Times Magazine (supplement to Air Force Times), 1

September 1980, 4.

Volume number shown

30. Col Richard F. Rosser, "American Civil-Military Relations in the 1980s," Naval War College Review

24, no. 10 (June 1972): 14–15.

31. Donald S. Zagoria, "China's Quiet Revolution," Foreign Affairs 62, no. 4 (Spring 1984): 879–904.

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32. Philip Handler, "The American University Today," American Scientist 64, no. 3 (May–June 1976):

254–57.

33. Franklin D. Margiotta, "A Military Elite in Transition: Air Force Leaders in the 1980s," Armed

Forces and Society 2, no. 2 (Winter 1976): 155–84.

34. Margiotta, 176. [shortened form]

Newspaper Items

Editorial

35. Editorial, Atlanta Constitution, 19 June 1986. [Omit the initial the from titles of English language

newpapers.]

News story

36. S. Fred Singer, "What Is Happening to World Oil?" Wall Street Journal, 10 March 1982.

37. William Robbins, "Big Wheels: The Rotary Club at 75," New York Times, Sunday, 17 February 1980,

sec. 3.

38. Lt Gen Murphy A. Cheaney, "Military's Quality Medical Care for a Healthy Army," Washington

Times, 16 December 1985, final edition.

Encyclopedia Articles

39. Encyclopedia Americana, 1974 ed., s.v. "prize courts and prize jurisdiction." [Cite the item, preceded

by s.v. (sub verbo, "under the word").]

40. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1973 ed., s.v. "canning, commercial."

41. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1966 ed., s.v. "deism."

Historical Studies

42. Robert T. Finney, History of the Air Corps Tactical School, 1920–1940, USAF Historical Study 100

(Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 35–38.

43. R. Earl McClendon, Autonomy of the Air Arm (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Documentary Research Division,

Air University, 1954), 16–21.

44. Chase C. Mooney and Martha E. Layman, Organization of Military Aeronautics, 1907–1935, Army

Air Forces Historical Study 25 (Washington, D.C.: Army Air Forces Historical Division, 1944), 29–32.

45. Herman S. Wolk, USAF Plans and Policies: Logistics and Base Construction in Southeast Asia, 1967

(Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1968), 36–39.

46. Thomas H. Greer, The Development of Air Doctrine in the Army Air Arm, 1917–1941, USAF

Historical Study 89 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: USAF Historical Division, Air University, 1955), 9–10.

Staff Studies

47. Evaluation Division, Air University, To Analyze the USAF Publications System for Producing

Manuals, staff study, 13 July 1948.

48. Col Herbert V. Staudenmaier, CONUS Aeromedical Evacuation Study, staff study, 31 March 1983.

49. Col Charles G. Williamson, chief, Status of Operations Division, Directorate of Bombardment,

Headquarters Army Air Forces, to Directorate of Bombardment, Headquarters Army Air Forces, Status

of Operations Report, staff study, 3 March 1943.

50. Williamson, Status of Operations Report. [shortened form]

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Unit and Staff Office Histories

51. History, Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Programs, Directorate of Plans, Headquarters USAF,

July–December 1958, 114, 163–64.

52. History, Research Studies Institute, July–December 1959, 1.

53. History of the Office of the Inspector General USAF, Directorate of Special Investigations, 1

January–30 June 1963, 45–47.

54. History, Tactical Air Command, 1 July–31 December 1953, 193–94.

Reports

Published

55. John Erickson, The Soviet Military, Soviet Policy, and Soviet Politics, USSI Report 73-3

(Washington, D.C.: United States Strategic Institute, 1973), 5.

56. Richard V. L. Cooper, Military Manpower and the All-Volunteer Force, RAND Report

R-1450-ARPA (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, September 1977), 86–94.

57. Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress: Student Attrition at the Five

Federal Service Academies (Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Office, 1976), 16–23.

58. Nancy Guinn, Identification of Service Irritants, AFHRL-TR-75-52 (Brooks AFB, Tex.: Air Force

Systems Command, 1973).

59. James E. Dougherty and Diane K. Pfaltzgraff, Eurocommunism and the Atlantic Alliance, special

report (Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis, 1977), 6.

60. Department of Defense, Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense and the Annual Reports of the

Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, and Secretary of the Air Force, July 1, 1958 to June 30,

1959 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1960), 44.

61. Maj Mark A. Cochran, Unit-Level Automation for Air Force Contingency Operations in

Low-Intensity Conflict, Research Report no. AU-ARI-91-4 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,

June 1992), 21.

Unpublished

62. Maj John B. Hungerford Jr., "Organization for Military Space: A Historical Perspective," Research

Report no. 82-1235 (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Command and Staff College, 1982), 9–19.

63. Report of Air Corps Board, "Revision of Field Service Regulations," study no. 45, 15 November

1983, 2.

64. Report of the General Headquarters Air Force (Provisional) 1933, ca. 20 July 1933.

Unpublished Papers

65. Richard K. Betts, "Soldiers, Statesmen, and Resort to Force: American Military Influence in Crisis

Decisions, 1945–1976" (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1975), 78–86.

66. Betts, 80. [shortened form]

67. Dorothy Ross, "The Irish-Catholic Immigrant, 1880–1900: A Study in Social Mobility" (master's

thesis, Columbia University, n.d.), 142–55.

68. P. Thomas, "Utilization of Enlisted Women in the Military" (paper presented at the RAND

Conference on Defense Manpower, Santa Monica, Calif., February 1976), 8.

69. Thomas, 7. [shortened form]

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Public Documents

When you use an endnote citing congressional hearings and other public documents, include the

following information:

1. Author (name of house, committee, and subcommittee if any)

2. Title of document

3. Number of Congress and session number

4. Date of publication (year)

5. Part and number of report or document, if applicable

6. Page number(s)

Sometimes you may need to include additional information. Take all information from the title page of

the document.

Bills, reports, and miscellaneous documents

70. House, A Bill to Require Passenger-Carrying Motor Vehicles Purchased for Use by the Federal

Government to Meet Certain Safety Standards, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H.R. 1341, 1–4.

71. House, Organization and Management of Missile Programs, Eleventh Report by the Committee on

Government Operations, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H.R. 1121, 154–56.

72. House, Organization and Management, 155. [shortened form]

73. House Committee on Education and Labor, White House Conference on Aging: Report to Accompany

S. J. Res. 117, 90th Cong., 2d sess., 1 May 1968, 5.

74. Senate, Report of the Federal Trade Commission on Utility Corporations, 70th Cong., 1st sess.,

1935, S. Doc. 92, pt. 71A.

75. House, United States Defense Policies in 1958, 86th Cong., 1st sess., 1959, H. Doc. 227, 114.

76. H.R. Report 871, 78th Cong., 1st sess., 1943, 49.

77. Senate, Documents on the International Aspects of the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,

1954–1962, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, S. Doc. 18, 55–56.

78. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Foreign Policy, 86th Cong., 2d sess., 1960,

Committee Print, 1:729.

79. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Central America, 1981: Report to the Committee on Foreign

Affairs, prepared by Hon Gerry E. Studds, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, Committee Print, 31.

80. House Committee, Central America, 1981, 30. [shortened form]

81. Department of State, American Foreign Policy, Current Documents, 1958 (Washington, D.C.:

Government Printing Office, 1962), 1413.

Hearings

82. Senate, Study of Air Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Air Force of the Committee on

Armed Services, 84th Cong., 2d sess., 1956, 52.

83. Senate, Study of Air Power, 1727. [shortened form]

84. Senate, Investigation of Governmental Organization for Space Activities: Hearings before the

Subcommittee on Governmental Activities of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Science, 86th

Cong., 1st sess., 1959, 379–80.

85. House, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1954: Hearings before the Subcommittee of the

Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong., 1st sess., 1953, 317.

86. House, DOD Appropriations for 1954, 289–91. [shortened form]

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87. House, Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services: Hearings before the Select

Committee on Inquiry into Operations of the United States Air Services, 69th Cong., 2d sess., 1925, pt.

4:2269–70.

Congressional bills and resolutions

Known as public laws or statutes, bills and resolutions first appear in the Congressional Record, then in

United States Statutes at Large, often in the United States Code Annotated, and finally in the United

States Code.

88. Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100.

89. Food Security Act of 1985, 99th Cong., 1st sess., H.R. 2100, Congressional Record, 131, no. 132,

daily ed. (8 October 1985): H8461–66.

90. H.R. 11818, 89th Cong., 1st sess., 1956, sec. 301(a).

91. S. Resolution 218, 83d Cong., 2d sess., 1954.

92. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2d sess. (1 August 1946), 12, 19.

93. Atomic Energy Act of 1946, US Statutes at Large 60 (1947): 767, 774. [Citations to the statutes are to

volume, year, and page number.]

94. Declaratory Judgment Act, US Code, vol. 28, secs. 2201–2 (1952). [Citations to the code are always

to section number, not page.]

95. Declaratory Judgment Act, secs. 2201–2. [shortened form]

Executive department documents

96. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth: 1980 Administration of the Armed Services

Vocational Aptitude Battery (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense

[Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Logistics], March 1982), 19.

97. Department of Defense, Profile of American Youth, 23. [shortened form]

98. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve Manpower Strengths and Statistics, Fiscal Year

1985 Summary (Washington, D.C.: Assistant Secretary of Defense [Reserve Affairs], n.d.), 8.

99. Department of Defense, Official Guard and Reserve, 16. [shortened form]

Presidential proclamations, executive orders, other documents

100. President, Proclamation, "Supplemental Quota on Imports of Long-Staple Cotton," Federal Register

15, no. 196 (10 October 1950): 127, microfiche.

101. Executive Order 9877, Functions of the Armed Services, 26 July 1947.

102. EO 9877. [shortened form]

103. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1957 (Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1958), 796.

104. Public Papers: Eisenhower, 274–90. [shortened form]

105. Statement of the president, 26 January 1968, in Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents 4,

no. 4 (29 January 1968): 133.

106. UN General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI), "International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of

Outer Space," 20 December 1961.

Classified Sources

Mark classified documents with the classification of the title (immediately following the title) and with

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the overall classification of the document (at the end of the publication data). If you take unclassified

information from a classified source, put a statement to that effect after the overall classification

marking.

107. TAF SON 302-81, Statement of Operational Need for Night Attack Capabilities (U), 2 November

1982. (Secret)

108. Assistant Chief of Staff, Intelligence, "Linebacker II: 18–29 December 72" (U), supporting

document III-K1. (Top Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

109. Robert L. Faloon, Strategic Air Defense in Nuclear War (U) (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University

Press, 1983), 37. (Secret) Information extracted is unclassified.

Letters and Indorsements

110. Maj W. G. Kilner, executive, Office of Chief of Air Service, to commandant, Air Service Tactical

School, letter, subject: Proposed Revision of the Policy of the Army and Navy Relating to Aircraft, 12

April 1925.

111. Lt Col C. C. Culver to chief of Air Corps, letter, subject: Doctrine of Employing an Aerial Force, 9

June 1928; 1st ind., Maj L. W. McIntosh, executive, Office of the Chief of Air Corps, to commandant,

Air Corps Tactical School, 1 September 1928.

112. The Adjutant General to commanding generals, all corps areas et al., letter, subject: General

Headquarters Air Force, 31 December 1934.

113. Capt Harry A. Johnson, Command and General Staff School, to chief, Air Corps, letter, subject:

Multiengine Fighter Aircraft, 18 January 1935; 2d ind., Lt Col H. A. Pratt, chief, Air Corps, Materiel

Division, to chief, Air Corps, 16 February 1935; 3d ind., Col A. G. Fisher, president, Air Corps Board, to

chief, Air Corps, 15 July 1945.

Memorandums

Regular memorandum

114. Lt Col G. W. Bundy, War Plans Division, War Department General Staff, memorandum to Lt Col

Clayton J. Bissell, War Plans Division, subject: Ultimate Air Force Requirements, 18 July 1941.

115. Col William W. Momyer, deputy commandant for evaluation, Air War College, memorandum to

Maj Gen John DeF. Barker, deputy commanding general, Air University, subject: Progress of the Manual

Program, 17 September 1952.

116. Momyer. [shortened form]

Draft memorandum

117. Chief, Air Corps, draft memorandum to chief of staff, Army, subject: Additional Naval Air Bases,

28 March 1938.

Memorandum of understanding

118. Secretary of the Army, memorandum of understanding with secretary of the Air Force, subject:

Contractor Applications and Procedures, 2 October 1951.

Memorandum for record

119. Gen Nathan F. Twining, vice chief of staff, US Air Force, memorandum for record, subject:

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Functions of Dr. Stearns, General Barcus, and General White, 17 November 1950.

120. Maj Frank M. Johnson, memorandum for record, subject: Guided Missiles Program, 22 August

1951.

Messages

121. Message, TST-587, Joint Chiefs of Staff, to commanding general, Strategic Air Command, 13 April

1949.

122. Message, AFCVC-51413, US Air Force to commanding general, Far East Air Forces, 14 August

1950.

123. Message, 281415Z OCT 90, US Air Force to commanding general, Far East Air Forces, 28 October

1990.

Manuals, Instructions,

Directives, and Other Publications

124. Air Force Manual (AFM) 1-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the United States Air Force, vol. 1,

March 1992, v.

125. AFM 1-1, vol. 1, 5. [shortened form]

126. War Department, Field Service Regulations, United States Army (Washington, D.C.: Government

Printing Office, 1924), 11, 21–24.

127. War Department Training Regulation (WDTR) 440-15, Employment of the Air Forces of the Army,

15 October 1935.

128. WDTR 440-15. [shortened form]

129. Air Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501, Criteria for Air Force Assessments, August 1995.

130. Air Force Pamphlet (AFP) 36-2705, Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, February 1995.

131. Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60, Training and Education, October 1995.

132. DOD Directive 5030.18, Department of Defense Support of National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, 25 August 1966.

133. TIG [The Inspector General] Brief, 27 March 1970, 3.

134. Maj Gary Ambrose, Staff Summary Sheet, Memorandum of Agreement on USAF Air Refueling

Support for Navy Operations, 13 December 1985.

135. Air Force Policy Letter for Commanders: Supplement, February 1970, 2–6.

Source Cited/Quoted in Another Source

136. Quoted in George E. Lowe, The Age of Deterrence (Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1964), 232.

137. Quoted in Lowe, 234. [shortened form]

138. Quoted in Samuel P. Huntington, "Democracy Fights a Limited War: Korea, 1950–1953," in Major

Crises in American History: Documentary Problems, ed. Merrill F. Peterson and Leonard W. Levy (New

York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), 2:481.

139. Letter of Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to Cong. Robert Miller, 3 November 1961, in

House, Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval and Military Establishment, 1963: Hearings before the

Committee on Armed Services, 88th Cong., 1st sess., 1963, 2729–30.

140. Statement of Lt Gen Paul Gorman, director for plans and policy, Organization of the Joint Chiefs of

Staff, in Senate, Department of Defense Authorization for Appropriations for Fiscal Year 1982:

Hearings before the Subcommittee on Sea Power and Force Projection of the Committee on Armed

Services, 97th Cong., 1st sess., 1981, pt. 4:89.

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141. Statement of F. Trubee Davison in "U.S. President's Air Policy Commission," unclassified

testimony before the President's Air Policy Commission (Washington, D.C.: 1 December 1947,

mimeographed), 6:2644–49.

142. Davison, 6:2648. [shortened form]

Diaries, Minutes, Chronologies, Summaries,

Digests, Notes, and So Forth

143. Diary of Fleet Adm William D. Leahy, 8 February 1946, William D. Leahy Papers, Manuscript

Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

144. Minutes of the War Department Board of Ordnance and Fortification, 24 October 1905, quoted in

Jones Aviation Chronology, 1900–1906, 61.

145. Minutes of monthly meetings of Army Air Forces Board, 2 January 1945.

146. Minutes of the Patch Sword II Conference conducted at Headquarters AFSC, Andrews AFB,

Maryland, October 1981, 26.

147. Chronology, Astronautics and Aeronautics (NASA, 1966), 252, 305, 373.

148. Air Staff Summary Sheet, Lt Col Andrew C. Barbee, Policy and Plans Group, Report of Air Force

Support of National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 20 March 1967.

149. Daily Staff Digest, Headquarters USAF, 13 November 1967.

150. Notes, Fifth Air Force Planning Conference, 12 December 1951.

151. Briefing, 6127th Air Terminal Group, subject: Air Terminal Detachments in Korea, 1 March 1951.

152. Brig Gen Mervin E. Gross, chief, Requirements Division, Aviation Section, Signal Corps, Office of

the Chief of Research, Army Air Forces, record and routing (R&R) sheet, subject: Centralization of

Certain Literature-Producing Functions at Orlando, 27 November 1944.

153. Gross, R&R sheet, 27 November 1944. [shortened form]

154. FM 90-14, "Rear Battle," final draft, 19 November 1984, i.

Lectures and Addresses

155. Maj Gen Mason M. Patrick, "The Army Air Service," lecture, Army War College, Carlisle

Barracks, Pa., 9 November 1925.

156. Patrick. [shortened form]

157. Gen Curtis E. LeMay, chief of staff, US Air Force, address to the Air Force Association

Convention, Philadelphia, Pa., 21 September 1961.

158. Gen Earle G. Wheeler, graduation address to the Industrial College of the Armed Forces,

Washington, D.C., 11 June 1963.

159. Sir Robert Saundby, "British Air Doctrine," lecture, Air War College, Maxwell AFB, Ala., 10

November 1953.

Interviews

160. Jerry Gibson, MCI Communications Corp., interviewed by author, 7 March 1983.

161. Richard Voit, Warren Brasselle, and Kerry Deimer, interviewed by author during visit to MCI

Communications Corp., Southern Region, Atlanta, Ga., 22 April 1983.

162. Maj Gen C. E. McKnight Jr., US Army Communications Command, Fort Huachuca, Ariz.,

interviewed by author, 24 February 1983.

163. McKnight. [shortened form]

164. Lt Col Jerry A. Singleton, transcript of oral history interview by Dr. James C. Hasdorff, 30 October

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1992, 24, US Air Force Academy Library, Colorado Springs, Colo.

Video Recordings

165. Morris Massey, What You Are Is, CBS-Fox Video, 30 min., 1983, videocassette.

166. Louis J. Mihalyi, Landscapes of Zambia, Central Africa (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Visual Education,

1975), slides.

Translation Services

167. Sergey Agafonov, "Japan in Russia's Financial Market: Bank of Tokyo to Open in Moscow,"

Izvestiya, 9 June 1992, 7, in FBIS [Foreign Broadcast Information Service] Report: Central Eurasia,

FBIS-USR-92-079, 29 June 1992, 4.

168. A. Boldinyuk, "The Karelian Issue: Does It Exist, and If So, in What Form?" Pravda, 11 June 1992,

3, in FBIS-USR-92-079, 2. [subsequent reference to same FBIS issue]

169. Robert Minasov, "Gosznak Is Not Equal to the Task," Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 18 June 1992, 1, in

FBIS-USR-92-080, 1 July 1992, 6. [subsequent reference to different FBIS issue but same coverage (i.e.,

Central Eurasia)]

170. "Opposition Parties Oppose Election Postponement," Korea Times, 25 June 1992, 2, in FBIS Daily

Report: East Asia, FBIS-EAS-92-123, 25 June 1992, 23.

Electronic Publications

CD-ROM

Include the following items in notes citing information published on CD-ROM:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

Author's name (if given)1. 

Publication information for

printed source (including title

and date of print publication)

2. 

Title of database (in italics)3. 

Publication medium (CD-ROM)4. 

Name of vendor5. 

Date of electronic publication6. 

Author's name (if given)1. 

Title of material accessed

(in quotation marks)

2. 

Date of material (if given)3. 

Title of database (in italics)4. 

Publication medium (CD-ROM)5. 

Name of vendor6. 

Date of electronic publication7. 

171. Gen Crosbie E. Saint, "A CINC's View of Operational Art," Military Review, September 1990, 70;

Joint Electronic Library, "Research Papers," CD-ROM, OC Incorporated, May 1997.

172. Lorna S. Jaffe, The Development of the Base Force, 1989-1992 (Washington, D.C.: Joint History

Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993), 11; Joint Electronic Library,

"History Publications," CD-ROM, OC Incorporated, May 1997.

173. Natalie Angier, "Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You," New York Times, 13 April

1993, late ed., C1; New York Times Ondisc, CD-ROM, UMI-Proquest, October 1993.

174. Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and

Early Childhood Education, 1990); ERIC, CD-ROM, Silver Platter, June 1993.

175. Michelle Cash Russo, "Recovering from Bibliographic Instruction Blahs," RQ: Reference Quarterly

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32 (1992): 178–83; Infotrac: Magazine Index Plus, CD-ROM, Information Access, December 1993.

176. Shearson Lehman Brothers, Inc., "Reebok: Company Report," 29 July 1993; General Business File,

CD-ROM, Information Access, December 1993.

177. US Department of State, "Industrial Outlook for Petroleum and Natural Gas," 1992; National Trade

Data Bank, CD-ROM, US Department of Commerce, 1993.

Use the following form for CD-ROMs published a single time instead of periodically, without plans for

updates or revisions:

178. The CIA World Factbook; CD-ROM (Minneapolis: Quanta, 1992).

179. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2d ed.; CD-ROM (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

Diskette

Include the following items in notes citing information published on diskette:

1. Author's name (if given)

2. Title of part of work, if relevant (in quotation marks)

3. Title of work (in italics)

4. Edition, release, or version, if relevant

5. Publication medium (diskette)

6. City of publication

7. Name of publisher

8. Year of publication

180. Michael Joyce, Afternoon: A Story; diskette (Watertown, Conn.: Eastgate, 1987).

181. Richard D. Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts; diskette

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).

182. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Dejection: An Ode," The Complete Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor

Coleridge, ed. Ernest Hartley Coleridge, vol. 1 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912), 362–68; diskette

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

Computer service

Include the following items in notes citing information available through a computer service:

Previously Printed Sources No Printed Source

Author's name (if given)1. 

Publication information for

printed source (including title

and date of print publication)

2. 

Title of database (in italics)3. 

Publication medium (on-line)4. 

Name of computer service5. 

Date accessed6. 

Author's name (if given)1. 

Title of material accessed

(in quotation marks)

2. 

Date of material (if given)3. 

Title of database (in italics)4. 

Publication medium (on-line)5. 

Name of computer service6. 

Date accessed7. 

183. Natalie Angier, "Chemists Learn Why Vegetables Are Good for You," New York Times, 13 April

1993, late ed., C1; New York Times Online, on-line, Nexis, 10 February 1994.

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184. Guidelines for Family Television Viewing (Urbana, Ill.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and

Early Childhood Education, 1990); ERIC, on-line, BRS, 22 November 1993.

185. "Comex Gold Contracts: Quotes from 4 Nov. 1992 to Dec. 1994"; Dow Jones Futures and Index

Quotes, on-line, Dow Jones News Retrieval, 6 December 1994.

186. "Middle Ages"; Academic American Encyclopedia, on-line, Prodigy, 30 March 1992.

Computer network

Include the following items in notes citing electronic journals, newsletters, etc., available through a

computer network:

Author's name (if given)1. 

Title of article or document

(in quotation marks)

2. 

Title of journal, newsletter,

etc. (in italics)

3. 

Volume number, issue number,

or other identifying number

4. 

Date of publication5. 

Number of pages or n.p.

(no pagination)

6. 

Publication medium (on-line)7. 

Name of computer network8. 

Date accessed9. 

Electronic address

(If you have to break the address

at the end of a line, do so after

punctuation [e.g., / or .])

10. 

187. Gen Crosbie E. Saint, "A CINC's View of Operational Art," Military Review, September 1990, 70;

on-line, Internet, 7 October 1997, available from

http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/research_pubs/p120.pdf.

188. Lorna S. Jaffe, The Development of the Base Force, 1989-1992 (Washington, D.C.: Joint History

Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, July 1993), 11; on-line, Internet, 7 October

1997, available from http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/history/baseforc.pdf.

189. Capt Edward B. Westermann, "Contemporary Civil-Military Relations: Is the Republic in Danger?"

Airpower Journal, Summer 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 14 February 1996, available from

http://www.cdsar.af.mil/apj/wester.html.

190. William Schipper, "Quirk and Wrenn Grammar," AnSax-L, 22 February 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet,

10 December 1995, available from http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth.

191. David Schorr, "New Technologies on War-Fighting Capabilities," Air Chronicles, 30 October 1995,

n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 January 1995, available from http://www.cdsar.af.mil/ci/think/what14.html.

192. Tom Huntington, "Encore for an SST," Air and Space Magazine, 30 October 1995, n.p.; on-line,

Internet, 15 February 1996, available from

http://www.airspacemag.com/articles/T144-on95/asm-t144-on95.html.

193. "Update on Cockpit Motion Facility," Flight Simulation News, February 1995, n.p.; on-line,

Internet, 15 February 1996, available from http://ssb-www.larc.nasa.gov/fltsim/sn0295.html.

194. "Budget Cuts to Force Reduction in Serial Subscriptions by Library," AU [Auburn University]

Report—Faculty and Staff Newsletter, 14 August 1995, n.p.; on-line, Internet, 15 February 1996,

available from gopher://mallard.duc.auburn.edu:70/00/Info/AUReport/8-14-95/cuts.

Use the following form to cite electronic texts (e.g., literary works and historical documents) available

through computer networks:

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195. Frances McSparran, ed., Octovian, Early English Text Society, no. 289 (London: Oxford University

Press, 1986); on-line, Internet, 6 April 1994, available from ftp://etext.virginia.edu/pub/texts/octovian.txt.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Appendix B: Bibliography

 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

 Back to Research Starting Points

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Air University Style Guide

—D—

dangling modifier.

A verbal phrase at the beginning of a sentence dangles when the word it should modify is not

present:

Running along the street, my nose felt frozen.

Here, running along the street seems to modify nose. Correct this problem by adding a word that

the verbal phrase can logically modify:

Running along the street, I felt as if my nose were frozen.

dash.

The dashes most commonly used are the em dash (sometimes typed as two hyphens) and the en

dash (sometimes typed as a hyphen).

Use an em dash or a pair of em dashes to indicate a sudden break or abrupt change in thought:

My world and the real world—what a contrast!

He asked—no demanded—that the door be opened.

to set off interrupting or clarifying elements:

These are shore deposits—gravel, sand, and clay—but marine deposits underlie them.

to introduce a final statement that summarizes a series of ideas:

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, freedom from

fear—these are the fundamentals of moral world order.

to set off a word or phrase in the main clause that emphasizes or explains:

George worked several days on the system—a system that was designed to increase

production in the department.

If text set off by a pair of dashes requires a question mark or exclamation point, place it before the

second dash:

Suddenly, Richard—had he lost his senses?—threw his plate across the room.

Do not use more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

The en dash is one-half the length of an em dash and is longer than a hyphen. Use an en dash to

connect continuing or inclusive numbers such as dates, time, or reference numbers: 1957–63,

February–March 1971, pages 12–15.

The en dash is also used in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective, one element of which

consists of two words or a hyphenated word: New York–London flight; Air Force–wide changes;

quasi-public–quasi-judicial body.

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data.

You may consider data singular or plural. Choose one, and use it consistently throughout your

text. Be sure that verbs and qualifiers agree with the number that you choose:

The data is now in, but we have not examined much of it.

The data are now in, but we have not examined many of them.

database

dates.

Write exact dates in day-month-year sequence without internal punctuation: 11 March 1950. See

also numbers.

daytime

D.C. (District of Columbia)

D day

decades.

Use figures if decades are identified by their century: the 1880s and 1890s. Spell out or use figures

and apostrophes for references to particular decades: the eighties, the '80s. See also numbers.

decision maker (n.)

decision making (n.)

decision-making (adj.)

de-emphasize

Democratic Party (or party), Democrat(s) (member[s] of the party), democracy.

See also capitalization.

department.

See capitalization.

directions (north, south, east, west, etc.).

See capitalization.

director, directorate.

See capitalization.

direct quotations.

Certain rules apply when you quote directly from the work of other writers. You should credit your

source by identifying it in an endnote. If you quote at length from a copyrighted work, you should

obtain written permission from the holder of the copyright. Reproduce the passage verbatim,

including original spelling, capitalization, and internal punctuation, with the following exceptions:

You may change single quotation marks to double quotation marks and vice versa, if

necessary.

1. 

2. You may change the initial letter to a capital or lowercase letter.

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You may omit the final period or change it to a comma, and you may omit punctuation

marks where you insert ellipsis points.

3. 

You should usually omit original note-reference marks in a short quotation from a scholarly

work. You may insert note references of your own within quotations.

4. 

You may correct an obvious typographical error in a passage quoted from a modern source,

but you should usually preserve idiosyncratic spellings in a passage from an older work or

manuscript source unless doing so would impair clarity. You should inform the reader of

any such alterations, usually in a note.

5. 

See also notes; plagiarism; quotations.

display dots.

Display dots are typographical devices used to emphasize specific items; they are not

organizational devices used to subordinate textual elements. Use them when one item is not more

important than the others or when the items do not show a sequence. Your entries may be either

complete or incomplete sentences but should be parallel in grammatical structure. Generally each

entry should be no longer than two or three sentences. Since display dots are used primarily for

emphasis, you should use them sparingly, and keep the information they set off as short as

possible. Indent each entry, and align run-over lines with the first word after the dot. The following

examples show the acceptable use of display dots:

A special court-martial tries intermediate noncapital offenses. It may be convened by

any of the following:

❍ Any person who may convene a general court-martial.

A commander empowered by the secretary of the Air Force unless otherwise

directed.

❍ 

A commander of a wing, group, or separate squadron of the Air Force unless

otherwise directed.

❍ 

Specifically, the Office of Antiterrorism is charged with the following measures:

Helping the newly formed Air Force Antiterrorism Council keep pace with

related developments. Members of the council include senior officers of

various deputy and assistant chiefs of staff, the Office of Security Police, the

Office of the Judge Advocate General, and other agencies.

❍ 

❍ Developing policy and guidance concerning security measures and precautions.

Monitoring terrorist trends and providing information on such matters to

interested agencies and commands.

❍ 

The Camp David accords provide a process to facilitate the implementation of

Resolution 242:

a five-year transitional period for the West Bank and Gaza, providing full

autonomy to the inhabitants;

❍ 

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negotiations on the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and on a peace

treaty between Jordan and Israel, to begin no later than three years into the

transitional period;

❍ 

❍ a framework for peace negotiations between Israel and Egypt; and

❍ principles for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighboring states.

The following engineering data support centers have been established:

❍ The Cryptologic Equipment Engineering Data Support Center

❍ The Nuclear Ordnance Engineering Data Support Center

❍ The Aerospace Guidance and Metrological Engineering Data Support Center

❍ Communications-Electronics Engineering Data Support Center

In classified reports, material emphasized by display dots is considered part of the paragraph that

introduced it, not as a separate paragraph.

District of Columbia (D.C.)

division.

See capitalization.

doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives.

On first usage, spell out the name of the publication and include the abbreviation in parentheses;

you may then refer to the publication by abbreviation and number. Italicize the title of the

publication: Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 60, Training and Education, AFDD 60; Air

Force Instruction (AFI) 90-501, Criteria for Air Force Assessments, AFI 90-501; Air Force

Manual (AFM) 10-41, Operation Plan and Concept Plan Development, AFM 10-41; Army Field

Manual (FM) 27-10, Law of Land Warfare, FM 27-10; Air Force Pamphlet (AFP) 36-2705,

Discrimination and Sexual Harassment, AFP 36-2705; Air Force Policy Directive (AFPD) 36-4,

Personnel: Air Force Civilian Training and Education, AFPD 36-4.

documentation.

See bibliography; notes.

DOD (Department of Defense)

dollars.

See money; numbers.

Dr. (doctor).

Use a period with the abbreviation. See also Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

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 Back to Air University Home Page

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Air University Style Guide

—P—

page numbers.

You may either omit the abbreviations p. and pp. to designate page numbers, or you may use them—as

long as you are consistent:

2. Brig Gen Stuart R. Boyd, "Leadership and High Technology," Airpower Journal 3, no. 4

(Winter 1989): 8 [or p. 8].

pamphlets.

See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives.

parentheses.

Use parentheses when material inserted in a sentence is so loosely connected with the main thought of the

sentence that commas would not be adequate. Such insertions may be explanatory, amplifying, or

digressive:

Another illustration reflects a much more recent instance of a doctrinal notion (table 4).

This manual (issued to all students) covers the fundamental problems.

The funeral for her brother (she misses him terribly) was a sad affair.

If a comma is necessary, place it after the second parenthesis, not before the first. If the parenthetical

element within a sentence is itself a sentence, omit the period but retain a question mark or exclamation

point:

As the machine gunner opened fire (it was a .50-caliber gun), all movement ceased.

As the machine gunner opened fire (was it a .50-caliber gun?), all movement ceased.

If parentheses enclose an independent sentence, place the period inside the second parenthesis:

Albert convinced me to go back to college. (I always found his logic irresistible.)

Use parentheses to enclose enumerating letters or numerals (without periods) within a sentence:

His aims were (1) to consolidate the position, (2) to establish contact with guerrillas, and (3)

to regain control over the inhabitants.

part-time (adj., adv.)

party (political).

See capitalization.

passive voice.

Passive voice is a verbal construction consisting of a past participle and some form of the verb be; all other

forms are active.

When the subject of a verb receives the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice:

"Abide with Me" was sung by the congregation.

Jimmy was given a car by his father.

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The pit was dug fully eight feet deep.

They had been caught.

You can identify passive voice by looking for the following:

1. The receiver of the verb's action comes before the verb.

2. The verb has two parts: some form of the verb be plus the past participle of a main verb

(most of them end in -en or -ed).

3. If the doer appears at all, it follows the verb and is usually the object of the preposition by.

The best writers use passive voice sparingly and always intentionally: they are predisposed toward the use

of active voice. But passive voice has several important uses.

In the writer's mind, the object may be more important than the doer:

The bill was passed without opposition.

The well was drilled in solid rock.

Our house was painted last year.

You may use passive voice if you do not want to name the person or thing that performs the action. For

example:

President Reagan was elected in 1980.

The parts were shipped on 1 June.

The passive voice allows various degrees of emphasis by placing the name of the act or the doer at the

end:

Our house is being painted. (Active: They are painting our house.)

Our house was painted by Joe Mead and his brother. (Active: Joe Mead and his brother

painted our house.)

"Abide with Me" was sung by the choir. (Active: The choir sang "Abide with Me.")

If you overuse passive voice, your writing will tend to become awkward and wordy. Since passive voice

does not always show the doer, you may forget to include important information. The result may be

confusing.

Requests must be approved beforehand. (By whom?)

The commander must approve requests beforehand.

The figures were lost. (By whom?)

We lost the figures.

peacekeeper

peacekeeping (n., adj.)

peacemaker

peacemaking (n., adj.)

peacetime

per annum

per capita

percent.

Always spell out percent in humanistic text, and precede it with arabic numerals: a 10 percent increase.

You may use the symbol % in tables and in scientific or statistical text.

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period.

Place a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. If you use a quotation at the end of a

sentence, place the period within the closing quotation mark. If you use a quotation before the end of a

sentence, omit the period or replace it with a comma. When using parentheses or brackets to enclose an

independent sentence, place the period inside the final parenthesis or bracket. If the enclosed matter is part

of a sentence, place the period outside the final parenthesis or bracket:

The commander said, "You're only half right."

"One should always say, 'I mean what I say.'"

"I'm sure I say what I mean," said Alice.

The decision to keep the sentence or drop it is a judgment call. (Writing is hard work

precisely because it requires so many judgment calls.)

The driver glanced in his rearview mirror at the passenger (certainly an eccentric fellow).

See also lists; parentheses; quotation marks.

periodicals.

See italics.

Persian Gulf War.

See also capitalization; Gulf War.

PGM (precision-guided munitions)

Philippines

plagiarism.

Plagiarism entails using the work of other writers as if it were your own. This serious offense not only can

lead to a lawsuit but also can bring about severe professional repercussions for the plagiarist. If you use

another person's wording or if you put another person's idea into your own words, you should identify the

borrowed passage and credit the author in a note.

Strategy [is] the art of distributing and applying military means to fulfill the ends of policy.

—B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy

If you incorporate Liddell Hart's definition of strategy in your text with the intention of leading your

readers to believe that it is your own, you would be guilty of plagiarism. Using another writer's exact

wording is permissible only if you identify the passage in your text by enclosing it in quotation marks and

including an endnote:

Perhaps strategy is more properly defined as "the art of distributing and applying military

means to fulfill the ends of policy."2

You should then credit your source by including a proper citation in your list of notes:

2. B. H. Liddell Hart, Strategy, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick Praeger, Inc., 1954), 335.

Similarly, you should identify and credit passages that you put in your own words (paraphrase).

Paraphrasing, however, is not simply a matter of changing or rearranging a few words here and there; you

must recast the passage:

unacceptable paraphrase

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Strategy is the art of applying and distributing military means to achieve the objectives of

policy.2

acceptable paraphrase

B. H. Liddell Hart envisioned a country's military as an instrument for carrying out national

policy. The purpose of strategy, then, is deciding how to use the military toward this end.2

Ideally, you should introduce your paraphrase so that the reader has no question about where your own

commentary ends and where your paraphrase begins, as is the case in the example above (i.e., mentioning

the author's name marks the beginning of the paraphrase, and the endnote number shows where it ends).

See also copyright; direct quotations; quotations.

P.M. (post meridiem [after noon]).

The standard practice is to typeset the abbreviation in small caps.

policy directives.

See doctrine documents, instructions, manuals, pamphlets, and policy directives.

policy maker (n.)

policy making (n.)

policy-making (adj.)

possessive.

See apostrophe.

post-.

Compound words with the prefix post- are usually spelled solid: postwar, postaxial, postmortem, but

post-cold-war world. See also compound words.

POW (prisoner of war)

pre-.

Compound words with the prefix pre- are usually spelled solid: preexisting, predetermined, prejudge,

preempt. See also compound words.

preliminaries.

See front matter.

president.

Capitalize president only when it precedes a person's name; otherwise, lowercase it. Do not abbreviate the

term. See also capitalization.

pro-.

Compound words with the prefix pro- are usually spelled solid: progovernment, proslavery. See also

compound words.

problem solver (n.)

problem solving (n.)

problem-solving (adj.)

profanity.

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Do not use profanity in any of the writing you do under the aegis of Air University. If you must use such

language (e.g., to preserve the tone of a passage), use a combination of initial letter(s) and hyphens:

The general, under tremendous pressure to implement an air campaign plan, screamed at the

colonel, "Your idea isn't worth a sh--!"

proofreaders' marks.

The following signs are used in marking manuscripts:

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The following paragraph illustrates the use of proofreaders' marks:

For more information on proofreaders' marks, see The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th ed. (3.19–36).

PSYOP (psychological operations)

PSYWAR (psychological warfare)

punctuation.

See apostrophe; brackets; colon; comma; dash; ellipses; hyphen; parentheses; period; question mark;

quotation marks; semicolon.

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OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

[A] [B] [C] [D] [E] [F] [G] [H] [I] [J] [K] [L] [M] [N] [O] [P] [Q] [R] [S] [T] [U] [V] [W] [X] [Y] [Z]

 Back to Air University Style Guide Table of Contents

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Air University Style Guide

—L—

landmass

land power

latitude, longitude.

Spell out latitude and longitude in text or standing alone: longitude 80 degrees east; the polar

latitudes, from 20° 50' north latitude to 20° 50' south latitude. In tables you may abbreviate as

follows:

lat. 41°15'40" N

long. 90°18'30" W

laws.

See acts, amendments, bills, and laws.

legal cases.

See italics.

legend.

An explanation of the material contained in an illustration (figure) is called a legend, which

consists of one or more complete sentences. Technically, if the explanation is not a complete

sentence, it is a caption (see also caption). You may use a mixture of legends and captions to

identify your figures. The legend follows the figure number on a line parallel to the bottom line of

the illustration. When you use a legend (complete sentence[s]), place a period at the end. When

you use a caption, you may use headline-style capitalization or sentence-style capitalization. See

also titles of works. Do not use a period at the end, unless you run a caption and legend together.

Figure 1. Carrier Air Wing. As the Air Force assembles composite wings, it would do

well to study how the Navy operates its carrier air wings. The composite nature of the

carrier air wing is evident from this deck photo of the USS Theodore Roosevelt and

its complement of aircraft.

Figure 2. System Flowchart Applied to Mission Accomplishment

If the illustration is not your own, identify the source with a credit line at the end of the legend, in

parentheses, or you may run it parallel to the lower edge of the illustration:

Source: Maj Paul G. Hough, "Financial Management for the New World Order,"

Airpower Journal 6, no. 3 (Fall 1992): 51.

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs

or

Figure 3. Competitive effects on general and administrative costs (From Maj Paul G.

Hough, "Financial Management for the New World Order," Airpower Journal 6, no. 3

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[Fall 1992]: 51)

If you use such words as left, right, top, bottom, or left to right to identify individual subjects

within the illustration, put them in italics, preceding the subjects they identify. See also caption.

Figure 1. Left to right: George Jones, Henry Johnson, and John Hopkins.

Figure 3. Upper left, B-1; upper right, F-15; lower left, C-5; center, XV-3; lower

right, XV-15.

If your table of contents includes a list of illustrations, do not simply reprint the captions and

legends as they appear in the text. A short caption is appropriate for your list, but you should

shorten long captions and legends.

legislative bodies, legislative branch.

See capitalization.

LF (low frequency)

LGB (laser-guided bomb)

LIC (low intensity conflict)

lists.

You may run lists into the text or set them apart in a vertical enumeration. Use arabic numerals in

both styles.

For a run-in enumeration, enclose the numbers in parentheses without a period. Use a comma to

separate items in a simple series if there is little or no punctuation within the items; otherwise, use

a semicolon:

Plain English standards are (1) present material in a logical, orderly sequence, (2)

write in a clear, uncluttered style, and (3) write in active voice.

Note that the items in the series should be grammatically parallel.

For a vertical enumeration, use numbers without parentheses but follow with a period. If each

element in the list is a complete sentence, use a period at the end of each. Set the list flush with the

text or indent. Align runover lines with the first word after the numeral.

The following steps increase your effectiveness as a communicator:

1. Use English that is alive.

Analyze the purpose and audience, taking care to select a subject that will be of

interest to the audience.

2. 

3. Conduct the research.

4. Support your ideas.

You may put in vertical form a list that completes a sentence begun in an introductory element;

punctuate it as if it had been a continuous part of the sentence:

The loan office told Richard to

1. fill out the application forms,

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2. make a copy for himself, and

3. return all paperwork in one week.

Or you may omit the punctuation after all such items:

The five categories of research sources are

1. abstracts of student papers

2. Air Force sources

3. DOD sources

4. periodicals

5. other sources

Be consistent throughout the document.

LOC (lines of communications)

localities and regions.

Capitalize the popular names of specific localities and regions: East Side, Sun Belt, Twin Cities.

See also capitalization.

loc. cit. (loco citato).

In the place cited. Use a shortened reference instead. See notes.

logistic or logistical (adj.)

logistics (n.).

Logistics may take a singular or plural verb. Choose one, and be consistent.

long term (n.)

long-term (adj.)

Luftwaffe.

No italics.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—T—

tables.

Use tables for the economical presentation of large amounts of information. Give every table a

number, and refer to it in the text by that number, either directly or parenthetically. In your

references, don't just repeat the facts presented in the table. Most of the time, a simple

cross-reference is sufficient (see table 1). Number your tables (with arabic numerals) in the order

in which they appear in the text. Numbering is continuous throughout the text. However, if your

book consists of chapters by different authors, the numbering restarts with each chapter. If your

book has appendixes with tables, use distinctive numbers for those tables (A.1, A.2, B.1, B.2, C.1,

C.2, etc.).

Center the table number and title (caption) above the table, placing the table number above the

title. Alternatively, you may place these elements flush left. (Further, you may place table number

and title on the same line, leaving more than normal word space between them.)

The title should identify the table and give facts rather than provide discussion and comment:

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics

not

Table 3

Improvement of Prediction of Peer

Leadership Characteristics by Addition of Other

Managerial Leadership Characteristics

If the table continues to other pages, use a notation such as Table 3—continued. You may include

a subheading for your title; if so, enclose it in parentheses and place it on a separate line. Do not

type the title or subheading in full caps. Instead, use headline style or sentence style. Whichever

style you use, be consistent throughout the text.

Your table must have at least two columns. At the top of the columns, include headings that

identify the material in the column. Do not use vertical rules to separate the columns. Make the

first column heading singular in number (e.g., Party). The other headings may be singular or plural

(e.g., Votes, Seats Won). Use headline or sentence style for the column headings, and either center

successive lines or place them flush left. You may include subheadings with the column headings;

enclose them in parentheses. You may use abbreviations in the subheadings. Because the width of

the column headings determines the width of the table, keep the headings as brief as possible.

List the names of categories or individuals in the left-hand column (stub) of your table, and put

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information about them in the other columns. Be sure that items in the stub are grammatically

parallel. Do not number stub items, and do not use ditto marks in the stub. Indent runover lines two

spaces more than the regular indention. Write stub items in sentence style, without a period at the

end:

Computers

 Zenith

 Gateway

 IBM

Printers

 Hewlett-Packard

 Epson

 Star

If you use the word Total at the foot of the stub, indent it two spaces more than the greatest

indention above it.

Align a column of figures on the decimal points or commas. Also align dollar signs and percentage

signs. If all figures in a column are the same kind, place the dollar signs and percentage signs only

at the top of the column and after any horizontal rule cutting across it. Omit the signs if the table

title or column head shows what the figures are.

In a column consisting of information expressed in words, center all items if they are short, but

flush them left if they are long.

If you wish to refer to specific parts of a table, use superior letters—beginning with a—as

reference marks. You may use them on column headings, on stub items, and in the body of the

table—but not on the table number or title. Place the reference marks beginning at the upper left

and extending across the table and downward, row by row. If you reproduce a table from another

source, include a source note below the body of the table, introduced by the word Source(s) (in

italics or cap & small caps), rather than footnoting the table number and including a note in the list

of chapter notes.

Table 1

Sorties Flown in Operation Desert Storm

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Sources: Department of the Air Force, Air Force Performance in Desert Storm (Washington,

D.C.: Government Printing Office, April 1991); and author's collation of published data.

aAir interdiction—in this case a conflation of both strategic (against Iraqi installations) and

operational (against Iraqi air, ground, and naval forces) bombing, including battlefield interdiction

(against Iraqi forces behind the front).

bOffensive counterair (i.e., attacks against Iraqi air force bases and related facilities).

cClose air support (i.e., attacks against Iraqi ground forces at the front).

dStrike as here defined includes all aircraft that penetrated hostile airspace in the course of

ground-attack missions, with or without ground-attack ordnance of their own.

eDefensive counterair (i.e., air defense patrols and intercepts).

fSuppression of enemy air defenses (i.e., attacks against Iraqi antiaircraft missiles, guns, and

related radar and other facilities).

gAirborne early warning, airborne electronic surveillance, electronic warfare, and other.

TACAIR (tactical air)

takeoff (n.)

take off (v.)

takeover (n.)

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take over (v.)

temperature.

See numbers.

TEMPEST (special shielding against electromagnetic radiation)

that, which.

Clauses introduced by the relative pronouns that and which are of two kinds: restrictive and

nonrestrictive.

A clause is restrictive or defining when the information it provides about something in the main

clause is essential to the meaning of the statement. It is generally preceded by the relative pronoun

that but can be introduced by which:

I am looking for the book that I lost yesterday.

Of all the cars for sale, we preferred the one which had the lowest mileage.

A nonrestrictive clause is descriptive, can be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, must

be self-contained, and is introduced only by which:

My house, which is old and large, is located on Elm Street.

In some circumstances that can be omitted from restrictive clauses:

When it is the object of a verb: the songs (that) we used to sing.

When it is the object of a preposition: the boy (that) we gave the apples to.

When it is the complement of some form of the verb be: He is not the man (that) his

father was.

When it is technically the subject of the verb be but standing in the complement

position: We gave him all (that) there was.

In recent years, many Air Force writers have taken this option to the extreme by omitting that

altogether. Oftentimes, however, that must be retained for clarity. For example, when a time

element follows the verb, the conjunction that is always needed to make clear whether the time

element applies to the material preceding or following:

Governor James announced today that he would sign the income tax bill.

Here, if that is omitted, the sentence could mean either that the governor made the announcement

today or that he would sign the bill today.

When a sentence with two parallel clauses requires the expression and that in the second part, you

must retain that in the first part of the sentence for parallel construction:

The senator said that she would run next year and that James Corley would be her

campaign manager.

After verbs like said or announced, you may omit that for conciseness: He said (that) he was tired.

But if the subject of the clause following the verb can be mistaken for that verb's direct object, that

must be retained:

He said that mere words could not express his feelings.

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See also which.

theater, theatre.

Shortened form of theater of operations or theater of war. Lowercase the term, as in European

theater. Either spelling is acceptable; choose one and use it consistently.

there is, there are.

When you use there as the anticipatory subject, make the verb agree in number with the "real"

subject, which follows it: "There is a lesson to be learned here, and there are many more lessons to

be learned." However, like repeated use of it is . . . , repeated use of there is . . . and there are . . .

deprives the sentence of strong subject-verb combinations. See also it.

third-.

Compound words with third- occur in all three stylings: third base, third baseman, third class (n.),

third degree (n.), third grader, thirdhand (adj. and adv.), third-class (adj.), third-degree (adj.). See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

third world or Third World (n., adj.)

this.

Although criticized by some writers, using this to refer to the idea conveyed in a preceding

sentence is acceptable if the reference is neither confusing nor ambiguous:

John lost his job. This made his creditors uneasy.

However, do not use this when it refers only to some part of an idea or to an antecedent that is not

actually expressed:

Because of inherited venereal disease, their population remains static. This worries

the elders of the tribe. (Venereal disease? Static population? Both?)

The poet is widely admired, but it is difficult to make a living at this. (Writing poetry,

but not expressed in sentence.)

Do not use demonstrative this in place of personal pronouns:

We were much impressed by the tour director. This man (not this) is a capable and

well-informed person.

time.

See A.M.; military time; numbers; P.M.

titles of persons and offices.

See capitalization; military titles and offices.

titles of works.

Capitalize the first and last words and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and

subordinating conjunctions in titles and subheadings. Lowercase articles (the, a, an), coordinating

conjunctions (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, so), and prepositions, unless they are the first or last words

of the title or subtitle. Lowercase the to in infinitives.

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The Problem with Our Airpower Doctrine

Always capitalize the first element of a hyphenated compound word in a title; capitalize the other

elements unless they are articles, prepositions, or coordinating conjunctions:

Eighteenth-Century Fiction

Over-the-Hill Gang

Fly-by-Night Businesses

Do not capitalize the second element of a hyphenated prefix unless it is a proper noun or proper

adjective:

Anti-inflationary Guidelines

Non-Christian Religions

Capitalize the final element of a hyphenated compound at the end of a title, unless it is a

hyphenated prefix:

Avoiding a Run-In

Haven of Anti-intellectualism

TO (technical order).

Lowercase and spell out technical order when you are referring in general to the publications in

the Air Force series: the technical order. Always capitalize the term when it is used with the

number, but abbreviate it only after spelling it out on first reference: Technical Order (TO)

00-25-4, TO 00-25-4.

trademarks.

The symbols ® and TM, which often accompany registered trademark names on product packaging

and in advertisements, need not be used in running text.

trans-.

Words formed with the prefix trans- are generally closed: transship, transcontinental, transoceanic.

Compounds whose second element is a capitalized word are hyphenated: trans-America, but

transatlantic. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

treaties, pacts, and plans.

See capitalization.

tri-.

Compound words with tri- are usually closed: tricolor, trilingual, tristate. See also compound

words.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—W—

walk-.

Most compounds with walk- are either hyphenated or solid: walk-on (n.), walk-up (n.), walkout

(n.), walkover (n.). See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

war-.

Compounds with war- occur in all three stylings: war chest, war power, war room, war zone,

warlike, warpath, warplane, warship, wartime, war-game (v.). See also compound words.

war fighter

war fighting (n.)

war-fighting (adj.)

war-game (v.), as war-gamed an invasion.

war game (n.)

war gamer (n.)

war-gaming (adj.)

war gaming (n.)

warhead

war making (n.)

war-making (adj.)

warplane

wars.

Capitalize full titles of wars, but lowercase the shortened form: Spanish-American War, the war;

Korean War, the war; Vietnam War, the war.

Warsaw Pact, Warsaw Pact nations

warship

wartime

Washington, D.C.

You may use Washington, D.C., or simply Washington in documentation to identify the place of

publication, as long as you are consistent.

wavelength(s)

we.

See I, we.

weapon (caliber of).

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See caliber.

weapon system(s) or weapons system(s).

Choose one, and use it consistently.

weights and measurements.

See measurements; numbers.

well-.

Most compounds formed with the adverb well- are either hyphenated or solid: well-being (n.),

well-defined (adj.), well-grounded (adj.), well-intentioned (adj.), well-known (adj.), well-read

(adj.), well-spoken (adj.), well-timed (adj.), wellborn (adj.), wellness (n.).

Generally, you should hyphenate compounds with well before the noun: A well-known man came

to my house. Do not use the hyphen when the expression carries a modifier: A very well known

man made an unexpected appearance at the party. Do not use the hyphen when the compound

follows the noun it modifies: She is well known for her recipes. See also hyphenated compound

words.

West Berlin, West Germany.

Use the full phrase, not Berlin or Germany alone, in references to the city and country when they

were divided.

West(ern).

Capitalize terms with west(ern) if they are considered proper names; lowercase such terms if they

are not considered proper names or if they are merely directional: Western world, the West,

Midwest (US), Far West, but western, far western, western Pacific Ocean. See also capitalization.

western front (World War I)

Western Hemisphere

whereas.

See while.

whether.

When whether introduces a complete or elliptical adverbial clause, use or not after whether:

Whether the car was in good condition or not, he was determined to buy it. In noun clauses, you

may use the words or not with whether for emphasis, but they are not necessary: Whether Tom

goes to Birmingham today depends on the weather. When the alternatives are fully expressed, the

use of or not with whether is redundant: Whether he lived inside or outside the city limits was

irrelevant. You should repeat whether after or when the alternatives are long and complex

(Whether . . . or whether . . .).

which.

Normally, which introduces nonrestrictive clauses:

I read The Once and Future King, which is a retelling of Arthurian legend.

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It may also introduce restrictive clauses:

They were part of a generation which had been taught to appreciate the beauty of

simplicity.

If you have already used the relative pronoun that in the sentence, you may use which to avoid

repetition:

They proposed an operational testing and evaluation method that was based on an

approach which evolved from their experiences during the testing of the weapon

system.

Which sometimes unambiguously refers to an entire preceding statement rather than to a single

word:

She ignored him, which proved unwise.

Sometimes, however, the antecedent of which may be in doubt:

Some people worry about overeating, which can be unhealthy. Worrying?

Overeating?

Sometimes it is better to rewrite the sentence:

Worrying about overeating can be unhealthy.

while.

You may use the conjunction while to mean "during the time that":

Take a nap while I'm out.

or "as long as":

While there's life, there's hope.

or "whereas":

Skiing is easy for an expert, while it is dangerous for a novice.

or "although":

While respected, he is not liked.

or "similarly and at the same time that":

While the book will be welcomed by scholars, it will make an immediate appeal to

the general reader.

white.

Use white (or White) officer, white (or White) people, whites (or Whites), European Americans.

white paper.

Lowercase white paper unless it is part of a title:

The State Department summarized its findings in a white paper on terrorism.

The State Department released its findings in a report, "A White Paper on Terrorism."

wide-.

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Compounds beginning with wide- occur in all three stylings: wide receiver (n.), widemouthed

(adj.), widespread (adj.), wide-awake (adj.), wide-eyed (adj.), wide-spreading (adj.). See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

-wide.

Compounds ending in -wide are written solid unless they are long and cumbersome: countrywide,

nationwide, servicewide, statewide, theaterwide, worldwide, but university-wide, Air Force–wide.

The hyphenated forms are written open after the noun: The directive applied Air Force wide. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

wing.

Capitalize wing when it is part of a proper name: 42d Air Base Wing, but the wing.

wingspan

wiretap (v., n.)

wiretapper (n.)

word division.

Generally, you should follow the syllable division indicated in the dictionary when you break

words at the ends of lines. Note the following prohibitions, however: do not carry over a final

syllable whose only vowel sound is that of a syllabic "l" (prin-ciples, not princi-ples); do not carry

over a vowel that forms a syllable in the middle of a word (preju-dice, not prej-udice); do not

divide a word if doing so would result in a one-letter division (e.g., again, idol, item, unite); avoid

carrying over two-letter endings (fully, not ful-ly); if possible, do not break hyphenated compound

words except at the hyphen (court-/martial, not court-mar-/tial); words originally compounded of

other words but now spelled solid should be divided at the natural breaks whenever possible

(school-master is better than schoolmas-ter); also, try to make a division after a prefix rather than

dividing at any other point in the word (dis-pleasure is better than displea-sure). Do not end more

than three succeeding lines in hyphens.

words.

See compound words; hyphenated compound words; spelling.

words as words.

See italics; quotation marks.

work-.

Compounds with work- occur in all three stylings: work ethic, workday, work-up (n.). See also

compound words; hyphenated compound words.

work-around (n.)

work around (v.)

workforce

work hour(s) (n.).

See also man-hour(s).

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workload

work order.

Write work order in lowercase letters when you refer to the work order in general. Capitalize the

term when you refer to the title of the standardized form, as Work Order Request (AF Form 332).

World War I (or 1), the First World War, the Great War, the war, the two world wars

World War II (or 2), the Second World War, the war

worldwide (adj., adv.)

WWW (World Wide Web)

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—H—

half-.

Most adjective compounds with half are hyphenated; a few are closed: half-cocked, half-blooded,

half-witted, halfhearted, halfway. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

half century

he, him, his.

See sexist language.

headings.

See subheadings.

headquarters.

Spell out and capitalize headquarters when you refer to Air Force headquarters and headquarters

of major commands: Headquarters USAF, Headquarters ACC, but the headquarters.

HF (high frequency)

high-.

Most adjective compounds with high are hyphenated before the noun. After the noun, you may

write them open, unless ambiguity would result; some compounds with high are closed: high-level

meeting, highbrow, highfalutin, highland. See also compound words; hyphenated compound

words.

highway.

Capitalize highway in proper names, but lowercase the shortened form: Alcan Highway, the

highway. Use arabic numerals to designate state, federal, and interstate highways: Interstate 85,

Alabama 41.

Ho Chi Minh Trail

house.

Capitalize house when you refer to the House of Representatives, in full or shortened form: the

House. Lowercase house in other contexts: the lower house of Congress.

hundreds.

See numbers.

hyphen.

Use a hyphen when you must divide a word at the end of a line and in some compound words. See

also hyphenated compound words; word division.

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hyphenated compound words.

Hyphenated compounds are words joined by a hyphen or hyphens, such as many-sided, ill-fated,

and mother-in-law. There is no all-inclusive rule for hyphenation of compound words. If you are

not sure about the way a particular compound is written, look it up in the dictionary or The

Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.), table 6.1, "Spelling Guide for Compound Words and Words

with Prefixes and Suffixes," or refer to "The Writing of Compounds" in Webster's Third New

International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. The following are a few general

principles:

Use a hyphen to prevent ambiguity. For example, slow moving van could mean a moving van that

is slow (no hyphen necessary) or a van that is moving slowly: slow-moving van. Although

adjective compounds traditionally are hyphenated before the noun they modify and are written

open after the noun, you may omit the hyphen in all cases if there is no chance of ambiguity or

misreading: smoke filled room, red hot iron. This principle holds true even if the compound is

hyphenated in the dictionary. Do not hyphenate an adjective compound consisting of an adverb

ending in -ly plus participle or adjective (highly developed organism).

Hyphenate adjective compounds beginning with well, ill, better, best, little, lesser, and least when

they precede the noun, and leave them open after the noun: well-dressed man (but the man is well

dressed); best-known work (but the work is best known); ill-advised action (but the action is ill

advised). Leave such compounds open when they are modified by an adverb: very well dressed

man. If you enclose an adjective compound that you would normally hyphenate in quotation

marks, you may omit the hyphen: "well dressed" man. See also well.

Measurement compounds are also hyphenated: six-inch-wide board, three-mile limit, 24-gallon

tank. If you abbreviate the unit of measure, omit the hyphen: 24 gal tank.

Compounds consisting of numerals and the word percent are left open: 25 percent decrease.

Hyphenate when the second element of a compound is capitalized or is a number: pre–World War

II events, post-1980 developments. Hyphenate when spelling the word solid creates a homonym,

as in re-mark (mark again) versus remark (say).

Hyphenate some compounds in which the last letter of the prefix is the same as the first letter of

the word following: anti-intellectual, anti-inflammatory.

Use a "suspension" hyphen to carry the force of a modifier to a later noun: second- or third-rate

powers; second-, third-, and fourth-grade students.

Some noun compounds are always hyphenated: relative words with great and in-law, such as

great-uncle, great-great-grandmother, sister-in-law; noun plus noun, expressing two different but

equally important functions, such as secretary-treasurer; two-word compounds ending in elect,

such as governor-elect (but probate judge elect); some multiple-word compounds including a

preposition and describing someone or something, such as jack-of-all-trades (but flash in the pan).

Some permanent compounds beginning with vice are hyphenated, such as vice-chancellor, but not

vice admiral or vice president or viceroy. See also vice-.

Do not hyphenate capitalized geographical terms used as adjectives: Southeast Asian country,

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Mobile Bay cruise. See also compound words; titles of works.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—M—

magazine titles.

See italics.

man-.

Compound words with man- are solid, hyphenated, and open: mankind, man-hour(s), man jack.

See also compound words; hyphenated compound words; sexist language; work hour(s).

man-hour(s) (n.).

See also sexist language; work hour(s).

Marine Corps, Marine(s), marine.

Capitalize marine(s) as a synonym for the US Marine Corps: Jim enlisted in the Marines; a Marine

landing; but three marines, a company of marines. Shortened title: Marine Corps, but the corps. As

a guide to capitalization, apply the following test: If the word soldier or soldiers would fit logically

in place of marine or marines, use m. If Army, Navy, or Air Force can be substituted logically for

Marines, use M.

Marshall Plan, the plan

master's degree.

Also Master of Arts, Master of Science. See also academic degrees and titles.

material, materiel.

Material refers to any matter or substance from which something is made. Materiel refers more

specifically to apparatus or equipment (e.g., military supplies).

measurements.

If you use an abbreviation for the unit of measure, always express the quantity by a figure:

3 mi 50 lb

55 MPH 35 mm film

See also abbreviations; hyphenated compound words; numbers.

medals.

Capitalize specific names of medals and awards:

Medal of Honor; congressional medal

Distinguished Flying Cross

Legion of Merit

See also capitalization.

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media.

The plural of medium. Use with a plural verb. Although the term is used in the singular in

references to agencies of mass communications, that usage is not well established. See also data.

Messrs., Mmes.

Messrs. is the plural of Mr.; use a period: Messrs. Jones, Brown, and Robinson. Mmes is the plural

of madam or madame or Mrs.; no period: Mmes Banker, Moore, Richards, and McCormack.

microcomputer

mid-.

Adjective compounds with mid- are usually spelled solid, unless the second element begins with a

capital letter: midair collision, mid-Atlantic tempest. Noun compounds with mid- are usually solid;

if the second word is a proper noun, the compound may be open or hyphenated: midsummer, mid

Atlantic, mid-Victorian. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

Middle Ages

MiG(s).

Capital M, lowercase i, capital G. Soviet aircraft developed by the design bureau of Gen Artem

Mikoyan and Gen Mikhail Gurevich.

military establishment

military-industrial complex

military rank.

See military titles and offices.

military terms.

Capitalize full titles of armies, navies, air forces, fleets, regiments, battalions, companies, corps,

and so forth. Lowercase the words army, navy, air force, and so forth, standing alone or when they

are not part of an official title (except when they refer to US forces):

When questioned about a separate air force, the general saw it as a matter for the

Army to decide.

See also capitalization.

military time.

Time measured in hours numbered zero to 23 (as 0100, 0800, 1600, 2300), from one midnight to

the next; midnight is 0000, not 2400. No internal punctuation. See also numbers.

military titles and offices.

Capitalize and abbreviate titles that precede full names; capitalize and spell out titles that precede

surnames only. Lowercase and spell out titles following a personal name or used alone in place of

a name:

Gen Ulysses S. Grant, commander in chief of the Union army; General Grant; the

commander in chief; the general

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Gen Curtis E. LeMay, commander of Strategic Air Command; General LeMay; the

general

But General of the Army Douglas MacArthur; Douglas MacArthur, general of the

Army; General MacArthur; the general

Sgt Phyllis Forsman; a noncommissioned officer (NCO); Sergeant Forsman; the

sergeant

Chester W. Nimitz, fleet admiral; Admiral Nimitz, commander of the Pacific Fleet;

the admiral

Col (Brig Gen–select) Peter D. Haynes

Generals Eisenhower and Montgomery (but Army generals Patton and Bradley)

See also abbreviations; capitalization.

military units.

Air Force units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to and including air divisions (now

defunct). Spell out the names of numbered air forces:

2d Aircraft Delivery Group

31st Combat Support Group

22d Fighter Wing

834th Air Division

Twenty-third Air Force

Army units. Use arabic numerals to designate units up to and including divisions. Write corps

names with roman numerals, and designate Army groups with arabic numerals. Spell out the

names of numbered armies:

2d Armored Cavalry Regiment

210th Field Artillery Brigade

82d Airborne Division

XVIII Airborne Corps

3d Army Group

First Army

Navy units. Use arabic numerals to designate the number of task forces; spell out fleet numbers:

Task Force 58

Fifth Fleet

Marine Corps units. Use the same designations as Army units.

militia (sing.), militias (pl.)

mind-set

minelayer (n.)

mine laying (n.)

mine-laying (adj.)

minesweeper (n.)

minesweeping (n., adj.)

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MIRV (multiple independently targeted reentry vehicle) (n.,v.). MIRVed, MIRVing.

missileman

MITRE Corp. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology Research Corporation)

MOA (memorandum of agreement)

money.

Use a dollar sign and numerals to express large sums of money: Both companies agreed on a price

of $2 million. See also numbers.

moon.

See earth.

mottoes.

You may enclose mottoes and similar expressions in quotation marks, capitalize them as if they

were titles, or capitalize the first word only:

"A penny saved is a penny earned" was his favorite maxim.

The flag bore the motto Don't Tread on Me.

He was fond of the motto All for one and one for all.

MOU (memorandum of understanding)

MPH.

See abbreviations.

Mr., Mrs., Mme, Ms.

Use a period with all except Mme. Spell out "Mister" when it connotes military rank: Mister

Roberts. See also Messrs., Mmes.

multi-.

Words with the prefix multi- are usually written solid: multibreak, multicylinder, multiengine. See

also compound words.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—F—

fact-finding (n., adj.)

federal, federal government

feedback

field test (n.)

field-test (v.)

fighter-bomber

figures.

See numbers or illustration, as applicable.

firearm; firebomb (n., v.); firepower

first, firstly.

When you enumerate points in textual material, use firstly, secondly, and so forth, or first, second,

and so forth. Do not mix the two: first, secondly.

first person.

See I, we.

flight crew

flight line (n.)

flight-line (adj.)

flight path

floor leader.

Lowercase floor leader, whether preceding or following the name:

the Republican floor leader, Hugh L. Brown

Rep. Hugh L. Brown, the Republican floor leader

follow-on (n., adj.)

follow-up (n., adj.)

follow up (v.)

footnotes.

See notes.

force mix (n.)

foreign military services.

See capitalization.

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foreign terms.

See italics.

foreword.

The foreword (not forward) is part of the front matter of a book, appearing before the preface. It is

usually two to four pages long and is written by someone other than the author of the book. The

name of the person who wrote the foreword appears at the end of the foreword. See also front

matter.

forms (titles of).

See italics.

fort.

Spell out and capitalize fort when it is part of a proper name: Fort Hood.

fractions.

See numbers.

free world or Free World

frequencies.

See abbreviations.

front line (n.)

frontline (adj.)

front matter.

Elements preceding the main text of a book are front matter or preliminaries. In order, they include

the title page, copyright notice, dedication, table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables,

foreword, preface, acknowledgments (if not part of preface), and introduction (if not part of text).

Use lowercase roman numerals to number the preliminary pages of the manuscript.

full time (n.)

full-time (adj., adv.)

FY (fiscal year)

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—G—

Gadhafi, Mu`ammar

general (military rank).

See abbreviations; capitalization; military titles and offices.

G force, G suit, G turns

glossary.

Include a glossary if you use a number of unfamiliar or technical terms in your text. Arrange the

words, abbreviations, or acronyms and their definitions in alphabetical order, and place the

glossary before the bibliography. See also back matter.

GO (general order).

Lowercase general order and spell it out when you are referring in general to the official

numbered and dated publication. Capitalize the term when you use it with the number, but

abbreviate with the number only after you spell it out on first reference: General Order (GO)

6-325, GO 6-325, the general order.

government, federal government, US government

group.

Capitalize group when you use it as part of a proper name: 42d Medical Group, the group.

Gulf War.

See also capitalization; Persian Gulf War.

guns.

See caliber (of weapons).

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—J—

JCS (Joint Chiefs of Staff).

Capitalize Joint Chiefs of Staff as an official title, but use joint chiefs as the shortened form. See

also capitalization.

jeep.

Lowercase jeep when you are referring to a military vehicle. Capitalize the word when you are

referring to the trademark of the civilian vehicle.

JFACC (joint force air component commander)

journals.

Capitalize all main words of the title of a journal, and italicize the full title: Journal of Political

and Military Sociology. See also italics; titles of works.

Jr.

Use a period with Jr.; do not set it off with commas. See also comma.

James Adair Jr.

JSTARS (joint surveillance, target attack radar system).

judicial branch.

See capitalization.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—K—

-keeper.

Compound words that end with -keeper are usually written solid: bookkeeper, scorekeeper,

timekeeper, hotelkeeper; but tollgate keeper. See also compound words.

Korean conflict

Korean War

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—O—

officials, government.

See capitalization.

off-line (adj., adv.)

off-load (v.)

omissions.

See ellipses.

on board (adv.).

Aboard. He is on board the ship.

onboard (adj.).

An onboard computer.

ongoing (adj.)

on-line (adj., adv.)

onload (v.)

op. cit. (opere citato).

In the work cited. Use a shortened reference instead. See notes.

operations, names of.

Write the names of operations with initial capital letters: Operation Haylift, Operation Torch,

Operation Crossroad, Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

organizations.

See capitalization.

outbrief (v.)

outbriefing (n., v.)

over-.

Compound words with the prefix over- are usually spelled solid: overage, overproduction,

overeager, override. See also compound words.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—Q—

quantities.

See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

question mark.

Put a question mark at the end of a direct question within a sentence:

How am I going to pass this test? was the question I kept asking myself.

As Mary asked herself, Why am I doing this for him? she glared balefully at John.

Do not put a question mark at the end of an indirect question:

I asked him what he was doing.

How he had managed to fool me was the question no one could answer.

Put a question mark inside quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets only when it is part of the

quoted or parenthetical matter:

The colonel asked, "Did you receive our inspection report?"

Did you say, "The base commander wants the report immediately"?

Which of the concepts do you believe to be generally shared (at least by your

contemporaries)?

quotation marks.

Enclose quoted words, phrases, and sentences in double quotation marks. Use single quotation

marks to enclose quotations within quotations. Quotations within block quotations require double

quotation marks.

Enclose a conference title in quotation marks:

"American Writers in the 1930s," a symposium held at the University of Alabama,

15–16 September 1975.

but

the 1994 State Conference on Writing across the Curriculum.

You may use quotation marks to enclose words used in an ironic sense, references to spoken

language, and slang terms. Subsequent occurrences need not include the quotation marks. See also

italics.

The "consultation" could be heard three blocks away.

In Elizabethan dialogue, a change from "you" to "thou" often implies studied insult.

Jacob's grandfather called his Adam's apple his "go fetch it."

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Place a comma or a final period within quotation marks—single or double. Put other punctuation

marks within quotation marks only if they are part of the quotation. See also period.

He said, "I will go."

He asked, "Shall we evacuate the area?"

Place a colon outside quotation marks or parentheses:

There is one substantial problem with Whitman's "O Captain, My Captain": it is

doggerel.

You may use quotation marks to refer to a word as a word (see also italics):

The term "boy" has a pejorative sense in some contexts.

Titles of articles in journals and newspapers; chapter titles; and titles of short stories, short poems,

dissertations, theses, and essays are enclosed in quotation marks. See also italics.

quotations.

You may incorporate quotations in the text as a part of a sentence and enclose them in quotation

marks or set them off from the text as a block quotation. If the quoted matter is lengthy (10 or

more lines), you should usually set it off from the text. See also block quotations; direct

quotations; ellipses.

You should integrate short quotations into the text. When you use a quotation as part of a sentence,

lowercase the initial letter and omit or change the end punctuation (if appropriate), even though the

original is a complete sentence beginning with a capital. But when the quotation is not dependent

on the rest of the sentence, capitalize the initial letter. If a quotation that is only part of a sentence

in the original forms a complete sentence as quoted, you may change a lowercase letter to a

capital.

Colonel Green emphasized that "the military plays an important role in the political

arena" (p. 7).

Colonel Green emphasized, "The military plays an important role in the political

arena" (p. 7).

Colonel Green made the following statement: "Military [power] plays an important

role in the political arena" (p. 7).

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—R—

RAND.

Use RAND instead of Rand Corporation.

rank.

See military titles and offices.

rates of speed, frequencies, and so forth.

See abbreviations; measurements; numbers.

re-.

Compound words with the prefix re- are usually spelled solid: reedit, reeducate, reelect, reenlist,

reequip, reexamine, reunify. See also compound words.

real time (n.)

real-time (adj.)

real-world (adj.)

regiment.

2d Armored Cavalry Regiment, the regiment. See also capitalization; military units.

regions of the world.

See capitalization.

regular.

Capitalize regular when you use it as part of the name of a component: Regular Air Force, Regular

Army.

Republican Party (or party), Republican(s) (member[s] of the party).

See also capitalization.

Reserve(s).

Capitalize reserve if it is part of the name of a component: Air Force Reserve, Ready Reserve,

Standby Reserve. Capitalize the term as a synonym for Air Force Reserve: the Reserve. But use

reserve component, the reserve officer, the reservist(s). As a guide to capitalization, apply the

following test: If the word airman would fit logically in place of reserve officer or reservist, use r.

If Air Force Reserve can be logically substituted for reserve, use R. The same rule applies to other

military services.

retired military personnel.

To designate retired personnel, use this form: Maj Ronald R. Dowdy, USAF, Retired.

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risk taking

ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps)

Russia, Russian.

These words apply to the nation before 1917; to the former Russian Soviet Socialist Republic; to

the independent state formed after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991; and to the language

and the ethnological origin of the people of that state. See also Commonwealth of Independent

States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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—U—

UCMJ (Uniform Code of Military Justice)

UHF (ultrahigh frequency)

ultra-.

Most compounds with ultra- are solid: ultramodern, ultrasonic, but ultra-atomic, ultra-German. See

also hyphenated compound words.

un-.

Most compounds with un- are solid: unbiased, unsolved, unused. See also compound words.

UN (United Nations).

You may use UN as either a noun or an adjective.

under-.

Most compounds with under- are solid: underbid, underdevelop, underestimate, underground,

undersea, underreport. See also compound words.

undersecretary

underway (adj.)

under way (adv.)

United States.

Spell out in text. See also abbreviations; US.

United States Air Force, US Air Force, Air Force, USAF

United States Army, US Army, Army, USA

United States Marine Corps, US Marine Corps, Marine Corps, USMC

United States Navy, US Navy, Navy, USN

units of measure.

See measurements.

upon (prep.).

You may use upon as a synonym of on: His salary depends upon his performance.

US (United States).

Use US as an adjective only. See also abbreviations.

USAF.

You may use USAF alone or in combination with other words (e.g., Headquarters USAF, or in

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names in which it is part of the official title).

USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).

Use USSR to refer to the country as it existed between 1917 and 1991. See also Commonwealth of

Independent States; Soviet(s), Soviet Union, USSR.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—V—

versus (v.).

Use v. instead of vs. in names of court cases. You may omit the period when you cite case names

in endnotes. Otherwise, use versus. See also italics.

VHF (very high frequency)

vice (prep.).

In place of, replacing: John Doe was appointed postmaster vice Richard Roe.

vice-.

Compounds with vice- can be open, solid, or hyphenated: vice admiral, vice chief, vice

commander, vice marshal, vice minister, vice president, vice squad, viceroyalty, vice-chairman,

vice-consul. See also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

vice versa

Vietcong

Vietminh

Vietnamese (n., sing. and pl.; adj.)

Vietnam War

viz.

(videlicet; that is to say, namely)

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—X—

Xerox.

Xerox is a registered trademark. You can use Xerox as a noun to mean a xerographic copier; you

can use xerox as a verb to mean to copy on a Xerox copier.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—Y—

year.

Use figures to designate specific years unless the sentence begins with the year:

Nineteen forty-five was an eventful year.

World War II ended in 1945.

In informal contexts, you may abbreviate the full number of a particular year: the spirit of '76.

If you use the month with the year, do not use internal punctuation: The study began in May 1979.

See also dates; numbers.

year-.

Compounds beginning with year- occur in all three stylings: year of grace, yearbook, year-end. See

also compound words; hyphenated compound words.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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Air University Style Guide

—Z—

zero, zeros (also zeroes).

Use a 0 in tables to denote zero amount instead of using a dash or leaving the space blank.

zip or ZIP (zone improvement plan) code.

When you write the zip code number with the name of a state, do not use a comma before the

number: Troy, AL 36081.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Appendix A: Notes

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Air University Style Guide

Preface

The world is full of stylebooks, style guides, and style manuals. Every publishing house, news agency,

major newspaper, magazine, and journal has its own. Style guides are available at every bookstore and

library, and every serious writer or editor owns at least one. Why then should Air University develop still

another?

Writing for publication in the Air Force is different in many ways from writing for commercial

publication or writing for a newspaper or a scholarly journal. Air University people—and Air Force

people in general—do write for all of those outlets and more. Specifically, they write reviews, articles,

monographs, theses, and books on Air Force special topics and instructional materials for Air Force

professional military education courses—both for conventional and electronic publication. The basic

tenets of English usage are the same for Air Force writers as for writers "on the outside," of course, but

audiences are different, terminology is specialized, and Air Force readers are attuned to their own

language and its rhythms. In light of these differences and similarities, and faced with the proliferation of

style manuals—many of them giving conflicting instruction—Air Force writers and editors should

welcome a single, authoritative style reference specifically tailored to offer detailed guidance and

information.

This publication won't teach you how to write or edit, but it will give you a coherent, consistent, stylistic

base for writing and editing. It's a kind of road map around some of the obstacles to readable writing. It

prescribes simple rules for the most common problems facing the Air Force writer, combining what are

considered the best practices, as outlined in a wide number of sourcebooks (see bibliography). Using this

guide will free the writer and editor from juggling one stylebook against another and trying to remember

which book is approved for which area of style. It will also bring some stylistic consistency to writing

produced through Air University.

The Air University Style Guide attempts to clarify and simplify matters for the writer by removing the

most common obstacles to readability in Air Force writing: overuse of capitalization, of acronyms and

other forms of abbreviation, and of passive voice. The key word here is overuse, for we realize that all of

these forms have their proper functions and do not impede the reader when used in moderation.

Similarly, we prefer an open-punctuation style, which discourages the overuse of commas, colons, and

semicolons and the use of periods in abbreviations. In our opinion, open punctuation—like direct

writing—is easier to read, and that is all to the good. Punctuation marks should enhance clarity of

expression; if they don't, we say leave them out.

For easy reference, the guide is arranged in dictionary style. The user need only look up the topic

alphabetically without having to consult an index or a table of contents. Extensive cross-references

enhance the guide's usefulness.

The guide by no means covers every problem that faces writers and editors. Where it is insufficient for

your needs, we recommend The Chicago Manual of Style (14th ed.), on which much of this guide relies

for principles and examples. For spellings and definitions, we use Webster's Third New International

Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, and its chief abridgement, Merriam-Webster's

Air University Style Guide: Preface

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Collegiate Dictionary (10th ed.). In this guide, the term dictionary refers to either one or both of these

sources. For grammar, we follow the guidance of Writer's Guide and Index to English (7th ed.), by

Wilma R. and David R. Ebbitt.

This guide is just that—a guide. It is meant to remove obstacles to good writing, not to become one. The

ultimate proof of the guide's worth is its utility to Air Force writers and editors. On that basis, it should

prove valuable indeed.

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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 Acknowledgments

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Air University Style Guide

Acknowledgments

The Air University Style Guide is a comprehensive reference book compiled primarily for use by people

who write and edit within Air University. It is flavored, however, by its "informal coordination" with a

number of respected writers, style arbiters, and friends outside Air University, and it has proved useful to

many Air Force writers.

The guide reflects growth brought on by years of use in its former incarnation as the Air University Press

Style Guide. It includes added material, adjustments made in the interest of simplicity and consistency,

and a more direct approach, while retaining the spirit of the original document. We expect the

development of the guide to continue, with periodic revisions to accommodate appropriate additions and

changes.

To that end, we thank all of the people who reviewed the manuscript and gave their thoughtful

suggestions for its improvement. We invite interested writers and editors to send their comments and

suggestions for later editions to Dr. Marvin Bassett, the editor of the Style Guide. He can be reached at

Air University Press, 170 West Selfridge Street, Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6610, or by E-mail at

mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil.

ROBERT B. LANE

Director

Air University Press

OPR: Dr. Marvin Bassett [mbassett@larry.cdsar.af.mil]

Last updated: 1998 August 17

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