Post-Glacial Inflation-Deflation Cycles, Tilting, and 

Faulting in the Yellowstone Caldera Based on 

Yellowstone Lake Shorelines 

By Kenneth L. Pierce1, Kenneth P. Cannon2, Grant A. Meyer3, Matthew J. 

Trebesch1

, and Raymond D. Watts4 

Open-File Report 02-0142 

2002 

This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. 

Geological Survey editorial standards or with the North American Stratigraphic 

Code. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and 

does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

1 Bozeman, Montana 

2

 National Park Service 

3

 University of New Mexico 

4 Fort Collins, Colorado 
Post-Glacial Inflation-Deflation Cycles, tilting, and faulting in the Yellowstone Caldera Based on 

Yellowstone Lake Shorelines 

Kenneth L. Pierce, U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center (NRMSC), Box 

173492, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, kpierce@usgs.gov; 

Kenneth P. Cannon, National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center, Federal Building, Lincoln, 

NE 68508-3873, ken_cannon@nps.gov; 

Grant A. Meyer, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 

NM 87131-1116, gmeyer@unm.edu 

Matthew J. Trebesch, U.S. Geological Survey, NRMSC, Bozeman, MT 

Raymond Watts, U.S. Geological Survey, 4512 McMurry Av., Fort Collins, CO 80525-3400, 

rwatts@usgs.gov 

1. Abstract 

The Yellowstone caldera, like many other later Quaternary calderas of the world, exhibits 

dramatic unrest. Between 1923 and 1985, the center of the Yellowstone caldera rose nearly one meter 

along an axis between its two resurgent domes (Pelton and Smith, 1979, Dzurisin and Yamashita, 1987). 

From 1985 until 1995-6, it subsided at about two cm/yr (Dzurisin and others, 1990). More recent radar 

interferometry studies show renewed inflation of the northeastern resurgent dome between 1995 and 

1996; this inflation migrated to the southwestern resurgent dome from 1996 to 1997 (Wicks and others, 

1998). 

We extend this record back in time using dated geomorphic evidence of postglacial Yellowstone 

Lake shorelines around the northern shore, and Yellowstone River levels in the outlet area. We date these 

shorelines using carbon isotopic and archeological methods. Following Meyer and Locke (1986) and 

Locke and Meyer (1994), we identify the modern shoreline as S1 (1.9 ± 0.3 m above the lake gage 

datum), map paleoshoreline terraces S2 to S6, and infer that the prominent shorelines were cut during 

intracaldera uplift episodes that produced rising water levels. Doming along the caldera axis reduces the 

gradient of the Yellowstone River from Le Hardys Rapids to the Yellowstone Lake outlet and ultimately 

causes an increase in lake level. The 1923-1985 doming is part of a longer uplift episode that has reduced 

the Yellowstone River gradient to a “pool” with a drop of only 0.25 m over most of this 5 km reach. We 

also present new evidence that doming has caused submergence of some Holocene lake and river levels. 

Shoreline S5 is about 14 m above datum and estimated to be ~12.6 ka, because it post-dates a large 

hydrothermal explosion deposit from the Mary Bay area (MB-II) that occurred ~13 ka. S4 formed about 

8 m above datum ~10.7 ka as dated by archeology and 14C, and was accompanied by offset on the Fishing 

Bridge fault. About 9.7 ka, the Yellowstone River eroded the “S-meander”, followed by a ~5 m rise in 

lake level to S2. The lowest generally recognizable shoreline is S2. It is ~5 m above datum (3 m above 

S1) and is ~8 ka, as dated on both sides of the outlet. Yellowstone Lake and the river near Fishing Bridge 

were 5-6 m below their present level about 3-4 ka, as indicated by 14C ages from submerged beach 

deposits, drowned valleys, and submerged Yellowstone River gravels. Thus, the lake in the outlet 

region has been below or near its present level for about half the time since a 1 km-thick icecap melted 

from the Yellowstone Lake basin about 16 ka. 

The amplitude of two rises in lake and river level can be estimated based on the altitude of Le 

Hardys Rapids, indicators of former lake and river levels, and reconstruction of the river gradient from 
the outlet to Le Hardys Rapids. Both between ~9.5 ka and ~8.5 ka, and after ~3 ka, Le Hardys Rapids 

(LHR) was uplifted about 8 meters above the outlet, suggesting a cyclic deformation process. Older 

possible rises in lake level are suggested by locations where the ~10.7 ka S4 truncates older shorelines, 

and valleys truncated by the ~12.6 ka S5 shoreline. Using these controls, a plot of lake level through time 

shows 5-7 millennial-scale oscillations since 14.5 ka. 

Major cycles of inflation and deflation are thousands of years long. Le Hardys Rapids has twice 

been uplifted ~8 m relative to the lake outlet. These two locations span only the central 25% of the 

historic caldera doming, so that if we use historic doming as a model, total projected uplift would be ~32 

m. This “heavy breathing” of the central part of the Yellowstone caldera may reflect a combination of 

several possible processes: magmatic inflation, tectonic stretching and deflation, and hydrothermal fluid 

sealing and inflation followed by cracking of the seal, pressure release, and deflation. Over the entire 

postglacial period, subsidence has balanced or slightly exceeded uplift as shown by older shorelines that 

descend towards the caldera axis. We favor a hydrothermal mechanism for inflation and deflation 

because it provides for both inflation and deflation with little overall change. Other mechanisms such as 

inflation by magma intrusion and deflation by extensional stretching require two separate processes to 

alternate and yet result in no net elevation change. 

In addition to inflation and deflation, new LIDAR data demonstrates previously unrecognized 

local deformation along the north shore of Yellowstone Lake. The newly recognized Fishing Bridge fault 

shows a progressive increase in offset from 0.5 m for the ~8 ka S2 to perhaps 5 m for the ~12.6 ka S5. 

Uplift of the Storm Point hydrothermal center tilts shorelines westward as much as 6 m over one 

kilometer. A local anticline has as much as 3 m relief in 0.5 km. LIDAR data also shows the Mary Bay 

II hydrothermal explosion debris has a surface relief of about 1 m over 100 m, and that it overlies S5.5 

and S6 shorelines, but not S. 

Although the postglacial deformation record does not indicate voluminous magma accumulation or other 

large-scale eruption precursors, strong local deformation associated with hydrothermal centers does 

suggest the possibility of future hydrothermal explosions and associated hazards. 

Introduction 

The Yellowstone caldera is the youngest of three large rhyolitic calderas formed in greater 

Yellowstone in the last 2.1 Ma (Christiansen, 1984, 2001). It collapsed with eruption of ~1000 km3

 of 

ash flows from two overlapping ring-fracture systems at ~630 ka. The two collapse centers were uplifted 

shortly thereafter into the Sour Creek (northeast) and Mallard Lake (southwest) resurgent domes. 

Voluminous extrusion of rhyolitic lavas from 150 ka to 70 ka covered much of the caldera excepting the 

Sour Creek dome, Pelican Valley and much of the eastern part of Yellowstone Lake. At present, this 

caldera shows remarkable signs of unrest, consistent with many other young calderas around the world 

(Newhall and Dzurisin, 1988; Dvorak and Mastrolorenzo, 1991). A resurvey of 1923 level lines in 1975-

1977 along the road system of Yellowstone showed doming within the caldera (Fig. 1), with maximum 

uplift at Le Hardys Rapids (LHR) of about 0.8 m (Pelton and Smith, 1979). Between 1976 and 1985, 

resurveys revealed an additional 0.15 m uplift of LHR, with a pattern similar to that between 1976 and 

1986 (Dzurisin and Yamashita, 1987). Thus, from 1926 to 1985, maximum uplift was about 0.95 m over 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 2 
62 years at an average rate of about 15 mm/yr. Uplift unexpectedly ceased in 1985, and between 1986 

and 1996, the caldera subsided at a maximum rate of about 20 mm/yr in a pattern essentially inverse to 

the uplift (Fig. 3). Recent radar interferometry studies define a more complex temporal pattern, with 

renewed inflation of the Sour Creek resurgent dome area from 1995 to 1996, and migration of inflation to 

the Mallard Lake dome area from 1996 to 1997 (Wicks and others, 1998). GPS measurements from 1987 

to 1995 (Smith and others, 1997; Meertens and others, 2000) show caldera-wide subsidence up to 15 

mm/yr accompanied by radial-caldera contraction at 15 mm/yr. 

Spurred by these records of uplift and subsidence in the Yellowstone caldera over the last century, 

we employed geomorphic criteria to assess the character and magnitude of deformation over the last 

15,000 years. Paleoshorelines of Yellowstone Lake and drowned subaerial features such as stream 

valleys and beach sediment allow us to construct a record of vertical deformation in the central part of the 

Yellowstone caldera. New 14C and projectile-point ages obtained in archeological surveys and 

excavations as well as geological studies provide improved age control (Pierce and others, 1994; Cannon 

and others, 1994, 1995, 1996). Cyclic inflation and deflation of the caldera in the last 100 years has been 

called “breathing” (e.g., Pelton and Smith, 1979); we use the term “heavy breathing” for longer, higher 

amplitude cycles of inflation and deflation. 

We build this study on the detailed surveying of Yellowstone Lake shorelines by Meyer and Locke 

(1986), Locke (1986), Meyer (1986), and Locke and Meyer (1994). Our findings are in general 

agreement with their mapping and correlation of shorelines; however, new dating and archeological 

studies indicate that the lower shorelines are much older than previously thought. LIDAR imagery of the 

northern lakeshore permits more continuous tracing and elevation measurement of shorelines, and 

revision of some shoreline correlations east of Pelican Creek. LIDAR imagery also allowed us to locate 

previously unrecognized features, including the Fishing Bridge fault and low-relief beach-ridge shorelines 

that are strongly tilted away from the Storm Point geothermal center. 

2A. Previous studies of post-glacial shorelines. Richmond first mapped shorelines from 3 to 

more than 50 m above present Yellowstone Lake (Richmond, 1973, 1974, 1976; 1977; Richmond and 

Pierce, 1972). He considered shorelines at and below 18-20 m to represent an open, post-glacial lake, 

whereas higher shorelines were associated with deglaciation of the lake basin. Richmond’s work predated recognition of active deformation in the Yellowstone caldera, and he assumed (1) that shorelines 

could be correlated by height alone, and (2) that lake level underwent a relatively simple and continuous 

decline over postglacial time. 

Drawing on this earlier work, Meyer and Locke (1986) mapped and correlated about nine shorelines 

around northern Yellowstone Lake. They designated the present shoreline as S1, and shorelines up to 

about 30 m above present as S2 to S9. Shoreline profiles were surveyed to centimeter accuracy (with 

closure) using the Bridge Bay lake gage zero mark as a datum, and shoreline elevations interpreted to the 

decimeter. Meyer and Locke (1986) inferred that prominent shorelines were cut by rising lake levels due 

to episodic uplift within the Yellowstone caldera. This work was later continued around the entire lake 

(Locke and Meyer, 1994). In contrast to earlier work, which relied on rapid hand leveling, these studies 

showed that many shorelines were deformed, both inside and outside of the caldera. Except for local 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 3 
areas of greater tilting and faulting, however, most shorelines were found to be gently warped. Given that 

historic intracaldera uplift and subsidence rates of 10-20 mm/yr could produce 50-100 m vertical 

deformation in 5,000 yr, Locke and Meyer (1994) noted that net intracaldera deformation over the 

Holocene must be small, since most shorelines are sub-horizontal and the highest, oldest postglacial 

shorelines are at similar elevations inside and outside of the caldera (± ~8 m). In these studies, a small 

number of radiocarbon dates were obtained on organic matter in lagoonal sediments associated with 

shorelines, but these provided only minimum ages. 

During archeological studies near the outlet of Yellowstone Lake, Reeve (1989) initially recognized 

a discrepancy between Richmond's declining lake model and the occurrence of Late Pleistocene-early 

Holocene (Paleo-Indian) projectile points within a few meters of present lake level, but he did not note 

that his archeological studies required considerably older ages than the minimum-limiting dates of Meyer 

and Locke (1986). Hamilton and Bailey (1990) recognized submerged shorelines of Yellowstone Lake at 

depths of 3-30 m below the present lake surface and constructed a complex history of post-glacial lake 

level changes, but with little age control or means of correlation. Submerged shorelines are also 

described by Johnson and others (submitted). 

3. Holocene lake and river level changes and their chronology 

In this section we present the data used to construct the detailed lake-level chronology of Figure 4. 

Table 1 describes the radiocarbon ages, and gives the calibrated (calendar) ages. Elevation is relative to 

the Bridge Bay gage. We first present evidence for low lake and river levels that were followed by a rise 

in lake and river levels, because this is the key observation indicating caldera inflation. We then describe 

subaerial shorelines in order of increasing age because this is how we resolved the chronology shown in 

Figure 4. 

Airborne LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) elevation data were incorporated into this study. 

The survey contractor, Eaglescan, Inc., flew its instrumented airplane approximately 1,500 m above 

ground level. Aircraft position was recorded using base-station-corrected global positioning system 

(GPS) measurements, and aircraft attitude was measured with an inertial navigation system (INS). The 

laser was in the near infrared wavelength (1.069 microns) and recorded returns from the land and water 

surface, reflecting these from a cross-track scanning mirror. The same laser that generated the 

transmissions amplified ground-return pulses for detection and measurement of the round-trip time of 

light. Recording equipment was configured to log the last return pulse, thus discarding a large fraction of 

vegetation signals. Each lidar pulse was approximately 15 cm thick along its flight path (this is the 

instrumental resolution limit for elevation determinations), and approximately 1 m in diameter at its 

intersection with the ground. 

The contractor’s post-flight data processing combined GPS positions, INS attitude measurements, 

mirror positions, and laser-pulse time-of-flight measurements to determine the georeferenced location of 

each reflection point in UTM coordinates (Zone 12, WGS84 reference system). The scanning mirror 

operated within 15 degrees of nadir, measuring a swath width of 800 m along each flight line. Geometric 

factors degrade the accuracy of position determinations at points farther from nadir; errors at 15 degrees 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 4 
are approximately 1 m. The laser pulse repetition frequency and mirror scan rate were sufficient to 

sample elevations at a nominal 2 m spacing across-track and 5 m spacing along track. 

Post-flight processing included winnowing of returns that came from vegetation and other 

features above the mean neighborhood surface. The remaining returns, presumed to come from the 

ground or from low ground-cover vegetation, defined a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The data 

were interpolated to a 2-meter square grid by sampling the triangular facets of the TIN at the grid points. 

We used the lake level gage at Bridge Bay Marina, 1.45 ft (0.44 m) when the LIDAR was flown, to 

calibrate to the datum used in previous studies (e.g., Meyer and Locke, 1986). The altitude of the zero 

mark on the gage was measured at 2356.48 m in 1985 by level surveys. 

3A. Lake level rises after lake lows 3-4 ka, and 9.5 ka 

3A1. Yellowstone Lake. 

Many of the lower ends of stream valleys entering Yellowstone Lake appear to be drowned. Several 

streams both north and south of the West Thumb Geyser Basin have drowned valleys upstream from their 

entrances into Yellowstone Lake, commonly with standing water grading upstream into alluvial wetlands. 

Two such streams are Thumb Creek and Little Thumb Creek (Fig. 2). The next stream north of Little 

Thumb Creek (here called “Little Thumb Creek North”) has water standing in a drowned valley on the 

upstream (west) side of the highway. Highway borings in the center of this drowned valley encountered 

wood at a depth of –4.3 m below datum with an age ~3.0 ka (2,880 ± 60 yr BP; Table 1, #6). Insect 

faunae studied by Scott Elias (written commun., 1993) indicate a shallow wetland environment was 

associated with the wood. Since this time, the level of Yellowstone Lake has risen about 5-6 m, but this 

small stream has not yet transported enough sediment to fill in the drowned valley. 

Immediately offshore from the West Thumb Geyser Basin, aprons of siliceous sinter around active 

and inactive hydrothermal vents extend well below lake level. Divers from the National Park Service 

sampled these vents at depths of 16 and 18 feet (4.9 and 5.5 m) below datum. Analysis of the oxygen 

isotope composition show it formed subaerially, and not under Yellowstone Lake (Pat Shanks, oral 

commun., 2000). Shoreline data (Locke, 1986; Locke and Meyer, 1994) also suggest substantial local 

downwarping in the West Thumb area, although the lower shorelines are poorly defined and correlated 

there. 

We cored Yellowstone Lake about 6 km southwest of the outlet in the relatively quiet water of 

Bridge Bay, which is sheltered from wave action generated by the prevailing southwesterly winds. A 

wood sample from a coarse sand deposit 5 m below the surface (3.45 m below datum) yielded an age of 

~3.8 ka (3,560 ± 60 yr BP, Table 1, #7). The sand is well-sorted and 0.5 m thick, similar to the modern 

beach. It is underlain by firm deep-water lake sediments, and overlain by poorly consolidated, fine deepwater sediments. We infer that the sand represents a beach deposit drowned by a lake-level rise after ~3.8 

ka). This site is 3.2 km west of the north-trending Lake Hotel fault and thus its submergence is not 

related to downdropping on that fault. 

Two other drowned valleys adjacent to Yellowstone Lake and cored by Federal Highways 

Administration indicate low lake levels. (1) Pelican Creek is a drowned valley as suggested by the high, 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 5 
steep stream-cut scarps that now flank the exceptionally wide, low-gradient floodplain. An aggrading 

stream will have a wide valley and the necessity of the aggrading stream at times occupying the valley 

edge where it can undercut the banks are part of this process. Borings for a proposed causeway across 

Pelican Creek encountered gravelly sands above finer lake sediments. These gravelly sands extend to a 

depth of 4 to 5 m below datum. We interpret the gravelly sand to represent a drowned channel of Pelican 

Creek eroded into lake sediments. Although no carbon samples were obtained from the gravelly sand, an 

age of ~13.8 ka (11, 720 ± 60 yr BP, Table 1) was obtained from the lake sediments just below the 

gravelly sands. (2) Sedge Creek is nearly at the caldera margin and has a similar lower valley to Pelican 

Creek. At Sedge Creek, gravelly sediment extends to 18 m below datum and is underlain by about 6 m of 

fine-grained lake sediment that overlies a lower gravelly material, possibly glacial till or outwash. This 

suggests the possibility of a drowned valley extending to 18 m below datum only 0.5 km from the caldera 

boundary near Lake Butte. 

3A2. Outlet Reach of the Yellowstone River 

The outlet reach of the Yellowstone River (Fig. 5) is anomalous and extends from the outlet at 

Fishing Bridge to Le Hardys Rapids (LHR). The river has recently deposited sandbars in the outsides of 

meanders, effectively straightening its channel and indicating a substantial reduction in stream power 

(Meyer, 1986, Fig 17; Locke and Meyer, 1994). The present river has very low gradient (0.05 m/km). 

For low discharge in September, both surveying (Dan Dzurisin, spoken commun., 1993) and LIDAR data 

indicate a total drop of only 0.25 m in the 5 km from the outlet to just upstream from LHR. During 

higher discharges in June, the water surface would have a somewhat steeper gradient. The only bedrock 

forming the channel bed in this reach is at LHR, where an erosionally resistant unit in the Lava Creek 

Tuff acts as a weir that controls water level in the outlet reach (Hamilton, 1987). Uplift or subsidence of 

this bedrock threshold therefore has the potential to control both the river gradient and the level of 

Yellowstone Lake. Downstream from LHR, the river has a gradient of 1.8 m/km, more than 30 times 

steeper than above LHR. 

Although the river is now essentially a continuous, low-velocity “pool” in the outlet reach, steep, 

high cutbanks on the outsides of the meanders indicate that the older, more sinuous channel contained an 

energetic river (Fig. 5). These scarps were so actively being undercut that they were unvegetated and 

served as a source for thick eolian sand now preserved at the top of the bank (Figs. 5, 8). About 1 km 

downstream from the outlet, an outer meander of the old channel forms a slough that is isolated from the 

present active channel by a sand bar. 

A core in this slough encountered 3.5 m of fine sediment over river gravel at 4 m (3.4 m below 

datum). The gravel is at least 1 m thick; wood and charcoal samples from the upper gravel yielded ages 

of ~2.8 ka (2,710 ± 60 and 2,750 ± 86 yr BP, Table 1, # 4, 5). We infer that the gravel represents a 

reduction of gradient and velocity because of relative uplift of the bedrock threshold at LHR downstream, 

and that the fine sediment has accumulated since abandonment and drowning of the channel bend. The 

top of the river gravel is now about 3 m below the threshold at LHR, whereas at the time of deposition it 

would have been significantly above the threshold. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 6 
Therefore, at the time of active transport of the river gravels, the Yellowstone River had a 

considerably steeper gradient and sufficient energy to undercut banks 15 m high. Based on median 

sediment diameter of 1.5 cm and 1.5 m water depth, Waite Osterkamp (written commun., 1996) used the 

Shields equation to estimate the paleo-river gradient of 1m/km for significant transport of 1.5 cm gravel 

and 0.5 m/km for incipient transport. Figure 6 shows a graphical solution for the uplift of LHR relative to 

the core site. With a gradient of 1m/km, uplift is 7.5 m, and if this gradient is extended from the core site 

to the outlet, is 8.5 m. We acknowledge this paleo-river gradient is poorly constrained and only estimated 

at one site. Consideration of potential errors indicates that the gradient could have been as low as 0.5 

m/km, therefore a drop of 2.5 m over the 5 km outlet reach. This yields a minimum estimated uplift of 

LHR of 5.5 m relative to the outlet (Fig. 6). 

3B. S-meander and rise of lake ~9.7-8.6 ka 

The “S-meander” is an abandoned (relict) set of meander bends of the Yellowstone River about 1-2 

km north of the outlet (Fig. 5). The downstream meander bend was partly filled with a sand bar or spit 

during a rise of Yellowstone Lake (Meyer and Locke, 1986, Locke and Meyer, 1994). LIDAR data and 

field measurements show this sand spit is offset 1.2-1.8 m by the Fishing Bridge fault (Fig. 8). Data from 

the S-meander indicate that the former vigorous river at ~ 9.7 ka was converted to an arm of Yellowstone 

Lake by ~ 8.6 ka (Fig. 4). 

A trench in the S-meander on the east side of the river revealed buried charcoal resting on channel 

gravels, showing that drowning of the river was underway by 9 ka (8,200 yr BP; Fig. 7, Table 1, # 17. 18, 

19). The full suite of landforms and dated river and shoreline deposits on both sides of the modern 

Yellowstone River imply the following sequence: (1) formation of the S-meander with river transport of 3 

cm gravel and vigorous bank undercutting to produce steep scarps 15 m high; (2) loss of current and 

cessation of gravel transport and deposition of charcoal by 9 ka; (3) continued drowning until 

Yellowstone Lake rose into this area and cut the S3 shoreline into the meander scarp at 5.5 m above 

datum, perhaps ~8.6 ka; (4) lowering of the lake about 2 m and cutting of the S2 shoreline at ~4.1 m 

above datum, dated nearby to ~ 8.1 ka, and (5) lowering of lake and river to levels below present by 3-4 

ka (Fig. 4). 

The drowning of the S-meander is a remarkably similar event to the more recent drowning of the 

Yellowstone River, particularly the increase in water level to 4-5 m above channel gravels (compare Figs. 

6, 7, 8, 9). We postulate that uplift centered on LHR is also responsible for drowning of the S-meander. 

A field estimate of the median gravel diameter in the S-meander is ~3 cm, twice that noted in the present 

drowned channel that was active about 3 ka. A median diameter of 3 cm with a 1.5 m water depth yields 

a gradient of 1 m/km for incipient movement of pebbles and 2 m/km for significant transport of pebbles. 

We use the conservative 1m/km gradient in Figure 9, because some coarser gravel may have been 

introduced into the stream channel from the high, adjacent cutbank in sandy gravel ("plsg", Pinedale 

lacustrine sandy gravel; Richmond, 1977). This 1m/km gradient yields uplift of LHR relative to the 

trench site of 7.3 m and 8.3 m relative to the outlet (Fig. 9). If we use the 2-m/km gradient, then uplift of 

LHR relative to this S-meander site would be 11.3 m, and 13.3 m relative to the lake outlet. The Smeander is drowned at its downstream end by the present river, which may reflect a combination of uplift 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 7 
downstream by either warping or faulting, and drowning associated with post-3 ka uplift discussed 

earlier. 

3C. Sub-aerial shoreline sequence, ~8.0 ka S2 to ~14.4 ka S6 

S2 shoreline-. Numerous ages on both sides of the outlet date the S2 shoreline as about 8.0 ka (Fig. 

4). Directly in front of the Lake Lodge, lagoonal sediments between the wave-cut S2 shoreline and its 

barrier beach (now partly eroded) are exposed in the present wave-cut bluff. Two charcoal samples from 

the upper part of these diatomaceous sediments above cross-bedded sands yielded ages of 8.0 ka (7,210 ± 

60 and 7,210 ± 50 yr B.P., Table 1, #14, 15; Fig. 4). Other samples from or above a humic soil that is 

below S2 and clearly post-dates it yield ages of 6.0, 5.3-5.5, 4.7-4.8, and 4.6-4.8 ka (~5,300, 4,710, 

4,160, and 4,110 yr BP, Table 1, #10, 9, 8, & not numbered) and thus provide additional support for the 

surprisingly old age of ~8.0 ka for S2. 

On the Fishing Bridge peninsula East of the outlet, a sample from beneath a 2 m thick eolian sand 

mantling S2 yielded an age of 7.6-7.7 ka (6,800 ± 90 yr BP, Cannon and others, 1994, Fig. 40). Just east 

of this site, a terrace of Pelican Creek truncates S2. A sample from a paleochannel on this terrace yielded 

an age of 7.6 ka (6,740 ± 90, Table 1). We infer an age for S2 of ≥~8 ka or 0.4 ka older than this 

minimum age in that following deposition of S2, (1) lake level lowered and a wide terrace of Pelican 

Creek formed and eroded out S2, and (2) that an active channel on this terrace was abandoned and then 

accumulated charcoal bearing sediment about 7.6 ka. A mid-Holocene projectile point was collected 

from the surface of the S2 in the old campground loops D and E (Cannon and others 1997: Fig. 41h). The 

eared and basally notched point is similar to those recovered from Layer 30 at Mummy Cave dated ~5 ka 

(4,420 ± 150 yr BP, Husted and Edgar, 2001). 

Southeast of Yellowstone Lake and 4 km upstream from the margin of the Yellowstone River delta 

is a terrace of an older delta with a prominent paleo-distributary channel graded to ~7-8 m above datum 

(Fig. 2). Local damming of this channel has facilitated accumulation of more than 2 m of organic-rich 

sediment. Wood from a depth of 2.15 m just above channel sands in this paleochannel is 7.8 ka (6,990 ± 

40 yr BP, Table 1, part I). Trail Lake (Fig. 2) is also dammed by this paleodelta. Basal ages from Trail 

Lake are 8.0 ka (7,215 ± 70 yr BP, Cathy Whitlock, spoken commun., 1999). These ages of 7.8 to 8.0 ka 

are essentially the same as those for the S2 shoreline in the outlet area. Thus, a delta at ~7-8 m above 

datum well outside the Yellowstone caldera has similar ages to the S2 shoreline 4-5 m above datum in the 

outlet area. This difference of 2-4 m over a distance of 34 km yields an overall tilt of only 0.06- 0.1 

m/km towards the caldera center. 

S3 shoreline-. The S3 shoreline is mapped in the area from the Lake Lodge to the outlet and east of 

Pelican Creek, but is not well represented on the Fishing Bridge peninsula (Meyer and Locke, 1986). S2 

and S3 are best represented in the S-meander by the tops of two small deltas that were built into the Smeander by the drainage that comes from the sewage disposal plant area at 5.5 (S3) and 4.75 m (S2) 

above datum (Fig. 5). S3 does not appear to be readily recognizable and seems closely linked with S2, 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 8 
and is here locally referenced as S2/S3. Gravelly deposits at the approximate altitude of S3 do occur in 

the paleolagoon of the S4 shoreline on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. There, at an elevation of 4.75 m 

above datum and at a depth of one meter and just above well-sorted sands is charcoal with an age of 8.2-

8.5 ka (7,565 ± 70 yr BP, Cannon and others, 1994, Fig. 14). Excavations by SUNY-Albany also 

produced two large side-notched projectile points from the inferred position of the S3 shoreline in the S4 

Fishing Bridge paleolagoon (Reeve 1989:Figure 13h and 13i). One point is similar to the Blackwater 

side-notched projectile point style recovered from Layer 16 in Mummy Cave and radiocarbon dated 8.0-

9.0 ka (7,630 ± 170 yrs BP, Husted and Edgar 2001). The depth of the S4 paleolagoon is such that in S3, 

and perhaps S2 time, Yellowstone Lake may have extended into the northern part of this lagoon. 

S4 shoreline-. On the Fishing Bridge peninsula, a wave-cut shoreline and a barrier beach to the 

south, with an intervening paleolagoon, represent the S4 shoreline. The Hamilton Store at Fishing Bridge 

lies on the crest of the S4 barrier beach. In the old Fishing Bridge campground area, archeological 

excavations commonly exposed a meter or more of eolian sand overlying S4 barrier-beach gravels. 

Charcoal ~10.2 ka (8940 ± 60 yr BP) was collected from 1.6 m depth in disturbed sediment filling the 

root void of a tree throw in beach gravel. The beach gravel is covered with 1.3 m of mixed material 

mostly of eolian sand (Cannon and others, 1994, Fig. 44). 

Two Scottsbluff projectile points and one Cody Knife from the late Paleoindian Cody Cultural 

Complex have been found on the S4 barrier beach (Figure 11). Ages for the Cody Cultural Complex 

range from 9.7-10.6 ka (8,800 to 9,400 yr BP, Frison 1991:66, Table 2.2) and support an age of ~ 10.7 ka 

for S4. Six additional late Paleoindian projectile points were recovered from excavations on the S4 

surface on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. These stylistically variable projectile points conform to 

lanceolate projectile point styles of the Foothills-Mountains tradition that date between 8.8? and 10? ka 

(8,000 and 9,000 yr BP; Frison, 1992). 

On the south shore of West Thumb, similar constraints for the age of S4 are found at the Osprey 

Beach archeological Site (48YE409) 3 km east of Grant Village (Fig. 2). A gravel bench at 6.4 m above 

datum extends back to a nearby wave-cut shoreline ~6.8 m above datum. Bill Locke (written commun., 

2001, profile Z54) places S4 at 7.0 and S5 at 8.8 m above datum nearby. Just above beach gravels and 

beneath 60 cm of non-bedded mixed material (pebbly sand of largely eolian origin), charcoal is 10.3-10.7 

ka (Table 1). Cody Complex material was found in the basal part of the mixed zone just above the beach 

gravels, as well as recently slumped from the wave-cut cliff onto the modern beach below (Shortt, 2001). 

Cody Complex ages are from 9.7-10.6 ka (see discussion above for age). A Goshen (or Plainview?) point 

was also found 30 m back from the bluff (Don Blakeslee, written commun., map, 2002). Goshen (or 

Plainview) points are perhaps 500 years older than the Cody Complex, or ~10 to 11.6 ka (Ann Johnson, 

personal commun., 2002). This may indicate a slightly older age for this shoreline than S4 in the Fishing 

Bridge area, although because occupation of the shoreline follows its formation, the ages also may be the 

same. 

S5 Shoreline-. We trace S5 along the north shore of Yellowstone Lake and along the present outlet 

reach of the Yellowstone River. LIDAR imagery (Fig. 10) shows that S5 on the east side of Pelican 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 9 
Creek probably extends east to the shoreline that Meyer and Locke (1986) mapped as S6 near Mary Bay. 

The LIDAR imagery also shows a deposit with hummocky surface texture above and north of S5 with a 

relief of about 1 m over 50-100 m (Fig. 13). We identify this as the last large hydrothermal explosion 

deposit from Mary Bay exposed on land and designate it as Mary Bay II (MB II). In the bluffs south of 

Indian Pond, MB II overlies sandy lake sediment that contains charcoal at 2.6 m below MB II that dates 

11.3-13.4 ka (10,720 ± 350, Richmond, 1977). The sandy lake sediment grades downward into coarsely 

varved lake sediment that contains ash 4.6 m below the MB II. The ash contains a mixture of shards 

probably from the Glacier Peak ash (layers B or G) apparently contaminated by reworked shards from a 

Yellowstone source (Andre Sarna-Wojcicki, written commun., 1999). Several dated localities place the 

age of Glacier Peak ash at between ~13.4 and 14 ka (Table 1). In the Yellowstone-Grand Teton region, 

Whitlock (1993) obtained ages of 13.4-14.1 ka for a Glacier Peak ash (Table 1, 11,450 and 12,100 yr 

BP). Although a Glacier Peak ash in west central Montana has been dated as 13.2 ka Table 1, 11,200 yr 

BP; Mehringer and others, 1984), studies in west central Idaho indicate an age older than 13.4 ka (Table 

1, 11,510 ± 70 yr BP; Doerner and Carrara, 2001). Based on the charcoal and ash ages and assuming that 

the lake sediment accumulated rapidly, we estimate an age of ~13 ka for the MB-II hydrothermal 

explosion deposits and ~12.6 ka for the S5 shoreline (Fig. 4). The S5 shoreline is the highest shoreline 

eroded into the steep crater walls on the northern part of Mary Bay, which also shows that S5 formed 

soon, after the MB II explosion, for S5.5 is not found higher on the crater wall. The S5 shoreline is now 

tilted down towards the caldera axis (Fig. 12). From 16-17 m above datum on the Mary Bay crater wall, 

it descends to about 13 m above datum on the east side of the Fishing Bridge peninsula, and descends to 9 

m across the peninsula. 

On the Fishing Bridge peninsula, the S5 shoreline truncates an extensive fill terrace of Pelican Creek 

(Fig. 10). This terrace postdates S5.5, because this shoreline is not developed on the terrace but is present 

on both sides (Figs. 5, 10). A narrow valley of a small stream was eroded into this Pelican Creek terrace, 

but it abruptly terminates at the S5 shoreline (Fig. 10). This incised valley and the Pelican Creek bench 

into which it is incised must have extended farther south to a lower lake level than the S5 shoreline. 

Lake level then rose (Fig. 4), and bluff erosion by the S5 shoreline truncated the stream valley. 

S5.5 Shoreline-. The S5.5 shoreline is a double- crested barrier beach that extends from Mary Bay 

to Pelican Creek. Hydrothermal explosion deposits from the MBII event mantle the shoreline terrain of 

Mary Bay to within at least 1 km of Pelican Creek (Fig. 10; see also Fig. 13). This mantle extends from 

just above S5 across S5.5 to above S6. The S5.5 barrier beach shows up clearly through this mantle about 

1 km east of Pelican Creek, where field measurements indicate that the explosion deposits are more than 

1 m thick. Eastward towards the Mary Bay source, the MB II explosion deposit thickens until it 

completely obscures the S5.5 barrier beach about 0.5 km west of the crater rim (Fig. 10). 

Shoreline S5.5 becomes totally obscured within 1 km of the valley of Pelican Creek (Fig. 10), 

apparently by a diamicton locally exposed at the top of Pelican Creek banks. The source and mode of 

deposition of the diamicton is unclear, but we speculate that it originated in a hydrothermal explosion up 

Pelican Creek and the explosion debris formed a debris flow that spread deposits over the lower valley. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 10 
The correlation of S5.5 is less certain west of Pelican Creek, because S5.5 is eroded out or buried by the 

extensive bench along Pelican Creek above the S5 shoreline on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. Northwest 

of this terrace, S5.5 may correlate to a possible wave-cut scarp east of the Yellowstone River that has a 

tilt sub-parallel to that of S5 (Figs. 5, 10, 12). An age for S5.5 of ~13.6 ka is estimated based on shoreline 

sequence and the relation of the MBII deposits that mantle S5.5 to Glacier Peak ash. 

S6 Shoreline-. S6 is best expressed just east of Pelican Creek with a well-defined 3-m high wavecut scarp (Fig. 10). Farther east, a mantle of hydrothermal explosion deposits obscures it. Assuming an 

age of about 13 ka for the MBII explosion deposit that mantles both S6 and the next lower S5.5, we 

estimate that S6 is ~14-14.5 ka. 

3B2. Possible lake level culminations near 2.5 and 4.5 ka 

From the present S1 time back to the abandoning of S2 about 8 ka, the northwest part of Yellowstone 

Lake has been near or below its present level. From 3-4 ka, lake and river levels were ~5-6 m below 

present, but several lines of evidence suggest the lake was near its present level (S1 shoreline) ~2.5 and 

~4.5 ka (Fig. 4). We find rationales for either of two possible lake-level histories between 6 ka and 1 ka 

(Fig. 4). The possible culminations near 2.5 and 4.5 ka have some data in their support, but require rather 

rapid changes in lake level. 

Behind the modern barrier beach just east of the mouth of Pelican Creek, charcoal dating 2.7 ka 

(2,550 ± 60 yr. BP, 94P33, Table 1, #1) was collected at the base of 1.65 m of eolian sand and 25 cm 

above beach gravels. During or following deposition of these beach gravels ~1 m above datum, Pelican 

Creek entered the lake to the east of this site. It has subsequently established its inlet west of this site. 

Rising lake levels to the present shoreline would facilitate this change near 2.5 ka. In addition to the 

Pelican Creek site, the sandy part of the fine-grained section in the core from the drowned Yellowstone 

River (Fig. 6) contains wood 2.37 m below datum with an age of 2.7 ka (2,518 ± 100 yr. BP; Table 1, #2), 

indicating a river level somewhat below present. In an adjacent core, an age of 2.7 ka (2,560 ± 70, Table 

1, #3) beneath the sand suggests a maximum age for the sand and possible level of Yellowstone River 

near present. 

In the recently uplifted Storm Point geothermal center, slabby openwork platform gravels 3.43 m 

above datum contain charcoal 2.1 ka (2,160 ± 60 yr BP, Table 1, section A, not numbered). This uplifted 

beach here is distinct from the modern beach, S1, and also appears to indicate a culmination a little older 

than 2 ka. 

About halfway from Lodge Point to the outlet, a barrier beach (Fig. 5) with a clearly developed soil 

occurs at the same level as modern storm deposition, including that from high water of 1996 and 1997. 

The soil has a 12-cm thick color B-horizon, and four, 1-cm thick clay lamellae at depths between 12 and 

35 cm, consistent with an age of several millennia. The soil is buried by 35 cm of modern beach 

deposition, particularly that of 1996 and 1997. A projectile point recovered from this beach in the 

collections at the Yellowstone Museum at Mammoth (FS#1911) is of the Hanna type. This Northern 

Plains projectile point style was originally defined by Wheeler (1954) and represents a Middle Archaic 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 11 
index artifact dating between 4500 and 2800 yrs BP (Greiser 1986), suggesting a calibrated age in the 4 ± 

1 ka range. 

In eastern Mary Bay north of Holmes Point, a shoreline within 1 m of modern high water but with 

tree cover, significant soil development, and obsidian artifact flakes may also indicate a lake level near 

present, several thousand years old but younger than 8 ka. 

5a. Summary of Post-glacial lake level chronology. 

Figure 4 plots the history of Yellowstone Lake and River level changes in the northern 

Yellowstone Lake area over the last ~15,000 yr. Both S5.5 and S6 are older than the ~13 ka MBII 

explosion deposit and estimated to be about ≈ 13.6 and 14.4 ka. Shorelines S6 and S5.5 are younger than 

ice-cap deglaciation of the Yellowstone Lake and plateau area. Above the Yellowstone delta area (Fig. 

2), Richmond and Pierce (1972) note that a very prominent 60-65 foot shoreline (~18-20 m) at 

Beaverdam Creek correlates by outwash relations with late Pinedale mountain valley glaciation, 

somewhat younger than an age of 14.7-16.3 ka (13,140 ± 700 yr BP, Richmond and Pierce, 1972, section 

14; Porter and others, 1983, Table 4-7, E). Locke and Meyer (1994, Fig. 4), however, surveyed the 

shoreline elevation at this locality to 27.6 m (90 feet) above datum, and correlated it with their S9 

shoreline. We note that S7 in the Southeast Arm may correlate with S5 in northern Yellowstone area, 

because the LIDAR imagery shows that S5 adjacent to Pelican Creek traces to S7 of Locke and Meyer 

(1994) near Mary Bay. 

Radiocarbon ages from the Yellowstone Lake area suggest that deglaciation had occurred by 16.2 ka 

(>14,000 yr BP, Porter and others, 1983; Whitlock, 1993). At time of the Deckard Flats readjustment, the 

icecap on the Yellowstone Plateau had greatly receded but was probably still present (Pierce, 1979; 

Sturchio and others, 1994). The radiocarbon chronology of deglaciation is several thousand years older 

than that produced by cosmogenic surface-exposure dating, which places the Deckard Flats readjustment 

at ~13.8 ± 0.4 ka (Licciardi and others, 2001). We cannot resolve why cosmogenic ages are younger than 

radiocarbon ages, but suggest either one or both dating systems may be in error. 

S5 is estimated to be ≈ 12.6 ka as bracketed as younger than the ≈ 13 ka MBII explosion deposit and 

older than the ≈ 10.7 ka S4 (Fig. 4). S4 was constructed about 10.7 ka, as dated by Cody Complex 

projectile points and a 14C age. Subsequent formation of the S-meander indicates a relatively low lake 

level about 2 m above present at ~9.5 ka. S3 is incompletely preserved and is not well dated, but was 

formed after initial drowning of the S-meander and before formation of S2. S2 is the best-dated shoreline 

at ~8.0 ka based on multiple ages on both sides of the outlet. 

After formation of the S2 shoreline at about 8.0 ka, lake levels have been below or near the present 

level (Fig. 4). Lake level was ~4 m below datum from 3-4 ka. Two options are shown for lake levels 

immediately before and after 3-4 ka (Fig. 4). (1) A gradual lowering to 3-4 ka followed by a gradual 

increase to present. (2) Possible culminations near the present level ~4.5 ka and ~2.5 ka that bracket low 

between 3 and 4 ka and with lows both before ~4.6 ka and after 2.2 ka. Both histories are shown with 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 12 
question marks in that present information may be interpreted to favor either option. Either option after 

~2 ka is consistent with the historic rise of LHR relative to the outlet at a rate of about 4 mm/yr (Fig. 4). 

5b. Uplift of Le Hardys Rapids (LHR) indicated by submerged localities. 

Table 3 shows calculations of the uplift of Le Hardys Rapids to sites in the lake and to the outlet by 

normalizing localities to the outlet based on the 1923-76 uplift dimensions. These calculations indicate 

between 8 and 9 m uplift of the Le Hardys Rapids relative to the outlet following the low stand 3-4 ka 

(Table 4, line 10). Uplift of LHR relative to the Bridge Bay and Little Thumb Creek North sites is 

calculated to be 10.2 and 11.1 m, respectively (Table 3, line 9). Normalization of these sites to the outlet 

based on the 1923-76 uplift pattern yields values of 8.2 and 8.6 m, similar to the 8.5 calculated for the 

outlet (Fig. 6) . From the low stand at 3-4 ka to the present, the net rate of uplift is less than the historic 

rate from 1923-75 (Table 3, compare #11 to #12), although this does not consider a possible high stand 

near 2 ka and possible submergence after that as shown in the option in Figure 4. Uplift or subsidence of 

LHR relative to the outlet is only about one-quarter of the total uplift and subsidence relative to the areas 

beyond the caldera margin (Fig. 1). These rates of ~3-4 mm/yr, if extended to the caldera margin and 

multiplied by 4, would be 12-16 mm/yr. This is within the range of 16 mm/yr for the 1923-85 uplift as 

well as for other calderas such as Campi Flegrei, Italy, where rates of 10-20 mm/yr have been observed 

over millennial time scales. (Dvorak and Mastrolorenzo, 1991). In a compilation of data for more than 

100 calderas worldwide showing signs of unrest, Newhall and Dzurisin (1988) found rates of uplift and 

subsidence of tens of mm to greater than 100 millimeters per year. 

4. Faulting. 

Late-Quaternary faulting has broken many parts of the Yellowstone Plateau, especially outside of the 

caldera, but locally within it as well (Christiansen, 2001, Machette and others, 2001). Because of high 

thermal gradients and shallow young intrusions within the caldera, the brittle-ductile transition may lie at 

a depth of only 3-5 km, limiting faulting to shallow crustal levels. Compared to sites where the brittleductile transition is at about 15 km, maximum earthquakes are of lesser magnitude (Smith and Braille, 

1993). In contrast to the large subsided half-graben basins and uplifted blocks of adjacent Basin-andRange terrain (e.g., Jackson Hole and the Teton Range), normal fault systems in the caldera have little net 

offset, and commonly form grabens and fissure-like structures. 

The Elephant Back fault system is the most prominent set of young faults within the caldera, and 

strikes northeasterly from the Sour Creek resurgent dome to east of the Mallard Lake dome (Fig. 1). This 

fault zone is nearly parallel to the caldera long-axis, which also forms the axis of historical uplift and 

subsidence. The faulting of the Elephant Back system may result from general extension, or from 

fracturing and keystone faulting associated with localized doming along the caldera axis. These young 

faults cut the 150 ka Elephant Back flow, but leveling resurveys of benchmarks across the northeast end 

of the Elephant Back zone show no apparent steps or offsets suggesting faulting since the first survey in 

1923 (Dzurisin and others, 1994, Dan Dzurisin, spoken commun., 1995). 

LIDAR imagery reveals a fault that offsets post-glacial surfaces across the west tip of the Fishing 

Bridge Peninsula and extends 3 km to the NNE (Fig. 5). Figure 14 shows local shoreline profiles, 

shoreline tilts, and fault offset, which are tabulated in Table 2. Only shorelines S2 and the barrier beach 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 13 
of S4 are preserved actually crossing the fault. S2 and the S4 barrier beach at the east end of the Fishing 

Bridge peninsula are actually higher than their upfaulted remnant at the west end of the Peninsula (Fig 

14), although farther eastward S2 and S4 are horizontal (Fig. 12). The ratio of fault offset to total 

shoreline elevation difference across the Fishing Bridge peninsula produced by tilting into the fault is 

about 60% (Table 2, S2 and BB S4). Two methods were used to estimate offset of wavecut S4 and S5 

which do not cross the fault. One is based in the fault offset equaling 60% of the tilt into the fault (Table 

2. The other method was a visual projection of the shoreline across the fault (Fig. 14) consistent with 

shoreline west of the fault (Fig. 12). Table 2 outlines the sequence of tilting and surface-offset faulting 

events. 

We infer that a faulting event occurred between erosion of the S4 wave-cut shoreline and 

construction of the S4 barrier beach on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. Faulting and subsidence of the 

hanging wall apparently submerged the west end of the wave-cut S4 shoreline. Longshore drift of 

sediment from Pelican Creek then prograded a barrier beach across the south side of the drowned area to 

form a lagoon. Because the strongly tilted S4 wave-cut shoreline and much less tilted S4 barrier beach 

are at the same elevation on the east side the Fishing Bridge peninsula (east side of Fig. 14), lake level did 

not change significantly before construction of the barrier beach, and faulting did not affect the lake outlet 

level. The S4 interval is the only time during the period of shoreline terrace formation that a barrier beach 

and lagoon existed on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. This relationship also links the time of tilting and 

offset with barrier beach and lagoon formation. 

Features in the area of the S-meander are also offset by the Fishing Bridge fault (Figs. 5, 8). A S2 

sand spit built across the S-meander is offset 1.8 m. The higher bench just south of and older than the Smeander is offset 1.2 m (Fig. 5), indicating no increase in offset going back to at least the ~9.7 ka age of 

the S-meander. Figure 8 shows that the gradient of the channel of the S-meander is ~0.9 m/km along 

most of the meander. No other fault strands offset the wide belt occupied by the S-meander. Farther 

north, a Yellowstone River terrace that predates the S-meander is offset 1.5-1.8 m by the Fishing Bridge 

fault (Fig. 5). The fault continues northward with surface offsets of 1 m or less, and dies out above the 

S6 shoreline. Surfaces older than the ~9.7 ka S-meander on both sides of the Yellowstone River are 

offset less than 2 m. 

A ~1 km-wide graben is located on the floor of Yellowstone Lake 0.5 km SE of the Lake Hotel (Fig. 

2). Seismic reflection profiles by Otis and others (1977) first revealed this graben, and Kaplinski (1991) 

mapped it in greater detail. Because of its potential involvement in shoreline deformation, Locke and 

Meyer (1994) termed this structure the Outlet graben. However, recent detailed mapping with GPS 

control (Morgan and others, submitted; Johnson and others, submitted) shows that it is about 1 km west 

of where originally mapped and has a more northwesterly strike. The primary fault on the west side of 

the graben strikes about N 10° W from the north end of Stevenson Island (Figs. 1, 10). Because it does 

not appear to intercept the outlet, we call this fault the Lake Hotel fault. No faulting of shorelines has 

been observed in the Lodge Bay area, but along the lakeshore in Lodge Bay directly below the Hamilton 

Store parking lot (Fig. 10), vertical fractures with 10-20 cm openings in compact “lacustrine till” suggest 

extensional deformation, possibly due to lateral spread. Directly above these fractures, S5 platform 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 14 
gravels at 10-11 m above datum are not offset. Farther north along this trend, the Lake Hotel fault may 

extend onshore to a prominent escarpment behind the Lake Lodge and that continues northward to the 

outlet area. No evidence of offset of surface sediments has been observed in the field or with LIDAR 

data, however, and the S5 barrier beach adjoins this escarpment, but is not offset (Fig. 5). Therefore, any 

fault offset on this escarpment is older than S5 and in S5 time this was a wave-cut cliff. 

Local deformation of shorelines. 

LIDAR data defines a strong local tilting away from the Storm Point geothermal center (Fig. 15). 

The shorelines that intersect the center (S2, S1.8, and S1.6) show steep subparallel tilts of as much as 6 

m/km. The shorelines that skirt north of the center show lesser tilting; S4 shows a gentle 4-m-high dome, 

and S5 is apparently not affected. This tilting resembles Holocene bulges on the floor of Yellowstone 

Lake inferred to be related to hydrothermal pressures (Johnson and others, submitted). 

A local dome just east of Pelican Creek has about 3 m relief in S3 and S4 (Fig. 15), and is also welldefined in adjacent minor shorelines (Fig. 10). Shorelines on the east limb of the dome form a sharp “v” 

fold with the shorelines tilted away from the Storm Point hydrothermal center (Figs. 15, 10). We have 

observed no hydrothermal features or faulting in the immediate vicinity, but this dome implies subsurface pressure buildup, and merits additional investigation to understand the cause of deformation and 

any associated hazard. South of the anticline, the beach sands on the shore of Yellowstone Lake are hot 

at a shallow depth and the site of a rare thermophilic(?) sand verbena, Abronia ammophila (Whipple, 

2001). This may reflect hydrothermal processes associated with the anticline. Younger shoreline features 

in this area bury the S3 shoreline. 

6. Discussion 

The pattern of both rises and falls of lake level (Fig. 4) combined with the historically observed 

inflation and deflation suggests intriguing volcanic, hydrothermal, and/or other processes may be 

involved. Table 4 outlines the many processes for changing Yellowstone Lake and River levels. In the 

following, we discuss most of these emphasizing processes most relevant to our study. We attribute the 

overall decrease in lake level observed during the first half of the record to lowering of the outlet by a 

combination of erosion and subsidence. We suggest that a millennial-scale oscillation also occurs 

superposed on the lowering during the first half of this record and is the primary signal during the second 

half of this record (Fig. 4). We suggest this millennial scale oscillation in lake levels in part reflects 

caldera-wide inflation and deflation similar to that recognized from re-leveling surveys and radar 

interferometry studies. Our radiocarbon and archeologically dated history (Fig. 4) provides a temporal 

scale two orders of magnitude longer than the historic studies. New observations of faulting and local 

shoreline deformation are based on LIDAR data. In addition to investigating the processes responsible 

for lake level change, the history itself provides a framework for archeology, including possible human 

habitation of both subaerial and now submerged shorelines. 

A rising water level greatly enhances landward erosion and the development of wavecut shorelines, a 

process described by the Bruun Rule (Bruun, 1988; Schwartz, 1987). The better-developed shorelines 

(S1 to S6 and higher) recognized by Meyer and Locke (1986) and Locke and Meyer (1994) appear to 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 15 
have been developed under rising lake conditions as suggested by the Bruun Rule, and as discussed for


the history of each shoreline in this report.


Decreases in lake level


Holocene outlet erosion and Pleistocene glacial damming (I-A and B in Table 4). Above ~ 20 m at


LH, the Yellowstone River appears to have been downcutting mostly through unconsolidated glacial and


alluvial material in the LHR area. Farther North in Hayden Valley, ice dammed lake sediments (pkl) are


mapped to 7,800 feet and locally to 8,740 (20 m locally to 33 m above datum; LHR is ~1 m below


datum). Thus Yellowstone lake levels from ~20 m and higher, or above S6 may have been dammed by


recessional glaciers from the Beartooth Uplift during the Deckard Flats and younger times (Pierce, 1979).


Figure 4 shows a pattern of oscillating lake levels with a net lowering from ~20 m for S6 at ~ 14.4 ka 

to about the present lake level at S-meander time about 10 ka. Assuming LHR has returned to the same 

vertical position for each shoreline, erosion of LHR at 4 m/kyr is indicated from 14.4 ka to 10 ka. 

Conversely, the change in shorelines levels may have been accompanied either by: 1) tectonic sagging of 

LHR, in which case the rate of erosion would be less, or 2) net uplift of LHR in which case the rate of 

erosion would be greater. Our correlations of shorelines from Fishing Bridge to the Mary Bay area are 

based on new LIDAR data and indicate a pronounced sagging, notably S5 sags from ~18 m to ~ 10 m 

above datum from Mary Bay to the outlet. 

Figure 4 also shows that after 10 ka, lake levels have oscillated but with no clear trend. Hamilton 

and Bailey (1990, Fig. 3) draw a bedrock threshold at LHR 5 m above datum. Bedrock is locally mapped 

to 20 m above datum on the west side of LHR (Christiansen and Blank, 1975). An erosionally resistant 

zone near the base of the Lava Creek Tuff forms the bedrock ledge of Le Hardys Rapids (R.L. 

Christiansen, spoken commun., 2002). This little-fractured, ~1-3 m thick devitrified zone is composed 

largely of interlocking micro-spherulites 1-3 mm across, making it quite resistant to erosion. Above this 

spherulite zone is a devitrified zone with joints on a decimeter scale that is more readily eroded. Below 

the spherulite zone, the Yellowstone River will next encounter the basal vitrophyre that is also much 

more fractured and also will be more readily eroded. The resistant bedrock zone appears to have been 

base level for the Yellowstone River for a considerable time, perhaps all of Holocene time. The ~3 ka 

gravel channel of the outlet reach is now below the level of this bedrock threshold. The 9.7-ka S-meander 

channel is drowned at its downstream end and thus projects at or below this bedrock threshold, suggesting 

little erosion of LHR over this time interval. The shorelines also show general sagging into this area (Fig. 

12), however, so some of the low altitude of the ~9.7 ka S-meander channel is probably from this 

sagging. The erosion rate at LHR over the last 10 ka must be low in any case, and would be expected 

given the low bedload transport rate at LHR. Bedload supply in the outlet reach is limited to sand and 

fine gravel supplied by bank erosion and material carried to the outlet by longshore transport. 

Tectonic stretching (I-D in Table 4). A crystallizing batholith probably exists beneath Yellowstone (see 

Christiansen, 2001 and references therein). Yellowstone is along the east margin of the Basin and Range 

structural province where tectonic extension is occurring. In addition, the Elephant Back fault zone 

offsets the 150 ka Elephant Back rhyolite flow (Fig. 5) indicating either significant SE-NW extension 

perpendicular to the caldera axis or keystone faulting associated with resurgent doming. Given that 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 16 
ductile material is as shallow as 4-5 km beneath the caldera (Smith and Bruhn, 1984; Fournier and Pitt,


1985, Smith and Braille, 1994), tectonic extension would stretch and thin the ductile body and cause


subsidence perhaps accompanied by fissuring and faulting in the brittle material above (Fig. 16,B). LHR


lies along the axis of the caldera where the greatest subsidence due to extension might be expected. (See


note under II-D regarding subsidence associated with convergence).


Yellowstone Lake ceasing to overflow (I-E in table 4). Hamilton and Bailey (1988) observed


submerged shorelines and suggested that they might indicate that Yellowstone Lake ceased to overflow.


Locke and Meyer (1994) considered that Holocene climatic change was unlikely to have caused closed


basin conditions, as an average of 45% of annual precipitation in the Yellowstone Lake basin currently


discharges at the lake outlet. Studies of oxygen isotopes of waters entering and exiting Yellowstone Lake


suggest that about 15% of the inflow evaporates from the lake surface at present (Pat Shanks, oral


commun., 2000). For Yellowstone Lake to cease overflowing, the ratio of evaporation to inflow would


have to increase by more than 6 times, necessitating a major climatic change. Pollen records from the


Yellowstone Lake basin do not show evidence for dramatic late Holocene vegetation and climatic


changes (Whitlock, 1993; Baker, 1976; Waddington and Wright; 1974) The simplest argument against


closed basin conditions is the drowned outlet channel of the Yellowstone River that now lies well below


the level of the bedrock threshold farther downstream at LHR. This channel was cut 3-4 ka when


Yellowstone Lake was more than 5 m below its present level yet was clearly overflowing with substantial


velocity and discharge (Fig. 6).


Increases in Lake level


Inflation by magma intrusion (II-A in Table 4). Decompression melting in the mantle from the


Yellowstone hotspot source is thought to generate basaltic magma that rises upward to the base of the


rhyolitic magma chamber (Fig. 16A). Uplift or inflation because of magma intrusion is quite plausible


(Pelton and Smith, 1982; Dzurisin and others, 1994). Modeling indicates that the historic inflation is


consistent with a volume expansion involving either magmatic or hydrothermal fluids, primarily in the 3-


6 km depth range (Vasco and others, 1990), or 8 km (Wicks and others, 1998). Uplift may relate either


directly to this basaltic magma influx or a rhyolitic magma generated by its heat and intruded at shallow


levels within the caldera.


Tectonic compression (II-D in Table 4). Local compression of a ductile magma chamber would produce


uplift (Meertens and Levine, 1985). GPS studies show that radial convergence (compression?) was


accompanied by subsidence, suggesting the opposite effect (Smith and others, 1997; Meertens and Smith,


1991). This pattern indicates that subsidence is caused primarily by depressurization of a subcaldera


source, rather than by tectonic extension.


Possible increases or decreases in lake level


Faulting and local warping (III-A in table 4). A north-trending fault system includes the Lake Hotel


fault on the lake floor and the Fishing Bridge fault (see section on faulting discussed earlier). Although


the Fishing Bridge fault offsets shoreline S5 and the wavecut shoreline of S4 several meters, it offsets less


than 2 m the ~9.7 ka S-meander and surfaces that pre-date the S-meander. The shorelines show an


Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 17 
overall sag across the outlet area (Fig. 12). The S2 shoreline is dated ~8 ka on both sides of the Fishing 

Bridge fault and is only offset 0.5 m by the fault (Fig. 14, Table 2). 

For the Lake Hotel graben, Johnson and others (submitted) recognize 7.5 m total offset on the 

western fault and 3.4 m offset on the eastern antithetic fault, for a net offset of 4.1 m. The lake floor is 

offset 2.7 m across the Lake Hotel graben, only 1.4 m less than the net offset of 4.1 m. Based on 

sedimentation rates, the last and by far the largest offset was 5.7 m on the western strand with a net offset 

of 2.9 m within the last 2 ka. We infer that such faulting dies out northward, for the 8 ka S2 shoreline is 

essentially horizontal (Fig. 12) and offset only 0.5 m by the Fishing Bridge fault. 

Tiller (1995) suggests faulting might be responsible for increases in lake and river level. Except for 

the Fishing Bridge fault, no faults with offset of shorelines have been recognized in the outlet area, 

including bedrock and surficial geologic maps (Christiansen and Blank, 1975, Richmond, 1977) and 

shoreline studies (Meyer and Locke, 1983; Locke and Meyer, 1994; Hamilton and Bailey, 1990, Pierce 

and others, 1996). Just east of Le Hardy Rapids, John Good and Ken Pierce found a fault scarp with ~ 1 

m down-to-the-northwest offset (Fig, 5), which is opposite to that needed to raise the level of the outlet 

reach. The present drowned outlet channel from the outlet to LHR does not change its nearly flat gradient 

or wide width as it might if a young fault crossed and uplifted the river channel (Fig. 5). The submerged 

shoreline deposits at Bridge Bay and at Little Thumb Creek North as well as the many drowned valleys 

around the lake are not within any recognized graben and thus local faulting did not cause their 

submergence. 

Based on isostatic considerations and observed altitude changes after normal faulting, extensional 

faulting and associated crustal thinning is expected to produce dominantly subsidence (80%) of the 

downthrown block and only minor uplift (20%) of the upthrown block (Barrientos and others, 1987). 

Because the brittle-ductile transition zone in the caldera is only 20-35% as deep as normal in the Basin 

and Range, extensional structures arising from horizontal extension may have less vertical structural relief 

and express extension through fissures and grabens. 

Glacial Isostatic Rebound (III-B in table 4). During full-glacial times, the icecap on the Yellowstone 

Plateau exceeded an altitude of 3,350 m (11,000 ft) above Yellowstone Lake, altitude 2,357 m (7730 ft; 

Good and Pierce, 1996). That ice reached a thickness of about 1 km above the Yellowstone Lake basin is 

based on flow from the lake area to over the top of Mount Washburn (Pierce, 1979) and eastward through 

Sylvan Pass at such high levels that it backfilled high into the valley of Middle Creek (Richmond and 

Pierce, 1972). With total compensation and a upper crust of density 2.7, isostatic depression from 1-km 

ice (density ~0.9) would be 330 m. Because the lithosphere is likely to be warm and more ductile 

beneath Yellowstone, near-total compensation may be possible near the center of the load. In addition, 

because of this ductile material, the rate of rebound may be much greater than in continental craton areas. 

The thickness and load of ice above the Yellowstone Lake basin was relatively uniform (Good and 

Pierce, 1996), and thus near-uniform rebound is expected in the lake area, although cooler and stiffer 

crust is expected outside the caldera. That both inflation and deflation have taken place in both historic 

time as well as post-glacial time (Fig. 4), also argues against isostatic rebound. Pelton and Smith (1982), 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 18 
Locke and Meyer 1994) also discussed and rejected glacio-isostatic rebound as a mechanism to explain 

the historic and shoreline record. 

This unweighting during deglaciation of about 1 km of ice (pressure ~ 90 bars) provides a natural 

experiment for evaluating the hazard of volcanic eruptions. During deglaciation, pressure in magmas 

beneath the Yellowstone Plateau were not sufficiently high so that the 90 bar reduction in confining 

pressure produced an eruption. In other areas such as Hawaii (Porter, 1979), Iceland, and the “tuyas” of 

British Columbia, volcanic eruptions occurred through glacial ice, commonly thought to be stagnating 

and unloading during deglaciation. 

Oscillations in Lake Level 

Figure 4 shows oscillations in lake level that can be divided into two parts: (1) an oscillating lowering 

from >14 ka to ~10 ka to the S-meander level, and (2) oscillations near present level from 10 ka to 

present. The oscillating part of this pattern may be an extension of the observed 1923-1999 pattern of 

inflation and deflation based on re-leveling and radar interferometry studies. The time intervals and 

amplitudes of inferred Holocene cycles are much greater although rates are compatible. 

The increase in lake level that defines the oscillations to the S5 and S4 shorelines is based on 

truncation of shorelines and valleys shown in Figures 5 and 10. The amplitude is not known, but is 

estimated to be at least several meters. The increase in lake level both after the S-meander and after the 

3-4 ka low is estimated to be 8.3 m between LHT and the outlet. Extending farther from the caldera axis, 

our studies of lake level changes suggest differential uplift of ~10-11 m at localities that span ~41-43% 

the 1923-76 doming (Table 2); the average long-term rate from the submergence 4-5 ka to present is in 

the 0.7 to 1.2-mm/yr range if extrapolated to the outer margin of the 1923-75 doming. 

The oscillations suggesting rises near 5 ka and 2 ka (Fig. 4) are not well established and are included 

as options because of evidence for a lake level near present near 2 and 4 ka. These oscillations suggest 

rather rapid rates of uplift and subsidence between the outlet and LHR and we are reticent to suggest such 

rates are established (note slopes of uplift and subsidence on Fig. 4). From 1923-85, uplift of LHR 

relative to the outlet was 0.25 m at a rate of 4 mm/yr; to produce 8 m uplift at this rate would take 2 kyr. 

Many of the prominent erosional shorelines, especially the ones designated S1-S5 were formed 

during rising lake levels most likely produced by an inflation episode. Locke and Meyer (1994) inferred 

that rising water levels produced by the current episode of inflation (including inflation before the historic 

measurement period) were probably effective in producing the prominent modern wave-cut shorelines 

noted around Yellowstone Lake. This process appears indicated for the major past shorelines as well. 

Unrest of calderas is common (Newhall and Dzurisin, 1988). The Phlegraean Fields caldera, Italy, a 

smaller trachytic caldera about 15 km across, has a 5,500 year record useful for comparison of rates, 

amplitudes, and patterns of inflation and deflation to Yellowstone (Dvorak and Mastrolorenzo, 1991). 

There, Grindley (1976) charts 55 m uplift from about 3500 to 500 B.C. at about 18 mm/yr, followed by 

15 m subsidence from about 500 B.C. to about 1000 A.D. at a rate of 11 mm/yr. Subsequently, about 12 

m uplift led to an eruption in 1528 A.D. followed by about 8 m subsidence (from A. Parascandola, cited 

in Yokoyama, 1971). These values are comparable to the historical values of uplift (15 mm/yr) and 

subsidence (20-30 mm/yr) for the center of the Yellowstone caldera. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 19 
If the historic caldera inflation at 15 mm/yr were to continue for 1,000 to 4,000 years, uplift would 

total 15 to 60 m. The subaerial shorelines do not have deformation of this magnitude, and the tilts are 

generally towards the caldera axis rather than away from it (Fig. 12; Locke and Meyer, 1994). Table 5 

compiles overall apparent tilts with distance from the caldera axis for three shorelines. We selected S2 

and S4 because they are independently dated over long distances. We selected S5 because this shoreline 

feature has been nearly continuously mapped (Fig. 12; Locke and Meyer, 1994). S5 of this paper along 

the northern lakeshore is the same as S7 of Locke and Meyer (1994) on the hydrothermal explosion crater 

rim above Beach Springs. S5 shows a significant tilt towards the caldera axis, and most of this occurs 

outside the caldera (Table 5). S2 shows a 2-3 m tilt within the caldera towards the axis whereas S4 shows 

a 1-2 m tilt away from the axis. In summary, net post-glacial tilting of shorelines shows gentle 

subsidence towards the axis of the caldera. One explanation for the gentle tilts is that the prominent 

subaerial shorelines were formed at the culmination of an inflation cycle, and they are near horizontal at 

present because the present shoreline may also be forming at the culmination of an inflation cycle. This 

has returned the older shorelines to approximately their original horizontal positions. The cumulative 

gentle overall subsidence towards the caldera axis might be due to magmatic cooling. Fournier and Pitt 

(1985) estimate subsidence of 0.6-0.7 mm/yr due to cooling; over the age of S5 (14.6 ka), this would 

total 7.5 m. 

Two favored explanations for record of oscillations 

A nearly steady-state process with little net volume change in post-glacial time within the caldera seems 

to be required to produce the observed deformation history (Table 5). Inflation and deflation of the 

caldera in the last 100 years has been called “breathing”; we use the term “heavy breathing” for 

millennial-scale, larger episodes of inflation and deflation. This “heavy breathing” of the central part of 

the Yellowstone caldera may reflect magmatic inflation and tectonic stretching and deflation, or (our 

preferred interpretation) hydrothermal fluid sealing and inflation followed by cracking and deflation (Fig. 

16). The many factors noted in Table 4 may be involved. Listed below are two explanations, one 

involving only hydrothermal processes, and the other a hybrid of volcanic and tectonic processes. 

Hydrothermal inflation and deflation (IV-A in Table 4). A large, magmatically driven hydrothermal 

system exists principally within the 630 ka Yellowstone caldera (Fournier and Pitt, 1985; Fournier, 1989; 

Christiansen, 2001). At a depth of about 5 km, a seal may be created by mineral deposition and ductile 

flow separating a deep zone associated with crystallizing magma and fluids expelled during 

crystallization and in which pore pressures can approach lithostatic, from a shallower zone in which pore 

pressures are hydrostatic (Fournier and Pitt, 1985; Fournier, 1989). Hydrothermal pressure buildup of the 

confined hydrothermal fluids beneath this seal would produce uplift. Eventual rupture of the seal, 

perhaps during an earthquake or hydrofracturing, would permit these confined hydrothermal fluids to 

escape and result in subsidence, perhaps back to the original level. This mechanism could explain why 

even latest-Pleistocene shorelines show little net deformation, with net inflation equal to net deflation. 

Fournier (1989) calculated that the volume of magmatic fluids released by magma crystallization is 

adequate to explain historic uplift rates. Bob Fournier (personal commun., 2002) also estimates that no 

more than a 10% increase in surface manifestation of geothermal fluids has occurred, but that dense 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 20 
brines from beneath the ruptured seal might not be vented directly to the surface. Instead, they may be 

expelled laterally at depth. Friedman (this volume), however, finds that there has been a decrease in 

chloride representing hydrothermal heat output of about 10% since the early 1980’s, near when 

subsidence started in 1985. Friedman also notes that years and seasons of increased precipitation also 

correlate with increased chloride release. We suggest that the 10 % decrease noted by Friedman might 

reflect the general drought that has occurred since about 1980 (Despain, personal commun., 2002) and 

thus does not necessarily contradict the postulate of geothermal release producing the subsidence after 

1985. Dzurisin and others (1994, p. 268) note a cluster of hydrothermal and earthquake events (for 

example, Nagy and Smith, 1988) within and outside the caldera that may relate to the 1985 change from 

inflation to deflation and be associated with rupture of a deep hydrothermal seal and release of 

hydrothermal fluids. In this regard, it is interesting to note that the banding of vein deposits commonly 

noted in mineralized areas around intrusions may also indicate pulsations in the outflow of hydrothermal 

fluids (Fournier, 2000). 

A correlation between hydrothermal explosions and associated lowering of deep, confined 

hydrothermal pressures might also result in lowering of LHR and lake levels. Figure 4 shows that the 

ages of three hydrothermal explosions do not clearly correlate with times of lake-level lowering (Fig. 4), 

although the dating of the explosions and lake level both have considerable uncertainty. Other explosions 

such as Duck Pond, Fern Lake, the subaqueous Cutthroat Crater (age ~ 8.7-14.4 ka, Johnson and others, 

in review) and other craters need be dated to fully evaluate this possible relation. 

Inflation by magma intrusion and subsidence by other mechanisms (IV-B in Table 4). 

Because Yellowstone is an active volcanic field, a magmatic explanation is obviously plausible (Pelton 

and Smith, 1982; Dzurisin and others, 1994). The inflation has been modeled with the largest volume 

expansions in the 3.0-6.0 km depth range (Vasco and others, 1990). The overall horizontality of 

shorelines (Table 5) indicates there has been no net doming by buildup of post-glacial intrusions. The 

subsidence part of the oscillation is more difficult to explain by evacuation of the emplaced magma, 

although the radially outward earthquake patterns may represent outward magma movements (Smith, 

AGU abstract). Subsidence due to tectonic stretching of ductile material, primarily of the batholithic 

magma chamber, is predictable given Yellowstone’s location on the margin of the extending Basin and 

Range. The Elephant Back fault system indicates SE-NW extension that may reflect either fracturing 

associated with localized doming along the caldera axis or regional extension; such doming does not 

provide an explanation for subsidence, but regional extension does. Outside of the Yellowstone caldera, 

extensional basin and range faults are clearly active, including the Teton fault, the east Sheridan fault, and 

the Hebgen earthquake faults. Such extension might be episodic and produce subsidence of the caldera. 

The Eagle Bay fault has been active in Holocene time and extends from south of the caldera into it (Fig. 

2). 

Subsidence due to cooling is almost certainly occurring (0.6-0.7 mm/yr, Fournier and Pitt, 1985), but 

can account for only a small fraction of the historically observed rates of about 20 mm/yr uplift and 

subsidence (Dzurisin and others, 1994, Fig. 4). This suggests that cooling is a minor factor in subsidence. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 21 
If inflation is explained by magma intrusion and deflation is explained by extension or other process, the 

following questions are of concern: (1) why the volume of magma intrusion and associated uplift would 

equal the volume of extension and subsidence?, and (2) why would these alternate systematically in time? 

Local doming and faulting of shorelines. 

In addition to the changes in lake level, remarkable local deformation is recorded by shoreline faulting 

and tilting. The cause of the tilting and doming is locally associated with hydrothermal centers. For 

example, west from the Storm Point hydrothermal center with its dramatic craters (Fig. 10) , tilt is 6 m 

over a kilometer (Fig. 15). A localized anticline just east of Pelican Creek has no surface features and 

merits further investigation. On the lake floor, domal areas attributed to hydrothermal processes have 

even greater relief than these onshore sites (Johnson and others, in review). Outside of the northern 

Yellowstone Lake study area, Locke and Meyer (1994) show broad uplift of the Rock Point area and 

subsidence of the West Thumb area. 

The Fishing Bridge fault shows increasing offset of older shorelines. Tilting into the fault is equal or 

greater than fault offset. Over a distance of about 1.1 km across the Fishing Bridge Peninsula, tilts into 

the Fishing Bridge fault increase from 0.8 m for S2 to 6.7 m (projected) for S5 (Fig. 14, Table 2). 

7. Conclusions 

S2 (8 ka) and related shorelines are tilted as much as 6 m in one kilometer away from the Storm 

Point hydrothermal center. Just west of this tilted area is a local dome more than 2 m high and about 0.5 

km across. Both of these uplifts suggest shallow emplacement of a volume that is still present, 

presumably of magma or hydrothermal fluids. This and similar features on the lake floor and perhaps 

elsewhere may represent a significant hazard. 

LIDAR data permits recognition of the Fishing Bridge fault and its history of Holocene offset. Near 

Fishing Bridge, the fault offsets S2 0.5 m and the S4 barrier beach 1 m. About 2 m of faulting occurred 

after eroding the wave cut S4 but before building the S4 barrier beach. The Fishing Bridge fault 0.5-1.5 

km farther north offsets by 1-2 m the S2 sand spit filling the S-meander, but offsets less than 2 m adjacent 

surfaces that pre-date the S-meander, indicating offset after ~11 ka (S4)is the same as that after 8 ka (S2). 

Curiously, Late Holocene activity on the Fishing Bridge fault has been minimal (Table 2) whereas 

activity on the offshore Lake Hotel fault has been mostly late Holocene. 

Shorelines S2 and S4 are correlated by independent dating from the north to south shores of the lake 

and are essentially horizontal, and significantly, they do not rise towards the caldera axis. Our correlation 

of S5, a well represented shoreline along the north and east side of the lake gently slopes towards the 

caldera axis. This overall near-horizontality contrasts with local doming and faulting of shorelines where 

structural relief exceeds 5 m. 

We reconstruct the following post-glacial history of changes for Yellowstone Lake and adjacent 

areas (Fig. 4). 

1. MBII hydrothermal explosion occurred about 13 ka and mantles S5.5 and S6, but not S5. The steep 

crater wall on the north side of Mary Bay was formed during the MB II explosion and S5 was cut into the 

crater wall. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 22 
2. Using LIDAR images, S5 can be traced from Pelican Creek to Mary Bay where it is S6 of Meyer and 

Locke (1986) and S7 of Locke and Meyer (1994). S5 post dates the MB II hydrothermal explosion and is 

~12.6 ka. 

3. The S4 shoreline is ~10.7 ka and is 7-9 m above datum in the Fishing Bridge area and 7-8 m above 

datum east of Grant Village area. Locke and Meyer (1994) note local uplift of S4 of about 4 m in the 

Mary Bay and Rock Point area to about 12 m above datum. 

4. The S-meander represents a low level of Yellowstone Lake and LHR that occurred after the S4 

shoreline and before S2/S3. Uplift of LHR by more than 8 m relative to the outlet converted this once 

vigorously flowing reach of the river to an arm of the lake. 

5. The S2 shoreline is about 4-6 m above datum on both sides of the outlet, is nearly undeformed, and is 

~ 8 ka by dating on both sides of the outlet. 

6. Yellowstone Lake has been near or below its present level from after S2 time ~8 ka to present. 

7. About 3-4 ka inn Bridge Bay and in the drowned valley of Little Thumb Creek-North, lake level was 

5.4 and 6.3 m lower, respectively, than the present S1 shoreline. The outlet reach of the Yellowstone 

River is presently a drowned channel that had a much higher gradient before 3 ka. Estimation of original 

river gradients indicates uplift of LHR relative to the outlet was about 8 m, and thus converted this reach 

from a once vigorously flowing river to the present “pool”. 

8. Other evidence of now-submerged lake-level features is widespread but not yet dated and includes (1) 

drowned valleys such as Pelican Creek, Sedge Creek, and Little Thumb Creek, (2) submerged shorelines 

2-4 m below datum (S-1) and 10-13 m below datum (S-3) noted by Johnson and others (submitted), and (3) 

shorelines submerged 15-30 m below datum noted by Hamilton and Bailey (1990) at many tens of 

locations. Better dating and correlation is needed to understand these submerged shorelines. 

The overall pattern lake levels (Fig. 4) suggests an oscillating lowering of lake level from at least the 

S6 level ~ 14 ka to after the S2 level at ~ 8 ka. This is easiest to explain by erosion of the outlet 

accompanied by inflation-deflation cycles, however, the tilt of S5 towards the caldera axis (Table 5) may 

indicate subsidence of the threshold at LHR. After S2 time, the lake has been below of near its present 

level and little outlet erosion seems indicated. The increase in lake level from 3-4 ka to present (Fig. 4) 

can be explained by uplift of LHR. 

The cyclic model suggested by historic deflation and inflation explains many aspects of the record 

over the last 15 kyr. In particular, it explains broad-scale net deformation of shorelines of generally less 

than 10 m in contrast to historical rates of uplift and subsidence of up to 1-2 cm/yr (10-20 m/1,000 yr). If 

shorelines were cut during intervals of rising (transgressing) lake level as suggested by Locke and Meyer 

(1994), the present lake level (S1) and shorelines S3, S4, and S5 probably represent lake level 

culminations. This sequence of shorelines is sub-horizontal (S2-S4),or declines towards the caldera axis 

(S5) because they represent culminations of maximum uplift in an oscillation that has produced no net 

uplift. Because the present time appears to be a culmination, the other culminations may also appear 

essentially horizontal. This history and geometry supports cycles of inflation and deflation with an 

amplitude of about 8 m between LHR and the outlet and a frequency of perhaps1-3 ka. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 23 
For caldera inflation or deflation, several mechanisms are likely to be operating: magma intrusion, 

crustal stretching, batholithic cooling, and hydrothermal pressure changes. The mechanism of uplift by 

hydrothermal pressure buildup beneath a hydrothermal seal followed by subsidence due to rupture of the 

seal, and release of fluids is appealing for by itself it explains the large scale near horizontality of 

shorelines. Local sagging of shorelines may be explained by extension and faulting whereas local 

doming may result from hydrothermal or perhaps magmatic buildup. Subaerial shorelines that represent 

inflation culminations and relative lake-level highstands are sub-horizontal. Submerged shorelines that 

formed during deflation episodes and overall lower lake levels might be expected to be more tilted than 

shown by Johnson and others (submitted), but as suggested by the Bruun Rule, even the submerged 

shorelines might represent minor culminations of lake level during longer-period oscillations. That 

subaerial post-glacial shorelines do not slope strongly away from the caldera axis suggests that either 

voluminous magma intrusions have not accumulated or the uplift volume of such intrusions have been 

fortuitously balanced by subsidence process such as tectonic stretching or batholithic cooling. Inflation 

appears responsible for the lake level rises (Fig. 4), but such inflation has not resulted in volcanic 

eruptions or cumulative doming of shorelines with tilts away from the caldera axis. The inflationdeflation cycles seem to represent an essentially zero sum process with little net subsurface volume 

change, which seems most readily explained by buildup and release of hydrothermal fluids. 

Hydrothermal explosions are likely associated with lowering of pressure of the confined 

hydrothermal system and subsidence. Wicks and others (1998) conclude transfer of fluids over 10’s of 

km between the two resurgent domes has occurred in a few years, which would indicate that caldera scale 

interconnections may occur on a similar time scale. The ages of three hydrothermal explosions do not 

clearly correlate with times of lake-level deflation (Fig. 4) , although the dating of the explosions and lake 

level both have considerable uncertainty. Other hydrothermal explosion craters such as Duck Lake, Fern 

Lake, the subaqueous Cutthroat Crater, and other craters need be dated to better evaluate this hypothesis. 

The Yellowstone caldera was covered with about 1 km glacial ice about 17-20 ka. Deglaciation and 

the reduction in pressure by about 90 bars was not accompanied by volcanic eruptions, suggesting the 

magmatic system was not then, and perhaps not now, at pressures high enough for eruption. 

Acknowledgements. We appreciate the work of the crew of the Midwest Archeological center in finding 

archeological and charcoal material for dating, and particularly George Crothers for surveying. The Park 

Service staff at Lake was particularly helpful, including John Lounsbury, Dan Reinhart, Bruce Sefton, 

Loyd Kortge, Harlan Credit, Dan Mahony, and the NPS dive team. Kerry Cook and Dan Lofgren of the 

Federal Highways Administration provided records and samples from borings. We appreciate the field 

conferences with Bob Christiansen, Pat Muffler, Rick Hutchinson, and Wayne Hamilton. Bob Fournier 

greatly aided understanding of hydrothermal processes and their relation to uplift and subsidence 

proceses. Bob Smith provided GPS data on the ongoing deformation. Dan Dzurisin provided surveying 

data and advice concerning the deformation processes. Pierce particularly appreciates fieldwork together 

and discussions with Lisa Morgan and Pat Shanks on the lake floor and hydrothermal explosions. Bill 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 24 
Locke did the definitive surveying of the shorelines and their interpretation and discussed this freely with 

us. Bill Locke and Dan Dzurisin provided very helpful and knowledgeable reviews. 

Caldera Unrest 3-02.doc, Professional Paper, Ken Pierce, , page 25

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Figure Captions 

Figure 1. Map showing Yellowstone National Park, the Yellowstone caldera, Yellowstone Lake and 

River, and contours on the historic dome of uplift from1923-75, after Pelton and Smith (1982). 

Uplift is primarily within the Yellowstone caldera and the axis of uplift extends between the Sour 

Creek and Mallard Lake domes. Note that upstream from Le Hardys Rapids (LHR) such uplift 

also raises the level of the Yellowstone River and Lake, and thus ties the level of Yellowstone 

Lake to uplift and subsidence at LHR. 

Figure 2. Map of the Yellowstone Lake area, including some important localities and ages outside the 

LIDAR area. LIDAR data (Figs. 5, 10) covers the north shore from near the Lake Hotel (LH) to 

Mary Bay. Lake-floor surveys (Morgan and others, this volume) suggest a zone of faulting and 

fissuring connects the Holocene Eagle Bay fault (Locke and others) in the southern lake area with 

the Lake Hotel graben. 

Figure 3. Vertical surface displacements measured by repeated first-order leveling surveys along a 

traverse from Lake Butte (d = 0) north-northwestward across the floor of Yellowstone caldera to 

Canyon Junction (d = 44 km). The traverse was measured in 1923, 1975-77 (labeled 1976 in the 

plot), each year from 1983 to 1993, 1995, and 1998. Shown here are the net displacements of 

benchmarks along the traverse for 3 overlapping time periods: 1976-1984, 1984-1985, and 1984-

1992. The uplift profile for 1976-1984 is essentially the mirror image of the subsidence profile 

for 1984-1992, which suggests a common source region, and a remarkable unity of the uplift and 

subsidence processes. The transition from uplift to subsidence occurred during 1984-1985, when 

the observed surface displacements were negligibly small. 

Figure 4. Reconstruction of changes in Yellowstone Lake level over the last 15 ka. Shoreline elevation 

is relative to gage at Bridge Bay Marina and for the northern lake area. Radiocarbon ages and 

their conversion to calendar ages are given in Table 1. 

Figure 5. LIDAR image showing the low gradient “outlet reach” of the Yellowstone River from the 

outlet to past Le Hardys Rapids. The Outlet Reach has a gradient of only 0.25 m over a distance 

of more than 4 kilometers. Sand deposition along the outlet reach indicates the gradient has been 

diminishing and the channel becoming straighter. F- Fishing Bridge fault; S-meander- line 

crossed by bars. LIDAR shown with artificial illumination from the west. Shoreline symbols the 

same as in Figure 10. 

Figure 6. Drowning of the outlet reach of the Yellowstone River after 3 ka. Note that gravel at core site 

is below the bedrock threshold at Le Hardys Rapids. The present drowned profile (upper 

horizontal wavy line) is compared to a reconstructed profile ~3 ka when gradient is estimated to 

have been 1m/km to the bedrock threshold at LHR (sloping line, see text). At ~3 ka, the outlet 

reach of the Yellowstone River was a vigorous, gravel transporting, bank-eroding stream. 

Hbfigs.doc, Ken Pierce, 04/22/02 page 1 
Figure 7. Cross-section across the S-meander showing location of channel gravels, ~9.2 ka charcoal, and 

S3 (5.5 m) and S2 (4.1 m) shorelines. This section is based on 4 nearly connected trenches across 

the paleochannel labeled “Trench” in Fig. 5. 

Figure 8. Profile section of the S-meander based on LIDAR data. Location shown by line with single 

cross-hatch in Figure 5. The meander was drowned, starting by ~9.2 ka, and invaded by 

Yellowstone Lake, including the S2 sand spit ~ 8 ka. The Fishing Bridge fault has offset this 

sand spit ~1.8 m. The eolian sand dune filled the upper end of the S-meander when the present 

drowned channel was more active about 3 ka (see Fig. 5). The thalweg of the S-meander has a 

consistent gradient of about 1 m/km across its entire length except for where it is offset by the 

Fishing Bridge fault. The S-meander thalweg now descends below the surface of the outlet reach 

at the downstream end of the S-meander. 

Figure 9. Comparison of outlet reach during S-meander time (~9.7 ka and gradient of 1m/km) with that 

during formation of S3/S2 shorelines (8.6-8.0 ka). The S-meander was converted from a 

relatively vigorous stream carrying gravel and undercutting its steep banks (Fig. 5) to an arm of 

Yellowstone Lake. 

Figure 10. LIDAR image of the northern lakeshore area showing shorelines S2-S6 as well as unlabeled 

intermediate shorelines. Artificial illumination of LIDAR data from the north. Note surface 

texture of MB II explosion deposit northeast of Mary Bay. tv- truncated valley, ts- truncated 

shorelines. 

Figure 11. Drawings of projectile points from shorelines on the north shore of Yellowstone Lake. A, B, 

and C, are Cody complex points (~ 9.8-10.7 ka) on S4 deposits on the Fishing Bridge peninsula. 

D and E are Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene (9,000-10,000 yr BP = ~10- 11.4 ka?) stemmed 

points similar in age to Cody Complex from the S4 paleolagoon. F is a mid Holocene sidenotched point, (5,500-6,000 yr BP = ~6.6-7 ka?) from the S2? barrier beach that encloses the 

Beach Springs lagoon. It had been weakly abraded by either wind blown sand or wave action. 

Figure 12. LIDAR profiles of northern Yellowstone Lake shorelines S2-S6. The LIDAR elevation of the 

mapped shorelines was projected at a 10 m spacing onto line ABC. S2 is about 8.0 ka, S4 is 

about 10.7 ka, and S5 is about 12.6 ka. In the outlet area, there is a general sag and the Fishing 

Bridge fault. Westward from the Mary Bay crater wall at Beach Springs, the S5.5 shoreline is 

mantled with a decreasing thickness of MB II deposits (open arrow symbol). The S5 shoreline is 

mantled with Indian Pond explosion deposits whose thickness was measured at the position of the 

arrows black arrows. Note local doming associated with the Storm Point geothermal center and 

smaller dome just east of Pelican Creek (open arrows). 

Figure 13. LIDAR profile along S5.5 barrier beach mantled by MB II hydrothermal explosion deposit. 

Profile on barrier beach between X and Y on Figure 10. The barrier beach would be smooth (See 

Figs. 14, 15), but the explosion deposit has a surface texture with a one-meter amplitude over a 

100 m distance. The increase in elevation to the east results from an increase in thickness of 

Hbfigs.doc, Ken Pierce, 04/22/02 page 2 
MBII deposits, perhaps supplemented by tilting away from the source in the Mary Bar explosion 

crater. 

Figure 14. LIDAR profiles showing faulting and tilting of shorelines across the Fishing Bridge peninsula. 

Location along line of projection between B and C on Figure 10. Four shoreline profiles indicate 

increased deformation from S2 to S5 time (see Table 2). The fault does not cross the S4 or S5 

shorelines, but they show increasing tilt towards the fault with age. S2 is offset 0.5 m. The S4 

barrier beach is faulted 1 m but slightly older wavecut S4 is projected to be offset ~3.2 m, 

suggesting about 2 m offset during S4 time (see text). 

Figure 15. LIDAR profiles of S4, S2 and two younger shorelines (S1.8 and S1.6) from the Storm Point 

geothermal center west to Pelican Creek. Location along line of projection between D and E on 

Figure 10. The shorelines rise as steeply as 6 m in 1 km to the Storm Point geothermal center. A 

local anticline locally interrupts this westward tilt and is well shown by S4 and S3 just west of 

Pelican Creek. East of 1400 m, the S 1.6 profile is not a shoreline, but a topographic profile 

showing the craters of the Storm Point hydrothermal center. 

Figure 16. Cartoon showing mechanisms for inflation and deflation of the caldera (only some 

mechanisms are diagramed). A, Intrusion of magma and uplift; B, Extension of crust and 

contained magma body resulting in subsidence above magma body; C, Geothermal pressure 

buildup below seal and uplift; and D, Geothermal pressure release with rupture of seal and 

deflation (C and D after Fournier, written commun., 1997). 

Hbfigs.doc, Ken Pierce, 04/22/02 page 3 
Tables 

Table 1. Carbon-14 and other ages associated with levels of Yellowstone Lake, grouped by relation to 

shorelines, and generally in order of increasing age. (Table 1, HB-C-14.doc). 

Table 2. Offsets on the Fishing Bridge fault and associated tilting across the Fishing Bridge peninsula 

based on offset shorelines and shoreline projections shown in Figure 14. 

Table 3. Submerged Yellowstone Lake and River levels, and their normalization to the outlet. 

Table 4. Processes for decreases, increases, and oscillations in Yellowstone Lake and River level in postglacial time. The pattern of historic changes and the present drowned “outlet reach” of the 

Yellowstone River suggest changes in the elevation of Le Hardys Rapids are important. 

Table 5. Change in elevation of S2, S4, and S5 from outside the caldera, near the caldera margin, and 

nearest the caldera axis. These are remarkably similar, and if anything appear to become lower 

towards the caldera axis, particularly the oldest shoreline, S5. 

Hbfigs.doc, Ken Pierce, 04/22/02 page 4 
45 ̊00' 

111 ̊00' 

45 ̊00' N 

110 ̊10' N 

NATIONAL ARK 

44 ̊20' N 

0 10 Km 

LB

K-12

Yellowstone 

Lake 

Lewis Lake 

MALLARD 

LAKE 

DOME 

DOME 

44 ̊20' 

200 

200 

200 

100

0 

700 

100 

0 

0 

300 

600

500

400 

300 

LH

LHCJ

FB

SOUR 

CREEK 

Yellowstone 

YELLOWSTONE 

Elephant Back fault zone 110 ̊00' 

1923-1975 Uplift contours in mm 

(relative to 300 

Road and leveling line River 

Le Hardys Rapids 

FB-Fishing Bridge 

LB- Lake Butte 

CJ- Canyon Junction 

Axis of uplift 

400

200 

Caldera 

Rim 

From Pelton and Smith, 1979 

P

K-12)

Figure 1, (HB,Fig_1_Uplift_Dome1923-75.ai) 
Fig 2 study area, Meyer.ai 
1976-1984 1984-1985 1984-1992 

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 

Distance along leveling line (km) 

Figure 3 
20


Elevation above datum (m)


15 

10 

5


0


-5


present lake 

Historic uplift @ FB > 

20 A, B 

21 A, B S-meander

> 1 

2 

3 4 

? 

? 

? 

? 

11 

> 

> 

> 

> 

> 

12 

13 14 

15 

16 

17 19 

18 

> 

-10 

S3 ~6m 

S2= 5.0 m 

S4 ~8 m 

S6 ~20 m 

> 

MB-II explosion 

> 

no symbol, age = lake level 

>> 

20 Table 1 

Legend 

Calibrated 14 

~8.0 ka 

~8.6 ka 

~12.6 ka 

S5 ~14 m, 

S 5.5 ~17 m 

~13.6 ka 

~14.4 ka 

~9.7 ka

Altitudes from east 

of Pelican Creek 

2 m offset on Fishing Bridge fault 

ka 

Indian Pond 

explosion Turbid Lake explosion ~3-4 ka 

8 10 

>> >> >> 

9 

Lodge Pt. 

sand, seiche? 

Rate 

(1/4 total span of historic uplift & subsidence) 

Uplift

2.5 mm/yr 

5 mm/yr 

Subsidence 

Glacier Peak ash 

~10.7 ka~ 

> 

> 

> 

> 

? 

? 

Insect between ash and 

MB II, dated 13-13.8 ka 

Transgression indicated by 

truncation of beaches 

Transgression after incision 

of narrow stream valley 

Projectile point age

lake level predates age 

lake level much older than age 

Number in 

C age and 2 sigma

< MB II 

1,000 years ago 

of change, LHR to Outlet 

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

3 Calibrated radiocarbon age (10 yr)


Figure 4 (HB_Figure 4_YellLakeLevelHistory.ai) 
S4 S3 S2 

S5 

* 

S2 

S4 

S5 

Outlet 

Reach 

Fishing Bridge 

Lake Lodge 

l 

Le Hardys Rapids 

S-meander 

Sour Creek Dome

S 5.5?

S 6?

S-meander 

Pelican Cr. bench Pelican Cr. bench 

S6 

Core

o 

Elephant Back Elephant Back 

fault system 

fault system 

Pelican

Cr. Pelican

Cr. 

Yt 

Yt, Yellowstone River terrace 

Trench Trench 

fault, 0.5 m 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

Yt 

Yt 

Figure 5≠
Altitude abo

ve datum (m)


5 5 

7.5 m 

1.5m 

River depth 1.0m/km 

1m 

1m 

site gradient 0.25m / 4 km Rapids 

Yellowstone River steep enough 

to transport 1.5 cm gravel and 

undercut scarps -

water 

mud 

sand 

mud 

gravel 

2.85 ka 

Minimum depth, 

base of channel 

> 

Le Hardy Rapids 

0.5m/km 

5.5 m 

Bedrock threshold 

2.85 ka. 

Core Present pool stage river, Le Hardys ∆h, core site to 

0 0 

-5 -5 

-10 -10 

0 1 2 3 4 km 

Distance km 

Figure 6 (HB_Fig 6_3 ka to present) 
S N


Height abo

v

e datum 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

0 10 m 

5.5 m Lake 

Shoreline, 5.5 m 

Shoreline (4.1 m est.) 

Lakeshore gravel 

and sand 

Charcoal layer, 

9.2 ka 

Mud 

Diatomite 

Sand 

Channel fill extends down to at least here 

Channel gravel 

Base of undercut meander bank 

5 8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Figure 7 (HB_Fig7_xsection_meander.ai) 
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Distance down meander, 

dune Fishing Bridge fault, offset = 1.8 m S2 sand spit

ent gradient = 1 m/km

meander Profile)

Yellowstone River level

Top of channel Inferred top of channel

m
Elevation above Datum (m)


10 10 

S3 shoreline 

shoreline 

5.3 m 

7.3 m 

1 m 

1 m 

1.5 m 

river depth 

Trench 

Site 

Minimum depth, 

S3 lake level ~ 8.6 ka 

Le Hardys Rapids ∆ h 

0.5 m/km 

1 m/km 

Channel fill mud 

Yellowstone River steep enough to transport 

3.5 cm gravel and undercut scarps 

Bedrock threshold 

5 5 

S2 

Charcoal 9.2 ka 

Channel gravel 

0 0 

base of 

channel 

-5 -5 

0 1 2 3 4 km 

Downvalley distance, km 

Figure 9 (Fig9, S-Meander drowning.ai) 
S6?

S5.5? 

o o 

Pelican Creek 

S6

. bench

o 

S5 

S4 

S3 

S2 

8.0 ka 

>7.6 ka S2 

>7.6 ka 

8.0 ka 

S4, bb 

>10.1 ka 

Mary Bay 

Storm Point 

hydrothermal center 

Beach Springs

lagoon 

S4b 

~9.1-9.3 ka 

IP 

S5 

S5 

S5.5 

S2 

S4 

S3 

S4, wc 

Pelican Cr 

Line of projection, Fig. 12 

Line of 

projection 

Lodge Bay 

Pelican Cr 

2.7 ka 

7.7 ka 

2.1 ka 

Lake Hotel fault? 

open cracks in bluff 

MB II 

Crater wall 

o 

o 

A 

B 

C 

D 

X 

F 

E 

Y 

tv 

ts 

Figure 10 (HB_Fig10_LIDARnorth_shorelines.ai) 
A B C 

D E F

Figure 11


0 1 2 in 

0 1 2 3 4 5 cm 
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Distance along line of projection, m

S2, 8 ka S2

S5

S5 S4, 10.7 ka

S4

S4

S5

S5

S5.5

S5.5

S6

S6?

S2

S5 and S4b mantled with Indian Pond 

S4b

Storm Pt

geothermalcenter

S3 

S3

_S profilesLIDAR

S5.5 mantled by MB II estimated).

Outet. Change in projection NE 

Beach Spring

 E

Local doming

Pelican Creek

B F

exp. deposits

(thickness

W
Mary Bay explosion crater, 1 km 

reek, 2.2 km 

Inferred top of S5.5 barrier beach 

 hydrothermal explosion deposits 

1 m 

1 m 

Y, East 

Surface relief ~ 1m/~100 m 

 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900


Distance, m Figure 13 (Fig13_MBII surface texture on S5.5) 

00 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Distance, m

S2 wave cutS4 barrier beachS4 wave cutS5 wave cut

Antithetic faults 

bbS4 =1.0 m

S2 =0.5 m

? m

m

C, East

S2 = 0.8

bbS4 = 1.8

wcS4 ~ 4.8S5~ 6.7 

Figure 

total displacement of shorelines from 

W of Pelican Cr. into fault (m):

of shorelines on 

ng Bridge fault

East of fault = observed

lt = projected

projected 

Shorelines 

14 (Fig14_Plot of FB fault offsets)
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Distance along profile, m

S1.6S1.8S2S3S4

t of 

eek 

S 1.6

S4

S3

S 1.8

Tilt away from Storm Point 

Storm Point  hydro- thermal center

E, East

Mary Bay 

Figure 15 (Fig15_tilts west from StormPt)

2.1 ka

Hydrothermal craters 

Topography across StormPoint hydrothermal craters

~6m/km
Figure 16 (HB_Fig16.ai)


A. Intrusion & Uplift B. Extension & Subsidence 

magma chamber magma intrusion thinned plastic body 

magma chamber 

C. Inflation & Uplift D. Deflation & Subsidence 

geothermal 

seal 

hydrothermal fluids cooling magma 

seal 

lateral expulsion 

of dense hydrothermal brine 

Ruptured 

geothermal 
and other ages associated with levels of Yellowstone Lake, generally in order of increasing age. Localities 

old type are critical to interpretation of lake level history 

, yr BP 

 number (s) 

Corrected Age & 

(2 sigma range) 

Method A 

Meters above datum 

Remarks 

2,550 

± 60 

Beta-78912 

CAMS-17814 

2,735 

(2,362—2,775) 

0-1 From depth of 1.65 m in eolian sand, 0.25 m above top of openwork 

beach gravel near present Yellowstone Lake level. 

2,800 

± 50 

WW-1635 

2,874_2,917 

(2,778—3,057) 

4.5m Charcoal from mixed zone on 4.5 m beach, provides minimum age for 

post-S2 beach. 

2,670 

± 50 

WW-1636 

2,770 

(2,739—2,865) 

4 .2 Charcoal from mixed zone on 4.2 m beach, provides minimum age for 

post-S2 beach. 

Modern ? Pine needles, brown 

2,160 

± 60 

WW-724 

CAMS-28372 

2,133_2,148 

(1, 954—2,335) 

3.43 Charcoal from open platy platform gravels related to 4.3 m above datum 

shoreline on east side of Storm Point. explained by uplift of Storm Point geothermal center. 

1,160 

± 40 

WW-723 

CAMS-28371 

1,060 

(968—1,174) 

3.62 Charcoal from eolian deposits overlying the above sample. May be 

local uplift of Storm Point 

2,518 

± 100 

_________ 

2,712_2,622 

(2,345—2,837) 

-2.37 Wood from 280 cm below slough surface near base of parting sand. 

2,560 

± 70 

Beta-63807 

CAMS-7692 

2,738 

(2,361—2,781) 

-3.08 Pine needles from 353 cm. 

20 cm above channel gravel 

2,750 

± 86 

_________ 

2,848 

(2,743—3,136) 

-3.39 Charcoal (hard chunk) in gravel at depth of 415-418, 3.85 below water 

level of slough 

er than and younger than S-2 shoreline 

Anomalously young age may be 

esent lake level 

Depth based on 1991 water levels. Occurs 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 1
2,710±60 

Beta-63806 

CAMS-7691 

2,781 

(2,745—2,948) 

-3.40 Wood from upper part of gravel at depth of 415-423 cm in drowned 

paleochannel of Yellowstone River about 1 km downstream from Fishing Bridge 

2,880 ± 60 

Beta-63809 

CAMS-7693 

2,980 

(2,851-3,210) 

-4.3 Wood from about 17 feet below lake level of culvert across “north” 

Little Thumb Creek, West Thumb. environment. probably conifer but not pine. 

3,560 ± 60 

Beta-78911 

CAMS-17813 

3,835 

(3,690—4,036) 

-3.43 approx. 

Wood from 497 cm. water on 1.8 m soft lake sediments and above firm lake sediments 

11,720 ± 60 

________ 

13,805 

(13,446—15,123) 

-4.3 ? Carbonized plant fragments or roots. 

Creek at depth of 26-27.5 feet, and about 16 feet below present lake level. Pelican Creek. 

130 ± 50 

WW-1640 

2,261 

(0—291), 

3.7 Charcoal, probably intrusive from above. 

2,980 ± 50 

WW-1638 

3,083_3,205 

(2,968—3,335) 

3.4 Charcoal near top of fine-bedded sand. 

paleo-lagoon with Lodge point soil on S2 shoreline. seiche of Yellowstone Lake into basin. 

2,870 ± 40 

WW-1845 

2,962 

(2,868—3,158) 

3.2 Charcoal in middle of fine-bedded sand section. 

deposited rapidly, perhaps during a seiche of Yellowstone Lake . 

5,300 ± 40 

WW-1846 

5,998_6,167 

(5,937--6,196) 

2.85 Charcoal near base of fine-bedded sand. ± 60 

yr BP nearby. bedded sand section that includes above two samples at 45 and 65 cm. 

4,160 ± 60 

WW-564 

CAMS-23265 

4,650_4,810 

(4,451—4,845) 

2.91 Charcoal 20 cm below top of buried soil that formed after lake dropped 

from S2 level. (see above) and by eolian deposits. datum) is significantly greater than these three soil ages. 

4,710 ± 60 

WW-521 

CAMS-22090 

5,333_5,466 

(5,310—5,591) 

2.96 Charcoal sample from 33 cm below top of soil post-dating S2 shoreline 

and developed and then buried after lake at lower level. for S2. 

4,110 ± 60 

WW-565 

CAMS-23266 

4,572_4,778 

(4,423—4,831) 

~2.8 Charcoal from 20-30 cm below top of buried soil that post-dates S2 

shoreline. 

Insects indicate wetland 

Depth 23.5-24 ft below road, est. Altitude 7717 ft. Wood 

Upper part of beach sands 40 cm thick in 2.6 m 

From highway boring at Pelican 

Sample in lower part of fill near edge of drowned valley of 

nger than S2 and mostly older than submerged shoreline samples. 

Pulse of well-bedded sand into 

One possibility is 

Fine-bedded sand 

Overlies soil dated 4,110 

Age may be near 3,000 yr based on continuous well

Soil developed and then was buried by Lodge Point sand 

Age of S2 (here at 5.16 m above 

Minimum age 

Age of S2 significantly greater than these soil ages. . 

Age of S2 significantly greater than these soil ages. 

h S-2 shoreline 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 2 
6,740 ± 90 

Beta-65468 

CAMS-8671 

7,587_7,606 

(7,432—7,745) 

~2.5m Pel. Cr. terrace 

From 105-110 cm depth in paleochannel on Pelican Creek terrace that truncates S2 west of Pelican Creek. UTM 550420 East, 493900 North 

6,820 ± 50 

WW-1639 

7,666 

(7,574—7,746) 

3.1 Charcoal from base of mixed zone, closely limiting? age for 3-m beach. 

Also provides minimum age for S2 beach. 

6,800 ± 90 

Beta-65467 

CAMS-8670 

7,621_7,660 

(7,493—7,791) 

3.9 S2=4.3 m 

At depth of 2.6 m beneath 4.3 S2 surface at east part of Fishing Bridge Peninsula near Pelican Creek terrace (Cannon and others, 1994). 

7,210 ± 50 

WW-563 

CAMS-23264 

7,979_8,008 

7,878—8,158 

4.07 Charcoal sample dates time of occupation of S-2 shoreline at 5.16 m 

AG on Lodge Point. 

7,210 ± 60 

WW-1174 

7,979_8,008 

(7,875—8,168) 

4.48 Charcoal in diatomaceous cap of progradational bar deposits of S2 

shoreline and provides age for abandonment of S2 shoreline. 

7,565 ± 70 

Beta 63092 

ETH 10616 

8,378 

(8,190—8,451) 

4.75 In old ball field behind Hamilton Store. 

paleolagoon. others, 1994). River. 

7,968 ± 118 8,781_8,978 

(8,457—9,245) 

ca 2 Charcoal at auger depth of 109 cm in S-meander. 

8,030 ± 240 

56712 

9,000 

(8,371—9,527) 

2 Charcoal 2.12-2.20 m BD @ 4.2 m. 

below. 

8,250 ± 130 

Beta-56711 

9,152_9,263 

(8,812—9,528) 

2.2 Charcoal 2 m below surface and 10-20 cm above river gravel. 

drowning by rising Yellowstone ponded reach of Yellowstone River. Minimum age for top of Yellowstone River channel gravels that extend down to <1 m AG, and probably <0 m AG. younger than sample. 

8940 ± 60 

Beta-65466 

10,154 

(9,795—10,219) 

7.8 S4 @ 8.2 

Charcoal at depth of 1.6 m above beach gravels and in lower part of mixed zone of eolian sand and beach sand. gical square near 

Top of terrace 1.2 m below S2 at. 

Occurs beneath thick molic soil at depth of 94 cm. 

h S3 shoreline 

Site in Fishing Bridge S4 

Sample from level 10 at base of mixed zone Cannon and 

S3 water may have filled into this area from Yellowstone 

. 

On top of channel gravel. See 

Dates 

Shorelines S3? and S2 are 

S4 shoreline 

Archeolo

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 3 
CAMS-8669 easternmost extent of S4 surface at 9m AG. From northern end on old 

campground loop. Unit S375/E512 (Cannon and others, 1994, Fig. 44). 

~8,800 to 

~9,400 

9,790-9,890 

10,580-10670 

9-7.5 Cody complex points (late Paleoindian) on S4 at between Yellowstone 

River and Pelican Creek (Cannon and others, 1995). 

h hydrothermal explosion deposits 

3,090 ± 50 

WW-1173 

3,272_3,337 

(3,082—3,445)) 

Charcoal in soil beneath Indian Pond Explosion deposit exposed in culvert excavation for highway half way from Indian Pond east to lake margin. Maximum age for Indian Pond deposit. On S5 shoreline of 

Meyer and Locke (1986). 

4,220 ± 40 

WW-2161 

4,828 

(4,624—4,852) 

> S5 shoreline 

Charcoal in soil beneath 2.5 m of Indian Pond explosion deposit 0.3 km east of Indian Pond. Actual age near 3 ka, so this was an older charcoal fragment in the buried soil. 

3,470 ± 130 

Beta 48135 

3,700_3,716 

(3.407—4,089) 

Charcoal in soil beneath Indian Pond explosion deposit. On S5 

3,080 ± 50 

WW-725 

CAMS-28373 

3,270_3,330 

(3,082—3,386) 

9.4 Humic wetland deposit buried by greenish Indian Pond hydrothermal 

explosion deposit. Sample 40 cm above shoreline platform at 8.95 m above datum. 

3,500 ± 250 

W-2734 

3,727_3,825 

(3,170—4,501) 

Sample beneath diamicton now recognized as Indian Pond hydrothermal explosion deposit. Richmond, 1976, section 74. Occurs above Mary Bay II explosion deposit. 

430 ± 50 

WW-1169 

505 

(323—539) 

Charcoal in weak soil in eolian sand 40 cm below surface. 

420 ± 50 

WW-1166 

502 

(319—536) 

Charcoal in soil in eolian sand 160 cm down. 

1,780 ± 40 

WW-1164 

1,707 

(1,570—1,820) 

Charcoal. Overlies Indian Pond deposit and provides minimum age for it and for base of eolian sand. 

2,940 ± 60 

WW-1165 

3,078_3,154 

(2,890—3,323) 

8.95 Charcoal. Immediately underlies Indian Pond explosion deposit and 

provides best maximum age for deposit. 

5,160 ± 60 

WW-1167 

5,916 

(5,748—6,167) 

Charcoal in soil pendant on platform of S4.5? shoreline cut across Mary Bay II explosion deposit. 

3,970 ± 50 

WW-1168 

4,419 

(4,259—4,566) 

Blackened material including charcoal. Similar to above. 

4,040 ± (60) 

WW-722 

4,451_4,521 

(4,412—4,806) 

8.06 Sample below 2 buried soils in tree throw wedge pulled from platform 

gravels of 7 m S4? Shoreline. 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 4 
CAMS-28370 

4,050 ± 60 

WW-522 

CAMS-22091 

4,453_4,524 

4,411—4,813 

Charcoal below buried soil in disturbed zone 20cm above platform gravels at ~7 m above datum in bluffs south of Indian Pond. 

5,290 ± 60 

WW-726 

CAMS-28374 

5,922_6,166 

(5,922—6,271) 

9.2 Charcoal fragments in molic buried soil above stone line of platform of 

10.6m S5 (?) shoreline that is eroded on Mary Bay II explosion deposit. 

5,890 ± 40 

WW-2157 

6,678_6,722 

(6,574—6,844) 

8.36 Charcoal at base of platform gravels very close to the S4? shoreline. 

Overlain by buried soil and by Indian Pond explosion deposit. From east of 8 ka samples. 

2,200 ± 50 

WW-720 

CAMS-28368 

2,156_2,298 

(2,060—2,340) 

13 Charcoal in eolian sand deposit above level of sample 95P51. May be 

intrusive from above. 

8,160 ± 50 

WW-721 

CAMs-28369 

9,032_9,124 

(9,007—9,394) 

10 Charcoal in sheet-bedded sands about 10 cm above platform gravel of 

pre-S4 lake level ~11 m above datum when Mary Bay II explosion deposit pre-dates S4? shoreline and post-dates Glacier Peak ash (11,400 yr BP) and age of 11,400 yr BP Scott Elias obtained on insect in fibrous lacustrine peat deposit. 

11,400 ± 90 

CAMS-17388 

13,411 

(13,042—13,800) 

~4.8? Caterpillar mandibles from lacustrine stringy peat about 1 m above 

Glacier Peak ash and several meters below Mary Bay II explosion deposit. 

8,110 ± 60 

WW-727 

CAMS-28375 

9,025 

(8,791—9,262) 

7.64 Charcoal from grass and brush fire above platform gravels at 7.64 m 

above datum S4? shoreline at ~9 m above datum. Occurs below two 

phases of Indian Pond deposit. 

8,340 ± 40 

WW-2159 

9,328_9,419 

(9,150—9,484) 

7.0 Charcoal from platform gravel (base 6.9 m top 7.15) of nearby S4? 

shoreline that truncates Mary Bay II hydrothermal explosion deposit. Overlies lake sediments on Mary Bay II hydrothermal explosion deposit. 

8,210 ± 40 

WW-2158 

9,132_9,243 

(9,027—9,397) 

7.0 Charcoal from platform gravel of S4? Site at same position and very 

near 98P14. Overlies lake sediments on Mary Bay II hydrothermal explosion deposit. 

10,720 ± 350 

W-2738 

12,857 

(11,344—13,437) 

~5-6? Charcoal 2.6 m above Glacier Peak ash and beneath Mary Bay II 

explosion deposit. 

11,450 ± 50yr BP 13,436 

(13,160-13,800) 

~2.8 Below MB II explosion deposit and beneath “S4?” and by inference S5 

shoreline. Collected by Ken Pierce and determined by A. Sarna to have mixture of shards of both Glacier Peak and Yellowstone affinities. Probably same ash 2.92 m above datum at Richmond’s section (1976, 

12,100 ± 50 yr BP 14,100 

(13,690-15,360) 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 5 
11,200 ± 50? yr BP 13,155 

(12,910-13,750) 

Section 74). First two ages from Whitlock (1993), third from Mehringer and others (1984), and last from Doerner and Carrara, 

>11,510 ± 70 yr BP 13,460 (2001).

(13,170-13,820) 

8,410 ± 40 

WW-2160 

9,437_9,469 

(9,300—9,525) 

~76 m Charcoal from high in bluff of Bear Creek beneath 2 meters of Turbid 

Lake explosion deposit. Altitude near 7,800 ft. 

8,000 ± 500 

W-2486 

8,819_8,986 

(7,792—10,190) 

“ Sample of charcoal from beneath Turbid Lake explosion deposit along 

Bear Creek. Section 58 of Richmond, 1977. Air conditioning problem 

in lab at time of analysis. 

8,310 ± 300 

W-1944 

9,300_9,398 

(8,435--10,150) 

“ Sample collected by Dave Love from beneath diamicton now 

considered to be Turbid Lake explosion deposit. 

11,890 ± 60 

Beta 78910 

Cams 17812 

13,840 

(13,624—15,250) 

-7.97 Twigs from 8.97 below platform (0.27 m above water surface on 

8/5/94) with beach? sand at about 4 m below datum. 

13,040 ± 90 

Beta-56710 

15,678 

(14,605—16,173) 

~3? Sedge peat 30-40 cm below Theriott’s diatomite. Old carbon dioxide 

effect? 

13,360 ± 320 

Beta 40764 

16,053 

(14,622—16,928) 

~3? Sedge peat, Lodge Point, collected by Wayne Hamilton. 

 part of Yellowstone Lake 

9,360 ± 60 

Beta 148567 

10,570 

(10,294-10,737) 

5.8 Charcoal from base of mixed zone on shoreline gravels that are the 7.0 

m S4 of Locke (written commun., 2000). Site 1 km east of Grant Village sewage disposal plant. 

~8,800 to 

9,400 

9,790-9,890 to 

9,603-11,035 

~5.8 Same as 00P52. Point types of late Paleoindian age in the 8,800-9,400 

yr BP time range. Cody points in base of mixed zone above beach gravels to 5.7 m above datum on 7.4 m S4 of Locke, written commun., 2000. May contain older point. 

500 years older than 

Cody Complex 

~10 to 11.6 ka 

(see above) 

?~5.8 A Plainview point was found either (1) recently slumped to the present 

beach (Ann Johnson, personnel commun., 2002) or (2) inland 30 m and on a surficial linear concentration of archeological material (Don Blakeslee, personnel commun., 2002). 

4,540 ± 40 

ETH 3987 

5,294 

(5,046—5,317) 

Colluvium on fault scarp eroded by S4 shoreline (Locke and others, 1992) 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 6 
6990 ± 40 

WW-1848 

7,790_7,815 

(7,689—7,933) 

5.5 Wood near base of paleochannel in Yellowstone delta agraded to ~9 m 

above datum or ~7,760-65 ft alt. This landform dams off Trail Lake (7,751 ft, see below). Age approximate age of S2 shoreline in NW part of lake 

7,215 ± 70 

______ 

7,980_8,010 

(7,871—8,17) 

Lake 6.1 Basal age from Trail Lake, inferred to be deposited behind the S2 delta 

of the Yellowstone River. Trail Lake altitude 7,751 ft. 

owstone River delta 

1,570 ± 40. 

WW-1847 

1420_1508 

(1,350—1,541) 

~2m Dead duck delta 5 feet above present lake. In kettle lake connected to 

Yellowstone Lake northwest of Trail Creek cabin Delta top about 7,738 ft. 

850 ± 40 

_______ 

738 

(674—908) 

~1 m Stabilized beach with grass and trees at 7,739 ft, east side of delta. 

340 ± 40 

WW-1849 

328_431 

(301—504) 

~1 m. Point of modern delta. 

 Pierce 4/22/02, page 7 
Table 2. Offsets on the Fishing Bridge fault and associated tilting across the Fishing Bridge 

peninsula (Fig. 5) based on offset shorelines and shoreline projections shown in Figure 

14. 

Tilt1 Shoreline/Age Height, m , m

above datum 

Total Offset, m Offset/tilt Interval offset 

S2/8.0 ka 6 0.8 0.5 m 63% 

Bb S4/10.7 ka 

(barrier beach 9 1.8 1.0 55% 

wc S4/10.7 ka 

( wave cut 9 ~4.8 ~2.92

 – 3.23 m (60%)2 

S5/12.6 ka 12 ≈6.7 ≈4.0 2

 - 3 m (60%)2 

0.5 m 

0.5 m ? 

1.9-2.2 m 

1.1-2.3 m 

5.5

1

 Tilt across Fishing Bridge Peninsula to Fishing Bridge fault.Ä

2

 Offset based on offset tilt ratio of 60% as determined from S2 and bbS4.Ä

3

 Offset based on projection to of wcS4 and S5across fault as shown in Figure 14.Ä

HB Table 2, Fbfault.doc, Ken Pierce 
---

Table 3. Submerged lake and river levels and their normalization to the outlet. 

Location 

Le Hardy 

Rapids 

(LHR) 

Drowned 

channel to 

Outlet 

Bridge Bay Little Thumb 

Cr.-N 

1923-1975 parameters 

1. 800 mm 600 mm 470 mm 460 mm 

2. ∆h to LHR (1923-76) 0 200 mm 330 mm 340 mm 

3. ∆h site /∆h @ Outlet 1 x 1.65 x 1.70 x 

4. ∆h-LHR, % total 0% 25% 41% 43% 

Old submerged sites 

5. 2,750 3,560 ± 60 2,880 ± 60 

B. 2,848 3,835 Est. 2,970 

6. below datum 3.43 m 4.3 m 

7. 

(1.8 m + #6) 

5.2 m 6.1 m 

8. 3.2 m 3.6 m 

9. Total ∆H to LHR = #7 + 5m* (8.5 m) 10.2 11.1m 

10. Normalized to outlet, ∆h to 

LHR, #8 + 5m1 

(8.5 m2) 8.2 m 8.6 m 

11. Net rate to present between site 

and LHR, (#10/#5B) 

3.0 mm/yr 2.7 mm/yr 3.9 mm/yr 

12. 

(#2/52 yrs) 

3.9 mm/yr 6.3 mm/yr 6.5 mm/yr 

1923-75 uplift 

#2 / 

A. Age, yr BP 

Corrected age, years 

Depth 

Depth below S1 (Present Lake) 

#7 / #3 (normalized to outlet) 

Rate (1923-75), site to LHR 

5m1 = paleoriver gradient, outlet to Le Hardy Rapids (LHR) at 1m/km. 

(8.5 m2

) = total for reach of Yellowstone River from outlet to LHR based on total river gradient of 5 m 

and 3 m vertical distance of paleo-channel gravel below bedrock threshold at LHR (Fig. 6). 

HB Table4k, normalized uplift.doc, Ken Pierce, 4/22/02 
Table 4. Processes for decreases, increases, and oscillations in Yellowstone Lake and River level in 

post-glacial time. See text under headings and letters for more complete discussion. Processes 

in this type discussed further in text: processes in this type discussed only in this table. The 

observed historic changes and the present drowned “outlet reach” of the Yellowstone River 

suggest changes in the level of Le Hardys Rapids are important. 

CHANGE & PROCESS COMMENTS 

I. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

to overflow 

A. 

Yellowstone Lake-Hayden valley area, particularly above S6 level. 

B. 

interlocking micro-spherulites near base Lava Creek Tuff. 

erodible units above and below. 

C. 

Subsidence estimated to be 0.6-0.7 mm/y by Fournier and Pitt (1985). 

D. 

material. 

E. 

evaporation and 85 % by overflow. 

II. 

A. 

inflation 

B. 

A. 

Magma likely to be permanent volumetric addition to caldera unless intruded 

radially to outside caldera. 

B. 

produce doming. 

III. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

shorelines and offset on Fishing Bridge fault noted in outlet area. 

B. 

smooth uplift. 

transition shallow. 

IV. 

A. 

deflation 

B. 

increase and decrease 

A. 

release of geothermal fluids, and deflation. 

level consistent with paleoshorelines not rising towards caldera center. 

B. increase, A magna intrusion, is most plausible, for Decrease D tectonic 

stretching is favored, although A and B may also be occurring. 

Decrease in lake level 

Glacial damming 

Outlet erosion 

Magmatic cooling 

Tectonic stretching 

Yellowstone Lake ceasing 

During glacial recession, glaciers from Beartooth uplift dammed lakes in 

At Le Hardys Rapids, very resistant threshold formed by 1-3 m ledge with 

Much more 

Contraction due to cooling of batholith beneath Yellowstone caldera. 

Crustal thinning and downwarping above magma chamber and other ductile 

A greater than likely drying of climate, for loss from lake now about 15% by 

Increase in lake level 

Magma intrusion and 

Tectonic compression 

Magma and associated heat are probably being added from hotspot source. 

Local compression particularly squeezing a ductile magma chamber could 

Possible increases or decreases in lake level 

Faulting 

Glacial-isostatic rebound 

Faulting of appropriate magnitude and timing not apparent. Overall sag of 

Glacial load nearly uniform over Yellowstone Lake basin, which would produce 

Rebound mostly during deglaciation because brittle-ductile 

Oscillations in lake level 

Geothermal inflation and 

Combinations from 

Geothermal sealing, pressure buildup, and inflation followed by rupture of seal, 

A cycle produces no net change in 

For 
------

-------

Table 5. Change in elevation of S2, S4, and S5 from near the caldera axis in the outlet, to sites 

farther away but in the caldera, to sites outside the caldera. The first number followed by 

“m” is the shoreline elevation above datum. The number in kilometers (km) is the 

distance from the caldera axis of historic uplift (see Fig. 1). For the outlet area, 

elevations are for the eastern part of the Fishing Bridge peninsula. 

Shoreline 

and age 

Site in outlet 

area 

Site in caldera 

but farther from 

axis. 

Site outside 

caldera 

Vertical decrease in height 

towards caldera axis over 

distance. 

S2 

8.0 ka 

5m/4 km 

8.0 

7-8 m/35 km 

Delta in SE arm 

8.0 ka 

2-3 m/30 km 

S4 

10.7 ka 

8-9 m/4 km 7 m/17 km 

S shore, West 

Thumb 

-1 to -2 m/13km, increase 

towards caldera axis 

S5* 

12.6 ka 

10-13m/4 km 14 m/13 km 

Caldera margin 

at Lake Butte 

19 m/35 km* 

Yellowstone 

River delta area 

6-9 m/31 km total. 

5 m/22 km outside caldera, 

1-4 m/9 km. inside caldera. 

*S5 uses elevation as shown in Figure 10 to Mary Bay crater wall, where S5 is the same as S7 of 

Locke and Meyer (1994, Figure 4) and thus continues the same as S7 of Locke and 

Meyer (1994) along the east shore of Yellowstone Lake. 

Table 5, tilts toward axis, Ken Pierce, 4/22/2002