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PCPFS Research Digests

Physical Activity Promotion and School Physical Education

A Note from the Editors

In 1956, President Eisenhower established the President's Council on Youth

Fitness. The new cabinet level Council was particularly interested in the physical

fitness and activity levels of children and adolescents. Though the Council

(currently the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, PCPFS) now

serves as a catalyst to promote activity, fitness, sports and health for people of

all ages, we thought it appropriate that we focus on children and youth in the

final years of the century. Accordingly we asked several leading experts to

provide us with three PCPFS Digests devoted to youth. The first of this series

was published as the back-to-school issue in the fall of 1998 with Russ Pate

serving as lead author focusing on the promotion of physical activity among

youth with an emphasis on out-of-school programs. The second, in June 1999,

was written by Tom Rowland, and focused on the activity levels of teens. Some

strategies for promoting activity among this population were discussed. This

year our back-to-school issue once again focuses on youth. Jim Morrow is the

lead author of this final issue in our three part series on youth. Morrow and his

colleagues focus their comments on school physical education and how it can be

an important part of our national physical activity promotion effort. Morrow and

co-authors were not asked to describe all of the benefits of regular physical

education but to outline how physical education can contribute to the promotion

of regular physical activity and its associated fitness and health benefits.

Introduction

Millions of children and youth return to school after a summer break. Upon their

return to the classroom, they will begin anew their academic and extracurricular

activities. Parents, teachers, administrators, and students focus on education as

preparation for the future. Completed coursework prepares students for college

and careers that will benefit children and adolescents throughout life. While

many parents, students, and administrators turn their focus toward the

traditional academic issues associated with schooling, they must not forget the

significant health and physical benefits that derive from an excellent physical

education program. As with cognitive information achieved in schooling, the

student's psychomotor development must also be addressed. Development of

the psychomotor domain can be important for the individual's health and wellbeing, as well as for that of the community. Fitness activities in the school

setting have important individual, societal, and economic implications. It is often

stated that a child's mind is a terrible thing to waste. This is true, but it is also

terrible to waste the other 90% of the child's body.

The Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (Physical Activity

and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General [SGR], 1996) clearly outlines the

health benefits of physical activity for all ages. These benefits as summarized in
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the July 1996 issue of the PCPFS Digest, are now widely known and many

national efforts have been undertaken to promote physical activity among all

segments of the population. Because youth are less susceptible than adults to

the chronic disease states associated with physical inactivity, the SGR has less

direct evidence of health benefits for youth than for adults. Still experts point to

the need for the development of physical activity patterns early in life and the

school is an obvious place for the development of these patterns (Sallis &

McKenzie1991). There is little doubt that children and youth can learn about and

acquire beneficial lifestyle behaviors through quality physical education

programs. Though national health goals call for daily physical education for all

school children, many youth are not enrolled in any type of physical education

program.

Donna E. Shalala (SGR, 1996) suggests, "schools and universities need to

reintroduce daily, quality physical activity as a key component of a

comprehensive education." The operative word is "quality." Surgeon General Dr.

David Satcher called physical inactivity a "major epidemic" in the United States

and stated, "I think we've made a serious error by not requiring physical

education in grades K through 12.We are paying a tremendous price for this

physical inactivity. People pay with pain and suffering and society pays with

money and lost productivity" (NASPE, 1998). It is clear that the amount of

physical education available to youth is decreasing in spite of the support among

public health experts for sound school programs. In the following pages,

answers to key questions about physical education and physical activity will be

addressed.

What is the current status of physical education in the schools?

Though most youth experience physical education at some point in their school

experience, few have daily physical education. Elementary and middle school

aged youth are much more likely to participate in regular physical education

than high school students, however, daily physical education is rare even for the

lower grade levels. Children who receive physical education typically have one to

three days per week of involvement.

In high school, the likelihood of being enrolled in physical education decreases

each year with only a few 12th graders likely to be enrolled (SGR, 1996).

Physical education enrollment declines from over 80% of 9th grade boys and

girls to 45% and 39% of 12th grade boys and girls, respectively. According to

the Surgeon General's Report (1996) overall enrollment in daily physical

education classes has declined among high school students from 42 percent in

1991 to 27 percent in 1997. Recent data (YRBS, 1998) suggest that only 48.8%

of students in grades 9 through 12 are enrolled in physical education classes

and only 27.4% attend physical education classes daily. It is encouraging that

73.9% of students enrolled in physical education classes self-report engaging in

exercise for at least 20 minutes during the average class. Figures 1 and 2

illustrate data from the SGR (1996) showing physical education enrollment for

high school students.

**The graphs are not available. Please contact the President's Council for

a copy of this digest with the graphs in provided.

How active are American youth?

Young children are among the most active of all segments of the population.

Though the assessment of physical activity during the elementary school years

is difficult, there is ample evidence to indicate that children are among the most

active age group in our population. By the teen years, activity levels begin to

decline. In the June issue of the PCPFS Digest, Rowland (1999) documents the

decline in physical activity through the teenage years and into adulthood. The

decline is more dramatic among teenage girls than boys. At age 13 only about 6

to 7% of all teens report no physical activity while that number is nearly 1/4 of
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all girls and 1/5 of all boys by the age of 19. Pate referenced data from the

1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS, 1998) that indicate less than 2 in 3

students in grades 9 through 12 participate in vigorous physical activity and less

than 1 in 5 participates in moderate physical activity. Looney and Plowman

(1990), using data from the National Children and Youth Fitness Studies, found

that passing rates for the FITNESSGRAM (CIAR, 1987)

1-mile run declined from over 80% in 8 year-old girls to less than 50% in 15

year-old girls. Inactive lifestyles are no doubt in part responsible for this

decrease in fitness though care should be taken when interpreting the data

because of the relatively low relationship of physical activity to physical fitness

among teens (see later section). The activity trends in youth suggest that it is

important to develop an appreciation for physical activity and develop lifestyle

behaviors in children and youth that can be adopted and maintained into

adulthood. As Rowland (1999) notes, "adolescence appears to be a risk factor

for inactivity".

Several reports suggest that the critical time for adoption of physical activity

behaviors is during adolescence. Some evidence supports the notion of

"tracking" or the continuation of behaviors in adulthood that were initiated in

childhood and adolescence (Beunen et al., 1992, 1994; Raitakari et al., 1994,

Telama, Yang, Laakso, & Viikari, 1997; Vanreusel et al., 1993). This being the

case, sound physical education programs would seem to provide excellent

opportunities to introduce students to behaviors that impact them throughout

life.

How much physical activity is enough for youth?

The Surgeon General's Report and the epidemiological research that preceded it

indicate that moderate levels of activity can play a significant role in providing

health benefits for adults. Corbin, Pangrazi, and Welk (1994) outlined the

different models of activity including the lifetime physical activity model that

notes the health benefits of moderate activity. For children they proposed a

Children's Lifetime Physical Activity Model. That model provided the basis for the

recent Physical Activity Guidelines for Children (Corbin & Pangrazi, 1998). These

guidelines indicate the need for at least 60 minutes of physical activity and up

to several hours per day for pre-adolescents. These guidelines note that children

are typically active intermittently rather than continuously. Clear differences in

activity patterns are evident for young children and adults. It is important that

these differences be considered when developing physical activities for youth of

different ages. A recent report (Health Education Authority, 1998) from Europe

also notes the need for longer periods of activity among children as opposed to

adults. Clearly the type and quantity of activity recommended for children differs

from that for adolescents and adults.

Sallis and Patrick (1994) summarize international physical activity

recommendations for adolescents indicating that they need daily moderate

activity and more vigorous activity at least 20 minutes per day for a minimum

of three days per week. In the September PCPFS Digest, Pate et al., (1998)

provides an excellent review of the various activity guidelines for youth and

recommendations for promoting physical activity in a variety of settings. Again,

it is important that physical education teachers consider these guidelines when

planning programs for adolescents. Guidelines for School and Community

Programs to Promote Lifelong Physical Activity among Young People (1997) is an

excellent resource for teachers, parents, and communities to use when

developing physical activity programs that improve health and quality of life for

school-age children.

How does physical activity relate to physical fitness in youth?

Professionals in physical education need to be aware of the effect of heredity on

physical activity and fitness. Bouchard and Perusse (1994) reported that
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biological inheritance accounts for substantial components of physical activity

behaviors and health-related fitness factors. Biological inheritance was

reportedly associated with approximately 29% of habitual physical activity, 25%

of cardiorespiratory fitness, 30% of muscular fitness, and 25% of percent body

fat. While inheritance plays a role in the physical activity behaviors and healthrelated physical fitness, most of the variation in these variables can be modified

for positive health outcomes. Thus, regular physical activity as a result of

involvement in sound physical education programs can make an important

contribution to physical fitness.

Nevertheless, it is important to realize that not all students will be equally

successful even if exposed to regular physical activity. Meta-analysis evidence

suggests pre-pubescent children do not achieve much aerobic benefit from

endurance training (Payne & Morrow, 1993). Payne, et al. (1997) do provide

meta-analysis evidence of a strength training benefit in pre-pubescent children.

Additionally, Morrow and Freedson (1994) have indicated that the typical

relationship between physical activity and measured oxygen consumption in

adolescence is less than r = .20. Thus, biology and physiology may set limits on

the effectiveness of programs for specific individuals. It is unreasonable (and

not supported by scientific literature) to expect every child to make large

increases in fitness level as a result of regular physical activity that might result

from a quality physical education program. Over a decade ago, Koslow (1988)

called for a careful review of what physiological changes physical educators could

expect to occur as a result of the typical physical education class and how

"dedication" to a single fitness objective might hinder the overall effectiveness of

a physical education program. Koslow (1988) also called for physical educators

to examine their course objectives and work toward achieving those that could

be attained. It is clear that regular physical activity has its benefits but fitness

benefits vary widely from one child to another. It would be wrong to assume

that a fit child is an active child and that children low in fitness are inactive.

For many years, physical educators focused their attention on "physical fitness."

More recently, their attention has changed to encouraging "physical activity."

Differentiating between physical activity (the "process") and physical fitness (the

"outcome") is important. The relatively low relationship between fitness and

physical activity is one good reason for physical education to focus on physical

activity rather than on physical fitness.

Does physical education promote physical activity in youth?

In 1992, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education outlined the

characteristics of a physically educated person (NASPE, 1992). A physically

educated person is physically activity on a regular basis, knows the implications

of and the benefits from involvement in physical activities, and values physical

activity and its contribution to a healthy lifestyle. These and other outcomes

have since been refined and provide the basis for national standards for quality

physical education. These standards (NASPE, 1995) are developed by grade

level and include "sample benchmarks" and "assessment examples."

Reports (Simons-Morton et al., 1993; Simons-Morton, et al. 1994; SimonsMorton et al., (1997) indicate that the amount of physical activity in physical

education classes is often below the levels suggested in national health

objectives (50% of class time). However, Simons-Morton et al., (1991) provide

evidence that quality programs can result in increased physical activity in

physical education classes. Programs such as SPARK (Sallis et al., 1997) also

have shown that physical education taught by qualified teachers increases the

amount of activity children receive and educational interventions for classroom

teachers can result in increased activity levels of students taught by trained

teachers. Dale, Corbin, and Cuddihy (1998) have demonstrated that a

conceptual physical education program focusing on lifestyle physical activity

promotion can effectively reduce sedentary behaviors among adolescent years

after program completion.
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Rowland (1998) has suggested that young people may "compensate" for activity

received during the school day by reducing their afterschool activity. Recent

results (Dale, 1999) suggest that the amount of activity youth get in school

physical education and recess does NOT reduce afterschool activity and DOES

contribute to the overall amount of activity received during the day. The

evidence suggests that well conducted physical education programs can result in

increased activity levels during the school day as well as increased active living

outside the school setting.

Does time spent in physical education in school decrease learning in other

areas?

It has been suggested that the recent decreases in physical education

requirements are a result of two principal factors. First, the demand for

additional time for "academic" classes is a common reason for reducing time in

physical education. Second, when financial crises exist physical education is

often one of the first subjects to be deleted.

Evidence suggests that time spent in physical education DOES NOT decrease

learning in other subjects. Youth who spend less time in other subjects to allow

for regular physical education have been shown to do equally well or better in

academic classes. Two of the primary studies to support this contention are the

Three Rivers Study (Trudeau et al., 1998) and SPARK (Sallis et al., 1999). The

health benefits from regular physical education are an important benefit of the

regular school curriculum. The evidence suggests that the time spent to get

these benefits does not detract from learning in other areas of the curriculum.

Are there other reasons (related to health) for including regular physical

education in the curriculum?

YRBS (1998) data suggest that 60% of high school females and 23% of high

school males are attempting to lose weight. Students report their most

commonly used method when attempting to lose or control weight is exercise

(51.5%), followed by dieting (30.4%). Integrating the teaching of nutrition and

physical activity in school classes makes good sense and could be an important

contributor to decreasing the incidence of obesity and helping adolescents who

are attempting to lose weight using ineffective techniques. The importance of

weight related issues in school-age children was recently documented by

Freedman et al., (1999). Energy balance is of particular importance because of

the increase in body fatness documented in children and youth (Andersen et al.,

1998; Beunen et al., 1994; Gidding et al., 1996). Table 1 presents important

nutrition and health concerns for young people.

Table 1

Physical Activity, Nutrition and the Health of Young People*

Overweight and Obesity

1. The percentage of overweight children and adolescents has doubled in

the last 30 years

2. About 12.5% of 5.3 million U. S. young people aged 6-17 are

seriously overweight

Other Facts About Physical Activity and Nutrition

1. Only tobacco contributes to more deaths than diet and physical

inactivity

2. Diet and inactivity are related to a variety of chronic conditions

including heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, hypertension, and

osteoporosis

3. Early indicators of atherosclerosis start in childhood and adolescence

4. Obese children and adolescents are more likely to become obese

adults and incur increased risk for disease
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*From Nutrition and the Health of Young People, 1997.

Evidence suggests that quality physical education programs can assist in the

adoption of important lifestyle behaviors. This is particularly important

concerning weight control (Guo et al., 1994; Must et al., 1992) where adolescent

weight has been found to be an excellent predictor of adult obesity. A sound

physical education program, coupled with nutritional guidance, can help maintain

caloric balance. The disease risk associated with increased body weight as an

adolescent is greatest for those who are most overweight.

Summary

Physical education and physical activity can be an investment in the future. In

the U.S., yearly health care costs associated with diseases related to a

physically inactive lifestyle include cardiovascular diseases (>$270 billion),

cancers (>$100 billion), diabetes (>$100 billion), obesity (>$100 billion),

psychological health ($150 billion), arthritis (>$65 billion), and osteoporosis

(>$10 billion). The development of physically active lifestyle behaviors can lower

the risk of these chronic diseases and have a great impact on one's personal

health, financial status, and the health care costs of a nation.

Based on the article by Pate et al., (1999), methods of impacting schools to

increase quality physical education programs include having a district-level

coordinator, requiring physical education through all grade levels, developing

written curriculum and testing materials, employing certified specialists in

physical education, and coordinating and collaborating with internal district

colleagues and external agencies and colleagues. Implementing these actions

can help improve the quality of physical education programs.

Quality programs can be offered through a variety of sources and not be limited

to schools. A multidimensional approach to delivering quality cognitive, affective,

and psychomotor experiences which includes teachers, school administrators,

health care professionals, parents, community agencies, and the participants

themselves can be most effective in changing lives. The key focus should be to

impact the lifestyle behaviors of children and adolescents. Only as schools,

communities, individuals, professional associations, and agencies work together

can we impact the health and quality of life of children and adolescents in a way

that can be expected to be adopted and maintained into adulthood. Chad,

Humbert, and Jackson (1999) illustrate the effectiveness of a program designed

to create awareness, support, and influence decision makers with regard to the

adoption of quality daily physical education programs. These authors concluded

that the program " resulted in an increased awareness and support of daily

physical education among key stakeholders however, had limited influence on

school physical education programming [and] if physical education is to play an

integral role in health promotion, it is imperative that a population approach be

undertaken which is aimed at preparing children for a lifetime of regular physical

activity." (p. 63)

With all of the evidence supporting physical activity and its relationship to health

and the quality of life, one must ponder why physical education enrollment is

decreasing. The reasons are many: financial concerns in school districts, back to

"basics" movements, failure for professionals to influence decision makers, and

failure to successfully disseminate the important messages about physical

activity to decision makers. The National Coalition for Promoting Physical Activity

(NCPPA, Indianapolis, IN) consists of approximately 150 organizations with

interest in promoting messages about the importance of physical activity. The

National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE, Reston, VA) has

developed "SPEAK II" which contains similar messages and information. These
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promotional activities, including advocacy, can have an impact on schools.

However, individual schoolteachers, administrators, and staff must play a role in

working within their local districts and schools to make a difference. All need to

contribute to promotion of activities and programs.

In summary, scientific literature and professional thought clearly indicate a

relationship between physical activity and quality of life. Children and

adolescents are at a critical developmental period for the adoption of significant

lifestyle behaviors (e.g., physical activity, nutrition, and tobacco use). Rowland

(1999) refers to adolescence as a "risk factor" for physical inactivity. The

importance of physical and health education cannot be ignored during this

unique instructional opportunity. We must employ multidimensional approaches

involving a variety of constituencies if we are to impact schools and

professionals so that effective physical education and non-school based

interventions are adopted during this important phase of life.

Our Nation's political leaders have identified the important role that physical

activity and physical education plays in quality of life. The recent bipartisan

Physical Education for Progress (PEP) Act introduced into the U. S. Senate calls

for the appropriation of $400 million over five years to provide grant support for

school districts to initiate, expand, and improve physical education programs.

This is an excellent example of national interest in physical education and

physical activity. The PEP Act must receive wide public support if it is to pass.

The scientific and professional literature supports physical activity and quality

physical education; the time is right for us to act and impact students for a

lifetime. Perhaps Herophilus, the father of scientific anatomy, in 300 B.C.

summed the issue best when he stated, "Without health and fitness, wealth is

without value, knowledge is useless, art cannot become manifest, and music

cannot be played." Collectively, we can develop, maintain, and offer programs

that will help students adopt and maintain healthy lifestyles that will benefit

individuals and society.

Published quarterly by the

President's Council on

Physical Fitness and Sports

Washington, D.C.

Guest Authors:

James R. Morrow, Jr., PhD

Allen W. Jackson, EdD

Department of Kinesiology,

Health Promotion, and Recreation

University of North Texas

Denton, TX 76203

V. Gregory Payne, PED

Human Performance Department

San Jose State University

San Jose, CA 95192

Co-Edited By:

Drs. Chuck Corbin and Bob Pangrazi

Arizona State University

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levels of elementary and middle school children's physical activity during physical education

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Department of Health and Human Services and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Physical Activity and Fitness Quote

"Only as schools, communities, individuals, professional

associations, and agencies work together can we impact the

health and quality of life of children and adolescents in a way that can be

expected to be adopted and maintained into adulthood."

James R. Morrow, Jr., PhD and Allen W. Jackson, EdD

Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion, and Recreation

University of North Texas

Denton, TX 76203

V. Gregory Payne, PED

Human Performance Department

San Jose State University

San Jose, CA 95192

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