To ward an Unde rsta ndin g of 

Ap prop riat e Ph ysic al A ctiv ity Leve ls

fo r Yo uth

Ch arle s B. Cor bin, Ro bert P P angr azi , ARI ZONA STA TE UNI VERS ITY

Gr eg J . We lk , COO PER INS TITU TE F OR AER OBIC S RES EARC H

ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED AS SERIES 1, NUMBER 8, OF THE PCPFS RESEARCH DIGEST.

HI GHLI GHT

Ch ildr en’s Li feti me Ph ysic al Ac tivi ty Mo del (C -LPA M)

Th e He a lt h St a n d a rd : A Mi n im u m Ac t ivi t y St a n d a rd

FrequencyDa ily. Fr equ e n t a c t ivi t y se ssio n s (3 or m o re) ea ch d a y.

In t en s it y Mo d era t e. Al t ern a t in g bo u t s of a c t ivi t y wi t h re st

p e riod s a s n e ed ed or m o d era t e a c t ivi t y su ch a s 

wa lkin g or ri d in g a bi ke t o sc h ool .

Ti m e Du ra t i on of a c t ivi t y n e cess a ry t o ex p en d a t le a st 3 t o 

4 kc a l/ k g/ d a y. Eq u a l t o ca lori e ex p en d it u r e in 30 

m i n u t e s or m o re of a c t ive p l a y or m o d era t e su st a i n ed

a c t ivi t y wh ich m a y be d i st ri bu t e d ov er 3 or m o re

a c t ivi t y se ssio n s.

Th e Op t im a l Fu n ct i on in g St a n d a rd : A Go a l fo r Al l Ch ild r en

FrequencyDa ily. Fr equ e n t a c t ivi t y se ssio n s (3 or m o re) ea ch d a y.

In t en s it y Mo d era t e t o vi goro u s. Al t ern a t in g bo u t s of a c t ivi t y

wi t h re st p e riod s a s n e ed ed or m o d era t e a c t ivi t y su ch

a s wa lkin g or ri d in g a bi ke t o sc h ool .

Ti m e Du ra t i on of a c t ivi t y n e cess a ry t o ex p en d a t le a st 6 t o 

8 kc a l/ k g/ d a y. Eq u a l t o ca lori e ex p en d it u r e in 60 

m i n u t e s or m o re of a c t ive p l a y or m o d era t e su st a i n ed

a c t ivi t y wh ich m a y be d i st ri bu t e d ov er 3 or m o re

a c t ivi t y se ssio n s.
OV ERVI EW

In the not so distant past, children were protected from vigorous physical activity. Even

leading educators felt that children were incapable of exercise that caused high heart rates. In

the last half century science has found that children can safely perform high intensity

exercise. However, many of the guidelines for physical activity for children formulated in the

last 30 years have been based on what is often called the Exercise Prescription Model (EPM),

an approach developed primarily for adults. Since 1985, there has been a shift from the EPM

to a Lifetime Physical Activity Model (LPAM) as the basis for establishing activity guidelines

for adults. This model suggests that moderate daily lifetime exercise such as walking results in

an energy expenditure of 3 to 4 kcal/kg/day (1000 to 2000 calories per week), which is

sufficient to produce health benefits. Because high intensity activity is a deterrent to some,

this model is offered as a “new strategy” for health risk reduction through physical activity.

Just as the LPAM is more appropriate for many adults than the EPM, the LPAM is better

suited for children than the EPM. Like many adults, children often do not respond well to

high intensity physical activity. The LPAM standards for minimal activity requirements

necessary to gain the health benefits of physical activity (3 to 4 kcal/kg/day) provide the basis

for a child-specific physical activity model called the Children’s Lifetime Physical Activity

Model (C-LPAM). This model suggests that children should, as a minimum, expend the same

number of kcal/kg/day as adults. However, it also suggests that optimally, children should be

encouraged to do additional physical activity (6 to 8 kcal/kg/day) because children have

different needs than adults and it is during childhood that lifetime activity patterns are

developed.

PH YSIC AL A CTIV ITY AND CHIL DREN 

In 1879 a German physician named Behnke warned of the danger of vigorous physical

activity among children (Karpovich, 1937). He cautioned adults to restrict activity among

children because of the “natural disharmony” between the development of the size of the

heart muscle and the size of the large vessels. He suggested that the blood vessels develop at a

relatively slower rate than the heart muscle, making the vessels unable to accommodate the

faster growing heart. He concluded that there would be “grave danger” for the exercising

child because of high blood pressure and accompanying circulatory problems.

Physical and health educators (Van Hagen, Dexter, & Williams, 1951; Young, 1923)

perpetuated this myth as did “experts” in child growth and development (Hurlock, 1967). A

widely used textbook in elementary school physical education warned that “...the heart

increases greatly in size during this growth period (11–14 years), with veins and arteries

developing much more slowly. The heart, therefore, should not be overtaxed with heavy and

too continuous activity” (Van Hagen et al., 1951, p. 52). As late as 1967 Hurlock’s text on

adolescent development indicated that until late adolescence, when the size of the blood

vessels catches up with the size of the heart, “...too strenuous exercise may cause an

enlargement of the heart and result in valvular disease” (Hurlock, 1967, p. 47). Apparently

these experts had cited other experts, each of whom had relied on Behnke or other

uninformed sources.
The myth of children being unable to perform vigorous exercise persisted in the literature

well into the 1960s even though published data had been presented in 1937 debunking the

ideas of Behnke. Karpovich (1937) reexamined Behnke’s data and showed that a simple

mathematical error had been made. Though the circumference of the artery of children is

proportionally small compared to the size of the heart, the blood-carrying capacity of the

artery is proportional to increases in heart size. Behnke assumed that the blood-carrying

capacity of the artery could be measured using the circumference of the artery when in fact it

is the cross-sectional area of the interior of the artery that is critical. Karpovich was not the

only one to debunk the “child’s heart” myth. Another researcher, Boas (1931), conducted

studies with exercising children that led him to conclude that during vigorous exercise the

muscles will “flag” so that the child will “collapse before the heart is called for its last ounce

of effort.”

Even though research discredited the notion that children were incapable of vigorous

exercise, many educators were skeptical about prescribing strenuous activity for children well

into the 1960s. Texts for elementary school physical educators began to include sections

documenting the cardiovascular capabilities of children (Corbin, 1969) and repudiating

earlier incorrect statements. Still, not all physical educators were convinced of the capabilities

of children as evidenced by the fact that the 600 yard run/walk (introduced in 1958)

continued as the measure of cardiovascular fitness for children in the 1965 and 1975 national

youth fitness battery (AAHPERD, 1980). Many physical educators continued to believe that

children were not physically able to run long distances or to perform endurance activities and

thought it was dangerous for them to do so.

Further evidence about the concern for exercising children was the resistance researchers

experienced from human subjects committees that were just being organized in the 1960s and

early 1970s. An example was an initial rejection by a human subjects committee for a study

of the heart rates of children using telemetry during various distance runs (Corbin, 1972).

The committee felt that children should be stopped from running if heart rates exceeded 170

bpm and if distances exceeded 600 yards. It was necessary to educate the committee

members, including medical doctors. The study was ultimately approved even though heart

rates often exceeded 200 bpm and distances were as long as 800 yards.

It was not until 1978 that an American Academy on Pediatrics position paper (cited in

AAP, 1991) noted that many children who had previously been screened out of physical

education were capable of “full and active” participation. In 1980 longer runs became part

of national physical fitness test batteries for children (AAHPERD, 1980).

TH E EX ERCI SE P RESC RIPT ION MODE L

The health fitness movement for adults began to gain momentum in the 1960s. Paul Dudley

White, physician for President Eisenhower during the 1950s, emphasized the health value of

physical activity (Pomroy & White, 1958) and his national visibility brought attention to the

health benefits of activity. The classic study of Morris, Hady, Raffle, Roberts, and Parks

(1953) of London transportation workers was published, providing good evidence for the

health value of physical activity. By the early 1960s, Taylor and colleagues (1962) had added

to the body of literature supporting the value of physical activity for health. Rehabilitation

programs for cardiac patients using physical activity were gaining credibility due to the work

of pioneers such as Hellerstein and Wolffe. The exercise prescription model (EPM) was

developed and served as the basis for most cardiovascular exercise for the next two decades.
During the late 1950s and 1960s, considerable work was conducted regarding the EPM in

an attempt to define the intensity and frequency of short duration exercise required to

promote gains in cardiovascular fitness as measured by VO2max. Karvonen’s classic research

(1959) identified the threshold of training and provided a basis for the EPM. By 1966, widely

used exercise physiology texts cited Karvonen’s formula for fitness development. DeVries

(1966), for example, cited the work of Karvonen and noted that exercise must be performed

at 60% of heart rate reserve. This guideline was similar to “rules of thumb” advocated for

performance improvement by swimming and track coaches of the era. Whatever the original

reasons for research concerning the EPM and the related concepts of threshold of training

and target zone heart rates, the major emphasis in exercise prescription was on physiological

VO2max and performance improvement.

By the 1970s, the EPM and its focus on higher intensity and shorter duration activity

(using percentage of maximum heart rate or O2 consumption as the criterion for intensity)

was firmly established for adults. In 1972, the American Heart Association published an

exercise testing and training handbook (AHA, 1972) and by 1978 the emerging American

College of Sports Medicine (ACSM, 1978) published its first position statement outlining the

frequency, intensity, duration, and mode of exercise prescription necessary to produce

cardiovascular fitness gains for the adult population. This statement was updated in 1990

(ACSM, 1990).

The EPM and the exercise guidelines developed based on this model have been useful

and effective. For young adults of Western cultures, exercise programs based on the EPM are

useful because cardiovascular fitness can be achieved without a major time commitment.

Improved fitness can be accomplished by performing continuous exercise in as few as three

days per week. This allows busy people to fit moderate to high intensity exercise into their

otherwise sedentary lifestyles. In addition, the EPM is particularly effective for athletes and

those interested in optimal physical performance.

Ironically, the model for prescribing adult physical activity that gained the greatest

attention (EPM) was quite different than the type of activity that seemed effective for public

health promotion. Although the epidemiological literature suggested exercise of longer

duration and relatively low intensity reduced heart disease risk (Morris et al., 1953; Taylor et

al., 1962), the type of exercise prescription gaining notoriety was shorter in duration and of

higher intensity.

Because improvement in cardiovascular fitness (rather than the reduction of health risk)

was central to the EPM, measures of cardiovascular fitness were of particular importance. The

12-minute run developed by Cooper to test the cardiovascular fitness of military personnel

was popularized for the general public in the book Aerobics (Cooper, 1968). Shorter runs

were developed for children, and in 1980, the health-related physical fitness test which

included a mile run was adopted by AAHPERD (1980). By 1985, all of the major national

fitness tests included a distance run of at least a mile in length. The capability of children to

perform vigorous physical activity was acknowledged. In the absence of specific research to

guide recommendations, the EPM was used to design exercise programs for children.

Professionals had come full circle. Instead of fearing for the health of children who

participated in vigorous exercise, they developed guidelines for physical activity similar to

those designed for adults.
A LIFE STYL E PH YSIC AL A CTIV ITY MODE L: T HE N EW

ST RATE GY*

In July of 1992 the American College of Sports Medicine and the Centers for Disease

Prevention and Control (CDC), in cooperation with the President’s Council on Physical

Fitness and Sports, issued a statement acknowledging the importance of lifestyle physical

activity as a means of reducing disease risk. The new recommendation is to accumulate

throughout the day a minimum of 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity over the

course of most days of the week. Examples of such activities are “...walking up stairs (instead

of taking the elevator), gardening, raking leaves, dancing, and walking all or part of the way

to work. Activity can also come from planned exercise or recreation such as jogging, playing

tennis, swimming, and cycling” (CDC & ACSM, 1994, p. 7). Another example of lifestyle

exercise that can be used to meet CDC/ACSM guidelines is a two-mile walk daily.

Blair and colleagues have called this “new strategy” the Lifestyle Exercise Model (Blair,

Kohl, & Gordon, 1992). Haskell (1994), in his Wolffe lecture to the American College of

Sports Medicine, also advocated the adoption of a lifestyle exercise model he calls the

Physical Activity Health Paradigm. In this article, this model is referred to as the Lifetime

Physical Activity Model (LPAM). Strong scientific evidence exists to support the LPAM

(Haskell, 1994). The work of Paffenbarger and colleagues (Paffenbarger, Hyde, Wing, &

Hsueh, 1986; Paffenbarger, Hyde, Wing, & Steenmetz, 1984; Paffenbarger, Wing, & Hyde,

1978) showed that the expenditure of 2000 kcals per week resulted in a significant reduction

in morbidity and mortality among Harvard alumni. Those who expended 2,000 to 3,500 kcal

per week attained the optimal value from their exercise. The studies of Harvard men showed

that lifestyle activities such as climbing stairs, walking, doing physically active household

activities and participating in active sports helped reduce disease risk not only for heart

disease but for cancer and other types of hypokinetic conditions. Leon and colleagues

(1987), studying a different group of adults, found that a 1,500 kcal per week expenditure

through moderate intensity physical activity produced similar health benefits to those found

for the Harvard alums. Haskell (1985), based on a literature review, suggested 150 kcal per

day (1,050 kcal per week) as the minimum threshold for lifestyle exercise. These studies have

demonstrated that health benefits accrue from lower intensity, longer duration exercise.

Blair et al. (1992), based on research at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research, have

proposed that adults expend 3 kilocalories per kilogram of body weight per day (kcal/kg/day)

in physical activity to achieve the benefits of regular physical activity. This standard is similar

to the one used by previous researchers to classify people as “very active” (Montoye, 1987)

and amounts to approximately 200 kcal per day for a 150-pound person, or 1,400 kcal per

week. The kcal/kg/day standard allows individuals to calculate the caloric expenditure (based

on their body weight) required to obtain health benefits. The physical activity necessary to

expend 1,000 to 2,000 calories per week or 3 kcal/kg/day is the basis on which the

CDC/ACSM guidelines for lifestyle physical activity were developed.

*For comprehensive coverage of the scientific basis for the LPAM, readers are referred to articles by Blair (1993),

Blair et al. (1992), and Haskell (1994). See References.
The LPAM differs from the EPM in several ways. First, the LPAM focuses on the amount

of physical activity necessary to produce health benefits as associated with reduced morbidity

and mortality rather than fitness and performance benefits. While the LPAM promotes fitness

as it relates to good health, it does not focus on fitness performance as does the EPM.

Moderate to high intensity exercise of shorter duration as outlined by the EPM was designed

to promote changes on fitness tests such as VO2max. Second, the LPAM recognizes the value

of a wide range of physical activities that expend calories throughout the day rather than

requiring continuous moderate to vigorous physical activity done in one exercise bout.

Finally, the LPAM acknowledges that some activity is better than none at all, and that up to a

point, progressively increasing amounts of physical activity provide added health benefits.

The shift to the LPAM from the EPM does not mean, however, that the EPM is no longer

a useful model. For young adults with limited amounts of time, moderate to vigorous physical

activity is still an effective approach to achieving health benefits. For those who are interested

in enhancing fitness for relatively high-level performance such as sport involvement or active

careers (law enforcement, military, etc.), the EPM is also an effective model. However, the

type of exercise prescribed in the EPM is not necessarily the best approach for the general

population that wants to receive substantial health benefits.

CH ILDR EN A ND T HE E PM

Just as most physical activity recommendations for adults have been based on the EPM for

the past 20 to 30 years, recommendations for children have been based principally on

guidelines evolving from the EPM. Rowland (1985) concluded that children need to follow

the same exercise prescription as adults to achieve cardiovascular fitness. Using Karvonen’s

heart rate reserve method for calculating target heart rates, Sady (1986) estimated a heart rate

of 159 as the threshold for aerobic exercise for most children. These results and the findings

of other studies have served as the basis for recommendations suggesting that children need

to perform 20 to 30 minutes of continuous moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) at

least three times a week. Typically heart rate standards are used as the indicator of MVPA.

Recommendations vary but, in general, heart rates advocated are 140 bpm and higher.

Using heart rate standards as indicators has caused several researchers to conclude that

many, if not most, children are inactive. Some examples illustrate the point. Using heart rates

above 140 for 20 minutes of continuous exercise as the criterion of MVPA, Armstrong and

Bray (1990) studied children and found 77% of boys and 88% of girls to be inactive by this

measure. In a subsequent study of younger children, Armstrong, Balding, Gentle, and Kirby

(1991) found 61% of boys and 66% of girls to be inactive. Using observation techniques to

assess 20 minutes of MVPA as the standard, Sleap and Warburton (1992) found 86% of

children to be inactive, and Baranowski, Hooks, Tsong, Cieslik, and Nader (1987) found

89.6% of children to be inactive. In another study involving 177 trials of daylong monitoring

of children averaging 703 minutes a day, Welk (1994) found 17% of children to have heart

rates above 140 bpm for 20 consecutive minutes. If EPM were used to evaluate activity, it

would be easy to conclude that most children are inactive.
Using data from the same studies but applying standards that are more consistent with the

LPAM, a different conclusion is reached. When minutes of physical activity during the day

are determined for these same studies, the data of Armstrong and Bray (1990) show that on

the average boys were active 45 minutes and girls 31 minutes of each day (above 140 but not

consecutive minutes). A second study (Armstrong & Bray, 1991) found younger boys were

active 68 minutes and girls 59 minutes each day. Similarly, children studied by Baranowski,

Hooks, Tsong, Cieslik, and Nader (1987) performed 60 to 70 minutes of activity per day even

though 89% would be classified as inactive by the EPM standard. Eighty-six percent of the

children Sleap and Warburton (1992) studied were inactive in terms of EPM exercise yet, on

average, they participated in 88 minutes of activity. Data from Welk’s study (1994) using

activity and heart rate monitors at the same time showed that 99% of boys and 98% of girls

exceeded an energy expenditure of 4 kcal/kg/day, a standard that is slightly higher than the 3

kcal/kg/day advocated by proponents of the LPAM.

It is apparent that the same children who fail to meet activity standards based on the EPM

generally meet standards established for the LPAM. Rather than judge children as inactive

based on MVPA data, it seems more reasonable to suggest the EPM is an inappropriate model

for judging activity levels of most children. Children are sporadic exercisers who alternate

between vigorous activity and rest. They are high volume exercisers who generally do not

engage in continuous high intensity exercise. See Table 18.1 for a listing of concepts and

implications concerning physical activity and children.

TA BLE 1 8 .1 

Ph y sic al ac tiv i ty an d ch ildr en : Ba sic co n cep ts.

Co ncep t

Yo ung anim als, inc ludi ng h uman s, a re i nher entl y ac tive .

Ch ildr en a re c oncr ete rath er t han abst ract thi nker s.

Th e re lati onsh ip b etwe en a ctiv ity and fitn ess is w eak amon g ch ildr en.

Ch ildh ood acti vity is ofte n in term itte nt a nd s pora dic in n atur e.

To tal volu me i s a good ind icat or o f ch ildh ood acti vity .

Ph ysic al a ctiv ity patt erns var y wi th c hild ren of d iffe rent dev elop ment al a nd a bili ty l evel s.

Im pl i c at i o n

Ch ildr en w ill be a ctiv e if giv en e ncou rage ment and opp ortu nity .

Ch ildr en a re o ften unw illi ng t o pe rsis t in act ivit y if the y se e no con cret e re ason to do s o.

Ch ildr en m ay r ecei ve l ittl e fe edba ck f or t heir eff orts in some act ivit ies. 

Ch ildr en w ill not like ly d o pr olon ged exer cise wit hout res t pe riod s.

Gi ven the oppo rtun ity, man y ch ildr en w ill perf orm rela tive ly l arge vol umes of inte rmit tent phy sica l

ac tivi ty.

Yo ung chil dren are not att ract ed t o hi gh i nten sity exe rcis e bu t hi ghly ski lled old er c hild ren may see its 

va lue for enha ncin g pe rfor manc e in spo rts. 
TH E CH ILDR EN’S LIF ETIM E PH YSIC AL A CTIV ITY

MO DEL (C-L PAM) 

Evidence suggests that among adults 3 to 4 kcal/kg/day is a good minimum standard for

producing the health benefits of physical activity. A similar minimum standard for children

(3 to 4 kcal/kg/day) seems appropriate in light of recent evidence that shows active children

have a more beneficial coronary risk profile than their sedentary counterparts (Raitakara,

Porkka, Taimela, Telama, Rasanen, & Viikari, 1994) and that many children already meet this

standard (Blair, Clarke, Cureton, & Powell, 1989; Welk, 1994). Also, it is a standard that

inactive children, those who need activity the most, can achieve with a modest commitment to

childhood games and activities or lifestyle activities appropriate for children such as walking

or riding a bicycle to school and performing physical tasks around the home.

It is not unreasonable, however, to establish a goal for children of expending 6 to 8

kcal/kg/day. Unlike adults, children have the time and energy for activity above the minimum

standards if they see a reason to be active. There are at least five reasons why this goal of

higher energy expenditure is appropriate.

1. During childhood children learn basic motor skills that provide the basis for lifetime

activity. Proper skill development requires substantial practice time and energy expenditure.

If motor skills are not learned early in life such skills may never be developed and the

opportunities for lifetime activity will be limited.

2. Lifetime physical activities learned early in life (such as walking, riding bicycles, and

doing active physical tasks around home) contribute to active lifestyles and help obese

children maintain healthy body fat levels later in life (Epstein, Wing, Koeske, Ossip, & Beck,

1982).

3. Children need activity for the development of all parts of health-related physical fitness

including aerobic fitness, muscle strength and endurance, flexibility, and desirable level of

body fatness, as well as activity to promote a high peak bone density. To promote fitness

development and to learn appropriate activities for development of these fitness parts,

physical activity is essential.

4. Given the opportunity and encouragement, most children will choose to be active. This

is especially true if time is provided for activity.

5. People who do no physical activity are at increased risk of disease and death compared

to those who are physically active. The largest decrease in risk is associated with the

expenditure of approximately 3 to 4 kcal/kg/day. Additional risk reduction is associated with

increased amounts of physical activity (6 to 8 kcal/kg/day). To a point, activity beyond 6 to 8

kcal/kg/day produces additional benefits, but the relative benefits decrease as more activity is

performed. The 6 to 8 kcal/kg/day standard seems a reasonable one for children. Evidence

suggests that people become less active as they grow older (Rowland, 1990) and that people

who are active when they are young are more likely to be active in later life (Raitakara et al.,

1994). This being the case, meeting a higher caloric expenditure as a child may interpret into

greater activity as an adult.

For a summary of activity recommendations, see the section below, “Activity

Recommendations for Children.”
HI GH P ERFO RMAN CE S TAND ARDS 

As children grow older the EPM may become more important, especially if students make

personal choices to perform high intensity physical activity designed to achieve optimal levels

of fitness. For example, adolescents may wish to do EPM exercise to increase their chances of

success in school or community sports. As noted earlier, children can participate in high

intensity activity safely. However, the effort/benefit ratio (Fox & Biddle, 1988) for children is

not good. To ensure persistence in physical activity, children must believe the benefits of the

activity are equal to or greater than the amount of effort expended. Because children are

concrete thinkers they often see little benefit to high intensity training, which makes their

perception of effort high. Thus EPM exercise often produces a poor effort/benefit ratio.

Some children express a personal interest in EPM training. If their interest is strong and

they perceive the benefits as great enough, they may successfully use the EPM exercise

formula. However, because response to training is less in childhood compared to adolescence,

there is some danger that children may lose interest in high intensity exercise. This is because

of the lack of feedback from performance improvements. Learning skills through physical

practice is often more rewarding and likely to enhance effort/benefit ratios for children.

Generally, EPM physical activity designed to enhance high-level performance in fitness is

more appropriate and successful for adolescents and young adults than for children.

Interestingly, evidence exists to suggest that the relationship between physical activity and

aerobic fitness is not strong among children (Pate, Dowda, & Ross, 1990) or adolescents

(Morrow & Freedson, 1995).

IM PLIC ATIO NS

De ter m in in g Ac tiv i ty L ev el s of Ch i ldr e n

The best evidence suggests that children are among the most active segment of the

population. Yet, using adult EPM standards, some have concluded that large numbers of

children are inactive. This occurs in spite of the fact that the same children usually meet adult

health standards for activity based on the scientifically documented LPAM. The C-LPAM is

proposed as a more suitable model for judging the activity of children. National studies of the

activity levels of children are needed, especially in an attempt to determine if children are

meeting appropriate standards.

Ac tiv i ty R ecom m en d atio n s f or C h ild r en

As is inevitably the case, guidelines that gain national acceptance provide the basis for

recommendations to be used in schools and other programs. In the case of physical activity,

EPM guidelines have provided the basis for recommendations for children in schools as well

as in community sports programs. Following the lead of scholars who have applied EPM

guidelines to children, some professionals have advocated implementing programs that

elevate heart rates of children to 140 or higher for 20 or more consecutive minutes. In some

cases, heart rate monitors have been recommended to ensure that exercise intensity levels are

achieved among children (Strand & Reeder, 1993a; Strand & Reeder, 1993b).
Although programs using continuous high intensity (high heart rate) activity are not

physiologically harmful to children, they are not the most appropriate for children. It is

possible, given what we know about effort/benefit ratios and developmental needs of children

that such activity can decrease rather than increase motivation for future activity. A more

reasonable recommendation is that children perform C-LPAM activity as outlined here. In

physical education programs, youth sports programs, or any other program designed to

encourage current and lifetime activity for children, there are five guidelines that seem

important:

1. Activity for children should focus on high volume and moderate intensity that includes

sporadic activities such as active play performed in several activity sessions daily.

2. Lifestyle activity such as walking or riding bikes to and from school or performing active

physical tasks at home (e.g., yardwork) should be encouraged.

3. Op port unit ies to le arn ba sic mo tor sk ills an d de velo p al l pa rts of he alth -rel ated 

ph ysic al fi tnes s th roug h ap prop riat e mo dera te in tens ity ac tivi ty sh ould be in clud ed

in th e ac tivi ty pr ogra m.

4. Children should be afforded opportunities to begin developing behavioral skills that lead

to lifetime activity.

5. EP M gu idel ines ca n be ap plie d to in divi dual s wh o ar e es peci ally in tere sted in hi ghle vel ph ysic al pe rfor manc e, bu t on ly wh en it is de velo pmen tall y ap prop riat e.

R EF ER EN CE S

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Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics.

American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. (1980). Health related physical fitness

test manual. Reston, VA: American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance.

American Association of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. (1958). Youth fitness testing manual.

Washington, DC: American Association of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

American College of Sports Medicine. (1978). The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing

and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness of healthy adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and

Exercise, 10, vi–ix.

American College of Sports Medicine. (1990). The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing

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American Heart Association. (1972). Exercise testing and training of apparently healthy individuals: A handbook

for physicians. Dallas: American Heart Association.

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physical activity programs for all Americans. Circulation, 86(1), 2726–2730.

Armstrong, N., Balding, J., Gentle, P., & Kirby, S. (1990). Patterns of physical activity among 11–16-year-old

British children. British Medical Journal, 301, 203–205.

Armstrong, N., & Bray, S. (1991). Physical activity patterns defined by continuous heart rate monitoring.

Archives of Disease in Children, 66, 245–247.

Baranowski, T., Hooks, P., Tsong, Y., Cieslik, C., & Nader, P.R. (1987). Aerobic physical activity among third

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