[DO NOT PUBLISH]

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

________________________

No. 13-11442

________________________

D.C. Docket No. 1:12-cv-00228-WS-N

WINSTON GAILLARD, 

as personal representative of the estate of 

Jermaine Gaillard, deceased, 

 Plaintiff - Appellee,

versus

SAMUEL COMMINS, 

 Defendant - Appellant,

CITY OF SATSUMA,

 Defendant.

________________________

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Southern District of Alabama

________________________

(April 7, 2014)

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Before HULL, Circuit Judge, and WALTER,

* District Judge, and GOLDBERG,**

Judge.

HULL, Circuit Judge: 

Defendant-Appellant Samuel Commins is a police officer for the City of 

Satsuma, Alabama. Officer Commins was part of a high-speed chase that ensued 

after a vehicle suspected of transporting multiple kilograms of cocaine fled a traffic 

stop. Jermaine Gaillard was a passenger in the suspect vehicle. Eventually, the 

suspect vehicle spun out of the road and came to a stop. An unarmed Gaillard 

abandoned the vehicle and fled on foot. Officer Commins then turned his police 

vehicle towards Gaillard’s running path, accelerated, and struck Gaillard. Gaillard

died from the injuries sustained in the collision. 

Plaintiff-Appellee Winston Gaillard is the personal representative of 

Jermaine Gaillard’s estate.1

 He brought suit against Officer Commins alleging 

state-law claims and various federal constitutional violations under 42 U.S.C. 

§ 1983. The district court denied summary judgment as to Gaillard’s (1) Fourth 

Amendment, (2) substantive due process, (3) procedural due process, and (4) free 

speech claims. The district court also denied summary judgment on Gaillard’s

 

*Honorable Donald E. Walter, United States District Judge for the Western District of 

 Louisiana, sitting by designation.

**Honorable Richard W. Goldberg, United States Court of International Trade Judge, 

sitting by designation.

1

We will refer to both Plaintiff Winston Gaillard and the deceased Jermaine Gaillard as 

“Gaillard.” 

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state-law wrongful death claim premised on willful and malicious acts. After 

careful review of the record and the briefs, and with the benefit of oral argument, 

we affirm in part and reverse in part. 

I. GAILLARD’S FOURTH AMENDMENT CLAIM

Gaillard’s amended complaint alleged that Officer Commins intentionally 

struck the unarmed Gaillard with his police vehicle to effect an arrest. This, 

according to Gaillard, was excessive force and thus constituted an unreasonable 

seizure under the Fourth Amendment. Officer Commins argues that he is entitled 

to qualified immunity as to Gaillard’s claim.

“Qualified immunity offers complete protection for government officials 

sued in their individual capacities if their conduct does not violate clearly 

established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would 

have known.” Vinyard v. Wilson, 311 F.3d 1340, 1346 (11th Cir. 2002) (quotation 

marks omitted). To receive qualified immunity, the government official “must first 

prove that he was acting within the scope of his discretionary authority when the 

allegedly wrongful acts occurred.” Lee v. Ferraro, 284 F.3d 1188, 1194 (11th Cir.

2002) (quotation marks omitted). 

“Once the defendant establishes that he was acting within his discretionary 

authority, the burden shifts to the plaintiff to show that qualified immunity is not 

appropriate.” Id. The plaintiff can do so by satisfying “a two prong test; he must 

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show that: (1) the defendant violated a constitutional right, and (2) this right was 

clearly established at the time of the alleged violation.” Holloman ex rel. 

Holloman v. Harland, 370 F.3d 1252, 1264 (11th Cir. 2004) (footnote omitted).

We begin with the first step of the qualified immunity analysis—whether 

Officer Commins established that he was acting within his discretionary function.

A. Discretionary Function

Officer Commins participated in a police chase to arrest a felony suspect. 

Given that this activity falls within a police officer’s job duties and authority, 

Officer Commins has established that he was acting within his discretionary

function. See Roberts v. Spielman, 643 F.3d 899, 903 (11th Cir. 2011); Jordan v. 

Doe, 38 F.3d 1559, 1565-66 (11th Cir. 1994) (qualified immunity is available 

when objective circumstances show that a government official acted pursuant to 

his job duties and within the scope of his authority); Ferraro, 284 F.3d at 1194 

(holding that “there can be no doubt that [the police officer defendant] was acting 

in his discretionary capacity when he arrested [the plaintiff]”).

The district court reached the opposite conclusion after noting that Commins 

(1) was off-duty when he joined the police chase and (2) may have violated an 

internal police department rule by continuing the pursuit beyond the borders of his 

home jurisdiction without obtaining the required approval. But these facts do not 

change the calculus: an officer may act within his discretionary function even 

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when he is off-duty or when his conduct possibly violates a department policy. 

What matters is whether the officer “was (a) performing a legitimate job-related 

function (that is, pursuing a job-related goal), (b) through means that were within 

his power to utilize.” Harland, 370 F.3d at 1265. Officer Commins’s pursuit of a 

fleeing felony suspect easily meets this test.

The district court erred when it concluded that Officer Commins failed to 

establish that he was acting within his discretionary function. We therefore turn to 

the next prong of the analysis—whether Plaintiff Gaillard proffered evidence to 

establish a constitutional violation. 

B. Constitutional Violation

1. Did a Seizure Occur?

The Fourth Amendment provides that “[t]he right of the people to be secure 

in their persons against unreasonable seizures shall not be violated.” U.S. Const. 

amend. IV. A Fourth Amendment seizure occurs “when there is a governmental 

termination of freedom of movement through means intentionally applied.” Scott 

v. Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 381, 127 S. Ct. 1769, 1776 (2007) (emphasis added). 

Officer Commins argues that he did not intentionally strike Gaillard with his 

police vehicle; he contends, instead, that the collision was an accident and thus not 

a seizure for purposes of the Fourth Amendment. Viewed in the light most 

favorable to Plaintiff Gaillard, however, the record, which includes a video taken 

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from Officer Commins’s police vehicle, would support factual findings that Officer 

Commins (1) intentionally turned and accelerated his car directly towards the 

unarmed Gaillard and (2) intentionally struck Gaillard with the vehicle in an effort 

to stop Gaillard’s flight and to make an arrest. It is undisputed that Gaillard was 

fleeing on foot in the paved roadway, was wearing a white t-shirt and tan shorts, 

was unarmed and fully visible to Officer Commins, and was running from 

Commins’s right to left. Officer Commins does not deny that he turned his vehicle 

left, accelerated, and struck Gaillard.

In addition, Plaintiff’s expert, Anthony Sasso, testified that Officer 

Commins (1) controlled the path of his vehicle; (2) turned his vehicle left towards 

Gaillard’s running path; (3) accelerated from about 22 miles per hour to about 28 

miles per hour; and (4) did not hit the brakes until 1.5 seconds after hitting 

Gaillard. Sasso opined that Officer Commins could have stopped his vehicle

before striking Gaillard and running him over. As such, the record evidence 

would allow a reasonable jury to find that Officer Commins intentionally struck 

Gaillard with the police vehicle to stop and arrest him. Intentional use of force to 

stop and arrest a suspect is a “seizure” for purposes of the Fourth Amendment. See

Scott, 550 U.S. at 381, 127 S. Ct. at 1776. 

We recognize that Officer Commins contends the collision was an accident 

and not an intentional use of force to stop Gaillard’s flight. Officer Commins says 

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he had to turn and accelerate his police vehicle to avoid hitting the other fleeing 

suspect and another officer who was chasing the suspects on foot. But the video 

taken from Officer Commins’s vehicle does not show another police officer at all. 

And, although the other suspect is shown briefly, the video does not establish, 

conclusively, that Officer Commins needed to turn left and accelerate to avoid 

hitting the other suspect.2

 

Officer Commins further explains that he accidently hit Gaillard when 

Gaillard fell in front of the police car.3

 But Plaintiff’s expert Sasso testified that 

Gaillard did not fall in front of Commins’s car; instead, Gaillard was knocked to 

the ground when the front bumper of the police car hit Gaillard’s legs. Based on 

the video and the testimony of plaintiff’s expert, a reasonable jury could reject 

Officer Commins’s version of the events and, instead, find that Commins 

intentionally struck Gaillard to stop and apprehend him.

 2

The vision field of the video taken from Officer Commins’s car is arguably narrower 

than Office Commins’s entire field of vision during the incident. But, at this stage, the evidence

viewed in the light most favorable to Plaintiff Gaillard does not establish conclusively that 

Officer Commins had to turn and accelerate to avoid hitting the other suspect and/or another 

officer. 

3

Officer Commins’s contention is supported by his expert witnesses: one of the defense 

experts stated that Gaillard entered the travel path of Officer Commins’s vehicle; another defense 

expert opined that Officer Commins did not have adequate time to avoid hitting Gaillard after 

Gaillard ran into the vehicle’s path. In short, Officer Commins’s experts opined that there is no 

evidence of intentional force. 

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2. Was the Force Used in the Seizure Objectively Unreasonable?

Assuming a jury found that Officer Commins’s striking Gaillard was

intentional and thus a “seizure,” the next and separate question is whether a jury 

could find that the means and manner in which Officer Commins seized Gaillard 

were objectively unreasonable under the circumstances. See Graham v. Connor, 

490 U.S. 386, 395-97, 109 S. Ct. 1865, 1871-72 (1989) (holding that a claim of 

excessive force in the course of an arrest or other seizure “should be analyzed 

under the Fourth Amendment and its ‘reasonableness’ standard”). Because “[t]he 

test of reasonableness under the Fourth Amendment is not capable of precise 

definition or mechanical application,” Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U.S. 520, 559, 99 S. Ct. 

1861, 1184 (1979), “its proper application requires careful attention to the facts 

and circumstances of each particular case, including the severity of the crime at 

issue, whether the suspect poses an immediate threat to the safety of the officers or 

others, and whether [the suspect] is actively resisting arrest or attempting to evade 

arrest by flight,” Graham, 490 U.S. at 396, 109 S. Ct. at 1872.

Therefore, a police officer’s “use of force must be judged on a case-by-case 

basis from the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, rather than with the 

20/20 vision of hindsight.” Jackson v. Sauls, 206 F.3d 1156, 1170 (11th Cir. 2000)

(quotation marks omitted and alterations adopted). “The calculus of 

reasonableness must embody allowance for the fact that police officers are often 

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forced to make split-second judgments—in circumstances that are tense, uncertain, 

and rapidly evolving—about the amount of force that is necessary in a particular 

situation.” Graham, 490 U.S. at 396–97, 109 S. Ct. at 1872. Because “[t]he hazy 

border between permissible and forbidden force is marked by a multifactored, 

case-by-case balancing test,” Jackson, 206 F.3d at 1170 (quotation marks omitted), 

“[t]he test requires weighing of all the circumstances,” Smith v. Mattox, 127 F.3d 

1416, 1419 (11th Cir. 1997), and sloshing “through the factbound morass of 

‘reasonableness,’” Scott, 550 U.S. at 383, 127 S. Ct. at 1778. 

“The question is whether the officers’ actions are ‘objectively reasonable’ in 

light of the facts and circumstances confronting them, without regard to their 

underlying intent or motivation.” Jackson, 206 F.3d at 1170 (quotation marks 

omitted and alterations adopted). “An officer’s evil intentions will not make a 

Fourth Amendment violation out of an objectively reasonable use of force; nor will 

an officer’s good intentions make an objectively unreasonable use of force 

constitutional.” Graham, 490 U.S. at 397, 109 S. Ct. at 1872. 

At bottom, “[w]e must balance the nature and quality of the intrusion on the 

individual’s Fourth Amendment interests against the importance of the 

governmental interests alleged to justify the intrusion.” United States v. Place, 462

U.S. 696, 703, 103 S. Ct. 2637 (1983). Given that Officer Commins’s appellate 

brief suggests that hitting the fleeing Gaillard with his vehicle was reasonable 

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under the circumstances, “we must consider the risk of bodily harm that [Officer 

Commins’s] actions posed to [Gaillard] in light of the threat to the public that 

[Officer Commins] was trying to eliminate.” Scott, 550 U.S. at 383, 127 S. Ct. at 

1778. 

To that end, we conclude that, in the version of events most favorable to 

Plaintiff Gaillard, the evidentiary record would allow a jury to find Officer 

Commins’s action objectively unreasonable under the circumstances. Importantly, 

this is not a case where a high-speed car chase remained in progress. Instead, the 

suspects’ vehicle spun off the road and came to a complete stop. An unarmed 

Gaillard then abandoned the vehicle and fled on foot. In his deposition, Officer 

Commins admitted that when he saw Gaillard running, Gaillard “wasn’t 

brandishing a weapon, putting a third party at risk [or] another officer at risk.” 

Officer Commins conceded that Gaillard “didn’t show any reason for any deadly 

force.” 

Viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to Plaintiff Gaillard, we 

conclude that a reasonable jury could find that (1) Officer Commins applied deadly 

force when he struck Gaillard with his police vehicle in order to stop and arrest 

him and (2) Gaillard was unarmed and did not pose a threat to a police officer or to 

a third party. A jury could therefore conclude that Officer Commins’s action was

objectively unreasonable under the circumstances.

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C. Clearly Established Law 

To defeat Officer Commins’s qualified immunity, Plaintiff Gaillard must 

show not only a constitutional violation but also that Officer Commins violated 

constitutional law clearly established at the time. “The relevant, dispositive 

inquiry in determining whether a right is clearly established is whether it would be 

clear to a reasonable officer that his conduct was unlawful in the situation he 

confronted.” Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 202, 121 S. Ct. 2151, 2156 (2001). 

“If the law did not put the officer on notice that his conduct would be clearly 

unlawful, summary judgment based on qualified immunity is appropriate.” Id. 

A plaintiff “can demonstrate that the contours of the right were clearly 

established in several ways.” Terrell v. Smith, 668 F.3d 1244, 1255 (11th Cir. 

2012). “First, the plaintiffs may show that ‘a materially similar case has already 

been decided.’” Id. (quoting Mercado v. City of Orlando, 407 F.3d 1152, 1159 

(11th Cir. 2005)). “Second, the plaintiffs can point to a broader, clearly established 

principle that should control the novel facts of the situation.” Id. (quotation marks 

omitted and alterations adopted). “Finally, the conduct involved in the case may so 

obviously violate the constitution that prior case law is unnecessary.” Id.

(quotation marks omitted and alterations adopted).

Assuming a jury finds that (1) Officer Commins intentionally struck Gaillard 

with his police vehicle to effect an arrest (as opposed to an accidental collision), 

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and (2) that this action was an objectively unreasonable use of force under the 

circumstances, the question is whether there was law clearly established to alert 

Officer Commins that his chosen course of conduct would violate the Fourth 

Amendment. In Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1, 105 S. Ct. 1694 (1985), the 

Supreme Court explicitly addressed “the constitutionality of the use of deadly force 

to prevent the escape of an apparently unarmed suspected felon” fleeing on foot. 

Id. at 3, 105 S. Ct. at 1697. The Supreme Court concluded that “such force may 

not be used unless it is necessary to prevent the escape and the officer has probable 

cause to believe that the suspect poses a significant threat of death or serious 

physical injury to the officer or others.” Id.

To be sure, “Garner did not establish a magical on/off switch that triggers 

rigid preconditions whenever an officer’s actions constitute ‘deadly force.’” Scott, 

550 U.S. at 382, 127 S. Ct. at 1777. Instead, “Garner was simply an application of 

the Fourth Amendment’s ‘reasonableness’ test to the use of a particular type of 

force in a particular situation,” id. (citations omitted); specifically, the scenario of 

an unarmed burglary suspect fleeing on foot, see Garner, 471 U.S. at 21, 105 S. Ct. 

at 1706. Accordingly, Garner does not constitute clearly established law for cases 

where, for example, the officer was threatened with a deadly weapon, see Terrell, 

668 F.3d at 1257, or when a felon is “set on avoiding capture through vehicular 

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flight and persons in the immediate area are at risk from that flight,” see Brosseau 

v. Haugen, 543 U.S. 194, 200, 125 S. Ct. 596, 600 (2004) (footnote omitted).

4

But, Garner does clearly establish the law, even in a car chase scenario, 

where the suspect “did not use or did not threaten to use his car as a weapon.” 

Morton v. Kirkwood, 707 F.3d 1276, 1283 (11th Cir. 2013); Vaughan v. Cox, 343 

F.3d 1323, 1327-32 (11th Cir. 2003). And, of course, Garner clearly established

the law for the use of deadly force in the pursuit of an unarmed suspected felon 

fleeing on foot. See 471 U.S. at 21, 105 S. Ct. at 1706. 

Viewed in the light most favorable to Plaintiff Gaillard, the facts here are 

materially similar to Garner: Officer Commins realized that the vehicle chase was 

over and that Gaillard was an unarmed suspected felon fleeing on foot. In that 

scenario, Garner clearly put Officer Commins on notice that the use of deadly 

force would be objectively unreasonable unless he had “probable cause to believe 

that [Gaillard] pose[d] a significant threat of death or serious physical injury to 

 4

See also Pace v. Capobianco, 283 F.3d 1275, 1283 (11th Cir. 2002) (stating that Garner

did not serve as clearly established law “where the fleeing suspect appeared to be dangerous by 

virtue of his hazardous driving during the long, nighttime car chase and where the suspect 

remained in his automobile with the engine running, even when almost surrounded by officers 

and where—IF the chase had ended at all—it had ended (at most) a very few seconds before the 

officers fired and, even then, the suspect’s car started driving away again, causing more shots to 

be fired”); accord. Adams v. St. Lucie Cnty. Sheriff’s Dep’t, 962 F.2d 1563, 1577 (11th Cir. 

1992) (Edmondson, J., dissenting), adopted by 998 F.2d 923, 923 (11th Cir. 1993) (en banc). 

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[Commins] or others.” 471 U.S. at 3, 105 S. Ct. at 1697. Garner thus serves as 

clearly established law for this case.

5

In sum, we conclude that Officer Commins has not shown that the district 

court erred in denying him summary judgment on the basis of qualified immunity 

as to Gaillard’s excessive force claim under the Fourth Amendment.

II. GAILLARD’S REMAINING FEDERAL CLAIMS

The district court, however, erred in denying summary judgment to Officer 

Commins as to Gaillard’s (1) procedural due process, (2) free speech, and 

(3) substantive due process claims. Only the substantive due-process claim merits

discussion. 

The Supreme Court has held that “all claims that law enforcement officers 

have used excessive force—deadly or not—in the course of an arrest, investigatory 

stop, or other ‘seizure’ of a free citizen should be analyzed under the Fourth 

Amendment and its ‘reasonableness’ standard, rather than under a ‘substantive due 

process’ approach.” Graham, 490 U.S. at 395, 109 S. Ct. at 1871. Thus, 

Gaillard’s claim that Officer Commins violated the Constitution by using his 

 5

We also note that Officer Commins’s police department has explicitly adopted Garner as 

its rule for the use of deadly force. Officer Commins was aware of this rule and conceded in his 

deposition that deadly force was not warranted in this case. Officer Commins explained that he 

did not intend to use deadly force and that the collision was an accident. As noted earlier, a jury 

will have to decide whether the collision was an accident or an intentional use of force to 

apprehend the fleeing Gaillard. 

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vehicle to seize Gaillard is cognizable only under the Fourth Amendment 

excessive-force analysis set forth above.

The district court reasoned, however, that a substantive due process claim 

could lie as an alternative theory of recovery. This, according to the district court, 

would be viable if the jury concluded that Officer Commins intentionally struck 

Gaillard not to arrest him—but to harm him unrelated to the legitimate objective of 

arresting Gaillard. While this theory may have legal merit in the abstract, see

Cnty. of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U.S. 833, 854, 118 S. Ct. 1708, 1720 (1998), no 

evidence here would allow a jury to conclude that Officer Commins intended to hit 

Gaillard only to hurt him—totally unrelated to effecting an arrest. Plaintiff 

Gaillard has not pointed us to record evidence from which a jury could find, or

even infer, that Officer Commins acted with such sinister purpose.

6

III. GAILLARD’S STATE-LAW CLAIMS

The district court denied summary judgment to Officer Commins on 

Gaillard’s state law claim for wrongful death based on willful or malicious acts. 

As a peace officer, Commins is generally immune from state-law tort liability

under Alabama Code § 6-5-338. An exception applies for acts committed 

“willfully, maliciously, fraudulently, in bad faith, beyond his or her authority, or 

 6

The district court granted summary judgment in favor of Officer Commins with respect 

to Gaillard’s federal equal-protection claim under the Fourteenth Amendment. This ruling is not 

before us in this appeal.

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under a mistaken interpretation of the law.” See Ex parte Cranman, 792 So. 2d 

392, 405 (Ala. 2000). 

At this stage, questions of fact remain whether Officer Commins’s conduct 

meets one of the criteria sufficient to trigger this exception under Alabama law. 

See Morton, 707 F.3d at 1285-86; Ex parte City of Montgomery, 99 So. 3d 282, 

293-98 (Ala. 2012); Grider v. City of Auburn, Ala., 618 F.3d 1240, 1254-56, 1267-

68 (11th Cir. 2010); Brown v. City of Huntsville, Ala., 608 F.3d 724, 740-42 (11th 

Cir. 2010); Ex parte Nall, 879 So. 2d 541, 546 (Ala. 2003); Ex parte Tuscaloosa 

Cnty., 796 So. 2d 1100, 1107 (Ala. 2000); Couch v. City of Sheffield, 708 So. 2d 

144, 153–54 (Ala. 1998); Sheth v. Williams, 145 F.3d 1231, 1239-40 (11th Cir. 

1998); Wright v. Wynn, 682 So. 2d 1, 2 (Ala. 1996).

We therefore affirm the district court’s denial of summary judgment as to 

Gaillard’s state law claim for wrongful death premised on willful or malicious 

acts.7

 

IV. CONCLUSION

For the above reasons, we affirm the district court’s denial of summary 

judgment as to Gaillard’s excessive force claim under the Fourth Amendment and 

Gaillard’s wrongful-death claim under Alabama state law. We reverse the district 

 7

The district court granted summary judgment in favor of Officer Commins as to 

Gaillard’s state-law claims based on negligence or wantonness. This ruling is not part of this 

appeal. 

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court’s denial of summary judgment with respect to Gaillard’s (1) procedural due 

process, (2) free speech, and (3) substantive due process claims. We remand for 

the district court to enter judgment for Officer Commins on these three federal 

claims and to proceed to trial on Plaintiff Gaillard’s excessive-force claim under 

the Fourth Amendment and on Gaillard’s remaining Alabama state-law claim. 

AFFIRMED IN PART; REVERSED AND REMANDED IN PART.

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