II.S. OEPARTMENT 

Of COMMERCE 

NU IONA l 

OCEAN IC AND 

ATMOSPHERIC 

ADMINISTRATION 

ENVIRONMUITAl 

IIESEAIICH 

LABORATORIES 

Geophysical Monitoring 

for Climatic Change 

, ....... '" """~ 

• fi\ • 

\ ' I '. , ........ · 

No.1 

11972 

l 
U.S. DEPAR TM ENT OF COMM ERCE 

NATIONAL OCEANIC ANO AlMOSPHERIC AOMINISlRAtlON 

Robe., M While. Adm;nhuOIO' 

(rNl1IOM\OE N141 E~H LototOU IOIl l S 

"',1_, N H .... ();'RIO' 

GEOPHYSICAl MONITORING FOR CLIMATIC CHANGE 

NO. 1 

SUMMARY REPORT . 1972 

John M. Miller , Editor 

Contributors 

Barry A.. Sodhatne 

Ronald Fegley 

Rober t Grass 

Tho mas B Hams 

GalY A. Helbelt 

Douglas V Hoyt 

Walte r D. Komhyr 

Be rn ard G. Mendonca 

Sam 011 mans 

Donald H Pack 

Challes P Turner 

BOULDER. COI.O. 
DISCLAIMER 

The Environmental Research Laboratories do not approve, 

recommend, or endorse any proprietary product or proprietary 

material mentioned in this publication. No reference shall 

be made to the Environmental Research Laboratories or to this 

publication furnished by the Environmental Research Laboratories in any advertising or sales promotion which would indicate or imply that the Environmental Research Laboratories 

approve, recommend, or endorse any proprietary product or 

proprietary material mentioned herein, or which has as its 

purpose an intent to cause directly or indirectly the advertised product to be used or purchased because of this Environmental Research Laboratories pUblication. 

i i 
CONTENTS 

1. INTRODUCTION 

2. DESCRIPTION OF BASELINE STATIONS 

2.1 Mauna Loa (MLO) 

2.2 Antarctica (Amundsen-Scott 

Station - South Pole) 

2.3 Barrow, Alaska (BRW) 

2.4 Samoa (SMO) 

2.5 Planned Stations 

3. OBSERVATORY PROGRAMS 

3.1 Mauna Loa 

3.2 Antarctica 

3.3 Barrow, Alaska 

3.4 Samoa 

4. MEASUREMENT PROGRAMS 

4.1 Gases 

4.1.1 Carbon Dioxide (C02) 

4.1.2 Total Ozone (03) 

4.1.3 Surface Ozone 

4.2 Aerosols 

4.2.1 MLO Ruby Laser Radar> System 

4. 2 .2 Aitken Nuclei Measurements 

4.3 Meteorology 

4.3.1 Wind Measurement 

4.3.2 Temperature and Dew Point Measurement 

4.3.3 Pre88Ul"e 

4.3.4 Precipitation 

4.4 Solar-Terrestrial Radiation 

4.4.1 Aspects of Radiation and 

History of Observations 

4.4.2 New Fie l d Insn"UJ71entation 

4.4.3 Calibration Equipment 

4.4.4 Data Summary 

4.5 Cooperative Programs 

4 . 5. 1 Me a sur erllen t of Sr 9 0 

4.5.2 Total Surface Particulate 

Maijter (EPA) 

4.5.3 Total Surface Particulate 

/1atter (AEC) 

4.5.4 Surface Tritium Concentration 

iii 

Page 

1 

3 

3 

9 

10 

14 

18 

18 

18 

18 

20 

20 

21 

21 

21 

23 

32 

38 

38 

42 

45 

46 

47 

49 

49 

50 

50 

55 

57 

57 

58 

58 

58 

58 

58 
4.5.5 Condensation Nuclei Concentrations 

4.5.6 5tv:'!ace 502 and N0 2 

4.5.7 ~ecipitation Collection for 

Chemical Analysis 

4.5.B Fog Concentration 

4.5.9 Atmospheric Extinction 

5. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM 

5.1 Requirements 

5.2 Hardware Development 

5.3 Software Development 

6. REGIONAL STATIONS 

7. RESEARCH SUMMARY 

7.1 1970-72 Publications Related to 

the Operation of Mauna Loa Observatory 

7.2 Geophysical Monitoring Techniques 

and Standards Group 

7.3 Air Resources Laboratories 

8. STAFF 

8.1 Mauna Loa 

B.l.l Directors of MLO 

B.l.2 MLO Staff 

8.2 Geophysical Monitoring Techniques 

and Standards Group 

8.3 Antarctic Observer 

8.4 GMCC Staff 

9. REFERENCES 

APPENDIX A: Comouter Program for 

LIDAR Computations 

APPENDIX B: MLO Selected Monthly Measurements 

of Aitken Particles bv a Gardner 

Counter 1971-1972 ' 

iv 

Page 

58 

59 

59 

59 

59 

59 

59 

62 

63 

64 

65 

65 

68 

68 

69 

69 

69 

69 

69 

69 

69 

70 

73 

75 
FOREWORD 

The documentation and preservation of observational data has a 

special place in science. Chinese astronomers recording the passage of 

Halley's comet in 1400 B.C. provided a baseline observation still valuable today. 

In meteorology the length of quantitative record is relatively 

short with the first measurements beginning in the mid-1600's with the 

invention of the barometer and thermometer. Organized global coverage 

only comprises data for perhaps a hundred years. Through ingenious studies of glaciers, pollen, tree rings, sea sediments and vintner's records 

the general character of the weather has been synthesized into climate, 

and the outlines of the changing patterns extended back over many millennia. However, the causes for the cycles of warming and cooliD9, drouth, 

and increased precipitation are still unknown. Speculation on the causes 

range from solar changes to tectonic activity and include effects due to 

the variations in the gaseous and aerosol composition of the atmosphere. 

Now we have the added factor of man's technology reaching levels 

where effects can be detected on a global scale, as witnessed by the slowly 

increasing level of carbon dioxide produced by fossil fuel combustion. 

As late as 1951, H. Cauer could say in the Compendium of Meteorology: "Although a good basis for chemical investigations of the atmosphere 

was established during the past century ... a full incorporation of chemical 

concepts and procedures into the consideration of meteorological phenomena 

has not, up to the present, become general." Thus our documentation of 

atmospheric trace constituents is both sparse and brief, which is especially true for continuous records unaffected by the nearby works of man. 

This situation has begun to change, and in the last 10 to 15 years there 

have been many new studies of the geochemistry of the earth-ocean-air 

system. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's program "Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change" is a part of this increased interest and is designed to establish and maintain a program of observation 

and analysis of data representative of the global background of selected 

gases and aerosols. This report, the first in an annual series, will document the progress of this effort. Comments and suggestions by which we 

can improve the usefulness of these reports will be welcome. 

Wilmot N. Hess, Director 

Environmental Research Laboratories 

National Oceanic & Atmospheric 

Administration 

v 

GEOPHYSICAL MONITORING FOR CLIMATIC CHANGE 

Summary Report 1972 

Air Resources Laboratory 

1. INTRODUCTION 

The first Summary Report of the Program "Geophysical Monitoring for 

Climatic Change (GMCC)" has as its genesis the unknown observer of antiquity who, realizing that an observation unrecorded was an observation lost, 

inscribed a record on stone or clay. The GMCC program coalesced from a 

variety of efforts and was given impetus by the increasing realization of 

the quickening of environmental change. In his message sending the First 

Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality to the Congress in 

August 1970, President Nixon said in part: 

"In deal ing with the environment we must learn not how to 

master nature but how to master ourselves, our institutions, 

and our technology. We must achieve a new awareness of our 

dependence on our surroundings and on the natural systems 

which support all I ife, but awareness must be coupled with 

a full real ization of our enormous capabl I ity to alter these 

surround i ngs. II 

It is the objective of the GMCC program to respond to the need for 

this new awareness by providing a portion of the quantitative description 

and analysis needed. Specifically, it is our objective to measure the 

necessary parameters for establishing trends of trace constituents important to climate change and of those elements that can assist in apportioning the source of changes to natural or anthropogenic sources, or both. 

This program has its special focus in establishing a long-term time series 

from ground-based instrumentation. The reason being that the sensitivity 

needed to determine trends in atmospheric composition within a short time 

span - tens of years - can only be economically and adequately accomplished by ground-based equipment using the current state of measuring techniques. We are not reporting on the interesting and essential measurements 

made by other groups, particularly those in the stratosphere. The program 

uses instrumentation whose characteristics are either well known or can 

be determined with considerable accuracy. New instrumentation will be 

tested and introduced when it ~eets tnesE criteria and when it provides 

more accurate and useful information. 
In this first report it is appropriate to explain the philosophy 

and structure of the program. The data are collected by a few observatories whose location was, or will be, chosen to sample representative 

latitudes within both hemispheres - polar, mid-latitude, and tropical. 

Specific sites are selected where local man-made or biota interferences 

are minimal. Finally, the observatories are placed where logistics and 

personnel can be maintained at reasonable costs. 

First priority is placed on the collection of impeccable measuremerits of trace constituents. Thi s effort is supported by a Techniques 

and Standards Group, which has the responsibility of (1) acquiring or designing and assembling equipment to meet precise criteria required, (2) 

developing and maintaining uniform instructions and necessary methods of 

measurement, and (3) maintaining calibrations that serve both to interconnect the widely separated stations and to achieve the best absolute values 

possible. In addition, data collecting and handlinq is strongly oriented 

towards computer techniques for data processing and automated quality control. Research on new methods and the local variability of trace materials 

is included in the program. Program direction, data analysis, and operational assistance are centered in the Proqram Director's Office. 

This report and the subsequent issues will serve several purposes. 

The first is to establish a readily available history of the physical characteristics of the locations where "backqround," baseline," or "clean air" 

(the nomenclature is not yet universal) measurements are made by the GMCC. 

The descriptions will include maps, sketches, photographs, and where possible satellite-derived views of the observatories and their environs as 

well as written material. We hope that this material will permit determination of local and regional changes in land use, which might affect the 

data, and assist in reconstructing observatory history. 

The report will also include an inventory of the measurements made 

and identify, in as much detail as necessary, the instrumentation used. 

Such elements as instrument serial numbers, dates of calibration, and installation of new instruments will be included. 

We also plan to describe, or reference, any special observation or 

data reduction methods. We can anticipate that research and technology 

will improve and change techniques. vie wish to make it feasible for our 

successors to reproduce our methods. 

Brief summaries of research done within the program together with 

literature citations wili be included for the interested reader. 

This report covers four locations at which measurements are now in 

progress: Mauna Loa, Hawaii; Amundsen-Scott Station (South Pole), Antarctica; Point Barrow, Alaska; and Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Mauna Loa 

has the longest history, some observations started in 1951, but measurements of data more properly began in 1956 with measurements of carbon 

dioxide (C0 2 ), solar radiation, and other important parameters. Work began in the Antarctic coincident with the International Geophysical Year 

(IGY) and the support of the National Science Foundation. In 1971, Point 

2 
Barrow, Alaska, was selected for the site of an observatory. With the assistance of the U.S. Navy's Polar Program Office in the Office of Naval 

Research and the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, the construction of 

the necessary buildinq, road, electrical power, and instrument platform 

was complete by the end of 1972. A program of CO 2 flask sampling and 

daily Aitken nuclei counts began in April 1971 with the cooperation of 

the Earth Sciences Laboratories of NOAA. These measurements have confirmed the use of the site for background measurements. The first staff 

assignment and the "official" beginning of the program is in January 1973. 

At Tutuila Island Samoa, a preliminary survey is underway. The location was chosen, with the assistance of the staff of the National Geographic Society, as the best within the means of the program and is ideally located in the Southern Hemisphere trade wind belt. The assistance 

of the Government of American Samoa and of the Chiefs and people of Tutuila in locating suitable sites and the interest and help of Governor 

John M. Haydon and his staff are gratefully acknowledged. A preliminary 

program conducted with the assistance of the National Weather Service of 

NOAA has made possible atmospheric turbidity measurements and collection 

of precipitation for chemical analysis was begun in 1973. 

vie recognize that our planned measurements do not now encompass 

the multitude of desirable related research programs in atmospheric 

physics and chemistry. Our facilities will therefore be available 

for cooperative programs whenever possible within the limitations of 

space and staff. The scope of this aspect of the observatories is shown 

ins ect i on 4. 5. 

We hope to duplicate and profit from the documentation of others 

who have previously confronted the problems of acquiring scientific data 

from remote places and harsh environments. An excellent example is that 

of the first U.S. scientific expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska in 1882-

1883. The leader of the expedition, Lt. P. H. Ray, left guidance (Ray, 

1885) we can follow regardless of where we work. He said: 

" ... for the work of scientific observation in these high 

latitudes is one of patient endurance on the part of the 

observer confined as he is, within narrow J imlts." 

2. DESCRIPTION OF BASELINE STATIONS 

2.1 'launR Loa (tILe» 

Hawaii (latitude 19.5°N) is the largest and southernmost island of 

the Hawaiian chain (figs. 1 and 2). Two mountains dominate the island: 

Mauna Loa on the south and Mauna Kea on the north side. The Observatory 

rests on the north-northeast slope of Mauna Loa at 3400 m (11,150 ftl 

3 
above HSL . 

hhnd with 

A good ro~d joins the city of Hi10 on the east side of the 

the observatory. Til e site Is about 780 m below the sUlTlTl lt. 

Though earli er measurements were ~de on Mduna Loa, the observa- tory . as >I e ~nO'W it . beGan in 1955. In tne hst 11 yea,." many c~~nqe$ 

have occurred . For a detailed review of the hinory Of HLO see Price 

f'i.gl<!'fl 1. TC;POfl"MPr.ic r.>ap of filII is l.a".a of l!a\.w··: 

(shader! areas i~dic,H ' !.lege laticmJ . 

• 
~nd Pales (1963) and Machta (1 972). Fi gur e 3 ~nd table 1 ~re ~ schematic plan and key to the present si t e. ~a noramic views of the obser- ya tory are shown In fi 9~res 4 and 5. 

Associated with MlO are the staff off ices in Hilo. The observa - t ory has a varied schedule that depends on the measurements being ~de. 

Bes ides these two locations, a research site has been established at 

Cape KUll'uh hi (sea l evel) where intermIttent me asurement programs are 

&CCOll'p 1 i s lied . 

' .. 

• ! 

Fi.gW'6 2. f:Frl'S pictln'1II of HQwa.ii. 

5 
The persistent tropical tra de I;inri is fron the east-nort heast, al- t~ou9 h local drainage and atin~ affec ted air flow to a larqe deqree at 

t he observatory si te . Ev ening and larqe-scale subsi(\ence e'-Doses the si te. to extreme ly c1Hn air representHhe of the ",iddle troposphere. Callping t he trade win(\ is a the r!llal inversion present about 75 percent of 

t he UrI'Ie at an average altitu(\e of 2000 III , well below the observatory. 

The trade winds and inverSion helQh t ~rk the top of the ~an tinberline 

on the moun t ain slopes. For a (\etalle(\ descript ion of t~e winds see Mendonca (1969). Rainfall be low the Inversion is heavy ; the .. ~j~~ amount 

of precipitation is over 7600 ~ (300 Inches) per year. As a result , the 

tropical vegetation Is lu~urlant and beautiful . Above tne trade wind inversion, the ra infall Is RIOderate to l ight ; the observatory records a~J t 

500 no (20 inChes) per year. There is no veget ation whatsoever within IS 

km of the observa tory. 

). 02 .. _ 

s so ... ' . .. ca. , 

~-J- ... ,. a'.' ..... 0 •• 1 

- - -8'- --- N 

--

--

'" - ----. ., 

,. -

o -- 0, 

----

0 - !I 

_ ' 3n., 

- ---_.-

Sit~ 1A • .,rel: (Jf ":,.. 

, 

• • • 
TabZ-e 1. List of Mauna Loa Observatory Measurements a;"Id Lccati.on 

on Pigure 7. 

Lidar al ignmenc placform and tower. 

Solor C Study, NCAR High Altitude Observatory. 

Direct solar irradiance (Eppley Angstrom pyrehel iometer). 

Direct and diffuse solar irradiance (pyranometer). 

Solar irradiance at 2 IR wavelenghts for atmospheric water vapor. 

Static collector, spore and bug catcher';' 

Storage, old darkroom bui Iding. 

Chemical toi let. 

C02 intake tower.'" 

Wind velocity (continuously reccrded with cup and aerovane 

anemometers at 10 and 12 m). 

Relative humidi Iy (recording hygrothermograph). 

Surface air temp~rature (thermometer and thermocouple, continuous). 

Surface dew point (Het-bulb thermometer and thermocouple, continuous). 

Ground temperature (thermocouple, continuous). 

CO 2 surface concentration.~ 

Data acquisitIon system. 

Sma II part ic Ie detector (Gardner counter). 

Surface S02 (bubbler) .,; 

Surface NO z (bubbler) J 

Atmospheric pressure (continuous aneroid and Hg barometer for 

reference) . 

Particulate concencration (High volume fi Iter) .:" 

Radio nuclides from precipitation;" 

Precipitation chemistrv.* 

Rainfall (tipping bucket and 8 inch scandard). 

Total surface lead and particulates (High volume sampler.) 

Fuel storage tanks (unused). 

Fog concentration.* 

Lin e po\~e r cr an s forme r s . 

Diesel generators (not nOl-I in use). 

Main bui Iding: offices, analysis, kitchen, and sleeping quarters. 

Atmospheric extinction coefficient (sunphotometer). 

Condensation nuclei concentration. 

Surface tritium concentration.* 

Instrumentation bui Iding. 

Elevated sampling and observation platform. 

Total atmospheric ozone (Dobson spectrophotometer). 

Aerosol distribution and concenCration (Lidar). 

Cloud frequency (extracted from solar radiation data). 

Cloud type (visual observation). 

Horizontal visibility (observer estimate). 

Electronics Shop. 

*Cooperative program. 

7 

Locacion 

Code 

A 

B 

C 

C 

C 

D 

E 

F 

H 

J 

J,G 

J,G 

K 

V 

K 

K 

K 

K 

K,V 

M 

N 

o 

P 

Q 

R 

S 

T 

U 

V 

V 

K 

V 

K 

X 

y 

Z 

B 

B 

W 
• 

f'igun 4 . r.oaki>tg I'ICrtlr at HUJ vitI! HaWIC Keo in tile background. 

; 

• 

N(fU1'f S. ViBIJ of .'!!,,() "oaki>:g /:01'!11. ... t} ~'it" Lidc:!' ~ 

V. tho [a)' rig1lt. 

, 
l.l Anurctlca (olinundsen-Scott Sta t ion - South Pole) 

The Antarctic Cont inent 15 about 1,425,000 ,000 knl'. Tile AnUretic 

Circ le at 66'33'S latitude def ines t he ar~ that has continuous days of 

sunllgllt In summe r and cont lnuou~ day1 of darkness tn winter. 

Antarctica is the highest of 311 continents . a~erlglng over 1900 ~ 

elevation. Is co.ple tely surrounded by oceans, and con tain, 90 percent of 

the world 's ice . The highest part of the continent is tile 1I19h polar plateau of East Ant4n;tica where Vostok and Phtuu Stations are H an , I,. vatton above 3500. {II ,500 ftl. The con tinent has one known active orol- ~no . ~unt Erebus {3700 .1 . IOCHed on Il.on Bland near Mc1'Iurdo Station. 

Othe r prominent -aunta ins Include Mt. Kirkpatrick, 4450 m; Mt. ~de , 4570 

1'1; and Mount "arkha., 4510 m; all are In the Transantarctic Rlnae. The 

Sentinel Mountains In Ellsworth land have Mt. Vinson tll,t Is 3410 q. 

Th, South Pole Station Is on the gruter polar 01lteau and locatlld 

OIIlya fN hundred _ters fr(JIII the geograph ic South Pole. The station Is 

on Ice at In elevat ion of Z800 • above HSL with the land below at 108 _. The nearest t'lposed surhce land Is the Que!n Maud Moun tain Range located 

400 kn to the sou th along the l80th merid i an. 

The original t:uildlngs of the station were constructed on top of 

the snow during 1956·57 and ha~e been occwpled con ti nuously since t~en. 

TOdaY

I t~ese s~ build i ngs (see fig. 6 and table Zj art approximatel, 

10 ~ 30 ft l ~elow tht surf,c. and Inte~onnected Dy p!ssageways. A new 

station I, to be constructed nearby. 

Tne nature of SOIl' sc tenttfic progra.s necess itate tha t a f ew of 

the buildings I'IUs t be continually moved In order for them to remain on 

the surhce. Others , located on pylons, Ire elevated by jac~s to esc~pe 

the drifting snow. 

AnUrctic weathfr Is dOllllna ted Dy extrerK" cold . but there is great 

variation i n the average and extr~ te.perature in different pa rts of 

Antarctica. A telperalurt of - 9ZC has been recorded by t~e USSR st alion 

H Vostok. T.-nperuurn on tile Antarctic Penlnsu" are warYOtr than 1n 

My other area of the continent, with an average of -8C In winter and an 

average high of -4C in summer . 

The sea ice of Antarct ica li es around the continent roughly as a 

barr ier ree f Surrounds a IIld-Pac lfic ishnd. In winter, the sea Ice f~nns 

a con t inuous bel t 1500-1600 k. wide around tile cont inent. In sur.ner the 

sea Ice recQ(les from the continen t. leaving .reas of open sea betWf'en Ice 

pack and shore. The Ross Sea Is qenerally open tn the Sl.mler , especially 

along the 180th meridian. 

An nua l snowf all In the Anta rcti c varies fro. 150 rnq In tile Inter. 

lor to about 380!1lll al onq t he ~oa st. It rarely rains except In the AII tarctic Peninsula area. The annual precipitation Is so slight that thl 

Antarctic can be classed as a dese rt. High .,inds are gener.l l y confined 

to the coastal areas. The average velocity decreases Inland to the hi, 

plateau of East Anta rctic', Because of the untfor-.ly cold lnd windy 

, 
SOlll~ POLE 

• 

... \ .. 

• 

• 

o. 

]L 

, 

tigwoe 6. Sit. ,I:.tch of Soi<th POZ, Stan".,. 

wea t her , especially in coastal are~s , Antart l lce is known for Its lengthy 

and violent blizzards. 

Antarct ic cliNte linlts plant life to a hw hud.:- I Ichf:'l1s , mosses, 

end a19ae In sane coastal ar.as Ind on scattered .allnta lns exposed above t~e snow. There are no trtfS to furnish hel and shelter. 

The -ean annual ~r. ure ~t the South Pol e is about _49(. Temperatures range between -21.IC in the 5ummf:'r and -lS.9C durtn9 the winter. 

The re is only. trace of precipita t ion and drifting snow blowing across 

the polar plaleau , and this has been the prjlT'd ry fa ctor In the accul1l.l1.tion 

around the sta tfon bufldlngs. The annual average wind speed at the Pole Is 

about 6 " /$. 

2.3 Sarrow, Alas~a (&R~) 

Ten years after the United States purchased Al.s~. fr~ Imperl.l Russ;a, Congress sent an expedi t ion to Point Barrow to establish a perII'Olnent station (fig. 1). It. P. H. Ray, Ca-ullder, and hh group sailed 

iO 
TaN' t, "It o( SoHth fil, Lgcgtionp 

"Holy Sulr1" 

Emergeney g~n'f~tor 

Siek b~y 

"hJ "~h~ I" 

Fue I u,he 1iQ. I 

G~lley ~nd we~ther 't~tlon 

"Club 90" 

Bu; lder ' , ,hop 

Cenoeruof lh.Kk 

I\ecre~tlon roooo 

hr",ck 

BuI lder', tllnn,1 

Fuel Ca,h, No.2 

Supp ly 

Snow melte rs 

",ge 

Clrage 

(os.ie radl.tlon 

Infl.tlon Shettlf 

UCLA gr.vlty meter 

Dobson soec tf op tometer hut 

Seismo logy tunn,1 

Science bu ll dTn,;! 

Glrage 

",,,. 

, 

, • 

, 

E 

, 

, 

, 

, 

, 

, 

E 

, 

, 

o 

, • 

, 

, 

, 

" , 

, 

• 

to Barrow in the sumner of 1881. For 3 years, these men gathered Infor- ~tlon on the neteorology , natural history , magnetism , as we ll .s ~ny 

ottler pnen<*l!!'la. The tlardships they endured to accUllUhte the scientific data Is • good example to the cold-climate researcher and observer, 

The present day aarrow Obsenatory (n"19'H. 156"36'W; 9. I1Sl) 

h located about 1 km sooth of Pt, ~rrow. Plorth ""'erica's northerlWlOH 

poin t of hnd at an elevation of about 9 II. The observatory is on lind 

used for U.S. Navy researCh and containing the Office of Hav.l Research's 

Haval Arctic Researctl lab (ONR MARL ). The Slrrow Ire' Is .lllOst tn the 

center of the Arctic coastal pl a;n and on tile Arctic Ocean (fig. 8). 

The Arcttc co.stal plain fon.$ a crescent. whose tips touch the 

CilT'\Idian border on t he east and (ape Beaufort on the west. Its greatest bt-udth , .bout 14~ kIll, Is south of Point Barrow. The plain Is remar~abl, 

for the nu~r of shallow lakes covering tts northern portIon. Ourlng the su~r ~ch of the re~ becones so swa~y thlt It Is j.~ssable . Tht 

II 
plain IS SO n.t that humoc~s a hw IIIfters high can be seen at great 

distances. The coa~ta l waters are shal l ow , with frequent sandbars and 

Islands para l leling the COlst. Occasionally t~e shor eline consists of 

bluffs, but they seld~ exceed 8 ~ height. Figur e 9 shows the obser vatory in NovenOer 1912.1 

located on the edge of the Chukchi Sea, Ba rrow IS well wIthin the 

Arctic Region In clllllltoloqy. Terllperatur es rem.lln below freezing through 

IIIOst of the yea r ; datly lllalll.., reach highe r than OC on only 109 days a 

year. The ,.Int_ hils below freezing on 324 days a year. February 

Is generllly the coldest .anth ,00 July Is the wamest. 

Wind speed v,rles little with t he fall being the windiest. Extre.t winds fraa 15 to 30 -VSet have been recor ded fo r al l months. The 

wind direction is ore~ln'nt'y easterly t hroughout t he year. 

'A, of thl' .. rltlng. the observa tory lin been corr.pleted. In J,nuary 

197) . "r. Dan lll la~~on, the first GHCC St.tlon Chief. beg.n Qbs" rYuions. 

12 
Figraw t. Hap of 8a~ Qr.Q. 

The Sky ,over 15 least during february , "arch, .tnd April. Nur 

overc.tst Ski es (low stratus) are very pers istent the renainder of the 

year. 

Based on JJ years of re,ord, Barrow can expe,t 60 clear days a 

year, 53 partly ,loudy d.tys, and IB6 , loudy days. 

1l 
Figu:re 9. Contpl.t.d &:1,.I'0I01 Observator¥. Octoblr 1912. 

2.d Samoa (SHO) 

The Sanoan Islands have an Interesting history of teorol09lcal 

observations. Before the World War I, Ge~n scientists .afntafned a 

meteorolog ical observatory on the Island of Opalu (Angenheister, 1924), which is located abo~t 150 km northwest of Ame rican Sa~oa (T~tulla island). On Opa lu, teITJ;Jerature, pressure, humidity, wind , sunshine, cloud - iness, and precipi tat ion were measured on a regular basis fr om 1890 to 

1920. (These data wil l be useful [n comparat ive studies wi th the new ob- servatory on Amerlcan Samoa.) 

The Island of Tutulla Is located In the American Samoa Group 

([o olS' S, 170034 ~), approximately 3150 km south-sou thwest of Hawaii, 

2560 km north-northeast of New Zealand, and 7200 km southwest of Cal l- fornla. lutuila [s a long , narrOIoI Island lying southwest-northeast, of 

177 kJ:J2, JUSt over J2 kJ:J long. and fr()ln 0.5 to 3.0 kin wide (fig. 10). It 

Is volcanic [n ortgtn, extremely mountainous, and nearly surrounded by a 

coral reef, The principal rid",e extends the len9th of the island. reacllIng a maximum height of 653 m, at Matafao Peak. Ve~etatlon Is -aderately dense, with many coconut . banana, and Other tropical fruit trees, grass, 

and low-growing brush. 

The location selected for the Geop~slca l Mo nitoring Observa tory Is Cape Matatula (fig. 11) . The cape is situated H the extreme north_ 

east end of the island and Includes a roc ky promontory (With sparse ve~etatlon) suitable for air sampling as it Is removed from the lush vegetation prevalen t over most of the Island (fig . 12). The promontory is 18 

to 21 ~ above the Pacific Ocean. Tne edges of the cape fal l abruptly to 

tile sea which is deep along this portion of the coastline (fIg. 13) . The 

village of Tula is I ~ to the south and is located on the extreme north - east end of the Island 's paved road syst e-. Electrical power In Tula is 

supplied by the generatin~ plant In Pago Pago. 

14 
- - ~ 

.. - .- -- 1 , - --- I --..: . I ••• '0 

- =-==-- - - t - - --

1 .. , 

'I .' . • T · - -

. ,

. - - -• - - .- · -..- -

Tne communal ownerShip of the cape is an important consideration 

In lhe negotiations in 10,,,,tln9 the observa t ory_ Cheif hgi lol l , shown 

In figure 14, is one of the Samaons who represented the interests of the 

communi ty in these dlscussions.1 

The avai lable clima tological da t a have been acquired fro~ the Ta - funa Airport about 16 km to the so uthwest of Cape Mala t ula; hence the 

data can be viewed only as indicative of the condi t ions to be expected. 

The prime cl imatic consideration at t he cape i$ the wind direction. A 

study of ] years of da ta shows the wind averagIng 3.7 m/s comes fr~ the 

east-northeast, east and eHt-southeast 78 percent of the time. The 10-

CHlcn of Cape Matatula shows that these wind directions would mean un- contamina t ed air for sampl1nq. 

lAS of this ""' [ "'9, [he ne90tlatlo~1 ha~e been cDIlJ>leted. I1r. Vern 

R~ble. the first St ation Chief. II now in S.-o. and has begun ob$er-

~.t ons . 

I' 
T~e average t.npertture Is about 26t , ~Ith an alMOst const,nt 80 

percent relative hualdlty. The tot., range of -onthly .v~.ge l.nper.· tur~ Is only le. with the coolest DQnthly Iverage occurring qenerll'y In August (2St) while the wtrMest .onthly IYfr.gf Is usually recorded 

during ~ce.ber (28C). 

Slsed on 1968 . 1969, .nd }911 . the cloudiness to be expacted Is 

as follows: clur days. ]0; pontly cloudy , 131; cloudy days . 1!}8. yur. 

16 
Fi.9wr. u. Chi"f Tagi I"Ii. 

17 
2.5 Planned Stations 

In addition to the four stations already mentioned, two others are 

being planned. One will be on the west coast of the United States. As 

yet no definite location has been chosen. The second station will be 

farther east, either on the coast or possibly as far east as Bermuda, 

which shows good promise both logistically and meteorologically. Professor R. A. Duce of the University of Rhode Island has begun a program 

of trace sampling measurements which seems to show the suitability of 

Bermuda for the GMCC program. 

When these two observatories are established, the GMCC network of 

U.S. operated remote observatories will be completed. 

3. OBSERVATORY PROGRAMS 

3.1 Mauna Loa 

In 1971 and 1972 Mauna Loa observatory experienced a period of 

growth. Dr. Rudolf Pueschel, Director until July 1972, briefly described 

this grol'/th in his final report. "The MLO budget increased 85 percent; 

the number of positions increased from four full time and one postdoctoral appointee to seven full time, one part time and two postdoctoral 

fellows. Floor space in Hilo was more than doubled. The scientific output in the past 2 years is reflected in three publications, three papers 

in the review process, and three more papers in preparation. Four talks 

were presented at scientific meetings by members of the staff." Among 

some of the major projects instituted under Dr. Pueschel's term as director were: 

(1) The Lidar was installed in June 1972. 

(2) The new 13-channel solar radiation system was installed. 

(3) Several major cooperative studies were established. 

In July 1972, Dr. Ron Fegley was appointed director. During the 

first 6 months while continuing the ongoing programs he placed special 

emphasis on making the Lidar program operational. These programs will 

be summarized in the following sections. A list of programs at Mauna 

Loa is in table 3. 

3.2 Antarctica 

Mr. Vern Rumble was the observer at the South Pole station during 

1971-1972. In November 1971, the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer no. 82 

became inoperative. This instrument was replaced by no. 80 in 1972. Surface ozone was measured throughout the period. 

18 
Kinds o f 

Obser va ( io ns 

C02 concentration 

.\( ;7ospheric pressure 

Atmospheric pressure 

Table 3. 

. ~-:O Lrt of p r ec ipitaei on 

Tempera t ur e and dew point 

Surface ozone 

Solar radiation 

Solar radiati on 

Tota I ozone 

Radio nuel ides in precip. 

Total surface particulate 

matter 

Total surface parr iculate 

matter 

Surface tritium concentratratiOn 

Ai tken nuclei concentration 

Svrface 50 2 and N0 2 

Precipitation collector 

for chemical analysis 

Fog concentration 

Atmospheric extinction 

eN/Ai tken counter 

Total solar energy 

~I i nd 

Atmospher ic turbidity 

['ist of Programs at Mauna [,oa 

Pe r i cd 

197 1-)2 

' 9)1-72 

1971-72 

19)1-)2 

19)1-)2 

19)1-)2 

1971-)2 

1971-)2 

1971-)2 

1971 - )2 

1971 - 71 

1971-71 

1971-72 

1971-72 

197 1-72 

1972 

1972 

197 1-72 

1971 

1972 

1971-72 

19 71 

Instrument 

Applied Physics Analyzer 

no . 58. 

Barograph GllO no. 1318. 

Mercu r y Ba romete r no . 7Z3, 

Ra in Cauge Standard and r ecording . 

T ... IO yg thermo9roph~ (Friez) 

no . 7178 an d no . 7199. 

Ma~t Oeve lopment Co. Ozoneme t er 

no . 187 7)0 . 

T\"o py ranorne ter s 10 junction 

no . 1833 a nd no. 1825. 

TwO pyrhe li orne ters SO juncti on 

no . 3287 and no . 2 11 9 . 

~on spect rophotometer no . 63. 

Ion exchance column . 

High vo lume sampl e r . 

High vo lume samp ler . 

Mo lecu lar s ie ve . 

Po lla k coun te r . 

Chemica l bvbb ler s . 

Automatic open ing r a in 

collector. 

Fog co llector. 

Var ious f i 1 ter pho tometers. 

Gardner counter. 

Wig Wag pyr anometer. 

Reco rding anemometerS. 

Ep p le y Model DA Sunpho come cer 080 an d 500 nm). 

19 

Responsible 

Agency 

cr .... CC/Scr ipps 

GMCC 

GMCC 

GI1CC 

GMCC 

GMCC 

GI1C C 

CMCC 

CMCC 

AEC 

AEC Hea I c h C 

Sa fe ty La b 

EPA 

U of Mi ami 

Sta te Univers it y of N.Y. 

EPA 

CMCCI EPA 

U. o f Hawa ii 

a t Hi 10 

AFGRl 

GMGG 

Ha\-/a i ian 

Suga r Planters Assoc. 
3.3 Barrow, Alaska 

The selection of Barrow, Alaska, as a location for a GMCC Arctic 

baseline station was based on an evaluation of several Alaskan locations. 

To meet WMO guidelines for baseline stations, we found that although 

other Alaskan locations offered longer periods of background air mass 

conditions, their use as baseline stations was too difficult and too 

costly. In order to determine that Barrow would have a "baseline" mode 

for a large part of the time, we measured Aitken condensation nuclei and 

took CO 2 flask samples for 1~ years. This verified that with wind speeds 

greater than (3 m/sec) locally uncontaminated air could be measured 60 

percent of the time at the selected location. This site is also exposed 

to on-shore flow off the Beaufort Sea about 40 percent of the time. This 

flow represents the normal northeast circulation of this Arctic region 

which, when reaching the ~arrow.coast, has crossed only over sea and ice. 

The first pilings for the laboratory were set in late spring of 

1972. Delays were expected because the permafrost permits only seasonal 

types of construction, and the other scientific programs demand most of 

the contractor resources during the summer. In early fall 1972, a threewire pole line and a road bed was completed from the DEW-line site. Except for heaters, electrical wiring, floor, and ceiling tile, the laboratory building was complete by the end of 1972. In addition, pilings for 

the Dobson and tower platforms had been placed. During this const~uction, 

Earth Sciences Laboratories/NOAA continued Aitken nuclei and C02 flask 

samples at the geomagnetism building west of the new laboratory. The 

first station chief at Barrow was hired on 15 November and after a 6 week 

training period with the Techniques and Standards group in Boulder, began 

duty at Barrow January 15, 1973. An agreement for operational support 

services was made between GMCC and the Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Va. A pick-up truck was procured in October. 

3.4 Samoa 

Appraisal of several Pacific islands led to the selection of the 

island of Tutuila of American Samoa as an excellent possibility for a 

Southern Hemisphere baseline station. Two preliminary expeditions, one 

in April 1972 and another in September 1972, were made to Samoa to take 

Aitken measurements and CO 2 flask samples to determine if Cape Matatula, 

at the northeast end of the island, had clean air and background conditions. Both expeditions indicated this to be true, and land access negotiations began with the local owners. At the other end of the island, at 

Tafuna airport, the National Weather Service (NWS) operates a weather station which includes radiosondes twice daily. With their cooperation, 

housing and office space was obtained from NWS, and they agreed to install a precipitation chemistry collector alongside their rain gages. 

NWS also measured turbidity for the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) at Tafuna. 

20 
The second expedition to Samoa incl~d~d National tenter for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) personnel; they found that the Cape ~1atatula site 

would be excellent for their mUlti-gas measurement apparatus used to determine background trends of trace gases. A preliminary program was then 

planned to send GMCC observers to the island to conduct an initial program to yield COz , surface ozone, meteorological, Aitken nuclei, turbidity, and precipitQtion data and to operate the six-component NCAR system. 

At the end of this trial program, a decision would be made whether to 

build a permanent observatory that would continue this data and whether 

to add the other component systems. 3 

4. MEASUREMENT PROGRAMS 

4.1 Gases 

4.1.1 Carbon Dioxide (C02) 

PrincipZe of C02 measurements. Observations of CO 2 are important 

for delineating the secular increase in atmospheric CO 2 caused by combustion of fossil fuels, and for determining the partitioning of man-made 

CO z among the major CO z sinks, viz., the atmosphere, oceans, and biosphere. Such information can be useful for predicting future CO 2 global 

pollution levels and, also its possible effects on infrared (IR) radiation absorption. 

The most sensitive instruments currently in use for measurinq CO z 

are nondispersive type IR CO 2 analyzers. Several different commercial 

instruments are available; all operate basically on the same principle. 

As originally described by Smith (1953)~ the instruments all measure the 

loss of energy of a beam of IR traversing en air sample containir.g CO 2 . 

. A particular analyzer used at the GMCC Techniques and Standards 

Group laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, is ma~ufactured by Mine Safety 

Appliance Co. of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and operates as follows. Infrared radiation emitted by a glO\ ~in<J nichr01lle filamer.t is mechanically 

chopped at 20 Hz and directed through the gas sample cell into a detector 

cell that is permanently filled with CO2 diluted with Argon. The radiation absorbed by the CO2 gas in the detector cell procuces a cyclic pulsation in pressure that is transmitted to a tantalum ciaphragm of a condenser microphone and converted to an alternating voltage, amplified, 

and recorded. The CO 2 in the atmospheric gas sample reduces the radiation reaching the detector cell at just those wavelengths at which absorption can be detected. Thus, the voltage developed by the detector 

varies inversely with the concentration of CO 2 in the sample. 

Infrared CO 2 analyzers either can continuously measure atmospheric 

CO z , such as those at Mauna Loa, or can analyze CO z flask samples. A 

3The location has been determined to be adequate and construction 

planning and land-use negotiations are underway. 

21 
500·.t flask for sampling COl is constructed of Pyre~ gl~55. At e~Ch end 

of the flask an oblique bore gllss stopcock Is connected to a 1~/35 ~ .. e 

sUndard taper joint. The stopcocks are lubric.Hed with Apie:on gruse. 

To obtlin an ~ir sampl. for COl In.lysls, we attaeM a hand aspirator to 

the flask by a greased 14/35 ~ fe-a le standard taper joint. While facinq into the wind, the observer tIolds hiS breath , takes a few steps forward , nd opens up the flask stopcock that IS fartherest aWly. QutcUy ooening the near st opcock .lso, t~e observer rapidly P</q)$ the hind uolrator 

4{) t o 50 times. The S8Wlpllng 15 cOl'pleted by closing the stopcock In re - verse order. To increase the reliability of the data, we usually collect 

f\l5k samples in pairs. 

Catibrnticn of eh, co: analy.,r. A COl analyzer Is cal ibrated by passing COI -in -Nz referenc! gases of kno.,m calibrations through the In- strument. Although a nu-ber of commercial finns can supply reference 

gases of desirable quality , the gases are c~librated It the Scripps in- stitute of Oceanography, University of California at San Olego. under the 

dlr«tion of C. O. KeeHng. lie established a set of pri_ary standard COl 

reference gases early in the 1960's by using a highly accura te ma nometric 

calibration .. thod. All new an~s of COl reference gas are calibra t ed 

relative to Keeling 's primary standards. 

A new g~s synthesis" method of absolute calibration of COl reference gases was recently devised by W. O. ~yr (1912) of the GHCC Tech· 

niques and Stand~rds Group in Boulder. Colorado . His _ethod combines 

accurately known volumes of pure COl and HI under ident ical co nditions 

of ter.oerature ~nd pressure. A prototyoe aO(l5ratus has been successfully tested. and work Is underway in fabri ca ting an apparatus to be used for 

routine calibra ti ons. 

Lbta SYIr:W'lf. The l13una loa Inde~ values of contlnuGus CO 2 .ea · sureraent are shown In tabole 4. These values will be adjustird When final 

Jln. )20.75 J.n. 32t.~2 

reb. )21.1f. reb. 322.11 

~,. )21.59 Mar . 322.60 "", . 322.17 Apr. 323.3S 

"" 323.11 '" 323.11 

Jun. 3<2.92 Jun. )2).00 

Jul. )2 .8~ Jul. J22.~~ 

'"' )20.3~ Aug . )20.78 

Sep. 318.75 Sep. )1'.5 ~ 

Oct. 318.92 Oct . )19.70 

~OV. 31''1.9' No" . )20.82 

OIC. 320. 8~ Po,. 321.91 
(.11br.tlOIl Is Conplll.d by PnDf, C. D. Keeling of the Scripps Instituti on of Oceanoqraphy. II Jolla, C,IIfornl •. Flgu~ 15 shows the equipmillt a t Kaun. LOI. 

The monitoring of atmospheric CO, by lhe glass flls~ ~thod was 

ccnnenced In 1967 by th, NOAA En¥lro~ntll Res,n,h l.borltorfes I,. 8oulder, Colorado. N~erous shor -t~nn s.~llng progr~ ~YI bten conducted. 

Those haYIng rlcords long ~ough to rend!r the c!au espKt.lly .'fllngful 

Ire 1 tstl!d In l.bl. 5. hbles 6 and 7 give CO. dlta obt.lned It holD of 

our sllII;lltng sItu: Bln'ow. Ahska. and Ocun Sta tion Charlie (52'.5',. 

3soJO'W). The CO, conctntra tions shown In ttl, tables Ire Indu 'f.lufS • 

that ere sugJ.ct to. $1'\411 IIIIInMetric corrl!(tion. 

In 1972, two UNOR Infrared CO, an.lyzers (~nu f. ured by H. Marhatl 

Ag. Hamburg, Gennany) were procured for tne continuous COl ~nftortng programs. One will be sent to ~rrow, Ahs~a , during the s_r of )973, and 

the second for the Sout h Pole Station , Antarctica, will begin operating early In \974. 

'.1.: fotc:llO_ (0" 

loul 0, observations by the Dobson Olone spectrophotOftter 

wer. first Nde tn the early 1950's by the U.S . ~eather Bureau. The progr~ galntd Inpttus during the Internationa l Geophysical Years 

(]9S1-1959). Ourin9 the early 1960's the observation program was rlvl~, since that tlr.e • nearly continuous record of observations 

h,s been av.llable. A brief history of the U.S. total ozone observations progr_, since 1961, loU rKently bell'fl recorded by ~yr et al. 

(1912). 

hVt.npz. of 010fW ~U. The Dobson olone sptctroplloto- ~ter (fig. 16) ~.sures 0, by co-parln9 the relattv. intensities of selecttd pairs of ~velen9ths in t he HU99lns 0, absorption band (3000-JZSOA). 

A rot.tlng SIC tor wheel within tbe Instrunent .llows elch wavelength to 

pass alternately to the cathode of the phota.ul t lpl ler tube, which produces a vari.ble output tllat Is ampl ifi ed by an a-c IfIII)I1fler, rectified 

2J 

Figwv Is. COl .,cm.ri..g equip-

_t at NUJ. 
!abb S. 

, ... " .... --.. "., -... "-.. (_ .... ".~ .... ) 

:.-.. ",' .. " 

: .... "'" .... St. 

., ... ".," 

"_, "'f' t ..... ' ·t .... 

............. -.... ...... _ '_'0."" 

........... -"'''''' Sro'" •• _ , .. "t ... 0# ..... I 

'" .. , ",."" 

:... .. .. ' 

,,' '" 

'" 

'.-_ 0' \ '0 

100'., _ ("",1 .... • .,.,,< 

..... -. ., ..... I" •. 'U·. 

III" ··s,., •• ,., ..... ........ ",",,,, • " ...... S_I_ 

. ",." 

t·-"." 

101 •• , ••• , 

(, .... , ... , .. 

•• 

... ,.,.! 

h",,·,_ 1_'0 

.. " .... . ,. l"~ 

.. ' , ... , .. , l ... ' 

.. , , ... , 

s... , ... ' 

, 

" 

~" "" .. ". ''''1<, .. -

. .. , ... , I .. 

." '., " " '. n 

•• .. • • • ~ .. ." " ,. ,I' ... ,.." toe 

~ " -" 

.. ~ > .. " 

" -" , ~ • .. ',. ... .,- .. ,-'" ".".ut ,- .... ,. •• J .. /, •• " 

.. , it, 

-.' 

I .. " ... / . , ... U 

" -" , ...... , 

.1 _ '" ....... , 

......... ... ,,", " 0" I •• ' (0, .. " ... 

'* t. '.1) ... , " .-... """"'_ 'I." ..... ". I , ..... 

... II, .. , ..... , ... , .... So. 10 •• , 

J , •• 't 

j .. , 11 

" 

-... ........... ", .. , ' .. co',,,,,., 

""'"'''' 

1_"' ..... to ,,, .... "" .. ,. II k .. " __ ........ ,''', 

.",,101 '" •• n.J .... 4 _ ._ .... 

, -., ... --'" , .... " .' ' .... tI_ •• _ ... _" 

Tko 0'1'" ... , ....... . .. . ..... , .. "" .. 

_ .. ... , ....... , ............... . . ......... / ... ,' 

l ........ ' ''' ·w. 'S" '" 

.., "'''' ....... ........ o. ""- """',,, to ........ ... -.,,, .... _ .. , 

.... ... _ 

"" ...... 

.. ' " -

,-II ......... . 0 ,_, "',,-

.., ... " .... '. ,,,,.,, ... ' .. <' ... ' .... .. ",'" « .. , .... 

'-'" ..... I • t " 

.......... " ... '" . .... 'til 

' ........ " te·'". ""., ........ ",,., 

"H _ ... 1 .......... , .. ,,,,..," 

•• _ff,,' •• __ II ..... _. .-,,'._'" ... ,., '. ~;.,., 

....... " .. , , ......... , ..... It • • •• _ ... 4 , ... O< .. ....,.~, 

... .0 

It, •• ~, ... ' . ... " .f fI ... . _II. _, It .11 '''' .... , ... . 
1'abl. If. CO, l...uz Vd .... roY' &:!o~ . Ala.hI 

'''' '" '" Wind 

Fink Fink Direction ..... /oclty ("'Ph) 

1'71 

2S A9r 330.6~ 329.,~ , 5-6 

J l1.y 326. 10 32 .62 "" 1 2 - 1 5 

, 325.05 32~.a 6 " 6-8 

" 324.96 325.12 S 8·10 

" 325.29 325.3~ , 15 

lO 325.68 325.72 SE , 

7 Jun 325.20 325.0& " ) 

, 5 )210.82 )210. )8 " 6 

" 3210.25 322.06 '"' 6-8 

6 Jul 321. 23 321.21 " 12 ·18 

" )20._7 318.,6 , 5-8 

" 

315.86 • , 15-20 

" 316.18 )15.") , 8·12 

3 Aug 315.73 315.73 , 8-12 

" )15.57 315.05 " 5-8 

" 315.72 315.06 " 5 - 1 0 

" 1~.11 31~.~~ " ) -5 

) , 314.56 314. 16 " 5 - 1 0 

7 Sip 313.73 313. ?l " 10-15 

" 318.73 318.)0 '" 8-12 

" 319.5" 319.58 '" )-5 

" 316.00 316.56 " 15-25 

11 OU 317.88 318. 16 '" H 

" 319.58 )19.12 " 5-10 

" )1)'. )S 323.510 S H 

".,. )20.29 320.73 " 8·U 

, )20. )8 )20.38 "" 20-25 

" 325.33 325.77 '" 12-18 

2J 323.83 323.69 " H 

)0 322.90 322 .6~ " H 

6 o.c 326.89 323.71 ----LIgh t' ..... rl.bl.···· 

" nO.J5 )55.20 "' 2-J 

" 324.78 32~.87 " 15-20 

" 3"3.81 3~2. 70 '" 15'20 

1;12 

~ J.n )26.2) 323.77 , 12-18 

" 331. ]0 327.36 , 15-25 

" 321.otI 326.80 , 12 ·18 

,. 33".9" ))6.910 ESE H 

" 
Table 6. ro, I>tdeo: Ya~ues [0)' Ba)'l'OI<I, Akulka (con't) 

Oate ,,, ". 1,/i nd 

Fink Fl ask Direction V"locity (",ph) 

\972 

, ',b 339.36 333.60 , H 

8 3<9 . 22 BO. 7~ " H 

" 331.10 328.46 " 5-8 

" 328.2. 329 .09 m 6-10 

" 329.87 329.30 " 6-8 

7 ,,, ]]6.36 337.6 \ 5 , -, 

.- 334. 10 330 . \6 '"' H 

" 330.20 329.96 "' 3-5 

" 326.46 327.56 " 6-8 

, '" 328.44 329.65 , 8-12 

" 328.59 329.00 , 20 - 25 26 326.08 " '" 20- 30 

, '" ]30.86 329.05 '" H 

, 327.08 327 .08 " , . ) 

" J27.0~ 326.98 " 5-10 

" 330.40 328.90 '" 20- 25 

)0 326.22 326.44 " 8-10 

~Brok"n Fl as k . 

~y a commutator, and deflects a need l e on an output mi~roa~~ter. By posi t ioning a cal ibrated optica l wedge in the path of the longer (more in -

tense) wavel eng t h beam, we can reduce the int ensity of th is ~eam at the 

photomu l tip l ier cathode to the same in t ensity ~s h~t of the short er 

(weaker) w~yelength ~eam . The photomultiplier tUbe output ~hen becomes 

constan t and no signal appears in the output of the a-c ampl ifier. The 

position of the optica l wedqe at null point is a measure of the relative 

In t ensiti es of the two wavelengths bein9 measured. 

The theoretica l ba5 i5 f or total ozone measurements with 3 groundbased spectrophotometer h~s been adequ~te y descri bed by Dobson (1957), 

who also included observationa l methods and cal ibration test proc edures. 

Calib~tion and quality c~tral. Do bson ozone spectrophotometers 

are ca libr ated on an absol ute scale by obse r~ ng direct s~nlight on very 

cle~r (2-d~ys when the total ozone afllount Is belle~ed t o remain essent i - ally constant. The technique enables the "extra-terrestrial const~nts " 

to be detemined for the instrument at several wavelengths . This method 

w~s employed in ca l ibrating our st~ndard Dobson spectrophotometer , instrument no . 83. All other spectrophotometers in our station ne t wo r k 

have been calibrated by comparing them directly wi th the standard i nstru -

ment. This procedure ent ails simu ltaneous l y observinq the direct sun at 

several wave leng ths with the calibrated and ~calibr ated inst ruments when 

the air mass varies between 1. 0 and 3.5, ~nd then comparing t he resul ts. 
Table ,. COl Inde.r Vallifl' f or Oo«vr J.leothlr SU'tiOtl "Cloarli," 

(st"'S'N, J 5"3O'/I) 

,,, ~nd Clnd Oa t e Fluk Flul< ~jr.~tlon til Ve o~ ft y (knots) 

21 Hov. 322.84 322, 76 "" '" " " 319.)8 ) 19 . 56 '" II 

"" )22. 49 )22.1 4 '" " " 

321. 70 )2 1. 1~ '" )I 

" 319.82 320.00 ," " " 026.I~lu )2Z. I~ ", " 

19&9 

5 J,n 320.24 (322. 41 ) '00 " " 

320.97 (3 Z2.571 '" " " ()21.6S) 320.38 '" , 

" (329. 1)) 32 4 .42 lJO 18 

) Feb 320. 7~ (312 3~) '70 • 10 029 .(0) 320.40 '70 18 

" }21. 54 321. 40 '" " 8 liar 321.81 321.91 '" " 

" 322.4~ 322. 48 ," , 

15 321. 26 321.14 '30 " " 32 1.64 32 1 .26 01' " " 025.08) 025 .(5) '" • 

7 Apr )21.68 32 1 .98 '50 II 

" 322.08 32 1. 90 '" " " 322.20 322.12 ,50 

3 ~y (lU.02l (}25.78) '10 " 

10 121.62 )22.68 3 " " 0 " 18 322. " (328.22) '50 " " 322 .62 323.12 '10 " " 323.2 1 323.12 '" " 8 Jyn 320.25 320.39 18, , , 

" 021.96) 320.66 '" 7 

" ,'8.21 318.'0 270 

9 Jyl " 318.03 01'.'1.)1) no " " .111.13 317.0) '" " 2J 315.05 }l4·96 270 , 

" 315.60 315.~0 '" ,. 

10 Ayg 314 .88 )15.17 ," 9 

" 3 1 ~ .• I '14 .11 " " " 31).S7 314.~1 '70 

30 313.57 312.78 " '" 14 

.Res~1!ble Age .. ~y 1968-1 971 - HOAA-ERL Atmospheric Phys i cs and 

C~lstry ~.bor.tory. 

17 
Table ? C02 Index Values foY' Ocean ~/eatheY' Station "Char>lie /I 

(52°45'N~ 35 0 30 'f-I) 

Date 1 s t 2nd Wi nd 

Flask Flask Direction {o ) Velocity (knots) 

1969 

6 Sep (314.76) 312.58 260 15 

17 (342.20) 316.40 230 18 

23 316.06 (322 .62) 295 22 

30 330.58 broken 150 15 

8 Oct 316.41 316.75 310 25 

15 317.14 317.10 210 18 

24 317.00 317.06 230 9 

2 Nov 317.72 317.76 300 21 

10 310.17 320.26 310 41 

17 (319.60) 318.64 210 15 

24 320.30 320.33 148 3 

2 Dec 319.18 319.51 195 23 

8 318.84 319.36 180 23 

19 (32].06) 320.93 260 20 

26 ()22.67) 321 .21 180 20 

1970 

5 Jan 321 .54 321 .20 10.0 25 

1 I 323.08 32237 nsC! 22 

18 323.18 322.94 230 14 

26 322.51 broken 700 25 

2 Feb 321 .98 322.18 270 30 

10 >scale (317.80) 010 13 

16 (364.9Y) >Scu!c 280 28 

18 Mar 32Y.8 L 32/;.22 230 15 

26 (339.53) broken 1yO 18 

5 Apr (326.7 4) 324.57 120 35 

11 325.14 325.87 115 10 

18 323.47 (325."38) 270 30 

25 (328. On (333.11) 290 y 

5 ~jay 323.80 (32£.00) 290 yO 

13 323.80 323.7Y 080 12 

20 322.28 322.47 235 6 

30 (326.yy) (327.82) 360 10 

5 Jun (327.95) (335.38) 260 3Y 

12 320.Y7 320.3Y 160 15 

2 J u 1 319.53 313.36 310 10 

9 319.16 318.87 220 21 

25 319.90 320. 11 310 15 

28 
Table 7. C02 Index Values for Ocean rfeather Station "Charlie" 

(52°45'N~ 35°30 'W) 

Date 1 s t 2nd Wind 

Flask Flask Direction (ll J Velocity (knots) 

1970 

4 Aug (326.74) 319.48 210 5 

1 1 (327 . 85) 317.56 330 28 

18 315.78 315.59 200 18 

27 (317.12) 314.81 240 17 

4 Sep (341 .26) >scale 310 10 

12 317.36 317.50 250 15 

19 Oct 322.08 321.90 190 8 

25 320.48 320.30 310 14 

31 (321.47) 320.60 250 10 

2 Nov 320.48 (322.03) 280 18 

10 320.44 321 .04 290 30 

21 (323.44) 321.94 300 20 

25 323.22 322.78 020 21 

4 Dec 321 .57 321 .52 190 37 

11 322.10 322.49 315 20 

24 322.44 322.64 150 8 

31 321.47 (326.13) 115 24 

1971 

7 Jan", 325.89 326.13 220 30 

11 322.39 322.29 M M 

18 323.72 323.00 M M 

25 323.77 323.44 M M 

6 Feb 324.86 324.29 070 16 

15 324. 10 324.10 300 13 

20 325.24 325. 15 210 6 

4 Mar 326.76 326.92 120 25 

11 327.72 327.29 265 20 

18 325.26 324.74 100 8 

16 Apr 325.05 324.67 020 8 

24 324.34 324.34 220 4 

30 . 324.53 324 . 10 210 28 

15 May 324.06 323.58 210 25 

22 323.48 323.44 260 25 

27 322.40 322.36 200 17 

3 Jun 324.25 323.50 330 30 

10 322.36 322.36 100 15 

23 320.10 320.00 275 30 

30 318.40 318.35 260 20 

,',S i nce Jan. 1971 responsible agency is Geophysical Monitoring for 

Cl imatic Change - ARL/NOAA. 

29 
Tab:' ,. COl IPldfiz Value, for (keQJ1 I.IB<lthIiP Stati.c>r "Charlil1" 

(52"45 'N. 35"30 '1.1) 

Date ." 2 ... d Io/ind 

FtHk Fl ask m.cdo ... i"l Veloclt):: {J;: ... ou) 

1971 

7 Jul 319.53 319.53 >4, 10 

" )17.65 317.75 I)' ., 

'3 318.83 318.60 04' 

)0 316.96 317.06 '10 " )0

7 Aug 317.38 317.24 ", " " )\5.72 315.03 16' 10 

" JI~.63 2) '00 22 

I Sep (31 6.12 ) 314.96 245 

10 )15.]3 (J19.6)) " '" " " )17.61 316.94 no " " 317.43 line- 300 ---'6-

1 Oct )15.87 )16.17 125 22 

• 31 9. 63 319.48 ." , 

'3 318.93 319. 48 280 

,. 32 1.66 321 .91 " 

12 '" " '0" 321. 98 )21.80 .80 8 

" 321. 12 )20.78 19' 16 

" 322.22 321.65 285 29 

1971 

I Jar, 325.03 324.76 09' 12 

8 325.74 325. 60 ,00 50 

" 326.72 326 2~ 320 50 

27 32~.76 324 .67 no 

, ,.b 028 .64 ) 326.58 20' " 10 

II 324.76 324 .76 ,,, 

12 324 .69 324.64 2" " 16 

7 l'I.r (330.76) broke" 270 15 

27 (321.03) 325.54 IOC 10 

,. ]25.81 326. 13 'JO 19 

7 Apr 325.97 325.86 26~ " " 325 .97 325.S7 '3' 10 

2' 326.40 326.60 ," " 2 May 326.50 )26.60 ' 90 12 

, 028.63) J26.1 4 ' )0 16 

10 J un 322.02 321.82 .00 I) 

" 323 .50 323.65 29' 15 

>4 32).85 323.95 270 >4 

JO 322.70 322.49 ," ., 

JO 
Table ,. CO, Index Values for ~ean Weather Station "Charlie" (52~45'tI. J5°30 ' ff) 

'U 2nd ii! ~d Oau Fl ask Fla sk ()ir~~ tl on (0 ) Veloci ty (k~ots ) 

1972 

7 "" 319 .94 320. 26 '70 >0 

14 31B. 18 318.18 "0 is 

" 318.77 318.87 165 12 

" 318 .00 317.95 "0 

, " "5 316 .58 31 6.73 170 12 

" 315.98 316.07 'SO ,e 315. 10 314. 98 no " " " 315.81 315.86 no 17 

" 5., 316.73 316 .60 160 ,. 

>0 315 . 46 315. 46 ,eo 

26 316. 25 316.33 250 " " 

, 0" 318.53 318.44 no ,e 

8 319. 18 319.28 )10 " " (329. 10) 321.07 )40 17 

;'''Pare nthesis ind i ca te quest i onab l e ddta (e • <.I • • samp l e s did nO t match) . 

Detailed i nformation outlin i ng observationa l as well as i nstrument 

t est procedures, of our total ozone rogra~ are adequate ly descri bed i n 

Komhyr (1962 and 1953). The tota l ozone data are processed by computer. 

A FORTRAN program, whi ch incorporat es the resul ts from l east -s quares fi t - t ing procedures, accepts as input punched cards and two magn etic tapes. 

The cards are produced from the sheets containing the lamp test data and 

those cont ain i ng the observation data . One magnetic tape conta i ns solar 

ephemeris da t a, which are needed f or computing the s un's zenith ang le . The other tape cont ains data pertinent to the individua l Dobson instru- ,nents and where they ~re located. The pri nted output of this program incl udes, amongh other t hings , a tabular li sting of the results for a given station f or a gi ven mon t h with up to six observations per day . Each en - t ry in this tabl e conta i ns numerals that indicate the day, nearest GMT 

hour, va l ue, wavel engths, type of observation, and total amoun t of 0, 

in mi lli -atmo-cms. 

Data 8wmrary. A l ist of stati ons where we have oDserved total 

Ol one i n t he past, or where lie are still doing s uch measurements , is In 

table 8 . Processed data from our st at ion network are routine ly sent 

to Canada for pu blica t ion i n behalf of the "orld 11eteorol ogical Organizat i on (liMO). Cop i es of the publications, "Ozone Oata for the Worl d," may 

be obta i ned from Di r ec tor , Atmos pheri c End ronment Servi ce , 4905 Du f- ferin Street, Downsv e~" On t ario , Canada. 

Two recent analyses of total Olone data have y1elded the rather 

sur prisi ng result that Ol may have increased i n mJ ny parts of the world 

11 
11. DoC."", .~ctrop""'tD­

_t.l' at HLO. 

during the 1960, (Kcmyr et .II., 1911). The toul 0, Increue is par. tlcularly well·doc __ nted for karOl .rlca (KoMyr et .11.,1972). Fig· 

ure 11 shOilfs th. 0, trends c.lculne'<i for tM U.S. Ind the Iwaf1.bh 

Canadian s~tlons. The rates of Increlsa (In percent) of 0, per decade 

at each station Ire Indlcatea In fi gure 18 which also shows ~an ,nnu,l 

total 0, Isopleths for the period of record (1961-1970). Figures Ig and 

20 s~ t~ total 0, ~asu red at the st,tlons listed In tabl e 8 . 

•• 1.3 Swrfac. O~on. 

A knowle-cjge of the distributi on of 0, nHr t~ surf". of the 

elrth Cln provide useful info~ ti on for studying trlnsport processes In the .t.osphere. SIne. the sOOP'ce of .llIOst .11 near surface ozone 

Is the stratospheric 0, I.ye" surface ozone Is " valuable tool for 

studyi ng stratospheric-tropospheric exchange processes. An ,dequate cll- ~tology of surfac. 0, CAn shed li ght on It least three questions: (I) 

Is t~erl " different process of e~ch.n ng 0, 'n the Northern .nd Southern ~lIJIhpheres? (2) Wh.t Is the role of eddy exch.nge within the trop- Ics and Is the eddy e~chlnge coefficient. constant across the equator? (3) How llIpOrunt .re the hlqh latltud. rf910M relAtive to th. tropics In the exch.nge betw •• n thl str' o,p~.r. and troposp~erl? 

Long-ten. changes In surface 0, concentr.tlons .,y reflect c~nges 

In tilt rate of uclwllll'J' b.tween stratosph.re and troposphere: Ik,,, they 

can Indlc.te chinges In .It~er the Int~sl ty or the loc,tlon of f!,t~res 

of the .U'Ospherlc cir culation pattern. S~ch changes, for eun :)l e, .ight show up In the latitud inal distri bu tion of 1urf.c! 0) or In I P~l l' ~hift 

of the annual cycle. At present, th. precision of surface 0, ,surernents 

Is about 1)0 percent ; therefore, seeuh r trends J\lst be rel"tll ,. y hfge 

to lit detected . ChlnQ's In the ',tHudl",,1 distri bution Dr ~~,I 'u In 

phlSe sllQuld. however , be consider~bly euler to detect . 

J1 
Figure 17. Plota of mean mont hty 

tatat ~"". d.piari.cn .f1'Oltl -"'OI1th. 

/.y no1'l102Za for 1Io1'th Amerioon 

atatUm.. Li>1~l' plots haP. 

been fitt.d t o th. data. 

operation of o~OKe meters. OZone meters currentlj measuring surflce 0) are the electro-chemical concentration cell (ECC de~eloped by ""jr (1969) . The meters ha~e ~n fCC sensor , a 9as samp l ing pump (Komhyr, 1967 , a sensing solution f low system , a scrubber for emo~lng Interfering 

sulfur dioxi de from the air being sampled , ~n mpl ifter, and a recorder. 

Operat ion is from 110 V, 60 Hz l ine power . 

The ECC sensor with in the me ter consists of two bright platinum electrodes~ each Is Imme rsed In a potassium iodide solution of a different concentration contained in separate cathode and anode chambers. These 

chambers are linked by an Ion bridge of porous Vycor glass. It acts as an 

Ion pa t hway while preserving the concentrations of t he ca t hode and inode 

electrolytes. The electrolyte in each Chambe r also con t ai ns potassium 

bromide and a buffer, but t he concentration of these chemicals Is Identical in each hal f cel l. 

J3 
l 

• 

'---<~)''-----

Figur. 16. ~J1 D'll>Iuo:t tct<lt OZ{l1" 

iaopt,ehs for tJuI Nortll kooIirica>o 

Ctw.t i>1llllt Ii<lrilNld from daM ob. 

tai.",d UlIl'i"9 1961 to 1970. 

The driving electromotive force (emf) for the ECC sensor Is not 

applied ext ernally but Is derived fro~ the difference of potassfu~ Iodide concentr ations in the two chamoers. For Ir. open-circuited cell 

first charged with sensing solution, the ~( Is about 0.13 V. When the 

cell leads are, hoWever, connected togetli{or, tMs emf forces Iodide near 

the anode to give up electrons to the anode. A sensitive working equil1bl"iu. state for the cell Is th!m reached, and the f!IIf drops to nearly 

zero. If, however, the concentration of iodine (ld In the cell cathode 

cha.ber Is increased by some method, the iodine molecules near the cathode 

will accept electrons from the cathode and convert them to iodide while 

iodide near the anode wi l l be forced to give up electrons to the anode 

and he converted to iodine. The current flowing in the EtC external circui t is thus directly re lated to t he conversion of Iodine to iodide or 

iOdide to iod ine . 

Air cont.i ining an oxidant such as 0., when i t is bubbled int o the 

ca thode electrolyte, produces Iodi ne according to the relation 

The cell then converts iodine to iodide, and t ne OJ partial pressure (p,) 

in nanooars ~y ~e calculated frOi 

where I Is the ozone current ()JA) f1~,lng throuQh tile cell and F Is the 

flow rate (ml/sec) of the air being sa~l d at te-perature T (OK). 
or • O' 

• c • • • '" • 

, ~ <; ; , ~, -, 

• • • 

'-

". r-

.. - " - l 

~- -

l ......J :\' 

a hi • • • • • • • ," .' , • •• 

• • 

--

• 

. 

T f- j 

--I 

35 

r- .. ~I • • • f 

, " 

• , -

< . • • • 

I 

, 

l 

• J 

, • 

11 ~ ; 

• 

; 

- ! 

!' ~ • I • • • ~ ~, 

, ' \ ' I - ~ - - J 

Of-- • 

HI 

- .I 

I 

, 

I ~ 

I 

• 

• 

! 

, , , V!Jl2! l 

~ 

• ~ 

• , > • r" . -

. 

• :.; 

., 

•• • 

.~ 

&·i 

8::: ~ .§ • 

• •• \) .. ~ .. , ... 

Ejl 

• . . • 

iiH 

~J; 

· • •• " 

· r~ ~i 
-

• 

--

----- " " " " < • • • • , • • • • • • • • • " " " " " •• • " " 

........ .., ........ .................... 

• 

• > 

--- " " < • • • • • • • • • " " " "' " 

" -, 

• -

· ". • 

-

< -< 

• • • • • • " " "" 

0 

~ -~~ -.. ..0 .... '" -< c ............... 0 • .000'" N • ....... - -

-• .............. ....... "' - ;8'" e ........ _ <:> 

• 

" 

J6 

• • • 

• 

• 

- ... "'.., ..... -........ .................... "'''''''' .... <7\.., 0 0 ... - ............. ........................... 

000 -~ . __ 0 

, 

• 

.. . 

"-" .. - .. ... .. "e"'''. !! .-- .. ~ .. !~ • •• 

. " " 0_ .. 

""-

.-" ::~~ 

" • 

. -

-

• 

.. "-

•• 

, -

j 
Calib1'<lnon and quaUty COlltl'O~ . The retOlmlended technique for 

calibrating surface 0, .easurlng equipment Is by comparing wIth the 

neutral buffered-potasslun Iodide method developed by Sal tzman (1 965) . In t his met hod, sampling Is conducted In midget impingers conta ining 1 

percent potassium Iodide in a ntutral (pH 6.8) buffer composed of 0.1 

mol ar dlSOdlum hydrogen phosphate and 0.1 ~lar po tassium dlhydrogen phospha t e. Iodine Is liberated In the absorbll19 reagent by Olone and 

t he absorbance 15 measured at 352 om by a spectrophotometer. 

We have not yet used the Salt~n talibratl on ~thod in our work; howe~er, instrumen ts and supplies have been Ordered to establish such a ~r rtor y stanuaro for our surf~,e Olone measuremenu progril" . An inleri", 

ca l ibration technique is, however , in use and will be compared with the 

Sa l tzman calibra tion method In the future. The current technique con- sists of 

1. prov iding each observln9 sta ti on with a stable ozone generator 

t hat has been ca l ibrated with a reference secondary standard EtC ozone 

meter (Serial No. 0(1); 

2. checking the performance of the station ECC me t er Onte per 

mont h by running it on ozone ou t put by the calibrated generat or; and 

3. correcting ECC meter surface ozon~ data , if necessary so as to 

maintain the callbration l eve l of the standard EtC meter ri~l No. 001. 

Qu~llty control of the da ta is further maintained t hrough checks 

of the computer analyzed resu lts fo r representativeness and consistency with anticipated results based on theoretica l work and previous observations (Junge , 1962. Junge and Czeplak, 1968). 

Ctzta .WIrIW'lf. During 1972 "",---'-r-~-r-. 

surface 0, was observed only at 

P.rttIl'Idsen-Scott station In Antare - '" 

tlea. The data have been processed ~ 

~nd are available fr()l!l the GMCt Teeh - ~ 10 

nlques and Standards Group , Boulder, 'I 

Colorado. Hourly average va l ues, as i 

well AS dally means, dally llaxima, l. 

and monthly etan concentration have 

been computed for Oecetllber 1911 to ! iO 

October 1972. The mean IlIOnthly values and the average monthly ma)(l~ J 

(calculated fr~ daily maxima) are 

shown in figure 21. Plans call for 

the publica tion of such data In 

,-/'''' 

• 

, 

, 

-

IIDJrMAM iJ AS O M O~o"a Data f or th. World, published by the Atmospheric Environment Ser- vice of Canada in cooperation with 

t he World Meteorological Organizat Ion. 

We also have available a considerable !l1\Oun t of surface 0, data 

from Antarctica, some obtained as 

Pigura 21. Surfaca o~""a at South 

Po l.a llloosl<J'ed with an ecc .W"faca 

0 11""01 ",,,ear. The !laUd ClU"Va repl'llilents morrthZlf mean swoface ~"" " 

par'tial preSBlll'eS L1hila the dashed 

ClU"V

~ 

e indioates tJua averaga morrthllf 

slll'face aZOl'le partial pNlS-
early ~s 1961. The data were collected usinq a varie ty of ln r~nL.s. 

Final processin9 of the datil has begun , ~nd resu l ts wIl l soon be a~ai1

able in a NOAA Technical Repor t. 

4.2 A.erosols 

1.2.1 HLO Ruby LaB9r ~ syst~ 

IntJ'C<iuc t i<m. The primary purpose of the MLO laser rada r (lidar) syst~ is to accurately sure the str atospter iC scat t ering properties. 

Any change o~er the years i n t he visible or IR oPtics of t he stratosphere 

could ha~e a serious impact on tile ea r th's cli~te. lhe lidar syster- was 

not r ea l ly operational in 1972. The data presented here are fron !973 

and are included In this annual report to illustrate the me t hod. We 

hope to Include more conplet e data In the next annua l report. Th e 

Hauna Loa staff is working on techni ques to pro~e t he da ta and a computer system is being installed on-l ine to f~lly au tomate t he da t a anal . ys is. 

5UQt<VII descrip tion . The l ldar syst etJI is shown In figu re 22. It 

Is a t the Observatory H 3.4 km HSL. The se tting Is appropriate because 

the cl ear atmosp here reduces degradation of thoe siglUll. and the nearness 

of the strat osphere reduces Inverse-square losses. A block diagram of 

the systElll appears in figure 23. 

F4;14N1 :2. PhotorJraph of LU!.tu 

"11" t "'" . 

3B 
2 

1 

4 - - 4 

7 6 5 

8 9 10 

11 

I 12 

'----

13 

Pi(JUNJ 2:f. 0) Apollo JJ, 30 "" rub.!! tale r, ;: PP". ( 2 ) 40 coo dia.. N _ 

fleet"" long >'<'1"9" t.'t4. ,,~; (JI 6 "," dUx. NlflllCt.M' aJ.nroL l".:m.;. td.-

.cop.; (4) l"t.rf.~ filter, lOA bandpgu e>t 19431.; ([,.6) SIoDrt Wtd 

~ nit"". p}tot_ttlpli.r twNII. RCA 1;:6$; ( ? ) Long 1'<ZIt9" IW1' oood'ultlt.". 

ur.i.t; (I} PhotDdiQt;k ta.~.r C>' .. tpll~ dd." tr:>l"; (',10) Lew p"". ,,1..,.~Z 

fHUr, .,.u/, DfAto"; (11) D4Ji.tal 1101=-t",.; fIV o.-..t d&oal.b.Jan, 

"ciUoeoo". uith 1'ol.a.l'Did """""""" .",it; ( U ) ri"fi>tQ omit. 

In the diagr~ m. we Sfe the laser pulses enltted by 1. the Apolle 

Tuby laser. The angular width of the bel_ 1$ Ibout 10 !IT.d. The pulse 

rate h " PI1"I and the pulsf! duration 15 )0 nSK. ltvfn9 .. range resolu - tlon of 5 ITI. Puho ene1'91 Is "bout 3J with. pea pow-er of about 10' W. 

The 0l,lt901n9 pulse passes thrOll91'1 a 1-.. (olll1..,to1' tllf,t reduces stray 

light In the dome . Hoe backscattered light frOil ~e atlJOsphere is col - letted by two teTesc(llles, 2 ,nd 3. The optical UIS of till! sy$tem ,rl! alig~ l! d usi ng a t~rget ebout 300 n 'way . The col lec t~ 11gllt pas~e. througll blnd pa ~~ filters, wlli ch reduce backg round 11gllt, Ird is dl!tected by roulti pl1er pnototubes . 5 ~nd 6. Tile r esulting e lectriul s1 gnal is filtered 

to p"duce an integration t1,,", of about 1 IIsee: and 15 then recorded using 

In oscll loscClpe -camen ccnbln·itlor, 12. A ~1Ia1l MOunt of t he IIser l1~ ht 

is coll ected and det"~ted at 8. nol! output Is displayed at 11 ,nd Is used 

to nOrlllallze ~1! return signals. 

" 
~ea cmaly.i •. Th~ backscattered irradlance at the detector , I(t). 

" I (t) • kll 0)( 1./R1 

or: 

o • [It) )l RI/ k )l II 

w~tre I( t ) 15 the Irrad lance as a function of time, k is a system constant , o Is the blckscatterlng cross section (bcs) per un it volume (averaced over the resolution el~nt of the lldar - in th is case 5 m), 10 Is 

the outgoing laser !rradiance . ~ is the range. 

Each photograph conta ins II graph that is proportiona l 

usually ranges from 0 to 200 usee for useful signal return. 

severa l photographs, wt get t he best I(t). denot ed I(tlav. 

t o I( t). It 

By ~verdging 

A typical pho to output f~ the system is Shown in figure 24, The 

pho tos are now being analyzed ~nual1y, although this will soon be done 

by a computer. Each trace is digitized at 4-usl!c intervals usi ng a 

ruler. The upper and lowe r edges of the tr4te ~rt' re4d 4nd the result 

r~ 24. Lidar> outJl'tt IJig!uIh . /Jpper t1"(lCIL is 10l'l9-m7t911 tducopll outpuc. SWq rgtil t. 20 IJIJ/_. ~i.ch corruponds to Q rong. of 3 W"". 

Dw-i1l9 li1'lt 60 II'. PM' gai" is ....m.c.tld b!l ~t(l1" lUlU. 8ri{11,t -"'GIdwlae.:·r 

.traigll e ll~ i, Msdi".. ~.r tracll ilJ sllore rang. 8Coptl. S%oIeep 

roe. i. S 1I.lc-. or 1SO III roHg' ptll' "". 011 both trae ... t ....... 1.nCl"tlatlea 

to J'£gll t. 011 &<pPtIJ' trac., polJitilltl tlig>Ial is doc.>nr.>ard . 

" 
averaged. This gIves us JO or 40 va lues for each trace on each photo, 

or 60 t o 80 values per phot o. We usuilly take 5 shots per evening, 

giving 5 photos, or 3QO to 400 v"lues each evening, The d"U are 

t~en organized and present ed by the ca-puter progr~ Iidar shown In Ap _ 

pendix A. The ou t put of this proqr .. is the relative bcs at each altftu6e. 

R .. ute., The resul ts an! sllololfl in f igure 25. The Rayleigh SCilttering 1s c.1tuhted using the HWS rawinsonde data fl"Oll Hila. This 

is plotted at the various altitudes on seNt-log paper. The rel at ive 

bcs calculated frQII the lidar data are plotted with error bars on a 

second sheet of graph paper . The graphs are overla id and matched until the two curves overlap In the 14 k$ region, The bastc ss~ti on 

in t"e current analysis is that the scattering r~ JO ~ .n6 sane 

point In the upper region of the troposphere is totally -clecular. 

Th is assumption probably accounts f or the greatest systenatlc err or 

in the .tlalysls . FiMlly, a smooth curve is dralolfl through the relative bcs data. The di fference between tile two lines at each a l titude i~ then calcul ated and plotted as the aerosol bac~scatter, 

Backscattering Cross Section 

32,.---------",---------, 

E 21r-- -----'\ __ ,,~ 

~ 24r-- ------ "c---".,;:-

• 

~ 201-------Aerosol~'-~::::: 

w ~ 16 ~-----;-~+---~~-~ 

12L---------,L ______ --,J 

I 10 100 

109 ni' SR-' fi~e 25. Backsoaeta~ing eros ••• etiO" . ~i e ar, i~ 10-1~-1.~-1, 

ShaJn aN tJuI Rayuiflt ~. tit, OJ!.ju,e,d be, for t~ . HalmGi Cca at-

.pka,... and t M di f f' N1IC. b.M." t~. tuo attributed to ",ro.oh. 

TIt, _tF.bd of adj .... ti"'f/ tit, Nwtiv, be, i. crntH""d i n t1t, tu:e. rM .1'l"O ~ ,~ i JW tlMf .. :m~ . t.2Ii.,tioal ,~ror . S,.I'UMQtic e~rol"8 'w, . >1-

bIout at p ..... n t . !feW tM ... lat il>il PIIQ.m'"", ... in 12'1'0'01 .eatt.rill&' ~ 

20 .0.. 

41 

• 
Mauna Loa . Ainen nuclei, are airborne parti cles upon which 

water may condense under conditions of high supersaturation . These 

part icles are present i n one f orm or anot her t hroughout the tropo -

sphere and stratosphere, and their diameters range from 0.00 1 to 

about 0.1 )l. 

It is generally agreed that the t roposphere is popu l ated with a 

background of aged aerosol, prim(lri ly of continent al origin , at a concentration of the order of 1 to 10 part icles/em'. At l ow (Ilt itudes over the 

oceanL the aerosol distribution is dominated by a mar i time, or sea-salt, 

aerosol of about 200 part icles/em'. At low al t itudes over the continents, 

the aerosol distribution is more complicated, both natura l and anthropo -

genic aeroso ls occur at (Ipprox imate l y 10' parti cles/cm). Even higher concentrations occur in '.lrban (Ireas or those of ex t reme natur(ll po l lut i on 

(such as volcanos) . 

An Aitken particle becomes acti ve as a condensation nucleus at 

supersatura t ions of about 400 percent , usually produced by a rapid expansion process. All parti cl es larger th~n 0 .001 u diameter, regardless of 

chemica l cQr.1position, will grow rapidly t o larger t han 5 u, t he part i cl es 

may eas i ly be detect ed either optically or photographica l l y . 

Aitken nuc l ei, or condensati on nuclei , are not to be confused with 

cloud condensa t ion nuclei (CCM) or wi th ice nuc l ei , two other nuclei measurements often made. CeN are usually measured with a herm~l di ffusi on 

char:1 ber apparatus at supersaturations of 1 percent or Imler . These l ow 

su persaturatlons are used to detect nuc l ei that Clay be expected to be 

aged, hygroscopic, and 0.1 ~ or larger i n diameter . lee nuclei are part icles that nay be expected t o be active as SU blimation nuclei ,md are 

neasured through activation in a co l d chamber. They are generally nonhygr oscop i c , such as silver-i od i de (Ag!), and are needed t o initi ate the 

i ce phase in cold cl oud processes . 

Since Aitken nuclei are present in all forms of corrbust i on produces , such as t hose fr om automobi l es, coa l or oil- burning power plants , 

and othe r human activiti es , i t is essential to monitor t he background 

tropospheri c aeroso l concentra t ion in order t o assess man 's poss i bl e im- pact on his global env ir onment. Aerosols may play an import ant r ole in 

the global rad i at i on balance , because they influence the heat budget and 

scatt er or absorb bot h incoming so l ar radiat ion and outgoing terrestrial 

radiation. 

A widely used in strument for r.leasur l ng Ai tken nuclei is t he 

Gardne r Counter. It is a small, rortab l e , hand -operated instrul'lent 

t hat gives rel iable and reproduc i ble resu l ts. It is a light-scattering 

l:1easurement i ns trument that uses a humid ified chamber , a tube about 30 

cm long and 2 .5 an diameter , in t o which t he air sal:1 pl e is dr awn . Sudden l y the air is expanded and moves into an adjacent evacuated chamber, 

producing a supersaturati on of abou t 400 percent. Water vapor condenses 
upon Aitken nuclei that grovl large enough to be detected by a light beamphotocell arrangement. Particle concentration is indicated directly in 

particles/cm3 • 

For many years the Gardner Counter has been used hourly at MLO on 

each day. See listing of selected data in A~pendix B. In general, Aitken 

nuclei concentrations of about 200 to 300/cm are measured during the morning with values increasing to as high as 2000/cm3 as the daytime upslope 

windflow becomes well-established. Nighttime values under well-developed 

downslope flow are very low, typically less than 150/cm3 . It is not unusual to experience large-scale cyclonic weather systems near the Hawaiian 

Islands. These can disrupt the trade inversion and the diurnal mountain v/ind 

system ard produce large-scale mi~ing between the upper and lower troposphere, which causes Aitken nuclei counts of several hundred/cm3 for extended times, sometimes up to weeks. Occasionally, volcanic events from 

nearby Kilauea Volcano can be detected at MLO under favorable wind conditions. No noticeable long-term trends in background Aitken nuclei 

counts have been observed at MLO; these data provide a good baseline 

reference for determining future possible global increases. 

Future plans for aerosol measurements of Aitken nuclei at MLO include an automated version of the Gardner Counter manufactured by General Electric. This instrument draws a humidified air sample into an 

expansion chamber, which produces a supersaturation of about 400 percent, 

and measures light scattering as the Aitken nuclei grow into 5-~ diameter 

water droplets. This process is repeated continuously at five measurements/sec, as opposed to two measurements/min with the hand-operated 

Garaner Counter. Thus, round-the-clock Aitken nuclei measurements with 

good time resolution will be available. This will vastly improve the 

long-term aerosol particle monitoring capability at Mauna Loa. 

Barrow. The Barrow site was chosen with the expectation of occasional interferences from local sources which would necessitate selecting only those samples for analysis when clean air occurs. Daily Aitken 

nuclei measurements were made with a Gardner small-particle detector 

from September 1971 through April 1972. Snow covered the ground. These 

measurerilents, made in cooperation with the Earth Sciences Laboratory give 

preliminary information needed to decide which wind directions, particle 

counts, and other parameters may be collected to decide when clean air 

is being sampled at the station. Due to the economics of logistical support, no baseline station can be isolated from local pollution sources. 

The results of these 8 months of Aitken data show that 60 percent of the 

time the site has a clean air flow. 

Four ~roups of wind directions were picked to represent advection 

of air from (1) the Arctic Ocean but partly including the Navy runway and 

fuel storage area, (2) the unobstructed sea to the east, (3) the unobstructed Southeast fetch over the tundra, and (4) the gas wells, the 

Barrow village, and NARL complex (fig. 26). The three easterly segments 

\vill be grouped as representing clean airflow. They account for 60 percent of the winds and have an average particle count of 375 n/cc. This 

43 
cOlllPa re~ with the 5241 nIce ~ver~qe for winds frc- the west. Thoug~ 

qrett vari~t ion occurred 1n Aitk~n counts with west winds rr~ 200 to 

50,000 nlcc, the three values with e&sterly se~nts of flow only varied 

from 170 to 1200 nIce. FIgure 27 presents tllese aver~ges sch_t1c,l1y, and figure ze Illustrates how well the data confon.$ to a log nor~l distribution. Hote that over go percent of the days fall within Junge's suggested cri teria for clean .ir of 700 nlcc and 50 percent of the d.ys have less thdn 31S n/cc. In this analysis any wind averaging less than 

1. 3 "/SfC was dlscaroed frO'll the data. The musurement at ca l .. or light 

windS showed great variability in pa rticle content irrespec tive of the 

wind direction, as .. Ight be expected. 

Figure 29 conpares the three clean air wind directions fro.. ~nth 

to fQ'Jnth . Their variability is very sIIl1l1n when we take into .ccount 

th,t sone of the poin ts represent only two ..e.sufenents. OUtside of the 

monthly va ria t ion , no correlation was obvious between the nunber of Al t- ~en nuclei and ~e t~r.ture fluctuation or wind velocity. This pre - ll~tn.ry study shows that a ~jorlty of the d.ys can be considered valid 

(or sa.-pling. 

( 

N' , " _ N/'f( 

, 

, 

"' , ES' S 

• ssw '"w 

1~ 

~ . • 

Figwn 26. WNd grouping. aroUNd 

8a1"l"0IJ Sie • . 

.. 
FigllZ'f 2? Eight _til all_roe_ 

Gal'dn_r COWIe aJId lIind direc - t ion . 

• , 

I 

, 

, 

, 

, 

, 

I 

, 

I ll< ...-'r-,,, 

, 

, 

I 

, 

'-:/---'" '''' 

4.3 Me teorology 

While the specific ~teorolog cal tnstrulllentation to be used at 

each -anl tor tng station wtll ~ary according to loc~l conditions , the 

par_ters to be lJItuured will be canparable. In particular, wtnd and 

cloud condition data are necessary to es t,bl tsh the ~al1dity of specific 

gas samples and solar radiation observations, and a knowledge of precip - Itation to interpret aerosol measurements. Furthermore , the performance 

""l ! 

1: ~ !~ 

J 

Fifloaw :11. Log '101911:1: plet of Gam"",,. CQW:t cilta. 
a',---__ _,_,-.-y, 

,. -

.. -

.. 

.. 

,. 

'·L--.;c~~w-~ loti: SlP OCI I!OV OCC ccJAN !.~,,""~ f[B MAR m~ 

1911 I 1972 

FigW'fl 29. IID>1thtV Mmninl1 mla" of 

Gal'dn.,r chHy COLll1t [or J II 1,U>1 

dir<lc t io>l8 . 

Of 11 s~ lnp j"g Sy~l~lI~ u~v~mh Up,,11 dl!' Lt!fi'I'"rdlunt ,wd dew point temperature. Therefore, inst ruments "il l be requi r ed t o IlleUure flve basic 

meteorol ogica l parameters: wind, teqper~ ure , dew point temperature. 

pressure, and precipi t at ion . Cloud cover and visibility Cdn be determi ned by the observer on dut y . In mos t cases Geophysical Monltorln9 Ob- servatories are located wi th in a few tens of kilometers of a first-order 

Nationa l Weather Service (NWS) observi ng sta t ion ard ~ch guidance and 

support can be obtai ned from data coll ected at such sta t ions althouqh the distance and differences In local terrain preclude the exclusive use 

of N~S Observations. The exception to this situation is at the South Pole 

Stet Ion where monitorinq actlville~ will be conducted within a few hun· 

dred meters of routine ~S observatlon~. 

In.~tQti n. At both the Mauna loa and Barrow Observatories 

an aerovane , cons15ting of a fIIOdel lZO wind transmi tter and a kldel 141 

wind recorder (Bendix (nvlron.ental Science Division, Baltimore, Md.) ~easures wind speed and direction. During operation , a three· or slxblade propeller of the wind transmitter turns a sm(lll d·c generator to 

produce a voltage that Is llneraly proportional to wind speed , from about 

1 ~/sec to 4S m/sec. lnfor~tlon about the anqular position of the vane 

is sent to the recorder by a syncro-motor system, employing a syncro- trans~ltter at the sensor and a syncro-rece iver at the recorder whiCh 

operates the recorder pen. The recorder can Ind icate speed from I mlsec, 

the starting speed of the propel ler, to 62 m/sec (120 knots) , while wind 

direction can be recorded over 512' , a procedure t hat reduces strip-chart "oaintinq" at crossover poin ts. Hind data can be reso lvl'd from t he strip chart to 10.5 m/sec and :2'. Both errors are sma ll er than those caused 

by the sensor 's non l inear response to fl uctuating winds . Direct ion ac- curacy also depends upon the al iQnrnent of the sensor. At f1a un~ Loa, the 

wind speed is checked against a hand-he ld anemometer . Furthermore, ori - entation of the ~iind v~ne Is chec~ed at least twice annually . A cup-type 

.. 
anemometer is also operated at MLO; it:; signal j , recorded on a tota l iz - ing event recorder (Esterline -Angus) yi el ding "run of wind " me asurements . 

Dat a. Tab les 9 through 12 summari ze wind observations at MLO foc 

197 1 "d 1972 . 

Table 9. Vi"d Directitm Freque>wy (:OJ fo, 1971 

~, " "' , " , " " ~ C. I. 

", <., ,. f , , ; .a 10. I. 06 . I 10 . 0 <., , .. , .. ,. , ff " )8. 2 12.9 '" LO " .. 

"" 9 .• 9.$ . ,31 .0 15.8 13.7 ' .f 11. 0 .. .' .. ,. , .. ,20 . 0 18 .8 '" U '8. J .. , ~, 11 . 2 15 . 2 " 2 1 . I 10. ; " , , 10 . 1 OJ ", f. 16 . I .. , \0 . • " . " '.f f.' ... 

,,' ••• 17. I 10 . J )S . I ~ .0 ,., , .. ,. , • • 

'" , , 18 . S f' 3S. ) 11 . ~ u " 10 .0 · , >0, , ., n·s " " . 

IS .t , . , , , f , OJ ." U " .9 Lf )8 . I 15. i " ,. , .. , 

., 

••• 

,.. , , .. ,,~. , 1 J. 9 " ,. ,., • • •• , .. ; .6 U "l.S 1 7 .; ,., " " ff 

4.3. Z Tempel'at".),,, and Dew Point Meagureme"t 

Instl'V.mentotion. A variety of instrumenu are employed to measure 

air t.emperature and de\"! point temperature, or relative humidity . At MLO, 

we use standard mercury- i n-g lass t hermometers, a psychrometer, and a hygrothermograph. At Barrow, a dew point hygrometer (Cambri dge Systems Model 880, EG&G Environmen t al Equ i pment Div ision) is beinq used in stead of 

<l hygrothermograph. In add i tion. a multi - po i nt recorder (at HLO) records 

TaMe ". 

", 17 .9 10. 0 ' 1 .1 

'" , J. S 1'..0 , 

."' 19 . \ J9.~ 1 1 . J , J . 5 • , • . , 

'" ~".1 " • 1\.6 ,. , • • , 

'" " • I ) . 9 1 J . J .f 

,,' " 0 JJ . , , . J . 9 , 

,,' " , J J .-; 26.9 13 . 2 , 

'0, " • ) J . 8 " , 11 . J , , , 

'" Jl . J J 7 .! 10 . ) ;. , , , , ." 2' .9 ~\.o 16 .8 ; , , , , 

,., 12 . 1 JJ . J 18.0 18 .6 • , , . , ." 16 . J 19 .1 ,6.8 " , 10 . (, .., 

" 
air temperature and dew point temperature values, respectively, with a 

thermistor and a lithium chloride dewcell. Soil temperature is also measured. Both air sensors a re exposed in an aspirated shield that is designed to limit radiation-induced errors to 1 ess than ±O.l °C. 

Table 11. Wind Direction Frequenc~ (%J for 1972 

mps N NE E 5E 5 5101 101 Nlol Calm 

Jan 2.B 6.2 3.~ 12.5 10.2 39.6 11.5 13.7 0.0 

Feb ~.9 6.0 I.B 16.6 IB.6 39.6 ~.B 7.6 0.0 

Mar 3.6 7.7 I .7 10.6 5.2 41.9 16.0 13.2 0.0 

Apr B.2 12.2 4.4 17.7 15.7 14.7 10.0 17.1 0.01 

~lay B. I lB.9 2.5 lB.6 12. ~ IB.2 ~.5 16.9 0.02 

Jun 12.5 15.2 ~. 1 13.2 17.2 21.4 3.9 12.5 0.01 

J u I 10.5 14.4 4.1 21.B 20.1 15.0 2.9 11.3 0.0 

Aug 12.6 17.3 7.2 17.9 17.3 13.3 5.0 9.5 0.01 

5ep lB.7 7.2 6.0 23.3 16.B I ~ .3 5.6 B.l 0.02 

Oct 16.0 7.9 5.0 16.B 19.3 14.7 6.7 13.6 0.0 

Nov 5.5 3.0 6.B 47.5 11.5 17.1 6.2 2.4 0.0 

Dec 3.5 2.B 2.7 15.3 13.2 51.9 7.B 2.7 0.0 

All sensors are, or will be, enclosed in a standard instrument 

shelter (cotton region type) to minimize the influence of solar radiation. The mercury-in-glass thermometers and the dew point hygrometer 

temperatures can be resolved to about ±O.2°C, but overall accuracy, when 

we consider exposure and response, will be about ±O.5°C. The hygrothermograph records air temperatures and relative humidity with a sensitivity and accuracy significantly less than those of the aforementioned units. The thermometers at the Mauna Loa Observatory have been checked 

Table 12. ~lind Speed Frequenc~ (%J foY' 1972 

mps 0.5 - 2.5 3- 5 5.5-7.5 8-10 10.5-12.5 13-15 >15.5 

Jan 22.5 33.6 IB.3 17. ~ 6.6 1.5 

Feb 14.7 27.4 15.7 21 .1 10.9 6.6 3.14 

Mar B.l 26.6 22.6 13.0 17.7 9.3 2.7 

Apr 26.0 ~6.5 19.4 6.1 1.4 0.6 

May 33.1 45.6 19.9 1 .4 

Jun 37.1 2B.7 10.5 7.6 1.1 1.1 0.7 

Ju I 35.4 36.3 16.5 B.7 2.6 O.~ 

Aug 35.5 42.B 15.4 5.3 1.1 

5ep 36. ~ 35.2 17.1 10.2 1.2 

Oct ~2.3 47.0 JO.2 0.4 

Nov 9.2 20.3 30.7 21.3 13.0 5.1 0.4 

Dec 6.5 16.9 23.B 20.0 15.0 11.9 5.9 

48 
with those et the NWS office at Hilo Airport. The hygrotnermogreph is 

checked once a week , or at every chart change. 

Data. Figures 30 and 31 show the average raaximu .. and min imum 

tempera tures for 1971 and 1972. Tab le 13 is a s~ry of South Po le 

tempereture data. 

11.3 .3 PrUS«N 

Pressure fluc tua t ions are recorded with a precision microbaro9raph (built t o mls specificat ion , G2 IDe). This sensitive barometer re- quires frequent calibration checks , which are performed with a me rcuria l 

barometer (bu ilt to NWS Speci fic ation, GOlOB) . At Mauna loa Observatory, the mercurial barometer is checked once a year by a standard instrument 

from t oe Pac ific Regional Office of the NWS. The .. Icrobarograph is adjusted to agree with the mercurial barometer twice weekly, or each time ~e chart is changed. 

4.J.4 Precipitation 

Both tipping bucket and weighing type rain 9ages are at the Mauna 

loa Observatory . These are standard N~S type 0120 and 0110 gages. Rain 

collected is measured w1th a dipstick after each ra infall. Figure 32 

and 33 are graphS of the M~una Loa precipita tion for 1971 and 1972. 

" "' 

v '~ f'41W"(! 30. ~lW average do.iZy ma.:ri- ~ 

"""" and lfJinUrn'" temperature 

(1971) . 

49 

, 

, 

~ 

, 

fJ , 

--< r ' , Lj 

-' , ~ , • .. J J • so .. 0 

1911 
, 

} " 

, 

" I ...J 

fi~ 31. NLI) awtroag. &liZit' 0I<l.t"i-

""'" aJ'IG! .n:",v.n.", t""~l'I'lt"re (1972-) . 

I ., 

: ••• 

4.4 Sol r-Terrestrl~l Radiation 

4. f.l Asp.eta of l?<Uiiatims and l1if;tOY1l of Ob"l"WIt':C!1~ 

1/a,mG Lea Obserwtory . As d hiqh altitude obserutor)' in lre 

tropiCs, t he irradi ance values are high , appl"Oaching i .70 L"nql ey/81i rl 

for the direct rad iation. The lava ~h4t slIl" r ounds the observatory fo r many miles provides a constant albedo that changes only after 

Tool. JJ. So_'" Po l e lI,at/lgl' ""~ 1951. 1111 

l.~ r.b ~, ~, ~, 

"~ J~I C; lo! ~. -, ~, .-,.,1 

r_ .• ,~ .• 't 

'" ••• .n •• ." .,. .,. . ,. ." ." ." ., . ." ·n . ., 

.. , ." ... .,. ." ." ." .~ -6~ . " ." . , . ." .. , 

.. , ... ." . ., ." ., . ." ." ." ." ." ." ." ." -Sl 

....... '4 .... ." ." . ., ." ." . ., . " -J) ." ." ·n ... ." '." I,S' ."' '%' .~, 196~ I~) .~, .~, ,,69 196' .". r91' '9S& 

•• (o,d "'ft ." ." ." ." ." ." ." ·n ." ." -sr, " -~ I 

.... .", . ," .,., 1958 ., S1 .~ 1~65 , ""'! ••• "" '965 .,,' .,,, 

,-,_r.11 !M, .. ~.I"., ""\ 

.. , fot.1 .. , , " , o ,Q) , , • , , , , , " • , .... ,d .... .. , " o ~~ , " ,., ,. , " , ,0> , " , . ., o,c, ,~ , " Tcu, 

y .. , I"e "7: ... "7' IG11 .,,' .,,' '''' ,,,. '" , . ". ", . ~"',.(O Wort !o .... ! 

" ••• 111., • , "", "·f ... ~I .. , " .. .'.! •• ~, , .. " ..c 101'''I;o~ 

. ~ '"" • , , • , , , , • , , • 

·ou .. " •• " " ., ., " " .. ., " " " " " ,·-1, •• , 'u. ',sa ,.~. .,., ,·S/ ,~;7 .• , I,!.t .• ' .,.. .,.. .,., .,., .~, 

, ........ '" I'''. «O' ••• , .. , '-<'- '''/1 ~ .. ' oo"*lull •.• 11 .''<t ........ 0" ..... ,~ 

~ L~' S"".~ '01. ""' .... '" «H''rt_ •• " • , .... o· ...d.t," h ""., ........ _.~ ~,,~ ". 00., .1 .... 1.,.. .~.'qo., ... " ..... , ... .-1 

'" 
Fii\'re 33 . RainfaU at ,I/a~na Loa. 

Obe<ll'VQtory f e r ]911. 

I'" 

, 

t" • • 

, 100 

I 

I " 

an occasional snowf~ll. ThiS cOnslstallCy lids the i nterpreutlon of the s~y rldlatlon. e~en houg~ t he lin h probably not /I Lellbert reflector. 

Radiation .,easurements began at 'UO In ~oyemtler 1957 as plrt of 

t he IGV pl'OgralftS. Early InstrlJlqnts included a Beckman lind /I Whitney net 

uehange radiOlleter fo r terrestrial radiation . Those inHrUlllents were 

, r 

Figure JJ. Raionfall at HaIDla Loa. 

G\';eenr.a tor!f for ] 918. 

"" 

51 
used only until 1958 (Price and Pales, 1957; 1963; Fritz and MacDonald, 

1962). Then an Eppley normal incidence pyrheliometer (NIP) with manually interchanged Schott filters (types OG1, RG2, and RG8) mounted on an 

equatorial mount, and a 10-junction model 15 bulb type black and white 

Eppley pyranometer measured solar radiation. Over the years, as many as 

eight different NIP's have been used. Pyranometer data were sent to the 

Data Acquisition Division of the NWS until August 1968, and pyrheliometer 

data until March 1968. Unfortunately, inadequate quality control and calibration maintenance makes interpretating the results difficult. 

Ellis and Pueschel (1971) have analyzed the data in a manner which 

does not require knowing the calibration constant of the pyrheliometer. 

Defining the quantity q = In/In-l where I is the direct solar irradiance 

for the secant zenith angle n corrected for refraction, they obtained 

an average value for q for each clear day (fig. 34). 

Various visitors to MLO have measured solar radiation either for 

climatological studies or for determining a solar constant. In 1961-62 

A. J. Drummond conducted a series of measurements at MLO and Hilo. Drummond and Angstrom (1965, 1966, 1967a and b, 1968) published their results 

in a series of reports and articles. Stair and Johnson (1958) also made 

some observations at MLO. 

The High Altitude Observatory (HAO) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) now has a spectral hygrometer at MLO to measure 

total precipitable water (Foster et al., 1964). 

58 60 

Trident 

Agung 

62 

Taal Fernandla 

Surtsey Redoubt Hekla 

. . " ., 

. '." ...=.- . . ... ~~..,... 

. II·. __ ,-.~ .. . .. .. ...,. . -:.~-~ ..... ~.-. .. '. . 

64 

Time (years) 

66 68 70 

Figu~e 34. TeMpora~ variations of the month~y means of transmission factors of solar radiation. (From Ellis and Puesche~~ 1971). 

52 
In 1972, more emphasis was placed on the solar radiation observation program with the acquisition of a new multichannel radiometer, five 

Eppley Model 2 pyranometers, and tVIO UV radiometers, along ~Iith a data 

acquisition system. These are described in more detail in section 4.4.2. 

Barpow, Alaska. So lar radiation at Barrow, Ala ska, probably presents a more varied and complex aspect than any other geophysical monitoring station. Lying as, it does within the Arctic Circ le, this station has considerable periods of twilight, perhaps 40 percent each year. 

During the day, considerable variations occur in the surface albedo as 

the snOl'1 melts and the loca l ponds become ice free . Furthermore, the 

station is near the shores of the Arctic Ocean, and we may expect such 

phenomenon as "water sky" and the "ice-blink" to occur. A co lorful description of this latter phenomenon .Ias given by William Scoresby (1820): 

"On approaching a pack, field , or other compact aggregation of ice, the phenomenon of ice-bl ink is seen whenever the horizon is tolberably free from clouds, and i n 

some cases even under a thick sky. The ice-bl ink consists in a stratum of a lucid whiteness, which appears 

over ice in that part of the atmosphere adjoining the 

horizon ... when the ice-blink occurs under the most favorab Ie circumstances, it affords to the eye a beaut i ful 

and perfect map of ice, t~lenty or thi rty mi les beyond 

the I imit of direct vision, but less distant in proportion as the atmosphere is more dense and obscure. The 

ice-bl ink not only shows the figure of the ice, but enables the experienced observer to judge whether the Ice 

thus pictured be field or packed ice. Field-ice affords 

the most lucid bl ink, accompanied by a tinge of yellow; 

that of packs is more purely white; and bay-ice greyish. 

The land, on account of its snowy covering, like~lise occas ions a bl ink, which is more yellow than that produced 

by the ice of fields." 

Ice-blink is an example of one of the multitude of phenomena associated 

with multiple reflections between ice or snow and clouds. On occasion, 

the multiple reflections make cl ouds appear more transparent than they 

really are. Water sky is the apparent darkening of the sky near the horizon when there is open water in the ice in the distance. The interaction of varying ground surface and varying sky, the presence of the 

local sea-breeze, and the prolonged twilight at Barrow assure a varied 

and complex radiation climatoloqy for this station. 

The first solar radiation measurements at 

1883 during the first International Polar Year. 

scribes these observations best: 

Barrow occurred in 1882-

Lt. Peter Ray (1885) de-

"Obser vations on solar radiation were made with a pair 

of maximum thermometers, one black and one bright bulbed, 

in vacuo, exposed horizontally on a post 4 feet high on 

the knoll southwest of the station. They were mounted 

side by side in a mo vable frame so they could be brought 

53 
into the house in stormy weather. These thermometers 

were exposed for a short time on November 13 and 14, 

1882, just before the departure of the sun, but the 

latter was too near the horizon to produce any sensible effect. On the return of the sun, January 29, 

1883, they were exposed every day not stormy from sunrise to sunset, the indices being set and read at sunrise and read again at sunset, till February 19, and 

about midnight, Washington time, until May 14, when, 

the sun being continually above the horizon, they were 

set at local midnight and read at Washington midnight. 

This was continued ti 11 the closing of the station." 

It is difficult to evaluate the results of Lt. Ray's measurements 

made with the Marie-Davy's conjugate thermometers. Their existence potentially provides our longest baseline of solar radiation observations, 

although the sensitivity and accuracy of the thermometers may not afford 

statistically significant conclusions. During the expedition they also 

proposed to use two pairs of Violle's conjugate thermometers, although 

it does not appear these instruments were actually deployed. 

In July 1951, the Weather Bureau (now the National Weather Service) established a pyranometer at its observing s1te. These data have 

been published on a regular basis since then. Again calibration problems made data interpretation difficult. Since then, various researchers 

have periodically measured solar radiation. Among these were Kelly et 

al. (1964), K~Tley and Weaver (1969), Lieske and Bailey (1963), Lieske 

and Strochein (1968), Strochein (1965), and Weaver (1969) of the University of Washington, and Thornwaite and Mather (1956, 1958), Weller 

et al. (1972), Horvath and Brown (1971), and Brown and Johnson (1965). 

Most recently the Smithsonian Biological Radiation Laboratory has 

been conducting pyranometer measurements, using Eppley Model 2 pyranometers. The broad-band filters include cut offs at 290 nm (white glass), 

400 nm (green glass), 610 nm (red glass), 715 nm (red glass), and 805 nm 

(red glass). 

South Pole. The South Pole has an extremely uniform snowcover 

surrounding the station year round. Because the pole has only 1 day (and only one night) per year, and the atmosphere is very clean, and 

because rather long paths in the atmosphere are viewed by the pyrhelimeters; this station may prove to be the most sensitive indicator of 

climatic change caused by solar radiation variations. 

As at MLO, observations of solar radiation began at the South Pole 

during IGY. Instruments used were Eppley Model 15 pyranometers, one facing up and one facing down for albedo measurements; an Eppley NIP; and a 

Funk net radiometer. Some of the measurements are summarized by Viebrock 

and Flowers (1968) and Flowers and Viebrock (1967). Other reports of 

solar radiation measured at the South Pole include those of Kuhn (1972 

and Hoinkes (1960). 

54 
.(monoiCIVI SaIoIoa . A.lerlcan S4.,~ with Its wet and dry SIIasons 

should have a marked seasollilJ vilrlatlon In sohr radhtlon. The on ly 

prev ious solar radhtl oo observl tlons In SMa. Ire .oparently those of T~son (1927 ) , who used • Gorc~n!kl pyrheltometer. 

10 1972, MlO acquired a new mul t ichannel pryhelia-e ter (fig. 35) 

fra- t he National Air Pollution Control Administration (NAPeA), Du rham, 

North Carolina. Furthermore five Epoley Hodel 2 pyr~ncM'leters and two 

IN radl Cln!ters arrived, along with a data acquisition systel •. These ra- dia.eters are to I~roye the qu~lity Of solar rildlatlon measurements at "lO. 

Table 14 91ves the char~cterlstlcs of the 13-c~ ne l ther-oplle 

type raolometer as ori ginally cali brated In 1969, and table 15 9ives an 

uDda ted calibration of this instrument done June 16, 1971, by t he Eppley laboratory. 

Whi le possessed by NAPeA (before the 1971 calibr~tlon) , the Instru- ment was daIN9ed by""'ler. As a resu lt , all the Interference fHters and 

t he two thermpl1 es In the quartz channels wer .. replaced. The old and 

new calibra ti ons .nd · tHer tr~nsm H.t~nces 1v~ ! by the manufacturer re- ~In uncertain and have ~p lic~ted the analysts of observational data 

obtai ned with t he radl~t rs. The origina l aperature on the Instrument 

was 10.5· , but this has been reduced to S· with a new aperature plate. 

Figwr, JS. .ltultichart",Z 

l'tldiomllfllr 4102. 

" 

-

( " 

• ., • 

, 
1'able ". ChaM,l Charactteri,tic8 for 13 Channel Racii(lllleUlr 

Dttc~u 1969 

Ch • ...,.r • ... __ ;i. 1 ... , .. "". C"i •. yr,. '11 ••• L; .. ;" ~ ... ".1 "" , oNl .... • ,,-' r ... "l "" 

, '01'" GJ •• D.nl zeS-)80 

, IDleio " ... D. ",1 l,o·~IO 

, lal01 G) '" o HS ""1·1,0 

, 10108 G) '" 0 . 169 ~9S·SH 

• 1010, ') ... 0 .15 • SH-'Ol 

• 10 /10 t) '" 0 .1'1 ' oo-JOO 

, .0111 U '" o /19 6S0·'0~0 

• 101U'1 ~, 0.IB9 "oo-I'~ 

, lOll' G' .. , 0.0/1' (O;n <.,ofl J'lO" 

.. lOll~ G) ", o 0619 OC t <",011 $)0' 

" 'OllS G) '" o OIlS ",e <",oil 6'5 

" 10216 G) '" o 0101 Q.,o<u 

" leZI1 '1 ." 0.06" Ilu.· .. 

The ther-opiles were calibrated by Eppley ~boratorjes ~slng qu~rtz 

filters in place of tne narrOWband filters . The hereabou ts and o~nership 

of these calibration filters is presen t ly unknown . Action is ~r"ldel"\Oay to 

resolve t hese unknowns. 

The characteristics of the Epp ley Model 2 pyranometers (table 16 ) 

.1"Id tile two UV radiometers (table 17) are 9iyen except for filter trans-

_! ttance curves hlc h are not Inc luded because of the preser"lt uncertaint ies In thei r values. Both of these se ts of data were detemlned by Ep- pley Laboratories in DectlJlber 1969. 

Tabl. ". Cham •• l Charaat.rl.tlca !Qr 18 C"" ..... Z RQdi_t.r 

J~. ~?1 

c ....... f fF".-..op.I. ... i ....... to.,itl.i'1 Iii •• , d.l .. ~ h".1 ,... , foOI'-'" •• -, ! ... III _ 

, 'OIM U ... O. lSS HO-lIS 

, lOx)(' G) ... 0.196 )'H6S 

, 10/01 CJ ", 0.1" ~SS'SI(I 

• 10l oa tJ '" O.les U·~ 

, 10109 " ... O.US nO·6l0 

, 10110 G) ... 0.1" 61!.'!S 

, ' 0111 G) ." O. Z'lO 'so- 'O'S 

• 101 ' 1 G) "' o "S I lOO·IOSO 

, 1011l GJ .. , 0.On8 .. 101'- GJ ,o. 0.*1S "" ~, 

.. 'OIIS " '" 0 .0111 . ..

" II1l1 Gl '" 0.06"" ,,"_, " 

" 1111' Gl ." O.*,J 0."10 

" 
Table U. Pynanomete~ Characteristics 

Se.; . l 110 . ~'Mil <y ""', ... <~-' 

lOIS' f~ o 06~S 

IOISl f~ o OI}S 

lOIS) r~ O/~/ 

IOIS~ H OaSIS 

IOISS f~ o 0/11 

Finally, much Of 1972 was 

spent In devisin9 ~peclflca ti ons 

for new nil tlch~nnel radiometers 

and calibration equipment to be 

procu red. Discussion of this material wil l be presented in the 

neKt annual report. 

, .. 1"."". ""'I ....... 0 )" ..... d~,., 

'00 ~, 

;~ "" ~, ~, 

m ~, 

'00 "" • • '" • • 

Tnbl. I? UV Radiom.t.~ 

Chal'act4l1'i. tics 

Ser ia l No. 

10232 

10233 

sensitivity 

",V/mll ~ .. -I 

1. 91 

2 • 1 7 

At KLO we have an Angstrom compensation pyrhel10meter ~I o. 10180 

and Eppley control unit No. 4142. The other standard instrument is :he 

Eppley Hodel 2 pyran~ter No. 10155F4 Whi ch was used in an international 

cOlllJlarison of pyranOM!ters in May 1971 (nekaekara et al . • 1972). The 

Angstrom pyrhelioneter was also used in instrumen t comparison tests It 

Table Mountain, California, in October 1972 (OIll lson , 1972) . Bo th s:andards have been calibrated relative to the Internationa l Pyrhe l lornetrlc 

Scale (IPS). 

The pyrhellometers are calibra ted by simu l taneously making sideby-side comparisons of the standard and field Instruments using the sun 

as a source. Pyranor.eters are calibrated either by using II st andard pyr- helto-eter and a shadtng diSk with the sun and sky as a source , or bJ 

comparing it with a standard pyranometer t nat was cal ibra ted by using a 

shading disk. Two pyranMeters may be compared using either t he sun and 

sky as II source or an Integrating sphere. 

A more detailed description of the calibra tion and quali t y con trol 

will be given 1n the ne~t annual report when II more comple te set of ca lIbration and test equlprent will be available. 

4.4.4 Data Summary 

The dally total hor izontal incidence radiation da ta is shown in 

tables 18 and 19. 

57 
4.5 Cooperative Programs 

4.5.1 Measurement of Sr gO 

A cooperative program with AEC is the Funnel Ion Exchange Column 

Fallout Collector. This column is manned by the MLO staff and sent in 

to AEC once a month. 

The ion exchange collector measures fallout at sites removed from 

nuclear tests. The collectors are exposed for monthly intervals and the 

collected fallout is shipped to New York for analysis. The instrument 

consists of a funnel, an ion exchange column, and a leveling device - all constructed of polyethylene - mounted in a wooden housing. The ion 

exchange column is packed with paper pulp and is saturated with water. 

Insoluble material is filtered on the paper pulp and soluble substances 

are absorbed on the resin. The collector is situated to receive precipitation in an open area free of any obstructions that might shelter it. 

4.5.2 Total Surface Particulate Matter (EPA) 

The High Volume Air Samplers (hi vol sampler) uses a vacuum-cleaner 

type Illotor-and-blower to draw large volumes of air through a filter and 

collect particulates for measurement and analysis. When in use, the sampler is enclosed in a shelter that permits air to enter, but also protects the instrument from weather, mechanical hazards, coarse matter, and trash. 

The filters that collect the suspended particulate matter from 

the hi vol samplers are sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

bi-weekly on the same schedule as that for the S02 samplings. One sampler is located at MLO and the other is at the Hilo Offices. 

4.5.3 Total Surface PQ1'ticulate Matter (AEC) 

Filters for the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) hi vol are sent to 

AEC's Health and Safety Laboratory in New York City four times a month. 

This sampler, located at MLO, was originally set up to measure radioactive fallout. Lately their program is being expanded into more general 

environmental activities and study elements other than the radioactive 

ones. Specifically, the AEC has been concentrating on lead analyses. 

4.5.4 Surface Tritivffi Concentration 

The University of Miami program, measures HTO and HT surface concentration. 

4.5.5 Condensation Nuclei Concentrations 

The State University of New York program measures surface condensation nuclei concentration with a Pollak counter. 

58 
4.5.6 Surface S02 and N02 

S02 gas samplings are taken for EPA bi-weekly and sent to the National Air Surveillance Networks (NASN). One gas sampler is located at 

MLO and the other at the Hilo Office. The number of sampling trains has 

been increased from three to five since October 24, 1972. 

The multiple gas sampling system consists of a collecting unit and 

a vacuum pump. The collecting unit is a box that houses five individual 

bubbler trains operating in parallel between inlet and outlet manifolds; 

this makes it possible to sample continuously and concurrently over a 24 

hour period at MLO for a maximum of five different gaseous pollutants. 

A prefilter removes suspended particulate matter from the air during 

sampling. The gas sampler and pump are indoors (or in a shelter); the 

outside ambient air is drawn in through a probe extending out a window 

or other opening. Bubblers filled with collecting reagents are sent to 

the sampling stations by the NASN Laboratory in advance. After collection, the samples are returned to the laboratory for analysis. 

4.5.7 Precipitation Collection for Chemical Analysis 

Although not in operation at the end of 1972, an EPA collector has 

been installed at MLO. Precipitation collected will be sent for analysis 

to the EPA Laboratory in Rayleigh, N.C. 

4.5.8 Fog Concentration 

A cooperative program with the University of Hawaii in Hilo has 

been established to measure fog concentration at MLO. 

4.5.9 Atmospheric Extinction 

Spectral extinction coefficients are measured at MLO for Air Force 

Cambridge Research Lab (AFCRL). 

5. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM 

5.1 Requirements 

The list of sensors and instrumentation in section 3 clearly illustrates the variety of signals, sampling rates, and control functions 

that must be handled at the monitoring observatories. Two distinct cases 

present themselves in manipulating the data. First the reduction of signals so useful data can be obtained (gas and aerosol sampling in particular) by applying calibration constants and standard statistics to derive 

59 
Table 18. MLO Total Daily Insolation (langleys) for 1971 

Day Jan Feb Mar Ap r Ma y Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

486 372 632 285 501 419 484 727 591 422 533 446 

2 497 293 543 289 584 434 556 729 669 594 535 464 

3 487 498 601 255 734 633 733 724 680 681 399 344 

4 494 467 629 278 739 609 734 713 688 628 306 446 

5 348 543 646 212 487 723 689 443 693 619 309 400 

6 363 564 326 279 549 681 731 269 695 488 409 258 

7 485 569 588 513 456 715 755 363 677 596 397 380 

8 491 583 645 418 508 743 741 465 677 548 514 438 

9 127 577 648 620 541 745 579 490 586 605 525 429 

10 417 577 648 707 691 744 365 577 679 509 526 471 

11 243 567 693 554 736 729 645 708 619 598 535 471 

12 355 577 657 601 735 729 451 724 569 550 558 469 

13 353 587 641 704 608 611 584 555 646 581 509 351 

14 447 589 613 347 736 727 281 641 525 588 435 333 

15 342 605 669 326 649 495 356 707 663 593 517 335 

16 595 670 326 601 511 499 685 493 508 469 318 

17 480 620 673 433 650 716 479 455 342 426 363 395 

18 306 628 601 389 412 711 725 430 228 363 451 268 

19 205 628 656 31 I 617 730 727 702 477 534 461 

20 267 622 514 279 653 735 719 684 544 480 515 545 

21 551 539 275 301 633 728 732 708 223 565 500 465 

22 509 642 483 198 618 732 719 712 656 475 466 408 

23 525 566 558 166 740 733 729 516 526 450 236 342 

24 476 393 488 229 746 730 723 521 388 566 165 384 

25 453 520 338 261 742 690 661 537 332 561 100 437 

26 555 474 544 280 734 733 716 674 194 394 473 462 

27 400 635 526 439 741 736 722 694 329 324 497 460 

28 178 608 521 613 614 561 660 698 565 339 494 458 

29 516 409 659 407 431 724 669 575 148 326 252 

30 512 287 352 363 409 701 370 304 212 205 233 

31 357 272 36 5 723 688 533 262 

60 
Table 19. MLO Total Daily Insolation (lay,gl eys) for 1972 

Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

266 541 585 363 645 601 513 693 403 531 537 463 

2 236 504 580 172 527 470 489 644 560 600 501 479 

3 233 292 472 365 309 566 697 677 658 343 511 475 

4 404 421 451 222 490 485 700 556 439 240 503 466 

5 463 524 504 518 478 499 680 450 665 481 503 460 

6 399 291 149 202 498 256 510 430 597 356 484 446 

7 356 186 594 501 367 355 468 629 319 350 458 

8 407 408 613 391 400 336 403 611 387 495 492 461 

9 474 327 617 361 374 319 229 695 375 560 507 403 

10 470 259 397 686 346 406 287 562 353 532 448 373 

11 474 546 534 672 425 380 484 337 355 549 421 478 

12 326 238 453 529 556 656 673 491 433 607 455 425 

13 330 523 392 526 168 715 698 680 521 304 455 459 

14 165 567 512 400 261 622 589 678 346 294 315 375 

15 231 584 595 195 349 721 31 7 652 336 493 119 

16 297 569 638 213 636 609 286 439 627 447 480 460 

17 416 578 651 386 674 732 303 701 621 556 276 453 

18 487 562 649 380 721 482 419 295 544 541 401 369 

19 501 546 662 605 729 376 343 631 525 491 292 

20 498 509 653 662 726 669 437 623 569 480 463 

21 297 439 645 600 544 429 434 310 626 565 482 468 

22 432 451 555 639 544 412 632 543 623 563 483 408 

23 291 386 660 607 501 623 695 495 509 551 492 411 

24 330 358 643 696 415 598 697 552 401 560 486 443 

24 509 239 656 688 284 696 596 625 347 528 456 451 

26 518 601 624 670 643 530 381 662 586 389 486 458 

27 230 595 659 706 715 698 494 521 622 508 463 465 

28 174 523 325 564 715 688 698 487 626 493 445 463 

29 155 609 165 484 471 480 703 437 581 344 471 465 

30 539 703 367 685 371 562 551 416 235 459 457 

31 538 690 595 673 183 21 1 456 

61 
means and variances. Second, indirect sensors such as the Dobson spectrophotometer and the lidar instruments require considerable computer processing of the signals. The degree to which these computations depend 

on access to large calibration tables makes it impractical to consider 

that "stand-alone" computer systems at the stations could handle the 

task. Furthermore, the generally "remote" nature of the observatories 

and the number of signals involved make the use of time-share computer 

systems difficult. A signal acquisition system must therefore be able 

to convert many channels of anal09 voltages into digital form, and then 

record these signals along with related digital data on magnetic tape in 

a computer-compatible format. A real-time operating routine will be used 

for this. Magnetic tape will therefore serve as the primary medium for 

transferring and storing data. 

The sampling interval is dictated by the sensor with the shortest 

response period; at this time, this is the multichannel pyrheliometer 

with a response time sliqhtly larger than 1-sec. If a need for statistics based on data of this resolution can be demonstrated, a computational 

program will be written to provide them. Otherwise, in the initial phases 

of software development an 8-sec integral value of all signals will be recorded on tape. In this way, a 10-inch reel of tape will last 7 to 10 

days. In addition, control and calibration pulses must be started or set 

by the signal acquisition process if signals are to be introduced properly. Performance of this combination of tasks in a real-time operating 

mode along with the computation of summary statistics requires the use of 

a small dedicated minicomputer. To fulfill the above requirements, we 

are working on assembling a signal acquisition system, diagrammed in figure 36 for use at the monitoring station. 

5.2 Hardware Development 

At this time, six of the components represented in figure 36 have 

been purchased and are being evaluated in the Techniques and Standards 

Group. They are an analog-to-digital converter (Xerox Data System, Model 

40) with 32 differential input capacity and programmable gain and a minicomputer (Data General Corp., NOVA 1220) with a 1.2 l1sec memory access 

time and memory capacity of 8146, 16-bit computer words. The system also 

contains a teletype with a paper tape reader and punch to control the 

minicomputer. The two major output devices are 24-point analog recorder 

(Leed and Northrup, Speedomax G) and a magnetic tape drive (Wangco, Mod-10) 

that records at 800 characters/inch (nine track, NRZ1), at 45 inches/sec. 

Interfacing electronics between the analog-to-digital converter (Morgan 

Assoc.) and the teletype and tape drive (both by Data General Corp.) are 

now being tested. An external clock (Sierra Research Corp.) that counts 

and displays days-of-the-year, hours, minutes, and seconds, has been 

successfully interfaced with the minicomputer. The preamplifiers, with 

voltage calibration facility, and a digital input and output interface 

are yet to be constructed. 

62 
-.- ~~ ~', 

1-;,=,""-- . -_. - ---=-'" -----.Jr.-, ~; ;;iji} .. 

8 II :' , : ._-- -

;t .1 :1,2.: 

, '1"!-i'-tI' c:;,'fi" +_/- I l' , "', I 'I :r-lir---J I, ,V,VO 

, , , 

, d - --

I I : , , , , , , 

0(;" '" 

"'f"UI ,I 

D(i,UI 

~GtI~l 

"H'II I 

GUHP"'-: ... 

:~:=:: ? :8 

, , 

, 

, 

. ______ .J._ 

"l)CI SSIl<C 

BUH[~ 

ME MORT 

G[I'[O",-

f'UP"OS( 

D'G ,TAl ,HUT 

Figure 36. S"/zfP'>CIti" of lzal'dl.!a1o" sy stem . 

5.3 Software Development 

I llln, ( 

. '" q P[R U PE 

II(A()[R 

U~• H 

MA(;.N HlC 

1I~{ 

OM'" 

BUlr\P 

1 qlJ ~I" .. ,1) 

) A\O'lG 1['1 

~o(i . U·.>t.Tt~ 

In the e~ ly stages of development, the ~ny softwa re oroble-s 

have been t axing . All diagnostics provided with the .lnlcomou t er and the 

peripherhls were tested during the warranty oeriod. In t ills period ~ 

bootstr~p lo~der was written to transfer core images between the cen tral 

processor and the .agne t ic tape drive; this ~de possible t he storing of 

bulk programs on IIIIIgne t lc tape in 8dditlon to punched p~per upe. This 

procedure cooSlderaoly speeds progra~ transfer, Work was also started 

00 a series of suoroutines in asse.bly language to control t he peripheral 

devices. The controller for the Ho x·AlD was acquired from the Cryogen i cs 

Division , "aliona1 Bureau of St andardS (NBS) (Z75.00) a l ong with an operating or executive system written in BAS IC wll1 call subrouti nes . Routines to read and set the d isplay cl ock have a lso been ,Ir ltten and tested. 

The two major tasks remai ning a re converting t his "stand-a lone' BASiC into 

a real time operating sys t em , and genera ting a fle xi ble tape drive con - troller . 
6. REGIONAL STATIONS 

Besides the b~seline stations descri bed in this report , t here ~re 

10 WHO-designated regional stations in the United St ates . This networ k 

is admin istrated and opera ted by the NOAA-tlWS in coo peratio n with the 

EPA and i s a complimenta ry syst ~ to the base li ne network . 

At these st~tions (tab le 20 and fig . 37) two measurements are 

made: turbidity and precip itati on chemhtry. The turbidity is measured 

by a dua l wavel eng th (380 and 500 nm) Eppley Model DA Sunpho tomet er (f ig. 

38). The instrument is described in the WHO Ope ratinq Manua l for Sampli ng 

and Analysis Techn iques for Chemica l Const ituents in Air and Precipitation (World :"leteorological Organi zat ion Repo rt 1'10.299, Geneva , Switzerland) . In fi gure 39, the instrument which is used to collect the preci pi ta t ion 

fo r chemica l analys is is shown . The EPA Laboratory in Ral eigh , N.C. , analyses the precipi t at ion for those componen ts listed in table 21. 

The only publ1shed measuremen ts to date are conta ined in the 

first vo l ume of the t urbidity da ta in Atmoepharic TUrbidity ~ta for 

the World, Ju ly-December 1971. Yearly publ ication of t he turbidity 

va lues wil l cont inue under the sponsorshi p of the WHO . Plans are to 

begin t~e publica t ion of precipita t ion chemistry data in 1973. 

Tab!e 20 . fof40-Dasignated 'l'w>bidity a>Ui P"recipitation 

Sampling lIatLJork (NIlS/EPA) 

(I) Alamosa, Co l o rado 

(2) At l an t ic Ci t y , New Jersey 

(3) Bishop , Califo ~ 

(~) Caribou , ~ine 

(5) Huron, South Dako t a 

(6) Merid Ian , Hississippi 

(7) Pend l eton , Or egon 

(5) Ra le i gh , No rt h Caro li na 

(9) Salem, I I I ino ls 

( 10) c!Oria, r., ><as 

Othe r StH ions Where Rainwater is Also Colle c ted (EPA) 

(1) Che rokee Coun t y , Ok lahoma 

(2) Cumber land County, Tennessee 

O} Door Count y , .... iscons i n 

(4) GlaCie r Par k, Montana 

64 

(5) Grand Canyon, Ari zona 

(6) Ha r dee County , Florida 

(7) Tom Green Co unty , Te ><ds 
O MSO • 

STC 

PENO LET ON 

, 0 

* • HU RON 

( 

*' ALAMOSA* TOP BIS HO P 

I liT O 

* R[(,I()"'~I ~I~ f'OlllJll0N 

SlAlIO"~ 

0 1 

IiMd \lm~S 

N~lIn~[1H15 

P~I JPfUI ~ ,J,M· I [ 

fI['llIloI(jh'1P;I~ ~lAlI(":NS 

OJ ".I,, OIl ·I~ 

1. R(S(ARCH SlflMAR ~ 

1.1 1970-n Publications R(!1a t ed to the Ope r atior, 

of !fauna. loa Observatory 

L W Ba rrett, R. F. Pueschel . P. M. Kuhn, and II . K. Weic\::.rl<lnn 

In~dve't.nt ~dl ie~tIOn o f e.ther .nd Clinet~ by AtIiIOspher;c Poll uCenlS, ESSA Tech. RIPt. (~L 18S-AP(l 15, 

Sept. 1970. 

J. f. S. Chin, II. T. (11 is , B. G. ~enOon ca, II. F. Pueschel, and 

H. J. Silrpspn 

Geophysic.1 Monitoring ~t Miuna loa Observ.tory. ~OAA 

Tect.. lIetlO EIIL APtL-I). July 1"171. 

" 
Figure 38. U.S. I!UI1phot""",UI'. Fig~6 J9. ~cipitation ch~i6tr~ 

coU.ctor. 

Tallt. Zl . O\ta7Itiei •• Hea • ..r1Ki 

(,) p' I II) , 

(2) Conduct1vl t y (l2) " . 

• 

Il) Ac idI ty I 1 3) Cd .. ('I t, •• (I ) ,," 

(51 " I 15) '0 " 

(6) '9 

.. (I&) '" .. 

()) " • t 17) " .. 

• (IS) •• (8) so. ~ 

(,) "" (I,) N!++ 

(la) " 

66 
II. T. ElliS a.nd II. F. Pueschel 

Solar Radiation: Absence of Air Pollu t ion Tr ends On 

Mauna Loa. ~ai""N1 172, M5, 1'171. 

H.lo!. Ellsaesse r, P.. F. I>uesche l , and H. T. Fl1is 

Turbidity of the AtMOsphere: Source of Its 6,ck~round 

V .. r L:tior. ,",it~ [he !~~son. :;O-;"r.oo: 17(, SI~, 1~7~. 

R. f. Puesc~el and 6. G. Mendonu 

Sources of Ato:<>s pher u; Pa rticuhte /latter in H ..... i i, 

1';;/',1 May 1972. 

H. J. 5hnDson 

The Cation Content o f {he H.",.iian AtltlOsDhe re, J.e.", 

Augu$l 1972. 

e. A. Bodhaine and R. f. Puesche l 

rl~me Photometric An alysis of the Transport o f Sea 

Salt P~nicle" J.G.R. Augu s t 1972. 

R. f. Pues(hel and B. G. flel1d onca 

DisperSIon into th e Hi gher Atmosphere of Eff l u(!nts during an ErupUo" of Ki lJue a ~olcano, J. r~o" . A~ ., to 

be pub l ished. 

n. G. MendonCa and R, F. Pueschel 

Ice Nuclei, Tota l Aeroso l and Clin.a{ology at Hauna Loa, 

H"wal l. J, ''[t' . ","t., 12(1):156-1(,0 , 1'173. 

R. f . Pueschel, B. A. Bodhaine, 3no B. G. ,',endonca 

The PrO!)Orlions o f Volat; Ie Aeroso ls 0" the Island o f 

Milwali, J, ':t!'<' ::.·r. , 12(2)-30e-315. 1973. 

R. F. u~s ch~1. M. T. Ellis. (;, [. Cotton, L. Machta, L C. Flowers. 

~nd J. T, Ptterson 

Normal Incidence Solar I\"diacion dl lI"u"," loa. M_ii. 

,"::11,,0.:, to be subtoi "e"'. 

G. Langpr, R. f. PUtscrrcl, R. G. ~endonca, and (, J. Garcia 

Inventory o f Ice .nc! Conden<"lion Mucl~i on l'a,,..li, 

T~, ,I , 10 be $ub,,; c led. 

" 
H. T. ElliS, C. J. G<'Ircj". II. 1. HoJ,nsen, "rid II. r. Puesc"el 

The Infl uence o f Atmo.pheric Precipitable W.ter and Loc.1 

Volc.nlc Effluent\ upOn Sol.r Radi.tion ~ea\ure~nts a t 

~illunill LOI , ,r. /,~..,. $<11: •• to be subnli tted. 

7.2 Geoo"ysic"l Monitorinq Techniques "nd Standards firouo 

W. O. Konlllyr, [. W. Urrett. G. Slocl.R, <'Irld II. K. WelCkm.Jnn 

Atmo.pherlc TOt.1 Ozone lnere~.e Curing the l~O'\. 

IIa.tlU'V 2J2, August 1'171. 

W. O. Komhyr and II. O. Grass 

Oob.o~ Ozone Spectrephoto-ctcr "odific.tIOn, JAN 11, 

1,72 . 

7.3 Air ReSources L"bor"tortIS 

l. M4Chta 

H.u~ Loa .nd Globll Trends in AIr Quality, ~S SJ, 

1912 

" 
8. STAFF 

8. 1 Mauna Loa 

8 .1.1 Cit'f:ctort; of ,,;,0 

Jac k C. Pa l es, 1958-1963 

Howdrd Ellis, 1963-1966 

lot lNr H. Ru'nke. 1966-1968 

tioWdrd mis, 1968-1970 

Rudolf F. Pu~schel, 1970-1972 

Rona ld Feg leJ. 197Z-Prp.sent 

8.1.2 .. ·.'W Jf:.o.ff 

Rudol f F. Pueschel , Director ~"d Supervisory Physicist 

Ronald Feql ey, Director and Supervisory y~icis t 

I~rd [lIls, Phystcist 

JOIlll f. S. t~ln , I'nyS"IH 

B@rnard G. t-' ~ndonca. Reseil rch ~eteo oloqtst 

~"' ru S~ibata. Electronic Te chnlc14n 

Alan '1. Yo hl n~9a, Analytical Chenotst 

Ba rri A. 8od~ afne, NRC Resident ResearC h ";socia t e 

~l ark A. Go ld-"an, Presidential Intern 

Judith B. Pereira, Secret ary 

Marge K. Kea lanilhele, Ter-oora ry $@cretary 

8.2 Geophysical ~~nj or q eChnl ~u~. and 

StaniR.r ds Group 

~alter D. Konnyr . Supervisory Physicist 

Gory A. Herbert , Researc h fle teorol09 ist 

Rober t Gra,s, Physicist 

Rudy A. Ha~s, MHhtlla t lclan 

Thomas B. Harri5, Io'.neoroloqtca i Techni i~~ 

COu!lh~ V. tbyt , Physicist 

f-:ilt on S. Johnson , nectronic TKhnitian 

Sam Dl~ns, Physiti~t 

Colleen !4<:Avoy, Setre tary 

8.3 Ant~rctic Obse rver 

'I. RJmble , Physicist 

~.4 G.'1Ct Staff 

Donald H. Pack , Director, G'"1CC 

Gerald F. Co~ton , 5tHtstlc\an 

Charles P. T~rner . TeChnlcal <l,ss'stan ~ '_C e Director 

JOhfl H. f1I ~r , Rr.seofch l~et!!Oroloqht 

" 
9. REFERENCES 

Angenheister, A. (1924): A SWf/J77C1X'y of the Meteorological Observations of 

the Samoa Observatory (1890-1920), W.A.C. Skinner, Government 

Printer, Wellington, New Zealand, 56 pp. 

Angstrom, A. K., and A. J. Drummond (1966): Note on solar radiation in 

mountain regions at high altitude. Tellus, 18:801. 

Brown, J., and P. L. Johnson (1965): Pedo-ecological investigations, 

Barrow, Alaska. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering 

Laboratory, New Hartford, Conn., Technical Report 159, 35 pp. 

Dobson, G. M. B. (1957): Observer I s Handbook for the Dobson Spectrophotometer, Annuals of the International Geophysical Year, Volume V, 

Part I, I I I, Pergamon Press, pp. 46. 

Drummond, A. J. (1968): Spectral distribution of solar radiation at Mauna 

Loa and Hilo (Hawaii), 1 March 1961 - 30 June 1962, 23-28. Nov. 

1966. Final Report, Contract No. DS-19-129-AMC-I01l(N), U.S. Army 

Natick Laboratories, 43 pp. 

Drummond, A. J., and A. K. Angstrom (1965): Analysis of the solar radiation measurements made in Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Contract No. DS-19-

129-AMC-321(N), U.S. Army Natick Laboratories, 41 pp. 

Drummond, A. J., and A. K. Angstrom (1967a): Solar radiation measurements 

on Mauna Loa (Hawaii) and their bearing on atmospheric transmission, 

Solar Energy, 11:1. 

Drummond, A. J., and A. K. Angstrom (1967b): Solar radiation measurements 

on Mauna Loa (Hawaii) and their bearing on atmospheric transmission, 

Solar Energy, 11: 133. 

Ellis, H. T., and R. F. Pueschel (1971): Solar radiation: absence of air 

pollution trends at Mauna Loa, Science, 172:845. 

Flowers, E. C., and H. J. Viebrock (1967): The recent decrease in solar 

radiation at the South Pole. In: Polar Meteorology, Geneva, WMO 

Technical Note 87, pp. 116-119. 

Foster, N. B., D. T. Volz, and L. \~. Foskett (1964): A spectral hygrometer for measuring total precipitable water. HVffiidity and Moisture, Vol. 2, Reinhold Pub. Corp., New York, 455 pp. 

Fritz, S., and T. H. MacDonald (1962): Some normal-incidence solar radiation observations during the IGY. Monthly r-leather Revie0, 90:241. 

Hoinkes, H. C. (1960): Studies of solar radiation and albedo in the Antarctic (Little America V and South Pole), 1957-58. Archiv. fuel' 

Meteor. and Geophys. und Biokl., 10:175. 

Horvath, R., and W. L. Brown (1971): Multispectral radiative characteristics of Arctic sea ice and tundra. Willow Run Laboratories, 

Institute of Science and Technology, The University of Michigan, 

Ann Arbor, 63 pp. 

70 
Junge, C. E. (1962): Global ozone budget and exchange between stratosphere 

and troposphere, Te[[us, 14:363-377. 

Junge, C. E., and G. Czeplak (1968): Some aspects of the seasonal variation of carbon dioxide and ozone, Te[[us, 20:422-433. 

Kelley, J. J., D. T. Bailey, and B. J. Lieske (1964): Radiative energy 

exchange over Arctic land and sea, 1962. Part 1. Scientific Report ONR Contract 477(24)(NR 307-252), University of Washington, 

125 pp. 

Kelley, J. J., and D. F. Weaver (1969): The energy balance and temperature regime near the arctic tundra surface, Arctic, 22:425. 

Komhyr, W. D. (1962): Observer's manual - Dobson ozone spectrophotometer 

(comprehensive program of observations), unpublished manuscript of 

the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau. 

Komhyr, W. C. (1963): Observer's manual - Dobson ozone spectrophotometer 

(1 imi ted observi ng program), llnpub 1 i shed manuscri pt of the U. S. 

Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau. 

Komhyr, W. D. (1967): Nonreative gas sampling pump. Rev. of Sci. Inst. 

38:981-983. 

Komhyr, W. D. (1969): Electrochemical concentration cells for gas analysis, Ann. Ceophys., 25:203-210. 

Komhyr, W. D. (1972): Technique for preparing CO 2 , CO, and other accurately calibrated reference. Manuscript of NOAA/ERL, U.S. Dept. 

of Commerce, Boulder, Colorado. 

Komhyr, W. D., E. vi. Barrett, G. Slocum, and H. K. \~eickmann (1971): Atmospheric total ozone increase during the 1960's, Nature, 323-390. 

Komhyr, W. D., R. D. Grass, and G. Slocum (1972): Total Ozone Increase 

over North America During the 1960's, submitted for publication in 

PAGEOPH. 

Kuhn, M. (1972): Global pollution in antarctic air documented by solar 

radiation depletion, Antarctic Journa[, 7:35. 

Lieske, B. J., and D. T. Bailey (1963): Radiative enerqy exchange over 

land and sea. Sci. Rept. ONR Contract N00014-67-A-0007, U. of 

Washington, 27 pp. 

Lieske, B. J., and I. A. Strochein (1968): Radiative regime over arctic 

tundra. Sci. Rept. ONR Contract 477(24)(NR 307-252),23 pp. 

Machta, L. (1972): Mauna Loa and Global Trends in Air Quality. BANS 

53:402-420. 

"Ozone Data for the World" (1961-1970): publ ished by the Meteorological 

Branch, Canadian Department of Transport, in cooperation with the 

World Meteorological Organization. Atmospheric Environment Service, 

Dawnsview, Ontario Canada. 

71 
Price, $ .. Md J. C. Pail's (1959): llie -tauo, Loa Htoh Alt itude Observatory, /Jol1thl!l r.r.at~r R. Pi4u, 87'1 . 

Price , S., and J . C. Pales (1963): "",un. loa Observatory: the f Irst 'tVl' 

ye~ rs , lIonth til Wea tI,." P#lvi#u. 91: 665- 6.80. 

Ray. P. H., Lt. ( 1885); Raport of tht' I11t.matiOl'lat Polar £~diti " U) 

Point 8a1'1'OIJ, Alaa1<.a. Govel"l'lllltnt PrlntlnCj Office, Washington, 

O.C, . 695 pp. 

Saltzman, B. E. (1965): Selected ~thods for the llleasurement of atr pollutants. U.S. Public Healtll Publtc.nion He. 99-AP-ll, p. 0-1. 

Scornby. W. (1820): An ACC<>IInt of the Arctic RlIguma. Vo 1. I. A. ConsUble and Co .• Edinburgh , pp. 299-300. 

s.,lth , V. H. (1953): A rtcordtn\] Infrared analyzer. rnatrvnmts. 26:421-

(21. 

Statr , 11:., and iL G. JohnstOfl (19S8): S~ studies of atmospheric t r anS -

!!Iittance on l'lauNi lOi. J. of R ••. NlJS. 61: 419 . 

Strocheln , I. A. (l96S): r.s. .vtao-..a ted r~diati n c\l ...... tolooy station at 

J)o l nt Barr"", Ahsk!. Sci..,.:-. 11"\ Alas ka , 1964. Pr oceedings of 

the Fift eenth Al~skan Science Conference, AAAS Alask. ~islo , 

UniverSity Qf Al~sk., College, Alaska. 61 p. 

Thekaekilr~, M. P. , R. H. Collln9bourne. and A. J. DrllW'lOnd (1972): ,. com· 

pa rison of wo rk lno standard pyranOlllE' t ers. 8..11 . hr. 

"'.e. Soc., ~3:8. 

loomson . A. (1927): Solar radiation ooservations It -'Ph. Samoa. :·:,mthty 

Weather Reuiel..!, 55:266. 

lhornwaite, C., and J. Mat her (l9~6)' l1icroclilUtic Invutlgltlons at Pt. 

Barrow, Ahs ka, 1956. Report In Cl1l1:1o)loloty , Oruel Inst. of hch .• 

I :SJ. 

lhornwaite, C. , and J. MUher (19S8): 11 1croclilllatic Invutl9Hions at Pt. 

8arrow. Al aska . 1957-58. Repor t In (11"",to l09Y. Oruei Inst. of 

heh., II:ZJ7. 

Ylebroc~, H. J .. and £. C. Flowers (1968); Co~ts on the rectnt decrease 

In solar radiation at the South Pole. r.LLut. 20'400. 

\leaver. D. F. (1969): Radl.Hlon regillle over arctic tundra , 1965. Set. 

Repl. ONR Contract NOOOI4·67-A·0103-0007, U. of Washington, Seat tl e , Washington , 220 pp. 

Weller, G., S. (ubley, S. Par1r.er, O. irab.nt, .nd (. Benson (l972); The 

tundra Microclimate during snow·~ll at Barrow, Aiask~. Arctic, 

25:291. 

Willson , R. C. (1912): Resul ts of t he 1972 Table Hounttln radtOllleter and 

radiation scale cOtrlparisons. Jet Propulslo/\ laoratory, Pasadena. 

California . 17 pp. 

72 
APPENDI X A: Computer Pr09ra~ 

for tIOAR Computations 

73 
*NAME LIDAR 

DIMENSION Y(50,20), HL(50), YM(50), SYM(50) 

READ(S,5) NS, NL, NH 

5 FORMAT(213, F6.2) 

READ(S,10) (HL(I), 1=1, NL) 

10 FORMAT(16F5.1) 

PAV=O.O 

DO 500 J=l, NS 

READ(S,15) P, A, B, BWl 

15 FORMAT(F6.3, 2F5.2) 

PAV=PAV+P/NS 

ZOF=(A+B-BW1)/2. 

DO 100, 1=1, NL 

READ(S,20) BW, YMAX, YMIN 

20 FORMAT(F4.1, 2F5.1) 

100 Y ( I ,1) = ( (YMAX+Y~1 Hl-]vn /2. -ZOF ) IP 

DO 200 1=1, NL 

200 Y(I,J)=Y(I,J)*HL(I)/HL(l)*HL(I)/HL(l) 

500 CONTINUE 

DO 1000 1=1, NL 

SUMY=O 

SUMSQ=O 

DO 900 J=l, NS 

SUMY=SUMY+Y(I,J) 

900 SUMSQ-SUMSQ+Y(I,J)*Y(I,J) 

YM(l)=SUMY/NS 

SYM ( I) =SQRT ( (SUMSQ-NS*YM (I) 112) I (NS* (~IS-l) ) ) 

1000 HL(I)=HL(I)+SH 

READ(S,25) MO, KDAY, KYR, KTIME 

25 FORMAT(3I3, 15) 

WRITE(5,30) MO, KDAY, KYR, KTIME 

30 FORMAT (lHl, 40X' EVALUATIO"-l OF LIDAR DATA r 15()X' DATE' lX,I2, 'I' , 

1 'l'I2,/50X'TIME'lX,I4,lX'HST'1120X'HEIGHT'10X'BACKSCATTERING 

2 FUNCTION '5X' STA"-JDARD '/22X' KM' 16X' ARBITRARY UNITS' 9X 'DEVIATION' I 

ill 1500 1=1, NL 

1500 WR ITE (5,35 )HU 1), YM (I), SYM(I) 

35 FORMAT(F26.2, F22.3, F24.3) 

WRITE(5,40) NS, PAV 

40 FORMAT (lHO, 40X'NUHBF.R OF SHOTS IS' ,13,10X'AVE Po\~ER IS' ,Fl0.3) 

CALL EXIT 

END 

74 
APPENDIX B: MLO Selected Monthly Mectsurements 

of Aitken Particles by a Gardner Counter 

1971-1972 

75 
~ ), , , • ., .. , f Ii II -- , , 

• . ' .. ' . .~ .- .~ 

• .. ~ ". - .'j .-

, .. •• .. ~ '" I~ • 

" '" •• . " .. . '", . •• 

, •• , .. , . '" " •• ... ~ " . 'S' ". 

, .. '" .. .. . ''" • - , ... ,. " ~ •• 

" '" •• ." .w 

-' '- ;..-.-. - , ... ... , [' Ii E , I 

.. ~ •• " ~ ", " •• " •• '0 ~ 'w 

" • ~ ~ '. "to 

" ,. ~ .. , . .. .. - - '" - - o. 

" .w •• . .. * ~ •• .. ' 

" ". ,. ,~o: •• ~ 

• .. •• ~ .. .. 

" ... .. •• 

-

•• M 

.. .. * •• M 

- .. ~ 

'-' .. -" .. , • ... 1 .,_, ... 

-'"~ ,_, 

".!.l:'" ...,. ... , . • , - "'I " ~ • I T 

• - .. - - - - •• ." • •• L> 

• • 

• -

•• - -

- '. .. - .'. , - '" .. • - - - •• , . •• " '" ., ,M ~. I" •• •• • m • ... '" .= •• . ,.. - >=) - ~ ,. .. 

• •• -

•• " -

•• .. " !,.; 

- - - • :0 ... •• , . .. •• .. , "K b .. ~ .. '''.' " ~ 

- " -

" 
, ,."'. '11' r~ " , , , " - "., , Ii " - , ) 

'" ~ 

'" ~ .. ," ,. 

, m m ,. m 0- X> 

, ~ '" "' ~ .. ~ 'w , '. '" ~ "' , ,. m ' .. .. ~ ,00 

• .. '" "' ' . '. ~ , .. , .. ,. , .. .. .. '" '* 

" ., .. ~ ' .. " .. b 

.. " ~ 

,. '" - '" '" '" " '" .. '" , .. " '" '. "OJ ,,~ '" '" 00' 

" ,;., ,, ,.) '" 

'. 

'" - ,. ,. ,. 

" ," ," '" - ,. ,. 

" .. ,. , . ,. - ," ,. " 00' m '" K> .. .. '" '. ,. .. , " . " ,. ,. ,. m .. '" , . ,. "' - ". ,. 

" , ..... , .. -''') '. 

.. '" '" ~ '" ~ 

" '" - ,. '" "' '" ,. 

-ry , Il! 

, . ." " , , " " - I • 

, '" '" m '" , m .. 

.. '" ~ ." '" '" '" , J; , ~ ,. m '" ,. , " '" - .. 

, ,. w '" '. '" ,. 

-, .. , .. , . - ". • ," ,. .. , '" " 

," .. , '" '" ,. , 

". '". '" ," - m 

" '- •• .. .' "' m '. ",' 

'" '" m 

" ,. '" '" II¥ 

- '* -

- '" " "' '" m ~ ,. .. '" " - .. >0' 

- .. .. 

• ,. $ ,. '. - .. " . " '" '" ",' 

,. ,. ,. . - ' .. - - ". .. ". - '" '. "' - >l ~ , . '" ,. .. ,. ,. ,. .. '" '" " ," , . .. '" }o. ,. 

• '" ,. '" ' .. - ",' 

" '" '" - '" '" ,. 

77 
~." 'm 

.,. 0 .•. ~- ~ , , ! I. " - , I , I 

I ," ., "' ~ '" '" , '" '" I" ~ I '" , 

". '" ,. m .. , w I. I (1 ",,""· "1. , II .. ,' '" m '" ". '" ,. 

, ,. ," ~ ~ ~ , ' 

" ~ .. ~ 

- ., 

" ~ ~ ~ PI ~ ,,' ,. ~ 

" ". ~ m 

- " <" 

" ~ .. ;,,;, ~ ~ ." " I. ,. ~ ,,00 ". '" " ., '" '" m ,. 

" -II"'H<IO) P O - '" ~ '" " ,. ~ '" ,. " '" " ,. '" - - "' ," " m 

- .. - .. '" ~ 

" '" ". I. 

" .. , . ," ." -

" '" .. - '" ,," ,~ .. 

" ~ ~ 

- 'SO '" -,\c. 

/._ , , " i' , 

'''' o • 0 

! " " .... , I 

I ." '" ", '" 

". 

". I I. '" ,,' 

'. 

m 

I 

'" '" ~ 

'" ," - , 

.. 

''" ''" '" ," • '" '" ," ,", ," " '. I. ~ .. ,. ., '. " I. '" ,,..... - '" ,. 

" .. • " .. " 1;\ 

" ," ," ," ,. m ,00 

" ," "' 

'. 

," .., I. 

" ", '" <I, '" I. , 

" ," '. '" '. .. '. " 

'. . ,. ." I • W '" I • .. ,. ~ '" I. ,;,0 

" '. '. '" '. '" " , .. " '" - .. , 

'. 

," ,., • ," M ,,' ," '. m 

" '" 00, .,., '" I. " I .. ,,, , ,,>, "OJ ," I' .. - '. ," ," 

'. ' .... ' ... ' .. ' ... ,- """ '.". Ill'_ 

78 
~.'.ortc...J:t': _ -- T · ••• 

•... j • II - , , ) 

'" * ~ 

- '.>e ~ 

• ••• '" ~ , '" - '" - .. 

, ,. - - '. '" - :to ",. 

, " ,. ,. -

, , . .. 

* ~ M ,. 

" 

, 

, . -

.. 

,'" .' '" ;~1 ' ..... 

,. 

.. ,

," 

- .. 

~ •• " 

-

•• ~ 

•• "' - .. = - -

" " .. , , ., a: " ~ ~ 

" -- , .", ~ " " ... •• ", "' ". ". " - ,,~ \'> .. ~ ~ 

" '" .. ~ .. .. M 

" ,n "" .. M ~ ". " .. '" .. .. •• ., " ,. .. e, .. M .. '" .. - - = 

" ~ .. ,'. .. ,., 

-,,' " - - - .. .. •• 

79